595 files changed, 34862 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/38015-h/38015-h.htm b/38015-h/38015-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ba39cc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/38015-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,34862 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+<!-- $Id: header.txt 236 2009-12-07 18:57:00Z vlsimpson $ -->
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of De Re Metallica, by Georgius Agricola.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+
+body {
+    margin-left: 10%;
+    margin-right: 10%;
+}
+
+    h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {
+    text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
+    clear: both;
+}
+
+p {
+    margin-top: .75em;
+    text-align: justify;
+    margin-bottom: .75em;
+}
+
+hr {
+    width: 33%;
+    margin-top: 2em;
+    margin-bottom: 2em;
+    margin-left: auto;
+    margin-right: auto;
+    clear: both;
+}
+hr.tb {
+    width:45%;
+}
+hr.chap {
+    width:65%;
+}
+hr.full {
+    width:95%;
+}
+
+table {
+    margin-left: auto;
+    margin-right: auto;
+}
+
+td {
+    vertical-align: top;
+    padding-left:4px;
+    padding-right:4px;
+}
+
+.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */
+    /*  visibility: hidden;  */
+    position: absolute;
+    left: 92%;
+    font-size: smaller;
+    text-align: right;
+    text-indent: 0;
+    font-style: normal;
+} /* page numbers */
+
+.notenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */
+    /*  visibility: hidden;  */
+    position: absolute;
+    left: 85%;
+    font-size: smaller;
+    text-align: right;
+    font-style: normal;
+} /* page numbers for footnotes */
+
+.inum {
+    font-size: smaller;
+} /* page numbers for illustrations */
+
+.linenum {
+    position: absolute;
+    top: auto;
+    left: 4%;
+} /* poetry number */
+
+.blockquot {
+    margin-left: 5%;
+    margin-right: 10%;
+}
+
+.sidenote {
+    width: 20%;
+    padding-bottom: .5em;
+    padding-top: .5em;
+    padding-left: .5em;
+    padding-right: .5em;
+    margin-left: 1em;
+    float: right;
+    clear: right;
+    margin-top: 1em;
+    font-size: smaller;
+    color: black;
+    background: #eeeeee;
+    border: dashed 1px;
+}
+
+.bb       {border-bottom: solid 1px;}
+
+.bl       {border-left: solid 1px;}
+
+.bt       {border-top: solid 1px;}
+
+.br       {border-right: solid 1px;}
+
+.btl      {border-top: solid 1px;border-left: solid 1px;}
+
+.bbox     {border: solid 1px;}
+
+.center   {text-align: center;}
+
+.smcap    {font-variant: small-caps;}
+.smcaplower {
+	font-variant: small-caps;
+	text-transform: lowercase;
+}
+
+.u        {text-decoration: underline;}
+
+.caption  {font-weight: bold;}
+
+/* Images */
+.figcenter   {
+    margin: auto;
+    text-align: center;
+}
+
+.figleft {
+    max-width: 300px;
+    float: left;
+    clear: left;
+    margin-left: 0;
+    margin-bottom: 1em;
+    margin-top: 0;
+    margin-right: 1em;
+    padding: 0;
+    text-align: center;
+}
+
+.figleft img {
+    border-bottom: 1px solid blue;
+}
+
+.figright {
+    float: right;
+    clear: right;
+    margin-left: 1em;
+    margin-bottom:
+    1em;
+    margin-top: 1em;
+    margin-right: 0;
+    padding: 0;
+    text-align: center;
+}
+
+.dropcap {
+    float: left;
+    clear: left;
+    margin-left: 0;
+    margin-bottom: 0;
+    margin-top: 0;
+    margin-right: 1em;
+    padding: 0;
+}
+
+
+/* Footnotes */
+.footnotes        {border: dashed 1px;}
+
+.footnote         {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;}
+
+.footnote .label  {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;}
+
+.fnanchor {
+    vertical-align: super;
+    font-size: .8em;
+    text-decoration:
+    none;
+}
+
+/* Poetry */
+.poem {
+    margin-left:10%;
+    margin-right:10%;
+    text-align: left;
+}
+
+.poem br {display: none;}
+
+.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;}
+
+.poem span.i0 {
+    display: block;
+    margin-left: 0em;
+    padding-left: 3em;
+    text-indent: -3em;
+}
+
+.poem span.i2 {
+    display: block;
+    margin-left: 2em;
+    padding-left: 3em;
+    text-indent: -3em;
+}
+
+.poem span.i4 {
+    display: block;
+    margin-left: 4em;
+    padding-left: 3em;
+    text-indent: -3em;
+}
+
+/* Non-headings that display like them */
+div.likeheading1 {
+    text-align:center;
+    margin-bottom: 2em;
+    font-weight: bold;
+    font-size:200%;
+}
+div.likeheading2 {
+    text-align:center;
+    margin-bottom: 2em;
+    font-weight: bold;
+    font-size:150%;
+}
+div.likeheading3 {
+    text-align:center;
+    margin-bottom: 2em;
+    font-weight: bold;
+    font-size:120%;
+}
+
+.greek {
+    border-bottom: 1px dashed gray;
+}
+
+.lsoff {
+    list-style-type:none;
+}
+
+/* Classy fractions */
+.frac {
+    font-style: italic; }
+.frac sup, .frac sub {
+    font-style: normal;
+    font-size: 65%;
+    position: relative; }
+.frac sup {
+    top: 0.1em;
+    left: 0.05em;
+    vertical-align: text-top; }
+.frac sub {
+    top: 0.1em;
+    left: -.1em;
+    vertical-align: text-bottom; }
+
+    </style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of De Re Metallica, by Georgius Agricola
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: De Re Metallica
+       Translated from the First Latin Edition of 1556
+
+Author: Georgius Agricola
+
+Translator: Herbert Clark Hoover
+            Lou Henry Hoover
+
+Release Date: November 14, 2011 [EBook #38015]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DE RE METALLICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Malcolm Farmer, Stephen H. Sentoff and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="likeheading2">
+GEORGIUS AGRICOLA</div>
+
+<h1>DE RE METALLICA</h1>
+
+<div class="likeheading3">TRANSLATED FROM THE FIRST LATIN EDITION OF 1556</div>
+
+<p class="center">with</p>
+
+<p class="center">Biographical Introduction, Annotations and Appendices upon<br />
+the Development of Mining Methods, Metallurgical<br />
+Processes, Geology, Mineralogy &amp; Mining Law<br />
+from the earliest times to the 16th Century</p>
+
+<div class="likeheading3">BY</div>
+
+<div class="likeheading2">HERBERT CLARK HOOVER</div>
+
+<p class="center">A. B. Stanford University, Member American Institute of Mining Engineers,<br />
+Mining and Metallurgical Society of America, Soci�t� des Ing�ni�urs<br />
+Civils de France, American Institute of Civil Engineers,<br />
+Fellow Royal Geographical Society, etc., etc.</p>
+
+<div class="likeheading3">AND</div>
+
+<div class="likeheading2">LOU HENRY HOOVER</div>
+
+<p class="center">A. B. Stanford University, Member American Association for the<br />
+Advancement of Science, The National Geographical Society,<br />
+Royal Scottish Geographical Society, etc., etc.</p>
+
+<p class="center">1950</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Dover Publications, Inc.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center">NEW YORK
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class="likeheading3">TO<br />
+JOHN CASPAR BRANNER Ph.D.,</div>
+
+<p class="center"><i>The inspiration of whose teaching is no less great than his
+contribution to science.</i></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>This New 1950 Edition of DE RE METALLICA is a complete and unchanged
+reprint of the translation published by The Mining Magazine, London, in
+1912. It has been made available through the kind permission of
+Honorable Herbert C. Hoover and Mr. Edgar Rickard, Author and Publisher,
+respectively, of the original volume.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i"></a>[Pg i]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="TRANSLATORS_PREFACE" id="TRANSLATORS_PREFACE"></a>TRANSLATORS' PREFACE.</h2>
+
+<div class="dropcap"><img src="images/capt.png" alt="T" /></div>
+<p style="text-indent:-1em;">
+here are three objectives in translation of works of this character: to
+give a faithful, literal translation of the author's statements; to give
+these in a manner which will interest the reader; and to preserve, so
+far as is possible, the style of the original text. The task has been
+doubly difficult in this work because, in using Latin, the author
+availed himself of a medium which had ceased to expand a thousand years
+before his subject had in many particulars come into being; in
+consequence he was in difficulties with a large number of ideas for
+which there were no corresponding words in the vocabulary at his
+command, and instead of adopting into the text his native German terms,
+he coined several hundred Latin expressions to answer his needs. It is
+upon this rock that most former attempts at translation have been
+wrecked. Except for a very small number, we believe we have been able to
+discover the intended meaning of such expressions from a study of the
+context, assisted by a very incomplete glossary prepared by the author
+himself, and by an exhaustive investigation into the literature of these
+subjects during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. That discovery
+in this particular has been only gradual and obtained after much labour,
+may be indicated by the fact that the entire text has been
+re-typewritten three times since the original, and some parts more
+often; and further, that the printer's proof has been thrice revised. We
+have found some English equivalent, more or less satisfactory, for
+practically all such terms, except those of weights, the varieties of
+veins, and a few minerals. In the matter of weights we have introduced
+the original Latin, because it is impossible to give true equivalents
+and avoid the fractions of reduction; and further, as explained in the
+<a href="#APPENDIX_C">Appendix on Weights</a> it is impossible to say in many cases what scale the
+Author had in mind. The English nomenclature to be adopted has given
+great difficulty, for various reasons; among them, that many methods and
+processes described have never been practised in English-speaking mining
+communities, and so had no representatives in our vocabulary, and we
+considered the introduction of German terms undesirable; other methods
+and processes have become obsolete and their descriptive terms with
+them, yet we wished to avoid the introduction of obsolete or unusual
+English; but of the greatest importance of all has been the necessity to
+avoid rigorously such modern technical terms as would imply a greater
+scientific understanding than the period possessed.</p>
+
+<p>Agricola's Latin, while mostly free from medi�val corruption, is
+somewhat tainted with German construction. Moreover some portions have
+not <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii"></a>[Pg ii]</span>the continuous flow of sustained thought which others display, but
+the fact that the writing of the work extended over a period of twenty
+years, sufficiently explains the considerable variation in style. The
+technical descriptions in the later books often take the form of
+House-that-Jack-built sentences which have had to be at least partially
+broken up and the subject occasionally re-introduced. Ambiguities were
+also sometimes found which it was necessary to carry on into the
+translation. Despite these criticisms we must, however, emphasize that
+Agricola was infinitely clearer in his style than his contemporaries
+upon such subjects, or for that matter than his successors in almost any
+language for a couple of centuries. All of the illustrations and display
+letters of the original have been reproduced and the type as closely
+approximates to the original as the printers have been able to find in a
+modern font.</p>
+
+<p>There are no footnotes in the original text, and Mr. Hoover is
+responsible for them all. He has attempted in them to give not only such
+comment as would tend to clarify the text, but also such information as
+we have been able to discover with regard to the previous history of the
+subjects mentioned. We have confined the historical notes to the time
+prior to Agricola, because to have carried them down to date in the
+briefest manner would have demanded very much more space than could be
+allowed. In the examination of such technical and historical material
+one is appalled at the flood of mis-information with regard to ancient
+arts and sciences which has been let loose upon the world by the hands
+of non-technical translators and commentators. At an early stage we
+considered that we must justify any divergence of view from such
+authorities, but to limit the already alarming volume of this work, we
+later felt compelled to eliminate most of such discussion. When the
+half-dozen most important of the ancient works bearing upon science have
+been translated by those of some scientific experience, such questions
+will, no doubt, be properly settled.</p>
+
+<p>We need make no apologies for <i>De Re Metallica</i>. During 180 years it was
+not superseded as the text-book and guide to miners and metallurgists,
+for until Schl�ter's great work on metallurgy in 1738 it had no equal.
+That it passed through some ten editions in three languages at a period
+when the printing of such a volume was no ordinary undertaking, is in
+itself sufficient evidence of the importance in which it was held, and
+is a record that no other volume upon the same subjects has equalled
+since. A large proportion of the technical data given by Agricola was
+either entirely new, or had not been given previously with sufficient
+detail and explanation to have enabled a worker in these arts himself to
+perform the operations without further guidance. Practically the whole
+of it must have been given from personal experience and observation, for
+the scant library at his service can be appreciated from his own
+<a href="#PREFACE">Preface</a>. Considering the part which the metallic arts have played in
+human history, the paucity of their literature down to Agricola's time
+is amazing. No doubt the arts were jealously guarded by their
+practitioners as a sort of stock-in-trade, and it is also probable that
+those who had knowledge were not usually of a literary turn of mind;
+and, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii"></a>[Pg iii]</span>on the other hand, the small army of writers prior to his time
+were not much interested in the description of industrial pursuits.
+Moreover, in those thousands of years prior to printing, the tedious and
+expensive transcription of manuscripts by hand was mostly applied to
+matters of more general interest, and therefore many writings may have
+been lost in consequence. In fact, such was the fate of the works of
+Theophrastus and Strato on these subjects.</p>
+
+<p>We have prepared a short sketch of Agricola's life and times, not only
+to give some indication of his learning and character, but also of his
+considerable position in the community in which he lived. As no
+appreciation of Agricola's stature among the founders of science can be
+gained without consideration of the advance which his works display over
+those of his predecessors, we therefore devote some attention to the
+state of knowledge of these subjects at the time by giving in the
+<a href="#APPENDIX_A">Appendix</a> a short review of the literature then extant and a summary of
+Agricola's other writings. To serve the bibliophile we present such data
+as we have been able to collect it with regard to the various editions
+of his works. The full titles of the works quoted in the footnotes under
+simply authors' names will be found in this <a href="#APPENDIX_A">Appendix</a>.</p>
+
+<p>We feel that it is scarcely doing Agricola justice to publish <i>De Re
+Metallica</i> only. While it is of the most general interest of all of his
+works, yet, from the point of view of pure science, <i>De Natura
+Fossilium</i> and <i>De Ortu et Causis</i> are works which deserve an equally
+important place. It is unfortunate that Agricola's own countrymen have
+not given to the world competent translations into German, as his work
+has too often been judged by the German translations, the infidelity of
+which appears in nearly every paragraph.</p>
+
+<p>We do not present <i>De Re Metallica</i> as a work of "practical" value. The
+methods and processes have long since been superseded; yet surely such a
+milestone on the road of development of one of the two most basic of
+human industrial activities is more worthy of preservation than the
+thousands of volumes devoted to records of human destruction. To those
+interested in the history of their own profession we need make no
+apologies, except for the long delay in publication. For this we put
+forward the necessity of active endeavour in many directions; as this
+book could be but a labour of love, it has had to find the moments for
+its execution in night hours, weekends, and holidays, in all extending
+over a period of about five years. If the work serves to strengthen the
+traditions of one of the most important and least recognized of the
+world's professions we shall be amply repaid.</p>
+
+<p>It is our pleasure to acknowledge our obligations to Professor H. R.
+Fairclough, of Stanford University, for perusal of and suggestions upon
+the first chapter; and to those whom we have engaged from time to time
+for one service or another, chiefly bibliographical work and collateral
+translation. We are also sensibly obligated to the printers, Messrs.
+Frost &amp; Sons, for their patience and interest, and for their willingness
+to bend some of the canons of modern printing, to meet the demands of
+the 16th Century.</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 50%;"><i>July 1, 1912.</i></span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 10%;"><span class="smcap">The Red House</span>,<br />
+Hornton Street, London.
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v"></a>[Pg v]</span></p>
+<h2>INTRODUCTION.</h2>
+
+
+<h3>BIOGRAPHY.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h3>
+
+<div class="dropcap"><img src="images/capg.png" alt="G" /></div>
+<p style="text-indent:-1em;">
+eorgius Agricola was born at Glauchau, in Saxony, on March 24th, 1494,
+and therefore entered the world when it was still upon the threshold of
+the Renaissance; Gutenberg's first book had been printed but forty years
+before; the Humanists had but begun that stimulating criticism which
+awoke the Reformation; Erasmus, of Rotterdam, who was subsequently to
+become Agricola's friend and patron, was just completing his student
+days. The Reformation itself was yet to come, but it was not long
+delayed, for Luther was born the year before Agricola, and through him
+Agricola's homeland became the cradle of the great movement; nor did
+Agricola escape being drawn into the conflict. Italy, already awake with
+the new classical revival, was still a busy workshop of antiquarian
+research, translation, study, and publication, and through her the Greek
+and Latin Classics were only now available for wide distribution.
+Students from the rest of Europe, among them at a later time Agricola
+himself, flocked to the Italian Universities, and on their return
+infected their native cities with the newly-awakened learning. At
+Agricola's birth Columbus had just returned from his great discovery,
+and it was only three years later that Vasco Da Gama rounded Cape Good
+Hope. Thus these two foremost explorers had only initiated that greatest
+period of geographical expansion in the world's history. A few dates
+will recall how far this exploration extended during Agricola's
+lifetime. Balboa first saw the Pacific in 1513; Cortes entered the City
+of Mexico in 1520; Magellan entered the Pacific in the same year;
+Pizarro penetrated into Peru in 1528; De Soto landed in Florida in 1539,
+and Potosi was discovered in 1546. Omitting the sporadic settlement on
+the St. Lawrence by Cartier in 1541, the settlement of North America did
+not begin for a quarter of a century after Agricola's death. Thus the
+revival of learning, with its train of Humanism, the Reformation, its
+stimulation of exploration and the re-awakening of the arts and
+sciences, was still in its infancy with Agricola.</p>
+
+<p>We know practically nothing of Agricola's antecedents or his youth. His
+real name was Georg Bauer ("peasant"), and it was probably Latinized by
+his teachers, as was the custom of the time. His own brother, in
+receipts <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi"></a>[Pg vi]</span>preserved in the archives of the Zwickau Town Council, calls
+himself "Bauer," and in them refers to his brother "Agricola." He
+entered the University of Leipsic at the age of twenty, and after about
+three and one-half years' attendance there gained the degree of
+<i>Baccalaureus Artium</i>. In 1518 he became Vice-Principal of the Municipal
+School at Zwickau, where he taught Greek and Latin. In 1520 he became
+Principal, and among his assistants was Johannes F�rster, better known
+as Luther's collaborator in the translation of the Bible. During this
+time our author prepared and published a small Latin Grammar<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>. In 1522
+he removed to Leipsic to become a lecturer in the University under his
+friend, Petrus Mosellanus, at whose death in 1524 he went to Italy for
+the further study of Philosophy, Medicine, and the Natural Sciences.
+Here he remained for nearly three years, from 1524 to 1526. He visited
+the Universities of Bologna, Venice, and probably Padua, and at these
+institutions received his first inspiration to work in the sciences, for
+in a letter<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> from Leonardus Casibrotius to Erasmus we learn that he
+was engaged upon a revision of Galen. It was about this time that he
+made the acquaintance of Erasmus, who had settled at Basel as Editor for
+Froben's press.</p>
+
+<p>In 1526 Agricola returned to Zwickau, and in 1527 he was chosen town
+physician at Joachimsthal. This little city in Bohemia is located on the
+eastern slope of the Erzgebirge, in the midst of the then most prolific
+metal-mining district of Central Europe. Thence to Freiberg is but fifty
+miles, and the same radius from that city would include most of the
+mining towns so frequently mentioned in <i>De Re Metallica</i>&mdash;Schneeberg,
+Geyer, Annaberg and Altenberg&mdash;and not far away were Marienberg,
+Gottesgab, and Platten. Joachimsthal was a booming mining camp, founded
+but eleven years before Agricola's arrival, and already having several
+thousand inhabitants. According to Agricola's own statement<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>, he spent
+all the time not required for his medical duties in visiting the mines
+and smelters, in reading up in the Greek and Latin authors all
+references to mining, and in association with the most learned among the
+mining folk. Among these was one Lorenz Berman, whom Agricola afterward
+set up as the "learned miner" in his dialogue <i>Bermannus</i>. This book was
+first published by Froben at Basel in 1530, and was a sort of catechism
+on mineralogy, mining terms, and mining lore. The book was apparently
+first submitted to the great Erasmus, and the publication arranged by
+him, a warm letter of approval by him appearing at the beginning of the
+book<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>. In 1533 he published <i>De Mensuris et Ponderibus</i>, through
+Froben, this being a discussion of Roman and Greek weights and measures.
+At about this time he began <i>De Re Metallica</i>&mdash;not to be published for
+twenty-five years.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii"></a>[Pg vii]</span></p><p>Agricola did not confine his interest entirely to medicine and mining,
+for during this period he composed a pamphlet upon the Turks, urging
+their extermination by the European powers. This work was no doubt
+inspired by the Turkish siege of Vienna in 1529. It appeared first in
+German in 1531, and in Latin&mdash;in which it was originally written&mdash;in
+1538, and passed through many subsequent editions.</p>
+
+<p>At this time, too, he became interested in the God's Gift mine at
+Abertham, which was discovered in 1530. Writing in 1545, he says<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>:
+"We, as a shareholder, through the goodness of God, have enjoyed the
+proceeds of this God's Gift since the very time when the mine began
+first to bestow such riches."</p>
+
+<p>Agricola seems to have resigned his position at Joachimsthal in about
+1530, and to have devoted the next two or three years to travel and
+study among the mines. About 1533 he became city physician of Chemnitz,
+in Saxony, and here he resided until his death in 1555. There is but
+little record of his activities during the first eight or nine years of
+his residence in this city. He must have been engaged upon the study of
+his subjects and the preparation of his books, for they came on with
+great rapidity soon after. He was frequently consulted on matters of
+mining engineering, as, for instance, we learn, from a letter written by
+a certain Johannes Hordeborch<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>, that Duke Henry of Brunswick applied
+to him with regard to the method for working mines in the Upper Harz.</p>
+
+<p>In 1543 he married Anna, widow of Matthias Meyner, a petty tithe
+official; there is some reason to believe from a letter published by
+Schmid,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> that Anna was his second wife, and that he was married the
+first time at Joachimsthal. He seems to have had several children, for
+he commends his young children to the care of the Town Council during
+his absence at the war in 1547. In addition to these, we know that a
+son, Theodor, was born in 1550; a daughter, Anna, in 1552; another
+daughter, Irene, was buried at Chemnitz in 1555; and in 1580 his widow
+and three children&mdash;Anna, Valerius, and Lucretia&mdash;were still living.</p>
+
+<p>In 1544 began the publication of the series of books to which Agricola
+owes his position. The first volume comprised five works and was finally
+issued in 1546; it was subsequently considerably revised, and re-issued
+in 1558. These works were: <i>De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum</i>, in five
+"books," the first work on physical geology; <i>De Natura Eorum quae
+Effluunt ex Terra</i>, in four "books," on subterranean waters and gases;
+<i>De Natura Fossilium</i>, in ten "books," the first systematic mineralogy;
+<i>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis</i>, in two "books," devoted largely to the
+history of metals and topographical mineralogy; a new edition of
+<i>Bermannus</i> was included; and finally <i>Rerum Metallicarum
+Interpretatio</i>, a glossary of Latin and German mineralogical and
+metallurgical terms. Another work, <i>De Animantibus Subterraneis</i>,
+usually published with <i>De Re Metallica</i>, is dated 1548 in the preface.
+It <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii"></a>[Pg viii]</span>is devoted to animals which live underground, at least part of the
+time, but is not a very effective basis of either geologic or zoologic
+classification. Despite many public activities, Agricola apparently
+completed <i>De Re Metallica</i> in 1550, but did not send it to the press
+until 1553; nor did it appear until a year after his death in 1555. But
+we give further details on the preparation of this work on p. <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>. During
+this period he found time to prepare a small medical work, <i>De Peste</i>,
+and certain historical studies, details of which appear in the <a href="#APPENDIX_A">Appendix</a>.
+There are other works by Agricola referred to by sixteenth century
+writers, but so far we have not been able to find them although they may
+exist. Such data as we have, is given in the <a href="#APPENDIX_A">appendix</a>.</p>
+
+<p>As a young man, Agricola seems to have had some tendencies toward
+liberalism in religious matters, for while at Zwickau he composed some
+anti-Popish Epigrams; but after his return to Leipsic he apparently
+never wavered, and steadily refused to accept the Lutheran Reformation.
+To many even liberal scholars of the day, Luther's doctrines appeared
+wild and demagogic. Luther was not a scholarly man; his addresses were
+to the masses; his Latin was execrable. Nor did the bitter dissensions
+over hair-splitting theology in the Lutheran Church after Luther's death
+tend to increase respect for the movement among the learned. Agricola
+was a scholar of wide attainments, a deep-thinking, religious man, and
+he remained to the end a staunch Catholic, despite the general change of
+sentiment among his countrymen. His leanings were toward such men as his
+friend the humanist, Erasmus. That he had the courage of his convictions
+is shown in the dedication of <i>De Natura Eorum</i>, where he addresses to
+his friend, Duke Maurice, the pious advice that the dissensions of the
+Germans should be composed, and that the Duke should return to the bosom
+of the Church those who had been torn from her, and adds: "Yet I do not
+wish to become confused by these turbulent waters, and be led to offend
+anyone. It is more advisable to check my utterances." As he became older
+he may have become less tolerant in religious matters, for he did not
+seem to show as much patience in the discussion of ecclesiastical topics
+as he must have possessed earlier, yet he maintained to the end the
+respect and friendship of such great Protestants as Melanchthon,
+Camerarius, Fabricius, and many others.</p>
+
+<p>In 1546, when he was at the age of 52, began Agricola's activity in
+public life, for in that year he was elected a Burgher of Chemnitz; and
+in the same year Duke Maurice appointed him Burgomaster&mdash;an office which
+he held for four terms. Before one can gain an insight into his
+political services, and incidentally into the character of the man, it
+is necessary to understand the politics of the time and his part
+therein, and to bear in mind always that he was a staunch Catholic under
+a Protestant Sovereign in a State seething with militant Protestantism.</p>
+
+<p>Saxony had been divided in 1485 between the Princes Ernest and Albert,
+the former taking the Electoral dignity and the major portion of the
+Principality. Albert the Brave, the younger brother and Duke of Saxony,
+obtained the subordinate portion, embracing Meissen, but subject to the
+Elector. The Elector Ernest was succeeded in 1486 by Frederick the Wise,
+and under <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix"></a>[Pg ix]</span>his support Luther made Saxony the cradle of the Reformation.
+This Elector was succeeded in 1525 by his brother John, who was in turn
+succeeded by his son John Frederick in 1532. Of more immediate interest
+to this subject is the Albertian line of Saxon Dukes who ruled Meissen,
+for in that Principality Agricola was born and lived, and his political
+fortunes were associated with this branch of the Saxon House. Albert was
+succeeded in 1505 by his son George, "The Bearded," and he in turn by
+his brother Henry, the last of the Catholics, in 1539, who ruled until
+1541. Henry was succeeded in 1541 by his Protestant son Maurice, who was
+the Patron of Agricola.</p>
+
+<p>At about this time Saxony was drawn into the storms which rose from the
+long-standing rivalry between Francis I., King of France, and Charles V.
+of Spain. These two potentates came to the throne in the same year
+(1515), and both were candidates for Emperor of that loose Confederation
+known as the Holy Roman Empire. Charles was elected, and intermittent
+wars between these two Princes arose&mdash;first in one part of Europe, and
+then in another. Francis finally formed an alliance with the
+Schmalkalden League of German Protestant Princes, and with the Sultan of
+Turkey, against Charles. In 1546 Maurice of Meissen, although a
+Protestant, saw his best interest in a secret league with Charles
+against the other Protestant Princes, and proceeded (the Schmalkalden
+War) to invade the domains of his superior and cousin, the Elector
+Frederick. The Emperor Charles proved successful in this war, and
+Maurice was rewarded, at the Capitulation of Wittenberg in 1547, by
+being made Elector of Saxony in the place of his cousin. Later on, the
+Elector Maurice found the association with Catholic Charles unpalatable,
+and joined in leading the other Protestant princes in war upon him, and
+on the defeat of the Catholic party and the peace of Passau, Maurice
+became acknowledged as the champion of German national and religious
+freedom. He was succeeded by his brother Augustus in 1553.</p>
+
+<p>Agricola was much favoured by the Saxon Electors, Maurice and Augustus.
+He dedicates most of his works to them, and shows much gratitude for
+many favours conferred upon him. Duke Maurice presented to him a house
+and plot in Chemnitz, and in a letter dated June 14th, 1543<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> in
+connection therewith, says: "... that he may enjoy his life-long a
+freehold house unburdened by all burgher rights and other municipal
+service, to be used by him and inhabited as a free dwelling, and that he
+may also, for the necessities of his household and of his wife and
+servants, brew his own beer free, and that he may likewise purvey for
+himself and his household foreign beer and also wine for use, and yet he
+shall not sell any such beer.... We have taken the said Doctor under our
+especial protection and care for our life-long, and he shall not be
+summoned before any Court of Justice, but only before us and our
+Councillor...."</p>
+
+<p>Agricola was made Burgomaster of Chemnitz in 1546. A letter<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> from
+Fabricius to Meurer, dated May 19th, 1546, says that Agricola had been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x"></a>[Pg x]</span>made Burgomaster by the command of the Prince. This would be Maurice,
+and it is all the more a tribute to the high respect with which Agricola
+was held, for, as said before, he was a consistent Catholic, and Maurice
+a Protestant Prince. In this same year the Schmalkalden War broke out,
+and Agricola was called to personal attendance upon the Duke Maurice in
+a diplomatic and advisory capacity. In 1546 also he was a member of the
+Diet of Freiberg, and was summoned to Council in Dresden. The next year
+he continued, by the Duke's command, Burgomaster at Chemnitz, although
+he seems to have been away upon Ducal matters most of the time. The Duke
+addresses<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> the Chemnitz Council in March, 1547: "We hereby make known
+to you that we are in urgent need of your Burgomaster, Dr. Georgius
+Agricola, with us. It is, therefore, our will that you should yield him
+up and forward him that he should with the utmost haste set forth to us
+here near Freiberg." He was sent on various missions from the Duke to
+the Emperor Charles, to King Ferdinand of Austria, and to other Princes
+in matters connected with the war&mdash;the fact that he was a Catholic
+probably entering into his appointment to such missions. Chemnitz was
+occupied by the troops of first one side, then the other, despite the
+great efforts of Agricola to have his own town specially defended. In
+April, 1547, the war came to an end in the Battle of M�hlberg, but
+Agricola was apparently not relieved of his Burgomastership until the
+succeeding year, for he wrote his friend Wolfgang Meurer, in April,
+1548,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> that he "was now relieved." His public duties did not end,
+however, for he attended the Diet of Leipzig in 1547 and in 1549, and
+was at the Diet at Torgau in 1550. In 1551 he was again installed as
+Burgomaster; and in 1553, for the fourth time, he became head of the
+Municipality, and during this year had again to attend the Diets at
+Leipzig and Dresden, representing his city. He apparently now had a
+short relief from public duties, for it is not until 1555, shortly
+before his death, that we find him again attending a Diet at Torgau.</p>
+
+<p>Agricola died on November 21st, 1555. A letter<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> from his life-long
+friend, Fabricius, to Melanchthon, announcing this event, states: "We
+lost, on November 21st, that distinguished ornament of our Fatherland,
+Georgius Agricola, a man of eminent intellect, of culture and of
+judgment. He attained the age of 62. He who since the days of childhood
+had enjoyed robust health was carried off by a four-days' fever. He had
+previously suffered from no disease except inflammation of the eyes,
+which he brought upon himself by untiring study and insatiable
+reading.... I know that you loved the soul of this man, although in many
+of his opinions, more especially in religious and spiritual welfare, he
+differed in many points from our own. For he despised our Churches, and
+would not be with us in the Communion of the Blood of Christ. Therefore,
+after his death, at the command of the Prince, which was given to the
+Church inspectors and carried out by Tettelbach as a loyal servant,
+burial was refused him, and not <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi"></a>[Pg xi]</span>until the fourth day was he borne away
+to Zeitz and interred in the Cathedral.... I have always admired the
+genius of this man, so distinguished in our sciences and in the whole
+realm of Philosophy&mdash;yet I wonder at his religious views, which were
+compatible with reason, it is true, and were dazzling, but were by no
+means compatible with truth.... He would not tolerate with patience that
+anyone should discuss ecclesiastical matters with him." This action of
+the authorities in denying burial to one of their most honoured
+citizens, who had been ever assiduous in furthering the welfare of the
+community, seems strangely out of joint. Further, the Elector Augustus,
+although a Protestant Prince, was Agricola's warm friend, as evidenced
+by his letter of but a few months before (see p. <a href="#Page_xv">xv</a>). However, Catholics
+were then few in number at Chemnitz, and the feeling ran high at the
+time, so possibly the Prince was afraid of public disturbances.
+Hofmann<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> explains this occurrence in the following words:&mdash;"The
+feelings of Chemnitz citizens, who were almost exclusively Protestant,
+must certainly be taken into account. They may have raised objections to
+the solemn interment of a Catholic in the Protestant Cathedral Church of
+St. Jacob, which had, perhaps, been demanded by his relatives, and to
+which, according to the custom of the time, he would have been entitled
+as Burgomaster. The refusal to sanction the interment aroused, more
+especially in the Catholic world, a painful sensation."</p>
+
+<p>A brass memorial plate hung in the Cathedral at Zeitz had already
+disappeared in 1686, nor have the cities of his birth or residence ever
+shown any appreciation of this man, whose work more deserves their
+gratitude than does that of the multitude of soldiers whose monuments
+decorate every village and city square. It is true that in 1822 a marble
+tablet was placed behind the altar in the Church of St. Jacob in
+Chemnitz, but even this was removed to the Historical Museum later on.</p>
+
+<p>He left a modest estate, which was the subject of considerable
+litigation by his descendants, due to the mismanagement of the guardian.
+Hofmann has succeeded in tracing the descendants for two generations,
+down to 1609, but the line is finally lost among the multitude of other
+Agricolas.</p>
+
+<p>To deduce Georgius Agricola's character we need not search beyond the
+discovery of his steadfast adherence to the religion of his fathers amid
+the bitter storm of Protestantism around him, and need but to remember
+at the same time that for twenty-five years he was entrusted with
+elective positions of an increasingly important character in this same
+community. No man could have thus held the respect of his countrymen
+unless he were devoid of bigotry and possessed of the highest sense of
+integrity, justice, humanity, and patriotism.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii"></a>[Pg xii]</span></p><h3>AGRICOLA'S INTELLECTUAL ATTAINMENTS AND POSITION IN SCIENCE.</h3>
+
+<p>Agricola's education was the most thorough that his times afforded in
+the classics, philosophy, medicine, and sciences generally. Further, his
+writings disclose a most exhaustive knowledge not only of an
+extraordinary range of classical literature, but also of obscure
+manuscripts buried in the public libraries of Europe. That his general
+learning was held to be of a high order is amply evidenced from the
+correspondence of the other scholars of his time&mdash;Erasmus, Melanchthon,
+Meurer, Fabricius, and others.</p>
+
+<p>Our more immediate concern, however, is with the advances which were due
+to him in the sciences of Geology, Mineralogy, and Mining Engineering.
+No appreciation of these attainments can be conveyed to the reader
+unless he has some understanding of the dearth of knowledge in these
+sciences prior to Agricola's time. We have in <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix B</a> given a brief
+review of the literature extant at this period on these subjects.
+Furthermore, no appreciation of Agricola's contribution to science can
+be gained without a study of <i>De Ortu et Causis</i> and <i>De Natura
+Fossilium</i>, for while <i>De Re Metallica</i> is of much more general
+interest, it contains but incidental reference to Geology and
+Mineralogy. Apart from the book of Genesis, the only attempts at
+fundamental explanation of natural phenomena were those of the Greek
+Philosophers and the Alchemists. Orthodox beliefs Agricola scarcely
+mentions; with the Alchemists he had no patience. There can be no doubt,
+however, that his views are greatly coloured by his deep classical
+learning. He was in fine to a certain distance a follower of Aristotle,
+Theophrastus, Strato, and other leaders of the Peripatetic school. For
+that matter, except for the muddy current which the alchemists had
+introduced into this already troubled stream, the whole thought of the
+learned world still flowed from the Greeks. Had he not, however,
+radically departed from the teachings of the Peripatetic school, his
+work would have been no contribution to the development of science.
+Certain of their teachings he repudiated with great vigour, and his
+laboured and detailed arguments in their refutation form the first
+battle in science over the results of observation <i>versus</i> inductive
+speculation. To use his own words: "Those things which we see with our
+eyes and understand by means of our senses are more clearly to be
+demonstrated than if learned by means of reasoning."<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> The bigoted
+scholasticism of his times necessitated as much care and detail in
+refutation of such deep-rooted beliefs, as would be demanded to-day by
+an attempt at a refutation of the theory of evolution, and in
+consequence his works are often but dry reading to any but those
+interested in the development of fundamental scientific theory.</p>
+
+<p>In giving an appreciation of Agricola's views here and throughout the
+footnotes, we do not wish to convey to the reader that he was in all
+things free from error and from the spirit of his times, or that his
+theories, constructed long before the atomic theory, are of the
+clear-cut order which that basic hypothesis has rendered possible to
+later scientific speculation in these branches. His statements are
+sometimes much confused, but we reiterate that <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii"></a>[Pg xiii]</span>their clarity is as
+crystal to mud in comparison with those of his predecessors&mdash;and of most
+of his successors for over two hundred years. As an indication of his
+grasp of some of the wider aspects of geological phenomena we reproduce,
+in <a href="#APPENDIX_A">Appendix A</a>, a passage from <i>De Ortu et Causis</i>, which we believe to
+be the first adequate declaration of the part played by erosion in
+mountain sculpture. But of all of Agricola's theoretical views those are
+of the greatest interest which relate to the origin of ore deposits, for
+in these matters he had the greatest opportunities of observation and
+the most experience. We have on page <a href="#Notes_108">108</a> reproduced and discussed his
+theory at considerable length, but we may repeat here, that in his
+propositions as to the circulation of ground waters, that ore channels
+are a subsequent creation to the contained rocks, and that they were
+filled by deposition from circulating solutions, he enunciated the
+foundations of our modern theory, and in so doing took a step in advance
+greater than that of any single subsequent authority. In his contention
+that ore channels were created by erosion of subterranean waters he was
+wrong, except for special cases, and it was not until two centuries
+later that a further step in advance was taken by the recognition by Van
+Oppel of the part played by fissuring in these phenomena. Nor was it
+until about the same time that the filling of ore channels in the main
+by deposition from solutions was generally accepted. While Werner, two
+hundred and fifty years after Agricola, is generally revered as the
+inspirer of the modern theory by those whose reading has taken them no
+farther back, we have no hesitation in asserting that of the
+propositions of each author, Agricola's were very much more nearly in
+accord with modern views. Moreover, the main result of the new ideas
+brought forward by Werner was to stop the march of progress for half a
+century, instead of speeding it forward as did those of Agricola.</p>
+
+<p>In mineralogy Agricola made the first attempt at systematic treatment of
+the subject. His system could not be otherwise than wrongly based, as he
+could scarcely see forward two or three centuries to the atomic theory
+and our vast fund of chemical knowledge. However, based as it is upon
+such properties as solubility and homogeneity, and upon external
+characteristics such as colour, hardness, &amp;c., it makes a most
+creditable advance upon Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Albertus
+Magnus&mdash;his only predecessors. He is the first to assert that bismuth
+and antimony are true primary metals; and to some sixty actual mineral
+species described previous to his time he added some twenty more, and
+laments that there are scores unnamed.</p>
+
+<p>As to Agricola's contribution to the sciences of mining and metallurgy,
+<i>De Re Metallica</i> speaks for itself. While he describes, for the first
+time, scores of methods and processes, no one would contend that they
+were discoveries or inventions of his own. They represent the
+accumulation of generations of experience and knowledge; but by him they
+were, for the first time, to receive detailed and intelligent
+exposition. Until Schl�ter's work nearly two centuries later, it was not
+excelled. There is no measure by which we may gauge the value of such a
+work to the men who followed in this profession during centuries, nor
+the benefits enjoyed by humanity through them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv"></a>[Pg xiv]</span></p><p>That Agricola occupied a very considerable place in the great awakening
+of learning will be disputed by none except by those who place the
+development of science in rank far below religion, politics, literature,
+and art. Of wider importance than the details of his achievements in the
+mere confines of the particular science to which he applied himself, is
+the fact that he was the first to found any of the natural sciences upon
+research and observation, as opposed to previous fruitless speculation.
+The wider interest of the members of the medical profession in the
+development of their science than that of geologists in theirs, has led
+to the aggrandizement of Paracelsus, a contemporary of Agricola, as the
+first in deductive science. Yet no comparative study of the unparalleled
+egotistical ravings of this half-genius, half-alchemist, with the modest
+sober logic and real research and observation of Agricola, can leave a
+moment's doubt as to the incomparably greater position which should be
+attributed to the latter as the pioneer in building the foundation of
+science by deduction from observed phenomena. Science is the base upon
+which is reared the civilization of to-day, and while we give daily
+credit to all those who toil in the superstructure, let none forget
+those men who laid its first foundation stones. One of the greatest of
+these was Georgius Agricola.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv"></a>[Pg xv]</span></p><h3>DE RE METALLICA</h3>
+
+<p>Agricola seems to have been engaged in the preparation of <i>De Re
+Metallica</i> for a period of over twenty years, for we first hear of the
+book in a letter from Petrus Plateanus, a schoolmaster at Joachimsthal,
+to the great humanist, Erasmus,<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> in September, 1529. He says: "The
+scientific world will be still more indebted to Agricola when he brings
+to light the books <i>De Re Metallica</i> and other matters which he has on
+hand." In the dedication of <i>De Mensuris et Ponderibus</i> (in 1533)
+Agricola states that he means to publish twelve books <i>De Re Metallica</i>,
+if he lives. That the appearance of this work was eagerly anticipated is
+evidenced by a letter from George Fabricius to Valentine Hertel:<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>
+"With great excitement the books <i>De Re Metallica</i> are being awaited. If
+he treats the material at hand with his usual zeal, he will win for
+himself glory such as no one in any of the fields of literature has
+attained for the last thousand years." According to the dedication of
+<i>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis</i>, Agricola in 1546 already looked
+forward to its early publication. The work was apparently finished in
+1550, for the dedication to the Dukes Maurice and August of Saxony is
+dated in December of that year. The eulogistic poem by his friend,
+George Fabricius, is dated in 1551.</p>
+
+<p>The publication was apparently long delayed by the preparation of the
+woodcuts; and, according to Mathesius,<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> many sketches for them were
+prepared by Basilius Wefring. In the <a href="#PREFACE">preface</a> of <i>De Re Metallica</i>,
+Agricola does not mention who prepared the sketches, but does say: "I
+have hired illustrators to delineate their forms, lest descriptions
+which are conveyed by words should either not be understood by men of
+our own times, or should cause difficulty to posterity." In 1553 the
+completed book was sent to Froben for publication, for a letter<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> from
+Fabricius to Meurer in March, 1553, announces its dispatch to the
+printer. An interesting letter<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> from the Elector Augustus to
+Agricola, dated January 18, 1555, reads: "Most learned, dear and
+faithful subject, whereas you have sent to the Press a Latin book of
+which the title is said to be <i>De Rebus Metallicis</i>, which has been
+praised to us and we should like to know the contents, it is our
+gracious command that you should get the book translated when you have
+the opportunity into German, and not let it be copied more than once or
+be printed, but keep it by you and send us a copy. If you should need a
+writer for this purpose, we will provide one. Thus you will fulfil our
+gracious behest." The German translation was prepared by Philip Bechius,
+a Basel University Professor of Medicine and Philosophy. It is a
+wretched work, by one who knew nothing of the science, and who more
+especially had no appreciation of the peculiar Latin terms coined by
+Agricola, most of which <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi"></a>[Pg xvi]</span>he rendered literally. It is a sad commentary
+on his countrymen that no correct German translation exists. The Italian
+translation is by Michelangelo Florio, and is by him dedicated to
+Elizabeth, Queen of England. The title page of the first edition is
+reproduced later on, and the full titles of other editions are given in
+the <a href="#APPENDIX_A">Appendix</a>, together with the author's other works. The following are
+the short titles of the various editions of <i>De Re Metallica</i>, together
+with the name and place of the publisher:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Latin Editions.</span></p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left"><i>De Re Metallica</i>,</td><td align="left">Froben</td><td align="left">Basel Folio</td><td align="left">1556.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">1561.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">Ludwig K�nig</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">1621.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">Emanuel K�nig</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">1657.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>In addition to these, Leupold,<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Schmid,<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> and others mention an
+octavo edition, without illustrations, Schweinfurt, 1607. We have not
+been able to find a copy of this edition, and are not certain of its
+existence. The same catalogues also mention an octavo edition of <i>De Re
+Metallica</i>, Wittenberg, 1612 or 1614, with notes by Joanne Sigfrido; but
+we believe this to be a confusion with Agricola's subsidiary works,
+which were published at this time and place, with such notes.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">German Editions.</span></p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Vom Bergkwerck</i>,</td><td align="left">Froben, Folio, 1557.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Bergwerck Buch</i>,</td><td align="left">Sigmundi Feyrabendt, Frankfort-on-Main, folio, 1580.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">Ludwig K�nig, Basel, folio, 1621.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>There are other editions than these, mentioned by bibliographers, but we
+have been unable to confirm them in any library. The most reliable of
+such bibliographies, that of John Ferguson,<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> gives in addition to the
+above; <i>Bergwerkbuch</i>, Basel, 1657, folio, and Schweinfurt, 1687,
+octavo.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Italian Edition.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>L'Arte de Metalli</i>, Froben, Basel, folio, 1563.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Other Languages.</span></p>
+
+<p>So far as we know, <i>De Re Metallica</i> was never actually published in
+other than Latin, German, and Italian. However, a portion of the
+accounts of the firm of Froben were published in 1881<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>, and therein
+is an entry under March, 1560, of a sum to one Leodigaris Grymaldo for
+some other work, and also for "correction of Agricola's <i>De Re
+Metallica</i> in French." This may of course, be an error for the Italian
+edition, which appeared a little later. There is also mention<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> that a
+manuscript of <i>De Re Metallica</i> in Spanish was <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii"></a>[Pg xvii]</span>seen in the library of
+the town of Bejar. An interesting note appears in the glossary given by
+Sir John Pettus in his translation of Lazarus Erckern's work on
+assaying. He says<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> "but I cannot enlarge my observations upon any
+more words, because the printer calls for what I did write of a
+metallick dictionary, after I first proposed the printing of Erckern,
+but intending within the compass of a year to publish Georgius Agricola,
+<i>De Re Metallica</i> (being fully translated) in English, and also to add a
+dictionary to it, I shall reserve my remaining essays (if what I have
+done hitherto be approved) till then, and so I proceed in the
+dictionary." The translation was never published and extensive inquiry
+in various libraries and among the family of Pettus has failed to yield
+any trace of the manuscript.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_v" id="Notes_v">[Pg v]</a></span><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> For the biographical information here set out we have
+relied principally upon the following works:&mdash;Petrus Albinus,
+<i>Meissnische Land Und Berg Chronica</i>, Dresden, 1590; Adam Daniel
+Richter, <i>Umst�ndliche ... Chronica der Stadt Chemnitz</i>, Leipzig, 1754;
+Johann Gottfried Weller, <i>Altes Aus Allen Theilen Der Geschichte</i>,
+Chemnitz, 1766; Freidrich August Schmid, <i>Georg Agrikola's Bermannus</i>,
+Freiberg, 1806; Georg Heinrich Jacobi, <i>Der Mineralog Georgius
+Agricola</i>, Zwickau, 1881; Dr. Reinhold Hofmann, <i>Dr. Georg Agricola</i>,
+Gotha, 1905. The last is an exhaustive biographical sketch, to which we
+refer those who are interested.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_vi" id="Notes_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> <i>Georgii Agricolae Glaucii Libellus de Prima ac Simplici
+Institutione Grammatica</i>, printed by Melchior Lotther, Leipzig, 1520.
+Petrus Mosellanus refers to this work (without giving title) in a letter
+to Agricola, June, 1520.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Briefe an Desiderius Erasmus von Rotterdam.</i> Published by
+Joseph F�rstemann and Otto G�nther. <i><span class="smcaplower">XXVII.</span> Beiheft zum Zentralblatt f�r
+Bibliothekswesen</i>, Leipzig, 1904. p. 44.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> <i>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis.</i> Preface.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> A summary of this and of Agricola's other works is given in
+the <a href="#APPENDIX_A">Appendix A</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_vii" id="Notes_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <i>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis</i>, Book I.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Printed in F. A. Schmid's <i>Georg Agrikola's Bermannus</i>, p.
+14, Freiberg, 1806.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Op. Cit., p. 8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_ix" id="Notes_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Archive 38, Chemnitz Municipal Archives.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Baumgarten-Crusius. <i>Georgii Fabricii Chemnicensis
+Epistolae ad W. Meurerum et Alios Aequales</i>, Leipzig, 1845, p. 26.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_x" id="Notes_x">[Pg x]</a></span><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Hofmann, Op. cit., p. 99.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Weber, <i>Virorum Clarorum Saeculi <span class="smcaplower">XVI.</span> et <span class="smcaplower">XVII.</span> Epistolae
+Selectae</i>, Leipzig, 1894, p. 8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Baumgarten-Crusius. Op. cit., p. 139.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_xi" id="Notes_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Hofmann, Op. cit., p. 123.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_xii" id="Notes_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> <i>De Ortu et Causis</i>, Book III.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_xv" id="Notes_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> <i>Briefe an Desiderius Erasmus von Rotterdam.</i> Published by
+Joseph F�rstemann &amp; Otto G�nther. <i><span class="smcaplower">XXVII.</span> Beiheft zum Zentralblatt f�r
+Bibliothekswesen</i>, Leipzig, 1904, p. 125.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Petrus Albinus, <i>Meissnische Land und Berg Chronica</i>,
+Dresden, 1590, p. 353.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> This statement is contained under "1556" in a sort of
+chronicle bound up with Mathesius's <i>Sarepta</i>, Nuremberg, 1562.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Baumgarten-Crusius, p. 85, letter No. 93.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Principal State Archives, Dresden, Cop. 259, folio 102.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_xvi" id="Notes_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Jacob Leupold, <i>Prodromus Bibliothecae Metallicae</i>, 1732,
+p. 11.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> F. A. Schmid, <i>Georg Agrikola's Bermannus</i>, Freiberg,
+1806, p. 34.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> <i>Bibliotheca Chemica</i>, Glasgow, 1906, p. 10.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> <i>Rechnungsbuch der Froben und Episcopius Buchdrucker und
+Buchh�ndler zu Basel</i>, 1557-1564, published by R. Wackernagle, Basel,
+1881. p. 20.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> <i>Colecion del Sr Monoz</i> t. 93, fol. 255 <i>En la Acad. de la
+Hist.</i> Madrid.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_xvii" id="Notes_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Sir John Pettus, <i>Fleta Minor</i>, The Laws of Art and
+Nature, &amp;c., London, 1636, p. 121.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix"></a>[Pg xix]</span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/figxix.jpg" alt="Title page from first edition" /></div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi"></a>[Pg xxi]</span></p>
+<h2>
+GEORGIUS FABRICIUS IN LIBROS<br />
+Metallicos GEORGII AGRICOLAE philosophi<br />
+pr�stantissimi.<a name="FNanchor_1_27" id="FNanchor_1_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_27" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+</h2>
+
+<p class="center">AD LECTOREM.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Si iuuat ignita cognoscere fronte Chim�ram,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Semicanem nympham, semibouemque uirum:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Si centum capitum Titanem, totque ferentem<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Sublimem manibus tela cruenta Gygen:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Si iuuat �tneum penetrare Cyclopis in antrum,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Atque alios, Vates quos peperere, metus:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nunc placeat mecum doctos euoluere libros,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Ingenium AGRICOLAE quos dedit acre tibi.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Non hic uana tenet suspensam fabula mentem:<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Sed precium, utilitas multa, legentis erit.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Quidquid terra sinu, gremioque recondidit imo,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Omne tibi multis eruit ante libris:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Siue fluens superas ultro nitatur in oras,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Inueniat facilem seu magis arte uiam.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Perpetui proprijs manant de fontibus amnes,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Est grauis Albune� sponte Mephitis odor.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Lethales sunt sponte scrobes Dic�archidis or�,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Et micat � media conditus ignis humo.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Plana Nariscorum c�m tellus arsit in agro,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Ter curua nondum falce resecta Ceres,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nec dedit hoc damnum pastor, nec Iuppiter igne:<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Vulcani per se ruperat ira solum.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Terrifico aura foras erumpens, incita motu,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">S�pe facit montes, ant� ubi plana uia est.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">H�c abstrusa cauis, imoque incognita fundo,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Cognita natura s�pe fuere duce.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Arte hominum, in lucem ueniunt quoque multa, manuque<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Terr� multiplices effodiuntur opes.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Lydia sic nitrum profert, Islandia sulfur,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Ac mod� Tyrrhenus mittit alumen ager.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Succina, qu� trifido subit �quor Vistula cornu,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Piscantur Codano corpora serua sinu.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Quid memorem regum preciosa insignia gemmas,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Marmoraque excelsis structa sub astra iugis?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nil lapides, nil saxa moror: sunt pulchra metalla,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Cr&oelig;se tuis opibus clara, Mydaque tuis,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Qu�que acer Macedo terra Creneide fodit,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Nomine permutans nomina prisca suo.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">At nunc non ullis cedit <span class="smcaplower">GERMANIA</span> terris,<br /></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii"></a>[Pg xxii]</span><span class="i2">Terra ferax hominum, terraque diues opum.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Hic auri in uenis locupletibus aura refulget,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Non alio messis carior ulla loco.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Auricomum extulerit felix Campania ramum,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Nec fructu nobis deficiente cadit.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Eruit argenti solidas hoc tempore massas<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Fossor, de proprijs armaque miles agris.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Ignotum Graijs est Hesperijsque metallum,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Quod Bisemutum lingua paterna uocat.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Candidius nigro, sed plumbo nigrius albo,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Nostra quoque hoc uena diuite fundit humus.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Funditur in tormenta, corus cum imitantia fulmen,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">�s, inque hostiles ferrea massa domos.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Scribuntur plumbo libri: quis credidit ant�<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Qu�m mirandam artem Teutonis ora dedit?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nec tamen hoc alijs, aut illa petuntur ab oris,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Eruta Germano cuncta metalla solo.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Sed quid ego h�c repeto, monumentis tradita claris<br /></span>
+<span class="i2"><span class="smcaplower">AGRICOLAE</span>, qu� nunc docta per ora uolant?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Hic caussis ortus, &amp; formas uiribus addit,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Et qu�renda quibus sint meliora locis.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Qu� si mente prius legisti candidus �qua:<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Da reliquis quoque nunc tempora pauca libris.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Vtilitas sequitur cultorem: crede, uoluptas<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Non iucunda minor, rara legentis, erit.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Iudicioque prius ne quis mal� damnet iniquo,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Qu� sunt auctoris munera mira Dei:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Eripit ipse suis prim�m tela hostibus, inque<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Mittentis torquet spicula rapta caput.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Fertur equo latro, uehitur pirata triremi:<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Ergo necandus equus, nec fabricanda ratis?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Visceribus terr� lateant abstrusa metalla,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Vti opibus nescit qu�d mala turba suis?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Quisquis es, aut doctis pareto monentibus, aut te<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Inter habere bonos ne fateare locum.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Se non in pr�rupta metallicus abijcit audax,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Vt quondam immisso Curtius acer equo:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Sed prius ediscit, qu� sunt noscenda perito,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Quodque facit, multa doctus ab arte facit.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Vtque gubernator seruat cum sidere uentos:<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Sic minim� dubijs utitur ille notis.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Iasides nauim, currus regit arte Metiscus:<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Fossor opus peragit nec minus arte suum.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Indagat uen� spacium, numerumque, modumque,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Siue obliqua suum, recta�e tendat iter.<br /></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii"></a>[Pg xxiii]</span><span class="i0">Pastor ut explorat qu� terra sit apta colenti,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Qu� bene lanigeras, qu� mal� pascat oues.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">En terr� intentus, quid uincula linea tendit?<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Fungitur officio iam Ptolem�e tuo.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Vtque su� inuenit mensuram iuraque uen�,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">In uarios operas diuidit inde uiros.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Iamque aggressus opus, uiden' ut mouet omne quod obstat,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Assidua ut uersat strenuus arma manu?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Ne tibi surdescant ferri tinnitibus aures,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Ad grauiora ideo conspicienda ueni.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Instruit ecce suis nunc artibus ille minores:<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Sedulitas nulli non operosa loco.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Metiri docet hic uen� spaciumque modumque,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Vtque regat positis finibus arua lapis,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Ne quis transmisso uiolentus limite pergens,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Non sibi concessas, in sua uertat, opes.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Hic docet instrumenta, quibus Plutonia regna<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Tutus adit, saxi permeat atque uias.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Quanta (uides) solidas expugnet machina terras:<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Machina non ullo tempore uisa prius.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Cede nouis, nulla non inclyta laude uetustas,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Posteritas meritis est quoque grata tuis.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Tum quia Germano sunt h�c inuenta sub axe,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Si quis es, inuidi� contrahe uela tu�.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Ausonis ora tumet bellis, terra Attica cultu,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Germanum infractus tollit ad astra labor.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nec tamen ingenio solet infeliciter uti,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Mite ger�t Ph&oelig;bi, seu graue Martis opus,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Tempus adest, structis uenarum montibus, igne<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Explorare, usum quem sibi uena ferat,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Non labor ingenio caret hic, non copia fructu,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Est adaperta bon� prima fenestra spei.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Ergo instat porr� grauiores ferre labores,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Intentas operi nec remouere manus.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Vrere siue locus poscat, seu tundere uerras,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Siue lauare lacu pr�ter euntis aqu�.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Seu flammis iterum modicis torrere necesse est,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Excoquere aut fastis ignibus omne malum,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">C�m fluit �s riuis, auri argentique metallum,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Spes animo fossor uix capit ipse suas.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Argentum cupidus fuluo secernit ab auro,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Et plumbi lentam demit utrique moram.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Separat argentum, lucri studiosus, ab �re,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Seruatis, linquens deteriora, bonis.<br /></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv"></a>[Pg xxiv]</span><span class="i0">Qu� si cuncta uelim tenui percurrere uersu,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Ante alium reuehat Memnonis orta diem.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Postremus labor est, concretos discere succos,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Quos fert innumeris Teutona terra locis.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Quo sal, quo nitrum, quo pacto fiat alumen,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Vsibus artificis c�m parat illa manus:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nec non chalcantum, sulfur, fluidumque bitumen,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Massaque quo uitri lenta dolanda modo.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Suscipit h�c hominum mirandos cura labores,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Pauperiem usque adeo ferre famemque graue est,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Tantus amor uictum paruis extundere natis,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Et patri� ciuem non dare uelle malum.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nec manet in terr� fossoris mersa latebris<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Mens, sed fert domino uota precesque Deo.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Munific� expectat, spe plenus, munera dextr�,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Extollens animum l�tus ad astra suum.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Diuitias <span class="smcaplower">CHRISTUS</span> dat noticiamque fruendi,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Cui memori grates pectore semper agit.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Hoc quoque laudati quondam fecere Philippi,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Qui uirtutis habent cum pietate decus.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Huc oculos, huc flecte animum, suauissime Lector,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Auctoremque pia noscito mente Deum.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><span class="smcaplower">AGRICOLAE</span> hinc optans operoso fausta labori,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Laudibus eximij candidus esto uiri.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Ille suum extollit patri� cum nomine nomen,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Et uir in ore frequens posteritatis erit.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Cuncta cadunt letho, studij monumenta uigebunt,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Purpurei donec lumina solis erunt.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 50%;">Misen� <span class="smcaplower">M. D. LI.</span><br />
+�ludo illustri.
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_xxiv" id="Notes_xxiv">[Pg xxiv]</a></span><a name="Footnote_1_27" id="Footnote_1_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_27"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> For completeness' sake we reproduce in the original Latin
+the laudation of Agricola by his friend, Georgius Fabricius, a leading
+scholar of his time. It has but little intrinsic value for it is not
+poetry of a very high order, and to make it acceptable English would
+require certain improvements, for which only poets have licence. A
+"free" translation of the last few lines indicates its complimentary
+character:&mdash;
+</p>
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"He doth raise his country's fame with his own<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And in the mouths of nations yet unborn<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">His praises shall be sung; Death comes to all<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">But great achievements raise a monument<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Which shall endure until the sun grows cold."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxv" id="Page_xxv"></a>[Pg xxv]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>
+TO THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS<br />
+AND MOST MIGHTY DUKES OF<br />
+Saxony, Landgraves of Thuringia, Margraves of Meissen,<br />
+Imperial Overlords of Saxony, Burgraves of Altenberg<br />
+and Magdeburg, Counts of Brena, Lords of<br />
+Pleissnerland, To <span class="smcaplower">MAURICE</span> Grand Marshall<br />
+and Elector of the Holy Roman Empire<br />
+and to his brother <span class="smcaplower">AUGUSTUS</span>,<a name="FNanchor_1_28" id="FNanchor_1_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_28" class="fnanchor">[1]</a><br />
+<span class="smcaplower">GEORGE AGRICOLA&nbsp; S. D.</span>
+</h2>
+
+
+
+<div class="dropcap"><img src="images/capm.png" alt="M" /></div>
+<p style="text-indent:-1em;">
+ost illustrious Princes, often have I considered the metallic arts as a
+whole, as Moderatus Columella<a name="FNanchor_2_29" id="FNanchor_2_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_29" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> considered the agricultural arts, just
+as if I had been considering the whole of the human body; and when I had
+perceived the various parts of the subject, like so many members of the
+body, I became afraid that I might die before I should understand its
+full extent, much less before I could immortalise it in writing. This
+book itself indicates the length and breadth of the subject, and the
+number and importance of the sciences of which at least some little
+knowledge is necessary to miners. Indeed, the subject of mining is a
+very extensive one, and one very difficult to explain; no part of it is
+fully dealt with by the Greek and Latin authors whose works survive; and
+since the art is one of the most ancient, the most necessary and the
+most profitable to mankind, I considered that I ought not to neglect it.
+Without doubt, none of the arts is older than agriculture, but that of
+the metals is not less ancient; in fact they are at least equal and
+coeval, for no mortal man ever tilled a field without implements. In
+truth, in all the works of agriculture, as in the other arts, implements
+are used which are made from metals, or which could not be made without
+the use of metals; for this reason the metals are of the greatest
+necessity to man. When an art is so poor that it lacks metals, it is not
+of much importance, for nothing is made without tools. Besides, of all
+ways whereby great wealth is acquired by good and honest means, none is
+more advantageous than mining; for although from fields which are well
+tilled (not to mention other things) we derive rich yields, yet we
+obtain richer products from mines; in fact, one mine is often much more
+beneficial to us than many fields. For this reason we learn from the
+history of nearly all ages that very many men have been made rich by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxvi" id="Page_xxvi"></a>[Pg xxvi]</span>mines, and the fortunes of many kings have been much amplified thereby.
+But I will not now speak more of these matters, because I have dealt
+with these subjects partly in the first book of this work, and partly in
+the other work entitled <i>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis</i>, where I have
+refuted the charges which have been made against metals and against
+miners. Now, though the art of husbandry, which I willingly rank with
+the art of mining, appears to be divided into many branches, yet it is
+not separated into so many as this art of ours, nor can I teach the
+principles of this as easily as Columella did of that. He had at hand
+many writers upon husbandry whom he could follow,&mdash;in fact, there are
+more than fifty Greek authors whom Marcus Varro enumerates, and more
+than ten Latin ones, whom Columella himself mentions. I have only one
+whom I can follow; that is C. Plinius Secundus,<a name="FNanchor_3_30" id="FNanchor_3_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_30" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> and he expounds only
+a very few methods of digging ores and of making metals. Far from the
+whole of the art having been treated by any one writer, those who have
+written occasionally on any one or another of its branches have not even
+dealt completely with a single one of them. Moreover, there is a great
+scarcity even of these, since alone of all the Greeks, Strato of
+Lampsacus,<a name="FNanchor_4_31" id="FNanchor_4_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_31" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> the successor of Theophrastus,<a name="FNanchor_5_32" id="FNanchor_5_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_32" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> wrote a book on the
+subject, <i>De Machinis Metallicis</i>; except, perhaps a work by the poet
+Philo, a small part of which embraced to some degree the occupation of
+mining.<a name="FNanchor_6_33" id="FNanchor_6_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_33" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> Pherecrates seems to have introduced into his comedy, which
+was similar in title, miners as slaves or as persons condemned to serve
+in the mines. Of the Latin writers, Pliny, as I have already said, has
+described a few methods of working. Also among the authors I must
+include the modern writers, whosoever they are, for no one should escape
+just condemnation who fails to award due recognition to persons whose
+writings he uses, even very slightly. Two books have been written in our
+tongue; the one on the assaying of mineral substances and metals,
+somewhat confused, whose author is unknown<a name="FNanchor_7_34" id="FNanchor_7_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_34" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>; the other "On Veins," of
+which Pandulfus Anglus<a name="FNanchor_8_35" id="FNanchor_8_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_35" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> is also said to have written, although the
+German book was written by Calbus of Freiberg, a well-known doctor; but
+neither of them accomplished the task <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxvii" id="Page_xxvii"></a>[Pg xxvii]</span>he had begun.<a name="FNanchor_9_36" id="FNanchor_9_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_36" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> Recently
+Vannucci Biringuccio, of Sienna, a wise man experienced in many matters,
+wrote in vernacular Italian on the subject of the melting, separating,
+and alloying of metals.<a name="FNanchor_10_37" id="FNanchor_10_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_37" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> He touched briefly on the methods of
+smelting certain ores, and explained more fully the methods of making
+certain juices; by reading his directions, I have refreshed my memory of
+those things which I myself saw in Italy; as for many matters on which I
+write, he did not touch upon them at all, or touched but lightly. This
+book was given me by Franciscus Badoarius, a Patrician of Venice, and a
+man of wisdom and of repute; this he had promised that he would do, when
+in the previous year he was at Marienberg, having been sent by the
+Venetians as an Ambassador to King Ferdinand. Beyond these books I do
+not find any writings on the metallic arts. For that reason, even if the
+book of Strato existed, from all these sources not one-half of the whole
+body of the science of mining could be pieced together.</p>
+
+<p>Seeing that there have been so few who have written on the subject of
+the metals, it appears to me all the more wonderful that so many
+alchemists have arisen who would compound metals artificially, and who
+would change one into another. Hermolaus Barbarus,<a name="FNanchor_11_38" id="FNanchor_11_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_38" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> a man of high
+rank and station, and distinguished in all kinds of learning, has
+mentioned the names of many in his writings; and I will proffer more,
+but only famous ones, for I will limit myself to a few. Thus Osthanes
+has written on <span class="greek" title="Greek: chymeutika">&chi;&upsilon;&mu;&epsilon;&upsilon;&tau;&iota;&kappa;&#940;</span> and there are Hermes; Chanes;
+Zosimus, the Alexandrian, to his sister Theosebia; Olympiodorus, also an
+Alexandrian; Agathod�mon; Democritus, not the one of Abdera, but some
+other whom I know not; Orus Chrysorichites, Pebichius, Comerius,
+Joannes, Apulejus, Petasius, Pelagius, Africanus, Theophilus, Synesius,
+Stephanus to Heracleus C�sar, Heliodorus to Theodosius, Geber, Callides
+Rachaidibus, Veradianus, Rodianus, Canides, Merlin, Raymond Lully,
+Arnold de Villa Nova, and Augustinus Pantheus of Venice; and three
+women, Cleopatra, the maiden Taphnutia, and Maria the Jewess.<a name="FNanchor_12_39" id="FNanchor_12_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_39" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> All
+these alchemists employ obscure language, and Johanes Aurelius
+Augurellus of Rimini, alone has used the language of poetry. There are
+many other books on <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxviii" id="Page_xxviii"></a>[Pg xxviii]</span>this subject, but all are difficult to follow,
+because the writers upon these things use strange names, which do not
+properly belong to the metals, and because some of them employ now one
+name and now another, invented by themselves, though the thing itself
+changes not. These masters teach their disciples that the base metals,
+when smelted, are broken up; also they teach the methods by which they
+reduce them to the primary parts and remove whatever is superfluous in
+them, and by supplying what is wanted make out of them the precious
+metals&mdash;that is, gold and silver,&mdash;all of which they carry out in a
+crucible. Whether they can do these things or not I cannot decide; but,
+seeing that so many writers assure us with all earnestness that they
+have reached that goal for which they aimed, it would seem that faith
+might be placed in them; yet also seeing that we do not read of any of
+them ever having become rich by this art, nor do we now see them growing
+rich, although so many nations everywhere have produced, and are
+producing, alchemists, and all of them are straining every nerve night
+and day to the end that they may heap a great quantity of gold and
+silver, I should say the matter is dubious. But although it may be due
+to the carelessness of the writers that they have not transmitted to us
+the names of the masters who acquired great wealth through this
+occupation, certainly it is clear that their disciples either do not
+understand their precepts or, if they do understand them, do not follow
+them; for if they do comprehend them, seeing that these disciples have
+been and are so numerous, they would have by to-day filled <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxix" id="Page_xxix"></a>[Pg xxix]</span>whole towns
+with gold and silver. Even their books proclaim their vanity, for they
+inscribe in them the names of Plato and Aristotle and other
+philosophers, in order that such high-sounding inscriptions may impose
+upon simple people and pass for learning. There is another class of
+alchemists who do not change the substance of base metals, but colour
+them to represent gold or silver, so that they appear to be that which
+they are not, and when this appearance is taken from them by the fire,
+as if it were a garment foreign to them, they return to their own
+character. These alchemists, since they deceive people, are not only
+held in the greatest odium, but their frauds are a capital offence. No
+less a fraud, warranting capital punishment, is committed by a third
+sort of alchemists; these throw into a crucible a small piece of gold or
+silver hidden in a coal, and after mixing therewith fluxes which have
+the power of extracting it, pretend to be making gold from orpiment, or
+silver from tin and like substances. But concerning the art of alchemy,
+if it be an art, I will speak further elsewhere. I will now return to
+the art of mining.</p>
+
+<p>Since no authors have written of this art in its entirety, and since
+foreign nations and races do not understand our tongue, and, if they did
+understand it, would be able to learn only a small part of the art
+through the works of those authors whom we do possess, I have written
+these twelve books <i>De Re Metallica</i>. Of these, the <a href="#BOOK_I">first book</a> contains
+the arguments which may be used against this art, and against metals and
+the mines, and what can be said in their favour. The <a href="#BOOK_II">second book</a>
+describes the miner, and branches into <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxx" id="Page_xxx"></a>[Pg xxx]</span>a discourse on the finding of
+veins. The <a href="#BOOK_III">third book</a> deals with veins and stringers, and seams in the
+rocks. The <a href="#BOOK_IV">fourth book</a> explains the method of delimiting veins, and also
+describes the functions of the mining officials. The <a href="#BOOK_V">fifth book</a>
+describes the digging of ore and the surveyor's art. The <a href="#BOOK_VI">sixth book</a>
+describes the miners' tools and machines. The <a href="#BOOK_VII">seventh book</a> is on the
+assaying of ore. The <a href="#BOOK_VIII">eighth book</a> lays down the rules for the work of
+roasting, crushing, and washing the ore. The <a href="#BOOK_IX">ninth book</a> explains the
+methods of smelting ores. The <a href="#BOOK_X">tenth book</a> instructs those who are
+studious of the metallic arts in the work of separating silver from
+gold, and lead from gold and silver. The <a href="#BOOK_XI">eleventh book</a> shows the way of
+separating silver from copper. The <a href="#BOOK_XII">twelfth book</a> gives us rules for
+manufacturing salt, soda, alum, vitriol, sulphur, bitumen, and glass.</p>
+
+<p>Although I have not fulfilled the task which I have undertaken, on
+account of the great magnitude of the subject, I have, at all events,
+endeavoured to fulfil it, for I have devoted much labour and care, and
+have even gone to some expense upon it; for with regard to the veins,
+tools, vessels, sluices, machines, and furnaces, I have not only
+described them, but have also hired illustrators to delineate their
+forms, lest descriptions which are conveyed by words should either not
+be understood by men of our own times, or should cause difficulty to
+posterity, in the same way as to us difficulty is often caused by many
+names which the Ancients (because such words were familiar to all of
+them) have handed down to us without any explanation.</p>
+
+<p>I have omitted all those things which I have not myself seen, or have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxi" id="Page_xxxi"></a>[Pg xxxi]</span>not read or heard of from persons upon whom I can rely. That which I
+have neither seen, nor carefully considered after reading or hearing of,
+I have not written about. The same rule must be understood with regard
+to all my instruction, whether I enjoin things which ought to be done,
+or describe things which are usual, or condemn things which are done.
+Since the art of mining does not lend itself to elegant language, these
+books of mine are correspondingly lacking in refinement of style. The
+things dealt with in this art of metals sometimes lack names, either
+because they are new, or because, even if they are old, the record of
+the names by which they were formerly known has been lost. For this
+reason I have been forced by a necessity, for which I must be pardoned,
+to describe some of them by a number of words combined, and to
+distinguish others by new names,&mdash;to which latter class belong
+<i>Ingestor</i>, <i>Discretor</i>, <i>Lotor</i>, and <i>Excoctor</i>.<a name="FNanchor_13_40" id="FNanchor_13_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_40" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> Other things,
+again, I have alluded to by old names, such as the <i>Cisium</i>; for when
+Nonius Marcellus wrote,<a name="FNanchor_14_41" id="FNanchor_14_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_41" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> this was the name of a two-wheeled vehicle,
+but I have adopted it for a small vehicle which has only one wheel; and
+if anyone does not approve of these names, let him either find more
+appropriate ones for these things, or discover the words used in the
+writings of the Ancients.</p>
+
+<p>These books, most illustrious Princes, are dedicated to you for many
+reasons, and, above all others, because metals have proved of the
+greatest value to you; for though your ancestors drew rich profits from
+the revenues of their vast and wealthy territories, and likewise from
+the taxes which were paid by the foreigners by way of toll and by the
+natives by way of tithes, yet they drew far richer profits from the
+mines. Because of the mines not a few towns have risen into eminence,
+such as Freiberg, Annaberg, Marienberg, Schneeberg, Geyer, and
+Altenberg, not to mention others. Nay, if I understand anything, greater
+wealth now lies hidden beneath the ground in the mountainous parts of
+your territory than is visible and apparent above ground. Farewell.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 10%;"><i>Chemnitz, Saxony,<br />
+December First, 1550.</i>
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_xxv" id="Notes_xxv">[Pg xxv]</a></span><a name="Footnote_1_28" id="Footnote_1_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_28"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> For Agricola's relations with these princes see p. <a href="#Page_ix">ix</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_29" id="Footnote_2_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_29"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella was a Roman, a native of
+Cadiz, and lived during the 1st Century. He was the author of <i>De Re
+Rustica</i> in 12 books. It was first printed in 1472, and some fifteen or
+sixteen editions had been printed before Agricola's death.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_xxvi" id="Notes_xxvi">[Pg xxvi]</a></span><a name="Footnote_3_30" id="Footnote_3_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_30"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> We give a short review of Pliny's <i>Naturalis Historia</i> in
+the <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix B</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_31" id="Footnote_4_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_31"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> This work is not extant, as Agricola duly notes later on.
+Strato succeeded Theophrastus as president of the Lyceum, 288 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_32" id="Footnote_5_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_32"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> For note on Theophrastus see <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix B</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_33" id="Footnote_6_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_33"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> It appears that the poet Philo did write a work on mining
+which is not extant. So far as we know the only reference to this work
+is in Athen�us' (200 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>) <i>Deipnosophistae</i>. The passage as it appears
+in C. D. Yonge's Translation (Bonn's Library, London, 1854, Vol. <span class="smcaplower">II</span>,
+Book <span class="smcaplower">VII</span>, p. 506) is: "And there is a similar fish produced in the Red
+Sea which is called Stromateus; it has gold-coloured lines running along
+the whole of his body, as Philo tells us in his book on Mines." There is
+a fragment of a poem of Pherecrates, entitled "Miners," but it seems to
+have little to do with mining.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_34" id="Footnote_7_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_34"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The title given by Agricola <i>De Materiae Metallicae et
+Metallorum Experimento</i> is difficult to identify. It seems likely to be
+the little <i>Probier B�chlein</i>, numbers of which were published in German
+in the first half of the 16th Century. We discuss this work at some
+length in the <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix B</a> on Ancient Authors.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_35" id="Footnote_8_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_35"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Pandulfus, "the Englishman," is mentioned by various 15th
+and 16th Century writers, and in the preface of Mathias Farinator's
+<i>Liber Moralitatum ... Rerum Naturalium</i>, etc., printed in Augsburg,
+1477, there is a list of books among which appears a reference to a work
+by Pandulfus on veins and minerals. We have not been able to find the
+book.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_xxvii" id="Notes_xxvii">[Pg xxvii]</a></span><a name="Footnote_9_36" id="Footnote_9_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_36"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Jacobi (<i>Der Mineralog Georgius Agricola</i>, Zwickau, 1881,
+p. 47) says: "Calbus Freibergius, so called by Agricola himself, is
+certainly no other than the Freiberg Doctor R�hlein von Kalbe; he was,
+according to M�ller, a doctor and burgomaster at Freiberg at the end of
+the 15th and the beginning of the 16th Centuries.... The chronicler
+describes him as a fine mathematician, who helped to survey and design
+the mining towns of Annaberg in 1497 and Marienberg in 1521." We would
+call attention to the statement of Calbus' views, quoted at the end of
+Book III, <i>De Re Metallica</i> (p. <a href="#Page_75">75</a>), which are astonishingly similar to
+statements in the <i>N�tzlich Bergb�chlin</i>, and leave little doubt that
+this "Calbus" was the author of that anonymous book on veins. For
+further discussion see <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix B</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_37" id="Footnote_10_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_37"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> For discussion of Biringuccio see <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix B</a>. The proper
+title is <i>De La Pirotechnia</i> (Venice, 1540).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_38" id="Footnote_11_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_38"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Hermolaus Barbarus, according to Watt (<i>Bibliotheca
+Britannica</i>, London, 1824), was a lecturer on Philosophy in Padua. He
+was born in 1454, died in 1493, and was the author of a number of works
+on medicine, natural history, etc., with commentaries on the older
+authors.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_39" id="Footnote_12_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_39"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> The debt which humanity does owe to these self-styled
+philosophers must not be overlooked, for the science of Chemistry comes
+from three sources&mdash;Alchemy, Medicine and Metallurgy. However polluted
+the former of these may be, still the vast advance which it made by the
+discovery of the principal acids, alkalis, and the more common of their
+salts, should be constantly recognized. It is obviously impossible,
+within the space of a footnote, to <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_xxviii" id="Notes_xxviii">[Pg xxviii]</a></span>give anything but the most casual
+notes as to the personages here mentioned and their writings. Aside from
+the classics and religious works, the libraries of the Middle Ages
+teemed with more material on Alchemy than on any other one subject, and
+since that date a never-ending stream of historical, critical, and
+discursive volumes and tracts devoted to the old Alchemists and their
+writings has been poured upon the world. A collection recently sold in
+London, relating to Paracelsus alone, embraced over seven hundred
+volumes.
+</p><p>
+Of many of the Alchemists mentioned by Agricola little is really known,
+and no two critics agree as to the commonest details regarding many of
+them; in fact, an endless confusion springs from the negligent habit of
+the lesser Alchemists of attributing the authorship of their writings to
+more esteemed members of their own ilk, such as Hermes, Osthanes, etc.,
+not to mention the palpable spuriousness of works under the names of the
+real philosophers, such as Aristotle, Plato, or Moses, and even of Jesus
+Christ. Knowledge of many of the authors mentioned by Agricola does not
+extend beyond the fact that the names mentioned are appended to various
+writings, in some instances to MSS yet unpublished. They may have been
+actual persons, or they may not. Agricola undoubtedly had perused such
+manuscripts and books in some leading library, as the quotation from
+Boerhaave given later shows. Shaw (A New Method of Chemistry, etc.,
+London, 1753. Vol. I, p. 25) considers that the large number of such
+manuscripts in the European libraries at this time were composed or
+transcribed by monks and others living in Constantinople, Alexandria,
+and Athens, who fled westward before the Turkish invasion, bringing
+their works with them.
+</p><p>
+For purposes of this summary we group the names mentioned by Agricola,
+the first class being of those who are known only as names appended to
+MSS or not identifiable at all. Possibly a more devoted student of the
+history of Alchemy would assign fewer names to this department of
+oblivion. They are Maria the Jewess, Orus Chrysorichites, Chanes,
+Petasius, Pebichius, Theophilus, Callides, Veradianus, Rodianus,
+Canides, the maiden Taphnutia, Johannes, Augustinus, and Africanus. The
+last three are names so common as not to be possible of identification
+without more particulars, though Johannes may be the Johannes Rupeseissa
+(1375), an alchemist of some note. Many of these names can be found
+among the Bishops and Prelates of the early Christian Church, but we
+doubt if their owners would ever be identified with such indiscretions
+as open, avowed alchemy. The Theophilus mentioned might be the
+metal-working monk of the 12th Century, who is further discussed in
+<a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix B</a> on Ancient Authors.
+</p><p>
+In the next group fall certain names such as Osthanes, Hermes, Zosimus,
+Agathodaemon, and Democritus, which have been the watchwords of
+authority to Alchemists of all ages. These certainly possessed the great
+secrets, either the philosopher's stone or the elixir. <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_xxix" id="Notes_xxix">[Pg xxix]</a></span>Hermes
+Trismegistos was a legendary Egyptian personage supposed to have
+flourished before 1,500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, and by some considered to be a corruption
+of the god Thoth. He is supposed to have written a number of works, but
+those extant have been demonstrated to date not prior to the second
+Century; he is referred to by the later Greek Alchemists, and was
+believed to have possessed the secret of transmutation. Osthanes was
+also a very shadowy personage, and was considered by some Alchemists to
+have been an Egyptian prior to Hermes, by others to have been the
+teacher of Zoroaster. Pliny mentions a magician of this name who
+accompanied Xerxes' army. Later there are many others of this name, and
+the most probable explanation is that this was a favourite pseudonym for
+ancient magicians; there is a very old work, of no great interest, in
+MSS in Latin and Greek, in the Munich, Gotha, Vienna, and other
+libraries, by one of this name. Agathodaemon was still another shadowy
+character referred to by the older Alchemists. There are MSS in the
+Florence, Paris, Escurial, and Munich libraries bearing his name, but
+nothing tangible is known as to whether he was an actual man or if these
+writings are not of a much later period than claimed.
+</p><p>
+To the next group belong the Greek Alchemists, who flourished during the
+rise and decline of Alexandria, from 200 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> to 700 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>, and we give
+them in order of their dates. Comerius was considered by his later
+fellow professionals to have been the teacher of the art to Cleopatra
+(1st Century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>), and a MSS with a title to that effect exists in the
+Biblioth�que Nationale at Paris. The celebrated Cleopatra seems to have
+stood very high in the estimation of the Alchemists; perhaps her
+doubtful character found a response among them; there are various works
+extant in MSS attributed to her, but nothing can be known as to their
+authenticity. Lucius Apulejus or Apuleius was born in Numidia about the
+2nd Century; he was a Roman Platonic Philosopher, and was the author of
+a romance, "The Metamorphosis, or the Golden Ass." Synesius was a Greek,
+but of unknown period; there is a MSS treatise on the Philosopher's
+Stone in the library at Leyden under his name, and various printed works
+are attributed to him; he mentions "water of saltpetre," and has,
+therefore, been hazarded to be the earliest recorder of nitric acid. The
+work here referred to as "Heliodorus to Theodosius" was probably the MSS
+in the Libraries at Paris, Vienna, Munich, etc., under the title of
+"Heliodorus the Philosopher's Poem to the Emperor Theodosius the Great
+on the Mystic Art of the Philosophers, etc." His period would,
+therefore, be about the 4th Century. The Alexandrian Zosimus is more
+generally known as Zosimus the Panopolite, from Panopolis, an ancient
+town on the Nile; he flourished in the 5th Century, and belonged to the
+Alexandrian School of Alchemists; he should not be confused with the
+Roman historian of the same name and period. The following statement is
+by Boerhaave (<i>Elementa Chemiae</i>, Paris, 1724, Chap. I.):&mdash;"The name
+Chemistry written in Greek, or <i>Chemia</i>, is so ancient <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_xxx" id="Notes_xxx">[Pg xxx]</a></span>as perhaps to
+have been used in the antediluvian age. Of this opinion was Zosimus the
+Panopolite, whose Greek writings, though known as long as before the
+year 1550 to George Agricola, and afterwards perused ... by Jas.
+Scaliger and Olaus Borrichius, still remain unpublished in the King of
+France's library. In one of these, entitled, 'The Instruction of Zosimus
+the Panopolite and Philosopher, out of those written to Theosebia,
+etc....'" Olympiodorus was an Alexandrian of the 5th Century, whose
+writings were largely commentaries on Plato and Aristotle; he is
+sometimes accredited with being the first to describe white arsenic
+(arsenical oxide). The full title of the work styled "Stephanus to
+Heracleus Caesar," as published in Latin at Padua in 1573, was "Stephan
+of Alexandria, the Universal Philosopher and Master, his nine processes
+on the great art of making gold and silver, addressed to the Emperor
+Heraclius." He, therefore, if authentic, dates in the 7th Century.
+</p><p>
+To the next class belong those of the Middle Ages, which we give in
+order of date. The works attributed to Geber play such an important part
+in the history of Chemistry and Metallurgy that we discuss his book at
+length in <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix B</a>. Late criticism indicates that this work was not
+the production of an 8th Century Arab, but a compilation of some Latin
+scholar of the 12th or 13th Centuries. Arnold de Villa Nova, born about
+1240, died in 1313, was celebrated as a physician, philosopher, and
+chemist; his first works were published in Lyons in 1504; many of them
+have apparently never been printed, for references may be found to some
+18 different works. Raymond Lully, a Spaniard, born in 1235, who was a
+disciple of Arnold de Villa Nova, was stoned to death in Africa in 1315.
+There are extant over 100 works attributed to this author, although
+again the habit of disciples of writing under the master's name may be
+responsible for most of these. John Aurelio Augurello was an Italian
+Classicist, born in Rimini about 1453. The work referred to,
+<i>Chrysopoeia et Gerontica</i> is a poem on the art of making gold, etc.,
+published in Venice, 1515, and re-published frequently thereafter; it is
+much quoted by Alchemists. With regard to Merlin, as satisfactory an
+account as any of this truly English magician may be found in Mark
+Twain's "Yankee at the Court of King Arthur." It is of some interest to
+note that Agricola omits from his list Avicenna (980-1037 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>), Roger
+Bacon (1214-1294), Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), Basil Valentine (end
+15th century?), and Paracelsus, a contemporary of his own. In <i>De Ortu
+et Causis</i> he expends much thought on refutation of theories advanced by
+Avicenna and Albertus, but of the others we have found no mention,
+although their work is, from a chemical point of view, of considerable
+importance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_xxxi" id="Notes_xxxi">[Pg xxxi]</a></span><a name="Footnote_13_40" id="Footnote_13_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_40"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> <i>Ingestor</i>,&mdash;Carrier; <i>Discretor</i>,&mdash;Sorter;
+<i>Lotor</i>,&mdash;Washer; <i>Excoctor</i>,&mdash;Smelter.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_41" id="Footnote_14_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_41"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Nonius Marcellus was a Roman grammarian of the 4th Century
+<span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> His extant treatise is entitled, <i>De Compendiosa Doctrina per
+Litteras ad Filium</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a>[Pg 1]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="BOOK_I" id="BOOK_I"></a>BOOK I.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="dropcap"><img src="images/capm.png" alt="M" /></div>
+<p style="text-indent:-1em;">
+any persons hold the opinion that the metal industries are fortuitous
+and that the occupation is one of sordid toil, and altogether a kind of
+business requiring not so much skill as labour. But as for myself, when
+I reflect carefully upon its special points one by one, it appears to be
+far otherwise. For a miner must have the greatest skill in his work,
+that he may know first of all what mountain or hill, what valley or
+plain, can be prospected most profitably, or what he should leave alone;
+moreover, he must understand the veins, stringers<a name="FNanchor_1_42" id="FNanchor_1_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_42" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> and seams in the
+rocks<a name="FNanchor_2_43" id="FNanchor_2_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_43" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>. Then he must be thoroughly familiar with the many and varied
+species of earths, juices<a name="FNanchor_3_44" id="FNanchor_3_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_44" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>, gems, stones, marbles, rocks, metals, and
+compounds<a name="FNanchor_4_45" id="FNanchor_4_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_45" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>. He must also have a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a>[Pg 2]</span>complete knowledge of the method of
+making all underground works. Lastly, there are the various systems of
+assaying<a name="FNanchor_5_46" id="FNanchor_5_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_46" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> substances and of preparing them for smelting; and here
+again there are many altogether diverse methods. For there is one method
+for gold and silver, another for copper, another for quicksilver,
+another for iron, another for lead, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a>[Pg 3]</span>even tin and bismuth<a name="FNanchor_6_47" id="FNanchor_6_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_47" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> are
+treated differently from lead. Although the evaporation of juices is an
+art apparently quite distinct from metallurgy, yet they ought not to be
+considered separately, inasmuch as these juices are also often dug out
+of the ground solidified, or they are produced from certain kinds of
+earth and stones which the miners dig up, and some of the juices are not
+themselves devoid of metals. Again, their treatment is not simple, since
+there is one method for common salt, another for soda<a name="FNanchor_7_48" id="FNanchor_7_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_48" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>, another for
+alum, another for vitriol<a name="FNanchor_8_49" id="FNanchor_8_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_49" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>, another for sulphur, and another for
+bitumen.</p>
+
+<p>Furthermore, there are many arts and sciences of which a miner should
+not be ignorant. First there is Philosophy, that he may discern the
+origin, cause, and nature of subterranean things; for then he will be
+able to dig out the veins easily and advantageously, and to obtain more
+abundant results from his mining. Secondly, there is Medicine, that he
+may be able to look after his diggers and other workmen, that they do
+not meet with those <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"></a>[Pg 4]</span>diseases to which they are more liable than workmen
+in other occupations, or if they do meet with them, that he himself may
+be able to heal them or may see that the doctors do so. Thirdly follows
+Astronomy, that he may know the divisions of the heavens and from them
+judge the direction of the veins. Fourthly, there is the science of
+Surveying that he may be able to estimate how deep a shaft should be
+sunk to reach the tunnel which is being driven to it, and to determine
+the limits and boundaries in these workings, especially in depth.
+Fifthly, his knowledge of Arithmetical Science should be such that he
+may calculate the cost to be incurred in the machinery and the working
+of the mine. Sixthly, his learning must comprise Architecture, that he
+himself may construct the various machines and timber work required
+underground, or that he may be able to explain the method of the
+construction to others. Next, he must have knowledge of Drawing, that he
+can draw plans of his machinery. Lastly, there is the Law, especially
+that dealing with metals, that he may claim his own rights, that he may
+undertake the duty of giving others his opinion on legal matters, that
+he may not take another man's property and so make trouble for himself,
+and that he may fulfil his obligations to others according to the law.</p>
+
+<p>It is therefore necessary that those who take an interest in the methods
+and precepts of mining and metallurgy should read these and others of
+our books studiously and diligently; or on every point they should
+consult expert mining people, though they will discover few who are
+skilled in the whole art. As a rule one man understands only the methods
+of mining, another possesses the knowledge of washing<a name="FNanchor_9_50" id="FNanchor_9_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_50" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>, another is
+experienced in the art of smelting, another has a knowledge of measuring
+the hidden parts of the earth, another is skilful in the art of making
+machines, and finally, another is learned in mining law. But as for us,
+though we may not have perfected the whole art of the discovery and
+preparation of metals, at least we can be of great assistance to persons
+studious in its acquisition.</p>
+
+<p>But let us now approach the subject we have undertaken. Since there has
+always been the greatest disagreement amongst men concerning metals and
+mining, some praising, others utterly condemning them, therefore I have
+decided that before imparting my instruction, I should carefully weigh
+the facts with a view to discovering the truth in this matter.</p>
+
+<p>So I may begin with the question of utility, which is a two-fold one,
+for either it may be asked whether the art of mining is really
+profitable or not to those who are engaged in it, or whether it is
+useful or not to the rest of mankind. Those who think mining of no
+advantage to the men who follow the occupation assert, first, that
+scarcely one in a hundred who dig metals or other such things derive
+profit therefrom; and again, that miners, because they entrust their
+certain and well-established wealth to dubious and slippery fortune,
+generally deceive themselves, and as a result, impoverished by <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a>[Pg 5]</span>expenses
+and losses, in the end spend the most bitter and most miserable of
+lives. But persons who hold these views do not perceive how much a
+learned and experienced miner differs from one ignorant and unskilled in
+the art. The latter digs out the ore without any careful discrimination,
+while the former first assays and proves it, and when he finds the veins
+either too narrow and hard, or too wide and soft, he infers therefrom
+that these cannot be mined profitably, and so works only the approved
+ones. What wonder then if we find the incompetent miner suffers loss,
+while the competent one is rewarded by an abundant return from his
+mining? The same thing applies to husbandmen. For those who cultivate
+land which is alike arid, heavy, and barren, and in which they sow
+seeds, do not make so great a harvest as those who cultivate a fertile
+and mellow soil and sow their grain in that. And since by far the
+greater number of miners are unskilled rather than skilled in the art,
+it follows that mining is a profitable occupation to very few men, and a
+source of loss to many more. Therefore the mass of miners who are quite
+unskilled and ignorant in the knowledge of veins not infrequently lose
+both time and trouble<a name="FNanchor_10_51" id="FNanchor_10_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_51" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>. Such men are accustomed for the most part to
+take to mining, either when through being weighted with the fetters of
+large and heavy debts, they have abandoned a business, or desiring to
+change their occupation, have left the reaping-hook and plough; and so
+if at any time such a man discovers rich veins or other abounding mining
+produce, this occurs more by good luck than through any knowledge on his
+part. We learn from history that mining has brought wealth to many, for
+from old writings it is well known that prosperous Republics, not a few
+kings, and many private persons, have made fortunes through mines and
+their produce. This subject, by the use of many clear and illustrious
+examples, I have dilated upon and explained in the first Book of my work
+entitled "<i>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis</i>," from which it is evident
+that mining is very profitable to those who give it care and attention.</p>
+
+<p>Again, those who condemn the mining industry say that it is not in the
+least stable, and they glorify agriculture beyond measure. But I do not
+see how they can say this with truth, for the silver mines at Freiberg
+in Meissen remain still unexhausted after 400 years, and the lead mines
+of Goslar after 600 years. The proof of this can be found in the
+monuments of history. The gold and silver mines belonging to the
+communities of Schemnitz and Cremnitz have been worked for 800 years,
+and these latter are said to be the most ancient privileges of the
+inhabitants. Some then say the profit from an individual mine is
+unstable, as if forsooth, the miner is, or ought to be dependent on only
+one mine, and as if many men do not bear in common their expenses in
+mining, or as if one experienced in his art does not dig another vein,
+if fortune does not amply respond to his prayers in the first case. The
+New Sch�nberg at Freiberg has remained stable beyond the memory of
+man<a name="FNanchor_11_52" id="FNanchor_11_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_52" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a>[Pg 6]</span></p><p>It is not my intention to detract anything from the dignity of
+agriculture, and that the profits of mining are less stable I will
+always and readily admit, for the veins do in time cease to yield
+metals, whereas the fields bring forth fruits every year. But though the
+business of mining may be less reliable it is more productive, so that
+in reckoning up, what is wanting in stability is found to be made up by
+productiveness. Indeed, the yearly profit of a lead mine in comparison
+with the fruitfulness of the best fields, is three times or at least
+twice as great. How much does the profit from gold or silver mines
+exceed that earned from agriculture? Wherefore truly and shrewdly does
+Xenophon<a name="FNanchor_12_53" id="FNanchor_12_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_53" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> write about the Athenian silver mines: "There is land of
+such a nature that if you sow, it does not yield crops, but if you dig,
+it nourishes many more than if it had borne fruit." So let the farmers
+have for themselves the fruitful fields and cultivate the fertile hills
+for the sake of their produce; but let them leave to miners the gloomy
+valleys and sterile mountains, that they may draw forth from these, gems
+and metals which can buy, not only the crops, but all things that are
+sold.</p>
+
+<p>The critics say further that mining is a perilous occupation to pursue,
+because the miners are sometimes killed by the pestilential air which
+they breathe; sometimes their lungs rot away; sometimes the men perish
+by being crushed in masses of rock; sometimes, falling from the ladders
+into the shafts, they break their arms, legs, or necks; and it is added
+there is no compensation which should be thought great enough to
+equalize the extreme dangers to safety and life. These occurrences, I
+confess, are of exceeding gravity, and moreover, fraught with terror and
+peril, so that I should consider that the metals should not be dug up at
+all, if such things were to happen very frequently to the miners, or if
+they could not safely guard against such risks by any means. Who would
+not prefer to live rather than to possess all things, even the metals?
+For he who thus perishes possesses nothing, but relinquishes all to his
+heirs. But since things like this rarely happen, and only in so far as
+workmen are careless, they do not deter miners from carrying on their
+trade any more than it would deter a carpenter from his, because one of
+his mates has acted incautiously and lost his life by falling from a
+high building. I have thus answered each argument which critics are wont
+to put before me when they assert that mining is an undesirable
+occupation, because it involves expense with uncertainty of return,
+because it is changeable, and because it is dangerous to those engaged
+in it.</p>
+
+<p>Now I come to those critics who say that mining is not useful to the
+rest of mankind because forsooth, gems, metals, and other mineral
+products are worthless in themselves. This admission they try to extort
+from us, partly by arguments and examples, partly by misrepresentations
+and abuse of us. First, they make use of this argument: "The earth does
+not conceal and remove from our eyes those things which are useful and
+necessary to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a>[Pg 7]</span>mankind, but on the contrary, like a beneficent and kindly
+mother she yields in large abundance from her bounty and brings into the
+light of day the herbs, vegetables, grains, and fruits, and the trees.
+The minerals on the other hand she buries far beneath in the depth of
+the ground; therefore, they should not be sought. But they are dug out
+by wicked men who, as the poets say, are the products of the Iron Age."
+Ovid censures their audacity in the following lines:&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"And not only was the rich soil required to furnish corn and
+due sustenance, but men even descended into the entrails of the
+earth, and they dug up riches, those incentives to vice, which
+the earth had hidden and had removed to the Stygian shades.
+Then destructive iron came forth, and gold, more destructive
+than iron; then war came forth."<a name="FNanchor_13_54" id="FNanchor_13_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_54" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Another of their arguments is this: Metals offer to men no advantages,
+therefore we ought not to search them out. For whereas man is composed
+of soul and body, neither is in want of minerals. The sweetest food of
+the soul is the contemplation of nature, a knowledge of the finest arts
+and sciences, an understanding of virtue; and if he interests his mind
+in excellent things, if he exercise his body, he will be satisfied with
+this feast of noble thoughts and knowledge, and have no desire for other
+things. Now although the human body may be content with necessary food
+and clothing, yet the fruits of the earth and the animals of different
+kinds supply him in wonderful abundance with food and drink, from which
+the body may be suitably nourished and strengthened and life prolonged
+to old age. Flax, wool, and the skins of many animals provide plentiful
+clothing low in price; while a luxurious kind, not hard to procure&mdash;that
+is the so called <i>seric</i> material, is furnished by the down of trees and
+the webs of the silk worm. So that the body has absolutely no need of
+the metals, so hidden in the depths of the earth and for the greater
+part very expensive. Wherefore it is said that this maxim of Euripides
+is approved in assemblies of learned men, and with good reason was
+always on the lips of Socrates:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Works of silver and purple are of use, not for human life, but
+rather for Tragedians."<a name="FNanchor_14_55" id="FNanchor_14_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_55" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>These critics praise also this saying from Timocreon of Rhodes:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"O Unseeing Plutus, would that thou hadst never appeared in the
+earth or in the sea or on the land, but that thou didst have
+thy habitation in Tartarus and Acheron, for out of thee arise
+all evil things which overtake mankind"<a name="FNanchor_15_56" id="FNanchor_15_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_56" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>. </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>They greatly extol these lines from Phocylides:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Gold and silver are injurious to mortals; gold is the source
+of crime, the plague of life, and the ruin of all things. Would
+that thou were not such an attractive scourge! because of thee
+arise robberies, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a>[Pg 8]</span>homicides, warfare, brothers are maddened
+against brothers, and children against parents." </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>This from Naumachius also pleases them:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Gold and silver are but dust, like the stones that lie
+scattered on the pebbly beach, or on the margins of the
+rivers." </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>On the other hand, they censure these verses of Euripides:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Plutus is the god for wise men; all else is mere folly and at
+the same time a deception in words." </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>So in like manner these lines from Theognis:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"O Plutus, thou most beautiful and placid god! whilst I have
+thee, however bad I am, I can be regarded as good." </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>They also blame Aristodemus, the Spartan, for these words:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Money makes the man; no one who is poor is either good or
+honoured." </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>And they rebuke these songs of Timocles:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Money is the life and soul of mortal men. He who has not
+heaped up riches for himself wanders like a dead man amongst
+the living." </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Finally, they blame Menander when he wrote:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Epicharmus asserts that the gods are water, wind, fire, earth,
+sun, and stars. But I am of opinion that the gods of any use to
+us are silver and gold; for if thou wilt set these up in thy
+house thou mayest seek whatever thou wilt. All things will fall
+to thy lot; land, houses, slaves, silver-work; moreover
+friends, judges, and witnesses. Only give freely, for thus thou
+hast the gods to serve thee." </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>But besides this, the strongest argument of the detractors is that the
+fields are devastated by mining operations, for which reason formerly
+Italians were warned by law that no one should dig the earth for metals
+and so injure their very fertile fields, their vineyards, and their
+olive groves. Also they argue that the woods and groves are cut down,
+for there is need of an endless amount of wood for timbers, machines,
+and the smelting of metals. And when the woods and groves are felled,
+then are exterminated the beasts and birds, very many of which furnish a
+pleasant and agreeable food for man. Further, when the ores are washed,
+the water which has been used poisons the brooks and streams, and either
+destroys the fish or drives them away. Therefore the inhabitants of
+these regions, on account of the devastation of their fields, woods,
+groves, brooks and rivers, find great difficulty in procuring the
+necessaries of life, and by reason of the destruction of the timber they
+are forced to greater expense in erecting buildings. Thus it is said, it
+is clear to all that there is greater detriment from mining than the
+value of the metals which the mining produces.</p>
+
+<p>So in fierce contention they clamour, showing by such examples as follow
+that every great man has been content with virtue, and despised metals.
+They praise Bias because he esteemed the metals merely as fortune's
+playthings, not as his real wealth. When his enemies had captured his
+native Priene, and his fellow-citizens laden with precious things <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a>[Pg 9]</span>had
+betaken themselves to flight, he was asked by one, why he carried away
+none of his goods with him, and he replied, "I carry all my possessions
+with me." And it is said that Socrates, having received twenty minae
+sent to him by Aristippus, a grateful disciple, refused them and sent
+them back to him by the command of his conscience. Aristippus, following
+his example in this matter, despised gold and regarded it as of no
+value. And once when he was making a journey with his slaves, and they,
+laden with the gold, went too slowly, he ordered them to keep only as
+much of it as they could carry without distress and to throw away the
+remainder<a name="FNanchor_16_57" id="FNanchor_16_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_57" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>. Moreover, Anacreon of Teos, an ancient and noble poet,
+because he had been troubled about them for two nights, returned five
+talents which had been given him by Polycrates, saying that they were
+not worth the anxiety which he had gone through on their account. In
+like manner celebrated and exceedingly powerful princes have imitated
+the philosophers in their scorn and contempt for gold and silver. There
+was for example, Phocion, the Athenian, who was appointed general of the
+army so many times, and who, when a large sum of gold was sent to him as
+a gift by Alexander, King of Macedon, deemed it trifling and scorned it.
+And Marcus Curius ordered the gold to be carried back to the Samnites,
+as did also Fabricius Luscinus with regard to the silver and copper. And
+certain Republics have forbidden their citizens the use and employment
+of gold and silver by law and ordinance; the Lacedaemonians, by the
+decrees and ordinances of Lycurgus, used diligently to enquire among
+their citizens whether they possessed any of these things or not, and
+the possessor, when he was caught, was punished according to law and
+justice. The inhabitants of a town on the Tigris, called Babytace,
+buried their gold in the ground so that no one should use it. The
+Scythians condemned the use of gold and silver so that they might not
+become avaricious.</p>
+
+<p>Further are the metals reviled; in the first place people wantonly abuse
+gold and silver and call them deadly and nefarious pests of the human
+race, because those who possess them are in the greatest peril, for
+those who have none lay snares for the possessors of wealth, and thus
+again and again the metals have been the cause of destruction and ruin.
+For example, Polymnestor, King of Thrace, to obtain possession of his
+gold, killed Polydorus, his noble guest and the son of Priam, his
+father-in-law, and old friend. Pygmalion, the King of Tyre, in order
+that he might seize treasures of gold and silver, killed his sister's
+husband, a priest, taking no account of either kinship or religion. For
+love of gold Eriphyle betrayed her husband Amphiaraus to his enemy.
+Likewise Lasthenes betrayed the city of Olynthus to Philip of Macedon.
+The daughter of Spurius Tarpeius, having been bribed with gold, admitted
+the Sabines into the citadel of Rome. Claudius Curio sold his country
+for gold to C�sar, the Dictator. Gold, too, was the cause of the
+downfall of Aesculapius, the great physician, who it was believed was
+the son of Apollo. Similarly Marcus Crassus, through his eager desire
+for the gold of the Parthians, was completely overcome together with his
+son and eleven legions, and became the jest of his enemies; for they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a>[Pg 10]</span>poured liquid gold into the gaping mouth of the slain Crassus, saying:
+"Thou hast thirsted for gold, therefore drink gold."</p>
+
+<p>But why need I cite here these many examples from history?<a name="FNanchor_17_58" id="FNanchor_17_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_58" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> It is
+almost our daily experience to learn that, for the sake of obtaining
+gold and silver, doors are burst open, walls are pierced, wretched
+travellers are struck down by rapacious and cruel men born to theft,
+sacrilege, invasion, and robbery. We see thieves seized and strung up
+before us, sacrilegious persons burnt alive, the limbs of robbers broken
+on the wheel, wars waged for the same reason, which are not only
+destructive to those against whom they are waged, but to those also who
+carry them on. Nay, but they say that the precious metals foster all
+manner of vice, such as the seduction of women, adultery, and
+unchastity, in short, crimes of violence against the person. Therefore
+the Poets, when they represent Jove transformed into a golden shower and
+falling into the lap of Danae, merely mean that he had found for himself
+a safe road by the use of gold, by which he might enter the tower for
+the purpose of violating the maiden. Moreover, the fidelity of many men
+is overthrown by the love of gold and silver, judicial sentences are
+bought, and innumerable crimes are perpetrated. For truly, as Propertius
+says:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"This is indeed the Golden Age. The greatest rewards come from
+gold; by gold love is won; by gold is faith destroyed; by gold
+is justice bought; the law follows the track of gold, while
+modesty will soon follow it when law is gone." </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Diphilus says:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"I consider that nothing is more powerful than gold. By it all
+things are torn asunder; all things are accomplished." </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Therefore, all the noblest and best despise these riches, deservedly and
+with justice, and esteem them as nothing. And this is said by the old
+man in Plautus:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"I hate gold. It has often impelled many people to many wrong
+acts." </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>In this country too, the poets inveigh with stinging reproaches against
+money coined from gold and silver. And especially did Juvenal:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Since the majesty of wealth is the most sacred thing among us;
+although, O pernicious money, thou dost not yet inhabit a
+temple, nor have we erected altars to money." </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>And in another place:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Demoralising money first introduced foreign customs, and
+voluptuous wealth weakened our race with disgraceful
+luxury."<a name="FNanchor_18_59" id="FNanchor_18_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_59" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>And very many vehemently praise the barter system which men used before
+money was devised, and which even now obtains among certain simple
+peoples.</p>
+
+<p>And next they raise a great outcry against other metals, as iron, than
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a>[Pg 11]</span>which they say nothing more pernicious could have been brought into the
+life of man. For it is employed in making swords, javelins, spears,
+pikes, arrows&mdash;weapons by which men are wounded, and which cause
+slaughter, robbery, and wars. These things so moved the wrath of Pliny
+that he wrote: "Iron is used not only in hand to hand fighting, but also
+to form the winged missiles of war, sometimes for hurling engines,
+sometimes for lances, sometimes even for arrows. I look upon it as the
+most deadly fruit of human ingenuity. For to bring Death to men more
+quickly we have given wings to iron and taught it to fly."<a name="FNanchor_19_60" id="FNanchor_19_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_60" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> The
+spear, the arrow from the bow, or the bolt from the catapult and other
+engines can be driven into the body of only one man, while the iron
+cannon-ball fired through the air, can go through the bodies of many
+men, and there is no marble or stone object so hard that it cannot be
+shattered by the force and shock. Therefore it levels the highest towers
+to the ground, shatters and destroys the strongest walls. Certainly the
+ballistas which throw stones, the battering rams and other ancient war
+engines for making breaches in walls of fortresses and hurling down
+strongholds, seem to have little power in comparison with our present
+cannon. These emit horrible sounds and noises, not less than thunder,
+flashes of fire burst from them like the lightning, striking, crushing,
+and shattering buildings, belching forth flames and kindling fires even
+as lightning flashes. So that with more justice could it be said of the
+impious men of our age than of Salmoneus of ancient days, that they had
+snatched lightning from Jupiter and wrested it from his hands. Nay,
+rather there has been sent from the infernal regions to the earth this
+force for the destruction of men, so that Death may snatch to himself as
+many as possible by one stroke.</p>
+
+<p>But because muskets are nowadays rarely made of iron, and the large ones
+never, but of a certain mixture of copper and tin, they confer more
+maledictions on copper and tin than on iron. In this connection too,
+they mention the brazen bull of Phalaris, the brazen ox of the people of
+Pergamus, racks in the shape of an iron dog or a horse, manacles,
+shackles, wedges, hooks, and red-hot plates. Cruelly racked by such
+instruments, people are driven to confess crimes and misdeeds which they
+have never committed, and innocent men are miserably tortured to death
+by every conceivable kind of torment.</p>
+
+<p>It is claimed too, that lead is a pestilential and noxious metal, for
+men are punished by means of molten lead, as Horace describes in the ode
+addressed to the Goddess Fortune: "Cruel Necessity ever goes before thee
+bearing in her brazen hand the spikes and wedges, while the awful hook
+and molten lead are also not lacking."<a name="FNanchor_20_61" id="FNanchor_20_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_61" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> In their desire to excite
+greater odium for this metal, they are not silent about the leaden balls
+of muskets, and they find in it the cause of wounds and death.</p>
+
+<p>They contend that, inasmuch as Nature has concealed metals far within
+the depths of the earth, and because they are not necessary to human
+life, they are therefore despised and repudiated by the noblest, and
+should not be <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a>[Pg 12]</span>mined, and seeing that when brought to light they have
+always proved the cause of very great evils, it follows that mining is
+not useful to mankind, but on the contrary harmful and destructive.
+Several good men have been so perturbed by these tragedies that they
+conceive an intensely bitter hatred toward metals, and they wish
+absolutely that metals had never been created, or being created, that no
+one had ever dug them out. The more I commend the singular honesty,
+innocence, and goodness of such men, the more anxious shall I be to
+remove utterly and eradicate all error from their minds and to reveal
+the sound view, which is that the metals are most useful to mankind.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place then, those who speak ill of the metals and refuse to
+make use of them, do not see that they accuse and condemn as wicked the
+Creator Himself, when they assert that He fashioned some things vainly
+and without good cause, and thus they regard Him as the Author of evils,
+which opinion is certainly not worthy of pious and sensible men.</p>
+
+<p>In the next place, the earth does not conceal metals in her depths
+because she does not wish that men should dig them out, but because
+provident and sagacious Nature has appointed for each thing its place.
+She generates them in the veins, stringers, and seams in the rocks, as
+though in special vessels and receptacles for such material. The metals
+cannot be produced in the other elements because the materials for their
+formation are wanting. For if they were generated in the air, a thing
+that rarely happens, they could not find a firm resting-place, but by
+their own force and weight would settle down on to the ground. Seeing
+then that metals have their proper abiding place in the bowels of the
+earth, who does not see that these men do not reach their conclusions by
+good logic?</p>
+
+<p>They say, "Although metals are in the earth, each located in its own
+proper place where it originated, yet because they lie thus enclosed and
+hidden from sight, they should not be taken out." But, in refutation of
+these attacks, which are so annoying, I will on behalf of the metals
+instance the fish, which we catch, hidden and concealed though they be
+in the water, even in the sea. Indeed, it is far stranger that man, a
+terrestrial animal, should search the interior of the sea than the
+bowels of the earth. For as birds are born to fly freely through the
+air, so are fishes born to swim through the waters, while to other
+creatures Nature has given the earth that they might live in it, and
+particularly to man that he might cultivate it and draw out of its
+caverns metals and other mineral products. On the other hand, they say
+that we eat fish, but neither hunger nor thirst is dispelled by
+minerals, nor are they useful in clothing the body, which is another
+argument by which these people strive to prove that metals should not be
+taken out. But man without metals cannot provide those things which he
+needs for food and clothing. For, though the produce of the land
+furnishes the greatest abundance of food for the nourishment of our
+bodies, no labour can be carried on and completed without tools. The
+ground itself is turned up with ploughshares and harrows, tough stalks
+and the tops of the roots are broken off and dug up with a mattock, the
+sown seed is harrowed, the corn <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a>[Pg 13]</span>field is hoed and weeded; the ripe
+grain with part of the stalk is cut down by scythes and threshed on the
+floor, or its ears are cut off and stored in the barn and later beaten
+with flails and winnowed with fans, until finally the pure grain is
+stored in the granary, whence it is brought forth again when occasion
+demands or necessity arises. Again, if we wish to procure better and
+more productive fruits from trees and bushes, we must resort to
+cultivating, pruning, and grafting, which cannot be done without tools.
+Even as without vessels we cannot keep or hold liquids, such as milk,
+honey, wine, or oil, neither could so many living things be cared for
+without buildings to protect them from long-continued rain and
+intolerable cold. Most of the rustic instruments are made of iron, as
+ploughshares, share-beams, mattocks, the prongs of harrows, hoes,
+planes, hay-forks, straw cutters, pruning shears, pruning hooks, spades,
+lances, forks, and weed cutters. Vessels are also made of copper or
+lead. Neither are wooden instruments or vessels made without iron. Wine
+cellars, oil-mills, stables, or any other part of a farm building could
+not be built without iron tools. Then if the bull, the wether, the goat,
+or any other domestic animal is led away from the pasture to the
+butcher, or if the poulterer brings from the farm a chicken, a hen, or a
+capon for the cook, could any of these animals be cut up and divided
+without axes and knives? I need say nothing here about bronze and copper
+pots for cooking, because for these purposes one could make use of
+earthen vessels, but even these in turn could not be made and fashioned
+by the potter without tools, for no instruments can be made out of wood
+alone, without the use of iron. Furthermore, hunting, fowling, and
+fishing supply man with food, but when the stag has been ensnared does
+not the hunter transfix him with his spear? As he stands or runs, does
+he not pierce him with an arrow? Or pierce him with a bullet? Does not
+the fowler in the same way kill the moor-fowl or pheasant with an arrow?
+Or does he not discharge into its body the ball from the musket? I will
+not speak of the snares and other instruments with which the woodcock,
+woodpecker, and other wild birds are caught, lest I pursue unseasonably
+and too minutely single instances. Lastly, with his fish-hook and net
+does not the fisherman catch the fish in the sea, in the lakes, in
+fish-ponds, or in rivers? But the hook is of iron, and sometimes we see
+lead or iron weights attached to the net. And most fish that are caught
+are afterward cut up and disembowelled with knives and axes. But, more
+than enough has been said on the matter of food.</p>
+
+<p>Now I will speak of clothing, which is made out of wool, flax, feathers,
+hair, fur, or leather. First the sheep are sheared, then the wool is
+combed. Next the threads are drawn out, while later the warp is
+suspended in the shuttle under which passes the wool. This being struck
+by the comb, at length cloth is formed either from threads alone or from
+threads and hair. Flax, when gathered, is first pulled by hooks. Then it
+is dipped in water and afterward dried, beaten into tow with a heavy
+mallet, and carded, then drawn out into threads, and finally woven into
+cloth. But has the artisan or weaver of the cloth any instrument not
+made of iron? Can one be made <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a>[Pg 14]</span>of wood without the aid of iron? The
+cloth or web must be cut into lengths for the tailor. Can this be done
+without knife or scissors? Can the tailor sew together any garments
+without a needle? Even peoples dwelling beyond the seas cannot make a
+covering for their bodies, fashioned of feathers, without these same
+implements. Neither can the furriers do without them in sewing together
+the pelts of any kind of animals. The shoemaker needs a knife to cut the
+leather, another to scrape it, and an awl to perforate it before he can
+make shoes. These coverings for the body are either woven or stitched.
+Buildings too, which protect the same body from rain, wind, cold, and
+heat, are not constructed without axes, saws, and augers.</p>
+
+<p>But what need of more words? If we remove metals from the service of
+man, all methods of protecting and sustaining health and more carefully
+preserving the course of life are done away with. If there were no
+metals, men would pass a horrible and wretched existence in the midst of
+wild beasts; they would return to the acorns and fruits and berries of
+the forest. They would feed upon the herbs and roots which they plucked
+up with their nails. They would dig out caves in which to lie down at
+night, and by day they would rove in the woods and plains at random like
+beasts, and inasmuch as this condition is utterly unworthy of humanity,
+with its splendid and glorious natural endowment, will anyone be so
+foolish or obstinate as not to allow that metals are necessary for food
+and clothing and that they tend to preserve life?</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, as the miners dig almost exclusively in mountains otherwise
+unproductive, and in valleys invested in gloom, they do either slight
+damage to the fields or none at all. Lastly, where woods and glades are
+cut down, they may be sown with grain after they have been cleared from
+the roots of shrubs and trees. These new fields soon produce rich crops,
+so that they repair the losses which the inhabitants suffer from
+increased cost of timber. Moreover, with the metals which are melted
+from the ore, birds without number, edible beasts and fish can be
+purchased elsewhere and brought to these mountainous regions.</p>
+
+<p>I will pass to the illustrations I have mentioned. Bias of Priene, when
+his country was taken, carried away out of the city none of his
+valuables. So strong a man with such a reputation for wisdom had no need
+to fear personal danger from the enemy, but this in truth cannot be said
+of him because he hastily took to flight; the throwing away of his goods
+does not seem to me so great a matter, for he had lost his house, his
+estates, and even his country, than which nothing is more precious. Nay,
+I should be convinced of Bias's contempt and scorn for possessions of
+this kind, if before his country was captured he had bestowed them
+freely on relations and friends, or had distributed them to the very
+poor, for this he could have done freely and without question. Whereas
+his conduct, which the Greeks admire so greatly, was due, it would seem,
+to his being driven out by the enemy and stricken with fear. Socrates in
+truth did not despise gold, but would not accept money for his teaching.
+As for Aristippus of Cyrene, if he had gathered and saved the gold which
+he ordered his slaves to throw away, he might <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a>[Pg 15]</span>have bought the things
+which he needed for the necessaries of life, and he would not, by reason
+of his poverty, have then been obliged to flatter the tyrant Dionysius,
+nor would he ever have been called by him a King's dog. For this reason
+Horace, speaking of Damasippus when reviling Staberus for valuing riches
+very highly, says:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"What resemblance has the Grecian Aristippus to this fellow? He
+who commanded his slaves to throw away the gold in the midst of
+Libya because they went too slowly, impeded by the weight of
+their burden&mdash;which of these two men is the more insane?"<a name="FNanchor_21_62" id="FNanchor_21_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_62" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Insane indeed is he who makes more of riches than of virtue. Insane also
+is he who rejects them and considers them as worth nothing, instead of
+using them with reason. Yet as to the gold which Aristippus on another
+occasion flung into the sea from a boat, this he did with a wise and
+prudent mind. For learning that it was a pirate boat in which he was
+sailing, and fearing for his life, he counted his gold and then throwing
+it of his own will into the sea, he groaned as if he had done it
+unwillingly. But afterward, when he escaped the peril, he said: "It is
+better that this gold itself should be lost than that I should have
+perished because of it." Let it be granted that some philosophers, as
+well as Anacreon of Teos, despised gold and silver. Anaxagoras of
+Clazomenae also gave up his sheep-farms and became a shepherd. Crates
+the Theban too, being annoyed that his estate and other kinds of wealth
+caused him worry, and that in his contemplations his mind was thereby
+distracted, resigned a property valued at ten talents, and taking a
+cloak and wallet, in poverty devoted all his thought and efforts to
+philosophy. Is it true that because these philosophers despised money,
+all others declined wealth in cattle? Did they refuse to cultivate lands
+or to dwell in houses? There were certainly many, on the other hand,
+who, though affluent, became famous in the pursuit of learning and in
+the knowledge of divine and human laws, such as Aristotle, Cicero, and
+Seneca. As for Phocion, he did not deem it honest to accept the gold
+sent to him by Alexander. For if he had consented to use it, the king as
+much as himself would have incurred the hatred and aversion of the
+Athenians, and these very people were afterward so ungrateful toward
+this excellent man that they compelled him to drink hemlock. For what
+would have been less becoming to Marcus Curius and Fabricius Luscinus
+than to accept gold from their enemies, who hoped that by these means
+those leaders could be corrupted or would become odious to their fellow
+citizens, their purpose being to cause dissentions among the Romans and
+destroy the Republic utterly. Lycurgus, however, ought to have given
+instructions to the Spartans as to the use of gold and silver, instead
+of abolishing things good in themselves. As to the Babytacenses, who
+does not see that they were senseless and envious? For with their gold
+they might have bought things of which they were in need, or even given
+it to neighbouring peoples to bind them more closely to themselves with
+gifts and favours. Finally, the Scythians, by condemning the use of gold
+and silver <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a>[Pg 16]</span>alone, did not free themselves utterly from avarice, because
+although he is not enjoying them, one who can possess other forms of
+property may also become avaricious.</p>
+
+<p>Now let us reply to the attacks hurled against the products of mines. In
+the first place, they call gold and silver the scourge of mankind
+because they are the cause of destruction and ruin to their possessors.
+But in this manner, might not anything that we possess be called a
+scourge to human kind,&mdash;whether it be a horse, or a garment, or anything
+else? For, whether one rides a splendid horse, or journeys well clad, he
+would give occasion to a robber to kill him. Are we then not to ride on
+horses, but to journey on foot, because a robber has once committed a
+murder in order that he may steal a horse? Or are we not to possess
+clothing, because a vagabond with a sword has taken a traveller's life
+that he may rob him of his garment? The possession of gold and silver is
+similar. Seeing then that men cannot conveniently do all these things,
+we should be on our guard against robbers, and because we cannot always
+protect ourselves from their hands, it is the special duty of the
+magistrate to seize wicked and villainous men for torture, and, if need
+be, for execution.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the products of the mines are not themselves the cause of war.
+Thus, for example, when a tyrant, inflamed with passion for a woman of
+great beauty, makes war on the inhabitants of her city, the fault lies
+in the unbridled lust of the tyrant and not in the beauty of the woman.
+Likewise, when another man, blinded by a passion for gold and silver,
+makes war upon a wealthy people, we ought not to blame the metals but
+transfer all blame to avarice. For frenzied deeds and disgraceful
+actions, which are wont to weaken and dishonour natural and civil laws,
+originate from our own vices. Wherefore Tibullus is wrong in laying the
+blame for war on gold, when he says: "This is the fault of a rich man's
+gold; there were no wars when beech goblets were used at banquets." But
+Virgil, speaking of Polymnestor, says that the crime of the murderer
+rests on avarice:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"He breaks all law; he murders Polydorus, and obtains gold by
+violence. To what wilt thou not drive mortal hearts, thou
+accursed hunger for gold?" </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>And again, justly, he says, speaking of Pygmalion, who killed Sichaeus:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"And blinded with the love of gold, he slew him unawares with
+stealthy sword."<a name="FNanchor_22_63" id="FNanchor_22_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_63" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>For lust and eagerness after gold and other things make men blind, and
+this wicked greed for money, all men in all times and places have
+considered dishonourable and criminal. Moreover, those who have been so
+addicted to avarice as to be its slaves have always been regarded as
+mean and sordid. Similarly, too, if by means of gold and silver and gems
+men can overcome the chastity of women, corrupt the honour of many
+people, bribe the course of justice and commit innumerable wickednesses,
+it is not the metals which are to be blamed, but the evil passions of
+men which become inflamed and ignited; or it is due to the blind and
+impious desires of their minds. But <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a>[Pg 17]</span>although these attacks against gold
+and silver may be directed especially against money, yet inasmuch as the
+Poets one after another condemn it, their criticism must be met, and
+this can be done by one argument alone. Money is good for those who use
+it well; it brings loss and evil to those who use it ill. Hence, very
+rightly, Horace says:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Dost thou not know the value of money; and what uses it
+serves? It buys bread, vegetables, and a pint of wine." </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>And again in another place:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Wealth hoarded up is the master or slave of each possessor; it
+should follow rather than lead, the 'twisted rope.'"<a name="FNanchor_23_64" id="FNanchor_23_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_64" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>When ingenious and clever men considered carefully the system of barter,
+which ignorant men of old employed and which even to-day is used by
+certain uncivilised and barbarous races, it appeared to them so
+troublesome and laborious that they invented money. Indeed, nothing more
+useful could have been devised, because a small amount of gold and
+silver is of as great value as things cumbrous and heavy; and so peoples
+far distant from one another can, by the use of money, trade very easily
+in those things which civilised life can scarcely do without.</p>
+
+<p>The curses which are uttered against iron, copper, and lead have no
+weight with prudent and sensible men, because if these metals were done
+away with, men, as their anger swelled and their fury became unbridled,
+would assuredly fight like wild beasts with fists, heels, nails, and
+teeth. They would strike each other with sticks, hit one another with
+stones, or dash their foes to the ground. Moreover, a man does not kill
+another with iron alone, but slays by means of poison, starvation, or
+thirst. He may seize him by the throat and strangle him; he may bury him
+alive in the ground; he may immerse him in water and suffocate him; he
+may burn or hang him; so that he can make every element a participant in
+the death of men. Or, finally, a man may be thrown to the wild beasts.
+Another may be sewn up wholly except his head in a sack, and thus be
+left to be devoured by worms; or he may be immersed in water until he is
+torn to pieces by sea-serpents. A man may be boiled in oil; he may be
+greased, tied with ropes, and left exposed to be stung by flies and
+hornets; he may be put to death by scourging with rods or beating with
+cudgels, or struck down by stoning, or flung from a high place.
+Furthermore, a man may be tortured in more ways than one without the use
+of metals; as when the executioner burns the groins and armpits of his
+victim with hot wax; or places a cloth in his mouth gradually, so that
+when in breathing he draws it slowly into his gullet, the executioner
+draws it back suddenly and violently; or the victim's hands are fastened
+behind his back, and he is drawn up little by little with a rope and
+then let down suddenly. Or similarly, he may be tied to a beam and a
+heavy stone fastened by a cord to his feet, or finally his limbs may be
+torn asunder. From these examples we see that it is not metals that are
+to be condemned, but our vices, such as anger, cruelty, discord, passion
+for power, avarice, and lust.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a>[Pg 18]</span></p><p>The question next arises, whether we ought to count metals amongst the
+number of good things or class them amongst the bad. The Peripatetics
+regarded all wealth as a good thing, and merely spoke of externals as
+having to do with neither the mind nor the body. Well, let riches be an
+external thing. And, as they said, many other things may be classed as
+good if it is in one's power to use them either well or ill. For good
+men employ them for good, and to them they are useful. The wicked use
+them badly, and to them they are harmful. There is a saying of Socrates,
+that just as wine is influenced by the cask, so the character of riches
+is like their possessors. The Stoics, whose custom it is to argue subtly
+and acutely, though they did not put wealth in the category of good
+things, they did not count it amongst the evil ones, but placed it in
+that class which they term neutral. For to them virtue alone is good,
+and vice alone evil. The whole of what remains is indifferent. Thus, in
+their conviction, it matters not whether one be in good health or
+seriously ill; whether one be handsome or deformed. In short:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Whether, sprung from Inachus of old, and thus hast lived
+beneath the sun in wealth, or hast been poor and despised among
+men, it matters not." </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>For my part, I see no reason why anything that is in itself of use
+should not be placed in the class of good things. At all events, metals
+are a creation of Nature, and they supply many varied and necessary
+needs of the human race, to say nothing about their uses in adornment,
+which are so wonderfully blended with utility. Therefore, it is not
+right to degrade them from the place they hold among the good things. In
+truth, if there is a bad use made of them, should they on that account
+be rightly called evils? For of what good things can we not make an
+equally bad or good use? Let me give examples from both classes of what
+we term good. Wine, by far the best drink, if drunk in moderation, aids
+the digestion of food, helps to produce blood, and promotes the juices
+in all parts of the body. It is of use in nourishing not only the body
+but the mind as well, for it disperses our dark and gloomy thoughts,
+frees us from cares and anxiety, and restores our confidence. If drunk
+in excess, however, it injures and prostrates the body with serious
+disease. An intoxicated man keeps nothing to himself; he raves and
+rants, and commits many wicked and infamous acts. On this subject
+Theognis wrote some very clever lines, which we may render thus:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Wine is harmful if taken with greedy lips, but if drunk in
+moderation it is wholesome."<a name="FNanchor_25_65" id="FNanchor_25_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_65" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>But I linger too long over extraneous matters. I must pass on to the
+gifts of body and mind, amongst which strength, beauty, and genius occur
+to me. If then a man, relying on his strength, toils hard to maintain
+himself and his family in an honest and respectable manner, he uses the
+gift aright, but if he makes a living out of murder and robbery, he uses
+it wrongly. Likewise, too, if a lovely woman is anxious to please her
+husband <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a>[Pg 19]</span>alone she uses her beauty aright, but if she lives wantonly and
+is a victim of passion, she misuses her beauty. In like manner, a youth
+who devotes himself to learning and cultivates the liberal arts, uses
+his genius rightly. But he who dissembles, lies, cheats, and deceives by
+fraud and dishonesty, misuses his abilities. Now, the man who, because
+they are abused, denies that wine, strength, beauty, or genius are good
+things, is unjust and blasphemous towards the Most High God, Creator of
+the World; so he who would remove metals from the class of blessings
+also acts unjustly and blasphemously against Him. Very true, therefore,
+are the words which certain Greek poets have written, as Pindar:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Money glistens, adorned with virtue; it supplies the means by
+which thou mayest act well in whatever circumstances fate may
+have in store for thee."<a name="FNanchor_26_66" id="FNanchor_26_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_66" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>And Sappho:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Without the love of virtue gold is a dangerous and harmful
+guest, but when it is associated with virtue, it becomes the
+source and height of good." </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>And Callimachus:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Riches do not make men great without virtue; neither do
+virtues themselves make men great without some wealth." </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>And Antiphanes:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Now, by the gods, why is it necessary for a man to grow rich?
+Why does he desire to possess much money unless that he may, as
+much as possible, help his friends, and sow the seeds of a
+harvest of gratitude, sweetest of the goddesses."<a name="FNanchor_27_67" id="FNanchor_27_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_67" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Having thus refuted the arguments and contentions of adversaries, let us
+sum up the advantages of the metals. In the first place, they are useful
+to the physician, for they furnish liberally the ingredients for
+medicines, by which wounds and ulcers are cured, and even plagues; so
+that certainly if there were no other reasons why we should explore the
+depths of the earth, we should for the sake of medicine alone dig in the
+mines. Again, the metals are of use to painters, because they yield
+certain pigments which, when united with the painter's slip, are injured
+less than others by the moisture from without. Further, mining is useful
+to the architects, for thus is found marble, which is suitable not only
+for strengthening large buildings, but also for decoration. It is,
+moreover, helpful to those whose ambition urges them toward immortal
+glory, because it yields metals from which are made coins, statues, and
+other monuments, which, next to literary records, give men in a sense
+immortality. The metals are useful to merchants with very great cause,
+for, as I have stated elsewhere, the use of money which is made from
+metals is much more convenient to mankind than the old system of
+exchange of commodities. In short, to whom are the metals not of use? In
+very truth, even the works of art, elegant, embellished, elaborate,
+useful, are fashioned in various shapes by the artist from the metals
+gold, silver, brass, lead, and iron. How few artists <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a>[Pg 20]</span>could make
+anything that is beautiful and perfect without using metals? Even if
+tools of iron or brass were not used, we could not make tools of wood
+and stone without the help of metal. From all these examples are evident
+the benefits and advantages derived from metals. We should not have had
+these at all unless the science of mining and metallurgy had been
+discovered and handed down to us. Who then does not understand how
+highly useful they are, nay rather, how necessary to the human race? In
+a word, man could not do without the mining industry, nor did Divine
+Providence will that he should.</p>
+
+<p>Further, it has been asked whether to work in metals is honourable
+employment for respectable people or whether it is not degrading and
+dishonourable. We ourselves count it amongst the honourable arts. For
+that art, the pursuit of which is unquestionably not impious, nor
+offensive, nor mean, we may esteem honourable. That this is the nature
+of the mining profession, inasmuch as it promotes wealth by good and
+honest methods, we shall show presently. With justice, therefore, we may
+class it amongst honourable employments. In the first place, the
+occupation of the miner, which I must be allowed to compare with other
+methods of acquiring great wealth, is just as noble as that of
+agriculture; for, as the farmer, sowing his seed in his fields injures
+no one, however profitable they may prove to him, so the miner digging
+for his metals, albeit he draws forth great heaps of gold or silver,
+hurts thereby no mortal man. Certainly these two modes of increasing
+wealth are in the highest degree both noble and honourable. The booty of
+the soldier, however, is frequently impious, because in the fury of the
+fighting he seizes all goods, sacred as well as profane. The most just
+king may have to declare war on cruel tyrants, but in the course of it
+wicked men cannot lose their wealth and possessions without dragging
+into the same calamity innocent and poor people, old men, matrons,
+maidens, and orphans. But the miner is able to accumulate great riches
+in a short time, without using any violence, fraud, or malice. That old
+saying is, therefore, not always true that "Every rich man is either
+wicked himself, or is the heir to wickedness."</p>
+
+<p>Some, however, who contend against us, censure and attack miners by
+saying that they and their children must needs fall into penury after a
+short time, because they have heaped up riches by improper means.
+According to them nothing is truer than the saying of the poet Naevius:</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"Ill gotten gains in ill fashion slip away."</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>The following are some of the wicked and sinful methods by which they
+say men obtain riches from mining. When a prospect of obtaining metals
+shows itself in a mine, either the ruler or magistrate drives out the
+rightful owners of the mines from possession, or a shrewd and cunning
+neighbour perhaps brings a law-suit against the old possessors in order
+to rob them of some part of their property. Or the mine superintendent
+imposes on the owners such a heavy contribution on shares, that if they
+cannot pay, or will not, they lose their rights of possession; while the
+superintendent, contrary to all that is right, seizes upon all that they
+have lost. Or, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a>[Pg 21]</span>finally, the mine foreman may conceal the vein by
+plastering over with clay that part where the metal abounds, or by
+covering it with earth, stones, stakes, or poles, in the hope that after
+several years the proprietors, thinking the mine exhausted, will abandon
+it, and the foreman can then excavate that remainder of the ore and keep
+it for himself. They even state that the scum of the miners exist wholly
+by fraud, deceit, and lying. For to speak of nothing else, but only of
+those deceits which are practised in buying and selling, it is said they
+either advertise the veins with false and imaginary praises, so that
+they can sell the shares in the mines at one-half more than they are
+worth, or on the contrary, they sometimes detract from the estimate of
+them so that they can buy shares for a small price. By exposing such
+frauds our critics suppose all good opinion of miners is lost. Now, all
+wealth, whether it has been gained by good or evil means, is liable by
+some adverse chance to vanish away. It decays and is dissipated by the
+fault and carelessness of the owner, since he loses it through laziness
+and neglect, or wastes and squanders it in luxuries, or he consumes and
+exhausts it in gifts, or he dissipates and throws it away in gambling:</p>
+
+<p>"Just as though money sprouted up again, renewed from an exhausted
+coffer, and was always to be obtained from a full heap."</p>
+
+<p>It is therefore not to be wondered at if miners do not keep in mind the
+counsel given by King Agathocles: "Unexpected fortune should be held in
+reverence," for by not doing so they fall into penury; and particularly
+when the miners are not content with moderate riches, they not rarely
+spend on new mines what they have accumulated from others. But no just
+ruler or magistrate deprives owners of their possessions; that, however,
+may be done by a tyrant, who may cruelly rob his subjects not only of
+their goods honestly obtained, but even of life itself. And yet whenever
+I have inquired into the complaints which are in common vogue, I always
+find that the owners who are abused have the best of reasons for driving
+the men from the mines; while those who abuse the owners have no reason
+to complain about them. Take the case of those who, not having paid
+their contributions, have lost the right of possession, or those who
+have been expelled by the magistrate out of another man's mine: for some
+wicked men, mining the small veins branching from the veins rich in
+metal, are wont to invade the property of another person. So the
+magistrate expels these men accused of wrong, and drives them from the
+mine. They then very frequently spread unpleasant rumours concerning
+this amongst the populace. Or, to take another case: when, as often
+happens, a dispute arises between neighbours, arbitrators appointed by
+the magistrate settle it, or the regular judges investigate and give
+judgment. Consequently, when the judgment is given, inasmuch as each
+party has consented to submit to it, neither side should complain of
+injustice; and when the controversy is adjudged, inasmuch as the
+decision is in accordance with the laws concerning mining, one of the
+parties cannot be injured by the law. I do not vigorously contest the
+point, that at times a mine superintendent may exact a larger
+contribution <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a>[Pg 22]</span>from the owners than necessity demands. Nay, I will admit
+that a foreman may plaster over, or hide with a structure, a vein where
+it is rich in metals. Is the wickedness of one or two to brand the many
+honest with fraud and trickery? What body is supposed to be more pious
+and virtuous in the Republic than the Senate? Yet some Senators have
+been detected in peculations, and have been punished. Is this any reason
+that so honourable a house should lose its good name and fame? The
+superintendent cannot exact contributions from the owners without the
+knowledge and permission of the Bergmeister or the deputies; for this
+reason deception of this kind is impossible. Should the foremen be
+convicted of fraud, they are beaten with rods; or of theft, they are
+hanged. It is complained that some sellers and buyers of the shares in
+mines are fraudulent. I concede it. But can they deceive anyone except a
+stupid, careless man, unskilled in mining matters? Indeed, a wise and
+prudent man, skilled in this art, if he doubts the trustworthiness of a
+seller or buyer, goes at once to the mine that he may for himself
+examine the vein which has been so greatly praised or disparaged, and
+may consider whether he will buy or sell the shares or not. But people
+say, though such an one can be on his guard against fraud, yet a simple
+man and one who is easily credulous, is deceived. But we frequently see
+a man who is trying to mislead another in this way deceive himself, and
+deservedly become a laughing-stock for everyone; or very often the
+defrauder as well as the dupe is entirely ignorant of mining. If, for
+instance, a vein has been found to be abundant in ore, contrary to the
+idea of the would-be deceiver, then he who was to have been cheated gets
+a profit, and he who has been the deceiver loses. Nevertheless, the
+miners themselves rarely buy or sell shares, but generally they have
+<i>jurati venditores</i><a name="FNanchor_28_68" id="FNanchor_28_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_68" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> who buy and sell at such prices as they have
+been instructed to give or accept. Seeing therefore, that magistrates
+decide disputes on fair and just principles, that honest men deceive
+nobody, while a dishonest one cannot deceive easily, or if he does he
+cannot do so with impunity, the criticism of those who wish to disparage
+the honesty of miners has therefore no force or weight.</p>
+
+<p>In the next place, the occupation of the miner is objectionable to
+nobody. For who, unless he be naturally malevolent and envious, will
+hate the man who gains wealth as it were from heaven? Or who will hate a
+man who to amplify his fortune, adopts a method which is free from
+reproach? A moneylender, if he demands an excessive interest, incurs the
+hatred of men. If he demands a moderate and lawful rate, so that he is
+not injurious to the public generally and does not impoverish them, he
+fails to become very rich from his business. Further, the gain derived
+from mining is not sordid, for how can it be such, seeing that it is so
+great, so plentiful, and of so innocent a nature. A merchant's profits
+are mean and base when he sells counterfeit and spurious merchandise, or
+puts far too high a price on goods that he has purchased for little; for
+this reason the merchant <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a>[Pg 23]</span>would be held in no less odium amongst good
+men than is the usurer, did they not take account of the risk he runs to
+secure his merchandise. In truth, those who on this point speak
+abusively of mining for the sake of detracting from its merits, say that
+in former days men convicted of crimes and misdeeds were sentenced to
+the mines and were worked as slaves. But to-day the miners receive pay,
+and are engaged like other workmen in the common trades.</p>
+
+<p>Certainly, if mining is a shameful and discreditable employment for a
+gentleman because slaves once worked mines, then agriculture also will
+not be a very creditable employment, because slaves once cultivated the
+fields, and even to-day do so among the Turks; nor will architecture be
+considered honest, because some slaves have been found skilful in that
+profession; nor medicine, because not a few doctors have been slaves;
+nor will any other worthy craft, because men captured by force of arms
+have practised it. Yet agriculture, architecture, and medicine are none
+the less counted amongst the number of honourable professions;
+therefore, mining ought not for this reason to be excluded from them.
+But suppose we grant that the hired miners have a sordid employment. We
+do not mean by miners only the diggers and other workmen, but also those
+skilled in the mining arts, and those who invest money in mines. Amongst
+them can be counted kings, princes, republics, and from these last the
+most esteemed citizens. And finally, we include amongst the overseers of
+mines the noble Thucydides, the historian, whom the Athenians placed in
+charge of the mines of Thasos.<a name="FNanchor_29_69" id="FNanchor_29_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_69" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> And it would not be unseemly for the
+owners themselves to work with their own hands on the works or ore,
+especially if they themselves have contributed to the cost of the mines.
+Just as it is not undignified for great men to cultivate their own land.
+Otherwise the Roman Senate would not have created Dictator L. Quintius
+Cincinnatus, as he was at work in the fields, nor would it have summoned
+to the Senate House the chief men of the State from their country
+villas. Similarly, in our day, Maximilian C�sar would not have enrolled
+Conrad in the ranks of the nobles known as Counts; Conrad was really
+very poor when he served in the mines of Schneeberg, and for that reason
+he was nicknamed the "poor man"; but <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a>[Pg 24]</span>not many years after, he attained
+wealth from the mines of F�rst, which is a city in Lorraine, and took
+his name from "Luck."<a name="FNanchor_30_70" id="FNanchor_30_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_70" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> Nor would King Vladislaus have restored to the
+Assembly of Barons, Tursius, a citizen of Cracow, who became rich
+through the mines in that part of the kingdom of Hungary which was
+formerly called Dacia.<a name="FNanchor_31_71" id="FNanchor_31_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_71" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> Nay, not even the common worker in the mines
+is vile and abject. For, trained to vigilance and work by night and day,
+he has great powers of endurance when occasion demands, and easily
+sustains the fatigues and duties of a soldier, for he is accustomed to
+keep long vigils at night, to wield iron tools, to dig trenches, to
+drive tunnels, to make machines, and to carry burdens. Therefore,
+experts in military affairs prefer the miner, not only to a commoner
+from the town, but even to the rustic.</p>
+
+<p>But to bring this discussion to an end, inasmuch as the chief callings
+are those of the moneylender, the soldier, the merchant, the farmer, and
+the miner, I say, inasmuch as usury is odious, while the spoil cruelly
+captured from the possessions of the people innocent of wrong is wicked
+in the sight of God and man, and inasmuch as the calling of the miner
+excels in honour and dignity that of the merchant trading for lucre,
+while it is not less noble though far more profitable than agriculture,
+who can fail to realize that mining is a calling of peculiar dignity?
+Certainly, though it is but one of ten important and excellent methods
+of acquiring wealth in an honourable way, a careful and diligent man can
+attain this result in no easier way than by mining.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p class="center">END OF BOOK I.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_1" id="Notes_1">[Pg 1]</a></span><a name="Footnote_1_42" id="Footnote_1_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_42"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i>Fibrae</i>&mdash;"fibres." See <a href="#Footnote_6_104">Note 6, p. 70</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_43" id="Footnote_2_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_43"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> <i>Commissurae saxorum</i>&mdash;"rock joints," "seams," or "cracks."
+Agricola and all of the old authors laid a wholly unwarranted geologic
+value on these phenomena. See description and footnotes, Book III.,
+pages <a href="#Page_43">43</a> and <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_44" id="Footnote_3_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_44"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Succi</i>&mdash;"juice," or <i>succi concreti</i>&mdash;"solidified juice."
+Ger. Trans., <i>saffte</i>. The old English translators and mineralogists
+often use the word juices in the same sense, and we have adopted it. The
+words "solutions" and "salts" convey a chemical significance not
+warranted by the state of knowledge in Agricola's time. Instances of the
+former use of this word may be seen in Barba's "First Book of the Art of
+Metals," (Trans. Earl Sandwich, London, 1674, p. 2, etc.,) and in
+Pryce's <i>Mineralogia Cornubiensis</i> (London, 1778, p. 25, 32).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_45" id="Footnote_4_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_45"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> In order that the reader should be able to grasp the
+author's point of view as to his divisions of the Mineral Kingdom, we
+introduce here his own statement from <i>De Natura Fossilium</i>, (p. 180).
+It is also desirable to read the footnote on his theory of ore-deposits
+on pages <a href="#Notes_43">43</a> to <a href="#Notes_53">53</a>, and the review of <i>De Natura Fossilium</i> given in the
+<a href="#APPENDIX_A">Appendix</a>.
+</p><p>
+"The subterranean inanimate bodies are divided into two classes, one of
+which, because it is a fluid or an exhalation, is called by those names,
+and the other class is called the minerals. Mineral bodies are
+solidified from particles of the same substance, such as pure gold, each
+particle of which is gold, or they are of different substances such as
+lumps which consist of earth, stone, and metal; these latter may be
+separated into earth, stone and metal, and therefore the first is not a
+mixture while the last is called a mixture. The first are again divided
+into simple and compound minerals. The simple minerals are of four
+classes, namely earths, solidified juices, stones and metals, while the
+mineral compounds are of many sorts, as I shall explain later.
+</p><p>
+"Earth is a simple mineral body which may be kneaded in the hands when
+moistened, or from which lute is made when it has been wetted. Earth,
+properly so called, is found enclosed in veins or veinlets, or
+frequently on the surface in fields and meadows. This definition is a
+general one. The harder earth, although moistened by water, does not at
+once become lute, but does turn into lute if it remains in water for
+some time. There are many species of earths, some of which have names
+but others are unnamed.
+</p><p>
+"Solidified juices are dry and somewhat hard (<i>subdurus</i>) mineral bodies
+which when moistened with water do not soften but liquefy instead; or if
+they do soften, they differ greatly from the earths by their
+unctuousness (<i>pingue</i>) or by the material of which they consist.
+Although occasionally they have the hardness of stone, yet because they
+preserve the form and nature which they had when less hard, they can
+easily be distinguished from the stones. The juices are divided into
+'meagre' and unctuous (<i>macer et pinguis</i>). The 'meagre' juices, since
+they originate from three different substances, are of three species.
+They are formed from a liquid mixed with earth, or with metal, or with a
+mineral compound. To the first species belong salt and <i>Nitrum</i> (soda);
+to the second, chrysocolla, verdigris, iron-rust, and azure; to the
+third, vitriol, alum, and an acrid juice which is unnamed. The first two
+of these latter are obtained from pyrites, which is numbered amongst the
+compound minerals. The third of these comes from <i>Cadmia</i> (in this case
+the cobalt-zinc-arsenic minerals; the acrid juice is probably zinc
+sulphate). To the unctuous juices belong these species: sulphur,
+bitumen, realgar and orpiment. Vitriol and alum, although they are
+somewhat unctuous yet do not burn, and they differ in their origin from
+the unctuous juices, for the latter are forced out from the earth by
+heat, whereas the former are produced when pyrites is softened by
+moisture.
+</p><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_2" id="Notes_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>
+"Stone is a dry and hard mineral body which may either be softened by
+remaining for a long time in water and be reduced to powder by a fierce
+fire; or else it does not soften with water but the heat of a great fire
+liquefies it. To the first species belong those stones which have been
+solidified by heat, to the second those solidified (literally
+'congealed') by cold. These two species of stones are constituted from
+their own material. However, writers on natural subjects who take into
+consideration the quantity and quality of stones and their value, divide
+them into four classes. The first of these has no name of its own but is
+called in common parlance 'stone': to this class belong loadstone,
+jasper (or bloodstone) and <i>Aetites</i> (geodes?). The second class
+comprises hard stones, either pellucid or ornamental, with very
+beautiful and varied colours which sparkle marvellously; they are called
+gems. The third comprises stones which are only brilliant after they
+have been polished, and are usually called marble. The fourth are called
+rocks; they are found in quarries, from which they are hewn out for use
+in building, and they are cut into various shapes. None of the rocks
+show colour or take a polish. Few of the stones sparkle; fewer still are
+transparent. Marble is sometimes only distinguishable from opaque gems
+by its volume; rock is always distinguishable from stones properly
+so-called by its volume. Both the stones and the gems are usually to be
+found in veins and veinlets which traverse the rocks and marble. These
+four classes, as I have already stated, are divided into many species,
+which I will explain in their proper place.
+</p><p>
+"Metal is a mineral body, by nature either liquid or somewhat hard. The
+latter may be melted by the heat of the fire, but when it has cooled
+down again and lost all heat, it becomes hard again and resumes its
+proper form. In this respect it differs from the stone which melts in
+the fire, for although the latter regain its hardness, yet it loses its
+pristine form and properties. Traditionally there are six different
+kinds of metals, namely gold, silver, copper, iron, tin and lead. There
+are really others, for quicksilver is a metal, although the Alchemists
+disagree with us on this subject, and bismuth is also. The ancient Greek
+writers seem to have been ignorant of bismuth, wherefore Ammonius
+rightly states that there are many species of metals, animals, and
+plants which are unknown to us. <i>Stibium</i> when smelted in the crucible
+and refined has as much right to be regarded as a proper metal as is
+accorded to lead by writers. If when smelted, a certain portion be added
+to tin, a bookseller's alloy is produced from which the type is made
+that is used by those who print books on paper. Each metal has its own
+form which it preserves when separated from those metals which were
+mixed with it. Therefore neither electrum nor <i>Stannum</i> is of itself a
+real metal, but rather an alloy of two metals. Electrum is an alloy of
+gold and silver, <i>Stannum</i> of lead and silver (see <a href="#Footnote_33_326">note 33, p. 473</a>). And
+yet if silver be parted from the electrum, then gold remains and not
+electrum; if silver be taken away from <i>Stannum</i>, then lead remains and
+not <i>Stannum</i>. Whether brass, however, is found as a native metal or
+not, cannot be ascertained with any surety. We only know of the
+artificial brass, which consists of copper tinted with the colour of the
+mineral calamine. And yet if any should be dug up, it would be a proper
+metal. Black and white copper seem to be different from the red kind.
+Metal, therefore, is by nature either solid, as I have stated, or fluid,
+as in the unique case of quicksilver. But enough now concerning the
+simple kinds.
+</p><p>
+"I will now speak of the compounds which are composed of the simple
+minerals cemented together by nature, and under the word 'compound' I
+now discuss those mineral bodies which consist of two or three simple
+minerals. They are likewise mineral substances, but so thoroughly mixed
+and alloyed that even in the smallest part there is not wanting any
+substance that is contained in the whole. Only by the force of the fire
+is it possible to separate one of the simple mineral substances from
+another; either the third from the other two, or two from the third, if
+there were three in the same compound. These two, three or more bodies
+are so completely mixed into one new species that the pristine form of
+none of these is recognisable.
+</p><p>
+"The 'mixed' minerals, which are composed of those same simple minerals,
+differ from the 'compounds,' in that the simple minerals each preserves
+its own form so that they can be separated one from the other not only
+by fire but sometimes by water and sometimes by hand. As these two
+classes differ so greatly from one another I usually use two different
+words in order to distinguish one from the other. I am well aware that
+<span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_3" id="Notes_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>Galen calls the metallic earth a compound which is really a mixture, but
+he who wishes to instruct others should bestow upon each separate thing
+a definite name."
+</p><p>
+For convenience of reference we may reduce the above to a diagram as
+follows:
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="4" style="border-top:1px black solid;border-left: 1px black solid;border-right: 1px black solid;">1. Fluids and gases.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" rowspan="6" style="vertical-align:middle;border-top: 1px black solid;border-left: 1px black solid;border-bottom: 1px black solid;">2. Mineral bodies</td><td align="left" rowspan="5" style="vertical-align:middle;border-top: 1px black solid;border-left: 1px black solid;">A. Homogenous bodies</td><td align="left" rowspan="4" style="vertical-align:middle;border-top: 1px black solid;border-left: 1px black solid;">(a) Simple minerals</td><td align="left" style="border-top: 1px black solid;border-right: 1px black solid;">Earths</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" style="border-right: 1px black solid;">Solidified juices</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" style="border-right: 1px black solid;">Stones</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" style="border-right: 1px black solid;">Metals</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" style="border-top: 1px black solid;border-left: 1px black solid;">(b) Compound minerals</td><td align="left" style="border-top: 1px black solid;border-right: 1px black solid;">Being heterogeneous mixtures of (a)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" style="border-top: 1px black solid;border-left: 1px black solid;border-bottom: 1px black solid;">B. Mixtures.</td><td align="left" colspan="2" style="border-top: 1px black solid;border-left: 1px black solid;border-right: 1px black solid;border-bottom: 1px black solid;">Being homogenous mixtures of (a)</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_46" id="Footnote_5_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_46"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>Experiendae</i>&mdash;"a trial." That actual assaying in its
+technical sense is meant, is sufficiently evident from <a href="#BOOK_VII">Book VII</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_47" id="Footnote_6_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_47"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <i>... plumbum ... candidum ac cinereum vel nigrum</i>. "Lead
+... white, or ash-coloured, or black." Agricola himself coined the term
+<i>plumbum cinereum</i> for bismuth, no doubt following the Roman term for
+tin&mdash;<i>plumbum candidum</i>. The following passage from <i>Bermannus</i> (p. 439)
+is of interest, for it appears to be the first description of bismuth,
+although mention of it occurs in the <i>N�tzlich Bergb�chlin</i> (see
+<a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix B</a>). "<i>Bermannus</i>: I will show you another kind of mineral which
+is numbered amongst metals, but appears to me to have been unknown to
+the Ancients; we call it <i>bisemutum</i>. <i>Naevius</i>: Then in your opinion
+there are more kinds of metals than the seven commonly believed?
+<i>Bermannus</i>: More, I consider; for this which just now I said we called
+<i>bisemutum</i>, cannot correctly be called <i>plumbum candidum</i> (tin), nor
+<i>nigrum</i> (lead), but is different from both and is a third one. <i>Plumbum
+candidum</i> is whiter and <i>plumbum nigrum</i> is darker, as you see.
+<i>Naevius</i>: We see that this is of the colour of <i>galena</i>. <i>Ancon</i>: How
+then can <i>bisemutum</i>, as you call it, be distinguished from <i>galena</i>?
+<i>Bermannus</i>: Easily; when you take it in your hands it stains them with
+black, unless it is quite hard. The hard kind is not friable like
+<i>galena</i>, but can be cut. It is blacker than the kind of <i>rudis</i> silver
+which we say is almost the colour of lead, and thus is different from
+both. Indeed, it not rarely contains some silver. It generally indicates
+that there is silver beneath the place where it is found, and because of
+this our miners are accustomed to call it the 'roof of silver.' They are
+wont to roast this mineral, and from the better part they make metal;
+from the poorer part they make a pigment of a kind not to be despised."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_48" id="Footnote_7_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_48"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> <i>Nitrum.</i> The Ancients comprised many salts under this
+head, but Agricola in the main uses it for soda, although sometimes he
+includes potash. He usually, however, refers to potash as <i>lixivium</i> or
+salt therefrom, and by other distinctive terms. For description of
+method of manufacture and discussion, see Book XII., p. <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_49" id="Footnote_8_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_49"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> <i>Atramentum sutorium</i>&mdash;"Shoemaker's blacking." See p. <a href="#Page_572">572</a>
+for description of method of manufacture and historical footnote. In the
+main Agricola means green vitriol, but he does describe three main
+varieties, green, blue, and white (<i>De Natura Fossilium</i>, p. 219). The
+blue was of course copper sulphate, and it is fairly certain that the
+white was zinc vitriol.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_4" id="Notes_4">[Pg 4]</a></span><a name="Footnote_9_50" id="Footnote_9_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_50"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> <i>Lavandi</i>&mdash;"Washing." By this term the author includes all
+the operations of sluicing, buddling, and wet concentration generally.
+There is no English equivalent of such wide application, and there is
+some difficulty in interpretation without going further than the author
+intends. <a href="#BOOK_VIII">Book VIII.</a> is devoted to the subject.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_5" id="Notes_5">[Pg 5]</a></span><a name="Footnote_10_51" id="Footnote_10_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_51"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> <i>Operam et oleum perdit</i>&mdash;"loss of labour and oil."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_52" id="Footnote_11_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_52"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> In <i>Veteribus et Novis Metallis</i>, and <i>Bermannus</i>,
+Agricola states that the mines of Schemnitz were worked 800 years before
+that time (1530), or about 750 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>, and, further, <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_6" id="Notes_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>that the lead mines
+of Goslar in the Hartz were worked by Otho the Great (936-973), and that
+the silver mines at Freiberg were discovered during the rule of Prince
+Otho (about 1170). To continue the argument to-day we could add about
+360 years more of life to the mines of Goslar and Freiberg. See also
+<a href="#Footnote_16_87">Note 16, p. 36</a>, and <a href="#Footnote_19_90">note 19, p. 37</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_53" id="Footnote_12_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_53"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Xenophon. Essay on the Revenues of Athens, <span class="smcaplower">I.</span>, 5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_7" id="Notes_7">[Pg 7]</a></span><a name="Footnote_13_54" id="Footnote_13_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_54"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Ovid, <i>Metamorphoses</i>, <span class="smcaplower">I.</span>, 137 to 143.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_55" id="Footnote_14_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_55"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Diogenes Laertius, <span class="smcaplower">II.</span>, 5. The lines are assigned,
+however, to Philemon, not Euripides. (Kock, <i>Comicorum Atticorum
+Fragmenta</i> <span class="smcaplower">II.</span>, 512).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_56" id="Footnote_15_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_56"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> We have not considered it of sufficient interest to cite
+the references to all of the minor poets and those whose preserved works
+are but fragmentary. The translations from the Greek into Latin are not
+literal and suffer again by rendering into English; we have however
+considered it our duty to translate Agricola's view of the meaning.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_9" id="Notes_9">[Pg 9]</a></span><a name="Footnote_16_57" id="Footnote_16_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_57"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Diogenes Laertius, <span class="smcaplower">II.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_10" id="Notes_10">[Pg 10]</a></span><a name="Footnote_17_58" id="Footnote_17_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_58"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> An inspection of the historical incidents mentioned here
+and further on, indicates that Agricola relied for such information on
+Diogenes Laertius, Plutarch, Livy, Valerius Maximus, Pliny, and often
+enough on Homer, Horace, and Virgil.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_59" id="Footnote_18_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_59"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Juvenal. <i>Satires</i> <span class="smcaplower">I.</span>, l. 112, and <span class="smcaplower">VI.</span>, l. 298.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_11" id="Notes_11">[Pg 11]</a></span><a name="Footnote_19_60" id="Footnote_19_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_60"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Pliny, <span class="smcaplower">XXXIV.</span>, 39.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_61" id="Footnote_20_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_61"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Horace. <i>Odes</i>, <span class="smcaplower">I.</span>, 35, ll. 17-20.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_15" id="Notes_15">[Pg 15]</a></span><a name="Footnote_21_62" id="Footnote_21_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_62"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Horace. <i>Satires</i>, <span class="smcaplower">II.</span>, 3, ll. 99-102.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_16" id="Notes_16">[Pg 16]</a></span><a name="Footnote_22_63" id="Footnote_22_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_63"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Virgil. <i>�neid</i>, <span class="smcaplower">III.</span>, l. 55, and <span class="smcaplower">I.</span>, l. 349.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_17" id="Notes_17">[Pg 17]</a></span><a name="Footnote_23_64" id="Footnote_23_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_64"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Horace. <i>Satires</i>, <span class="smcaplower">I.</span>, l. 73; and Epistle, <span class="smcaplower">I.</span>, 10, l. 47.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_18" id="Notes_18">[Pg 18]</a></span><a name="Footnote_25_65" id="Footnote_25_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_65"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Theognis. Maxims, <span class="smcaplower">II.</span>, l. 210.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_19" id="Notes_19">[Pg 19]</a></span><a name="Footnote_26_66" id="Footnote_26_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_66"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Pindar. <i>Olymp.</i> <span class="smcaplower">II.</span>, 58-60.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_67" id="Footnote_27_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_67"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Antiphanes, 4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_22" id="Notes_22">[Pg 22]</a></span><a name="Footnote_28_68" id="Footnote_28_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_68"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <i>Jurati Venditores</i>&mdash;"Sworn brokers." (?)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_23" id="Notes_23">[Pg 23]</a></span><a name="Footnote_29_69" id="Footnote_29_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_69"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> There is no doubt that Thucydides had some connection with
+gold mines; he himself is the authority for the statement that he worked
+mines in Thrace. Agricola seems to have obtained his idea that
+Thucydides held an appointment from the Athenians in charge of mines in
+Thasos, from Marcellinus (<i>Vita</i>, Thucydides, 30), who also says that
+Thucydides obtained possession of mines in Thrace through his marriage
+with a Thracian woman, and that it was while residing on the mines at
+Scapte-Hyle that he wrote his history. Later scholars, however, find
+little warrant for these assertions. The gold mines of Thasos&mdash;an island
+off the mainland of Thrace&mdash;are frequently mentioned by the ancient
+authors. Herodotus, <span class="smcaplower">VI.</span>, 46-47, says:&mdash;"Their (the Thasians') revenue
+was derived partly from their possessions upon the mainland, partly from
+the mines which they owned. They were masters of the gold mines of
+Scapte-Hyle, the yearly produce of which amounted to eighty talents.
+Their mines in Thasos yielded less, but still were so prolific that
+besides being entirely free from land-tax they had a surplus of income
+derived from the two sources of their territory on the mainland and
+their mines, in common years two hundred and in best years three hundred
+talents. I myself have seen the mines in question. By far the most
+curious of them are those which the Phoenicians discovered at the time
+when they went with Thasos and colonized the island, which took its name
+from him. <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_24" id="Notes_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>These Phoenician workings are in Thasos itself, between
+Coenyra and a place called Aenyra over against Samothrace; a high
+mountain has been turned upside down in the search for ores."
+(Rawlinson's Trans.). The occasion of this statement of Herodotus was
+the relations of the Thasians with Darius (521-486 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>). The date of
+the Phoenician colonization of Thasos is highly nebular&mdash;anywhere from
+1200 to 900 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_70" id="Footnote_30_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_70"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Agricola, <i>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis</i>, Book <span class="smcaplower">I.</span>, p.
+392, says:&mdash;"Conrad, whose nickname in former years was 'pauper,'
+suddenly became rich from the silver mines of Mount Jura, known as the
+<i>Firstum</i>." He was ennobled with the title of Graf Cuntz von Gl�ck by
+the Emperor Maximilian (who was Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire,
+1493-1519). Conrad was originally a working miner at Schneeberg where he
+was known as Armer Cuntz (poor Cuntz or Conrad) and grew wealthy from
+the mines of F�rst in Leberthal. This district is located in the Vosges
+Mountains on the borders of Lorraine and Upper Alsace. The story of
+Cuntz or Conrad von Gl�ck is mentioned by Albinus (<i>Meissnische Land und
+Berg Chronica</i>, Dresden, 1589, p. 116), Mathesius (<i>Sarepta</i>, Nuremberg,
+1578, fol. <span class="smcaplower">XVI.</span>), and by others.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_71" id="Footnote_31_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_71"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Vladislaus III. was King of Poland, 1434-44, and also
+became King of Hungary in 1440. Tursius seems to be a Latinized name and
+cannot be identified.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a>[Pg 25]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="BOOK_II" id="BOOK_II"></a>BOOK II.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="dropcap"><img src="images/capq.png" alt="Q" /></div>
+<p style="text-indent:-1em;">
+ualities which the perfect miner should possess and the arguments which
+are urged for and against the arts of mining and metallurgy, as well as
+the people occupied in the industry, I have sufficiently discussed in
+the first Book. Now I have determined to give more ample information
+concerning the miners.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, it is indispensable that they should worship God
+with reverence, and that they understand the matters of which I am going
+to speak, and that they take good care that each individual performs his
+duties efficiently and diligently. It is decreed by Divine Providence
+that those who know what they ought to do and then take care to do it
+properly, for the most part meet with good fortune in all they
+undertake; on the other hand, misfortune overtakes the indolent and
+those who are careless in their work. No person indeed can, without
+great and sustained effort and labour, store in his mind the knowledge
+of every portion of the metallic arts which are involved in operating
+mines. If a man has the means of paying the necessary expense, he hires
+as many men as he needs, and sends them to the various works. Thus
+formerly Sosias, the Thracian, sent into the silver mines a thousand
+slaves whom he had hired from the Athenian Nicias, the son of
+Niceratus<a name="FNanchor_1_72" id="FNanchor_1_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_72" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>. But if a man cannot afford the expenditure he chooses of
+the various kinds of mining that work which he himself can most easily
+and efficiently do. Of these kinds, the two most important are the
+making prospect trenches and the washing of the sands of rivers, for out
+of these sands are often collected gold dust, or certain black stones
+from which tin is smelted, or even gems are sometimes found in them; the
+trenching occasionally lays bare at the grass-roots veins which are
+found rich in metals. If therefore by skill or by luck, such sands or
+veins shall fall into his hands, he will be able to establish his
+fortune without expenditure, and from poverty rise to wealth. If on the
+contrary, his hopes are not realized, then he can desist from washing or
+digging.</p>
+
+<p>When anyone, in an endeavour to increase his fortune, meets the
+expenditure of a mine alone, it is of great importance that he should
+attend to his works and personally superintend everything that he has
+ordered to be done. For this reason, he should either have his dwelling
+at the mine, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a>[Pg 26]</span>where he may always be in sight of the workmen and always
+take care that none neglect their duties, or else he should live in the
+neighbourhood, so that he may frequently inspect his mining works. Then
+he may send word by a messenger to the workmen that he is coming more
+frequently than he really intends to come, and so either by his arrival
+or by the intimation of it, he so frightens the workmen that none of
+them perform their duties otherwise than diligently. When he inspects
+the mines he should praise the diligent workmen and occasionally give
+them rewards, that they and the others may become more zealous in their
+duties; on the other hand, he should rebuke the idle and discharge some
+of them from the mines and substitute industrious men in their places.
+Indeed, the owner should frequently remain for days and nights in the
+mine, which, in truth, is no habitation for the idle and luxurious; it
+is important that the owner who is diligent in increasing his wealth,
+should frequently himself descend into the mine, and devote some time to
+the study of the nature of the veins and stringers, and should observe
+and consider all the methods of working, both inside and outside the
+mine. Nor is this all he ought to do, for sometimes he should undertake
+actual labour, not thereby demeaning himself, but in order to encourage
+his workmen by his own diligence, and to teach them their art; for that
+mine is well conducted in which not only the foreman, but also the owner
+himself, gives instruction as to what ought to be done. A certain
+barbarian, according to Xenophon, rightly remarked to the King of Persia
+that "the eye of the master feeds the horse,"<a name="FNanchor_2_73" id="FNanchor_2_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_73" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> for the master's
+watchfulness in all things is of the utmost importance.</p>
+
+<p>When several share together the expenditure on a mine, it is convenient
+and useful to elect from amongst their own number a mine captain, and
+also a foreman. For, since men often look after their own interests but
+neglect those of others, they cannot in this case take care of their own
+without at the same time looking after the interests of the others,
+neither can they neglect the interests of the others without neglecting
+their own. But if no man amongst them be willing or able to undertake
+and sustain the burdens of these offices, it will be to the common
+interest to place them in the hands of most diligent men. Formerly
+indeed, these things were looked after by the mining prefect<a name="FNanchor_3_74" id="FNanchor_3_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_74" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>, because
+the owners were kings, as Priam, who owned the gold mines round Abydos,
+or as Midas, who was the owner of those situated in Mount Bermius, or as
+Gyges, or as Alyattes, or as Cr&oelig;sus, who was the owner of those mines
+near a deserted town between Atarnea and Pergamum<a name="FNanchor_4_75" id="FNanchor_4_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_75" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>; sometimes the
+mines belonged to a Republic, as, for <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a>[Pg 27]</span>instance, the prosperous silver
+mines in Spain which belonged to Carthage<a name="FNanchor_5_76" id="FNanchor_5_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_76" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>; sometimes they were the
+property of great and illustrious families, as were the Athenian mines
+in Mount Laurion<a name="FNanchor_6_77" id="FNanchor_6_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_77" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>.</p>
+
+<p>When a man owns mines but is ignorant of the art of mining, then it is
+advisable that he should share in common with others the expenses, not
+of one only, but of several mines. When one man alone meets the expense
+for a long time of a whole mine, if good fortune bestows on him a vein
+abundant in metals, or in other products, he becomes very wealthy; if,
+on the contrary, the mine is poor and barren, in time he will lose
+everything which he has expended on it. But the man who, in common with
+others, has laid out his money on several mines in a region renowned for
+its wealth of metals, rarely spends it in vain, for fortune usually
+responds to his hopes in part. For when out of twelve veins in which he
+has a joint interest <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a>[Pg 28]</span>one yields an abundance of metals, it not only
+gives back to the owner the money he has spent, but also gives a profit
+besides; certainly there will be for him rich and profitable mining, if
+of the whole number, three, or four, or more veins should yield metal.
+Very similar to this is the advice which Xenophon gave to the Athenians
+when they wished to prospect for new veins of silver without suffering
+loss. "There are," he said, "ten tribes of Athenians; if, therefore, the
+State assigned an equal number of slaves to each tribe, and the tribes
+participated equally in all the new veins, undoubtedly by this method,
+if a rich vein of silver were found by one tribe, whatever profit were
+made from it would assuredly be shared by the whole number. And if two,
+three, or four tribes, or even half the whole number find veins, their
+works would then become more profitable; and it is not probable that the
+work of all the tribes will be disappointing."<a name="FNanchor_7_78" id="FNanchor_7_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_78" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> Although this advice
+of Xenophon is full of prudence, there is no opportunity for it except
+in free and wealthy States; for those people who are under the authority
+of kings and princes, or are kept in subjection by tyranny, do not dare,
+without permission, to incur such expenditure; those who are endowed
+with little wealth and resources cannot do so on account of insufficient
+funds. Moreover, amongst our race it is not customary for Republics to
+have slaves whom they can hire out for the benefit of the people<a name="FNanchor_8_79" id="FNanchor_8_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_79" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>;
+but, instead, nowadays those who are in authority administer the funds
+for mining in the name of the State, not unlike private individuals.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a>[Pg 29]</span></p><p>Some owners prefer to buy shares<a name="FNanchor_9_80" id="FNanchor_9_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_80" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> in mines abounding in metals,
+rather than to be troubled themselves to search for the veins; these men
+employ an easier and less uncertain method of increasing their property.
+Although their hopes in the shares of one or another mine may be
+frustrated, the buyers of shares should not abandon the rest of the
+mines, for all the money expended will be recovered with interest from
+some other mine. They should not buy only high priced shares in those
+mines producing metals, nor should they buy too many in neighbouring
+mines where metal has not yet been found, lest, should fortune not
+respond, they may be exhausted by their losses and have nothing with
+which they may meet their expenses or buy other shares which may replace
+their losses. This calamity overtakes those who wish to grow suddenly
+rich from mines, and instead, they become very much poorer than before.
+So then, in the buying of shares, as in other matters, there should be a
+certain limit of expenditure which miners should set themselves, lest
+blinded by the desire for excessive wealth, they throw all their money
+away. Moreover, a prudent owner, before he buys shares, ought to go to
+the mine and carefully examine the nature of the vein, for it is very
+important that he should be on his guard lest fraudulent sellers of
+shares should deceive him. Investors in shares may perhaps become less
+wealthy, but they are more certain of some gain than those who mine for
+metals at their own expense, as they are more cautious in trusting to
+fortune. Neither ought miners to be altogether distrustful of fortune,
+as we see some are, who as soon as the shares of any mine begin to go up
+in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a>[Pg 30]</span>value, sell them, on which account they seldom obtain even moderate
+wealth. There are some people who wash over the dumps from exhausted and
+abandoned mines, and those dumps which are derived from the drains of
+tunnels; and others who smelt the old slags; from all of which they make
+an ample return.</p>
+
+<p>Now a miner, before he begins to mine the veins, must consider seven
+things, namely:&mdash;the situation, the conditions, the water, the roads,
+the climate, the right of ownership, and the neighbours. There are four
+kinds of situations&mdash;mountain, hill, valley, and plain. Of these four,
+the first two are the most easily mined, because in them tunnels can be
+driven to drain off the water, which often makes mining operations very
+laborious, if it does not stop them altogether. The last two kinds of
+ground are more troublesome, especially because tunnels cannot be driven
+in such places. Nevertheless, a prudent miner considers all these four
+sorts of localities in the region in which he happens to be, and he
+searches for veins in those places where some torrent or other agency
+has removed and swept the soil away; yet he need not prospect
+everywhere, but since there is a great variety, both in mountains and in
+the three other kinds of localities, he always selects from them those
+which will give him the best chance of obtaining wealth.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, mountains differ greatly in position, some being
+situated in even and level plains, while others are found in broken and
+elevated regions, and others again seem to be piled up, one mountain
+upon another. The wise miner does not mine in mountains which are
+situated on open plains, neither does he dig in those which are placed
+on the summits of mountainous regions, unless by some chance the veins
+in those mountains have been denuded of their surface covering, and
+abounding in metals and other products, are exposed plainly to his
+notice,&mdash;for with regard to what I have already said more than once, and
+though I never repeat it again, I wish to emphasize this exception as to
+the localities which should not be selected. All districts do not
+possess a great number of mountains crowded together; some have but one,
+others two, others three, or perhaps a few more. In some places there
+are plains lying between them; in others the mountains are joined
+together or separated only by narrow valleys. The miner should not dig
+in those solitary mountains, dispersed through the plains and open
+regions, but only in those which are connected and joined with others.
+Then again, since mountains differ in size, some being very large,
+others of medium height, and others more like hills than mountains, the
+miner rarely digs in the largest or the smallest of them, but generally
+only in those of medium size. Moreover, mountains have a great variety
+of shapes; for with some the slopes rise gradually, while others, on the
+contrary, are all precipitous; in some others the slopes are gradual on
+one side, and on the other sides precipitous; some are drawn out in
+length; some are gently curved; others assume different shapes. But the
+miner may dig in all parts of them, except where there are precipices,
+and he should not neglect even these latter if metallic veins <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a>[Pg 31]</span>are
+exposed before his eyes. There are just as great differences in hills as
+there are in mountains, yet the miner does not dig except in those
+situated in mountainous districts, and even very rarely in those. It is
+however very little to be wondered at that the hill in the Island of
+Lemnos was excavated, for the whole is of a reddish-yellow colour, which
+furnishes for the inhabitants that valuable clay so especially
+beneficial to mankind<a name="FNanchor_10_81" id="FNanchor_10_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_81" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>. In like manner, other hills are excavated if
+chalk or other varieties of earth are exposed, but these are not
+prospected for.</p>
+
+<p>There are likewise many varieties of valleys and plains. One kind is
+enclosed on the sides with its outlet and entrance open; another has
+either its entrance or its outlet open and the rest of it is closed in;
+both of these are properly called valleys. There is a third variety
+which is surrounded on all sides by mountains, and these are called
+<i>convalles</i>. Some valleys again, have recesses, and others have none;
+one is wide, another narrow; one is long, another short; yet another
+kind is not higher than the neighbouring plain, and others are lower
+than the surrounding flat country. But the miner does not dig in those
+surrounded on all sides by mountains, nor in those that are open, unless
+there be a low plain close at hand, or unless a vein of metal descending
+from the mountains should extend into the valley. Plains differ from one
+another, one being situated at low elevation, and others higher, one
+being level and another with a slight incline. The miner should never
+excavate the low-lying plain, nor one which is perfectly level, unless
+it be in some mountain, and rarely should he mine in the other kinds of
+plains.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the conditions of the locality the miner should not
+contemplate mining without considering whether the place be covered with
+trees or is bare. If it be a wooded place, he who digs there has this
+advantage, besides others, that there will be an abundant supply of wood
+for his underground timbering, his machinery, buildings, smelting, and
+other necessities. If there is no forest he should not mine there unless
+there is a river near, by which he can carry down the timber. Yet
+wherever there is a hope that pure gold or gems may be found, the ground
+can be turned up, even though there is no forest, because the gems need
+only to be polished and the gold to be purified. Therefore the
+inhabitants of hot regions obtain these substances from rough and sandy
+places, where sometimes there are not even shrubs, much less woods.</p>
+
+<p>The miner should next consider the locality, as to whether it has a
+perpetual supply of running water, or whether it is always devoid of
+water except when a torrent supplied by rains flows down from the
+summits of the mountains. The place that Nature has provided with a
+river or stream can <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a>[Pg 32]</span>be made serviceable for many things; for water will
+never be wanting and can be carried through wooden pipes to baths in
+dwelling-houses; it may be carried to the works, where the metals are
+smelted; and finally, if the conditions of the place will allow it, the
+water can be diverted into the tunnels, so that it may turn the
+underground machinery. Yet on the other hand, to convey a constant
+supply of water by artificial means to mines where Nature has denied it
+access, or to convey the ore to the stream, increases the expense
+greatly, in proportion to the distance the mines are away from the
+river.</p>
+
+<p>The miner also should consider whether the roads from the neighbouring
+regions to the mines are good or bad, short or long. For since a region
+which is abundant in mining products very often yields no agricultural
+produce, and the necessaries of life for the workmen and others must all
+be imported, a bad and long road occasions much loss and trouble with
+porters and carriers, and this increases the cost of goods brought in,
+which, therefore, must be sold at high prices. This injures not so much
+the workmen as the masters; since on account of the high price of goods,
+the workmen are not content with the wages customary for their labour,
+nor can they be, and they ask higher pay from the owners. And if the
+owners refuse, the men will not work any longer in the mines but will go
+elsewhere. Although districts which yield metals and other mineral
+products are generally healthy, because, being often situated on high
+and lofty ground, they are fanned by every wind, yet sometimes they are
+unhealthy, as has been related in my other book, which is called "<i>De
+Natura Eorum Quae Effluunt ex Terra</i>." Therefore, a wise miner does not
+mine in such places, even if they are very productive, when he perceives
+unmistakable signs of pestilence. For if a man mines in an unhealthy
+region he may be alive one hour and dead the next.</p>
+
+<p>Then, the miner should make careful and thorough investigation
+concerning the lord of the locality, whether he be a just and good man
+or a tyrant, for the latter oppresses men by force of his authority, and
+seizes their possessions for himself; but the former governs justly and
+lawfully and serves the common good. The miner should not start mining
+operations in a district which is oppressed by a tyrant, but should
+carefully consider if in the vicinity there is any other locality
+suitable for mining and make up his mind if the overlord there be
+friendly or inimical. If he be inimical the mine will be rendered unsafe
+through hostile attacks, in one of which all of the gold or silver, or
+other mineral products, laboriously collected with much cost, will be
+taken away from the owner and his workmen will be struck with terror;
+overcome by fear, they will hastily fly, to free themselves from the
+danger to which they are exposed. In this case, not only are the
+fortunes of the miner in the greatest peril but his very life is in
+jeopardy, for which reason he should not mine in such places.</p>
+
+<p>Since several miners usually come to mine the veins in one locality, a
+settlement generally springs up, for the miner who began first cannot
+keep it exclusively for himself. The <i>Bergmeister</i> gives permits to some
+to mine <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a>[Pg 33]</span>the superior and some the inferior parts of the veins; to some
+he gives the cross veins, to others the inclined veins. If the man who
+first starts work finds the vein to be metal-bearing or yielding other
+mining products, it will not be to his advantage to cease work because
+the neighbourhood may be evil, but he will guard and defend his rights
+both by arms and by the law. When the <i>Bergmeister</i><a name="FNanchor_11_82" id="FNanchor_11_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_82" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> delimits the
+boundaries of each owner, it is the duty of a good miner to keep within
+his bounds, and of a prudent one to repel encroachments of his
+neighbours by the help of the law. But this is enough about the
+neighbourhood.</p>
+
+<p>The miner should try to obtain a mine, to which access is not difficult,
+in a mountainous region, gently sloping, wooded, healthy, safe, and not
+far distant from a river or stream by means of which he may convey his
+mining products to be washed and smelted. This indeed, is the best
+position. As for the others, the nearer they approximate to this
+position the better they are; the further removed, the worse.</p>
+
+<p>Now I will discuss that kind of minerals for which it is not necessary
+to dig, because the force of water carries them out of the veins. Of
+these there are two kinds, minerals&mdash;and their fragments<a name="FNanchor_12_83" id="FNanchor_12_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_83" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>&mdash;and
+juices. When there are springs at the outcrop of the veins from which,
+as I have already said, the above-mentioned products are emitted, the
+miner should consider these first, to see whether there are metals or
+gems mixed with the sand, or whether the waters discharged are filled
+with juices. In case metals or gems have settled in the pool of the
+spring, not only should the sand from it be washed, but also that from
+the streams which flow from these springs, and even from the river
+itself into which they again discharge. If the springs discharge water
+containing some juice, this also should be collected; the further such a
+stream has flowed from the source, the more it receives plain water and
+the more diluted does it become, and so much the more deficient in
+strength. If the stream receives no water of another kind, or scarcely
+any, not only the rivers, but likewise the lakes which receive these
+waters, are of the same nature as the springs, and serve the same uses;
+of this kind is the lake which the Hebrews call the Dead Sea, and which
+is quite full of bituminous fluids<a name="FNanchor_13_84" id="FNanchor_13_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_84" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>. But I must return to the subject
+of the sands.</p>
+
+<p>Springs may discharge their waters into a sea, a lake, a marsh, a river,
+or a stream; but the sand of the sea-shore is rarely washed, for
+although the water flowing down from the springs into the sea carries
+some metals or gems with it, yet these substances can scarcely ever be
+reclaimed, because they are dispersed through the immense body of waters
+and mixed up with <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a>[Pg 34]</span>other sand, and scattered far and wide in different
+directions, or they sink down into the depths of the sea. For the same
+reasons, the sands of lakes can very rarely be washed successfully, even
+though the streams rising from the mountains pour their whole volume of
+water into them. The particles of metals and gems from the springs are
+very rarely carried into the marshes, which are generally in level and
+open places. Therefore, the miner, in the first place, washes the sand
+of the spring, then of the stream which flows from it, then finally,
+that of the river into which the stream discharges. It is not worth the
+trouble to wash the sands of a large river which is on a level plain at
+a distance from the mountains. Where several springs carrying metals
+discharge their waters into one river, there is more hope of productive
+results from washing. The miner does not neglect even the sands of the
+streams in which excavated ores have been washed.</p>
+
+<p>The waters of springs taste according to the juice they contain, and
+they differ greatly in this respect. There are six kinds of these tastes
+which the worker<a name="FNanchor_14_85" id="FNanchor_14_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_85" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> especially observes and examines; there is the
+salty kind, which shows that salt may be obtained by evaporation; the
+nitrous, which indicates soda; the aluminous kind, which indicates alum;
+the vitrioline, which indicates vitriol; the sulphurous kind, which
+indicates sulphur; and as for the bituminous juice, out of which bitumen
+is melted down, the colour itself proclaims it to the worker who is
+evaporating it. The sea-water however, is similar to that of salt
+springs, and may be drawn into low-lying pits, and, evaporated by the
+heat of the sun, changes of itself into salt; similarly the water of
+some salt-lakes turns to salt when dried by the heat of summer.
+Therefore an industrious and diligent man observes and makes use of
+these things and thus contributes something to the common welfare.</p>
+
+<p>The strength of the sea condenses the liquid bitumen which flows into it
+from hidden springs, into amber and jet, as I have described already in
+my books "<i>De Subterraneorum Ortu et Causis</i>"<a name="FNanchor_15_86" id="FNanchor_15_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_86" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>. The sea, with certain
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a>[Pg 35]</span>directions of the wind, throws both these substances on shore, and for
+this reason the search for amber demands as much care as does that for
+coral.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, it is necessary that those who wash the sand or evaporate the
+water from the springs, should be careful to learn the nature of the
+locality, its roads, its salubrity, its overlord, and the neighbours,
+lest on account of difficulties in the conduct of their business they
+become either impoverished by exhaustive expenditure, or their goods and
+lives are imperilled. But enough about this.</p>
+
+<p>The miner, after he has selected out of many places one particular spot
+adapted by Nature for mining, bestows much labour and attention on the
+veins. These have either been stripped bare of their covering by chance
+and thus lie exposed to our view, or lying deeply hidden and concealed
+they are found after close search; the latter is more usual, the former
+more rarely happens, and both of these occurrences must be explained.
+There is more than one force which can lay bare the veins unaided by the
+industry or toil of man; since either a torrent might strip off the
+surface, which happened in the case of the silver mines of Freiberg
+(concerning which I have <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a>[Pg 36]</span>written in Book I. of my work "<i>De Veteribus
+et Novis Metallis</i>")<a name="FNanchor_16_87" id="FNanchor_16_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_87" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>; or they may be exposed through the force of
+the wind, when it uproots and destroys the trees which have grown over
+the veins; or by the breaking away of the rocks; or by long-continued
+heavy rains tearing away the mountain; or by an earthquake; or by a
+lightning flash; or by a snowslide; or by the violence of the winds: "Of
+such a nature are the rocks hurled down from the mountains by the force
+of the winds aided by the ravages of time." Or the plough may uncover
+the veins, for Justin relates in his history that nuggets of gold had
+been turned up in Galicia by the plough; or this may occur through a
+fire in the forest, as Diodorus Siculus tells us happened in the silver
+mines in Spain; and that saying of Posidonius is appropriate enough:
+"The earth violently moved by the fires consuming the forest sends forth
+new products, namely, gold and silver."<a name="FNanchor_17_88" id="FNanchor_17_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_88" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> And indeed, Lucretius has
+explained the same thing more fully in the following lines: "Copper and
+gold and iron were discovered, and at the same time weighty silver and
+the substance of lead, when fire had burned up vast forests on the great
+hills, either by a discharge of heaven's lightning, or else because,
+when men were waging war with one another, forest fires had carried fire
+among the enemy in order to strike terror to them, or because, attracted
+by the goodness of the soil, they wished to clear rich fields and bring
+the country into pasture, or else to destroy wild beasts and enrich
+themselves with the game; for hunting with pitfalls and with fire came
+into use before the practice of enclosing the wood with toils and
+rousing the game with dogs. Whatever the fact is, from <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a>[Pg 37]</span>whatever cause
+the heat of flame had swallowed up the forests with a frightful
+crackling from their very roots, and had thoroughly baked the earth with
+fire, there would run from the boiling veins and collect into the
+hollows of the grounds a stream of silver and gold, as well as of copper
+and lead."<a name="FNanchor_18_89" id="FNanchor_18_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_89" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> But yet the poet considers that the veins are not laid
+bare in the first instance so much by this kind of fire, but rather that
+all mining had its origin in this. And lastly, some other force may by
+chance disclose the veins, for a horse, if this tale can be believed,
+disclosed the lead veins at Goslar by a blow from his hoof<a name="FNanchor_19_90" id="FNanchor_19_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_90" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>. By such
+methods as these does fortune disclose the veins to us.</p>
+
+<p>But by skill we can also investigate hidden and concealed veins, by
+observing in the first place the bubbling waters of springs, which
+cannot be very far distant from the veins because the source of the
+water is from them; secondly, by examining the fragments of the veins
+which the torrents break off from the earth, for after a long time some
+of these fragments are again buried in the ground. Fragments of this
+kind lying about on the ground, if they are rubbed smooth, are a long
+distance from the veins, because the torrent, which broke them from the
+vein, polished them while it rolled them a long distance; but if they
+are fixed in the ground, or if they are rough, they are nearer to the
+veins. The soil also should be considered, for this is often the cause
+of veins being buried more or less deeply under the earth; in this case
+the fragments protrude more or less widely apart, and miners are wont to
+call the veins discovered in this manner "<i>fragmenta</i>."<a name="FNanchor_20_91" id="FNanchor_20_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_91" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<p>Further, we search for the veins by observing the hoar-frosts, which
+whiten all herbage except that growing over the veins, because the veins
+emit a warm and dry exhalation which hinders the freezing of the
+moisture, for which reason such plants appear rather wet than whitened
+by the frost. This may be observed in all cold places before the grass
+has grown to its full size, as in the months of April and May; or when
+the late crop of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a>[Pg 38]</span>hay, which is called the <i>cordum</i>, is cut with scythes
+in the month of September. Therefore in places where the grass has a
+dampness that is not congealed into frost, there is a vein beneath; also
+if the exhalation be excessively hot, the soil will produce only small
+and pale-coloured plants. Lastly, there are trees whose foliage in
+spring-time has a bluish or leaden tint, the upper branches more
+especially being tinged with black or with any other unnatural colour,
+the trunks cleft in two, and the branches black or discoloured. These
+phenomena are caused by the intensely hot and dry exhalations which do
+not spare even the roots, but scorching them, render the trees sickly;
+wherefore the wind will more frequently uproot trees of this kind than
+any others. Verily the veins do emit this exhalation. Therefore, in a
+place where there is a multitude of trees, if a long row of them at an
+unusual time lose their verdure and become black or discoloured, and
+frequently fall by the violence of the wind, beneath this spot there is
+a vein. Likewise along a course where a vein extends, there grows a
+certain herb or fungus which is absent from the adjacent space, or
+sometimes even from the neighbourhood of the veins. By these signs of
+Nature a vein can be discovered.</p>
+
+<p>There are many great contentions between miners concerning the forked
+twig<a name="FNanchor_21_92" id="FNanchor_21_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_92" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>, for some say that it is of the greatest use in discovering
+veins, and others deny it. Some of those who manipulate and use the
+twig, first cut a fork from a hazel bush with a knife, for this bush
+they consider more efficacious than any other for revealing the veins,
+especially if the hazel <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a>[Pg 39]</span>bush grows above a vein. Others use a different
+kind of twig for each metal, when they are seeking to discover the
+veins, for they employ hazel twigs for veins of silver; ash twigs for
+copper; pitch pine for lead and especially tin, and rods made of iron
+and steel for gold. All alike grasp the forks of the twig with their
+hands, clenching their fists, it being necessary that the clenched
+fingers should be held toward the sky in order that the twig should be
+raised at that end where the two branches meet. Then they wander hither
+and thither at random through mountainous regions. It is said that the
+moment they place their feet on a vein the twig immediately turns and
+twists, and so by its action discloses the vein; when they move their
+feet again and go away from that spot the twig becomes once more
+immobile.</p>
+
+<p>The truth is, they assert, the movement of the twig is caused by the
+power of the veins, and sometimes this is so great that the branches of
+trees growing near a vein are deflected toward it. On the other hand,
+those who say that the twig is of no use to good and serious men, also
+deny that the motion is due to the power of the veins, because the twigs
+will not move for everybody, but only for those who employ incantations
+and craft. Moreover, they deny the power of a vein to draw to itself the
+branches of trees, but they say that the warm and dry exhalations cause
+these contortions. Those who advocate the use of the twig make this
+reply to these objections: when one of the miners or some other person
+holds the twig in his hands, and it is not turned by the force of a
+vein, this is due to some peculiarity of the individual, which hinders
+and impedes the power of the vein, for since the power of the vein in
+turning and twisting the twig may be not unlike that of a magnet
+attracting and drawing iron toward itself, this hidden quality of a man
+weakens and breaks the force, just the same as garlic weakens and
+overcomes the strength of a magnet. For a magnet smeared with garlic
+juice cannot attract iron; nor does it attract the latter when rusty.
+Further, concerning the handling of the twig, they warn us that we
+should not press the fingers together too lightly, nor clench them too
+firmly, for if the twig is held lightly they say that it will fall
+before the force of the vein can turn it; if however, it is grasped too
+firmly the force of the hands resists the force of the veins and
+counteracts it. Therefore, they consider that five things are necessary
+to insure that the twig shall serve its purpose: of these the first is
+the size of the twig, for the force of the veins cannot turn too large a
+stick; secondly, there is the shape of the twig, which must be forked or
+the vein cannot turn it; thirdly, the power of the vein which has the
+nature to turn it; fourthly, the manipulation of the twig; fifthly, the
+absence of impeding peculiarities. These advocates of the twig sum up
+their conclusions as follows: if the rod does not move for everybody, it
+is due to unskilled manipulation or to the impeding peculiarities of the
+man which oppose and resist the force of the veins, as we said above,
+and those who search for veins by means of the twig need not necessarily
+make incantations, but it is sufficient that they handle it suitably and
+are devoid of impeding power; therefore, the twig may be of use to good
+and serious <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a>[Pg 40]</span>men in discovering veins. With regard to deflection of
+branches of trees they say nothing and adhere to their opinion.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig40.jpg"><img src="images/fig40thumb.jpg" alt="Divining Rod" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Twig. B&mdash;Trench.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 40]</span></span>
+Since this matter remains in dispute and causes much dissention amongst
+miners, I consider it ought to be examined on its own merits. The
+wizards, who also make use of rings, mirrors and crystals, seek for
+veins with a divining rod shaped like a fork; but its shape makes no
+difference in the matter,&mdash;it might be straight or of some other
+form&mdash;for it is not the form of the twig that matters, but the wizard's
+incantations which it would not become me to repeat, neither do I wish
+to do so. The Ancients, by means of the divining rod, not only procured
+those things necessary for a livelihood or for luxury, but they were
+also able to alter the forms of things by it; as when the magicians
+changed the rods of the Egyptians into serpents, as the writings of the
+Hebrews relate<a name="FNanchor_22_93" id="FNanchor_22_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_93" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>; and as in Homer, Minerva with a divining rod turned
+the aged Ulysses suddenly into a youth, and then restored him back again
+to old age; Circe also changed Ulysses' companions into beasts, but
+afterward gave them back again their human form<a name="FNanchor_23_94" id="FNanchor_23_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_94" class="fnanchor">[23]</a>; moreover by his
+rod, which was called "Caduceus," Mercury gave <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a>[Pg 41]</span>sleep to watchmen and
+awoke slumberers<a name="FNanchor_24_95" id="FNanchor_24_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_95" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>. Therefore it seems that the divining rod passed to
+the mines from its impure origin with the magicians. Then when good men
+shrank with horror from the incantations and rejected them, the twig was
+retained by the unsophisticated common miners, and in searching for new
+veins some traces of these ancient usages remain.</p>
+
+<p>But since truly the twigs of the miners do move, albeit they do not
+generally use incantations, some say this movement is caused by the
+power of the veins, others say that it depends on the manipulation, and
+still others think that the movement is due to both these causes. But,
+in truth, all those objects which are endowed with the power of
+attraction do not twist things in circles, but attract them directly to
+themselves; for instance, the magnet does not turn the iron, but draws
+it directly to itself, and amber rubbed until it is warm does not bend
+straws about, but simply draws them to itself. If the power of the veins
+were of a similar nature to that of the magnet and the amber, the twig
+would not so much twist as move once only, in a semi-circle, and be
+drawn directly to the vein, and unless the strength of the man who holds
+the twig were to resist and oppose the force of the vein, the twig would
+be brought to the ground; wherefore, since this is not the case, it must
+necessarily follow that the manipulation is the cause of the twig's
+twisting motion. It is a conspicuous fact that these cunning
+manipulators do not use a straight twig, but a forked one cut from a
+hazel bush, or from some other wood equally flexible, so that if it be
+held in the hands, as they are accustomed to hold it, it turns in a
+circle for any man wherever he stands. Nor is it strange that the twig
+does not turn when held by the inexperienced, because they either grasp
+the forks of the twig too tightly or hold them too loosely.
+Nevertheless, these things give rise to the faith among common miners
+that veins are discovered by the use of twigs, because whilst using
+these they do accidentally discover some; but it more often happens that
+they lose their labour, and although they might discover a vein, they
+become none the less exhausted in digging useless trenches than do the
+miners who prospect in an unfortunate locality. Therefore a miner, since
+we think he ought to be a good and serious man, should not make use of
+an enchanted twig, because if he is prudent and skilled in the natural
+signs, he understands that a forked stick is of no use to him, for as I
+have said before, there are the natural indications of the veins which
+he can see for himself without the help of twigs. So if Nature or chance
+should indicate a locality suitable for mining, the miner should dig his
+trenches there; if no vein appears he must dig numerous trenches until
+he discovers an outcrop of a vein.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>vena dilatata</i> is rarely discovered by men's labour, but usually some
+force or other reveals it, or sometimes it is discovered by a shaft or a
+tunnel on a <i>vena profunda</i><a name="FNanchor_25_96" id="FNanchor_25_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_96" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a>[Pg 42]</span></p><p>The veins after they have been discovered, and likewise the shafts and
+tunnels, have names given them, either from their discoverers, as in the
+case at Annaberg of the vein called "K�lergang," because a charcoal
+burner discovered it; or from their owners, as the Geyer, in
+Joachimsthal, because part of the same belonged to Geyer; or from their
+products, as the "Pleygang" from lead, or the "Bissmutisch" at
+Schneeberg from bismuth<a name="FNanchor_26_97" id="FNanchor_26_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_97" class="fnanchor">[26]</a>; or from some other circumstances, such as
+the rich alluvials from the torrent by which they were laid bare in the
+valley of Joachim. More often the first discoverers give the names
+either of persons, as those of German Kaiser, Apollo, Janus; or the name
+of an animal, as that of lion, bear, ram, or cow; or of things
+inanimate, as "silver chest" or "ox stalls"; or of something ridiculous,
+as "glutton's nightshade"; or finally, for the sake of a good omen, they
+call it after the Deity. In ancient times they followed the same custom
+and gave names to the veins, shafts and tunnels, as we read in Pliny:
+"It is wonderful that the shafts begun by Hannibal in Spain are still
+worked, their names being derived from their discoverers. One of these
+at the present day, called Baebelo, furnished Hannibal with three
+hundred pounds weight (of silver) per day."<a name="FNanchor_27_98" id="FNanchor_27_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_98" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p class="center">END OF BOOK II.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_25" id="Notes_25">[Pg 25]</a></span><a name="Footnote_1_72" id="Footnote_1_72"></a>
+<a href="#FNanchor_1_72"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Xenophon. Essay on the Revenues of Athens, <span class="smcaplower">IV.</span>, 14.
+</p><p>
+"But we cannot but feel surprised that the State, when it sees many
+private individuals enriching themselves from its resources, does not
+imitate their proceedings; for we heard long ago, indeed, at least such
+of us as attended to these matters, that Nicias the son of Niceratus
+kept a thousand men employed in the silver mines, whom he let on hire to
+Sosias of Thrace on condition that he should give him for each an obolus
+a day, free of all charges; and this number he always supplied
+undiminished." (See also <a href="#Footnote_6_77">Note 6</a>). An obolus a day each, would be about
+23 oz. Troy of silver per day for the whole number. In modern value this
+would, of course, be but about 50s. per day, but in purchasing power the
+value would probably be 100 to 1 (see Note on p. <a href="#Notes_28">28</a>). Nicias was
+estimated to have a fortune of 100 talents&mdash;about 83,700 Troy ounces of
+silver, and was one of the wealthiest of the Athenians. (Plutarch, Life
+of Nicias).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_26" id="Notes_26">[Pg 26]</a></span><a name="Footnote_2_73" id="Footnote_2_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_73"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Xenophon. <i>Oeconomicus</i> <span class="smcaplower">XII.</span>, 20. "'I approve,' said
+Ischomachus, 'of the barbarian's answer to the King who found a good
+horse, and, wishing to fatten it as soon as possible, asked a man with a
+good reputation for horsemanship what would do it?' The man's reply was:
+'Its master's eye.'"</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_74" id="Footnote_3_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_74"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Praefectus Metallorum.</i> In Saxony this official was styled
+the <i>Berghauptmann</i>. For further information see page <a href="#Page_94">94</a> and note on
+page <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_75" id="Footnote_4_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_75"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> This statement is either based upon Apollodorus, whom
+Agricola does not mention among his authorities, or on Strabo, whom he
+does so include. The former in his work on Mythology makes such a
+statement, for which Strabo (<span class="smcaplower">XIV.</span>, 5, 28) takes him to task as follows:
+"With this vain intention they collected the stories related by the
+Scepsian <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_27" id="Notes_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>(Demetrius), and taken from Callisthenes and other writers, who
+did not clear them from false notions respecting the Halizones; for
+example, that the wealth of Tantalus and of the Pelopidae was derived,
+it is said, from the mines about Phrygia and Sipylus; that of Cadmus
+from the mines of Thrace and Mount Pangaeum; that of Priam from the gold
+mines of Astyra, near Abydos (of which at present there are small
+remains, yet there is a large quantity of matter ejected, and the
+excavations are proofs of former workings); that of Midas from the mines
+about Mount Bermium; that of Gyges, Alyattes, and Croesus, from the
+mines in Lydia and the small deserted city between Atarneus and
+Pergamum, where are the sites of exhausted mines." (Hamilton's Trans.,
+Vol. <span class="smcaplower">III.</span>, p. 66).
+</p><p>
+In adopting this view, Agricola apparently applied a wonderful realism
+to some Greek mythology&mdash;for instance, in the legend of Midas, which
+tells of that king being rewarded by the god Dionysus, who granted his
+request that all he touched might turn to gold; but the inconvenience of
+the gift drove him to pray for relief, which he obtained by bathing in
+the Pactolus, the sands of which thereupon became highly auriferous.
+Priam was, of course, King of Troy, but Homer does not exhibit him as a
+mine-owner. Gyges, Alyattes, and Croesus were successively Kings of
+Lydia, from 687 to 546 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, and were no doubt possessed of great
+treasure in gold. Some few years ago we had occasion to inquire into
+extensive old workings locally reputed to be Croesus' mines, at a place
+some distance north of Smyrna, which would correspond very closely to
+the locality here mentioned.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_76" id="Footnote_5_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_76"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> There can be no doubt that the Carthaginians worked the
+mines of Spain on an extensive scale for a very long period anterior to
+their conquest by the Romans, but whether the mines were worked by the
+Government or not we are unable to find any evidence.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_77" id="Footnote_6_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_77"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> The silver mines of Mt. Laurion formed the economic
+mainstay of Athens for the three centuries during which the State had
+the ascendency in Greece, and there can be no doubt that the dominance
+of Athens and its position as a sea-power were directly due to the
+revenues from the mines. The first working of the mines is shrouded in
+mystery. The scarcity of silver in the time of Solon (638-598 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>)
+would not indicate any very considerable output at that time. According
+to Xenophon (Essay on Revenue of Athens, <span class="smcaplower">IV.</span>, 2), written about 355
+<span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, "they were wrought in very ancient times." The first definite
+discussion of the mines in Greek record begins about 500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, for about
+that time the royalties began to figure in the Athenian Budget
+(Aristotle, Constitution of Athens, 47). There can be no doubt that the
+mines reached great prosperity prior to the Persian invasion. In the
+year 484 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> the mines returned 100 Talents (about 83,700 oz. Troy) to
+the Treasury, and this, on the advice of Themistocles, was devoted to
+the construction of the fleet which conquered the Persians at Salamis
+(480 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>). The mines were much interfered with by the Spartan invasions
+from 431 to 425 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, and again by their occupation in 413 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>; and by
+355 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, when Xenophon wrote the "Revenues," exploitation had fallen to
+a low ebb, for which he proposes the remedies noted by Agricola on p.
+<a href="#Page_28">28</a>. By the end of the 4th Century, <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, the mines had again reached
+considerable prosperity, as is evidenced by Demosthenes' orations
+against Pantaenetus and against Phaenippus, and by Lycurgus' prosecution
+of Diphilos for robbing the supporting pillars. The domination of the
+Macedonians under Philip and Alexander at the end of the 4th and
+beginning of the 3rd Centuries <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, however, so flooded Greece with
+money from the mines of Thrace, that this probably interfered with
+Laurion, at this time, in any event, began the decadence of these mines.
+Synchronous also was the decadence of Athens, and, but for fitful
+displays, the State was not able to maintain even its own independence,
+not to mention its position as a dominant State. Finally, Strabo,
+writing about 30 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> gives the epitaph of every mining
+district&mdash;reworking the dumps. He says (<span class="smcaplower">IX.</span>, 1, 23): "The silver mines
+in Attica were at first of importance, but <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_28" id="Notes_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>are now exhausted. The
+workmen, when the mines yielded a bad return to their labour, committed
+to the furnace the old refuse and scoria, and hence obtained very pure
+silver, for the former workmen had carried on the process in the furnace
+unskilfully."
+</p><p>
+Since 1860, the mines have been worked with some success by a French
+Company, thus carrying the mining history of this district over a period
+of twenty-seven centuries. The most excellent of many memoirs upon the
+mines at Laurion, not only for its critical, historical, and
+arch�ological value, but also because of its author's great insight into
+mining and metallurgy, is that of Edouard Ardaillon (<i>Les Mines du
+Laurion dans l'Antiquit�</i>, Paris, 1897). We have relied considerably
+upon this careful study for the following notes, and would refer others
+to it for a short bibliography on the subject. We would mention in
+passing that Augustus Boeckh's "Silver Mines of Laurion," which is
+incorporated with his "Public Economy of Athens" (English Translation by
+Lewis, London, 1842) has been too much relied upon by English students.
+It is no doubt the product of one acquainted with written history, but
+without any special knowledge of the industry and it is based on no
+antiquarian research. The Mt. Laurion mining district is located near
+the southern end of the Attic Peninsula. The deposits are silver-lead,
+and they occur along the contact between approximately horizontal
+limestones and slates. There are two principal beds of each, thus
+forming three principal contacts. The most metalliferous of these
+contacts are those at the base of the slates, the lowest contact of the
+series being the richest. The ore-bodies were most irregular, varying
+greatly in size, from a thin seam between schist planes, to very large
+bodies containing as much as 200,000 cubic metres. The ores are
+argentiferous galena, accompanied by considerable amounts of blende and
+pyrites, all oxidized near the surface. The ores worked by the Ancients
+appear to have been fairly rich in lead, for the discards worked in
+recent years by the French Company, and the pillars left behind, ran 8%
+to 10% lead. The ratio of silver was from 40 to 90 ounces per ton of
+lead. The upper contacts were exposed by erosion and could be entered by
+tunnels, but the lowest and most prolific contact line was only to be
+reached by shafts. The shafts were ordinarily from four to six feet
+square, and were undoubtedly cut by hammer and chisel; they were as much
+as 380 feet deep. In some cases long inclines for travelling roads join
+the vertical shafts in depth. The drives, whether tunnels or from
+shafts, were not level, but followed every caprice of the sinuous
+contact. They were from two to two and a half feet wide, often driven in
+parallels with cross-cuts between, in order to exploit every corner of
+the contact. The stoping of ore-bodies discovered was undertaken quite
+systematically, the methods depending in the main on the shape of the
+ore-body. If the body was large, its dimensions were first determined by
+drives, crosscuts, rises, and <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_29" id="Notes_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>winzes, as the case might require. If the
+ore was mainly overhead it was overhand-stoped, and the stopes filled as
+work progressed, inclined winzes being occasionally driven from the
+stopes to the original entry drives. If the ore was mainly below, it was
+underhand-stoped, pillars being left if necessary&mdash;such pillars in some
+cases being thirty feet high. They also employed timber and artificial
+pillars. The mines were practically dry. There is little evidence of
+breaking by fire. The ore was hand-sorted underground and carried out by
+the slaves, and in some cases apparently the windlass was used. It was
+treated by grinding in mills and concentrating upon a sort of buddle.
+These concentrates&mdash;mostly galena&mdash;were smelted in low furnaces and the
+lead was subsequently cupelled. Further details of metallurgical methods
+will be found in Notes on p. <a href="#Notes_391">391</a> and p. <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>, on metallurgical subjects.
+</p><p>
+The mines were worked by slaves. Even the overseers were at times
+apparently slaves, for we find (Xenophon, <i>Memorabilia</i>, <span class="smcaplower">II.</span>, 5) that
+Nicias paid a whole talent for a good overseer. A talent would be about
+837 Troy ounces of silver. As wages of skilled labour were about two and
+one half pennyweights of silver per diem, and a family income of 100
+ounces of silver per annum was affluence, the ratio of purchasing power
+of Attic coinage to modern would be about 100 to 1. Therefore this mine
+manager was worth in modern value roughly �8,000. The mines were the
+property of the State. The areas were defined by vertical boundaries,
+and were let on lease for definite periods for a fixed annual rent. More
+ample discussion of the law will be found on p. <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_78" id="Footnote_7_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_78"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Xenophon. (Essay on The Revenues, <span class="smcaplower">IV.</span>, 30). "I think,
+however, that I am able to give some advice with regard to this
+difficulty also (the risk of opening new mines), and to show how new
+operations may be conducted with the greatest safety. There are ten
+tribes at Athens, and if to each of these the State should assign an
+equal number of slaves, and the tribes should all make new cuttings,
+sharing their fortunes in common, then if but one tribe should make any
+useful discovery it would point out something profitable to the whole;
+but if two, three, or four, or half the number should make some
+discovery, it is plain that the works would be more profitable in
+proportion, and that they should all fail is contrary to all experience
+in past times." (Watson's Trans. p. 258).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_79" id="Footnote_8_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_79"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Agricola here refers to the proposal of Xenophon for the
+State to collect slaves and hire them to work the mines of Laurion.
+There is no evidence that this recommendation was ever carried out.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_80" id="Footnote_9_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_80"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> <i>Partes.</i> Agricola, p. <a href="#Page_89">89</a>-<a href="#Page_91">91</a>, describes in detail the
+organization and management of these share companies. See <a href="#Footnote_8_117">Note 8, p.
+90</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_31" id="Notes_31">[Pg 31]</a></span><a name="Footnote_10_81" id="Footnote_10_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_81"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> This island in the northern �gean Sea has produced this
+"earth" from before Theophrastus' time (372-287 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) down to the
+present day. According to Dana (System of Mineralogy 689), it is
+cimolite, a hydrous silicate of aluminium. The Ancients distinguished
+two kinds,&mdash;one sort used as a pigment, and the other for medicinal
+purposes. This latter was dug with great ceremony at a certain time of
+the year, moulded into cubes, and stamped with a goat,&mdash;the symbol of
+Diana. It thus became known as <i>terra sigillata</i>, and was an article of
+apothecary commerce down to the last century. It is described by Galen
+(<span class="smcaplower">XII.</span>, 12), Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">V.</span>, 63), and Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXV.</span>, 14), as a remedy for
+ulcers and snake bites.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_33" id="Notes_33">[Pg 33]</a></span><a name="Footnote_11_82" id="Footnote_11_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_82"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> <i>Magister Metallorum</i>. See <a href="#Footnote_1_110">Note 1, p. 78</a>, for the reasons
+of the adoption of the term <i>Bergmeister</i> and page <a href="#Page_95">95</a> for details of his
+duties.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_83" id="Footnote_12_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_83"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> <i>Ramenta</i>. "Particles." The author uses this term
+indifferently for fragments, particles of mineral, concentrates, gold
+dust, black tin, etc., in all cases the result of either natural or
+artificial concentration. As in technical English we have no general
+term for both natural and artificial "concentrates," we have rendered it
+as the context seemed to demand.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_84" id="Footnote_13_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_84"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> A certain amount of bitumen does float ashore in the Dead
+Sea; the origin of it is, however, uncertain. Strabo (<span class="smcaplower">XVI.</span>, 2, 42),
+Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">V.</span>, 15 and 16), and Josephus (<span class="smcaplower">IV.</span>, 8), all mention this fact. The
+lake for this reason is often referred to by the ancient writers by the
+name <i>Asphaltites</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_34" id="Notes_34">[Pg 34]</a></span><a name="Footnote_14_85" id="Footnote_14_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_85"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> <i>Excoctor</i>,&mdash;literally, "Smelter" or "Metallurgist."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_86" id="Footnote_15_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_86"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> This reference should be to the <i>De Natura Fossilium</i> (p.
+230), although there is a short reference to the matter in <i>De Ortu et
+Causis</i> (p. 59). Agricola maintained that not only were jet and amber
+varieties of bitumen, but also coal and camphor and obsidian. As jet
+(<i>gagates</i>) is but a compact variety of coal, the ancient knowledge of
+this substance has more interest than would otherwise attach to the gem,
+especially as some materials described in this connection were no doubt
+coal. The Greeks often refer to a series of substances which burned,
+contained earth, and which no doubt comprised coal. Such substances are
+mentioned by Aristotle (<i>De Mirabilibus</i>. 33, 41, 125), Nicander
+(<i>Theriaca</i>. 37), and others, previous to the 2nd Century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, but the
+most ample description is that of Theophrastus (23-28): "Some of the
+more brittle stones there also are, which become as it were burning
+coals when put into a fire, and continue so a long time; of this kind
+are those about Bena, found in mines and washed down by the torrents,
+for they will take fire on burning coals being thrown on them, and will
+continue burning as long as anyone blows them; afterward they will
+deaden, and may after that be made to burn again. They are therefore of
+long continuance, but their smell is troublesome and disagreeable. That
+also which is called the <i>spinus</i>, is found in mines. This stone, cut in
+pieces and thrown together in a heap, exposed to the sun, burns; and
+that the more, if it be moistened or sprinkled with water (a
+pyritiferous shale?). But the <i>Lipara</i> stone empties itself, as it were,
+in burning, and becomes like the <i>pumice</i>, changing at once both its
+colour and density; for before burning it is black, smooth, and compact.
+This stone is found in the Pumices, separately in different places, as
+it were, in <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_35" id="Notes_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>cells, nowhere continuous to the matter of them. It is said
+that in Melos the pumice is produced in this manner in some other stone,
+as this is on the contrary in it; but the stone which the pumice is
+found in is not at all like the <i>Lipara</i> stone which is found in it.
+Certain stones there are about Tetras, in Sicily, which is over against
+Lipara, which empty themselves in the same manner in the fire. And in
+the promontory called Erineas, there is a great quantity of stone like
+that found about Bena, which, when burnt, emits a bituminous smell, and
+leaves a matter resembling calcined earth. Those fossil substances that
+are called coals, and are broken for use, are earthy; they kindle,
+however, and burn like wood coals. These are found in Liguria, where
+there also is amber, and in Elis, on the way to Olympia over the
+mountains. These are used by smiths." (Based on Hill's Trans.).
+Dioscorides and Pliny add nothing of value to this description.
+</p><p>
+Agricola (<i>De Nat. Fos.</i>, p. 229-230) not only gives various localities
+of jet, but also records its relation to coal. As to the latter, he
+describes several occurrences, and describes the deposits as <i>vena
+dilatata</i>. Coal had come into considerable use all over Europe,
+particularly in England, long before Agricola's time; the oft-mentioned
+charter to mine sea-coal given to the Monks of Newbottle Abbey, near
+Preston, was dated 1210.
+</p><p>
+Amber was known to the Greeks by the name <i>electrum</i>, but whether the
+alloy of the same name took its name from the colour of amber or <i>vice
+versa</i> is uncertain. The gum is supposed to be referred to by Homer (Od.
+<span class="smcaplower">XV.</span> 460), and Thales of Miletus (640-546 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) is supposed to have first
+described its power of attraction. It is mentioned by many other Greek
+authors, �schylus, Euripides, Aristotle, and others. The latter (<i>De
+Mirabilibus</i>, 81) records of the amber islands in the Adriatic, that the
+inhabitants tell the story that on these islands amber falls from poplar
+trees. "This, they say, resembles gum and hardens like stone, the story
+of the poets being that after Phaeton was struck by lightning his
+sisters turned to poplar trees and shed tears of amber." Theophrastus
+(53) says: "Amber is also a stone; it is dug out of the earth in Liguria
+and has, like the before-mentioned (lodestone), a power of attraction."
+Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXVII.</span>, 11) gives a long account of both the substance,
+literature, and mythology on the subject. His view of its origin was:
+"Certainly amber is obtained from the islands of the Northern Ocean, and
+is called by the Germans <i>glaesum</i>. For this reason the Romans, when
+Germanicus C�sar commanded in those parts, called one of them
+<i>Glaesaria</i>, which was known to the barbarians as <i>Austeravia</i>. Amber
+originates from gum discharged by a kind of pine tree, like gum from
+cherry and resin from the ordinary pine. It is liquid at first, and
+issues abundantly and hardens in time by cold, or by the sea when the
+rising tides carry off the fragments from the shores of those islands.
+Certainly it is thrown on the coasts, and is so light that it appears to
+roll in the water. Our forefathers believed that it was the juice of a
+tree, for they called it <i>succinum</i>. And that it belongs to a kind of
+pine tree is proved by the odour of the pine tree which it gives when
+rubbed, and that it burns when ignited like a pitch pine torch." The
+term amber is of Arabic origin&mdash;from <i>Ambar</i>&mdash;and this term was adopted
+by the Greeks after the Christian era. Agricola uses the Latin term
+<i>succinum</i> and (<i>De Nat. Fos.</i>, p. 231-5) disputes the origin from tree
+gum, and contends for submarine bitumen springs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_36" id="Notes_36">[Pg 36]</a></span><a name="Footnote_16_87" id="Footnote_16_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_87"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> The statement in <i>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis</i> (p. 394)
+is as follows:&mdash;
+</p><p>
+"It came about by chance and accident that the silver mines were
+discovered at Freiberg in Meissen. By the river Sala, which is not
+unknown to Strabo, is Hala, which was once country, but is now a large
+town; the site, at any rate, even from Roman times was famous and
+renowned for its salt springs, for the possession of which the
+Hermunduri fought with the Chatti. When people carried the salt thence
+in wagons, as they now do straight through Meissen (Saxony) into
+Bohemia&mdash;which is lacking in that seasoning to-day no less than
+formerly&mdash;they saw galena in the wheel tracks, which had been uncovered
+by the torrents. This lead ore, since it was similar to that of Goslar,
+they put into their carts and carried to Goslar, for the same carriers
+were accustomed to carry lead from that city. And since much more silver
+was smelted from this galena than from that of Goslar, certain miners
+betook themselves to that part of Meissen in which is now situated
+Freiberg, a great and wealthy town; and we are told by consistent
+stories and general report that they grew rich out of the mines."
+Agricola places the discovery of the mines at Freiberg at about 1170.
+See <a href="#Footnote_11_52">Note 11, p. 5</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_88" id="Footnote_17_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_88"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Diodorus Siculus (<span class="smcaplower">V.</span>, 35). "These places being covered
+with woods, it is said that in ancient times these mountains were set on
+fire by shepherds, and continued burning for many days, and parched the
+earth, so that an abundance of silver ore was melted, and the metal
+flowed in streams of pure silver like a river." Aristotle, nearly three
+centuries before Diodorus, mentions this same story (<i>De Mirabilibus</i>,
+87): "They say that in Ibernia the woods were set on fire by certain
+shepherds, and the earth thus heated, the country visibly flowed silver;
+and when some time later there were earthquakes, and the earth burst
+asunder at different places, a large amount of silver was collected." As
+the works of Posidonius are lost, it is probable that Agricola was
+quoting from Strabo (<span class="smcaplower">III.</span>, 2, 9), who says, in describing Spain:
+"Posidonius, in praising the amount and excellence of the metals, cannot
+refrain from his accustomed rhetoric, and becomes quite enthusiastic in
+exaggeration. He tells us we are not to disbelieve the fable that
+formerly the forests having been set on fire, the earth, which was
+loaded with silver and gold, melted and threw up these metals to the
+surface, for inasmuch as every mountain and wooded hill seemed to be
+heaped up with money by a lavish fortune." (Hamilton's Trans. I., p.
+220). Or he may have been quoting from the <i>Deipnosophistae</i> of
+Athenaeus (<span class="smcaplower">VI.</span>), where Posidonius is quoted: "And the mountains ... when
+once the woods upon them had caught fire, spontaneously ran with liquid
+silver."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_37" id="Notes_37">[Pg 37]</a></span><a name="Footnote_18_89" id="Footnote_18_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_89"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Lucretius, <i>De Rerum Natura</i> <span class="smcaplower">V.</span> 1241.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_90" id="Footnote_19_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_90"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Agricola's account of this event in <i>De Veteribus et Novis
+Metallis</i> is as follows (p. 393): "Now veins are not always first
+disclosed by the hand and labour of man, nor has art always demonstrated
+them; sometimes they have been disclosed rather by chance or by good
+fortune. I will explain briefly what has been written upon this matter
+in history, what miners tell us, and what has occurred in our times.
+Thus the mines at Goslar are said to have been found in the following
+way. A certain noble, whose name is not recorded, tied his horse, which
+was named Ramelus, to the branch of a tree which grew on the mountain.
+This horse, pawing the earth with its hoofs, which were iron shod, and
+thus turning it over, uncovered a hidden vein of lead, not unlike the
+winged Pegasus, who in the legend of the poets opened a spring when he
+beat the rock with his hoof. So just as that spring is named Hippocrene
+after that horse, so our ancestors named the mountain Rammelsberg.
+Whereas the perennial water spring of the poets would long ago have
+dried up, the vein even to-day exists, and supplies an abundant amount
+of excellent lead. That a horse can have opened a vein will seem
+credible to anyone who reflects in how many ways the signs of veins are
+shown by chance, all of which are explained in my work <i>De Re
+Metallica</i>. Therefore, here we will believe the story, both because it
+may happen that a horse may disclose a vein, and because the name of the
+mountain agrees with the story." Agricola places the discovery of Goslar
+in the Hartz at prior to 936. See <a href="#Footnote_11_52">Note 11, p. 5</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_91" id="Footnote_20_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_91"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>Fragmenta</i>. The glossary gives "<i>Geschube</i>." This term is
+defined in the <i>Bergwerks' Lexicon</i> (Chemnitz, 1743, p. 250) as the
+pieces of stone, especially tin-stone, broken from the vein and washed
+out by the water&mdash;the croppings.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_38" id="Notes_38">[Pg 38]</a></span><a name="Footnote_21_92" id="Footnote_21_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_92"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> So far as we are able to discover, this is the first
+published description of the divining rod as applied to minerals or
+water. Like Agricola, many authors have sought to find its origin among
+the Ancients. The magic rods of Moses and Homer, especially the rod with
+which the former struck the rock at Horeb, the rod described by Ctesias
+(died 398 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) which attracted gold and silver, and the <i>virgula
+divina</i> of the Romans have all been called up for proof. It is true that
+the Romans are responsible for the name <i>virgula divina</i>, "divining
+rod," but this rod was used for taking auguries by casting bits of wood
+(Cicero, <i>De Divinatione</i>). Despite all this, while the ancient
+naturalists all give detailed directions for finding water, none mention
+anything akin to the divining rod of the Middle Ages. It is also worth
+noting that the Monk Theophilus in the 12th Century also gives a
+detailed description of how to find water, but makes no mention of the
+rod. There are two authorities sometimes cited as prior to Agricola, the
+first being Basil Valentine in his "Last Will and Testament"
+(<span class="smcaplower">XXIV-VIII.</span>), and while there may be some reason (see <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix</a>) for
+accepting the authenticity of the "Triumphal Chariot of Antimony" by
+this author, as dating about 1500, there can be little doubt that the
+"Last Will and Testament" was spurious and dated about 50 years after
+Agricola. Paracelsus (<i>De Natura Rerum</i> <span class="smcaplower">IX.</span>), says: "These (divinations)
+are vain and misleading, and among the first of them are divining rods,
+which have deceived many miners. If they once point rightly they deceive
+ten or twenty times." In his <i>De Origine Morborum Invisibilium</i> (Book
+I.) he adds that the "faith turns the rod." These works were no doubt
+written prior to <i>De Re Metallica</i>&mdash;Paracelsus died in 1541&mdash;but they
+were not published until some time afterward. Those interested in the
+strange persistence of this superstition down to the present day&mdash;and
+the files of the patent offices of the world are full of it&mdash;will find
+the subject exhaustively discussed in M. E. Chevreul's "<i>De la Baguette
+Divinatoire</i>," Paris, 1845; L. Figuier, "<i>Histoire du Merveilleux dans
+les temps moderne II.</i>", Paris, 1860; W. F. Barrett, Proceedings of the
+Society of Psychical Research, part 32, 1897, and 38, 1900; R. W.
+Raymond, American Inst. of Mining Engineers, 1883, p. 411. Of the
+descriptions by those who believed in it there is none better than that
+of William Pryce (<i>Mineralogia Cornubiensis</i>, London, 1778, pp.
+113-123), who devotes much pains to a refutation of Agricola. When we
+consider that a century later than Agricola such an advanced mind as
+Robert Boyle (1626-1691), the founder of the Royal Society, was
+convinced of the genuineness of the divining rod, one is more impressed
+with the clarity of Agricola's vision. In fact, there were few indeed,
+down to the 19th Century, who did not believe implicitly in the
+effectiveness of this instrument, and while science has long since
+abandoned it, not a year passes but some new manifestation of its hold
+on the popular mind breaks out.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_40" id="Notes_40">[Pg 40]</a></span><a name="Footnote_22_93" id="Footnote_22_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_93"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Exodus <span class="smcaplower">VII.</span>, 10, 11, 12.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_94" id="Footnote_23_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_94"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Odyssey <span class="smcaplower">XVI.</span>, 172, and <span class="smcaplower">X.</span>, 238.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_41" id="Notes_41">[Pg 41]</a></span><a name="Footnote_24_95" id="Footnote_24_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_95"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Odyssey <span class="smcaplower">XXIV.</span>, 1, etc. The <i>Caduceus</i> of Hermes had also
+the power of turning things to gold, and it is interesting to note that
+in its oldest form, as the insignia of heralds and of ambassadors, it
+had two prongs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_96" id="Footnote_25_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_96"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> In a general way <i>venae profundae</i> were fissure veins and
+<i>venae dilatatae</i> were sheeted deposits. For description see <a href="#BOOK_III">Book III</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_42" id="Notes_42">[Pg 42]</a></span><a name="Footnote_26_97" id="Footnote_26_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_97"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> These mines are in the Erzgebirge. We have adopted the
+names given in the German translation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_98" id="Footnote_27_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_98"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The quotation from Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII.</span>, 31) as a whole reads as
+follows:&mdash;
+</p><p>
+"Silver is found in nearly all the provinces, but the finest of all in
+Spain; where it is found in the barren lands, and in the mountains.
+Wherever one vein of silver has been found, another is sure to be found
+not far away. This is the case of nearly all the metals, whence it
+appears that the Greeks derived <i>metalla</i>. It is wonderful that the
+shafts begun by Hannibal in Spain still remain, their names being
+derived from their makers. One of these at the present day called
+Baebelo, furnished Hannibal with three hundred pounds' weight (of
+silver) per day. This mountain is excavated for a distance of fifteen
+hundred paces; and for this distance there are waterbearers lighted by
+torches standing night and day baling out the water in turns, thus
+making quite a river." Hannibal dates 247-183 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> and was therefore
+dead 206 years when Pliny was born. According to a footnote in Bostock
+and Riley's translation of Pliny, these workings were supposed to be in
+the neighbourhood of Castulo, now Cazlona, near Linares. It was at
+Castulo that Hannibal married his rich wife Himilce; and in the hills
+north of Linares there are ancient silver mines still known as Los Pozos
+de Anibal.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a>[Pg 43]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="BOOK_III" id="BOOK_III"></a>BOOK III.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="dropcap"><img src="images/capp.png" alt="P" /></div>
+<p style="text-indent:-1em;">
+reviously I have given much information concerning the miners, also I
+have discussed the choice of localities for mining, for washing sands,
+and for evaporating waters; further, I described the method of searching
+for veins. With such matters I was occupied in the second book; now I
+come to the third book, which is about veins and stringers, and the
+seams in the rocks<a name="FNanchor_1_99" id="FNanchor_1_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_99" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>. The term "vein" is sometimes used to indicate
+<i>canales</i> in the earth, but very often elsewhere by this name I have
+described that which may be put in vessels<a name="FNanchor_2_100" id="FNanchor_2_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_100" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>; I now attach a second
+significance to these words, for by them I mean to designate any mineral
+substances which the earth keeps hidden within her own deep receptacles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a>[Pg 44]</span></p>
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a><a href="images/fig45a.jpg"><img src="images/fig45athumb.jpg" alt="Vein in mountain" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A, C&mdash;The mountain. B&mdash;<i>Vena
+profunda</i>.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 45]</span></span>
+First I will speak of the veins, which, in depth, width, and length,
+differ very much one from another. Those of one variety descend from the
+surface of the earth to its lowest depths, which on account of this
+characteristic, I am accustomed to call "<i>venae profundae</i>."</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 45]</span></p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig45b.jpg"><img src="images/fig45bthumb.jpg" alt="Vein in mountain" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A, D&mdash;The mountain. B, C&mdash;<i>Vena
+dilatata</i>.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 45]</span></span>
+Another kind, unlike the <i>venae profundae</i>, neither ascend to the
+surface of the earth nor descend, but lying under the ground, expand
+over a large area; and on that account I call them "<i>venae dilatatae</i>."</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a>[Pg 46]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a><a href="images/fig49.jpg"><img src="images/fig49thumb.jpg" alt="Veins in mountain" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A, B, C, D&mdash;The mountain. E, F, G,
+H, I, K&mdash;<i>Vena cumulata</i>.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 49]</span></span>
+Another occupies a large extent of space in length and width; therefore
+I usually call it "<i>vena cumulata</i>," for it is nothing else than an
+accumulation of some certain kind of mineral, as I have described in the
+book <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a>[Pg 47]</span>entitled <i>De Subterraneorum Ortu et Causis</i>. It occasionally
+happens, though it is unusual and rare, that several accumulations of
+this kind are found in one place, each one or more fathoms in depth and
+four or five in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a>[Pg 48]</span>width, and one is distant from another two, three, or
+more fathoms. When the excavation of these accumulations begins, they at
+first appear in the shape of a disc; then they open out wider; finally
+from each of such <span class="pagenum">[Pg 49]</span>accumulations is usually formed a "<i>vena cumulata</i>."</p>
+
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a>[Pg 51]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a><a href="images/fig50a.jpg"><img src="images/fig50athumb.jpg" alt="Veins in mountain" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;<i>Vena profunda</i>.
+B&mdash;<i>Intervenium</i>. C&mdash;Another <i>vena profunda</i>.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 50]</span></span>
+<span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig50b.jpg"><img src="images/fig50bthumb.jpg" alt="Veins in mountain" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A &amp; B&mdash;<i>Vena dilatatae</i>.
+C&mdash;<i>Intervenium</i>. D &amp; E&mdash;Other <i>venae dilatatae</i>.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 50]</span></span>
+The space between two veins is called an <i>intervenium</i>; this interval
+between the veins, if it is between <i>venae dilatatae</i> is entirely hidden
+underground. If, however, it lies between <i>venae profundae</i> then the top
+is plainly in sight, and the remainder is hidden.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a><a href="images/fig53.jpg"><img src="images/fig53thumb.jpg" alt="Veins in mountain" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Wide <i>vena profunda</i>.
+B&mdash;Narrow <i>vena profunda</i>.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 53]</span></span>
+<i>Venae profundae</i> differ greatly one from another in width, for some of
+them are one fathom wide, some are two cubits, others one cubit; others
+again are a foot wide, and some only half a foot; all of which our
+miners call wide veins. Others on the contrary, are only a palm wide,
+others three digits, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a>[Pg 52]</span>or even two; these they call narrow. But in other
+places where there are very wide veins, the widths of a cubit, or a
+foot, or half a foot, are said to be narrow; at Cremnitz, for instance,
+there is a certain vein which measures in one place fifteen fathoms in
+width, in another eighteen, and in another twenty; the truth of this
+statement is vouched for by the inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 53]</span></p>
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a><a href="images/fig54a.jpg"><img src="images/fig54athumb.jpg" alt="Veins in mountain" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Thin <i>vena dilatata</i>.
+B&mdash;Thick <i>vena dilatata</i>.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 54]</span></span>
+<i>Venae dilatatae</i>, in truth, differ also in thickness, for some are one
+fathom thick, others two, or even more; some are a cubit thick, some a
+foot, some only half a foot; and all these are usually called thick
+veins. Some on the other hand, are but a palm thick, some three digits,
+some two, some one; these are called thin veins.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 54]</span></p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig54b.jpg"><img src="images/fig54bthumb.jpg" alt="Seams in the Rocks" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A, B, C&mdash;Vein. D, E, F&mdash;Seams in
+the Rock (<i>Commissurae Saxorum</i>).</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 54]</span></span>
+<i>Venae profundae</i> vary in direction; for some run from east to west.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a>[Pg 55]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig55a.jpg"><img src="images/fig55athumb.jpg" alt="Seams in the Rocks" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A, B, C&mdash;Vein. D, E, F&mdash;<i>Seams in
+the Rocks</i>.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 55]</span></span>
+Others, on the other hand, run from west to east.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig55b.jpg"><img src="images/fig55bthumb.jpg" alt="Seams in the Rocks" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A, B, C&mdash;Vein. D, E, F&mdash;<i>Seams in
+the Rocks</i>.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 55]</span></span>
+Others run from south to north.</p>
+
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a>[Pg 56]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig56.jpg"><img src="images/fig56thumb.jpg" alt="Seams in the Rocks" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A, B, C&mdash;Vein. D, E, F&mdash;<i>Seams in
+the Rocks</i>.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 56]</span></span>
+Others, on the contrary, run from north to south.</p>
+
+<p>The seams in the rocks indicate to us whether a vein runs from the east
+or from the west. For instance, if the rock seams incline toward the
+westward as they descend into the earth, the vein is said to run from
+east to west; if they incline toward the east, the vein is said to run
+from west to east; in a similar manner, we determine from the rock seams
+whether the veins run north or south.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a><a href="images/fig57.jpg"><img src="images/fig57thumb.jpg" alt="Compass" /></a><br /><span class="inum">[Pg 57]</span></span>
+Now miners divide each quarter of the earth into six divisions; and by
+this method they apportion the earth into twenty-four directions, which
+they divide into two parts of twelve each. The instrument which
+indicates these directions is thus constructed. First a circle is made;
+then at equal intervals on one half portion of it right through to the
+other, twelve straight lines called by the Greeks <span class="greek" title="Greek: diametroi">&delta;&iota;&#940;&mu;&epsilon;&tau;&rho;&omicron;&iota;</span>,
+and in the Latin <i>dimetientes</i>, are drawn through a central point which
+the Greeks call <span class="greek" title="Greek: kentron">&kappa;&#941;&nu;&tau;&rho;&omicron;&nu;</span>, so that the circle is thus divided
+into twenty-four divisions, all being of an equal size. Then, within the
+circle are inscribed three other circles, the outermost of which has
+cross-lines dividing it into twenty-four equal parts; the space between
+it and the next circle contains two sets of twelve numbers, inscribed on
+the lines called "diameters"; while within the innermost circle it is
+hollowed out to contain a magnetic needle<a name="FNanchor_3_101" id="FNanchor_3_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_101" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>. The needle lies directly
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg 57]</span>over that one of the twelve lines called "diameters" on which the
+number XII is inscribed at both ends.</p>
+
+<p>When the needle which is governed by the magnet points directly from the
+north to the south, the number XII at its tail, which is forked,
+signifies the north, that number XII which is at its point indicates the
+south. The sign VI superior indicates the east, and VI inferior the
+west. Further, between each two cardinal points there are always five
+others which are not so important. The first two of these directions are
+called the prior directions; the last two are called the posterior, and
+the fifth direction lies immediately between the former and the latter;
+it is halved, and one half is attributed to one cardinal point and one
+half to the other. For example, between the northern number XII and the
+eastern number VI, are points numbered I, II, III, IV, V, of which I and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a>[Pg 58]</span>II are northern directions lying toward the east, IV and V are eastern
+directions lying toward the north, and III is assigned, half to the
+north and half to the east.</p>
+
+<p>One who wishes to know the direction of the veins underground, places
+over the vein the instrument just described; and the needle, as soon as
+it becomes quiet, will indicate the course of the vein. That is, if the
+vein proceeds from VI to VI, it either runs from east to west, or from
+west to east; but whether it be the former or the latter, is clearly
+shown by the seams in the rocks. If the vein proceeds along the line
+which is between V and VI toward the opposite direction, it runs from
+between the fifth and sixth divisions of east to the west, or from
+between the fifth and sixth divisions of west to the east; and again,
+whether it is the one or the other is clearly shown by the seams in the
+rocks. In a similar manner we determine the other directions.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a><a href="images/fig59.jpg"><img src="images/fig59thumb.jpg" alt="Compass with winds" /></a><br /><span class="inum">[Pg 59]</span></span>
+Now miners reckon as many points as the sailors do in reckoning up the
+number of the winds. Not only is this done to-day in this country, but
+it was also done by the Romans who in olden times gave the winds partly
+Latin names and partly names borrowed from the Greeks. Any miner who
+pleases may therefore call the directions of the veins by the names of
+the winds. There are four principal winds, as there are four cardinal
+points: the <i>Subsolanus</i>, which blows from the east; and its opposite
+the <i>Favonius</i>, which blows from the west; the latter is called by the
+Greeks <span class="greek" title="Greek: Zephyros">&Zeta;&#941;&phi;&upsilon;&rho;&omicron;&#962;</span>, and the former <span class="greek" title="Greek: Ap�li�t�s">&#835;&Alpha;&pi;&eta;&lambda;&iota;&#974;&tau;&eta;&#962;</span>. There is
+the <i>Auster</i>, which blows from the south; and opposed to it is the
+<i>Septentrio</i>, from the north; the former the Greeks called <span class="greek" title="Greek: Notos">&Nu;&#972;&tau;&omicron;&#962;</span>, and the latter <span class="greek" title="Greek: Aparktias">&#835;&Alpha;&pi;&alpha;&rho;&kappa;&tau;&#943;&alpha;&#962;</span>. There are also subordinate
+winds, to the number of twenty, as there are directions, for between
+each two principal winds there are always five subordinate ones. Between
+the <i>Subsolanus</i> (east wind) and the <i>Auster</i> (south wind) there is the
+<i>Ornithiae</i> or the Bird wind, which has the first place next to the
+<i>Subsolanus</i>; then comes <i>Caecias</i>; then <i>Eurus</i>, which lies in the
+midway of these five; next comes <i>Vulturnus</i>; and lastly, <i>Euronotus</i>,
+nearest the <i>Auster</i> (south wind). The Greeks have given these names to
+all of these, with the exception of <i>Vulturnus</i>, but those who do not
+distinguish the winds in so precise a manner say this is the same as the
+Greeks called <span class="greek" title="Greek: Euros">&Epsilon;&#8022;&rho;&omicron;&#962;</span>. Between the <i>Auster</i> (south wind) and the
+<i>Favonius</i> (west wind) is first <i>Altanus</i>, to the right of the <i>Auster</i>
+(south wind); then <i>Libonotus</i>; then <i>Africus</i>, which is the middle one
+of these five; after that comes <i>Subvesperus</i>; next <i>Argestes</i>, to the
+left of <i>Favonius</i> (west wind). All these, with the exception of
+<i>Libonotus</i> and <i>Argestes</i>, have Latin names; but <i>Africus</i> also is
+called by the Greeks <span class="greek" title="Greek: Lips">&Lambda;&#943;&psi;</span>. In a similar manner, between
+<i>Favonius</i> (west wind) and <i>Septentrio</i> (north wind), first to the right
+of <i>Favonius</i> (west wind), is the <i>Etesiae</i>; then <i>Circius</i>; then
+<i>Caurus</i>, which is in the middle of these five; then <i>Corus</i>; and lastly
+<i>Thrascias</i> to the left of <i>Septentrio</i> (north wind). To all of these,
+except that of <i>Caurus</i>, the Greeks gave the names, and those who do not
+distinguish the winds by so exact a plan, assert that the wind which the
+Greeks called <span class="greek" title="Greek: Koros">&Kappa;&#972;&rho;&omicron;&#962;</span> and the Latins <i>Caurus</i> is one and the
+same. <span class="pagenum">[Pg 59]</span>Again, between <i>Septentrio</i> (north wind) and the <i>Subsolanus</i>
+(east wind), the first to the right of <i>Septentrio</i> (north wind) is
+<i>Gallicus</i>; then <i>Supernas</i>; then <i>Aquilo</i>, which is the middle one of
+these five; next comes <i>Boreas</i>; and lastly <i>Carbas</i>, to the left of
+<i>Subsolanus</i> (east wind). Here again, those who do not consider the
+winds to be in so great a multitude, but say there are but twelve winds
+in all, or at the most fourteen, assert that the wind called by the
+Greeks <span class="greek" title="Greek: Boreas">&Beta;&omicron;&rho;&#941;&alpha;&#962;</span> and the Latins <i>Aquilo</i> is one and the same. For
+our purpose it is not only useful to adopt this large number of winds,
+but even to double it, as the German sailors do. They always reckon that
+between each two there is one in the centre taken from both. By this
+method we <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a>[Pg 60]</span>also are able to signify the intermediate directions by means
+of the names of the winds. For instance, if a vein runs from VI east to
+VI west, it is said to proceed from <i>Subsolanus</i> (east wind) to
+<i>Favonius</i> (west wind); but one which proceeds from between V and VI of
+the east to between V and VI west is said to proceed out of the middle
+of <i>Carbas</i> and <i>Subsolanus</i> to between <i>Argestes</i> and <i>Favonius</i>; the
+remaining directions, and their intermediates are similarly designated.
+The miner, on account of the natural properties of a magnet, by which
+the needle points to the south, must fix the instrument already
+described so that east is to the left and west to the right.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig60.jpg"><img src="images/fig60thumb.jpg" alt="Veins in mountain" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A, B&mdash;<i>Venae dilatatae</i>. C&mdash;<i>Seams
+in the Rocks</i>.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 60]</span></span>
+In a similar way to <i>venae profundae</i>, the <i>venae dilatatae</i> vary in
+their lateral directions, and we are able to understand from the seams
+in the rocks in which direction they extend into the ground. For if
+these incline toward the west in depth, the vein is said to extend from
+east to west; if on the contrary, they incline toward the east, the vein
+is said to go from west to east. In the same way, from the rock seams we
+can determine veins running south and north, or the reverse, and
+likewise to the subordinate directions and their intermediates.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a><a href="images/fig61a.jpg"><img src="images/fig61athumb.jpg" alt="Veins in mountain" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Straight <i>vena profunda</i>.
+B&mdash;Curved <i>vena profunda</i></span> [should be <i>vena dilatata</i>(?)]. <span class="inum">[Pg 61]</span></span>
+Further, as regards the question of direction of a <i>vena profunda</i>, one
+runs straight from one quarter of the earth to that quarter which is
+opposite, while another one runs in a curve, in which case it may happen
+that a vein proceeding from the east does not turn to the quarter
+opposite, which is the west, but twists itself and turns to the south or
+the north.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 61]</span></p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig61b.jpg"><img src="images/fig61bthumb.jpg" alt="Veins in mountain" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Horizontal <i>vena dilatata</i>.
+B&mdash;Inclined <i>vena dilatata</i>. C&mdash;Curved <i>vena dilatata</i>.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 61]</span></span>
+Similarly some <i>venae dilatatae</i> are horizontal, some are inclined, and
+some are curved.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a>[Pg 62]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig62a.jpg"><img src="images/fig62athumb.jpg" alt="Veins in mountain" /></a><br /><span class="inum">[Pg 62]</span></span>
+Also the veins which we call <i>profundae</i> differ in the manner in which
+they descend into the depths of the earth; for some are vertical (A),
+some are inclined and sloping (B), others crooked (C).</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig62b.jpg"><img src="images/fig62bthumb.jpg" alt="Veins in mountain" /></a><br /><span class="inum">[Pg 62]</span></span>
+Moreover, <i>venae profundae</i> (B) differ much among themselves regarding
+the kind of locality through which they pass, for some extend along the
+slopes of mountains or hills (A-C) and do not descend down the sides.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a>[Pg 63]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig63a.jpg"><img src="images/fig63athumb.jpg" alt="Veins in mountain" /></a><br /><span class="inum">[Pg 63]</span></span>
+Other <i>Venae Profundae</i> (D, E, F) from the very summit of the mountain
+or hill descend the slope (A) to the hollow or valley (B), and they
+again ascend the slope or the side of the mountain or hill opposite (C).</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig63b.jpg"><img src="images/fig63bthumb.jpg" alt="Veins in mountain" /></a><br /><span class="inum">[Pg 63]</span></span>
+Other <i>Venae Profundae</i> (C, D) descend the mountain or hill (A) and
+extend out into the plain (B).</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a>[Pg 64]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig64a.jpg"><img src="images/fig64athumb.jpg" alt="Veins in mountain" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Mountainous Plain. B&mdash;<i>Vena
+profunda</i>.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 64]</span></span>
+Some veins run straight along on the plateaux, the hills, or plains.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a>[Pg 65]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig64b.jpg"><img src="images/fig64bthumb.jpg" alt="Intersections of Veins" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Principal vein.
+B&mdash;Transverse vein. C&mdash;Vein cutting principal one obliquely.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 64]</span></span>
+In the next place, <i>venae profundae</i> differ not a little in the manner
+in which they intersect, since one may cross through a second
+transversely, or one may cross another one obliquely as if cutting it in
+two.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig65.jpg"><img src="images/fig65thumb.jpg" alt="Intersections of Veins" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Principal vein. B&mdash;Vein
+which cuts A obliquely. C&mdash;Part carried away. D&mdash;That part which has
+been carried forward.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 65]</span></span>
+If a vein which cuts through another principal one obliquely be the
+harder of the two, it penetrates right through it, just as a wedge of
+beech or iron can be driven through soft wood by means of a tool. If it
+be softer, the principal vein either drags the soft one with it for a
+distance of three feet, or perhaps one, two, three, or several fathoms,
+or else throws it forward along the principal vein; but this latter
+happens very rarely. But that the vein which cuts the principal one is
+the same vein on both sides, is shown by its having the same character
+in its footwalls and hangingwalls.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a><a href="images/fig66a.jpg"><img src="images/fig66athumb.jpg" alt="Intersections of Veins" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A, B&mdash;Two veins descend
+inclined and dip toward each other. C&mdash;Junction. Likewise two veins.
+D&mdash;Indicates one descending vertically. E&mdash;Marks the other descending
+inclined, which dips toward D. F&mdash;Their junction.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 66]</span></span>
+Sometimes <i>venae profundae</i> join one with another, and from two or more
+outcropping veins<a name="FNanchor_4_102" id="FNanchor_4_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_102" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>, one is formed; or from two which do not outcrop
+one is made, if they are not far distant from each other, and the one
+dips into the other, or if each dips toward the other, and they thus
+join when they have descended in depth. In exactly the same way, out of
+three or more veins, one may be formed in depth.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a>[Pg 67]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig66b.jpg"><img src="images/fig66bthumb.jpg" alt="Intersections of Veins" /></a><br /><span class="inum">[Pg 66]</span></span>
+However, such a junction of veins sometimes disunites and in this way
+it happens that the vein which was the right-hand vein becomes the left;
+and again, the one which was on the left becomes the right.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig67.jpg"><img src="images/fig67thumb.jpg" alt="Intersections of Veins" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A, B&mdash;Veins dividing. C&mdash;The
+same joining.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 67]</span></span>
+Furthermore, one vein may be split and divided into parts by some hard
+rock resembling a beak, or stringers in soft rock may sunder the vein
+and make two or more. These sometimes join together again and sometimes
+remain divided.</p>
+
+<p>Whether a vein is separating from or uniting with another can be
+determined only from the seams in the rocks. For example, if a principal
+vein runs from the east to the west, the rock seams descend in depth
+likewise from the east toward the west, and the associated vein which
+joins with the principal vein, whether it runs from the south or the
+north, has its rock seams extending in the same way as its own, and they
+do not conform with the seams in the rock of the principal vein&mdash;which
+remain the same after the junction&mdash;unless the associated vein proceeds
+in the same direction as the principal vein. In that case we name the
+broader vein the principal one, and the narrower the associated vein.
+But if the principal vein splits, the rock seams which belong
+respectively to the parts, keep the same course when descending in depth
+as those of the principal vein.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a><a href="images/fig68.jpg"><img src="images/fig68thumb.jpg" alt="Intersections of Veins" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A, C&mdash;<i>Vena dilatata</i>
+crossing a <i>vena profunda</i>. B&mdash;<i>Vena profunda</i>. D, E&mdash;<i>Vena dilatata</i>
+which junctions with a <i>vena profunda</i>. F&mdash;<i>Vena profunda</i>. G&mdash;<i>Vena
+dilatata</i>. H, I&mdash;Its divided parts. K&mdash;<i>Vena profunda</i> which divides the
+<i>vena dilatata</i>.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 68]</span></span>
+But enough of <i>venae profundae</i>, their junctions and divisions. Now we
+come to <i>venae dilatatae</i>. A <i>vena dilatata</i> may either cross a <i>vena
+profunda</i>, or join with it, or it may be cut by a <i>vena profunda</i>, and
+be divided into parts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 68]</span></p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a><a href="images/fig69a.jpg"><img src="images/fig69athumb.jpg" alt="Veins in mountain" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;The "beginning" (<i>origo</i>).
+B&mdash;The "end" (<i>finis</i>). C&mdash;The "head" (<i>caput</i>). D&mdash;The "tail"
+(<i>cauda</i>).</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 69]</span></span>
+Finally, a <i>vena profunda</i> has a "beginning" (<i>origo</i>), an "end"
+(<i>finis</i>), a "head" (<i>caput</i>), and a "tail" (<i>cauda</i>). That part whence
+it takes its rise is said to be its "beginning," that in which it
+terminates the "end." Its "head"<a name="FNanchor_5_103" id="FNanchor_5_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_103" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> is that part which emerges into
+daylight; its "tail" that part which is hidden in the earth. But miners
+have no need to seek the "beginning" of veins, as formerly the kings of
+Egypt sought for the source of the Nile, but it is enough for them to
+discover some other part of the vein and to recognise its direction, for
+seldom can either the "beginning" or the "end" be found. The direction
+in which the head of the vein comes into the light, or the direction
+toward which the tail extends, is indicated by its footwall and
+hangingwall. The latter is said to hang, and the former to lie. The vein
+rests on the footwall, and the hangingwall overhangs it; thus, when we
+descend a shaft, the part to which we turn the face is the footwall and
+seat of the vein, that to which we turn the back is the hangingwall.
+Also in another way, the head accords with the footwall and the tail
+with the hangingwall, for if the footwall is toward the south, the vein
+extends its head into the light toward the south; and the hangingwall,
+because it is always opposite to the footwall, is then toward the north.
+Consequently the vein extends its tail toward the north if it is an
+inclined <i>vena profunda</i>. Similarly, we can determine with regard to
+east and west and the subordinate and their intermediate directions. A
+<i>vena profunda</i> which descends into the earth may be either vertical,
+inclined, or crooked; the footwall of an inclined vein is easily
+distinguished from the hangingwall, but it is not so with a vertical
+vein; and again, the footwall of a crooked vein is inverted and changed
+into the hangingwall, and contrariwise the hangingwall is twisted into
+the footwall, but very many of these crooked veins may be turned back to
+vertical or inclined ones.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 69]</span></p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig69b.jpg"><img src="images/fig69bthumb.jpg" alt="Veins in mountain" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;The "beginning." B&mdash;The "end."
+C, D&mdash;The "sides."</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 69]</span></span>
+A <i>vena dilatata</i> has only a "beginning" and an "end," and in the place
+of the "head" and "tail" it has two sides.</p>
+
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a>[Pg 70]</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig70.jpg"><img src="images/fig70thumb.jpg" alt="Veins in mountain" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;The "beginning." B&mdash;The "end."
+C&mdash;The "head." D&mdash;The "tail." E&mdash;Transverse vein.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 70]</span></span>
+A <i>vena cumulata</i> has a "beginning," an "end," a "head," and a "tail,"
+just as a <i>vena profunda</i>. Moreover, a <i>vena cumulata</i>, and likewise a
+<i>vena dilatata</i>, are often cut through by a transverse <i>vena profunda</i>.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a><a href="images/fig71a.jpg"><img src="images/fig71athumb.jpg" alt="Fibra dilatata" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A, B&mdash;Veins. C&mdash;Transverse
+stringer. D&mdash;Oblique stringer. E&mdash;Associated stringer. F&mdash;<i>Fibra
+dilatata</i>.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 71]</span></span>
+Stringers (<i>fibrae</i>)<a name="FNanchor_6_104" id="FNanchor_6_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_104" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>, which are little veins, are classified into
+<i>fibrae transversae</i>, <i>fibrae obliquae</i> which cut the vein obliquely,
+<i>fibrae sociae</i>, <i>fibrae dilatatae</i>, and <i>fibrae incumbentes</i>. The
+<i>fibra transversa</i> crosses the vein; the <i>fibra obliqua</i> crosses the
+vein obliquely; the <i>fibra socia</i> joins with the vein itself; the <i>fibra
+dilatata</i>, like the <i>vena dilatata</i>, penetrates through it; but the
+<i>fibra dilatata</i>, as well as the <i>fibra profunda</i>, is usually found
+associated with a vein.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig71b.jpg"><img src="images/fig71bthumb.jpg" alt="Fibra incumbens" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Vein. B&mdash;<i>Fibra incumbens</i> from
+the surface of the hangingwall. C&mdash;Same from the footwall.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 71]</span></span>
+The <i>fibra incumbens</i> does not descend as deeply into the earth as the
+other stringers, but lies on the vein, as it were, from the surface to
+the hangingwall or footwall, from which it is named <i>Subdialis</i>.<a name="FNanchor_7_105" id="FNanchor_7_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_105" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<p>In truth, as to direction, junctions, and divisions, the stringers are
+not different from the veins.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a>[Pg 72]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig72.jpg"><img src="images/fig72thumb.jpg" alt="Seams in the Rocks" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Seams which proceed from the
+east. B&mdash;The inverse.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 72]</span></span>
+Lastly, the seams, which are the very finest stringers (<i>fibrae</i>),
+divide the rock, and occur sometimes frequently, sometimes rarely. From
+whatever direction the vein comes, its seams always turn their heads
+toward the light in the same direction. But, while the seams usually run
+from one point of the compass to another immediately opposite it, as for
+instance, from east to west, if hard stringers divert them, it may
+happen that these very seams, which before were running from east to
+west, then contrariwise proceed from west to east, and the direction of
+the rocks is thus inverted. In such a case, the direction of the veins
+is judged, not by the direction of the seams which occur rarely, but by
+those which constantly recur.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a><a href="images/fig73.jpg"><img src="images/fig73thumb.jpg" alt="Veins in mountain" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Solid vein. B&mdash;Solid stringer.
+C&mdash;Cavernous vein. D&mdash;Cavernous stringer. E&mdash;Barren vein. F&mdash;Barren
+stringer.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 73]</span></span>
+Both veins or stringers may be solid or drusy, or barren of minerals, or
+pervious to water. Solid veins contain no water and very little air. The
+drusy veins rarely contain water; they often contain air. Those which
+are barren of minerals often carry water. Solid veins and stringers
+consist sometimes of hard materials, sometimes of soft, and sometimes of
+a kind of medium between the two.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 73]</span></p>
+
+<p>But to return to veins. A great number of miners consider<a name="FNanchor_8_106" id="FNanchor_8_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_106" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> that the
+best veins in depth are those which run from the VI or VII direction of
+the east to the VI or VII direction of the west, through a mountain
+slope which inclines to the north; and whose hangingwalls are in the
+south, and whose footwalls are in the north, and which have their heads
+rising to the north, as explained before, always like the footwall, and
+finally, whose rock seams turn their heads to the east. And the veins
+which are the next <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"></a>[Pg 74]</span>best are those which, on the contrary, extend from
+the VI or VII direction of the west to the VI or VII direction of the
+east, through the slope of a mountain which similarly inclines to the
+north, whose hangingwalls are also in the south, whose footwalls are in
+the north, and whose heads rise toward the north; and lastly, whose rock
+seams raise their heads toward the west. In the third place, they
+recommend those veins which extend from XII north to XII south, through
+the slope of a mountain which faces east; whose hangingwalls are in the
+west, whose footwalls are in the east; whose heads rise toward the east;
+and whose rock seams raise their heads toward the north. Therefore they
+devote all their energies to those veins, and give very little or
+nothing to those whose heads, or the heads of whose rock seams rise
+toward the south or west. For although they say these veins sometimes
+show bright specks of pure metal adhering to the stones, or they come
+upon lumps of metal, yet these are so few and far between that despite
+them it is not worth the trouble to excavate such veins; and miners who
+persevere in digging in the hope of coming upon a quantity of metal,
+always lose their time and trouble. And they say that from veins of this
+kind, since the sun's rays draw out the metallic material, very little
+metal is gained. But in this matter the actual experience of the miners
+who thus judge of the veins does not always agree with their opinions,
+nor is their reasoning sound; since indeed the veins which run from east
+to west through the slope of a mountain which inclines to the south,
+whose heads rise likewise to the south, are not less charged with
+metals, than those to which miners are wont to accord the first place in
+productiveness; as in recent years has been proved by the St. Lorentz
+vein at Abertham, which our countrymen call Gottsgaab, for they have dug
+out of it a large quantity of pure silver; and lately a vein in
+Annaberg, called by the name of Himmelsch hoz<a name="FNanchor_9_107" id="FNanchor_9_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_107" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>, has made it <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a>[Pg 75]</span>plain by
+the production of much silver that veins which extend from the north to
+the south, with their heads rising toward the west, are no less rich in
+metals than those whose heads rise toward the east.</p>
+
+<p>It may be denied that the heat of the sun draws the metallic material
+out of these veins; for though it draws up vapours from the surface of
+the ground, the rays of the sun do not penetrate right down to the
+depths; because the air of a tunnel which is covered and enveloped by
+solid earth to the depth of only two fathoms is cold in summer, for the
+intermediate earth holds in check the force of the sun. Having observed
+this fact, the inhabitants and dwellers of very hot regions lie down by
+day in caves which protect them from the excessive ardour of the sun.
+Therefore it is unlikely that the sun draws out from within the earth
+the metallic bodies. Indeed, it cannot even dry the moisture of many
+places abounding in veins, because they are protected and shaded by the
+trees. Furthermore, certain miners, out of all the different kinds of
+metallic veins, choose those which I have described, and others, on the
+contrary, reject copper mines which are of this sort, so that there
+seems to be no reason in this. For what can be the reason if the sun
+draws no copper from copper veins, that it draws silver from silver
+veins, and gold from gold veins?</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, some miners, of whose number was Calbus<a name="FNanchor_10_108" id="FNanchor_10_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_108" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>, distinguish
+between the gold-bearing rivers and streams. A river, they say, or a
+stream, is most productive of fine and coarse grains of gold when it
+comes from the east and flows to the west, and when it washes against
+the foot of mountains which are situated in the north, and when it has a
+level plain toward the south or west. In the second place, they esteem a
+river or a stream which flows in the opposite course from the west
+toward the east, and which has the mountains to the north and the level
+plain to the south. In the third place, they esteem the river or the
+stream which flows from the north to the south and washes the base of
+the mountains which are situated in the east. But they say that the
+river or stream is least productive of gold which flows in a contrary
+direction from the south to the north, and washes the base of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a>[Pg 76]</span>mountains
+which are situated in the west. Lastly, of the streams or rivers which
+flow from the rising sun toward the setting sun, or which flow from the
+northern parts to the southern parts, they favour those which approach
+the nearest to the lauded ones, and say they are more productive of
+gold, and the further they depart from them the less productive they
+are. Such are the opinions held about rivers and streams. Now, since
+gold is not generated in the rivers and streams, as we have maintained
+against Albertus<a name="FNanchor_11_109" id="FNanchor_11_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_109" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> in the book entitled "<i>De Subterraneorum Ortu et
+Causis</i>," Book V, but is torn away from the veins and stringers and
+settled in the sands of torrents and water-courses, in whatever
+direction the rivers or streams flow, therefore it is reasonable to
+expect to find gold therein; which is not opposed by experience.
+Nevertheless, we do not deny that gold is generated in veins and
+stringers which lie under the beds of rivers or streams, as in other
+places.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p class="center">END OF BOOK III.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_43" id="Notes_43">[Pg 43]</a></span><a name="Footnote_1_99" id="Footnote_1_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_99"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Modern nomenclature in the description of ore-deposits is
+so impregnated with modern views of their origin, that we have
+considered it desirable in many instances to adopt the Latin terms used
+by the author, for we believe this method will allow the reader greater
+freedom of judgment as to the author's views. The Latin names retained
+are usually expressive even to the non-Latin student. In a general way,
+a <i>vena profunda</i> is a fissure vein, a <i>vena dilatata</i> is a bedded
+deposit, and a <i>vena cumulata</i> an impregnation, or a replacement or a
+<i>stockwerk</i>. The <i>canales</i>, as will appear from the following footnote,
+were ore channels. "The seams of the rocks" (<i>commissurae saxorum</i>) are
+very puzzling. The author states, as appears in the following note, that
+they are of two kinds,&mdash;contemporaneous with the formation of the rocks,
+and also of the nature of veinlets. However, as to their supposed
+relation to the strike of veins, we can offer no explanation. There are
+passages in this chapter where if the word "ore-shoot" were introduced
+for "seams in the rocks" the text would be intelligible. That is, it is
+possible to conceive the view that the determination of whether an
+east-west vein ran east or ran west was dependent on the dip of the
+ore-shoot along the strike. This view, however, is utterly impossible to
+reconcile with the description and illustration of <i>commissurae saxorum</i>
+given on page <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, where they are defined as the finest stringers. The
+following passage from the <i>N�tzliche Bergb�chlin</i> (see <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix</a>), reads
+very much as though the dip of ore-shoots was understood at this time in
+relation to the direction of veins. "Every vein (<i>gang</i>) has two
+(outcrops) <i>ausgehen</i>, one of the <i>ausgehen</i> is toward daylight along
+the whole length of the vein, which is called the <i>ausgehen</i> of the
+whole vein. The other <i>ausgehen</i> is contrary to or toward the strike
+(<i>streichen</i>) of the vein, according to its rock (<i>gestein</i>), that is
+called the <i>gesteins ausgehen</i>; for instance, every vein that has its
+strike from east to west has its <i>gesteins ausgehen</i> to the east, and
+<i>vice-versa</i>."
+</p><p>
+Agricola's classification of ore-deposits, after the general distinction
+between alluvial and <i>in situ</i> deposits, is based entirely upon form, as
+will be seen in the quotation below relating to the origin of <i>canales</i>.
+The German equivalents in the Glossary are as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Fissure vein (<i>vena profunda</i>)</td><td align="left"><i>Gang.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bedded deposit (<i>vena dilatata</i>)</td><td align="left"><i>Schwebender gang oder fletze.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Stockwerk or impregnation (<i>vena cumulata</i>)</td><td align="left"><i>Geschute oder stock.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Stringer (<i>fibra</i>)</td><td align="left"><i>Klufft.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Seams or joints (<i>commissurae saxorum</i>)</td><td align="left"><i>Absetzen des gesteins.</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+It is interesting to note that in <i>De Natura Fossilium</i> he describes
+coal and salt, and later in <i>De Re Metallica</i> he describes the Mannsfeld
+copper schists, as all being <i>venae dilatatae</i>. This nomenclature and
+classification is not original with Agricola. Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 21) uses
+the term <i>vena</i> with no explanations, and while Agricola coined the
+Latin terms for various kinds of veins, they are his transliteration of
+German terms already in use. The <i>N�tzliche Bergb�chlin</i> gives this same
+classification.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Historical Note on the Theory of Ore Deposits.</span> Prior to Agricola there
+were three schools of explanation of the phenomena of ore deposits, the
+orthodox followers of the Genesis, the Greek Philosophers, and the
+Alchemists. The geology of the Genesis&mdash;the contemporaneous formation of
+everything&mdash;needs no comment other than that for anyone to have proposed
+an alternative to the dogma of the orthodox during the Middle Ages,
+required much <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_44" id="Notes_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>independence of mind. Of the Greek views&mdash;which are meagre
+enough&mdash;that of the Peripatetics greatly dominated thought on natural
+phenomena down to the 17th century. Aristotle's views may be summarized:
+The elements are earth, water, air, and fire; they are transmutable and
+never found pure, and are endowed with certain fundamental properties
+which acted as an "efficient" force upon the material cause&mdash;the
+elements. These properties were dryness and dampness and heat and cold,
+the latter being active, the former passive. Further, the elements were
+possessed of weight and lightness, for instance earth was absolutely
+heavy, fire absolutely light. The active and passive properties existed
+in binary combinations, one of which is characteristic, <i>i.e.</i>, "earth"
+is cold and dry, water damp and cold, fire hot and dry, air hot and wet;
+transmutation took place, for instance, by removing the cold from water,
+when air resulted (really steam), and by removing the dampness from
+water, when "earth" resulted (really any dissolved substance). The
+transmutation of the elements in the earth (meaning the globe) produces
+two "exhalations," the one fiery (probably meaning gases), the other
+damp (probably meaning steam). The former produces stones, the latter
+the metals. Theophrastus (On Stones, <span class="smcaplower">I</span> to <span class="smcaplower">VII.</span>) elaborates the views of
+Aristotle on the origin of stones, metals, etc.: "Of things formed in
+the earth some have their origin from water, others from earth. Water is
+the basis of metals, silver, gold, and the rest; 'earth' of stones, as
+well the more precious as the common.... All these are formed by
+solidification of matter pure and equal in its constituent parts, which
+has been brought together in that state by mere afflux or by means of
+some kind of percolation, or separated.... The solidification is in some
+of these substances due to heat and in others to cold." (Based on Hill's
+Trans., pp. 3-11). That is, the metals inasmuch as they become liquid
+when heated must be in a large part water, and, like water, they
+solidify with cold. Therefore, the "metals are cold and damp." Stones,
+on the other hand, solidify with heat and do not liquefy, therefore,
+they are "dry and hot" and partake largely of "earth." This "earth" was
+something indefinite, but purer and more pristine than common clay. In
+discussing the ancient beliefs with regard to the origin of deposits, we
+must not overlook the import of the use of the word "vein" (<i>vena</i>) by
+various ancient authors including Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 21), although he offers
+no explanation of the term.
+</p><p>
+During the Middle Ages there arose the horde of Alchemists and
+Astrologers, a review of the development of whose muddled views is but
+barren reading. In the main they held more or less to the Peripatetic
+view, with additions of their own. Geber (13th (?) century, see <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix
+B</a>) propounded the conception that all metals were composed of varying
+proportions of "spiritual" sulphur and quicksilver, and to these
+Albertus Magnus added salt. The Astrologers contributed the idea that
+the immediate cause of the metals were the various planets. The only
+work devoted to description of ore-deposits prior to Agricola was the
+<i>Bergb�chlin</i> (about 1520, see <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix B</a>), and this little book
+exhibits the absolute apogee of muddled thought derived from the
+Peripatetics, the Alchemists, and the Astrologers. We believe it is of
+interest to reproduce the following statement, if for no other reason
+than to indicate the great advance in thought shown by Agricola.
+</p><p>
+"The first chapter or first part; on the common origin of ore, whether
+silver, gold, tin, copper, iron, or lead ore, in which they all appear
+together, and are called by the common name of metallic ore. It must be
+noticed that for the washing or smelting of metallic ore, there must be
+the one who works and the thing that is worked upon, or the material
+upon which the work is expended. The general worker (efficient force) on
+the ore and on all things that are born, is the heavens, its movement,
+its light and influences, as the philosophers say. The influence of the
+heavens is multiplied by the movement of the firmaments and the
+movements of the seven planets. Therefore, every metallic ore receives a
+special influence from its own particular planet, due to the properties
+of the planet and of the ore, also due to properties of heat, cold,
+dampness, and dryness. Thus gold is of the Sun or its influence, silver
+of the Moon, tin of Jupiter, copper of Venus, iron of Mars, lead of
+Saturn, and quicksilver of Mercury. Therefore, metals are often called
+by these names by hermits and other philosophers. Thus gold is called
+the Sun, in Latin <i>Sol</i>, silver is called the Moon, in Latin <i>Luna</i>, as
+is clearly stated in the special chapters on each metal. Thus briefly
+have we spoken of the 'common worker' of metal and ore. But the thing
+worked upon, or the common material of all metals, according to the
+opinion of the learned, is sulphur and quicksilver, which through the
+movement and influence of the heavens must have become united and
+hardened into one metallic body or one ore. Certain others hold that
+through the movement and the influence of the heavens, vapours or
+<i>braden</i>, called mineral exhalations, are drawn up from the depths of
+the earth, from sulphur and quicksilver, and the rising fumes pass into
+the veins and stringers and are <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_46" id="Notes_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>united through the effect of the planets
+and made into ore. Certain others hold that metal is not formed from
+quicksilver, because in many places metallic ore is found and no
+quicksilver. But instead of quicksilver they maintain a damp and cold
+and slimy material is set up on all sulphur which is drawn out from the
+earth, like your perspiration, and from that mixed with sulphur all
+metals are formed. Now each of these opinions is correct according to a
+good understanding and right interpretation; the ore or metal is formed
+from the fattiness of the earth as the material of the first degree
+(primary element), also the vapours or <i>braden</i> on the one part and the
+materials on the other part, both of which are called quicksilver.
+Likewise in the mingling or union of the quicksilver and the sulphur in
+the ore, the sulphur is counted the male and quicksilver the female, as
+in the bearing or conception of a child. Also the sulphur is a special
+worker in ore or metal.
+</p><p>
+"The second chapter or part deals with the general capacity of the
+mountain. Although the influence of the heavens and the fitness of the
+material are necessary to the formation of ore or metal, yet these are
+not enough thereto. But there must be adaptability of the natural vessel
+in which the ore is formed, such are the veins, namely <i>steinendegange</i>,
+<i>flachgange</i>, <i>schargange</i>, <i>creutzgange</i>, or as these may be termed in
+provincial names. Also the mineral force must have easy access to the
+natural vessel such as through the <i>kluffte</i> (stringers), namely
+<i>hengkluft</i>, <i>querklufte</i>, <i>flachekluffte</i>, <i>creutzklufft</i>, and other
+occasional <i>flotzwerk</i>, according to their various local names. Also
+there must be a suitable place in the mountain which the veins and
+stringers can traverse."
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Agricola's Views on the Origin of Ore Deposits.</span> Agricola rejected
+absolutely the Biblical view which, he says, was the opinion of the
+vulgar; further, he repudiates the alchemistic and astrological view
+with great vigour. There can be no doubt, however, that he was greatly
+influenced by the Peripatetic philosophy. He accepted absolutely the
+four elements&mdash;earth, fire, water, and air, and their "binary"
+properties, and the theory that every substance had a material cause
+operated upon by an efficient force. Beyond this he did not go, and a
+large portion of <i>De Ortu et Causis</i> is devoted to disproof of the
+origin of metals and stones from the Peripatetic "exhalations."
+</p><p>
+No one should conclude that Agricola's theories are set out with the
+clarity of Darwin or Lyell. However, the matter is of such importance in
+the history of the theory of ore-deposits, and has been either so
+ignored or so coloured by the preconceptions of narrators, that we
+consider it justifiable to devote the space necessary to a reproduction
+of his own statements in <i>De Ortu et Causis</i> and other works. Before
+doing so we believe it will be of service to readers to summarize these
+views, and in giving quotations from the Author's other works, to group
+them under special headings, following the outline of his theory given
+below. His theory was:&mdash;
+</p><p>
+(1) Openings in the earth (<i>canales</i>) were formed by the erosion of
+subterranean waters.
+</p><p>
+(2) These ground waters were due (<i>a</i>) to the infiltration of the
+surface waters, rain, river, and sea water; (<i>b</i>) to the condensation of
+steam (<i>halitus</i>) arising from the penetration of the surface waters to
+greater depths,&mdash;the production of this <i>halitus</i> being due to
+subterranean heat, which in his view was in turn due in the main to
+burning bitumen (a comprehensive genera which embraced coal).
+</p><p>
+(3) The filling of these <i>canales</i> is composed of "earth," "solidified
+juices," "stone," metals, and "compounds," all deposited from water and
+"juices" circulating in the <i>canales</i>. (See also <a href="#Footnote_4_45">note 4, page 1</a>).
+</p><p>
+"Earth" comprises clay, mud, ochre, marl, and "peculiar earths"
+generally. The origin of these "earths" was from rocks, due to erosion,
+transportation, and deposition by water. "Solidified juices" (<i>succi
+concreti</i>) comprised salt, soda, vitriol, bitumen, etc., being generally
+those substances which he conceived were soluble in and deposited from
+water. "Stones" comprised precious, semi-precious, and unusual stones,
+such as quartz, fluor-spar, etc., as distinguished from country rock;
+the origin of these he attributed in minor proportion to transportation
+of fragments of rock, but in the main to deposits from ordinary mineral
+juice and from "stone juice" (<i>succus lapidescens</i>). Metals comprised
+the seven traditional metals; the "compounds" comprised the metallic
+minerals; and both were due to deposition from juices, the compounds
+being due to a mixture of juices. The "juices" play the most important
+part in Agricola's theory. Each substance had its own particular juice,
+and in his theory every substance had a material and an efficient cause,
+the first being the juice, the second being heat or cold. Owing to the
+latter the juices fell into two categories&mdash;those solidified by heat
+(<i>i.e.</i>, by evaporation, such as salt), and those solidified by cold,
+(<i>i.e.</i>, because metals melt and flow by heat, therefore their
+solidification was due to cold, and the juice underwent similar
+treatment). As to the origin of these juices, some were generated by the
+solution of their own particular substance, but in the <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_47" id="Notes_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>main their origin
+was due to the combination of "dry things," such as "earth," with water,
+the mixture being heated, and the resultant metals depended upon the
+proportions of "earth" and water. In some cases we have been inclined to
+translate <i>succus</i> (juice) as "solution," but in other cases it embraced
+substances to which this would not apply, and we feared implying in the
+text a chemical understanding not warranted prior to the atomic theory.
+In order to distinguish between earths, (clays, etc.,) the Peripatetic
+"earth" (a pure element) and the earth (the globe) we have given the two
+former in quotation marks. There is no doubt some confusion between
+earth (clays, etc.) and the Peripatetic "earth," as the latter was a
+pure substance not found in its pristine form in nature; it is, however,
+difficult to distinguish between the two.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Origin of Canales</span> (<i>De Ortu</i>, p. 35). "I now come to the <i>canales</i> in
+the earth. These are veins, veinlets, and what are called 'seams in the
+rocks.' These serve as vessels or receptacles for the material from
+which minerals (<i>res fossiles</i>) are formed. The term <i>vena</i> is most
+frequently given to what is contained in the <i>canales</i>, but likewise the
+same name is applied to the <i>canales</i> themselves. The term vein is
+borrowed from that used for animals, for just as their veins are
+distributed through all parts of the body, and just as by means of the
+veins blood is diffused from the liver throughout the whole body, so
+also the veins traverse the whole globe, and more particularly the
+mountainous districts; and water runs and flows through them. With
+regard to veinlets or stringers and 'seams in the rocks,' which are the
+thinnest stringers, the following is the mode of their arrangement.
+Veins in the earth, just like the veins of an animal, have certain
+veinlets of their own, but in a contrary way. For the larger veins of
+animals pour blood into the veinlets, while in the earth the humours are
+usually poured from the veinlets into the larger veins, and rarely flow
+from the larger into the smaller ones. As for the seams in the rocks
+(<i>commissurae saxorum</i>) we consider that they are produced by two
+methods: by the first, which is peculiar to themselves, they are formed
+at the same time as the rocks, for the heat bakes the refractory
+material into stone and the non-refractory material similarly heated
+exhales its humours and is made into 'earth,' generally friable. The
+other method is common also to veins and veinlets, when water is
+collected into one place it softens the rock by its liquid nature, and
+by its weight and pressure breaks and divides it. Now, if the rock is
+hard, it makes seams in the rocks and veinlets, and if it is not too
+hard it makes veins. However, if the rocks are not hard, seams and
+veinlets are created as well as veins. If these do not carry a very
+large quantity of water, or if they are pressed by a great volume of it,
+they soon discharge themselves into the nearest veins. The following
+appears to be the reason why some veinlets or stringers and veins are
+<i>profundae</i> and others <i>dilatatae</i>. The force of the water crushes and
+splits the brittle rocks; and when they are broken and split, it forces
+its way through them and passes on, at one time in a downward direction,
+making small and large <i>venae profundae</i>, at another time in a lateral
+direction, in which way <i>venae dilatatae</i> are formed. Now since in each
+class there are found some which are straight, some inclined, and some
+crooked, it should be explained that the water makes the <i>vena profunda</i>
+straight when it runs straight downward, inclined when it runs in an
+inclined direction; and that it makes a <i>vena dilatata</i> straight when it
+runs horizontally to the right or left, and in a similar way inclined
+when it runs in a sloping direction. Stringers and large veins of the
+<i>profunda</i> sort, extending for considerable lengths, become crooked from
+two causes. In one case when narrow veins are intersected by wide ones,
+then the latter bend or drag the former a little. In the other case,
+when the water runs against very hard rock, being unable to break
+through, it goes around the nearest way, and the stringers and veins are
+formed bent and crooked. This last is also the reason we sometimes see
+crooked small and large <i>venae dilatatae</i>, not unlike the gentle rise
+and fall of flowing water. Next, <i>venae profundae</i> are wide, either
+because of abundant water or because the rock is fragile. On the other
+hand, they are narrow, either because but little water flows and
+trickles through them, or because the rock is very hard. The <i>venae
+dilatatae</i>, too, for the same reasons, are either thin or thick. There
+are other differences, too, in stringers and veins, which I will explain
+in my work <i>De Re Metallica</i>.... There is also a third kind of vein
+which, as it cannot be described as a wide <i>vena profunda</i>, nor as a
+thick <i>vena dilatata</i>, we will call a <i>vena cumulata</i>. These are nothing
+else than places where some species of mineral is accumulated; sometimes
+exceeding in depth and also in length and breadth 600 feet; sometimes,
+or rather generally, not so deep nor so long, nor so wide. These are
+created when water has broken away the rock for such a length, breadth,
+and thickness, and has flung aside and ejected the stones and sand from
+the great cavern which is thus made; and afterward when the mouth is
+obstructed and closed up, the whole cavern is filled with material from
+which there is in time produced some one or more minerals. Now I have
+stated <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_48" id="Notes_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>when discoursing on the origin of subterranean humours, that
+water erodes away substances inside the earth, just as it does those on
+the surface, and least of all does it shun minerals; for which reason we
+may daily see veinlets and veins sometimes filled with air and water,
+but void and empty of mining products, and sometimes full of these same
+materials. Even those which are empty of minerals become finally
+obstructed, and when the rock is broken through at some other point the
+water gushes out. It is certain that old springs are closed up in some
+way and new ones opened in others. In the same manner, but much more
+easily and quickly than in the solid rock, water produces stringers and
+veins in surface material, whether it be in plains, hills, or mountains.
+Of this kind are the stringers in the banks of rivers which produce
+gold, and the veins which produce peculiar earth. So in this manner in
+the earth are made <i>canales</i> which bear minerals."
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Origin of Ground Waters.</span> (<i>De Ortu</i> p. 5). "... Besides rain there is
+another kind of water by which the interior of the earth is soaked, so
+that being heated it can continually give off <i>halitus</i>, from which
+arises a great and abundant force of waters." In description of the
+<i>modus operandi</i> of <i>halitum</i>, he says (p. 6): "... <i>Halitus</i> rises to
+the upper parts of the <i>canales</i>, where the congealing cold turns it
+into water, which by its gravity and weight again runs down to the
+lowest parts and increases the flow of water if there is any. If any
+finds its way through a <i>canales dilatata</i> the same thing happens, but
+it is carried a long way from its place of origin. The first phase of
+distillation teaches us how this water is produced, for when that which
+is put into the ampulla is warmed it evaporates (<i>expirare</i>), and this
+<i>halitus</i> rising into the operculum is converted by cold into water,
+which drips through the spout. In this way water is being continually
+created underground." (<i>De Ortu</i>, p. 7): "And so we know from all this
+that of the waters which are under the earth, some are collected from
+rain, some arise from <i>halitus</i> (steam), some from river-water, some
+from sea-water; and we know that the <i>halitum</i> is produced within the
+earth partly from rain-water, partly from river-water, and partly from
+sea-water." It would require too much space to set out Agricola's views
+upon the origin of the subterranean heat which produced this steam. It
+is an involved theory embracing clashing winds, burning bitumen, coal,
+etc., and is fully set out in the latter part of Book II, <i>De Ortu et
+Causis</i>.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Origin of Gangue Minerals.</span> It is necessary to bear in mind that Agricola
+divided minerals (<i>res fossiles</i>&mdash;"Things dug up," see <a href="#Footnote_4_45">note 4, p. 1</a>)
+into "earths," "solidified juices," "stones," "metals," and "compounds;"
+and, further, to bear in mind that in his conception of the origin of
+things generally, he was a disciple of the Peripatetic logic of a
+"material substance" and an "efficient force," as mentioned above.
+</p><p>
+As to the origin of "earths," he says (<i>De Ortu</i>, p. 38): "Pure and
+simple 'earth' originates in the <i>canales</i> in the following way: rain
+water, which is absorbed by the surface of the earth, first of all
+penetrates and passes into the inner parts of the earth and mixes with
+it; next, it is collected from all sides into stringers and veins, where
+it, and sometimes water of other origin, erodes the 'earth' away,&mdash;a
+great quantity of it if the stringers and veins are in 'earth,' a small
+quantity if they are in rock. The softer the rock is, the more the water
+wears away particles by its continual movement. To this class of rock
+belongs limestone, from which we see chalk, clay, and marl, and other
+unctuous 'earths' made; also sandstone, from which are made those barren
+'earths' which we may see in ravines and on bare rocks. For the rain
+softens limestone or sandstone and carries particles away with it, and
+the sediment collects together and forms mud, which afterward solidifies
+into some kind of 'earth.' In a similar way under the ground the power
+of water softens the rock and dissolves the coarser fragments of stone.
+This is clearly shown by the following circumstance, that frequently the
+powder of rock or marble is found in a soft state and as if partly
+dissolved. Now, the water carries this mixture into the course of some
+underground <i>canalis</i>, or dragging it into narrow places, filters away.
+And in each case the water flows away and a pure and uniform material is
+left from which 'earth' is made.... Particles of rock, however, are only
+by force of long time so softened by water as to become similar to
+particles of 'earth.' It is possible to see 'earth' being made in this
+way in underground <i>canales</i> in the earth, when drifts or tunnels are
+driven into the mountains, or when shafts are sunk, for then the
+<i>canales</i> are laid bare; also it can be seen above ground in ravines, as
+I have said, or otherwise disclosed. For in both cases it is clear to
+the eye that they are made out of the 'earth' or rocks, which are often
+of the same colour. And in just the same way they are made in the
+springs which the veins discharge. Since all those things which we see
+with our eyes and which are perceived with our senses, are more clearly
+understood than if they were learnt by means of reasoning, we deem it
+sufficient to explain by this argument our view of the origin of
+'earth.' In the manner which I have described, 'earths' originate in
+veins and veinlets, seams in the rocks, springs, ravines, and other
+openings, therefore all 'earths' are made in this way. <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_49" id="Notes_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>As to those that
+are found in underground <i>canales</i> which do not appear to have been
+derived from the earth or rock adjoining, these have undoubtedly been
+carried by the water for a greater distance from their place of origin;
+which may be made clear to anyone who seeks their source."
+</p><p>
+On the origin of solidified juices he states (<i>De Ortu</i>, p. 43): "I will
+now speak of solidified juices (<i>succi concreti</i>). I give this name to
+those minerals which are without difficulty resolved into liquids
+(<i>humore</i>). Some stones and metals, even though they are themselves
+composed of juices, have been compressed so solidly by the cold that
+they can only be dissolved with difficulty or not at all.... For juices,
+as I said above, are either made when dry substances immersed in
+moisture are cooked by heat, or else they are made when water flows over
+'earth,' or when the surrounding moisture corrodes metallic material; or
+else they are forced out of the ground by the power of heat alone.
+Therefore, solidified juices originate from liquid juices, which either
+heat or cold have condensed. But that which heat has dried, fire reduces
+to dust, and moisture dissolves. Not only does warm or cold water
+dissolve certain solidified juices, but also humid air; and a juice
+which the cold has condensed is liquefied by fire and warm water. A
+salty juice is condensed into salt; a bitter one into soda; an
+astringent and sharp one into alum or into vitriol. Skilled workmen in a
+similar way to nature, evaporate water which contains juices of this
+kind until it is condensed; from salty ones they make salt, from
+aluminous ones alum, from one which contains vitriol they make vitriol.
+These workmen imitate nature in condensing liquid juices with heat, but
+they cannot imitate nature in condensing them by cold. From an
+astringent juice not only is alum made and vitriol, but also <i>sory</i>,
+<i>chalcitis</i>, and <i>misy</i>, which appears to be the 'flower' of vitriol,
+just as <i>melanteria</i> is of <i>sory</i>. (See note on p. <a href="#Notes_573">573</a> for these
+minerals.) When humour corrodes pyrites so that it is friable, an
+astringent juice of this kind is obtained."
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">On the Origin of Stones</span> (<i>De Ortu</i>, p. 50), he states: "It is now
+necessary to review in a few words what I have said as to all of the
+material from which stones are made; there is first of all mud; next
+juice which is solidified by severe cold; then fragments of rock;
+afterward stone juice (<i>succus lapidescens</i>), which also turns to stone
+when it comes out into the air; and lastly, everything which has pores
+capable of receiving a stony juice." As to an "efficient force," he
+states (p. 54): "But it is now necessary that I should explain my own
+view, omitting the first and antecedent causes. Thus the <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_51" id="Notes_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>immediate
+causes are heat and cold; next in some way a stony juice. For we know
+that stones which water has dissolved, are solidified when dried by
+heat; and on the contrary, we know that stones which melt by fire, such
+as quartz, solidify by cold. For solidification and the conditions which
+are opposite thereto, namely, dissolving and liquefying, spring from
+causes which are the opposite to each other. Heat, driving the water
+(<i>humorem</i>) out of a substance, makes it hard; and cold, by withdrawing
+the air, solidifies the same stone firmly. But if a stony juice, either
+alone or mixed with water, finds its way into the pores either of plants
+or animals ... it creates stones.... If stony juice is obtained in
+certain stony places and flows through the veins, for this reason
+certain springs, brooks, streams, and lakes, have the power of turning
+things to stone."
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">On the Origin of Metals</span>, he says (<i>De Ortu</i>, p. 71): "Having now refuted
+the opinions of others, I must explain what it really is from which
+metals are produced. The best proof that there is water in their
+materials is the fact that they flow when melted, whereas they are again
+solidified by the cold of air or water. This, however, must be
+understood in the sense that there is more water in them and less
+'earth'; for it is not simply water that is their substance but water
+mixed with 'earth.' And such a proportion of 'earth' is in the mixture
+as may obscure the transparency of the water, but not remove the
+brilliance which is frequently in unpolished things. Again, the purer
+the mixture, the more precious the metal which is made from it, and the
+greater its resistance to fire. But what proportion of 'earth' is in
+each liquid from which a metal is made no mortal can ever ascertain, or
+still less explain, but the one God has known it, Who has given certain
+sure and fixed laws to nature for mixing and blending things together.
+It is a juice (<i>succus</i>) then, from which metals are formed; and this
+juice is created by various operations. Of these operations the first is
+a flow of water which softens the 'earth' or carries the 'earth' along
+with it, thus there is a mixture of 'earth' and water, then the power of
+heat works upon the mixtures so as to produce that kind of a juice. We
+have spoken of the substance of metals; we must now speak of their
+efficient cause.... (p. 75): We do not deny the statement of Albertus
+Magnus that the mixture of 'earth' and water is baked by subterranean
+heat to a certain denseness, but it is our opinion that the juice so
+obtained is afterward solidified by cold so as to become a metal.... We
+grant, indeed, that heat is the efficient cause of a good mixture of
+elements, and also cooks this same mixture into a juice, but until this
+juice is solidified by cold it is not a metal.... (p. 76): This view of
+Aristotle is the true one. For metals melt through the heat and somehow
+become softened; but those which have become softened through heat are
+again solidified by the influence of cold, and, on the contrary, those
+which become softened by moisture are solidified by heat."
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">On the Origin of Compounds</span>, he states (<i>De Ortu</i>, p. 80): "There now
+remain for our consideration the compound minerals (<i>mistae</i>), that is
+to say, minerals which contain either solidified juice (<i>succus
+concretus</i>) and 'stone,' or else metal or metals and 'stone,' or else
+metal-coloured 'earth,' of which two or more have so grown together by
+the action of cold that one body has been created. By this sign they are
+distinguished from mixed minerals (<i>composita</i>), for the latter have not
+one body. For example, pyrites, galena, and ruby silver are reckoned in
+the category of compound minerals, whereas we say that metallic 'earths'
+or stony 'earths' or 'earths' mingled with juices, are mixed minerals;
+or similarly, stones in which metal or solidified juices adhere, or
+which contain 'earth.' But of both these classes I will treat more fully
+in my book <i>De Natura Fossilium</i>. I will now discuss their origin in a
+few words. A compound mineral is produced when either a juice from which
+some metal is obtained, or a <i>humour</i> and some other juice from which
+stone is obtained, are solidified by cold, or when two or more juices of
+different metals mixed with the juice from which stone is made, are
+condensed by the same cold, or when a metallic juice is mixed with
+'earth' whose whole mass is stained with its colour, and in this way
+they form one body. To the first class belongs <i>galena</i>, composed of
+lead juice and of that material which forms the substance of opaque
+stone. Similarly, transparent ruby silver is made out of silver juice
+and the juice which forms the <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_52" id="Notes_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>substance of transparent stone; when it is
+smelted into pure silver, since from it is separated the transparent
+juice, it is no longer transparent. Then too, there is pyrites, or
+<i>lapis fissilis</i>, from which sulphur is melted. To the second kind
+belongs that kind of pyrites which contains not only copper and stone,
+but sometimes copper, silver, and stone; sometimes copper, silver, gold,
+and stone; sometimes silver, lead, tin, copper and silver glance. That
+compound minerals consist of stone and metal is sufficiently proved by
+their hardness; that some are made of 'earth' and metal is proved from
+brass, which is composed of copper and calamine; and also proved from
+white brass, which is coloured by artificial white arsenic. Sometimes
+the heat bakes some of them to such an extent that they appear to have
+flowed out of blazing furnaces, which we may see in the case of <i>cadmia</i>
+and pyrites. A metallic substance is produced out of 'earth' when a
+metallic juice impregnating the 'earth' solidifies with cold, the
+'earth' not being changed. A stony substance is produced when viscous
+and non-viscous 'earth' are accumulated in one place and baked by heat;
+for then the viscous part turns into stone and the non-viscous is only
+dried up."
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">The Origin of Juices.</span> The portion of Agricola's theory surrounding this
+subject is by no means easy to follow in detail, especially as it is
+difficult to adjust one's point of view to the Peripatetic elements,
+fire, water, earth, and air, instead of to those of the atomic theory
+which so dominates our every modern conception. That Agricola's 'juice'
+was in most cases a solution is indicated by the statement (<i>De Ortu</i>,
+p. 48): "Nor is juice anything but water, which on the other hand has
+absorbed 'earth' or has corroded or touched metal and somehow become
+heated." That he realized the difference between mechanical suspension
+and solution is evident from (<i>De Ortu</i>, p. 50): "A stony juice differs
+from water which has abraded something from rock, either because it has
+more of that which deposits, or because heat, by cooking water of that
+kind, has thickened it, or because there is something in it which has
+powerful astringent properties." Much of the author's notion of juices
+has already been given in the quotations regarding various minerals, but
+his most general statement on the subject is as follows:&mdash;(<i>De Ortu</i>, p.
+9): "Juices, however, are distinguished from water by their density
+(<i>crassitudo</i>), and are generated in various ways&mdash;either when dry
+things are soaked with moisture and the mixture is heated, in which way
+by far the greatest part of juices arise, not only inside the earth, but
+outside it; or when water running over the earth is made rather dense,
+in which way, for the most part the juice becomes salty and bitter; or
+when the moisture stands upon metal, especially copper, and corrodes it,
+and in this way is produced the juice from which chrysocolla originates.
+Similarly, when the moisture corrodes friable cupriferous pyrites an
+acrid juice is made from which is produced vitriol and sometimes alum;
+or, finally, juices are pressed out by the very force of the heat from
+the earth. If the force is great the juice flows like pitch from burning
+pine ... in this way we know a kind of bitumen is made in the earth. In
+the same way different kinds of moisture are generated in living bodies,
+so also the earth produces waters differing in quality, and in the same
+way juices."
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Conclusion.</span> If we strip his theory of the necessary influence of the
+state of knowledge of his time, and of his own deep classical learning,
+we find two propositions original with Agricola, which still to-day are
+fundamentals:
+</p><p>
+(1) That ore channels were of origin subsequent to their containing
+rocks; (2) That ores were deposited from solutions circulating in these
+openings. A scientist's work must be judged by the advancement he gave
+to his science, and with this gauge one can say unhesitatingly that the
+theory which we have set out above represents a much greater step from
+what had gone before than that of almost any single observer since.
+Moreover, apart from any tangible proposition laid down, the deduction
+of these views from actual observation instead of from fruitless
+speculation was a contribution to the very foundation of natural
+science. Agricola was wrong in attributing the creation of ore channels
+to erosion alone, and it was not until Von Oppel (<i>Anleitung zur
+Markscheidekunst</i>, Dresden, 1749 and other essays), two centuries after
+Agricola, that the positive proposition that ore channels were due to
+fissuring was brought forward. Von Oppel, however, in neglecting
+channels due to erosion (and in this term we include solution) was not
+altogether sound. Nor was it until late in the 18th century that the
+filling of ore channels by deposition from solutions was generally
+accepted. In the meantime, Agricola's successors in the study of ore
+deposits exhibited positive retrogression from the true fundamentals
+advocated by him. Gesner, Utman, Meier, Lohneys, Barba, <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_53" id="Notes_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>R�ssler, Becher,
+Stahl, Henckel, and Zimmerman, all fail to grasp the double essentials.
+Other writers of this period often enough merely quote Agricola, some
+not even acknowledging the source, as, for instance, Pryce (<i>Mineralogia
+Cornubiensis</i>, London, 1778) and Williams (Natural History of the
+Mineral Kingdom, London, 1789). After Von Oppel, the two fundamental
+principles mentioned were generally accepted, but then arose the
+complicated and acrimonious discussion of the origin of solutions, and
+nothing in Agricola's view was so absurd as Werner's contention (<i>Neue
+Theorie von der Entstehung der G�nge</i>, Freiberg, 1791) of the universal
+chemical deluge which penetrated fissures open at the surface. While it
+is not the purpose of these notes to pursue the history of these
+subjects subsequent to the author's time, it is due to him and to the
+current beliefs as to the history of the theory of ore deposits, to call
+the attention of students to the perverse representation of Agricola's
+views by Werner (op. cit.) upon which most writers have apparently
+relied. Why this author should be (as, for instance, by Posepny, Amer.
+Inst. Mining Engineers, 1901) so generally considered the father of our
+modern theory, can only be explained by a general lack of knowledge of
+the work of previous writers on ore deposition. Not one of the
+propositions original with Werner still holds good, while his rejection
+of the origin of solutions within the earth itself halted the march of
+advance in thought on these subjects for half a century. It is our hope
+to discuss exhaustively at some future time the development of the
+history of this, one of the most far-reaching of geologic hypotheses.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_100" id="Footnote_2_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_100"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The Latin <i>vena</i>, "vein," is also used by the author for
+ore; hence this descriptive warning as to its intended double use.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_56" id="Notes_56">[Pg 56]</a></span><a name="Footnote_3_101" id="Footnote_3_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_101"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The endeavour to discover the origin of the compass with
+the Chinese, Arabs, or other Orientals having now generally ceased,
+together with the idea that the knowledge of the lodestone involved any
+acquaintance with the compass, it is permissible to take a rational <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_57" id="Notes_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>view
+of the subject. The lodestone was well known even before Plato and
+Aristotle, and is described by Theophrastus (see <a href="#Footnote_10_136">Note 10, p. 115</a>.) The
+first authentic and specific mention of the compass appears to be by
+Alexander Neckam (an Englishman who died in 1217), in his works <i>De
+Utensilibus</i> and <i>De Naturis Rerum</i>. The first tangible description of
+the instrument was in a letter to Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt,
+written in 1269, a translation of which was published by Sir Sylvanus
+Thompson (London, 1902). His circle was divided into four quadrants and
+these quarters divided into 90 degrees each. The first mention of a
+compass in connection with mines so far as we know is in the <i>N�tzlich
+Bergb�chlin</i>, a review of which will be found in <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix B</a>. This book,
+which dates from 1500, gives a compass much like the one described above
+by Agricola. It is divided in like manner into two halves of 12
+divisions each. The four cardinal points being marked <i>Mitternacht</i>,
+<i>Morgen</i>, <i>Mittag</i>, and <i>Abend</i>. Thus the directions read were referred
+to as <span class="smcaplower">II.</span> after midnight, etc. According to Joseph Carne (Trans. Roy.
+Geol. Socy. of Cornwall, Vol. <span class="smcaplower">II</span>, 1814), the Cornish miners formerly
+referred to North-South veins as 12 o'clock veins; South-East North-West
+veins as 9 o'clock veins, etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_65" id="Notes_65">[Pg 65]</a></span><a name="Footnote_4_102" id="Footnote_4_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_102"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> <i>Crudariis.</i> Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII.</span>, 31), says:&mdash;"<i>Argenti vena in
+summo reperta crudaria appellatur.</i>" "Silver veins discovered at the
+surface are called <i>crudaria.</i>" The German translator of Agricola uses
+the term <i>sylber gang</i>&mdash;silver vein, obviously misunderstanding the
+author's meaning.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_68" id="Notes_68">[Pg 68]</a></span><a name="Footnote_5_103" id="Footnote_5_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_103"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> It might be considered that the term "outcrop" could be
+used for "head," but it will be noticed that a <i>vena dilatata</i> would
+thus be stated to have no outcrop.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_70" id="Notes_70">[Pg 70]</a></span><a name="Footnote_6_104" id="Footnote_6_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_104"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> It is possible that "veinlets" would be preferred by
+purists, but the word "stringer" has become fixed in the nomenclature of
+miners and we have adopted it. The old English term was "stringe," and
+appears in Edward Manlove's "Rhymed Chronicle," London, 1653; Pryce's,
+<i>Mineralogia Cornubiensis</i>, London, 1778, pp. 103 and 329; Mawe's
+"Mineralogy of Devonshire," London, 1802, p. 210, etc., etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_105" id="Footnote_7_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_105"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> <i>Subdialis.</i> "In the open air." The Glossary gives the
+meaning as <i>Ein tag klufft oder tag gehenge</i>&mdash;a surface stringer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_73" id="Notes_73">[Pg 73]</a></span><a name="Footnote_8_106" id="Footnote_8_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_106"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The following from Chapter <span class="smcaplower">IV</span> of the <i>N�tzlich Bergb�chlin</i>
+(see <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix B</a>) may indicate the source of the theory which Agricola
+here discards:&mdash;"As to those veins which are most profitable to work, it
+must be remarked that the most suitable location for the vein is on the
+slope of the mountain facing south, so its strike is from <span class="smcaplower">VII</span> or <span class="smcaplower">VI</span> east
+to <span class="smcaplower">VI</span> or <span class="smcaplower">VII</span> west. According to the above-mentioned directions, the
+outcrop of the whole vein should face north, its <i>gesteins ausgang</i>
+toward the east, its hangingwall toward the south, and its footwall
+toward the north, for in such mountains and veins the influence of the
+planets is conveniently received to prepare the matter out of which the
+silver is to be made or formed.... The other strikes of veins from
+between east and south to the region between west and north are esteemed
+more or less valuable, according to whether they are nearer or further
+away from the above-mentioned strikes, but with the same hangingwall,
+footwall, and outcrops. But the veins having their strike from north to
+south, their hangingwall toward the west, their footwall and their
+outcrops toward the east, are better to work than veins which extend
+from south to north, whose hangingwalls are toward the east, and
+footwalls and outcrops toward the west. Although the latter veins
+sometimes yield solid and good silver ore, still it is not sure and
+certain, because the whole mineral force is completely scattered and
+dispersed through the outcrop, etc."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_74" id="Notes_74">[Pg 74]</a></span><a name="Footnote_9_107" id="Footnote_9_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_107"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> The names in the Latin are given as <i>Donum Divinum</i>&mdash;"God's
+Gift," and <i>Coelestis Exercitus</i>&mdash;"Heavenly Host." The names given in
+the text are from the German Translation. The former of these mines was
+located in the valley of Joachim, where Agricola spent many years as the
+town physician at Joachimsthal. It is of further interest, as Agricola
+obtained an income from it as a shareholder. He gives the history of the
+mine (<i>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis</i>, Book I.), as follows:&mdash;"The
+mines at Abertham were discovered, partly by chance, partly by science.
+In the eleventh year of Charles V. (1530), on the 18th of February, a
+poor miner, but one skilled in the art of mining, dwelt in the middle of
+the forest in a solitary hut, and there tended the cattle of his
+employer. While digging a little trench in which to store milk, he
+opened a vein. At once he washed some in a bowl and saw particles of the
+purest silver settled at the bottom. Overcome with joy he informed his
+employer, and went to the <i>Bergmeister</i> and petitioned that official to
+give him a head mining lease, which in the language of our people he
+called <i>Gottsgaab</i>. Then he proceeded to dig the vein, and found more
+fragments of silver, and the miners were inspired with great hopes as to
+the richness of the vein. Although such hopes were not frustrated, still
+a whole year was spent before they received any profits from the mine;
+whereby many became discouraged and did not persevere in paying
+expenses, but sold their shares in the mine; and for this reason, when
+at last an abundance of silver was being drawn out, a great change had
+taken place in the ownership of the mine; nay, even the first finder of
+the vein was not in possession of any share in it, and had spent nearly
+all the money which he had obtained from the selling of his shares. Then
+this mine yielded such a quantity of pure silver as no other mine that
+has existed within our own or our fathers' memories, with the exception
+of the St. George at Schneeberg. We, as a shareholder, through the
+goodness of God, have enjoyed the proceeds of this 'God's Gift' since
+the very time when the mine began first to bestow such riches." Later on
+in the <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_75" id="Notes_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>same book he gives the following further information with regard
+to these mines:&mdash;"Now if all the individual mines which have proved
+fruitful in our own times are weighed in the balance, the one at
+Annaberg, which is known as the <i>Himmelsch hoz</i>, surpasses all others.
+For the value of the silver which has been dug out has been estimated at
+420,000 Rhenish gulden. Next to this comes the lead mine in
+Joachimsthal, whose name is the <i>Sternen</i>, from which as much silver has
+been dug as would be equivalent to 350,000 Rhenish gulden; from the
+Gottsgaab at Abertham, explained before, the equivalent of 300,000. But
+far before all others within our fathers' memory stands the St. George
+of Schneeberg, whose silver has been estimated as being equal to two
+million Rhenish gulden." A Rhenish gulden was about 6.9 shillings, or,
+say, $1.66. However, the ratio value of silver to gold at this period
+was about 11.5 to one, or in other words an ounce of silver was worth
+about a gulden, so that, for purposes of rough calculation, one might
+say that the silver product mentioned in gulden is practically of the
+same number of ounces of silver. Moreover, it must be remembered that
+the purchasing power of money was vastly greater then.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_108" id="Footnote_10_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_108"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> The following passage occurs in the <i>N�tzlich Bergb�chlin</i>
+(Chap. V.), which is interesting on account of the great similarity to
+Agricola's quotation:&mdash;"The best position of the stream is when it has a
+cliff beside it on the north and level ground on the south, but its
+current should be from east to west&mdash;that is the most suitable. The next
+best after this is from west to east, with the same position of the
+rocks as already stated. The third in order is when the stream flows
+from north to south with rocks toward the east, but the worst flow of
+water for the preparation of gold is from south to north if a rock or
+hill rises toward the west." Calbus was probably the author of this
+booklet.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_76" id="Notes_76">[Pg 76]</a></span><a name="Footnote_11_109" id="Footnote_11_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_109"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Albertus Magnus.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a>[Pg 77]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="BOOK_IV" id="BOOK_IV"></a>BOOK IV.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="dropcap"><img src="images/capt.png" alt="T" /></div>
+<p style="text-indent:-1em;">
+he third book has explained the various and manifold varieties of veins
+and stringers. This fourth book will deal with mining areas and the
+method of delimiting them, and will then pass on to the officials who
+are connected with mining affairs<a name="FNanchor_1_110" id="FNanchor_1_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_110" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Now the miner, if the vein he has uncovered is to his liking, first of
+all goes to the <i>Bergmeister</i> to request to be granted a right to mine,
+this official's special function and office being to adjudicate in
+respect of the mines. And so to the first man who has discovered the
+vein the <i>Bergmeister</i> awards the head meer, and to others the remaining
+meers, in the order in which each makes his application. The size of a
+meer is measured by fathoms, which for miners are reckoned at six feet
+each. The length, in fact, is that of a man's extended arms and hands
+measured across his chest; but different peoples assign to it different
+lengths, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a>[Pg 78]</span>for among the Greeks, who called it an <span class="greek" title="Greek: orguia">&#8000;&rho;&gamma;&upsilon;&iota;&#940;</span>, it was
+six feet, among the Romans five feet. So this measure which is used by
+miners seems to have come down to the Germans in accordance with the
+Greek mode of reckoning. A miner's foot approaches very nearly to the
+length of a Greek foot, for it exceeds it by only three-quarters of a
+Greek digit, but like that of the Romans it is divided into twelve
+<i>unciae</i><a name="FNanchor_2_111" id="FNanchor_2_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_111" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a><a href="images/fig79a.jpg"><img src="images/fig79athumb.jpg" alt="Square with lengths and area" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Shape of a Square
+Meer.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 79]</span></span>
+Now square fathoms are reckoned in units of one, two, three, or more
+"measures", and a "measure" is seven fathoms each way. Mining meers are
+for the most part either square or elongated; in square meers all the
+sides are of equal length, therefore the numbers of fathoms on the two
+sides multiplied together produce the total in square fathoms. Thus, if
+the shape of a "measure" is seven fathoms on every side, this number
+multiplied by itself makes forty-nine square fathoms.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig79b.jpg"><img src="images/fig79bthumb.jpg" alt="Rectangle with lengths and area" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Shape of a Long
+Meer or Double Measure.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 79]</span></span>
+The sides of a long meer are of equal length, and similarly its ends are
+equal; therefore, if the number of fathoms in one of the long sides be
+multiplied by the number of fathoms in one of the ends, the total
+produced by the <span class="pagenum">[Pg 79]</span>multiplication is the total number of square fathoms in
+the long meer. For example, the double measure is fourteen fathoms long
+and seven broad, which two numbers multiplied together make ninety-eight
+square fathoms.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig79c.jpg"><img src="images/fig79cthumb.jpg" alt="Rectangle with lengths and area" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Shape of a Head
+Meer.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 79]</span></span>
+Since meers vary in shape according to the different varieties of veins
+it is necessary for me to go more into detail concerning them and their
+measurements. If the vein is a <i>vena profunda</i>, the head meer is
+composed of three double measures, therefore it is forty-two fathoms in
+length and seven in width, which numbers multiplied together give two
+hundred and ninety-four square fathoms, and by these limits the
+<i>Bergmeister</i> bounds the owner's rights in a head-meer.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a><a href="images/fig80a.jpg"><img src="images/fig80athumb.jpg" alt="Rectangle with lengths and area" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Shape of a Meer.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 80]</span></span>
+The area of every other meer consists of two double measures, on
+whichever side of the head meer it lies, or whatever its number in order
+may be, that is to say, whether next to the head meer, or second, third,
+or any later number. Therefore, it is twenty-eight fathoms long and
+seven wide, so multiplying the length by the width we get one hundred
+and ninety-six square fathoms, which is the extent of the meer, and by
+these boundaries the <i>Bergmeister</i> defines the right of the owner or
+company over each mine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 80]</span></p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p>Now we call that part of the vein which is first discovered and mined,
+the head-meer, because all the other meers run from it, just as the
+nerves from the head. The <i>Bergmeister</i> begins his measurements from it,
+and the reason why he apportions a larger area to the head-meer than to
+the others, is that he may give a suitable reward to the one who first
+found the vein and may encourage others to search for veins. Since meers
+often reach to a torrent, or river, or stream, if the last meer cannot
+be completed it is called a fraction<a name="FNanchor_3_112" id="FNanchor_3_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_112" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>. If it is the size of a double
+measure, the <i>Bergmeister</i> grants the right of mining it to him who
+makes the first application, but if it is the size of a single measure
+or a little over, he divides it between the nearest meers on either side
+of it. It is the custom among miners that the first meer beyond a stream
+on that part of the vein on the opposite side is a new head-meer, and
+they call it the "opposite,"<a name="FNanchor_4_113" id="FNanchor_4_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_113" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> while the other meers beyond are only
+ordinary meers.
+<span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig80b.jpg"><img src="images/fig80bthumb.jpg" alt="Rectangle with lengths and area" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Shape of an ancient
+Head-Meer.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 80]</span></span>
+Formerly every head-meer was composed of three double
+measures and one single one, that is, it was forty-nine fathoms long and
+seven wide, and so if we multiply these two together we have three
+hundred and forty-three square fathoms, which total gives us the area of
+an ancient head-meer.</p>
+
+<p>Every ancient meer was formed of a single measure, that is to say, it
+was seven fathoms in length and width, and was therefore square. In
+memory of which miners even now call the width of every meer which is
+located on a <i>vena profunda</i> a "square"<a name="FNanchor_5_114" id="FNanchor_5_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_114" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>. The following was formerly
+the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a>[Pg 81]</span>usual method of delimiting a vein: as soon as the miner found
+metal, he gave information to the <i>Bergmeister</i> and the tithe-gatherer,
+who either proceeded personally from the town to the mountains, or sent
+thither men of good repute, at least two in number, to inspect the
+metal-bearing vein. Thereupon, if they thought it of sufficient
+importance to survey, the <i>Bergmeister</i> again having gone forth on an
+appointed day, thus questioned him who first found the vein, concerning
+the vein and the diggings: "Which is your vein?" "Which digging carried
+metal?" Then the discoverer, pointing his finger to his vein and
+diggings, indicated them, and next the <i>Bergmeister</i> ordered him to
+approach the windlass and place two fingers of his right hand upon his
+head, and swear this oath in a clear voice: "I swear by God and all the
+Saints, and I call them all to witness, that this is my vein; and
+moreover if it is not mine, may neither this my head nor these my hands
+henceforth perform their functions." Then the <i>Bergmeister</i>, having
+started from the centre of the windlass, proceeded to measure the vein
+with a cord, and to give the measured portion to the discoverer,&mdash;in the
+first instance a half and then three full measures; afterward one to the
+King or Prince, another to his Consort, a third to the Master of the
+Horse, a fourth to the Cup-bearer, a fifth to the Groom of the Chamber,
+a sixth to himself. Then, starting from the other side of the windlass,
+he proceeded to measure the vein in a similar manner. Thus the
+discoverer of the vein obtained the head-meer, that is, seven single
+measures; but the King or Ruler, his Consort, the leading dignitaries,
+and lastly, the <i>Bergmeister</i>, obtained two measures each, or two
+ancient meers. This is the reason there are to be found at Freiberg in
+Meissen so many shafts with so many intercommunications on a single
+vein&mdash;which are to a great extent destroyed by age. If, however, the
+<i>Bergmeister</i> had already fixed the boundaries of the meers on one side
+of the shaft for the benefit of some other discoverer, then for those
+dignitaries I have just mentioned, as many meers as he was unable to
+award on that side he duplicated on the other. But if on both sides of
+the shaft he had already defined the boundaries of meers, he proceeded
+to measure out only that part of the vein which remained free, and thus
+it sometimes happened that some of those persons I have mentioned
+obtained no meer at all. To-day, though that old-established custom is
+observed, the method of allotting the vein and granting title has been
+changed. As I have explained above, the head-meer consists of three
+double measures, and each other meer of two measures, and the
+<i>Bergmeister</i> grants one each of the meers to him who makes the first
+application. The King or Prince, since all metal is taxed, is himself
+content with that, which is usually one-tenth.</p>
+
+<p>Of the width of every meer, whether old or new, one-half lies on the
+footwall side of a <i>vena profunda</i> and one half on the hangingwall side.
+If the vein descends vertically into the earth, the boundaries similarly
+descend <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a>[Pg 82]</span>vertically; but if the vein inclines, the boundaries likewise
+will be inclined. The owner always holds the mining right for the width
+of the meer, however far the vein descends into the depth of the
+earth.<a name="FNanchor_6_115" id="FNanchor_6_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_115" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> Further, the <i>Bergmeister</i>, on application being made to him,
+grants to one owner or company a right <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a>[Pg 83]</span>over not only the head meer, or
+another meer, but also the head meer and the next meer or two adjoining
+meers. So much for the shape of meers and their dimensions in the case
+of a <i>vena profunda</i>.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p>I now come to the case of <i>venae dilatatae</i>. The boundaries of the areas
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a>[Pg 84]</span>on such veins are not all measured by one method. For in some places
+the <i>Bergmeister</i> gives them shapes similar to the shapes of the meers
+on <i>venae profundae</i>, in which case the head-meer is composed of three
+double measures, and the area of every other mine of two measures, as I
+have <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a>[Pg 85]</span>explained more fully above. In this case, however, he measures the
+meers with a cord, not only forward and backward from the ends of the
+head-meer, as he is wont to do in the case where the owner of a <i>vena
+profunda</i> has a meer granted him, but also from the sides. In this way
+meers are marked <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a>[Pg 86]</span>out when a torrent or some other force of Nature has
+laid open a <i>vena dilatata</i> in a valley, so that it appears either on
+the slope of a mountain or hill or on a plain.
+<span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig86a.jpg"><img src="images/fig86athumb.jpg" alt="Rectangle with lengths" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Shape of a Head-Meer.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 86]</span></span>
+Elsewhere the
+<i>Bergmeister</i> doubles the width of the head-meer and it is made fourteen
+fathoms wide, while the width of each of the other meers remains single,
+that is seven fathoms, but the length is not defined by boundaries. In
+some places the head-meer consists of three double measures, but has a
+width of fourteen fathoms and a length of twenty-one.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig86b.jpg"><img src="images/fig86bthumb.jpg" alt="Square with lengths" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Shape of every other Meer.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 86]</span></span>
+In the same way, every other meer is composed of two measures, doubled
+in the same fashion, so that it is fourteen fathoms in width and of the
+same length.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a>[Pg 87]</span></p><p>Elsewhere every meer, whether a head-meer or other meer, comprises
+forty-two fathoms in width and as many in length.</p>
+
+<p>In other places the <i>Bergmeister</i> gives the owner or company all of some
+locality defined by rivers or little valleys as boundaries. But the
+boundaries of every such area of whatsoever shape it be, descend
+vertically into the earth; so the owner of that area has a right over
+that part of any <i>vena dilatata</i> which lies beneath the first one, just
+as the owner of the meer on a <i>vena profunda</i> has a right over so great
+a part of all other <i>venae profundae</i> as lies within the boundaries of
+his meer; for just as wherever one <i>vena profunda</i> is found, another is
+found not far away, so wherever one <i>vena dilatata</i> is found, others are
+found beneath it.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p>Finally, the <i>Bergmeister</i> divides <i>vena cumulata</i> areas in different
+ways, for in some localities the head-meer is composed of three
+measures, doubled in such a way that it is fourteen fathoms wide and
+twenty-one long; and every other meer consists of two measures doubled,
+and is square, that is, fourteen fathoms wide and as many long.
+<span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig87.jpg"><img src="images/fig87thumb.jpg" alt="Rectangle with lengths and area" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Shape of a
+Head-Meer.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 87]</span></span>In some
+places the head-meer is composed of three single measures, and its width
+is seven fathoms and its length twenty-one, which two numbers multiplied
+together make one hundred and forty-seven square fathoms.</p>
+
+<p>Each other meer consists of one double measure. In some places the
+head-meer is given the shape of a double measure, and every other meer
+that of a single measure. Lastly, in other places the owner or a company
+is given a right over some complete specified locality bounded by little
+streams, valleys, or other limits. Furthermore, all meers on <i>venae
+cumulatae</i>, as in the case of <i>dilatatae</i>, descend vertically into the
+depths of the earth, and each meer has the boundaries so determined as
+to prevent disputes arising between the owners of neighbouring mines.</p>
+
+<p>The boundary marks in use among miners formerly consisted only of
+stones, and from this their name was derived, for now the marks of a
+boundary are called "boundary stones." To-day a row of posts, made
+either of oak or pine, and strengthened at the top with iron rings to
+prevent them from being damaged, is fixed beside the boundary stones to
+make them more conspicuous. By this method in former times the
+boundaries of the fields were marked by stones or posts, not only as
+written of in the book "<i>De Limitibus Agrorum</i>,"<a name="FNanchor_7_116" id="FNanchor_7_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_116" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> but also as
+testified to by the songs of the poets. Such <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a>[Pg 88]</span>then is the shape of the
+meers, varying in accordance with the different kinds of veins.</p>
+
+<p>Now tunnels are of two sorts, one kind having no right of property, the
+other kind having some limited right. For when a miner in some
+particular locality is unable to open a vein on account of a great
+quantity of water, he runs a wide ditch, open at the top and three feet
+deep, starting on the slope and running up to the place where the vein
+is found. Through it the water flows off, so that the place is made dry
+and fit for digging. But if it is not sufficiently dried by this open
+ditch, or if a shaft which he has now for the first time begun to sink
+is suffering from overmuch water, he goes to the <i>Bergmeister</i> and asks
+that official to give him the right for a tunnel. Having obtained leave,
+he drives the tunnel, and into its drains all the water is diverted, so
+that the place or shaft is made fit for digging. If it is not seven
+fathoms from the surface of the earth to the bottom of this kind of
+tunnel, the owner possesses no rights except this one: namely, that the
+owners of the mines, from whose leases the owner of the tunnel extracts
+gold or silver, themselves pay him the sum he expends within their meer
+in driving the tunnel through it.</p>
+
+<p>To a depth or height of three and a half fathoms above and below the
+mouth of the tunnel, no one is allowed to begin another tunnel. The
+reason for this is that this kind of a tunnel is liable to be changed
+into the other kind which has a complete right of property, when it
+drains the meers to a depth of seven fathoms, or to ten, according as
+the old custom in each place acquires the force of law. In such case
+this second kind of tunnel has the following right; in the first place,
+whatever metal the owner, or company owning it, finds in any meer
+through which it is driven, all belongs to the tunnel owner within a
+height or depth of one and a quarter fathoms. In the years which are not
+long passed, the owner of a tunnel possessed all the metal which a miner
+standing at the bottom of the tunnel touched with a bar, whose handle
+did not exceed the customary length; but nowadays a certain prescribed
+height and width is allowed to the owner of the tunnel, lest the owners
+of the mines be damaged, if the length of the bar be longer than usual.
+Further, every metal-yielding mine which is drained and supplied with
+ventilation by a tunnel, is taxed in the proportion of one-ninth for the
+benefit of the owner of the tunnel. But if several tunnels of this kind
+are driven through one mining area which is yielding metals, and all
+drain it and supply it with ventilation, then of the metal which is dug
+out from above the bottom of each tunnel, one-ninth is given to the
+owner of that tunnel; of that which is dug out below the bottom of each
+tunnel, one-ninth is in each case given to the owner of the tunnel which
+follows next in order below. But if the lower tunnel does not yet drain
+the shaft of that meer nor supply it with ventilation, then of the metal
+which is dug out below the bottom of the higher tunnel, one-ninth part
+is given to the owner of such upper tunnel. Moreover, no one tunnel
+deprives another of its right to one-ninth part, unless it be a lower
+one, from the bottom of which to the bottom of the one above must not be
+less than seven or ten fathoms, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a>[Pg 89]</span>according as the king or prince has
+decreed. Further, of all the money which the owner of the tunnel has
+spent on his tunnel while driving it through a meer, the owner of that
+meer pays one-fourth part. If he does not do so he is not allowed to
+make use of the drains.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p>Finally, with regard to whatever veins are discovered by the owner at
+whose expense the tunnel is driven, the right of which has not been
+already awarded to anyone, on the application of such owner the
+<i>Bergmeister</i> grants him a right of a head-meer, or of a head-meer
+together with the next meer. Ancient custom gives the right for a tunnel
+to be driven in any direction for an unlimited length. Further, to-day
+he who commences a tunnel is given, on his application, not only the
+right over the tunnel, but even the head and sometimes the next meer
+also. In former days the owner of the tunnel obtained only so much
+ground as an arrow shot from the bow might cover, and he was allowed to
+pasture cattle therein. In a case where the shafts of several meers on
+some vein could not be worked on account of the great quantity of water,
+ancient custom also allowed the <i>Bergmeister</i> to grant the right of a
+large meer to anyone who would drive a tunnel.
+When, however, he had
+driven a tunnel as far as the old shafts and had found metal, he used to
+return to the <i>Bergmeister</i> and request him to bound and mark off the
+extent of his right to a meer.
+<span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig89.jpg"><img src="images/fig89thumb.jpg" alt="Rectangle with lengths and area" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Large Area.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 89]</span></span>
+Thereupon, the <i>Bergmeister</i>, together
+with a certain number of citizens of the town&mdash;in whose place Jurors
+have now succeeded&mdash;used to proceed to the mountain and mark off with
+boundary stones a large meer, which consisted of seven double measures,
+that is to say, it was ninety-eight fathoms long and seven wide, which
+two numbers multiplied together make six hundred and eighty-six square
+fathoms.</p>
+
+<p>But each of these early customs has been changed, and we now employ the
+new method.</p>
+
+<p>I have spoken of tunnels; I will now speak about the division of
+ownership in mines and tunnels. One owner is allowed to possess and to
+work one, two, three, or more whole meers, or similarly one or more
+separate tunnels, provided he conforms to the decrees of the laws
+relating to metals, and to the orders of the <i>Bergmeister</i>. And because
+he alone provides the expenditure of money on the mines, if they yield
+metal he alone obtains the product from them. But when large and
+frequent expenditures are necessary in mining, he to whom the
+<i>Bergmeister</i> first gave the right <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a>[Pg 90]</span>often admits others to share with
+him, and they join with him in forming a company, and they each lay out
+a part of the expense and share with him the profit or loss of the mine.
+But the title of the mines or tunnels remains undivided, although for
+the purpose of dividing the expense and profit it may be said each mine
+or tunnel is divided into parts<a name="FNanchor_8_117" id="FNanchor_8_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_117" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>.</p>
+
+<p>This division is made in various ways. A mine, and the same thing must
+be understood with regard to a tunnel, may be divided into two halves,
+that is into two similar portions, by which method two owners spend an
+equal amount on it and draw an equal profit from it, for each possesses
+one half. Sometimes it is divided into four shares, by which compact
+four persons can be owners, so that each possesses one-fourth, or also
+two persons, so that one possesses three-fourths, and the other only
+one-fourth; or three owners, so that the first has two-fourths, and the
+second and third one-fourth each. Sometimes it is divided into eight
+shares, by which plan there may be eight owners, so that each is
+possessor of one-eighth; sometimes there are two owners, so that one has
+five-sixths<a name="FNanchor_9_118" id="FNanchor_9_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_118" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> together with one twenty-fourth, and the other
+one-eighth; or there may be three owners, in which one has
+three-quarters and the second and third each one-eighth; or it may be
+divided so that one owner has seven-twelfths, together with one
+twenty-fourth, a second owner has one-quarter, and a third owner has
+one-eighth; or so that the first has one-half, the second one-third and
+one twenty-fourth, and the third one-eighth; or so that the first has
+one-half, as before, and the second and third each one-quarter; or so
+that the first and second each have one-third and one twenty-fourth, and
+the third one-quarter; and in the same way the divisions may be adjusted
+in all the other proportions. The different ways of dividing the shares
+originate from the different proportions of ownership. Sometimes a mine
+is divided into sixteen parts, each of which is a twenty-fourth and a
+forty-eighth; or it may be divided into thirty-two parts, each of which
+is a forty-eighth and half a seventy-second and a two hundred and
+eighty-eighth; or into sixty-four parts of which each share is one
+seventy-second and one five hundred and seventy-sixth; or finally, into
+one hundred and twenty-eight parts, any one of which is half a
+seventy-second and half of one five hundred and seventy-sixth.</p>
+
+<p>Now an iron mine either remains undivided or is divided into two, four,
+or occasionally more shares, which depends on the excellence of the
+veins. But a lead, bismuth, or tin mine, and likewise one of copper or
+even quicksilver, is also divided into eight shares, or into sixteen or
+thirty-two, and less commonly into sixty-four. The number of the
+divisions of the silver mines at Freiberg in Meissen did not formerly
+progress beyond this; but <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a>[Pg 91]</span>within the memory of our fathers, miners have
+divided a silver mine, and similarly the tunnel at Schneeberg, first of
+all into one hundred and twenty-eight shares, of which one hundred and
+twenty-six are the property of private owners in the mines or tunnels,
+one belongs to the State and one to the Church; while in Joachimsthal
+only one hundred and twenty-two shares of the mines or tunnels are the
+property of private owners, four are proprietary shares, and the State
+and Church each have one in the same way. To these there has lately been
+added in some places one share for the most needy of the population,
+which makes one hundred and twenty-nine shares. It is only the private
+owners of mines who pay contributions. A proprietary holder, though he
+holds as many as four shares such as I have described, does not pay
+contributions, but gratuitiously supplies the owners of the mines with
+sufficient wood from his forests for timbering, machinery, buildings,
+and smelting; nor do those belonging to the State, Church, and the poor
+pay contributions, but the proceeds are used to build or repair public
+works and sacred buildings, and to support the most needy with the
+profits which they draw from the mines. Furthermore, in our State, the
+one hundred and twenty-eighth share has begun to be divided into two,
+four, or eight parts, or even into three, six, twelve, or smaller parts.
+This is done when one mine is created out of two, for then the owner who
+formerly possessed one-half becomes owner of one-fourth; he who
+possessed one-fourth, of one-eighth; he who possessed one-third, of
+one-sixth; he who possessed one-sixth, of one-twelfth. Since our
+countrymen call a mine a <i>symposium</i>, that is, a drinking bout, we are
+accustomed to call the money which the owners subscribe a <i>symbolum</i>, or
+a contribution<a name="FNanchor_10_119" id="FNanchor_10_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_119" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>. For, just as those who go to a banquet (<i>symposium</i>)
+give contributions (<i>symbola</i>), so those who purpose making large
+profits from mining are accustomed to contribute toward the expenditure.
+However, the manager of the mine assesses the contributions of the
+owners annually, or for the most part quarterly, and as often he renders
+an account of receipts and expenses. At Freiberg in Meissen the old
+practice was for the manager to exact a contribution from the owners
+every week, and every week to distribute among them the profits of the
+mines, but this practice during almost the last fifteen years has been
+so far changed that contribution and distribution are made four<a name="FNanchor_11_120" id="FNanchor_11_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_120" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>
+times each year. Large or small contributions are imposed according to
+the number of workmen which the mine or tunnel requires; as a result,
+those who possess many shares provide many contributions. Four times a
+year the owners contribute to the cost, and four times during the year
+the profits of the mines are distributed among them; these are sometimes
+large, sometimes small, according as there is more or less gold or
+silver or other metal dug out. Indeed, from the St. George mine in
+Schneeberg the miners extracted so much silver in a quarter of a year
+that silver cakes, which were worth <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92"></a>[Pg 92]</span>1,100 Rhenish guldens, were
+distributed to each one hundred and twenty-eighth share. From the
+Annaberg mine which is known as the Himmelisch H�z, they had a dole of
+eight hundred thaler; from a mine in Joachimsthal which is named the
+Sternen, three hundred thaler; from the head mine at Abertham, which is
+called St. Lorentz, two hundred and twenty-five thaler<a name="FNanchor_12_121" id="FNanchor_12_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_121" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>. The more
+shares of which any individual is owner the more profits he takes.</p>
+
+<p>I will now explain how the owners may lose or obtain the right over a
+mine, or a tunnel, or a share. Formerly, if anyone was able to prove by
+witnesses that the owners had failed to send miners for three continuous
+shifts<a name="FNanchor_13_122" id="FNanchor_13_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_122" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>, the <i>Bergmeister</i> deprived them of their right over the
+mine, and gave the right over it to the informer, if he desired it. But
+although miners preserve this custom to-day, still mining share owners
+who have paid their contributions do not lose their right over their
+mines against their will. Formerly, if water which had not been drawn
+off from the higher shaft of some mine percolated through a vein or
+stringer into the shaft of another mine and impeded their work, then the
+owners of the mine which suffered the damage went to the <i>Bergmeister</i>
+and complained of the loss, and he sent to the shafts two Jurors. If
+they found that matters were as claimed, the right over the mine which
+caused the injury was given to the owners who suffered the injury. But
+this custom in certain places has been changed, for the <i>Bergmeister</i>,
+if he finds this condition of things proved in the case of two shafts,
+orders the owners of the shaft which causes the injury to contribute
+part of the expense to the owners of the shaft which receives the
+injury; if they fail to do so, he then deprives them of their right over
+their mine; on the other hand, if the owners send men to the workings to
+dig and draw off the water from the shafts, they keep their right over
+their mine. Formerly owners used to obtain a right over any tunnel,
+firstly, if in its bottom they made drains and cleansed them of mud and
+sand so that the water might flow out without any hindrance, and
+restored those drains which had been damaged; secondly, if they provided
+shafts or openings to supply the miners with air, and restored those
+which had fallen in; and finally, if three miners were employed
+continuously in driving the tunnel. But the principal reason for losing
+the title to a tunnel was that for a period of eight days no miner was
+employed upon it; therefore, when anyone was able to prove by witnesses
+that the owners of a tunnel had not done these things, he brought his
+accusation before the <i>Bergmeister</i>, who, after going out from the town
+to the tunnel and inspecting the drains and the ventilating machines and
+everything else, and finding the charge to be true, placed the witness
+under oath, and asked him: "Whose tunnel is this at the present time?"
+The witness would reply: "The King's" or "The <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"></a>[Pg 93]</span>Prince's." Thereupon the
+<i>Bergmeister</i> gave the right over the tunnel to the first applicant.
+This was the severe rule under which the owners at one time lost their
+rights over a tunnel; but its severity is now considerably mitigated,
+for the owners do not now forthwith lose their right over a tunnel
+through not having cleaned out the drains and restored the shafts or
+ventilation holes which have suffered damage; but the <i>Bergmeister</i>
+orders the tunnel manager to do it, and if he does not obey, the
+authorities fine the tunnel. Also it is sufficient for one miner to be
+engaged in driving the tunnel. Moreover, if the owner of a tunnel sets
+boundaries at a fixed spot in the rocks and stops driving the tunnel, he
+may obtain a right over it so far as he has gone, provided the drains
+are cleaned out and ventilation holes are kept in repair. But any other
+owner is allowed to start from the established mark and drive the tunnel
+further, if he pays the former owners of the tunnel as much money every
+three months as the <i>Bergmeister</i> decides ought to be paid.</p>
+
+<p>There remain for discussion, the shares in the mines and tunnels.
+Formerly if anybody conveyed these shares to anyone else, and the latter
+had once paid his contribution, the seller<a name="FNanchor_14_123" id="FNanchor_14_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_123" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> was bound to stand by his
+bargain, and this custom to-day has the force of law. But if the seller
+denied that the contribution had been paid, while the buyer of the
+shares declared that he could prove by witnesses that he had paid his
+contribution to the other proprietors, and a case arose for trial, then
+the evidence of the other proprietors carried more weight than the oath
+of the seller. To-day the buyer of the shares proves that he has paid
+his contribution by a document which the mine or tunnel manager always
+gives each one; if the buyer has contributed no money there is no
+obligation on the seller to keep his bargain. Formerly, as I have said
+above, the proprietors used to contribute money weekly, but now
+contributions are paid four times each year. To-day, if for the space of
+a month anyone does not take proceedings against the seller of the
+shares for the contribution, the right of taking proceedings is lost.
+But when the Clerk has already entered on the register the shares which
+had been conveyed or bought, none of the owners loses his right over the
+share unless the money is not contributed which the manager of the mine
+or tunnel has demanded from the owner or his agent. Formerly, if on the
+application of the manager the owner or his agent did not pay, the
+matter was referred to the <i>Bergmeister</i>, who ordered the owner or his
+agent to make his contribution; then if he failed to contribute for
+three successive weeks, the <i>Bergmeister</i> gave the right to his shares
+to the first applicant. To-day this custom is unchanged, for if owners
+fail for the space of a month to pay the contributions which the manager
+of the mine has imposed on them, on a stated day their names are
+proclaimed aloud and struck off the list of owners, in the presence of
+the <i>Bergmeister</i>, the Jurors, the Mining Clerk, and the Share Clerk,
+and each of such shares is entered on the proscribed list. If, however,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94"></a>[Pg 94]</span>on the third, or at latest the fourth day, they pay their contributions
+to the manager of the mine or tunnel, and pay the money which is due
+from them to the Share Clerk, he removes their shares from the
+proscribed list. They are not thereupon restored to their former
+position unless the other owners consent; in which respect the custom
+now in use differs from the old practice, for to-day if the owners of
+shares constituting anything over half the mine consent to the
+restoration of those who have been proscribed, the others are obliged to
+consent whether they wish to or not. Formerly, unless such restoration
+had been sanctioned by the approval of the owners of one hundred shares,
+those who had been proscribed were not restored to their former
+position.</p>
+
+<p>The procedure in suits relating to shares was formerly as follows: he
+who instituted a suit and took legal proceedings against another in
+respect of the shares, used to make a formal charge against the accused
+possessor before the <i>Bergmeister</i>. This was done either at his house or
+in some public place or at the mines, once each day for three days if
+the shares belonged to an old mine, and three times in eight days if
+they belonged to a head-meer. But if he could not find the possessor of
+the shares in these places, it was valid and effectual to make the
+accusation against him at the house of the <i>Bergmeister</i>. When, however,
+he made the charge for the third time, he used to bring with him a
+notary, whom the <i>Bergmeister</i> would interrogate: "Have I earned the
+fee?" and who would respond: "You have earned it"; thereupon the
+<i>Bergmeister</i> would give the right over the shares to him who made the
+accusation, and the accuser in turn would pay down the customary fee to
+the <i>Bergmeister</i>. After these proceedings, if the man whom the
+<i>Bergmeister</i> had deprived of his shares dwelt in the city, one of the
+proprietors of the mine or of the head-mine was sent to him to acquaint
+him with the facts, but if he dwelt elsewhere proclamation was made in
+some public place, or at the mine, openly and in a loud voice in the
+hearing of numbers of miners. Nowadays a date is defined for the one who
+is answerable for the debt of shares or money, and information is given
+the accused by an official if he is near at hand, or if he is absent, a
+letter is sent him; nor is the right over his shares taken from anyone
+for the space of one and a half months. So much for these matters.</p>
+
+<p>Now, before I deal with the methods which must be employed in working, I
+will speak of the duties of the Mining Prefect, the <i>Bergmeister</i>, the
+Jurors, the Mining Clerk, the Share Clerk, the manager of the mine or
+tunnel, the foreman of the mine or tunnel, and the workmen.</p>
+
+<p>To the Mining Prefect, whom the King or Prince appoints as his deputy,
+all men of all races, ages, and rank, give obedience and submission. He
+governs and regulates everything at his discretion, ordering those
+things which are useful and advantageous in mining operations, and
+prohibiting those which are to the contrary. He levies penalties and
+punishes offenders; he arranges disputes which the <i>Bergmeister</i> has
+been unable to settle, and if even he cannot arrange them, he allows the
+owners who are at variance over some point to proceed to litigation; he
+even lays down the law, gives orders <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a>[Pg 95]</span>as a magistrate, or bids them
+leave their rights in abeyance, and he determines the pay of persons who
+hold any post or office. He is present in person when the mine managers
+present their quarterly accounts of profits and expenses, and generally
+represents the King or Prince and upholds his dignity. The Athenians in
+this way set Thucydides, the famous historian, over the mines of
+Thasos<a name="FNanchor_15_124" id="FNanchor_15_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_124" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Next in power to the Mining Prefect comes the <i>Bergmeister</i>, since he
+has jurisdiction over all who are connected with mines, with a few
+exceptions, which are the Tithe Gatherer, the Cashier, the Silver
+Refiner, the Master of the Mint, and the Coiners themselves. Fraudulent,
+negligent, or dissolute men he either throws into prison, or deprives of
+promotion, or fines; of these fines, part is given as a tribute to those
+in power. When the mine owners have a dispute over boundaries he
+arbitrates it; or if he cannot settle the dispute, he pronounces
+judgment jointly with the Jurors; from them, however, an appeal lies to
+the Mining Prefect. He transcribes his decrees in a book and sets up the
+records in public. It is also his duty to grant the right over the mines
+to those who apply, and to confirm their rights; he also must measure
+the mines, and fix their boundaries, and see that the mine workings are
+not allowed to become dangerous. Some of these duties he observes on
+fixed days; for on Wednesday in the presence of the Jurors he confirms
+the rights over the mines which he has granted, settles disputes about
+boundaries, and pronounces judgments. On Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays,
+and Fridays, he rides up to the mines, and dismounting at some of them
+explains what is required to be done, or considers the boundaries which
+are under controversy. On Saturday all the mine managers and mine
+foremen render an account of the money which they have spent on the
+mines during the preceding week, and the Mining Clerk transcribes this
+account into the register of expenses. Formerly, for one Principality
+there was one <i>Bergmeister</i>, who used to create all the judges and
+exercise jurisdiction and control over them; for every mine had its own
+judge, just as to-day each locality has a <i>Bergmeister</i> in his place,
+the name alone being changed. To this ancient <i>Bergmeister</i>, who used to
+dwell at Freiberg in Meissen, disputes were referred; hence right up to
+the present time the one at Freiberg still has the power of pronouncing
+judgment when mine owners who are engaged in disputes among themselves
+appeal to him. The old <i>Bergmeister</i> could try everything which was
+presented to him in any mine whatsoever; whereas the judge could only
+try the things which were done in his own district, in the same way that
+every modern <i>Bergmeister</i> can.</p>
+
+<p>To each <i>Bergmeister</i> is attached a clerk, who writes out a schedule
+signifying to the applicant for a right over a mine, the day and hour on
+which the right is granted, the name of the applicant, and the location
+of the mine. He also affixes at the entrance to the mine, quarterly, at
+the appointed time, a sheet of paper on which is shown how much
+contribution must be paid to the manager of the mine. These notices are
+prepared jointly with the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a>[Pg 96]</span>Mining Clerk, and in common they receive the
+fee rendered by the foremen of the separate mines.</p>
+
+<p>I now come to the Jurors, who are men experienced in mining matters and
+of good repute. Their number is greater or less as there are few or more
+mines; thus if there are ten mines there will be five pairs of Jurors,
+like a <i>decemviral college</i><a name="FNanchor_16_125" id="FNanchor_16_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_125" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>. Into however many divisions the total
+number of mines has been divided, so many divisions has the body of
+Jurors; each pair of Jurors usually visits some of the mines whose
+administration is under their supervision on every day that workmen are
+employed; it is usually so arranged that they visit all the mines in the
+space of fourteen days. They inspect and consider all details, and
+deliberate and consult with the mine foreman on matters relating to the
+underground workings, machinery, timbering, and everything else. They
+also jointly with the mine foreman from time to time make the price per
+fathom to the workmen for mining the ore, fixing it at a high or low
+price, according to whether the rock is hard or soft; if, however, the
+contractors find that an unforeseen and unexpected hardness occurs, and
+for that reason have difficulty and delay in carrying out their work,
+the Jurors allow them something in excess of the price fixed; while if
+there is a softness by reason of water, and the work is done more easily
+and quickly, they deduct something from the price. Further, if the
+Jurors discover manifest negligence or fraud on the part of any foreman
+or workman, they first admonish or reprimand him as to his duties and
+obligations, and if he does not become more diligent and improve, the
+matter is reported to the <i>Bergmeister</i>, who by right of his authority
+deprives such persons of their functions and office, or, if they have
+committed a crime, throws them into prison. Lastly, because the Jurors
+have been given to the <i>Bergmeister</i> as councillors and advisors, in
+their absence he does not confirm the right over any mine, nor measure
+the mines, nor fix their boundaries, nor settle disputes about
+boundaries, nor pronounce judgment, nor, finally, does he without them
+listen to any account of profits and expenditure.</p>
+
+<p>Now the Mining Clerk enters each mine in his books, the new mines in one
+book, the old mines which have been re-opened in another. This is done
+in the following way: first is written the name of the man who has
+applied for the right over the mine, then the day and hour on which he
+made his application, then the vein and the locality in which it is
+situated, next the conditions on which the right has been given, and
+lastly, the day on which the <i>Bergmeister</i> confirmed it. A document
+containing all these particulars is also given to the person whose right
+over a mine has been confirmed. The Mining Clerk also sets down in
+another book the names of the owners of each mine over which the right
+has been confirmed; in another any intermission of work permitted to any
+person for certain <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97"></a>[Pg 97]</span>reasons by the <i>Bergmeister</i>; in another the money
+which one mine supplies to another for drawing off water or making
+machinery; and in another the decisions of the <i>Bergmeister</i> and the
+Jurors, and the disputes settled by them as honorary arbitrators. All
+these matters he enters in the books on Wednesday of every week; if
+holidays fall on that day he does it on the following Thursday. Every
+Saturday he enters in another book the total expenses of the preceding
+week, the account of which the mine manager has rendered; but the total
+quarterly expenses of each mine manager, he enters in a special book at
+his own convenience. He enters similarly in another book a list of
+owners who have been proscribed. Lastly, that no one may be able to
+bring a charge of falsification against him, all these books are
+enclosed in a chest with two locks, the key of one of which is kept by
+the Mining Clerk, and of the other by the <i>Bergmeister</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Share Clerk enters in a book the owners of each mine whom the first
+finder of the vein names to him, and from time to time replaces the
+names of the sellers with those of the buyers of the shares. It
+sometimes happens that twenty or more owners come into the possession of
+some particular share. Unless, however, the seller is present, or has
+sent a letter to the Mining Clerk with his seal, or better still with
+the seal of the Mayor of the town where he dwells, his name is not
+replaced by that of anyone else; for if the Share Clerk is not
+sufficiently cautious, the law requires him to restore the late owner
+wholly to his former position. He writes out a fresh document, and in
+this way gives proof of possession. Four times a year, when the accounts
+of the quarterly expenditure are rendered, he names the new proprietors
+to the manager of each mine, that the manager may know from whom he
+should demand contributions and among whom to distribute the profits of
+the mines. For this work the mine manager pays the Clerk a fixed fee.</p>
+
+<p>I will now speak of the duties of the mine manager. In the case of the
+owners of every mine which is not yielding metal, the manager announces
+to the proprietors their contributions in a document which is affixed to
+the doors of the town hall, such contributions being large or small,
+according as the <i>Bergmeister</i> and two Jurors determine. If anyone fails
+to pay these contributions for the space of a month, the manager removes
+their names from the list of owners, and makes their shares the common
+property of the other proprietors. And so, whomsoever the mine manager
+names as not having paid his contribution, that same man the Mining
+Clerk designates in writing, and so also does the Share Clerk. Of the
+contribution, the mine manager applies part to the payment of the
+foreman and workmen, and lays by a part to purchase at the lowest price
+the necessary things for the mine, such as iron tools, nails, firewood,
+planks, buckets, drawing-ropes, or grease. But in the case of a mine
+which is yielding metal, the Tithe-gatherer pays the mine manager week
+by week as much money as suffices to discharge the workmen's wages and
+to provide the necessary implements for mining. The mine manager of each
+mine also, in the presence of its foreman, on Saturday in each week
+renders an account of his expenses to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98"></a>[Pg 98]</span>the <i>Bergmeister</i> and the Jurors,
+he renders an account of his receipts, whether the money has been
+contributed by the owners or taken from the Tithe-gatherer; and of his
+quarterly expenditure in the same way to them and to the Mining Prefect
+and to the Mining Clerk, four times a year at the appointed time; for
+just as there are four seasons of the year, namely, Spring, Summer,
+Autumn, and Winter, so there are fourfold accounts of profits and
+expenses. In the beginning of the first month of each quarter an account
+is rendered of the money which the manager has spent on the mine during
+the previous quarter, then of the profit which he has taken from it
+during the same period; for example, the account which is rendered at
+the beginning of spring is an account of all the profits and expenses of
+each separate week of winter, which have been entered by the Mining
+Clerk in the book of accounts. If the manager has spent the money of the
+proprietors advantageously in the mine and has faithfully looked after
+it, everyone praises him as a diligent and honest man; if through
+ignorance in these matters he has caused loss, he is generally deprived
+of his office; if by his carelessness and negligence the owners have
+suffered loss, the <i>Bergmeister</i> compels him to make good the loss; and
+finally, if he has been guilty of fraud or theft, he is punished with
+fine, prison, or death. Further, it is the business of the manager to
+see that the foreman of the mine is present at the beginning and end of
+the shifts, that he digs the ore in an advantageous manner, and makes
+the required timbering, machines, and drains. The manager also makes the
+deductions from the pay of the workmen whom the foreman has noted as
+negligent. Next, if the mine is rich in metal, the manager must see that
+its ore-house is closed on those days on which no work is performed; and
+if it is a rich vein of gold or silver, he sees that the miners promptly
+transfer the output from the shaft or tunnel into a chest or into the
+strong room next to the house where the foreman dwells, that no
+opportunity for theft may be given to dishonest persons. This duty he
+shares in common with the foreman, but the one which follows is
+peculiarly his own. When ore is smelted he is present in person, and
+watches that the smelting is performed carefully and advantageously. If
+from it gold or silver is melted out, when it is melted in the
+cupellation furnace he enters the weight of it in his books and carries
+it to the Tithe-gatherer, who similarly writes a note of its weight in
+his books; it is then conveyed to the refiner. When it has been brought
+back, both the Tithe-gatherer and manager again enter its weight in
+their books. Why again? Because he looks after the goods of the owners
+just as if they were his own. Now the laws which relate to mining permit
+a manager to have charge of more than one mine, but in the case of mines
+yielding gold or silver, to have charge of only two. If, however,
+several mines following the head-mine begin to produce metal, he remains
+in charge of these others until he is freed from the duty of looking
+after them by the <i>Bergmeister</i>. Last of all, the manager, the
+<i>Bergmeister</i>, and the two Jurors, in agreement with the owners, settle
+the remuneration for the labourers. Enough of the duties and occupation
+of the manager.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"></a>[Pg 99]</span></p><p>I will now leave the manager, and discuss him who controls the workmen
+of the mine, who is therefore called the foreman, although some call him
+the watchman. It is he who distributes the work among the labourers, and
+sees diligently that each faithfully and usefully performs his duties.
+He also discharges workmen on account of incompetence, or negligence,
+and supplies others in their places if the two Jurors and manager give
+their consent. He must be skilful in working wood, that he may timber
+shafts, place posts, and make underground structures capable of
+supporting an undermined mountain, lest the rocks from the hangingwall
+of the veins, not being supported, become detached from the mass of the
+mountain and overwhelm the workmen with destruction. He must be able to
+make and lay out the drains in the tunnels, into which the water from
+the veins, stringers, and seams in the rocks may collect, that it may be
+properly guided and can flow away. Further, he must be able to recognize
+veins and stringers, so as to sink shafts to the best advantage, and
+must be able to discern one kind of material which is mined from
+another, or to train his subordinates that they may separate the
+materials correctly. He must also be well acquainted with all methods of
+washing, so as to teach the washers how the metalliferous earth or sand
+is washed. He supplies the miners with iron tools when they are about to
+start to work in the mines, and apportions a certain weight of oil for
+their lamps, and trains them to dig to the best advantage, and sees that
+they work faithfully. When their shift is finished, he takes back the
+oil which has been left. On account of his numerous and important duties
+and labours, only one mine is entrusted to one foreman, nay, rather
+sometimes two or three foremen are set over one mine.</p>
+
+<p>Since I have mentioned the shifts, I will briefly explain how these are
+carried on. The twenty-four hours of a day and night are divided into
+three shifts, and each shift consists of seven hours. The three
+remaining hours are intermediate between the shifts, and form an
+interval during which the workmen enter and leave the mines. The first
+shift begins at the fourth hour in the morning and lasts till the
+eleventh hour; the second begins at the twelfth and is finished at the
+seventh; these two are day shifts in the morning and afternoon. The
+third is the night shift, and commences at the eighth hour in the
+evening and finishes at the third in the morning. The <i>Bergmeister</i> does
+not allow this third shift to be imposed upon the workmen unless
+necessity demands it. In that case, whether they draw water from the
+shafts or mine the ore, they keep their vigil by the night lamps, and to
+prevent themselves falling asleep from the late hours or from fatigue,
+they lighten their long and arduous labours by singing, which is neither
+wholly untrained nor unpleasing. In some places one miner is not allowed
+to undertake two shifts in succession, because it often happens that he
+either falls asleep in the mine, overcome by exhaustion from too much
+labour, or arrives too late for his shift, or leaves sooner than he
+ought. Elsewhere he is allowed to do so, because he cannot subsist on
+the pay of one shift, especially if provisions grow dearer. The
+<i>Bergmeister</i> does not, however, forbid an extraordinary shift when he
+concedes only one ordinary shift. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100"></a>[Pg 100]</span>When it is time to go to work the
+sound of a great bell, which the foreigners call a "campana," gives the
+workmen warning, and when this is heard they run hither and thither
+through the streets toward the mines. Similarly, the same sound of the
+bell warns the foreman that a shift has just been finished; therefore as
+soon as he hears it, he stamps on the woodwork of the shaft and signals
+the workmen to come out. Thereupon, the nearest as soon as they hear the
+signal, strike the rocks with their hammers, and the sound reaches those
+who are furthest away. Moreover, the lamps show that the shift has come
+to an end when the oil becomes almost consumed and fails them. The
+labourers do not work on Saturdays, but buy those things which are
+necessary to life, nor do they usually work on Sundays or annual
+festivals, but on these occasions devote the shift to holy things.
+However, the workmen do not rest and do nothing if necessity demands
+their labour; for sometimes a rush of water compels them to work,
+sometimes an impending fall, sometimes something else, and at such times
+it is not considered irreligious to work on holidays. Moreover, all
+workmen of this class are strong and used to toil from birth.</p>
+
+<p>The chief kinds of workmen are miners, shovellers, windlass men,
+carriers, sorters, washers, and smelters, as to whose duties I will
+speak in the following books, in their proper place. At present it is
+enough to add this one fact, that if the workmen have been reported by
+the foreman for negligence, the <i>Bergmeister</i>, or even the foreman
+himself, jointly with the manager, dismisses them from their work on
+Saturday, or deprives them of part of their pay; or if for fraud, throws
+them into prison. However, the owners of works in which the metals are
+smelted, and the master of the smelter, look after their own men. As to
+the government and duties of miners, I have now said enough; I will
+explain them more fully in another work entitled <i>De Jure et Legibus
+Metallicis</i><a name="FNanchor_17_126" id="FNanchor_17_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_126" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p class="center">END OF BOOK IV.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_77" id="Notes_77">[Pg 77]</a></span><a name="Footnote_1_110" id="Footnote_1_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_110"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The nomenclature in this chapter has given unusual
+difficulty, because the organisation of mines, either past or present,
+in English-speaking countries provides no exact equivalents for many of
+these offices and for many of the legal terms. The Latin terms in the
+text were, of course, coined by the author, and have no historical basis
+to warrant their adoption, while the introduction of the original German
+terms is open to much objection, as they are not only largely obsolete,
+but also in the main would convey no meaning to the majority of readers.
+We have, therefore, reached a series of compromises, and in the main
+give the nearest English equivalent. Of much interest in this connection
+is a curious exotic survival in mining law to be found in the High Peak
+of Derbyshire. We believe (see note on p. <a href="#Notes_85">85</a>) that the law of this
+district was of Saxon importation, for in it are not only many terms of
+German origin, but the character of the law is foreign to the older
+English districts and shows its near kinship to that of Saxony. It is
+therefore of interest in connection with the nomenclature to be adopted
+in this book, as it furnishes about the only English precedents in many
+cases. The head of the administration in the Peak was the Steward, who
+was the chief judicial officer, with functions somewhat similar to the
+<i>Berghauptmann</i>. However, the term Steward has come to have so much less
+significance that we have adopted a literal rendering of the Latin.
+Under the Steward was the Barmaster, Barghmaster, or Barmar, as he was
+variously called, and his duties were similar to those of the
+<i>Bergmeister</i>. The English term would seem to be a corruption of the
+German, and as the latter has come to be so well understood by the
+English-speaking mining class, we have in this case adopted the German.
+The Barmaster acted always by the consent and with the approval of a
+jury of from 12 to 24 members. In this instance the English had
+functions much like a modern jury, while the <i>Geschwornen</i> of Saxony had
+much more widely extended powers. The German <i>Geschwornen</i> were in the
+main Inspectors; despite this, however, we have not felt justified in
+adopting any other than the literal English for the Latin and German
+terms. We have vacillated a great deal over the term <i>Praefectus
+Fodinae</i>, the German <i>Steiger</i> having, like the Cornish "Captain," in
+these days degenerated into a foreman, whereas the duties as described
+were not only those of the modern Superintendent or Manager, but also
+those of Treasurer of the Company, for he made the calls on shares and
+paid the dividends. The term Purser has been used for centuries in
+English mining for the Accountant or Cashier, but his functions were
+limited to paying dividends, wages, etc., therefore we have considered
+it better not to adopt the latter term, and have compromised upon the
+term Superintendent or Manager, although it has a distinctly modern
+flavor. The word for <i>area</i> has also caused much hesitation, and the
+"meer" has finally been adopted with some doubt. The title described by
+Agricola has a very close equivalent in the meer of old Derbyshire. As
+will be seen later, the mines of Saxony were Regal property, and were
+held subject to two essential conditions, <i>i.e.</i>, payment of a tithe,
+and continuous operation. This form of title thus approximates more
+closely to the "lease" of Australia than to the old Cornish <i>sett</i>, or
+the American <i>claim</i>. The <i>fundgrube</i> of Saxony and Agricola's
+equivalent, the <i>area capitis</i>&mdash;head lease&mdash;we have rendered literally
+as "head meer," although in some ways "founders' meer" might be better,
+for, in Derbyshire, this was called the "finder's" or founder's meer,
+and was awarded under similar circumstances. It has also an analogy in
+Australian law in the "reward" leases. The term "measure" has the merit
+of being a literal rendering of the Latin, and also of being the
+identical term in the same <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_78" id="Notes_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>use in the High Peak. The following table of
+the principal terms gives the originals of the Latin text, their German
+equivalents according in the Glossary and other sources, and those
+adopted in the translation:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="smcap">Agricola.</span></td><td align="center"><span class="smcap">German Glossary.</span></td><td align="center"><span class="smcap">Term Adopted.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Praefectus Metallorum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Bergamptmann</i></td><td align="left">Mining Prefect.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Magister Metallicorum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Bergmeister</i></td><td align="left">Bergmeister.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Scriba Magister Metallicorum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Bergmeister's schreiber</i></td><td align="left">Bergmeister's clerk.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Jurati</i></td><td align="left"><i>Geschwornen</i></td><td align="left">Jurates or Jurors.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Publicus Signator</i></td><td align="left"><i>Gemeiner sigler</i></td><td align="left">Notary.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Decumanus</i></td><td align="left"><i>Zehender</i></td><td align="left">Tithe gatherer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Distributor</i></td><td align="left"><i>Aussteiler</i></td><td align="left">Cashier.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Scriba partium</i></td><td align="left"><i>Gegenschreiber</i></td><td align="left">Share clerk.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Scriba fodinarum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Bergschreiber</i></td><td align="left">Mining clerk.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Praefectus fodinae</i></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:200%;">} </span><i>Steiger</i><span style="font-size:200%;"> {</span></td><td align="left">Manager of the Mine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Praefectus cuniculi</i></td><td align="left">Manager of the Tunnel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Praeses fodinae</i></td><td align="left" rowspan="2"><span style="font-size:200%;">} </span><i>Schichtmeister</i><span style="font-size:200%;"> {</span></td><td align="left">Foreman of the Mine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Praeses cuniculi</i></td><td align="left">Foreman of the Tunnel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Fossores</i></td><td align="left"><i>Berghauer</i></td><td align="left">Miners or diggers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Ingestores</i></td><td align="left"><i>Berganschlagen</i></td><td align="left">Shovellers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Vectarii</i></td><td align="left"><i>Hespeler</i></td><td align="left">Lever workers (windlass men).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Discretores</i></td><td align="left"><i>Ertzpucher</i></td><td align="left">Sorters.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Lotores</i></td><td align="left"><i>Wescher und seiffner</i></td><td align="left">Washers, buddlers, sifters, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Excoctores</i></td><td align="left"><i>Schmeltzer</i></td><td align="left">Smelters.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Purgator Argenti</i></td><td align="left"><i>Silber brenner</i></td><td align="left">Silver refiner.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Magister Monetariorum</i></td><td align="left"><i>M�ntzmeister</i></td><td align="left">Master of the Mint.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Monetarius</i></td><td align="left"><i>M�ntzer</i></td><td align="left">Coiner.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Area fodinarum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Masse</i></td><td align="left">Meer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Area Capitis Fodinarum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Fundgrube</i></td><td align="left">Head meer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Demensum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Lehen</i></td><td align="left">Measure.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_111" id="Footnote_2_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_111"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The following are the equivalents of the measures mentioned
+in this book. It is not always certain which "foot" or "fathom" Agricola
+actually had in mind although they were probably the German.
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Greek</span>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Dactylos</i></td><td align="left">=</td><td align="right">.76</td><td align="center">inches</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="left">=</td><td align="left"><i>Pous</i></td><td align="left">=</td><td align="right">12.13</td><td align="center">inches</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="left">=</td><td align="left"><i>Orguia</i></td><td align="left">=</td><td align="right">72.81</td><td align="center">inches.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Roman</span>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Uncia</i></td><td align="left">=</td><td align="right">.97</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">12</td><td align="left">=</td><td align="left"><i>Pes</i></td><td align="left">=</td><td align="right">11.6&nbsp;</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="left">=</td><td align="left"><i>Passus</i></td><td align="left">=</td><td align="right">58.1&nbsp;</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">German</span>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Zoll</i></td><td align="left">=</td><td align="right">.93</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">12</td><td align="left">=</td><td align="left"><i>Werckschuh</i></td><td align="left">=</td><td align="right">11.24</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="left">=</td><td align="left"><i>Lachter</i></td><td align="left">=</td><td align="right">67.5&nbsp;</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">English</span>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Inch</td><td align="left">=</td><td align="right">1.0&nbsp;</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">12</td><td align="left">=</td><td align="left">Foot</td><td align="left">=</td><td align="right">12.00</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="left">=</td><td align="left">Fathom</td><td align="left">=</td><td align="right">72.0&nbsp;</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p>
+The discrepancies are due to variations in authorities and to decimals
+dropped. The <i>werckschuh</i> taken is the Chemnitz foot deduced from
+Agricola's statement in his <i>De Mensuris et Ponderibus</i>, Basel, 1533, p.
+29. For further notes see <a href="#APPENDIX_C">Appendix C</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_80" id="Notes_80">[Pg 80]</a></span><a name="Footnote_3_112" id="Footnote_3_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_112"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Subcisivum</i>&mdash;"Remainder." German Glossary, <i>Ueberschar</i>.
+The term used in Mendip and Derbyshire was <i>primgap</i> or <i>primegap</i>. It
+did not, however, in this case belong to adjacent mines, but to the
+landlord.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_113" id="Footnote_4_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_113"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> <i>Adversum</i>. Glossary, <i>gegendrumb</i>. The <i>Bergwerk Lexicon</i>,
+Chemnitz, 1743, gives <i>gegendrom</i> or <i>gegentramm</i>, and defines it as the
+<i>masse</i> or lease next beyond a stream.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_114" id="Footnote_5_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_114"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>Quadratum</i>. Glossary, <i>vierung</i>. The <i>vierung</i> in old
+Saxon title meant a definite zone on either side of the vein, 3<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span>
+<i>lachter</i> (<i>lachter</i> = 5 ft. 7.5 inches) into the hangingwall and the
+same into the footwall, the length of one <i>vierung</i> being 7 <i>lachter</i>
+along the strike. It <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_81" id="Notes_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>must be borne in mind that the form of rights here
+referred to entitled the miner to follow his vein, carrying the side
+line with him in depth the same distance from the vein, in much the same
+way as with the Apex Law of the United States. From this definition as
+given in the <i>Bergwerk Lexicon</i>, p. 585, it would appear that the vein
+itself was not included in the measurements, but that they started from
+the walls.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_82" id="Notes_82">[Pg 82]</a></span><a name="Footnote_6_115" id="Footnote_6_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_115"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Historical Note on the Development of Mining Law.</span>&mdash;There is
+no branch of the law of property, of which the development is more
+interesting and illuminating from a social point of view than that
+relating to minerals. Unlike the land, the minerals have ever been
+regarded as a sort of fortuitous property, for the title of which there
+have been four principal claimants&mdash;that is, the Overlord, as
+represented by the King, Prince, Bishop, or what not; the Community or
+the State, as distinguished from the Ruler; the Landowner; and the Mine
+Operator, to which class belongs the Discoverer. The one of these that
+possessed the dominant right reflects vividly the social state and
+sentiment of the period. The Divine Right of Kings; the measure of
+freedom of their subjects; the tyranny of the land-owning class; the
+rights of the Community as opposed to its individual members; the rise
+of individualism; and finally, the modern return to more communal view,
+have all been reflected promptly in the mineral title. Of these parties
+the claims of the Overlord have been limited only by the resistance of
+his subjects; those of the State limited by the landlord; those of the
+landlord by the Sovereign or by the State; while the miner, ever in a
+minority in influence as well as in numbers, has been buffeted from
+pillar to post, his only protection being the fact that all other
+parties depended upon his exertion and skill.
+</p><p>
+The conception as to which of these classes had a right in the title
+have been by no means the same in different places at the same time, and
+in all it varies with different periods; but the whole range of
+legislation indicates the encroachment of one factor in the community
+over another, so that their relative rights have been the cause of
+never-ending contention, ever since a record of civil and economic
+contentions began. In modern times, practically over the whole world,
+the State has in effect taken the rights from the Overlord, but his
+claims did not cease until his claims over the bodies of his subjects
+also ceased. However, he still remains in many places with his picture
+on the coinage. The Landlord has passed through many vicissitudes; his
+complete right to minerals was practically never admitted until the
+doctrine of <i>laissez-faire</i> had become a matter of faith, and this just
+in time to vest him with most of the coal and iron deposits in the
+world; this, no doubt, being also partially due to the little regard in
+which such deposits were generally held at that time, and therefore to
+the little opposition to his ever-ready pretentions. Their numbers,
+however, and their prominence in the support of the political powers <i>de
+jure</i> have usually obtained them some recognition. In the rise of
+individualism, the apogee of the <i>laissez-faire</i> fetish came about the
+time of the foundation of the United States, and hence the relaxation in
+the claims of the State in that country and the corresponding position
+attained by the landlord and miner. The discoverer and the
+operator&mdash;that is, the miner himself&mdash;has, however, had to be reckoned
+with by all three of the other claimants, because they have almost
+universally sought to escape the risks of mining, to obtain the most
+skilful operation, and to stimulate the productivity of the mines;
+thereupon the miner has secured at least partial consideration. This
+stands out in all times and all places, and while the miner has had to
+take the risks of his fortuitous calling, the Overlord, State, or
+Landlord have all made for complacent safety by demanding some kind of a
+tithe on his exertions. Moreover, there has often been a low cunning
+displayed by these powers in giving something extra to the first
+discoverer. In these relations of the powers to the mine operator, from
+the very first we find definite records of the imposition of certain
+conditions with extraordinary persistence&mdash;so fixed a notion that even
+the United States did not quite escape it. This condition was, no doubt,
+designed as a stimulus to productive activity, and was the requirement
+that the miner should continuously employ himself digging in the piece
+of ground allotted to him. The Greeks, Romans, Medi�val Germans, old and
+modern Englishmen, modern Australians, all require the miner to keep
+continuously labouring at his mines, or lose his title. The American, as
+his inauguration of government happened when things were easier for
+individuals, allows him a vacation of 11 months in the year for a few
+years, and finally a holiday altogether. There are other points where
+the Overlord, the State, or the Landlord have always considered that
+they had a right to interfere, principally as to the way the miner does
+his work, lest he should miss, or cause to be missed, some of the
+mineral; so he has usually been under pains and penalties as to his
+methods&mdash;these quite apart from the very proper protection to human
+life, which is purely a modern invention, largely of the miner himself.
+Somebody has had to keep peace and settle disputes among the usually
+turbulent miners (for what other sort of operators would undertake the
+hazards and handicaps?), and therefore special officials and codes, or
+Courts, for his benefit are of the oldest and most persistent of
+institutions.
+</p><p>
+Between the Overlord and the Landowner the fundamental conflict of view
+as to their respective rights has found its interpretation in the form
+of the mineral title. The Overlord claimed the metals as distinguished
+from the land, while the landowner claimed all beneath his <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_83" id="Notes_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>soil.
+Therefore, we find two forms of title&mdash;that in which the miner could
+follow the ore regardless of the surface (the "apex" conception), and
+that in which the boundaries were vertical from the land surface. Lest
+the Americans think that the Apex Law was a sin original to themselves,
+we may mention that it was made use of in Europe a few centuries before
+Agricola, who will be found to set it out with great precision.
+</p><p>
+From these points of view, more philosophical than legal, we present a
+few notes on various ancient laws of mines, though space forbids a
+discussion of a tithe of the amount it deserves at some experienced
+hand.
+</p><p>
+Of the Ancient Egyptian, Lydian, Assyrian, Persian, Indian, and Chinese
+laws as to mines we have no record, but they were of great simplicity,
+for the bodies as well as the property of subjects were at the abject
+disposition of the Overlord. We are informed on countless occasions of
+Emperors, Kings, and Princes of various degree among these races, owning
+and operating mines with convicts, soldiers, or other slaves, so we may
+take it for certain that continuous labour was enforced, and that the
+boundaries, inspection, and landlords did not cause much anxiety.
+However, herein lies the root of regalian right.
+</p><p>
+Our first glimpse of a serious right of the subject to mines is among
+some of the Greek States, as could be expected from their form of
+government. With republican ideals, a rich mining district at Mount
+Laurion, an enterprising and contentious people, it would be surprising
+indeed if Athenian Literature was void on the subject. While we know
+that the active operation of these mines extended over some 500 years,
+from 700 to 200 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, the period of most literary reference was from 400
+to 300 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> Our information on the subject is from two of Demosthenes'
+orations&mdash;one against Pantaenetus, the other against Phaenippus&mdash;the
+first mining lawsuit in which the address of counsel is extant. There is
+also available some information in Xenophon's Essay upon the Revenues,
+Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, Lycurgus' prosecution of Diphilos,
+the Tablets of the Poletae, and many incidental references and
+inscriptions of minor order. The minerals were the property of the
+State, a conception apparently inherited from the older civilizations.
+Leases for exploitation were granted to individuals for terms of three
+to ten years, depending upon whether the mines had been previously
+worked, thus a special advantage was conferred upon the pioneer. The
+leases did not carry surface rights, but the boundaries at Mt. Laurion
+were vertical, as necessarily must be the case everywhere in horizontal
+deposits. What they were elsewhere we do not know. The landlord
+apparently got nothing. The miner must continuously operate his mine,
+and was required to pay a large tribute to the State, either in the
+initial purchase of his lease or in annual rent. There were elaborate
+regulations as to interference and encroachment, and proper support of
+the workings. Diphilos was condemned to death and his fortune
+confiscated for robbing pillars. The mines were worked with slaves.
+</p><p>
+The Romans were most intensive miners and searchers after metallic
+wealth already mined. The latter was obviously the objective of most
+Roman conquest, and those nations rich in these commodities, at that
+time necessarily possessed their own mines. Thus a map showing the
+extensions of Empire coincides in an extraordinary manner with the metal
+distribution of Europe, Asia, and North Africa. Further, the great
+indentations into the periphery of the Imperial map, though many were
+rich from an agricultural point of view, had no lure to the Roman
+because they had no mineral wealth. On the Roman law of mines the
+student is faced with many perplexities. With the conquest of the older
+States, the plunderers took over the mines and worked them, either by
+leases from the State to public companies or to individuals; or even in
+some cases worked them directly by the State. There was thus maintained
+the concept of State ownership of the minerals which, although
+apparently never very specifically defined, yet formed a basis of
+support to the contention of regalian rights in Europe later on.
+Parallel with this system, mines were discovered and worked by
+individuals under tithe to the State, and in Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 49) there is
+reference to the miners in Britain limiting their own output. Individual
+mining appears to have increased with any relaxation of central
+authority, as for instance under Augustus. It appears, as a rule, that
+the mines were held on terminable leases, and that the State did at
+times resume them; the labour was mostly slaves. As to the detailed
+conditions under which the mine operator held his title, we know less
+than of the Greeks&mdash;in fact, practically nothing other than that he paid
+a tithe. The Romans maintained in each mining district an official&mdash;the
+<i>Procurator Metallorum</i>&mdash;who not only had general charge of the leasing
+of the mines on behalf of the State, but was usually the magistrate of
+the district. A bronze tablet found near Aljustrel, in Portugal, in
+1876, generally known as the Aljustrel Tablet, appears to be the third
+of a series setting out the regulations of the mining district. It
+refers mostly to the regulation of public auctions, the baths, barbers,
+and tradesmen; but one clause (<span class="smcaplower">VII.</span>) is devoted to the regulation of
+those <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_84" id="Notes_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>who work dumps of scoria, etc., and provides for payment to the
+administrator of the mines of a <i>capitation</i> on the slaves employed. It
+does not, however, so far as we can determine, throw any light upon the
+actual regulations for working the mines. (Those interested will find
+ample detail in Jacques Flach, "<i>La Table de Bronze d'Aljustrel:
+Nouvelle Revue Historique de Droit Francais et Etranger</i>," 1878, p. 655;
+<i>Estacio da Veiga, Memorias da Acad. Real das Ciencias de Lisbon, Nova
+Scrie, Tome V, Part II</i>, Lisbon, 1882.) Despite the systematic law of
+property evolved by the Romans, the codes contain but small reference to
+mines, and this in itself is indirect evidence of the concept that they
+were the property of the State. Any general freedom of the metals would
+have given rise to a more extensive body of law. There are, of course,
+the well-known sections in the Justinian and Theodosian Codes, but the
+former in the main bears on the collection of the tithe and the
+stimulation of mining by ordering migrant miners to return to their own
+hearths. There is also some intangible prohibition of mining near
+edifices. There is in the Theodosian code evident extension of
+individual right to mine or quarry, and this "freeing" of the mines was
+later considerably extended. The Empire was, however, then on the
+decline; and no doubt it was hoped to stimulate the taxable commodities.
+There is nothing very tangible as to the position of the landlord with
+regard to minerals found on his property; the metals were probably of
+insufficient frequency on the land of Italian landlords to matter much,
+and the attitude toward subject races was not usually such as to require
+an extensive body of law.
+</p><p>
+In the chaos of the Middle Ages, Europe was governed by hundreds of
+potentates, great and small, who were unanimous on one point, and this
+that the minerals were their property. In the bickerings among
+themselves, the stronger did not hesitate to interpret the Roman law in
+affirming regalian rights as an excuse to dispossess the weaker. The
+rights to the mines form no small part of the differences between these
+Potentates and the more important of their subjects; and with the
+gradual accretion of power into a few hands, we find only the most
+powerful of vassals able to resist such encroachment. However, as to
+what position the landlord or miner held in these rights, we have little
+indication until about the beginning of the 13th century, after which
+there appear several well-known charters, which as time went on were
+elaborated into practical codes of mining law. The earliest of these
+charters are those of the Bishop of Trent, 1185; that of the Harz
+Miners, 1219; of the town of Iglau in 1249. Many such in connection with
+other districts appear throughout the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries.
+(References to the most important of such charters may be found in
+Sternberg, <i>Umrisse der Geschichte des Bergbaues</i>, Prague, 1838;
+Eisenhart, <i>De Regali Metalli Fodinarium</i>, Helmestadt, 1681; Gmelin,
+<i>Beytr�ge zur Geschichte des Teutschen Bergbaus</i>, Halle, 1783;
+Inama-Sternegg, <i>Deutsche Wirthschaftsgeschichte</i>, Leipzig, 1879-1901;
+Transactions, Royal Geol. Soc. Cornwall <span class="smcaplower">VI</span>, 155; Lewis, The Stannaries,
+New York, 1908.) By this time a number of mining communities had grown
+up, and the charters in the main are a confirmation to them of certain
+privileges; they contain, nevertheless, rigorous reservation of the
+regalian right. The landlord, where present, was usually granted some
+interest in the mine, but had to yield to the miner free entry. The
+miner was simply a sort of tributer to the Crown, loaded with an
+obligation when upon private lands to pay a further portion of his
+profits to the landlord. He held tenure only during strenuous operation.
+However, it being necessary to attract skilled men, they were granted
+many civil privileges not general to the people; and from many of the
+principal mining towns "free cities" were created, possessing a measure
+of self-government. There appear in the Iglau charter of 1249 the first
+symptoms of the "apex" form of title, this being the logical development
+of the conception that the minerals were of quite distinct ownership
+from the land. The law, as outlined by Agricola, is much the same as set
+out in the Iglavian Charter of three centuries before, and we must
+believe that such fully developed conceptions as that charter conveys
+were but the confirmation of customs developed over generations.
+</p><p>
+In France the landlord managed to maintain a stronger position
+<i>vis-�-vis</i> with the Crown, despite much assertion of its rights; and as
+a result, while the landlord admitted the right to a tithe for the
+Crown, he maintained the actual possession, and the boundaries were
+defined with the land.
+</p><p>
+In England the law varied with special mining communities, such as
+Cornwall, Devon, the Forest of Dean, the Forest of Mendip, Alston Moor,
+and the High Peak, and they exhibit a curious complex of individual
+growth, of profound interest to the student of the growth of
+institutions. These communities were of very ancient origin, some of
+them at least pre-Roman; but we are, except for the reference in Pliny,
+practically without any idea of their legal doings until after the
+Norman occupation (1066 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>). The genius of these conquerors for
+systematic government soon led them to inquire into the doings of these
+communities, and while gradually systematising their customs into law,
+they lost no occasion to assert the <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_85" id="Notes_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>regalian right to the minerals. In
+the two centuries subsequent to their advent there are on record
+numerous inquisitions, with the recognition and confirmation of "the
+customs and liberties which had existed from time immemorial," always
+with the reservation to the Crown of some sort of royalty. Except for
+the High Peak in Derbyshire, the period and origin of these "customs and
+liberties" are beyond finding out, as there is practically no record of
+English History between the Roman withdrawal and the Norman occupation.
+There may have been "liberties" under the Romans, but there is not a
+shred of evidence on the subject, and our own belief is that the forms
+of self-government which sprang up were the result of the Roman
+evacuation. The miner had little to complain of in the Norman treatment
+in these matters; but between the Crown and the landlord as represented
+by the Barons, Lords of the Manor, etc., there were wide differences of
+opinion on the regalian rights, for in the extreme interpretation of the
+Crown it tended greatly to curtail the landlord's position in the
+matter, and the success of the Crown on this subject was by no means
+universal. In fact, a considerable portion of English legal history of
+mines is but the outcropping of this conflict, and one of the
+concessions wrung from King John at Runnymede in 1215 was his
+abandonment of a portion of such claims.
+</p><p>
+The mining communities of Cornwall and Devon were early in the 13th
+century definitely chartered into corporations&mdash;"The
+Stannaries"&mdash;possessing definite legislative and executive functions,
+judicial powers, and practical self-government; but they were required
+to make payment of the tithe in the shape of "coinage" on the tin. Such
+recognition, while but a ratification of prior custom, was not obtained
+without struggle, for the Norman Kings early asserted wide rights over
+the mines. Tangible record of mining in these parts, from a legal point
+of view, practically begins with a report by William de Wrotham in 1198
+upon his arrangements regarding the coinage. A charter of King John in
+1201, while granting free right of entry to the miners, thus usurped the
+rights of the landlords&mdash;a claim which he was compelled by the Barons to
+moderate; the Crown, as above mentioned did maintain its right to a
+royalty, but the landlord held the minerals. It is not, however, until
+the time of Richard Carew's "Survey of Cornwall" (London, 1602) that we
+obtain much insight into details of miners' title, and the customs there
+set out were maintained in broad principle down to the 19th century. At
+Carew's time the miner was allowed to prospect freely upon "Common" or
+wastrel lands (since mostly usurped by landlords), and upon mineral
+discovery marked his boundaries, within which he was entitled to the
+vertical contents. Even upon such lands, however, he must acknowledge
+the right of the lord of the manor to a participation in the mine. Upon
+"enclosed" lands he had no right of entry without the consent of the
+landlord; in fact, the minerals belonged to the land as they do to-day
+except where voluntarily relinquished. In either case he was compelled
+to "renew his bounds" once a year, and to operate more or less
+continuously to maintain the right once obtained. There thus existed a
+"labour condition" of variable character, usually imposed more or less
+vigorously in the bargains with landlords. The regulations in Devonshire
+differed in the important particular that the miner had right of entry
+to private lands, although he was not relieved of the necessity to give
+a participation of some sort to the landlord. The Forests of Dean,
+Mendip, and other old mining communities possessed a measure of
+self-government, which do not display any features in their law
+fundamentally different from those of Cornwall and Devon. The High Peak
+lead mines of Derbyshire, however, exhibit one of the most profoundly
+interesting of these mining communities. As well as having distinctively
+Saxon names for some of the mines, the customs there are of undoubted
+Saxon origin, and as such their ratification by the Normans caused the
+survival of one of the few Saxon institutions in England&mdash;a fact which,
+we believe, has been hitherto overlooked by historians. Beginning with
+inquisitions by Edward I. in 1288, there is in the Record Office a
+wealth of information, the bare titles of which form too extensive a
+list to set out here. (Of published works, the most important are Edward
+Manlove's "The Liberties and Customs of the Lead Mines within the
+Wapentake of Wirksworth," London, 1653, generally referred to as the
+"Rhymed Chronicle"; Thomas Houghton, "Rara Avis in Terra," London, 1687;
+William Hardy, "The Miner's Guide," Sheffield, 1748; Thomas Tapping,
+"High Peak Mineral Customs," London, 1851.) The miners in this district
+were presided over by a "Barmaster," "Barghmaster," or "Barmar," as he
+was variously spelled, all being a corruption of the German Bergmeister,
+with precisely the same functions as to the allotment of title,
+settlement of disputes, etc., as his Saxon progenitor had, and, like
+him, he was advised by a jury. The miners had entry to all lands except
+churchyards (this regulation waived upon death), and a few similar
+exceptions, and was subject to royalty to the Crown and the landlord.
+The discoverer was entitled to a finder's "meer" of extra size, and his
+title was to the vein within the end lines, <i>i.e.</i>, the "apex" law. This
+title was held subject to rigorous labour <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_86" id="Notes_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>conditions, amounting to
+forfeiture for failure to operate the mine for a period of nine weeks.
+Space does not permit of the elaboration of the details of this subject,
+which we hope to pursue elsewhere in its many historical bearings. Among
+these we may mention that if the American "Apex law" is of English
+descent, it must be laid to the door of Derbyshire, and not of Cornwall,
+as is generally done. Our own belief, however, is that the American
+"apex" conception came straight from Germany.
+</p><p>
+It is not our purpose to follow these inquiries into mining law beyond
+the 15th century, but we may point out that with the growth of the
+sentiment of individualism the miners and landlords obtained steadily
+wider and wider rights at the cost of the State, until well within the
+19th century. The growth of stronger communal sentiment since the middle
+of the last century has already found its manifestation in the
+legislation with regard to mines, for the laws of South Africa,
+Australia, and England, and the agitation in the United States are all
+toward greater restrictions on the mineral ownership in favour of the
+State.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_87" id="Notes_87">[Pg 87]</a></span><a name="Footnote_7_116" id="Footnote_7_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_116"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> ?<i>De Limitibus et de Re Agraria</i> of Sextus Julius Frontinus
+(about 50-90 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_90" id="Notes_90">[Pg 90]</a></span><a name="Footnote_8_117" id="Footnote_8_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_117"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Such a form of ownership is very old. Apparently upon the
+instigation of Xenophon (see <a href="#Footnote_7_78">Note 7, p. 29</a>) the Greeks formed companies
+to work the mines of Laurion, further information as to which is given
+in <a href="#Footnote_6_77">note 6, p. 27</a>. Pliny (<a href="#Footnote_7_179">Note 7, p. 232</a>) mentions the Company working
+the quicksilver mines in Spain. In fact, company organization was very
+common among the Romans, who speculated largely in the shares,
+especially in those companies which farmed the taxes of the provinces,
+or leased public lands, or took military and civil contracts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_118" id="Footnote_9_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_118"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> The Latin text gives one-sixth, obviously an error.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_91" id="Notes_91">[Pg 91]</a></span><a name="Footnote_10_119" id="Footnote_10_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_119"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> A <i>symposium</i> is a banquet, and a <i>symbola</i> is a
+contribution of money to a banquet. This sentence is probably a play on
+the old German <i>Zeche</i>, mine, this being also a term for a drinking
+bout.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_120" id="Footnote_11_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_120"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> In the Latin text this is "three"&mdash;obviously an error.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_92" id="Notes_92">[Pg 92]</a></span><a name="Footnote_12_121" id="Footnote_12_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_121"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> See <a href="#Footnote_9_107">Note 9, p. 74</a>, for further information with regard to
+these mines. The Rhenish gulden was about 6.9 shillings, or $1.66.
+Silver was worth about this amount per Troy ounce at this period, so
+that roughly, silver of a value of 1,100 gulden would be about 1,100
+Troy ounces. The Saxon thaler was worth about 4.64 shillings or about
+$1.11. The thaler, therefore, represented about .65 Troy ounces of
+silver, so that 300 thalers were about 195 Troy ounces, and 225 thalers
+about 146 Troy ounces.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_122" id="Footnote_13_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_122"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> <i>Opera continens</i>. The Glossary gives <i>schicht</i>,&mdash;the
+origin of the English "shift."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_93" id="Notes_93">[Pg 93]</a></span><a name="Footnote_14_123" id="Footnote_14_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_123"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> The terms in the Latin text are <i>donator</i>, a giver of a
+gift, and <i>donatus</i>, a receiver. It appears to us, however, that some
+consideration passed, and we have, therefore, used "seller" and
+"buyer."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_95" id="Notes_95">[Pg 95]</a></span><a name="Footnote_15_124" id="Footnote_15_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_124"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> See <a href="#Footnote_29_69">Note 29, p. 23</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_96" id="Notes_96">[Pg 96]</a></span><a name="Footnote_16_125" id="Footnote_16_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_125"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> <i>Decemviri</i>&mdash;"The Ten Men." The original <i>Decemviri</i> were
+a body appointed by the Romans in 452 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, principally to codify the
+law. Such commissions were afterward instituted for other purposes, but
+the analogy of the above paragraph is a little remote.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_100" id="Notes_100">[Pg 100]</a></span><a name="Footnote_17_126" id="Footnote_17_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_126"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> This work was apparently never published; see <a href="#APPENDIX_A">Appendix A</a>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101"></a>[Pg 101]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="BOOK_V" id="BOOK_V"></a>BOOK V.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="dropcap"><img src="images/capi.png" alt="I" /></div>
+<p style="text-indent:-1em;">
+n the last book I have explained the methods of delimiting the meers
+along each kind of vein, and the duties of mine officials. In this
+book<a name="FNanchor_1_127" id="FNanchor_1_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_127" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> I will in like manner explain the principles of underground
+mining and the art of surveying. First then, I will proceed to deal with
+those matters which pertain to the former heading, since both the
+subject and methodical arrangement require it. And so I will describe
+first of all the digging of shafts, tunnels, and drifts on <i>venae
+profundae</i>; next I will discuss the good indications shown by
+<i>canales</i><a name="FNanchor_2_128" id="FNanchor_2_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_128" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>, by the materials which are dug out, and by the rocks; then
+I will speak of the tools by which veins and rocks are broken down and
+excavated; the method by which fire shatters the hard veins; and
+further, of the machines with which water is drawn from the shafts and
+air is forced into deep shafts and long tunnels, for digging is impeded
+by the inrush of the former or the failure of the latter; next I will
+deal with the two kinds of shafts, and with the making of them and of
+tunnels; and finally, I will describe the method of mining <i>venae
+dilatatae</i>, <i>venae cumulatae</i>, and stringers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102"></a>[Pg 102]</span></p><p>Now when a miner discovers a <i>vena profunda</i> he begins sinking a shaft
+and above it sets up a windlass, and builds a shed over the shaft to
+prevent the rain from falling in, lest the men who turn the windlass be
+numbed by the cold or troubled by the rain. The windlass men also place
+their barrows in it, and the miners store their iron tools and other
+implements therein. Next to the shaft-house another house is built,
+where the mine foreman and the other workmen dwell, and in which are
+stored the ore and other things which are dug out. Although some persons
+build only one house, yet because sometimes boys and other living things
+fall into the shafts, most miners deliberately place one house apart
+from the other, or at least separate them by a wall.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103"></a><a href="images/fig103.jpg"><img src="images/fig103thumb.jpg" alt="Shafts" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Three vertical shafts, of which the first,
+A, does not reach the tunnel; the second, B, reaches the tunnel; to the
+third, C, the tunnel has not yet been driven. D&mdash;Tunnel.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 103]</span></span>
+<span class="figleft"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104"></a><a href="images/fig104.jpg"><img src="images/fig104thumb.jpg" alt="Shafts" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Three inclined shafts, of which A does not
+yet reach the tunnel; B reaches the tunnel; to the third, C, the tunnel
+has not yet been driven. D&mdash;Tunnel.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 104]</span></span>
+Now a shaft is dug, usually two fathoms long, two-thirds of a fathom
+wide, and thirteen fathoms deep; but for the purpose of connecting with
+a tunnel which has already been driven in a hill, a shaft may be sunk to
+a depth of only eight fathoms, at other times to fourteen, more or
+less<a name="FNanchor_3_129" id="FNanchor_3_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_129" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>. A shaft may be made vertical or inclined, according as the vein
+which the miners follow in the course of digging is vertical or
+inclined. A tunnel is a subterranean ditch driven lengthwise, and is
+nearly twice as high as it is broad, and wide enough that workmen and
+others may be able to pass and carry their loads. It is usually one and
+a quarter fathoms high, while its width is about three and
+three-quarters feet. Usually two workmen are required to drive it, one
+of whom digs out the upper and the other the lower part, and the one
+goes forward, while the other follows closely after. Each sits upon
+small boards fixed securely from the footwall to the hangingwall, or if
+the vein is a soft one, sometimes on a wedge-shaped plank fixed on to
+the vein itself. Miners sink more inclined shafts than vertical, and
+some of each kind do not reach to tunnels, while some connect with them.
+But as for some shafts, though they have already been sunk to the
+required depth, the tunnel which is to pierce the mountain may not yet
+have been driven far enough to connect with them.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"></a><a href="images/fig105.jpg"><img src="images/fig105thumb.jpg" alt="Shafts" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Shaft. B, C&mdash;Drift. D&mdash;Another shaft.
+E&mdash;Tunnel. F&mdash;Mouth of tunnel.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 105]</span></span>
+It is advantageous if a shaft connects with a tunnel, for then the
+miners and other workmen carry on more easily the work they have
+undertaken; but if the shaft is not so deep, it is usual to drift from
+one or both sides of it. From these openings the owner or foreman
+becomes acquainted with the veins and stringers that unite with the
+principal vein, or cut across it, or <span class="pagenum">[Pg 103]</span>divide it obliquely; however, my
+discourse is now concerned mainly with <i>vena profunda</i>, but most of all
+with the metallic material which it contains. <span class="pagenum">[Pg 104]</span>Excavations of this kind
+were called by the Greeks <span class="greek" title="Greek: kryptai">&kappa;&rho;&upsilon;&pi;&tau;&alpha;&iota;</span> for, extending along after
+the manner of a tunnel, they are entirely hidden within the <span class="pagenum">[Pg 105]</span>ground.
+This kind of an opening, however, differs from a tunnel in that it is
+dark throughout its length, whereas a tunnel has a mouth open to
+daylight.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"></a>[Pg 106]</span></p><p>I have spoken of shafts, tunnels, and drifts. I will now speak of the
+indications given by the <i>canales</i>, by the materials which are dug out,
+and by the rocks. These indications, as also many others which I will
+explain, are to a great extent identical in <i>venae dilatatae</i> and <i>venae
+cumulatae</i> with <i>venae profundae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>When a stringer junctions with a main vein and causes a swelling, a
+shaft should be sunk at the junction. But when we find the stringer
+intersecting the main vein crosswise or obliquely, if it descends
+vertically down to the depths of the earth, a second shaft should be
+sunk to the point where the stringer cuts the main vein; but if the
+stringer cuts it obliquely the shaft should be two or three fathoms
+back, in order that the junction may be pierced lower down. At such
+junctions lies the best hope of finding the ore for the sake of which we
+explore the ground, and if ore has already been found, it is usually
+found in much greater abundance at that spot. Again, if several
+stringers descend into the earth, the miner, in order to pierce through
+the point of contact, should sink the shaft in the midst of these
+stringers, or else calculate on the most prominent one.</p>
+
+<p>Since an inclined vein often lies near a vertical vein, it is advisable
+to sink a shaft at the spot where a stringer or cross-vein cuts them
+both; or where a <i>vena dilatata</i> or a stringer <i>dilatata</i> passes
+through, for minerals are usually found there. In the same way we have a
+good prospect of finding metal at the point where an inclined vein joins
+a vertical one; this is why miners cross-cut the hangingwall or footwall
+of a main vein, and in these openings seek for a vein which may junction
+with the principal vein a few fathoms below. Nay, further, these same
+miners, if no stringer or cross-vein intersects the main vein so that
+they can follow it in their workings, even cross-cut through the solid
+rock of the hangingwall or footwall. These cross-cuts are likewise
+called "<span class="greek" title="Greek: kryptai">&kappa;&rho;&upsilon;&pi;&tau;&alpha;&#943;</span>," whether the beginning of the opening which
+has to be undertaken is made from a tunnel or from a drift. Miners have
+some hope when only a cross vein cuts a main vein. Further, if a vein
+which cuts the main vein obliquely does not appear anywhere beyond it,
+it is advisable to dig into that side of the main vein toward which the
+oblique vein inclines, whether the right or left side, that we may
+ascertain if the main vein has absorbed it; if after cross-cutting six
+fathoms it is not found, it is advisable to dig on the other side of the
+main vein, that we may know for certain whether it has carried it
+forward. The owners of a main vein can often dig no less profitably on
+that side where the vein which cuts the main vein again appears, than
+where it first cuts it; the owners of the intersecting vein, when that
+is found again, recover their title, which had in a measure been lost.</p>
+
+<p>The common miners look favourably upon the stringers which come from the
+north and join the main vein; on the other hand, they look unfavourably
+upon those which come from the south, and say that these do much harm to
+the main vein, while the former improve it. But I think that miners
+should not neglect either of them: as I showed in <a href="#BOOK_III">Book III</a>, experience
+does not confirm those who hold this opinion about veins, so now <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107"></a>[Pg 107]</span>again
+I could furnish examples of each kind of stringers rejected by the
+common miners which have proved good, but I know this could be of little
+or no benefit to posterity.</p>
+
+<p>If the miners find no stringers or veins in the hangingwall or footwall
+of the main vein, and if they do not find much ore, it is not worth
+while to undertake the labour of sinking another shaft. Nor ought a
+shaft to be sunk where a vein is divided into two or three parts, unless
+the indications are satisfactory that those parts may be united and
+joined together a little later. Further, it is a bad indication for a
+vein rich in mineral to bend and turn hither and thither, for unless it
+goes down again into the ground vertically or inclined, as it first
+began, it produces no more metal; and even though it does go down again,
+it often continues barren. Stringers which in their outcrops bear
+metals, often disappoint miners, no metal being found in depth. Further,
+inverted seams in the rocks are counted among the bad indications.</p>
+
+<p>The miners hew out the whole of solid veins when they show clear
+evidence of being of good quality; similarly they hew out the drusy<a name="FNanchor_4_130" id="FNanchor_4_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_130" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
+veins, especially if the cavities are plainly seen to have formerly
+borne metal, or if the cavities are few and small. They do not dig
+barren veins through which water flows, if there are no metallic
+particles showing; occasionally, however, they dig even barren veins
+which are free from water, because of the pyrites which is devoid of all
+metal, or because of a fine black soft substance which is like wool.
+They dig stringers which are rich in metal, or sometimes, for the
+purpose of searching for the vein, those that are devoid of ore which
+lie near the hangingwall or footwall of the main vein. This then,
+generally speaking, is the mode of dealing with stringers and veins.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now consider the metallic material which is found in the
+<i>canales</i> of <i>venae profundae</i>, <i>venae dilatatae</i>, and <i>venae
+cumulatae</i>, being in all these either cohesive and continuous, or
+scattered and dispersed among them, or swelling out in bellying shapes,
+or found in veins or stringers which originate from the main vein and
+ramify like branches; but these latter veins and stringers are very
+short, for after a little space they do not appear again. If we come
+across a small quantity of metallic material it is an indication; but if
+a large quantity, it is not an "indication," but the very thing for
+which we explore the earth. As soon as a miner who searches for veins
+discovers pure metal or minerals, or rich metallic material, or a great
+abundance of material which is poor in metal, let him sink a shaft on
+the spot without any delay. If the material appears more abundant or of
+better quality on the one side, he will incline his digging in that
+direction.</p>
+
+<p>Gold, silver, copper, and quicksilver are often found native<a name="FNanchor_5_131" id="FNanchor_5_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_131" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>; less
+often iron and bismuth; almost never tin and lead. Nevertheless
+tin-stone is not far removed from the pure white tin which is melted out
+of them, and galena, from which lead is obtained, differs little from
+that metal itself.</p>
+
+<p>Now we may classify gold ores. Next after native gold, we come to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108"></a>[Pg 108]</span><i>rudis</i><a name="FNanchor_6_132" id="FNanchor_6_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_132" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>, of yellowish green, yellow, purple, black, or outside red
+and inside gold colour. These must be reckoned as the richest ores,
+because the gold exceeds the stone or earth in weight. Next come all
+gold ores of which each one hundred <i>librae</i> contains more than three
+<i>unciae</i> of gold<a name="FNanchor_7_133" id="FNanchor_7_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_133" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>; for although but a small proportion of gold is
+found in the earth or stone, yet it equals in value other metals of
+greater weight.<a name="FNanchor_8_134" id="FNanchor_8_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_134" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> All other gold ores are considered poor, because <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109"></a>[Pg 109]</span>the
+earth or stone too far outweighs the gold. A vein which contains a
+larger proportion of silver than of gold is rarely found to be a rich
+one. Earth, whether it be dry or wet, rarely abounds in gold; but in dry
+earth there is more often found a greater quantity of gold, especially
+if it has the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110"></a>[Pg 110]</span>appearance of having been melted in a furnace, and if it
+is not lacking in scales resembling mica. The solidified juices, azure,
+chrysocolla, orpiment, and realgar, also frequently contain gold.
+Likewise native or <i>rudis</i> gold is found sometimes in large, and
+sometimes in small quantities in quartz, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111"></a>[Pg 111]</span>schist, marble, and also in
+stone which easily melts in fire of the second degree, and which is
+sometimes so porous that it seems completely decomposed. Lastly, gold is
+found in pyrites, though rarely in large quantities.</p>
+
+<p>When considering silver ores other than native silver, those ores are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112"></a>[Pg 112]</span>classified as rich, of which each one hundred <i>librae</i> contains more
+than three <i>librae</i> of silver. This quality comprises <i>rudis</i> silver,
+whether silver glance or ruby silver, or whether white, or black, or
+grey, or purple, or yellow, or liver-coloured, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"></a>[Pg 113]</span>or any other. Sometimes
+quartz, schist, or marble is of this quality also, if much native or
+<i>rudis</i> silver adheres to it. But that ore is considered of poor quality
+if three <i>librae</i> of silver at the utmost are found in each one hundred
+<i>librae</i> of it<a name="FNanchor_9_135" id="FNanchor_9_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_135" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>. Silver ore usually contains a greater quantity <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114"></a>[Pg 114]</span>than
+this, because Nature bestows quantity in place of quality; such ore is
+mixed with all kinds of earth and stone compounds, except the various
+kinds of <i>rudis</i> silver; especially with pyrites, <i>cadmia metallica
+fossilis</i>, galena, <i>stibium</i>, and others.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115"></a>[Pg 115]</span></p><p>As regards other kinds of metal, although some rich ores are found,
+still, unless the veins contain a large quantity of ore, it is very
+rarely worth while to dig them. The Indians and some other races do
+search for gems in veins hidden deep in the earth, but more often they
+are noticed from their clearness, or rather their brilliancy, when
+metals are mined. When they outcrop, we follow veins of marble by mining
+in the same way as is done with rock or building-stones when we come
+upon them. But gems, properly so called, though they sometimes have
+veins of their own, are still for the most part found in mines and rock
+quarries, as the lodestone in iron mines, the emery in silver mines, the
+<i>lapis judaicus</i>, <i>trochites</i>, and the like in stone quarries where the
+diggers, at the bidding of the owners, usually collect them from the
+seams in the rocks.<a name="FNanchor_10_136" id="FNanchor_10_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_136" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Nor does the miner neglect the digging of
+"extraordinary earths,"<a name="FNanchor_11_137" id="FNanchor_11_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_137" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> whether they are found <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"></a>[Pg 116]</span>in gold mines,
+silver mines, or other mines; nor do other miners neglect them if they
+are found in stone quarries, or in their own veins; their value is
+usually indicated by their taste. Nor, lastly, does the miner fail to
+give attention to the solidified juices which are found in metallic
+veins, as well as in their own veins, from which he collects and gathers
+them. But I will say no more on these matters, because I have explained
+more fully all the metals and mineral substances in the books "<i>De
+Natura Fossilium</i>."</p>
+
+<p>But I will return to the indications. If we come upon earth which is
+like lute, in which there are particles of any sort of metal, native or
+<i>rudis</i>, the best possible indication of a vein is given to miners, for
+the metallic material from which the particles have become detached is
+necessarily close by. But if this kind of earth is found absolutely
+devoid of all metallic material, but fatty, and of white, green, blue,
+and similar colours, they must not abandon the work that has been
+started. Miners have other indications in the veins and stringers, which
+I have described already, and in the rocks, about which I will speak a
+little later. If the miner comes across other dry earths which contain
+native or <i>rudis</i> metal, that is a good indication; if he comes across
+yellow, red, black, or some other "extraordinary" earth, though it is
+devoid of mineral, it is not a bad indication. Chrysocolla, or azure, or
+verdigris, or orpiment, or realgar, when they are found, are counted
+among the good indications. Further, where underground springs throw up
+metal we ought to continue the digging we have begun, for this points to
+the particles having been detached from the main mass like a fragment
+from a body. In the same way the thin scales of any metal adhering to
+stone or rock are counted among the good indications. Next, if the veins
+which are composed partly of quartz, partly of clayey or dry earth,
+descend one and all into the depths of the earth together, with their
+stringers, there is good hope of metal being found; but if the stringers
+afterward do not appear, or little metallic material is met with, the
+digging should not be given up until there is nothing remaining. Dark or
+black or horn or liver-coloured quartz is usually a good sign; white is
+sometimes good, sometimes no sign at all. But calc-spar, showing itself
+in a <i>vena profunda</i>, if it disappears a little lower down is not a good
+indication; for it did not belong to the vein proper, but to some
+stringer. Those kinds of stone which easily melt in fire, especially if
+they are translucent (fluorspar?), must be counted among the medium
+indications, for if other good indications are present they are good,
+but if no good indications are present, they give no useful
+significance. In the same way we ought to form our judgment with regard
+to gems. Veins which at the hangingwall and footwall have horn-coloured
+quartz or marble, but in the middle clayey earth, give some hope;
+likewise those give hope in which the hangingwall or footwall shows
+iron-rust coloured earth, and in the middle greasy and sticky earth;
+also there is hope for those which have at the hanging or footwall that
+kind of earth which we call "soldiers' earth," and in the middle black
+earth or earth which looks as if burnt. The special indication of gold
+is orpiment; of silver is bismuth and <i>stibium</i>; of copper is verdigris,
+<i>melanteria</i>, <i>sory</i>, <i>chalcitis</i>, <i>misy</i>, and vitriol; of tin is the
+large pure black stones of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117"></a>[Pg 117]</span>which the tin itself is made, and a material
+they dig up resembling litharge; of iron, iron rust. Gold and copper are
+equally indicated by chrysocolla and azure; silver and lead, by the
+lead. But, though miners rightly call bismuth "the roof of silver," and
+though copper pyrites is the common parent of vitriol and <i>melanteria</i>,
+still these sometimes have their own peculiar minerals, just as have
+orpiment and <i>stibium</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Now, just as certain vein materials give miners a favourable indication,
+so also do the rocks through which the <i>canales</i> of the veins wind their
+way, for sand discovered in a mine is reckoned among the good
+indications, especially if it is very fine. In the same way schist, when
+it is of a bluish or blackish colour, and also limestone, of whatever
+colour it may be, is a good sign for a silver vein. There is a rock of
+another kind that is a good sign; in it are scattered tiny black stones
+from which tin is smelted; especially when the whole space between the
+veins is composed of this kind of rock. Very often indeed, this good
+kind of rock in conjunction with valuable stringers contains within its
+folds the <i>canales</i> of mineral bearing veins: if it descends vertically
+into the earth, the benefit belongs to that mine in which it is seen
+first of all; if inclined, it benefits the other neighbouring mines<a name="FNanchor_12_138" id="FNanchor_12_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_138" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>.
+As a result the miner who is not ignorant of geometry can calculate from
+the other mines the depth at which the <i>canales</i> of a vein bearing rich
+metal will wind its way through the rock into his mine. So much for
+these matters.</p>
+
+<p>I now come to the mode of working, which is varied and complex, for in
+some places they dig crumbling ore, in others hard ore, in others a
+harder ore, and in others the hardest kind of ore. In the same way, in
+some places the hangingwall rock is soft and fragile, in others hard, in
+others harder, and in still others of the hardest sort. I call that ore
+"crumbling" which is composed of earth, and of soft solidified juices;
+that ore "hard" which is composed of metallic minerals and moderately
+hard stones, such as for the most part are those which easily melt in a
+fire of the first and second orders, like lead and similar materials. I
+call that ore "harder" when with those I have already mentioned are
+combined various sorts of quartz, or stones which easily melt in fire of
+the third degree, or pyrites, or <i>cadmia</i>, or very hard marble. I call
+that ore hardest, which is composed throughout the whole vein of these
+hard stones and compounds. The hanging or footwalls of a vein are hard,
+when composed of rock in which there are few stringers or seams; harder,
+in which they are fewer; hardest, in which they are fewest or none at
+all. When these are absent, the rock is quite devoid of water which
+softens it. But the hardest rock of the hanging or footwall, however, is
+seldom as hard as the harder class of ore.</p>
+
+<p>Miners dig out crumbling ore with the pick alone. When the metal has not
+yet shown itself, they do not discriminate between the hangingwall and
+the veins; when it has once been found, they work with the utmost care.
+For first of all they tear away the hangingwall rock separately from the
+vein, afterward with a pick they dislodge the crumbling vein from the
+footwall <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118"></a>[Pg 118]</span>into a dish placed underneath to prevent any of the metal from
+falling to the ground. They break a hard vein loose from the footwall by
+blows with a hammer upon the first kind of iron tool<a name="FNanchor_13_139" id="FNanchor_13_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_139" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>, all of which
+are designated by appropriate names, and with the same tools they hew
+away the hard hangingwall rock. They hew out the hangingwall rock in
+advance more frequently, the rock of the footwall more rarely; and
+indeed, when the rock of the footwall resists iron tools, the rock of
+the hangingwall certainly cannot be broken unless it is allowable to
+shatter it by fire. With regard to the harder veins which are tractable
+to iron tools, and likewise with regard to the harder and hardest kind
+of hangingwall rock, they generally attack them with more powerful iron
+tools, in fact, with the fourth kind of iron tool, which are called by
+their appropriate names; but if these are not ready to hand, they use
+two or three iron tools of the first kind together. As for the hardest
+kind of metal-bearing vein, which in a measure resists iron tools, if
+the owners of the neighbouring mines give them permission, they break it
+with fires. But if these owners refuse them permission, then first of
+all they hew out the rock of the hangingwall, or of the footwall if it
+be less hard; then they place timbers set in hitches in the hanging or
+footwall, a little above the vein, and from the front and upper part,
+where the vein is seen to be seamed with small cracks, they drive into
+one of the little cracks one of the iron tools which I have mentioned;
+then in each fracture they place four thin iron blocks, and in order to
+hold them more firmly, if necessary, they place as many thin iron plates
+back to back; next they place thinner iron plates between each two iron
+blocks, and strike and drive them by turns with hammers, whereby the
+vein rings with a shrill sound; and the moment when it begins to be
+detached from the hangingwall or footwall rock, a tearing sound is
+heard. As soon as this grows distinct the miners hastily flee away; then
+a great crash is heard as the vein is broken and torn, and falls down.
+By this method they throw down a portion of a vein weighing a hundred
+pounds more or less. But if the miners by any other method hew the
+hardest kind of vein which is rich in metal, there remain certain
+cone-shaped portions which can be cut out afterward only with
+difficulty. As for this knob of hard ore, if it is devoid of metal, or
+if they are not allowed to apply fire to it, they proceed round it by
+digging to the right or left, because it cannot be broken into by iron
+wedges without great expense. Meantime, while the workmen are carrying
+out the task they have undertaken, the depths of the earth often resound
+with sweet singing, whereby they lighten a toil which is of the severest
+kind and full of the greatest dangers.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p>As I have just said, fire shatters the hardest rocks, but the method of
+its application is not simple<a name="FNanchor_14_140" id="FNanchor_14_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_140" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>. For if a vein held in the rocks
+cannot be hewn <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"></a>[Pg 119]</span>out because of the hardness or other difficulty, and the
+drift or tunnel is low, a heap of dried logs is placed against the rock
+and fired; if the drift or tunnel is high, two heaps are necessary, of
+which one is placed above the other, and both burn until the fire has
+consumed them. This force does not generally soften a large portion of
+the vein, but only some of the surface. When the rock in the hanging or
+footwall can be worked by the iron tools and the vein is so hard that it
+is not tractable to the same tools, then the walls are hollowed out; if
+this be in the end of the drift or tunnel or above or below, the vein is
+then broken by fire, but not by the same method; for if the hollow is
+wide, as many logs are piled into it as possible, but if narrow, only a
+few. By the one method the greater fire separates the vein more
+completely from the footwall or sometimes from the hangingwall, and by
+the other, the smaller fire breaks away less of the vein from the rock,
+because in that case the fire is confined and kept in check by portions
+of the rock which surround the wood held in such a narrow excavation.
+Further, if the excavation is low, only one pile of logs is placed in
+it, if high, there are two, one placed above the other, by which plan
+the lower bundle being kindled sets alight the upper one; and the fire
+being driven by the draught into the vein, separates it from the rock
+which, however hard it may be, often becomes so softened as to be the
+most easily breakable of all. Applying this principle, Hannibal, the
+Carthaginian General, imitating the Spanish miners, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120"></a>[Pg 120]</span>overcame the
+hardness of the Alps by the use of vinegar and fire.
+<span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig120.jpg"><img src="images/fig120thumb.jpg" alt="Fire-setting" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Kindled logs. B&mdash;Sticks shaved down
+fan-shaped. C&mdash;Tunnel.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 120]</span></span>
+Even if a vein is a
+very wide one, as tin veins usually are, miners excavate into the small
+streaks, and into those hollows they put dry wood and place amongst them
+at frequent intervals sticks, all sides of which are shaved down
+fan-shaped, which easily take light, and when once they have taken fire
+communicate it to the other bundles of wood, which easily ignite.</p>
+
+<p>While the heated veins and rock are giving forth a foetid vapour and the
+shafts or tunnels are emitting fumes, the miners and other workmen do
+not go down in the mines lest the stench affect their health or actually
+kill them, as I will explain in greater detail when I come to speak of
+the evils which affect miners. The <i>Bergmeister</i>, in order to prevent
+workmen from being suffocated, gives no one permission to break veins or
+rock by fire in shafts or tunnels where it is possible for the poisonous
+vapour and smoke to permeate the veins or stringers and pass through
+into the neighbouring mines, which have no hard veins or rock. As for
+that part of a vein or the surface of the rock which the fire has
+separated from the remaining mass, if it is overhead, the miners
+dislodge it with a crowbar, or if it still has some degree of hardness,
+they thrust a smaller crowbar into the cracks and so break it down, but
+if <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"></a>[Pg 121]</span>it is on the sides they break it with hammers. Thus broken off, the
+rock tumbles down; or if it still remains, they break it off with picks.
+Rock and earth on the one hand, and metal and ore on the other, are
+filled into buckets separately and drawn up to the open air or to the
+nearest tunnel. If the shaft is not deep, the buckets are drawn up by a
+machine turned by men; if it is deep, they are drawn by machines turned
+by horses.</p>
+
+<p>It often happens that a rush of water or sometimes stagnant air hinders
+the mining; for this reason miners pay the greatest attention to these
+matters, just as much as to digging, or they should do so. The water of
+the veins and stringers and especially of vacant workings, must be
+drained out through the shafts and tunnels. Air, indeed, becomes
+stagnant both in tunnels and in shafts; in a deep shaft, if it be by
+itself, this occurs if it is neither reached by a tunnel nor connected
+by a drift with another shaft; this occurs in a tunnel if it has been
+driven too far into a mountain and no shaft has yet been sunk deep
+enough to meet it; in neither case can the air move or circulate. For
+this reason the vapours become heavy and resemble mist, and they smell
+of mouldiness, like a vault or some underground chamber which has been
+completely closed for many years. This suffices to prevent miners from
+continuing their work for long in these places, even if the mine is full
+of silver or gold, or if they do continue, they cannot breathe freely
+and they have headaches; this more often happens if they work in these
+places in great numbers, and bring many lamps, which then supply them
+with a feeble light, because the foul air from both lamps and men make
+the vapours still more heavy.</p>
+
+<p>A small quantity of water is drawn from the shafts by machines of
+different kinds which men turn or work. If so great a quantity has
+flowed into one shaft as greatly to impede mining, another shaft is sunk
+some fathoms distant from the first, and thus in one of them work and
+labour are carried on without hindrance, and the water is drained into
+the other, which is sunk lower than the level of the water in the first
+one; then by these machines or by those worked by horses, the water is
+drawn up into the drain and flows out of the shaft-house or the mouth of
+the nearest tunnel. But when into the shaft of one mine, which is sunk
+more deeply, there flows all the water of all the neighbouring mines,
+not only from that vein in which the shaft is sunk, but also from other
+veins, then it becomes necessary for a large sump to be made to collect
+the water; from this sump the water is drained by machines which draw it
+through pipes, or by ox-hides, about which I will say more in the <a href="#BOOK_VI">next
+book</a>. The water which pours into the tunnels from the veins and
+stringers and seams in the rocks is carried away in the drains.</p>
+
+<p>Air is driven into the extremities of deep shafts and long tunnels by
+powerful blowing machines, as I will explain in the <a href="#BOOK_VI">following book</a>,
+which will deal with these machines also. The outer air flows
+spontaneously into the caverns of the earth, and when it can pass
+through them comes out again. This, however, comes about in different
+ways, for in spring and summer it flows into the deeper shafts,
+traverses the tunnels or drifts, and finds its way <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122"></a>[Pg 122]</span>out of the shallower
+shafts; similarly at the same season it pours into the lowest tunnel
+and, meeting a shaft in its course, turns aside to a higher tunnel and
+passes out therefrom; but in autumn and winter, on the other hand, it
+enters the upper tunnel or shaft and comes out at the deeper ones. This
+change in the flow of air currents occurs in temperate regions at the
+beginning of spring and the end of autumn, but in cold regions at the
+end of spring and the beginning of autumn. But at each period, before
+the air regularly assumes its own accustomed course, generally for a
+space of fourteen days it undergoes frequent variations, now blowing
+into an upper shaft or tunnel, now into a lower one. But enough of this,
+let us now proceed to what remains.</p>
+
+<p>There are two kinds of shafts, one of the depth already described, of
+which kind there are usually several in one mine; especially if the mine
+is entered by a tunnel and is metal-bearing. For when the first tunnel
+is connected with the first shaft, two new shafts are sunk; or if the
+inrush of water hinders sinking, sometimes three are sunk; so that one
+may take the place of a sump and the work of sinking which has been
+begun may be continued by means of the remaining two shafts; the same is
+done in the case of the second tunnel and the third, or even the fourth,
+if so many are driven into a mountain. The second kind of shaft is very
+deep, sometimes as much as sixty, eighty, or one hundred fathoms. These
+shafts continue vertically toward the depths of the earth, and by means
+of a hauling-rope the broken rock and metalliferous ores are drawn out
+of the mine; for which reason miners call them vertical shafts. Over
+these shafts are erected machines by which water is extracted; when they
+are above ground the machines are usually worked by horses, but when
+they are in tunnels, other kinds are used which are turned by
+water-power. Such are the shafts which are sunk when a vein is rich in
+metal.</p>
+
+<p>Now shafts, of whatever kind they may be, are supported in various ways.
+If the vein is hard, and also the hanging and footwall rock, the shaft
+does not require much timbering, but timbers are placed at intervals,
+one end of each of which is fixed in a hitch cut into the rock of the
+hangingwall and the other fixed into a hitch cut in the footwall. To
+these timbers are fixed small timbers along the footwall, to which are
+fastened the lagging and ladders. The lagging is also fixed to the
+timbers, both to those which screen off the shaft on the ends from the
+vein, and to those which screen off the rest of the shaft from that part
+in which the ladders are placed. The lagging on the sides of the shaft
+confine the vein, so as to prevent fragments of it which have become
+loosened by water from dropping into the shaft and terrifying, or
+injuring, or knocking off the miners and other workmen who are going up
+or down the ladders from one part of the mine to another. For the same
+reason, the lagging between the ladders and the haulage-way on the other
+hand, confine and shut off from the ladders the fragments of rock which
+fall from the buckets or baskets while they are being drawn up;
+moreover, they make the arduous and difficult descent and ascent to
+appear less terrible, and in fact to be less dangerous.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a>[Pg 123]</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig123.jpg"><img src="images/fig123thumb.jpg" alt="Timbering Shafts" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Wall plates. B&mdash;Dividers.
+C&mdash;Long end posts. D&mdash;End plates.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 123]</span></span>
+If a vein is soft and the rock of the hanging and footwalls is weak, a
+closer structure is necessary; for this purpose timbers are joined
+together, in rectangular shapes and placed one after the other without a
+break. These <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124"></a>[Pg 124]</span>are arranged on two different systems; for either the
+square ends of the timbers, which reach from the hangingwall to the
+footwall, are fixed into corresponding square holes in the timbers which
+lie along the hanging or footwall, or the upper part of the end of one
+and the lower part of the end of the other are cut out and one laid on
+the other. The great weight of these joined timbers is sustained by
+stout beams placed at intervals, which are deeply set into hitches in
+the footwall and hangingwall, but are inclined. In order that these
+joined timbers may remain stationary, wooden wedges or poles cut from
+trees are driven in between the timbers and the vein and the hangingwall
+and the footwall; and the space which remains empty is filled with loose
+dirt. If the hanging and footwall rock is sometimes hard and sometimes
+soft, and the vein likewise, solid joined timbers are not used, but
+timbers are placed at intervals; and where the rock is soft and the vein
+crumbling, carpenters put in lagging between them and the wall rocks,
+and behind these they fill with loose dirt; by this means they fill up
+the void.</p>
+
+<p>When a very deep shaft, whether vertical or inclined, is supported by
+joined timbers, then, since they are sometimes of bad material and a
+fall is threatened, for the sake of greater firmness three or four pairs
+of strong end posts are placed between these, one pair on the
+hangingwall side, the other on the footwall side. To prevent them from
+falling out of position and to make them firm and substantial, they are
+supported by frequent end plates, and in order that these may be more
+securely fixed they are mortised into the posts. Further, in whatever
+way the shaft may be timbered, dividers are placed upon the wall plates,
+and to these is fixed lagging, and this marks off and separates the
+ladder-way from the remaining part of the shaft. If a vertical shaft is
+a very deep one, planks are laid upon the timbers by the side of the
+ladders and fixed on to the timbers, in order that the men who are going
+up or down may sit or stand upon them and rest when they are tired. To
+prevent danger to the shovellers from rocks which, after being drawn up
+from so deep a shaft fall down again, a little above the bottom of the
+shaft small rough sticks are placed close together on the timbers, in
+such a way as to cover the whole space of the shaft except the
+ladder-way. A hole, however, is left in this structure near the
+footwall, which is kept open so that there may be one opening to the
+shaft from the bottom, that the buckets full of the materials which have
+been dug out may be drawn from the shaft through it by machines, and may
+be returned to the same place again empty; and so the shovellers and
+other workmen, as it were hiding beneath this structure, remain
+perfectly safe in the shaft.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p>In mines on one vein there are driven one, two, or sometimes three or
+more tunnels, always one above the other. If the vein is solid and hard,
+and likewise the hanging and footwall rock, no part of the tunnel needs
+support, beyond that which is required at the mouth, because at that
+spot there is not yet solid rock; if the vein is soft, and the hanging
+and footwall rock are likewise soft, the tunnel requires frequent strong
+timbering, which is provided in the following way.
+<span class="figleft"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125"></a><a href="images/fig125.jpg"><img src="images/fig125thumb.jpg" alt="Timbering Tunnels" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Posts. B&mdash;Caps. C&mdash;Sills.
+D&mdash;Doors. E&mdash;Lagging. F&mdash;Drains.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 125]</span></span>
+First, two dressed
+posts are erected and set into the tunnel floor, which is dug out a
+little; these are of medium <span class="pagenum">[Pg 125]</span>thickness, and high enough that their ends,
+which are cut square, almost touch the top of the tunnel; then upon them
+is placed a smaller dressed cap, which is mortised into the heads of the
+posts; at the bottom, other small timbers, whose ends are similarly
+squared, are mortised into the posts. At each interval of one and a half
+fathoms, one of these sets is erected; each one of these the miners call
+a "little doorway," because it opens a certain amount of passage way;
+and indeed, when necessity requires it, doors are fixed to the timbers
+of each little doorway so that it can be closed. Then lagging of planks
+or of poles is placed upon the caps lengthwise, so as to reach from one
+set of timbers to another, and is laid along the sides, in case some
+portion of the body of the mountain may fall, and by its bulk impede
+passage or crush persons coming in or out. Moreover, to make the timbers
+remain stationary, wooden pegs are driven between them and the sides of
+the tunnel. Lastly, if rock or earth are carried out in wheelbarrows,
+planks joined together are laid upon the sills; if the rock is hauled
+out in trucks, then two timbers three-quarters of a foot thick and wide
+are laid on the sills, and, where they join, these are usually hollowed
+out so that in the hollow, as in a road, the iron pin of the truck may
+be pushed along; indeed, because of this pin in the groove, the truck
+does not leave the worn track to the left or right. Beneath the sills
+are the drains through which the water flows away.</p>
+
+<p>Miners timber drifts in the same way as tunnels. These do not, however,
+require sill-pieces, or drains; for the broken rock is not hauled very
+far, nor does the water have far to flow. If the vein above is
+metal-bearing, as it sometimes is <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126"></a>[Pg 126]</span>for a distance of several fathoms,
+then from the upper part of tunnels or even drifts that have already
+been driven, other drifts are driven again and again until that part of
+the vein is reached which does not yield metal. The timbering of these
+openings is done as follows: stulls are set at intervals into hitches in
+the hanging and footwall, and upon them smooth poles are laid
+continuously; and that they may be able to bear the weight, the stulls
+are generally a foot and a half thick. After the ore has been taken out
+and the mining of the vein is being done elsewhere, the rock then
+broken, especially if it cannot be taken away without great difficulty,
+is thrown into these openings among the timber, and the carriers of the
+ore are saved toil, and the owners save half the expense. This then,
+generally speaking, is the method by which everything relating to the
+timbering of shafts, tunnels, and drifts is carried out.</p>
+
+<p>All that I have hitherto written is in part peculiar to <i>venae
+profundae</i>, and in part common to all kinds of veins; of what follows,
+part is specially applicable to <i>venae dilatatae</i>, part to <i>venae
+cumulatae</i>. But first I will describe how <i>venae dilatatae</i> should be
+mined. Where torrents, rivers, or streams have by inundations washed
+away part of the slope of a mountain or a hill, and have disclosed a
+<i>vena dilatata</i>, a tunnel should be driven first straight and narrow,
+and then wider, for nearly all the vein should be hewn away; and when
+this tunnel has been driven further, a shaft which supplies air should
+be sunk in the mountain or hill, and through it from time to time the
+ore, earth, and rock can be drawn up at less expense than if they be
+drawn out through the very great length of the tunnel; and even in those
+places to which the tunnel does not yet reach, miners dig shafts in
+order to open a <i>vena dilatata</i> which they conjecture must lie beneath
+the soil. In this way, when the upper layers are removed, they dig
+through rock sometimes of one kind and colour, sometimes of one kind but
+different colours, sometimes of different kinds but of one colour, and,
+lastly, of different kinds and different colours. The thickness of rock,
+both of each single stratum and of all combined, is uncertain, for the
+whole of the strata are in some places twenty fathoms deep, in others
+more than fifty; individual strata are in some places half a foot thick;
+in others, one, two, or more feet; in others, one, two, three, or more
+fathoms. For example, in those districts which lie at the foot of the
+Harz mountains, there are many different coloured strata, covering a
+copper <i>vena dilatata</i>. When the soil has been stripped, first of all is
+disclosed a stratum which is red, but of a dull shade and of a thickness
+of twenty, thirty, or five and thirty fathoms. Then there is another
+stratum, also red, but of a light shade, which has usually a thickness
+of about two fathoms. Beneath this is a stratum of ash-coloured clay
+nearly a fathom thick, which, although it is not metalliferous, is
+reckoned a vein. Then follows a third stratum, which is ashy, and about
+three fathoms thick. Beneath this lies a vein of ashes to the thickness
+of five fathoms, and these ashes are mixed with rock of the same colour.
+Joined to the last, and underneath, comes a stratum, the fourth in
+number, dark in colour and a foot thick. Under this comes the fifth
+stratum, of a pale or yellowish colour, two feet thick; underneath
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127"></a>[Pg 127]</span>which is the sixth stratum, likewise dark, but rough and three feet
+thick. Afterward occurs the seventh stratum, likewise of dark colour,
+but still darker than the last, and two feet thick. This is followed by
+an eighth stratum, ashy, rough, and a foot thick. This kind, as also the
+others, is sometimes distinguished by stringers of the stone which
+easily melts in fire of the second order. Beneath this is another ashy
+rock, light in weight, and five feet thick. Next to this comes a lighter
+ash-coloured one, a foot thick; beneath this lies the eleventh stratum,
+which is dark and very much like the seventh, and two feet thick. Below
+the last is a twelfth stratum of a whitish colour and soft, also two
+feet thick; the weight of this rests on a thirteenth stratum, ashy and
+one foot thick, whose weight is in turn supported by a fourteenth
+stratum, which is blackish and half a foot thick. There follows this,
+another stratum of black colour, likewise half a foot thick, which is
+again followed by a sixteenth stratum still blacker in colour, whose
+thickness is also the same. Beneath this, and last of all, lies the
+cupriferous stratum, black coloured and schistose, in which there
+sometimes glitter scales of gold-coloured pyrites in the very thin
+sheets, which, as I said elsewhere, often take the forms of various
+living things.<a name="FNanchor_15_141" id="FNanchor_15_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_141" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>The miners mine out a <i>vena dilatata</i> laterally and longitudinally by
+driving a low tunnel in it, and if the nature of the work and place
+permit, they sink also a shaft in order to discover whether there is a
+second vein beneath the first one; for sometimes beneath it there are
+two, three, or more similar metal-bearing veins, and these are excavated
+in the same way laterally and longitudinally. They generally mine <i>venae
+dilatatae</i> lying down; and to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128"></a>[Pg 128]</span>avoid wearing away their clothes and
+injuring their left shoulders they usually bind on themselves small
+wooden cradles. For this reason, this particular class of miners, in
+order to use their iron tools, are obliged to bend their necks to the
+left, not infrequently having them twisted. Now these veins also
+sometimes divide, and where these parts re-unite, ore of a richer and a
+better quality is generally found; the same thing occurs where the
+stringers, of which they are not altogether devoid, join with them, or
+cut them crosswise, or divide them obliquely. To prevent a mountain or
+hill, which has in this way been undermined, from subsiding by its
+weight, either some natural pillars and arches are left, on which the
+pressure rests as on a foundation, or timbering is done for support.
+Moreover, the materials which are dug out and which are devoid of metal
+are removed in bowls, and are thrown back, thus once more filling the
+caverns.</p>
+
+<p>Next, as to <i>venae cumulatae</i>. These are dug by a somewhat different
+method, for when one of these shows some metal at the top of the ground,
+first of all one shaft is sunk; then, if it is worth while, around this
+one many shafts are sunk and tunnels are driven into the mountain. If a
+torrent or spring has torn fragments of metal from such a vein, a tunnel
+is first driven into the mountain or hill for the purpose of searching
+for the ore; then when it is found, a vertical shaft is sunk in it.
+Since the whole mountain, or more especially the whole hill, is
+undermined, seeing that the whole of it is composed of ore, it is
+necessary to leave the natural pillars and arches, or the place is
+timbered. But sometimes when a vein is very hard it is broken by fire,
+whereby it happens that the soft pillars break up, or the timbers are
+burnt away, and the mountain by its great weight sinks into itself, and
+then the shaft buildings are swallowed up in the great subsidence.
+Therefore, about a <i>vena cumulata</i> it is advisable to sink some shafts
+which are not subject to this kind of ruin, through which the materials
+that are excavated may be carried out, not only while the pillars and
+underpinnings still remain whole and solid, but also after the supports
+have been destroyed by fire and have fallen. Since ore which has thus
+fallen must necessarily be broken by fire, new shafts through which the
+smoke can escape must be sunk in the abyss. At those places where
+stringers intersect, richer ore is generally obtained from the mine;
+these stringers, in the case of tin mines, sometimes have in them black
+stones the size of a walnut. If such a vein is found in a plain, as not
+infrequently happens in the case of iron, many shafts are sunk, because
+they cannot be sunk very deep. The work is carried on by this method
+because the miners cannot drive a tunnel into a level plain of this
+kind.</p>
+
+<p>There remain the stringers in which gold alone is sometimes found, in
+the vicinity of rivers and streams, or in swamps. If upon the soil being
+removed, many of these are found, composed of earth somewhat baked and
+burnt, as may sometimes be seen in clay pits, there is some hope that
+gold may be obtained from them, especially if several join together. But
+the very point of junction must be pierced, and the length and width
+searched for ore, and in these places very deep shafts cannot be sunk.</p>
+
+<p>I have completed one part of this book, and now come to the other, in
+which I will deal with the art of surveying. Miners measure the solid
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"></a>[Pg 129]</span>mass of the mountains in order that the owners may lay out their plans,
+and that their workmen may not encroach on other people's possessions.
+The surveyor either measures the interval not yet wholly dug through,
+which lies between the mouth of a tunnel and a shaft to be sunk to that
+depth, or between the mouth of a shaft and the tunnel to be driven to
+that spot which lies under the shaft, or between both, if the tunnel is
+neither so long as to reach to the shaft, nor the shaft so deep as to
+reach to the tunnel; and thus on both sides work is still to be done. Or
+in some cases, within the tunnels and drifts, are to be fixed the
+boundaries of the meers, just as the <i>Bergmeister</i> has determined the
+boundaries of the same meers above ground.<a name="FNanchor_16_142" id="FNanchor_16_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_142" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>Each method of surveying depends on the measuring of triangles. A small
+triangle should be laid out, and from it calculations must be made
+regarding a larger one. Most particular care must be taken that we do
+not deviate at all from a correct measuring; for if, at the beginning,
+we are drawn <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130"></a>[Pg 130]</span>by carelessness into a slight error, this at the end will
+produce great errors. Now these triangles are of many shapes, since
+shafts differ among themselves and are not all sunk by one and the same
+method into the depths of the earth, nor do the slopes of all mountains
+come down to the valley or plain in the same manner. For if a shaft is
+vertical, there is a triangle with a right angle, which the Greeks call
+<span class="greek" title="Greek: orthog�nion">&#8000;&rho;&theta;&omicron;&gamma;&#974;&nu;&iota;&omicron;&nu;</span> and this, according to the inequalities of the
+mountain slope, has either two equal sides or three unequal sides. The
+Greeks call the former <span class="greek" title="Greek: trig�non isoskeles">&tau;&rho;&#943;&gamma;&omega;&nu;&omicron;&nu; &#7984;&sigma;&omicron;&sigma;&kappa;&epsilon;&lambda;&#941;&#962;</span> the latter
+<span class="greek" title="Greek: skal�non">&sigma;&kappa;&alpha;&lambda;&eta;&nu;&#972;&nu;</span> for a right angle triangle cannot have three equal sides. If a
+shaft is inclined and sunk in the same vein in which the tunnel is
+driven, a triangle is likewise made with a right angle, and this again,
+according to the various inequalities of the mountain slope, has either
+two equal or three unequal sides. But if a shaft is inclined and is sunk
+in one vein, and a tunnel is driven in another vein, then a triangle
+comes into existence which has either an obtuse angle or all acute
+angles. The former the Greeks call <span class="greek" title="Greek: amblyg�nion">&#7936;&mu;&beta;&lambda;&upsilon;&gamma;&#974;&nu;&iota;&omicron;&nu;</span>, the latter
+<span class="greek" title="Greek: oxyg�nion">&#8000;&xi;&upsilon;&gamma;&#974;&nu;&iota;&omicron;&nu;</span>. That triangle which has an obtuse angle cannot have
+three equal sides, but in accordance with the different mountain slopes
+has either two equal sides or three unequal sides. That triangle which
+has all acute angles in accordance with the different mountain slopes
+has either three equal sides, which the Greeks call
+<span class="greek" title="Greek: trig�non isopleuron">&tau;&rho;&#943;&gamma;&omega;&nu;&omicron;&nu; &#7984;&sigma;&#972;&pi;&lambda;&epsilon;&upsilon;&rho;&omicron;&nu;</span> or two equal sides or three unequal sides.</p>
+
+<p>The surveyor, as I said, employs his art when the owners of the mines
+desire to know how many fathoms of the intervening ground require to be
+dug; when a tunnel is being driven toward a shaft and does not yet reach
+it; or when the shaft has not yet been sunk to the depth of the bottom
+of the tunnel which is under it; or when neither the tunnel reaches to
+that point, nor has the shaft been sunk to it. It is of importance that
+miners should know how many fathoms remain from the tunnel to the shaft,
+or from the shaft to the tunnel, in order to calculate the expenditure;
+and in order that the owners of a metal-bearing mine may hasten the
+sinking of a shaft and the excavation of the metal, before the tunnel
+reaches that point and the tunnel owners excavate part of the metal by
+any right of their own; and on the other hand, it is important that the
+owners of a tunnel may similarly hasten their driving before a shaft can
+be sunk to the depth of a tunnel, so that they may excavate the metal to
+which they will have a right.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131"></a><a href="images/fig131.jpg"><img src="images/fig131thumb.jpg" alt="Surveying" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Upright forked posts. B&mdash;Pole over the
+posts. C&mdash;Shaft. D&mdash;First cord. E&mdash;Weight of first cord. F&mdash;Second cord.
+G&mdash;Same fixed ground. H&mdash;Head of first cord. I&mdash;Mouth of tunnel.
+K&mdash;Third cord. L&mdash;Weight of third cord. M&mdash;First side minor triangle.
+N&mdash;Second side minor triangle. O&mdash;Third side minor triangle. P&mdash;The
+minor triangle.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 131]</span></span>
+The surveyor, first of all, if the beams of the shaft-house do not give
+him the opportunity, sets a pair of forked posts by the sides of the
+shaft in such a manner that a pole may be laid across them. Next, from
+the pole he lets down into the shaft a cord with a weight attached to
+it. Then he stretches a second cord, attached to the upper end of the
+first cord, right down along the slope of the mountain to the bottom of
+the mouth of the tunnel, and fixes it to the ground. Next, from the same
+pole not far from the first cord, he lets down a third cord, similarly
+weighted, so that it may intersect the second cord, which descends
+obliquely. Then, starting from that point where the third cord cuts the
+second cord which descends obliquely to the mouth of the tunnel, he
+measures the second cord upward to where it reaches the end of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"></a>[Pg 132]</span>the
+first cord, and makes a note of this first side of the minor
+triangle<a name="FNanchor_17_143" id="FNanchor_17_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_143" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>. Afterward, starting again from that point where the third
+cord intersects the second cord, he measures the straight space which
+lies between that point and the opposite point on the first cord, and in
+that way forms the minor triangle, and he notes this second side of the
+minor triangle in the same way as before. Then, if it is necessary, from
+the angle formed by the first cord and the second side of the minor
+triangle, he measures upward to the end of the first cord and also makes
+a note of this third side of the minor triangle. The third side of the
+minor triangle, if the shaft is vertical or inclined and is sunk on the
+same vein in which the tunnel is driven, will necessarily be the same
+length as the third cord above the point where it intersects the second
+cord; and so, as often as the first side of the minor triangle is
+contained in the length of the whole cord which descends obliquely, so
+many times the length of the second side of the minor triangle indicates
+the distance between the mouth of the tunnel and the point to which the
+shaft must be sunk; and similarly, so many times the length of the third
+side of the minor triangle gives the distance between the mouth of the
+shaft and the bottom of the tunnel.</p>
+
+<p>When there is a level bench on the mountain slope, the surveyor first
+measures across this with a measuring-rod; then at the edges of this
+bench he sets up forked posts, and applies the principle of the triangle
+to the two sloping parts of the mountain; and to the fathoms which are
+the length of that part of the tunnel determined by the triangles, he
+adds the number of fathoms which are the width of the bench. But if
+sometimes the mountain side stands up, so that a cord cannot run down
+from the shaft to the mouth of the tunnel, or, on the other hand, cannot
+run up from the mouth of the tunnel to the shaft, and, therefore, one
+cannot connect them in a straight line, the surveyor, in order to fix an
+accurate triangle, measures the mountain; and going downward he
+substitutes for the first part of the cord a pole one fathom long, and
+for the second part a pole half a fathom long. Going upward, on the
+contrary, for the first part of the cord he substitutes a pole half a
+fathom long, and for the next part, one a whole fathom long; then where
+he requires to fix his triangle he adds a straight line to these angles.</p>
+
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133"></a><a href="images/fig133.jpg"><img src="images/fig133thumb.jpg" alt="Surveying Triangle" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A triangle having a right angle
+and two equal sides.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 133]</span></span>
+To make this system of measuring clear and more explicit, I will proceed
+by describing each separate kind of triangle. When a shaft is vertical
+or inclined, and is sunk in the same vein on which the tunnel is driven,
+there is created, as I said, a triangle containing a right angle. Now if
+the minor triangle has the two sides equal, which, in accordance with
+the numbering used by surveyors, are the second and third sides, then
+the second and third sides of the major triangle will be equal; and so
+also the intervening distances will be equal which lie between the mouth
+of the tunnel and the bottom of the shaft, and which lie between the
+mouth of the shaft and the bottom of the tunnel. For example, if the
+first side of the minor triangle is seven feet long and the second and
+likewise the third sides are five feet, and <span class="pagenum">[Pg 133]</span>the length shown by the
+cord for the side of the major triangle is 101 times seven feet, that is
+117 fathoms and five feet, then the intervening space, of course,
+whether the whole of it has been already driven through or has yet to be
+driven, will be one hundred times five feet, which makes eighty-three
+fathoms and two feet. Anyone with this example of proportions will be
+able to construct the major and minor triangles in the same way as I
+have done, if there be the necessary upright posts and cross-beams. When
+a shaft is vertical the triangle is absolutely upright; when it is
+inclined and is sunk on the same vein in which the tunnel is driven, it
+is inclined toward one side. Therefore, if a tunnel has been driven into
+the mountain for sixty fathoms, there remains a space of ground to be
+penetrated twenty-three fathoms and two feet long; for five feet of the
+second side of the major triangle, which lies above the mouth of the
+shaft and corresponds with the first side of the minor triangle, must
+not be added. Therefore, if the shaft has been sunk in the middle of the
+head meer, a tunnel sixty fathoms long will reach to the boundary of the
+meer only when the tunnel has been extended a further two fathoms and
+two feet; but if the shaft is located in the middle of an ordinary meer,
+then the boundary will be reached when the tunnel has been driven a
+further length of nine fathoms and two feet. Since a tunnel, for every
+one hundred fathoms of length, rises in grade one fathom, or at all
+events, ought to rise as it proceeds toward the shaft, one more fathom
+must always be taken from the depth allowed to the shaft, and one added
+to the length allowed to the tunnel. Proportionately, because a tunnel
+fifty fathoms long is raised half a fathom, this amount must be taken
+from the depth of the shaft and added to the length of the tunnel. In
+the same way if a tunnel is one hundred or fifty fathoms shorter or
+longer, the same proportion also must be taken from the depth of the one
+and added to the length of the other. For this reason, in the case
+mentioned above, half a fathom and a little more must be added to the
+distance to be driven through, so that there remain twenty-three
+fathoms, five feet, two palms, one and a half digits and a fifth of a
+digit; that is, if even the minutest proportions are carried out; and
+surveyors do not neglect these without good cause. Similarly, if the
+shaft is seventy fathoms deep, in order that it may reach to the bottom
+of the tunnel, it still must be sunk a further depth of thirteen fathoms
+and two feet, or rather twelve fathoms and a half, one foot, two digits,
+and four-fifths of half a digit. And in this instance five feet must be
+deducted from the reckoning, because these five feet complete the third
+side of the minor triangle, which is above the mouth of the shaft, and
+from its <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a>[Pg 134]</span>depth there must be deducted half a fathom, two palms, one and
+a half digits and the fifth part of half a digit. But if the tunnel has
+been driven to a point where it is under the shaft, then to reach the
+roof of the tunnel the shaft must still be sunk a depth of eleven
+fathoms, two and a half feet, one palm, two digits, and four-fifths of
+half a digit.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig134.jpg"><img src="images/fig134thumb.jpg" alt="Surveying Triangle" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A triangle having a right angle
+and three unequal sides.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 134]</span></span>
+If a minor triangle is produced of the kind having three unequal sides,
+then the sides of the greater triangle cannot be equal; that is, if the
+first side of the minor triangle is eight feet long, the second six feet
+long, and the third five feet long, and the cord along the side of the
+greater triangle, not to go too far from the example just given, is one
+hundred and one times eight feet, that is, one hundred and thirty-four
+fathoms and four feet, the distance which lies between the mouth of the
+tunnel and the bottom of the shaft will occupy one hundred times six
+feet in length, that is, one hundred fathoms. The distance between the
+mouth of the shaft and the bottom of the tunnel is one hundred times
+five feet, that is, eighty-three fathoms and two feet. And so, if the
+tunnel is eighty-five fathoms long, the remainder to be driven into the
+mountain is fifteen fathoms long, and here, too, a correction in
+measurement must be taken from the depth of the shaft and added to the
+length of the tunnel; what this is precisely, I will pursue no further,
+since everyone having a small knowledge of arithmetic can work it out.
+If the shaft is sixty-seven fathoms deep, in order that it may reach the
+bottom of the tunnel, the further distance required to be sunk amounts
+to sixteen fathoms and two feet.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p>The surveyor employs this same method in measuring the mountain, whether
+the shaft and tunnel are on one and the same vein, whether the vein is
+vertical or inclined, or whether the shaft is on the principal vein and
+the tunnel on a transverse vein descending vertically to the depths of
+the earth; in the latter case the excavation is to be made where the
+transverse vein cuts the vertical vein. If the principal vein descends
+on an incline and the cross-vein descends vertically, then a minor
+triangle is created having one obtuse angle or all three angles acute.
+<span class="figleft"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135"></a><a href="images/fig135a.jpg"><img src="images/fig135athumb.jpg" alt="Surveying Triangle" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Triangle having an obtuse angle
+and two equal sides.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 135]</span></span>
+If the minor triangle has one angle obtuse and the two sides which are
+the second and third are equal, then the second and third sides of the
+major triangle will be equal, so that if the first side of the minor
+triangle is nine feet, the second, and likewise the third, will be five
+feet. Then the first side of the major triangle will be one hundred and
+one times nine feet, or one hundred and fifty-one and one-half fathoms,
+and each of the other sides of the major triangle will be one hundred
+times five feet, that is, eighty-three fathoms and two feet. But when
+the first shaft is inclined, <span class="pagenum">[Pg 135]</span>generally speaking, it is not deep; but
+there are usually several, all inclined, and one always following the
+other. Therefore, if a tunnel is seventy-seven fathoms long, it will
+reach to the middle of the bottom of a shaft when six fathoms and two
+feet further have been sunk. But if all such inclined shafts are
+seventy-six fathoms deep, in order that the last one may reach the
+bottom of the tunnel, a depth of seven fathoms and two feet remains to
+be sunk.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig135b.jpg"><img src="images/fig135bthumb.jpg" alt="Surveying Triangle" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Triangle having an obtuse angle
+and three unequal sides.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 135]</span></span>
+If a minor triangle is made which has an obtuse angle and three unequal
+sides, then again the sides of the large triangle cannot be equal. For
+example, if the first side of the minor triangle is six feet long, the
+second three feet, and the third four feet, and the cord along the side
+of the greater triangle one hundred and one times six feet, that is, one
+hundred and one fathoms, the distance between the mouth of the tunnel
+and the bottom of the last shaft will be a length one hundred times
+three feet, or fifty fathoms; but the depth that lies between the mouth
+of the first shaft and the bottom of the tunnel is one hundred times
+four feet, or sixty-six fathoms and four feet. Therefore, if a tunnel is
+forty-four fathoms long, the remaining distance to be driven is six
+fathoms. If the shafts are fifty-eight fathoms deep, the newest will
+touch the bottom of the tunnel when eight fathoms and four feet have
+been sunk.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136"></a><a href="images/fig136a.jpg"><img src="images/fig136athumb.jpg" alt="Surveying Triangle" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A triangle having all its
+angles acute and its three sides equal.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 136]</span></span>
+If a minor triangle is produced which has all its angles acute and its
+three sides equal, then necessarily the second and third sides of the
+minor triangle will be equal, and likewise the sides of the major
+triangle frequently referred to will be equal. Thus if each side of the
+minor triangle is six feet long, and the cord measurement for the side
+of the major triangle is one hundred and one times six feet, that is,
+one hundred and one fathoms, then both the distances to be dug will be
+one hundred fathoms. And thus if the tunnel is ninety fathoms long, it
+will reach the middle of the bottom of the last shaft when ten fathoms
+further have been driven. If the shafts are <span class="pagenum">[Pg 136]</span>ninety-five fathoms deep,
+the last will reach the bottom of the tunnel when it is sunk a further
+depth of five fathoms.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig136b.jpg"><img src="images/fig136bthumb.jpg" alt="Surveying Triangle" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Triangle having all its angles
+acute and two sides equal, A, B, unequal side C.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 136]</span></span>
+If a triangle is made which has all its angles acute, but only two sides
+equal, namely, the first and third, then the second and third sides are
+not equal; therefore the distances to be dug cannot be equal. For
+example, if the first side of the minor triangle is six feet long, and
+the second is four feet, and the third is six feet, and the cord
+measurement for the side of the major triangle is one hundred and one
+times six feet, that is, one hundred and one fathoms, then the distance
+between the mouth of the tunnel and the bottom of the last shaft will be
+sixty-six fathoms and four feet. But the distance from the mouth of the
+first shaft to the bottom of the tunnel is one hundred fathoms. So if
+the tunnel is sixty fathoms long, the remaining distance to be driven
+into the mountain is six fathoms and four feet. If the shaft is
+ninety-seven fathoms deep, the last one will reach the bottom of the
+tunnel when a further depth of three fathoms has been sunk.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137"></a><a href="images/fig137.jpg"><img src="images/fig137thumb.jpg" alt="Surveying Triangle" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A triangle having all its angles
+acute and its three sides unequal.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 137]</span></span>
+If a minor triangle is produced which has all its angles acute, but its
+three sides unequal, then again the distances to be dug cannot be equal.
+For example, if the first side of the minor triangle is seven feet long,
+the second side is four feet, and the third side is six feet, and the
+cord measurement for the side of the major triangle is one hundred and
+one times seven feet or one hundred and seventeen fathoms and four feet,
+the distance between the mouth of the tunnel and the bottom of the last
+shaft will be four hundred feet or sixty-six fathoms, and the depth
+between the mouth of the first shaft and the bottom of the tunnel will
+be one hundred fathoms. Therefore, if a tunnel is fifty fathoms long, it
+will reach the middle of the bottom of the newest shaft when it has been
+driven sixteen fathoms and four feet further. But if the shafts are then
+ninety-two fathoms deep, the last <span class="pagenum">[Pg 137]</span>shaft will reach the bottom of the
+tunnel when it has been sunk a further eight fathoms.</p>
+
+<p>This is the method of the surveyor in measuring the mountain, if the
+principal vein descends inclined into the depths of the earth or the
+transverse vein is vertical. But if they are both inclined, the surveyor
+uses the same method, or he measures the slope of the mountain
+separately from the slope of the shaft. Next, if a transverse vein in
+which a tunnel is driven does not cut the principal vein in that spot
+where the shaft is sunk, then it is necessary for the starting point of
+the survey to be in the other shaft in which the transverse vein cuts
+the principal vein. But if there be no shaft on that spot where the
+outcrop of the transverse vein cuts the outcrop of the principal vein,
+then the surface of the ground which lies between the shafts must be
+measured, or that between the shaft and the place where the outcrop of
+the one vein intersects the outcrop of the other.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138"></a><a href="images/fig138.jpg"><img src="images/fig138thumb.jpg" alt="Hemicycle" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Waxed semicircle of the hemicycle.
+B&mdash;Semicircular lines. C&mdash;Straight lines. D&mdash;Line measuring the half.
+E&mdash;Line measuring the whole. F&mdash;Tongue.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 138]</span></span>
+<span class="figleft"><a name="Page_138A" id="Page_138A"></a><a href="images/fig138a.jpg"><img src="images/fig138athumb.jpg" alt="Surveying Rods" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Lines of the rod which separate
+minor spaces. B&mdash;Lines of the rod which separate major spaces.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 138A]</span></span>
+Some surveyors, although they use three cords, nevertheless ascertain
+only the length of a tunnel by that method of measuring, and determine
+the depth of a shaft by another method; that is, by the method by which
+cords are re-stretched on a level part of the mountain or in a valley,
+or in flat fields, and are measured again. Some, however, do not employ
+this method in surveying the depth of a shaft and the length of a
+tunnel, but use only two cords, a graduated hemicycle<a name="FNanchor_18_144" id="FNanchor_18_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_144" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> and a rod half
+a fathom long. They suspend in the shaft one cord, fastened from the
+upper pole and weighted, just as the others do. Fastened to the upper
+end of this cord, they stretch another right down the slope of the
+mountain to the bottom of the mouth of the tunnel and fix it to the
+ground. Then to the upper part of this second cord they apply on its
+lower side the broad part of a hemicycle. This consists of half a
+circle, the outer margin of which is covered with wax, and within this
+are six semi-circular lines. From the <span class="pagenum">[Pg 138]</span>waxed margin through the first
+semi-circular line, and reaching to the second, there proceed straight
+lines converging toward the centre of the hemicycle; these mark the
+middles of intervening spaces lying between other straight lines which
+extend to the fourth semi-circular line. But all lines whatsoever, from
+the waxed margin up to the fourth line, whether they go beyond it or
+not, correspond with the graduated lines which mark the minor spaces of
+a rod. Those which go beyond the fourth line correspond with the lines
+marking <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a>[Pg 139]</span>the major spaces on the rod, and those which proceed further,
+mark the middle of the intervening space which lies between the others.
+The straight lines, which run from the fifth to the sixth semi-circular
+line, show nothing further. Nor does the line which measures the half,
+show anything when it has already passed from the sixth straight line to
+the base of the hemicycle. When the hemicycle is applied to the cord, if
+its tongue indicates the sixth straight line which lies between the
+second and third semi-circular lines, the surveyor counts on the rod six
+lines which separate the minor spaces, and if the length of this portion
+of the rod be taken from the second cord, as many times as the cord
+itself is half-fathoms long, the remaining length of cord shows the
+distance the tunnel must be driven to reach under the shaft. But if he
+sees that the tongue has gone so far that it marks the sixth line
+between the fourth and fifth semi-circular lines, he counts six lines
+which separate the major spaces on the rod; and this entire space is
+deducted from the length of the second cord, as many times as the number
+of whole fathoms which the cord contains; and then, in like manner, the
+remaining length of cord shows us the distance the tunnel must be driven
+to reach under the shaft.<a name="FNanchor_19_145" id="FNanchor_19_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_145" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140"></a>[Pg 140]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig139.jpg"><img src="images/fig139thumb.jpg" alt="Surveying Triangle" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Stretched cords: A&mdash;First cord.
+B&mdash;Second cord. C&mdash;Third cord. D&mdash;Triangle.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 139]</span></span>
+Both these surveyors, as well as the others, in the first place make
+use of the haulage rope. These they measure by means of others made of
+linden bark, because the latter do not stretch at all, while the former
+become very slack. These cords they stretch on the surveyor's field, the
+first one to represent the parts of mountain slopes which descend
+obliquely. Then the second cord, which represents the length of the
+tunnel to be driven to reach the shaft, they place straight, in such a
+direction that one end of it can touch the lower end of the first cord;
+then they similarly lay the third cord straight, and in such a direction
+that its upper end may touch the upper end of the first cord, and its
+lower end the other extremity of the second cord, and thus a triangle is
+formed. This third cord is measured by the instrument with the index, to
+determine its relation to the perpendicular; and the length of this cord
+shows the depth of the shaft.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig140.jpg"><img src="images/fig140thumb.jpg" alt="Surveying Triangles" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Stretched cords: A&mdash;First.
+B&mdash;Second. B&mdash;Third. C&mdash;Fourth. C&mdash;Fifth. D&mdash;Quadrangle.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 140]</span></span>
+Some surveyors, to make their system of measuring the depth of a shaft
+more certain, use five stretched cords: the first one descending
+obliquely; two, that is to say the second and third, for ascertaining
+the length of the tunnel; two for the depth of the shaft; in which way
+they form a quadrangle divided into two equal triangles, and this tends
+to greater accuracy.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142"></a><a href="images/fig142.jpg"><img src="images/fig142thumb.jpg" alt="Compass" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Compass. A, B, C, D, E, F, G are the seven
+waxed circles.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 142]</span></span>
+<span class="figleft"><a name="Page_142A" id="Page_142A"></a><a href="images/fig142a.jpg"><img src="images/fig142athumb.jpg" alt="Orbis" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A, B, C, D, E&mdash;Five waxed circles of the
+<i>orbis.</i> F&mdash;Opening of same. G&mdash;Screw. H&mdash;Perforated iron.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 142A]</span></span>
+<span class="figleft"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143"></a><a href="images/fig143.jpg"><img src="images/fig143thumb.jpg" alt="Miner using level" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Standing plummet level.
+B&mdash;Tongue. C&mdash;Level and tongue.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 143]</span></span>
+These systems of measuring the depth of a shaft and the length of a
+tunnel, are accurate when the vein and also the shaft or shafts go down
+to the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a>[Pg 141]</span>tunnel vertically or inclined, in an uninterrupted course. The
+same is true when a tunnel runs straight on to a shaft. But when each of
+them bends now in this, now in that direction, if they have not been
+completely driven and sunk, no living man is clever enough to judge how
+far they are deflected from a straight course. But if the whole of
+either one of the two has been excavated its full distance, then we can
+estimate more easily the length of one, or the depth of the other; and
+so the location of the tunnel, which is below a newly-started shaft, is
+determined by a method of surveying which I will describe. First of all
+a tripod is fixed at the mouth of the tunnel, and likewise at the mouth
+of the shaft which has been started, or at the place where the shaft
+will be started. The tripod is made of three stakes fixed to the ground,
+a small rectangular board being placed upon the stakes and fixed to
+them, and on this is set a compass. Then from the lower tripod a
+weighted cord is let down perpendicularly to the earth, close to which
+cord a stake is fixed in the ground. To this stake another cord is tied
+and drawn straight into the tunnel to a point as far as it can go
+without being bent by the hangingwall or the footwall of the vein. Next,
+from the cord which hangs from the lower tripod, a third cord likewise
+fixed is brought straight up the sloping side of the mountain to the
+stake of the upper tripod, and fastened to it. In order that the
+measuring of the depth of the shaft may be more certain, the third cord
+should touch one and the same side of the cord hanging from the lower
+tripod which is touched by the second cord&mdash;the one which is drawn into
+the tunnel. All this having been correctly carried out, the surveyor,
+when at length the cord which has been drawn straight into the tunnel is
+about to be bent by the hangingwall or footwall, places a plank in the
+bottom of the tunnel and on it sets the orbis, an instrument which has
+an indicator peculiar to itself. This instrument, although it also has
+waxed circles, differs from the other, which I have described in the
+<a href="#BOOK_III">third book</a>. But by both these instruments, as well as by a rule and a
+square, he determines whether the stretched cords reach straight to the
+extreme end of the tunnel, or whether they sometimes reach straight, and
+are sometimes bent by the footwall or hangingwall. Each instrument is
+divided into parts, but the compass into twenty-four parts, the orbis
+into sixteen parts; for first of all it is divided into four principal
+parts, and then each of these is again divided into four. Both have
+waxed circles, but the compass has seven circles, and the orbis only
+five circles. These waxed circles the surveyor marks, whichever
+instrument he uses, and by the succession of these same marks he notes
+any change in the direction in which the cord extends. The orbis has an
+opening running from its outer edge as far as the centre, into which
+opening he puts an iron screw, to which he binds the second cord, and by
+screwing it into the plank, fixes it so that the orbis may be immovable.
+He takes care to prevent the second cord, and afterward the others which
+are put up, from being pulled off the screw, by employing a heavy iron,
+into an opening of which he fixes the head of the screw. In the case of
+the compass, since it has no opening, he merely places it by the side of
+the screw. That the instrument does not incline forward or backward, and
+in that way the <span class="pagenum">[Pg 142]</span>measurement become a greater length than it should be,
+he sets upon the instrument a standing plummet level, the tongue of
+which, if the instrument is level, indicates no numbers, but the point
+from which the numbers start.</p>
+
+<p>When the surveyor has carefully observed each separate angle of the
+tunnel and has measured such parts as he ought to measure, then he lays
+them out in the same way on the surveyor's field<a name="FNanchor_20_146" id="FNanchor_20_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_146" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> in the open air,
+and again no less carefully observes each separate angle and measures
+them. First of all, to each angle, according as the calculation of his
+triangle and his art require it, he lays out a straight cord as a line.
+Then he stretches a cord at <span class="pagenum">[Pg 143]</span>such an angle as represents the slope of
+the mountain, so that its lower end may reach the end of the straight
+cord; then he stretches a third cord <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144"></a>[Pg 144]</span>similarly straight and at such an
+angle, that with its upper end it may reach the upper end of the second
+cord, and with its lower end the last end of the first cord. The length
+of the third cord shows the depth of the shaft, as I said before, and at
+the same time that point on the tunnel to which the shaft will reach
+when it has been sunk.</p>
+
+<p>If one or more shafts reach the tunnel through intermediate drifts and
+shafts, the surveyor, starting from the nearest which is open to the
+air, measures in a shorter time the depth of the shaft which requires to
+be sunk, than if he starts from the mouth of the tunnel. First of all he
+measures that space on the surface which lies between the shaft which
+has been sunk and the one which requires to be sunk. Then he measures
+the incline of all the shafts which it is necessary to measure, and the
+length of all the drifts with which they are in any way connected to the
+tunnel. Lastly, he measures part of the tunnel; and when all this is
+properly done, he demonstrates the depth of the shaft and the point in
+the tunnel to which the shaft will reach. But sometimes a very deep
+straight shaft requires to be sunk at the same place where there is a
+previous inclined shaft, and to the same depth, in order that loads may
+be raised and drawn straight up by machines. Those machines on the
+surface are turned by horses; those inside the earth, by the same means,
+and also by water-power. And so, if it becomes necessary to sink such a
+shaft, the surveyor first of all fixes an iron screw in the upper part
+of the old shaft, and from the screw he lets down a cord as far as the
+first angle, where again he fixes a screw, and again lets down the cord
+as far as the second angle; this he repeats again and again until the
+cord reaches to the bottom of the shaft. Then to each angle of the cord
+he applies a hemicycle, and marks the waxed semi-circle according to the
+lines which the tongue indicates, and designates it by a number, in case
+it should be moved; then he measures the separate parts of the cord with
+another cord made of linden bark. Afterward, when he has come back out
+of the shaft, he goes away and transfers the markings from the waxed
+semi-circle of the hemicycle to an orbis similarly waxed. Lastly, the
+cords are stretched on the surveyor's field, and he measures the angles,
+as the system of measuring by triangles requires, and ascertains which
+part of the footwall and which part of the hangingwall rock must be cut
+away in order that the shaft may descend straight. But if the surveyor
+is required to show the owners of the mine, the spot in a drift or a
+tunnel in which a shaft needs to be raised from the bottom upward, that
+it should cut through more quickly, he begins measuring from the bottom
+of the drift or tunnel, at a point beyond the spot at which the bottom
+of the shaft will arrive, when it has been sunk. When he has measured
+the part of the drift or tunnel up to the first shaft which connects
+with an upper drift, he measures the incline of this shaft by applying a
+hemicycle or orbis to the cord. Then in a like manner he measures the
+upper drift and the incline shaft which is sunk therein toward which a
+raise is being dug, then again all the cords are stretched in the
+surveyor's field, the last cord in such a way that it reaches the first,
+and then he measures them. From this measurement is known in what part
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a>[Pg 145]</span>of the drift or tunnel the raise should be made, and how many fathoms
+of vein remain to be broken through in order that the shaft may be
+connected.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p>
+I have described the first reason for surveying; I will now describe
+another. When one vein comes near another, and their owners are
+different persons who have late come into possession, whether they drive
+a tunnel or a drift, or sink a shaft, they may encroach, or seem to
+encroach, without any lawful right, upon the boundaries of the older
+owners, for which reason the latter very often seek redress, or take
+legal proceedings. The surveyor either himself settles the dispute
+between the owners, or by his art gives evidence to the judges for
+making their decision, that one shall not encroach on the mine of the
+other. Thus, first of all he measures the mines of each party with a
+basket rope and cords of linden bark; and having applied to the cords an
+orbis or a compass, he notes the directions in which they extend. Then
+he stretches the cords on the surveyor's field; and starting from that
+point whose owners are in possession of the old meer toward the other,
+whether it is in the hanging or footwall of the vein, he stretches a
+cross-cord in a straight line, according to the sixth division of the
+compass, that is, at a right angle to the vein, for a distance of three
+and a half fathoms, and assigns to the older owners that which belongs
+to them. But if both ends of one vein are being dug out in two tunnels,
+or drifts from opposite directions, the surveyor first of all considers
+the lower tunnel or drift and afterward the upper one, and judges how
+much each of them has risen little by little. On each side strong men
+take in their hands a stretched cord and hold it so that there is no
+point where it is not strained tight; on each side the surveyor supports
+the cord with a rod half a fathom long, and stays the rod at the end
+with a short stick as often as he thinks it necessary. But some fasten
+cords to the rods to make them steadier.
+<span class="figleft"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146"></a><a href="images/fig146.jpg"><img src="images/fig146thumb.jpg" alt="Plummet cord and weight" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Indicator of a suspended
+plummet level.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 146]</span></span>
+The surveyor attaches a
+suspended plummet level to the middle of the cord to enable him to
+calculate more accurately on both sides, and from this he ascertains
+whether one tunnel has risen more than another, or in like manner one
+drift more than another. Afterward he measures the incline of the shafts
+on both sides, so that he can estimate their position on each side. Then
+he easily sees how many fathoms remain in the space which must be broken
+through. But the grade of each tunnel, as I said, should rise one fathom
+in the distance of one hundred fathoms.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p>The Swiss surveyors, when they wish to measure tunnels driven into the
+highest mountains, also use a rod half a fathom long, but composed of
+three parts, which screw together, so that they may be shortened. They
+use a cord made of linden bark to which are fastened slips of paper
+showing the number of fathoms.
+<span class="figleft"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147"></a><a href="images/fig147.jpg"><img src="images/fig147thumb.jpg" alt="Compass" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Needle of the instrument. B&mdash;Its tongue.
+C, D, E&mdash;Holes in the tongue.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 147]</span></span>
+They also employ an instrument peculiar
+to them, which has a needle; but in place of the waxed circles they
+carry in their hands a chart on which they inscribe the readings of the
+instrument. The instrument is placed on the back part of the rod so that
+the tongue, and the extended cord which runs through the three holes in
+the tongue, demonstrates the direction, and they note the number of
+fathoms. The tongue shows whether the cord inclines forward or backward.
+The tongue does not hang, <span class="pagenum">[Pg 146]</span>as in the case of the suspended plummet
+level, but is fixed to the instrument in a half-lying position. They
+measure the tunnels for the purpose of knowing how many fathoms they
+have been increased in elevation; how many fathoms the lower is distant
+from the upper one; how many fathoms of interval is <span class="pagenum">[Pg 147]</span>not yet pierced
+between the miners who on opposite sides are digging on the same vein,
+or cross-stringers, or two veins which are approaching one another.</p>
+
+<p>But I return to our mines. If the surveyor desires to fix the boundaries
+of the meer within the tunnels or drifts, and mark to them with a sign
+cut in the rock, in the same way that the <i>Bergmeister</i> has marked these
+boundaries above ground, he first of all ascertains, by measuring in the
+manner which I have explained above, which part of the tunnel or drift
+lies beneath the surface boundary mark, stretching the cords along the
+drifts to a point beyond that spot in the rock where he judges the mark
+should be cut. Then, after the same cords have been laid out on the
+surveyor's field, he starts from that upper cord at a point which shows
+the boundary mark, and stretches another cross-cord straight downward
+according to the sixth <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"></a>[Pg 148]</span>division of the compass&mdash;that is at a right
+angle. Then that part of the lowest cord which lies beyond the part to
+which the cross-cord runs being removed, it shows at what point the
+boundary mark should be cut into the rock of the tunnel or drift. The
+cutting is made in the presence of the two Jurors and the manager and
+the foreman of each mine. For as the <i>Bergmeister</i> in the presence of
+these same persons sets the boundary stones on the surface, so the
+surveyor cuts in the rock a sign which for this reason is called the
+boundary rock. If he fixes the boundary mark of a meer in which a shaft
+has recently begun to be sunk on a vein, first of all he measures and
+notes the incline of that shaft by the compass or by another way with
+the applied cords; then he measures all the drifts up to that one in
+whose rock the boundary mark has to be cut. Of these drifts he measures
+each angle; then the cords, being laid out on the surveyor's field, in a
+similar way he stretches a cross-cord, as I said, and cuts the sign on
+the rock. But if the underground boundary rock has to be cut in a drift
+which lies beneath the first drift, the surveyor starts from the mark in
+the first drift, notes the different angles, one by one, takes his
+measurements, and in the lower drift stretches a cord beyond that place
+where he judges the mark ought to be cut; and then, as I said before,
+lays out the cords on the surveyor's field. Even if a vein runs
+differently in the lower drift from the upper one, in which the first
+boundary mark has been cut in the rock, still, in the lower drift the
+mark must be cut in the rock vertically beneath. For if he cuts the
+lower mark obliquely from the upper one some part of the possession of
+one mine is taken away to its detriment, and given to the other.
+Moreover, if it happens that the underground boundary mark requires to
+be cut in an angle, the surveyor, starting from that angle, measures one
+fathom toward the front of the mine and another fathom toward the back,
+and from these measurements forms a triangle, and dividing its middle by
+a cross-cord, makes his cutting for the boundary mark.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, the surveyor sometimes, in order to make more certain, finds the
+boundary of the meers in those places where many old boundary marks are
+cut in the rock. Then, starting from a stake fixed on the surface, he
+first of all measures to the nearest mine; then he measures one shaft
+after another; then he fixes a stake on the surveyors' field, and making
+a beginning from it stretches the same cords in the same way and
+measures them, and again fixes in the ground a stake which for him will
+signify the end of his measuring. Afterward he again measures
+underground from that spot at which he left off, as many shafts and
+drifts as he can remember. Then he returns to the surveyor's field, and
+starting again from the second stake, makes his measurements; and he
+does this as far as the drift in which the boundary mark must be cut in
+the rock. Finally, commencing from the stake first fixed in the ground,
+he stretches a cross-cord in a straight line to the last stake, and this
+shows the length of the lowest drift. The point where they touch, he
+judges to be the place where the underground boundary mark should be
+cut.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p class="center">END OF BOOK V.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_101" id="Notes_101">[Pg 101]</a></span><a name="Footnote_1_127" id="Footnote_1_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_127"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> It has been suggested that we should adopt throughout this
+volume the mechanical and mining terms used in English mines at
+Agricola's time. We believe, however, that but a little inquiry would
+illustrate the undesirability of this course as a whole. Where there is
+choice in modern miner's nomenclature between an old and a modern term,
+we have leaned toward age, if it be a term generally understood. But
+except where the subject described has itself become obsolete, we have
+revived no obsolete terms. In substantiation of this view, we append a
+few examples of terms which served the English miner well for centuries,
+some of which are still extant in some local communities, yet we believe
+they would carry as little meaning to the average reader as would the
+reproduction of the Latin terms coined by Agricola.
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Rake</td><td align="center"></td><td align="left">= A perpendicular vein.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Woughs</td><td align="center"></td><td align="left">= Walls of the vein.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Shakes</td><td align="center"></td><td align="left">= Cracks in the walls.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Flookan</td><td align="center"></td><td align="left">= Gouge.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bryle</td><td align="center"></td><td align="left">= Outcrop.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hade</td><td align="center"></td><td align="left">= Incline or underlay of the vein.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dawling</td><td align="center"></td><td align="left">= Impoverishment of the vein.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rither</td><td align="center"></td><td align="left">= A "horse" in a vein.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Twitches</td><td align="center"></td><td align="left">= "Pinching" of a vein.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Slough</td><td align="center"></td><td align="left">= Drainage tunnel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sole</td><td align="center"></td><td align="left">= Lowest drift.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Stool</td><td align="center"></td><td align="left">= Face of a drift or stope.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Winds</td><td align="center" rowspan="3"><span style="font-size:300%;">} </span></td><td align="left" rowspan="3" style="vertical-align:middle;">= Winze.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Turn</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dippas</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Grove</td><td align="center"></td><td align="left">= Shaft.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dutins</td><td align="center"></td><td align="left">= Set of timber.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Stemple</td><td align="center"></td><td align="left">= Post or stull.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Laths</td><td align="center"></td><td align="left">= Lagging.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+As examples of the author's coinage and adaptations of terms in this
+book we may cite:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Fossa latens</i></td><td align="left">= Drift.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Fossa latens transversa</i></td><td align="left">= Crosscut.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Tectum</i></td><td align="left">= Hangingwall.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Fundamentum</i></td><td align="left">= Footwall.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Tigna per intervalla posita</i></td><td align="left">= Wall plate.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Arbores dissectae</i></td><td align="left">= Lagging.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Formae</i></td><td align="left">= Hitches.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+We have adopted the term "tunnel" for openings by way of outlet to the
+mine. The word in this narrow sense is as old as "adit," a term less
+expressive and not so generally used in the English-speaking mining
+world. We have for the same reason adopted the word "drift" instead of
+the term "level" so generally used in America, because that term always
+leads to confusion in discussion of mine surveys. We may mention,
+however, that the term "level" is a heritage from the Derbyshire mines,
+and is of an equally respectable age as "drift."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_128" id="Footnote_2_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_128"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> See note on p. <a href="#Notes_46">46</a>-<a href="#Notes_47">47</a>. The <i>canales</i>, as here used, were the
+openings in the earth, in which minerals were deposited.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_102" id="Notes_102">[Pg 102]</a></span><a name="Footnote_3_129" id="Footnote_3_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_129"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> This statement, as will appear by the description later on,
+refers to the depth of winzes or to the distance between drifts, that is
+"the lift." We have not, however, been justified in using the term
+"winze," because some of these were openings to the surface. As showing
+the considerable depth of shafts in Agricola's time, we may quote the
+following from <i>Bermannus</i> (p. 442): "The depths of our shafts forced us
+to invent hauling machines suitable for them. There are some of them
+larger and more ingenious than this one, for use in deep shafts, as, for
+instance, those in my native town of Geyer, but more especially at
+Schneeberg, where the shaft of the mine from which so much treasure was
+taken in our memory has reached the depth of about 200 fathoms (feet?),
+wherefore the necessity of this kind of machinery. <i>Naevius</i>: What an
+enormous depth! Have you reached the Inferno? <i>Bermannus</i>: Oh, at
+Kuttenberg there are shafts more than 500 fathoms (feet?) deep.
+<i>Naevius</i>: And not yet reached the Kingdom of Pluto?" It is impossible
+to accept these as fathoms, as this would in the last case represent
+3,000 feet vertically. The expression used, however, for fathoms is
+<i>passus</i>, presumably the Roman measure equal to 58.1 inches.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_107" id="Notes_107">[Pg 107]</a></span><a name="Footnote_4_130" id="Footnote_4_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_130"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> <i>Cavernos</i>. The Glossary gives <i>drusen</i>, our word <i>drusy</i>
+having had this origin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_131" id="Footnote_5_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_131"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>Purum</i>,&mdash;"pure." <i>Interpretatio</i> gives the German as
+<i>gedigen</i>,&mdash;"native."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_108" id="Notes_108">[Pg 108]</a></span><a name="Footnote_6_132" id="Footnote_6_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_132"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <i>Rudis</i>,&mdash;"Crude." By this expression the author really
+means ores very rich in any designated metal. In many cases it serves to
+indicate the minerals of a given metal, as distinguished from the metal
+itself. Our system of mineralogy obviously does not afford an acceptable
+equivalent. Agricola (<i>De Nat. Foss.</i>, p. 360) says: "I find it
+necessary to call each genus (of the metallic minerals) by the name of
+its own metal, and to this I add a word which differentiates it from the
+pure (<i>puro</i>) metal, whether the latter has been mined or smelted; so I
+speak of <i>rudis</i> gold, silver, quicksilver, copper, tin, bismuth, lead,
+or iron. This is not because I am unaware that Varro called silver
+<i>rudis</i> which had not yet been refined and stamped, but because a word
+which will distinguish the one from the other is not to be found."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_133" id="Footnote_7_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_133"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> The reasons for retaining the Latin weights are given in
+the <a href="#APPENDIX_C">Appendix</a> on Weights and Measures. A <i>centumpondium</i> weighs 70.6 lbs.
+avoirdupois, an <i>uncia</i> 412.2 Troy grains, therefore, this value is
+equal to 72 ounces 18 pennyweights per short ton.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_134" id="Footnote_8_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_134"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Agricola mentions many minerals in <i>De Re Metallica</i>, but
+without such description as would make possible a hazard at their
+identity. From his <i>De Natura Fossilium</i>, however, and from other
+mineralogies of the 16th Century, some can be fully identified and
+others surmised. While we consider it desirable to set out the probable
+composition of these minerals, on account of the space required, the
+reasons upon which our opinion has been based cannot be given in detail,
+as that would require extensive quotations. In a general way, we have
+throughout the text studiously evaded the use of modern mineralogical
+terms&mdash;unless the term used to-day is of Agricola's age&mdash;and have
+adopted either old English terms of pre-chemistry times or more loose
+terms used by common miners. Obviously modern mineralogic terms imply a
+precision of knowledge not existing at that period. It must not be
+assumed that the following is by any means a complete list of the
+minerals described by Agricola, but they include most of those referred
+to in this chapter. His system of mineralogy we have set out in <a href="#Footnote_4_45">note 4,
+p. 1</a>, and it requires no further comment here. The grouping given below
+is simply for convenience and does not follow Agricola's method. Where
+possible, we tabulate in columns the Latin term used in <i>De Re
+Metallica</i>; the German equivalent given by the Author in either the
+<i>Interpretatio</i> or the Glossary; our view of the probable modern
+equivalent based on investigation of his other works and other ancient
+mineralogies, and lastly the terms we have adopted in the text. The
+German spelling is that given in the original. As an indication of
+Agricola's position as a mineralogist, we mark with an asterisk the
+minerals which were first specifically described by him. We also give
+some notes on matters of importance bearing on the nomenclature used in
+<i>De Re Metallica</i>. Historical notes on the chief metals will be found
+elsewhere, generally with the discussion of smelting methods. We should
+not omit to express our indebtedness to Dana's great "System of
+Mineralogy," in the matter of correlation of many old and modern
+minerals.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Gold Minerals.</span> Agricola apparently believed that there were various gold
+minerals, green, yellow, purple, black, etc. There is nothing, however,
+in his works that permits of any attempt to identify them, and his
+classification seems to rest on gangue colours.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Silver Minerals.</span>
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Argentum purum in venis reperitur</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Gedigen silber</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">&nbsp;</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px solid black;">*Native silver</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Argentum rude</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Gedigen silber ertz</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">&nbsp;</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px solid black;"><i>Rudis</i> silver, or pure silver minerals</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Argentum rude plumbei coloris</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Glas ertz</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Argentite (Ag<sub>2</sub>S)</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px solid black;">*Silver glance</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Argentum rude rubrum</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Rot gold ertz</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Pyrargyrite (Ag<sub>3</sub>SbS<sub>3</sub>)</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px solid black;">*Red silver</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Argentum rude rubrum translucidum</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Durchsichtig rod gulden ertz</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Proustite (Ag<sub>3</sub>AsS<sub>3</sub>)</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px solid black;">*Ruby silver</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Argentum rude album</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Weis rod gulden ertz: Dan es ist frisch wie offtmals rod gulden ertz pfleget zusein</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">&nbsp;</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px solid black;">White silver</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_109" id="Notes_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>Argentum rude jecoris colore</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Gedigen leberfarbig ertz</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Part Bromyrite (Ag Br)</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px solid black;">Liver-coloured silver</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Argentum rude luteum</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Gedigen geelertz</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">&nbsp;</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px solid black;">Yellow silver</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Argentum rude cineraceum</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Gedigen graw ertz</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="3" style="vertical-align:middle;border-bottom:1px solid black;">Part Cerargurite (Ag Cl) (Horn Silver) Part Stephanite (Ag<sub>5</sub>SbS<sub>4</sub>)</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px solid black;">*Grey silver</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Argentum rude nigrum</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Gedigen schwartz ertz</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px solid black;">*Black silver</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px solid black;"><i>Argentum rude purpureum</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px solid black;"><i>Gedigen braun ertz</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px solid black;border-bottom:1px solid black;">*Purple silver</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p>
+The last six may be in part also alteration products from all silver
+minerals.
+</p><p>
+The reasons for indefiniteness in determination usually lie in the
+failure of ancient authors to give sufficient or characteristic
+descriptions. In many cases Agricola is sufficiently definite as to
+assure certainty, as the following description of what we consider to be
+silver glance, from <i>De Natura Fossilium</i> (p. 360), will indicate:
+"Lead-coloured <i>rudis</i> silver is called by the Germans from the word
+glass (<i>glasertz</i>), not from lead. Indeed, it has the colour of the
+latter or of galena (<i>plumbago</i>), but not of glass, nor is it
+transparent like glass, which one might indeed expect had the name been
+correctly derived. This mineral is occasionally so like galena in
+colour, although it is darker, that one who is not experienced in
+minerals is unable to distinguish between the two at sight, but in
+substance they differ greatly from one another. Nature has made this
+kind of silver out of a little earth and much silver. Whereas galena
+consists of stone and lead containing some silver. But the distinction
+between them can be easily determined, for galena may be ground to
+powder in a mortar with a pestle, but this treatment flattens out this
+kind of <i>rudis</i> silver. Also galena, when struck by a mallet or bitten
+or hacked with a knife, splits and breaks to pieces; whereas this silver
+is malleable under the hammer, may be dented by the teeth, and cut with
+a knife."
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Copper Minerals.</span>
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Aes purum fossile</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Gedigen kupfer</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Native copper</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Native copper</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Aes rude plumbei coloris</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Kupferglas ertz</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Chalcocite (Cu<sub>2</sub>S)</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">*Copper glance</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Chalcitis</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Rodt atrament</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">A decomposed copper or iron sulphide</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;"><i>Chalcitis</i> (see notes on p. <a href="#Notes_573">573</a>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Pyrites aurei colore</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;"><i>Geelkis oder kupferkis</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;">Part chalcopyrite (Cu Fe S) part bornite (Cu<sub>3</sub>FeS<sub>3</sub>)</td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Copper pyrites</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Pyrites aerosus</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Caeruleum</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Berglasur</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Azurite</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Azure</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2"><i>Chrysocolla</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Berggr�n und</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Part chrysocolla</td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Chrysocolla (see <a href="#TN109">note 7, p. 560</a>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="left"><i>schifergr�n</i></td><td class="bl" align="left">Part Malachite</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Molochites</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Molochit</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Malachite</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Malachite</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Lapis aerarius</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Kupfer ertz</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">&nbsp;</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Copper ore</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Aes caldarium rubrum fuscum</i> or <i>Aes sui coloris</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Lebeter kupfer</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;">When used for an ore, is probably cuprite</td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;border-right:1px black solid;">*Ruby copper ore</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Aes sui coloris</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Rotkupfer</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>Aes nigrum</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>Schwartz kupfer</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;">Probably CuO from oxidation of other minerals</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;border-bottom:1px black solid;">*Black copper</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p>
+In addition to the above the Author uses the following, which were in
+the main artificial products:
+</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Aerugo</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Gr�nspan oder Spanschgr�n</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Verdigris</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Verdigris</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Aes luteum</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Gelfarkupfer</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;">Impure blister copper</td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Unrefined copper (see <a href="#Footnote_16_350">note 16, p. 511</a>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Aes caldarium</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Lebeterkupfer</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Aeris flos</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Kupferbraun</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;">Cupric oxide scales</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Copper flower</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Aeris squama</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Kupferhammerschlag</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Copper scale (see <a href="#Footnote_9_181">note 9, p. 233</a>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>Atramentum sutorium caeruleum</i> or <i>chalcanthum</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>Blaw kupfer wasser</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;">Chalcanthite</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;border-bottom:1px black solid;">Native blue vitriol (see note on p. <a href="#Notes_572">572</a>)</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_110" id="Notes_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+Blue and green copper minerals were distinguished by all the ancient
+mineralogists. Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Pliny, etc., all give
+sufficient detail to identify their <i>cyanus</i> and <i>caeruleum</i> partly with
+modern azurite, and their <i>chrysocolla</i> partly with the modern mineral
+of the same name. However, these terms were also used for vegetable
+pigments, as well as for the pigments made from the minerals. The Greek
+origin of <i>chrysocolla</i> (<i>chrysos</i>, gold and <i>kolla</i>, solder) may be
+blamed with another and distinct line of confusion, in that this term
+has been applied to soldering materials, from Greek down to modern
+times, some of the ancient mineralogists even asserting that the copper
+mineral <i>chrysocolla</i> was used for this purpose. Agricola uses
+<i>chrysocolla</i> for borax, but is careful to state in every case (see <a href="#TN110">note
+xx., p. x</a>): "<i>Chrysocolla</i> made from <i>nitrum</i>," or "<i>Chrysocolla</i> which
+the Moors call Borax." Dioscorides and Pliny mention substances which
+were evidently copper sulphides, but no description occurs prior to
+Agricola that permits a hazard as to different species.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Lead Minerals.</span>
+</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Plumbarius lapis</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Glantz</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Galena</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Galena</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Galena</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Glantz und pleiertz</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Galena</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Galena</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Plumbum nigrum lutei coloris</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;"><i>Pleiertz oder pleischweis</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;">Cerussite (PbCO<sub>3</sub>)</td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;border-right:1px black solid;">Yellow lead ore</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Plumbago metallica</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Cerussa</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Pleiweis</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Artificial White-lead</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">White-lead (see <a href="#Footnote_4_297">note 4, p. 440</a>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Ochra facticia</i> or <i>ochra plumbaria</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Pleigeel</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Massicot (Pb O)</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">*Lead-ochre (see <a href="#Footnote_8_180">note 8, p. 232</a>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Molybdaena</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;"><i>Herdplei</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;">Part litharge</td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;border-right:1px black solid;">Hearth-lead (see <a href="#Footnote_37_330">note 37, p. 476</a>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Plumbago fornacis</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Spuma argenti</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;"><i>Glett</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;">Litharge</td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;border-right:1px black solid;">Litharge (see note on p. <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Lithargyrum</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>Minium secundarium</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>Menning</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;">Minium (Pb<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>)</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;border-bottom:1px black solid;">Red-lead (see <a href="#Footnote_7_179">note 7, p. 232</a>)</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+So far as we can determine, all of these except the first three were
+believed by Agricola to be artificial products. Of the first three,
+galena is certain enough, but while he obviously was familiar with the
+alteration lead products, his descriptions are inadequate and much
+confused with the artificial oxides. Great confusion arises in the
+ancient mineralogies over the terms <i>molybdaena</i>, <i>plumbago</i>, <i>plumbum</i>,
+<i>galena</i>, and <i>spuma argenti</i>, all of which, from Roman mineralogists
+down to a century after Agricola, were used for lead in some form.
+Further discussion of such confusion will be found in <a href="#Footnote_37_330">note 37, p. 476</a>.
+Agricola in <i>Bermannus</i> and <i>De Natura Fossilium</i>, devotes pages to
+endeavouring to reconcile the ancient usages of these terms, and all the
+confusion existing in Agricola's time was thrice confounded when the
+names <i>molybdaena</i> and <i>plumbago</i> were assigned to non-lead minerals.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Tin.</span> Agricola knew only one tin mineral: <i>Lapilli nigri ex quibus
+conflatur plumbum candidum</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, "Little black stones from which tin
+is smelted," and he gives the German equivalent as <i>zwitter</i>,
+"tin-stone." He describes them as being of different colours, but
+probably due to external causes.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Antimony.</span> (<i>Interpretatio</i>,&mdash;<i>spiesglas</i>.) The <i>stibi</i> or <i>stibium</i> of
+Agricola was no doubt the sulphide, and he follows Dioscorides in
+dividing it into male and female species. This distinction, however, is
+impossible to apply from the inadequate descriptions given. The mineral
+and metal known to Agricola and his predecessors was almost always the
+sulphide, and we have not felt justified in using the term antimony
+alone, as that implies the refined product, therefore, we have adopted
+either the Latin term or the old English term "grey antimony." The
+smelted antimony of commerce sold under the latter term was the
+sulphide. For further notes see p. <a href="#Notes_428">428</a>.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Bismuth*.</span> <i>Plumbum cinereum</i> (<i>Interpretatio</i>,&mdash;<i>bismut</i>). Agricola
+states that this mineral occasionally occurs native, "but more often as
+a mineral of another colour" (<i>De Nat. Fos.</i>, p. 337), and he also
+describes its commonest form as black or grey. This, considering his
+localities, would indicate the sulphide, although he assigns no special
+name to it. Although bismuth is mentioned before Agricola in the
+<i>N�tzliche Bergb�chlin</i>, he was the first to describe it (see p. <a href="#Page_433">433</a>).
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Quicksilver.</span> Apart from native quicksilver, Agricola adequately
+describes cinnabar only. The term used by him for the mineral is <i>minium
+nativum</i> (<i>Interpretatio</i>,&mdash;<i>bergzinober</i> or <i>cinnabaris</i>). He makes the
+curious statement <i>(De Nat. Fos.</i> p. 335) that <i>rudis</i> quicksilver also
+occurs liver-coloured and blackish,&mdash;probably gangue colours. (See p.
+<a href="#Notes_432">432</a>).
+</p><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_111" id="Notes_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Arsenical Minerals.</span> Metallic arsenic was unknown, although it has been
+maintained that a substance mentioned by Albertus Magnus (<i>De Rebus
+Metallicis</i>) was the metallic form. Agricola, who was familiar with all
+Albertus's writings, makes no mention of it, and it appears to us that
+the statement of Albertus referred only to the oxide from sublimation.
+Our word "arsenic" obviously takes root in the Greek for orpiment, which
+was also used by Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 56) as <i>arrhenicum</i>, and later was
+modified to <i>arsenicum</i> by the Alchemists, who applied it to the oxide.
+Agricola gives the following in <i>Bermannus</i> (p. 448), who has been
+previously discussing realgar and orpiment:&mdash;"<i>Ancon</i>: Avicenna also has
+a white variety. <i>Bermannus</i>: I cannot at all believe in a mineral of a
+white colour; perhaps he was thinking of an artificial product; there
+are two which the Alchemists make, one yellow and the other white, and
+they are accounted the most powerful poisons to-day, and are called only
+by the name <i>arsenicum</i>." In <i>De Natura Fossilium</i> (p. 219) is described
+the making of "the white variety" by sublimating orpiment, and also it
+is noted that realgar can be made from orpiment by heating the latter
+for five hours in a sealed crucible. In <i>De Re Metallica</i> (<a href="#BOOK_X">Book X.</a>), he
+refers to <i>auripigmentum facticum</i>, and no doubt means the realgar made
+from orpiment. The four minerals of arsenic base mentioned by Agricola
+were:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Auripigmentum</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Operment</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Orpiment (As<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>)</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Orpiment</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Sandaraca</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Rosgeel</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Realgar (As S)</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Realgar</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Arsenicum</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Arsenik</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Artificial arsenical oxide</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">White arsenic</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>Lapis subrutilus atque ... splendens</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>Mistpuckel</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;">Arsenopyrite (Fe As S)</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;border-bottom:1px black solid;">*Mispickel</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p>
+We are somewhat uncertain as to the identification of the last. The
+yellow and red sulphides, however, were well known to the Ancients, and
+are described by Aristotle, Theophrastus (71 and 89), Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>,
+81), Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 22, etc.); and Strabo (<span class="smcaplower">XII</span>, 3, 40) mentions a mine
+of them near Pompeiopolis, where, because of its poisonous character
+none but slaves were employed. The Ancients believed that the yellow
+sulphide contained gold&mdash;hence the name <i>auripigmentum</i>, and Pliny
+describes the attempt of the Emperor Caligula to extract the gold from
+it, and states that he did obtain a small amount, but unprofitably. So
+late a mineralogist as Hill (1750) held this view, which seemed to be
+general. Both realgar and orpiment were important for pigments,
+medicinal purposes, and poisons among the Ancients. In addition to the
+above, some arsenic-cobalt minerals are included under <i>cadmia</i>.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Iron Minerals.</span>
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Ferrum purum</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Gedigen eisen</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Native iron</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">*Native iron</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Terra ferria</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Eisen ertz</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="5" style="vertical-align:middle;">Various soft and hard iron ores, probably mostly hematite</td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="5" style="vertical-align:middle;border-right:1px black solid;">Ironstone</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Ferri vena</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Eisen ertz</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Galenae genus tertium omnis metalli inanissimi</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Eisen glantz</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Schistos</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Glask�pfe oder bl�tstein</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Ferri vena jecoris colore</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Leber ertz</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Ferrugo</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>R�st</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Part limonite</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Iron rust</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Magnes</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Siegelstein oder magnet</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Magnetite</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Lodestone</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Ochra nativa</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Berg geel</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Limonite</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Yellow ochre or ironstone</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;"><i>Haematites</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;"><i>Bl�t stein</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Part hematite</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Bloodstone or</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="left">Part jasper</td><td class="bl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">ironstone</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Schistos</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Glas k�pfe</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Part limonite</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Ironstone</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Pyrites</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Kis</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Pyrites</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Pyrites</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Pyrites argenti coloris</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>wasser oder weisser kis</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Marcasite</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">*White iron pyrites</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Misy</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Gel atrament</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Part copiapite</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;"><i>Misy</i> (see note on p. <a href="#Notes_573">573</a>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Sory</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Graw und schwartz atrament</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Partly a decomposed iron pyrite</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;"><i>Sory</i> (see note on p. <a href="#Notes_573">573</a>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>Melanteria</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>Schwartz und grau atrament</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;">Melanterite (native vitriol)</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>Melanteria</i> (see note on p. <a href="#Notes_573">573</a>)</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+The classification of iron ores on the basis of exterior
+characteristics, chiefly hardness and <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_112" id="Notes_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>brilliancy, does not justify a
+more narrow rendering than "ironstone." Agricola (<i>De Nat. Fos.</i>, Book
+V.) gives elaborate descriptions of various iron ores, but the
+descriptions under any special name would cover many actual minerals.
+The subject of pyrites is a most confused one; the term originates from
+the Greek word for fire, and referred in Greek and Roman times to almost
+any stone that would strike sparks. By Agricola it was a generic term in
+somewhat the same sense that it is still used in mineralogy, as, for
+instance, iron pyrite, copper pyrite, etc. So much was this the case
+later on, that Henckel, the leading mineralogist of the 18th Century,
+entitled his large volume <i>Pyritologia</i>, and in it embraces practically
+all the sulphide minerals then known. The term <i>marcasite</i>, of medi�val
+Arabic origin, seems to have had some vogue prior and subsequent to
+Agricola. He, however, puts it on one side as merely a synonym for
+pyrite, nor can it be satisfactorily defined in much better terms.
+Agricola apparently did not recognise the iron base of pyrites, for he
+says (<i>De Nat. Fos.</i>, p. 366): "Sometimes, however, pyrites do not
+contain any gold, silver, copper, or lead, and yet it is not a pure
+stone, but a compound, and consists of stone and a substance which is
+somewhat metallic, which is a species of its own." Many varieties were
+known to him and described, partly by their other metal association, but
+chiefly by their colour.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Cadmia.</span> The minerals embraced under this term by the old mineralogists
+form one of the most difficult chapters in the history of mineralogy.
+These complexities reached their height with Agricola, for at this time
+various new minerals classed under this heading had come under debate.
+All these minerals were later found to be forms of zinc, cobalt, or
+arsenic, and some of these minerals were in use long prior to Agricola.
+From Greek and Roman times down to long after Agricola, brass was made
+by cementing zinc ore with copper. Aristotle and Strabo mention an earth
+used to colour copper, but give no details. It is difficult to say what
+zinc mineral the <i>cadmium</i> of Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>, 46) and Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 2),
+really was. It was possibly only furnace calamine, or perhaps blende for
+it was associated with copper. They amply describe <i>cadmia</i> produced in
+copper furnaces, and <i>pompholyx</i> (zinc oxide). It was apparently not
+until Theophilus (1150) that the term <i>calamina</i> appears for that
+mineral. Precisely when the term "zinc," and a knowledge of the metal,
+first appeared in Europe is a matter of some doubt; it has been
+attributed to Paracelsus, a contemporary of Agricola (see note on p.
+<a href="#Notes_409">409</a>), but we do not believe that author's work in question was printed
+until long after. The quotations from Agricola given below, in which
+<i>zincum</i> is mentioned in an obscure way, do not appear in the first
+editions of these works, but only in the revised edition of 1559. In
+other words, Agricola himself only learned of a substance under this
+name a short period before his death in 1555. The metal was imported
+into Europe from China prior to this time. He however does describe
+actual metallic zinc under the term <i>conterfei</i>, and mentions its
+occurrence in the cracks of furnace walls. (See also notes on p. <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>).
+</p><p>
+The word cobalt (German <i>kobelt</i>) is from the Greek word <i>cobalos</i>,
+"mime," and its German form was the term for gnomes and goblins. It
+appears that the German miners, finding a material (Agricola's
+"corrosive material") which injured their hands and feet, connected it
+with the goblins, or used the term as an epithet, and finally it became
+established for certain minerals (see <a href="#Footnote_21_166">note 21, p. 214</a>, on this subject).
+The first written appearance of the term in connection with minerals,
+appears in Agricola's <i>Bermannus</i> (1530). The first practical use of
+cobalt was in the form of <i>zaffre</i> or cobalt blue. There seems to be no
+mention of the substance by the Greek or Roman writers, although
+analyses of old colourings show some traces of cobalt, but whether
+accidental or not is undetermined. The first mention we know of, was by
+Biringuccio in 1540 (<i>De La Pirotechnia</i>, Book <span class="smcaplower">II</span>, Chap. <span class="smcaplower">IX.</span>), who did
+not connect it with the minerals then called <i>cobalt</i> or <i>cadmia</i>.
+"<i>Zaffera</i> is another mineral substance, like a metal of middle weight,
+which will not melt alone, but accompanied by vitreous substances it
+melts into an azure colour so that those who colour glass, or paint
+vases or glazed earthenware, make use of it. Not only does it serve for
+the above-mentioned operations, but if one uses too great a quantity of
+it, it will be black and all other colours, according to the quantity
+used." Agricola, although he does not use the word <i>zaffre</i>, does refer
+to a substance of this kind, and in any event also missed the relation
+between <i>zaffre</i> and cobalt, as he seems to think (<i>De Nat. Fos.</i>, p.
+347) that <i>zaffre</i> came from bismuth, a belief that existed until long
+after his time. The cobalt of the Erzgebirge was of course, intimately
+associated with this mineral. He says, "the slag of bismuth, mixed
+together with metalliferous substances, which when melted make a kind of
+glass, will tint glass and earthenware vessels blue." <i>Zaffre</i> is the
+roasted mineral ground with sand, while <i>smalt</i>, a term used more
+frequently, is the fused mixture with sand.
+</p><p>
+The following are the substances mentioned by Agricola, which, we
+believe, relate to cobalt and zinc minerals, some of them arsenical
+compounds. Other arsenical minerals we give above.
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_113" id="Notes_113">[Pg 113]</a></span><i>Cadmia fossilis</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Calmei</i>; <i>lapis calaminaris</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Calamine</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Calamine</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Cadmia metallica</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Kobelt</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Part cobalt</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">*<i>Cadmia metallica</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Cadmia fornacis</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Mitlere und obere offenbr�che</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Furnace accretions or furnace calamine</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Furnace accretions</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Bituminosa cadmia</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Kobelt des bergwacht</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">(Mannsfeld copper schists)</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;"><i>Bituminosa cadmia</i> (see <a href="#Footnote_4_219">note 4, p. 273</a>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Galena inanis</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Blende</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Sphalerite* (Zn S)</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">*Blende</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Cobaltum cineraceum</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">&nbsp;</td><td class="btl" align="left">Smallite* (CoAs<sub>2</sub>)</td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="3" style="vertical-align:middle;border-right:1px black solid;"><i>Cadmia metallica</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Cobaltum nigrum</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">&nbsp;</td><td class="btl" align="left">Abolite*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Cobaltum ferri colore</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">&nbsp;</td><td class="btl" align="left">Cobaltite (CoAsS)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Zincum</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Zinck</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Zinc</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Zinc</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Liquor Candidus ex fornace ... etc.</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Conterfei</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Zinc</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">See <a href="#Footnote_48_281">note 48, p. 408</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Atramentum sutorium, candidum, potissimum reperitur Goselariae</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">&nbsp;</td><td class="btl" align="left">Goslarite (Zn SO<sub>4</sub>)</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">*Native white vitriol</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Spodos subterranea cinerea</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Geeler zechen rauch</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="4" style="vertical-align:middle;border-bottom:1px black solid;">Either natural or artificial zinc oxides, no doubt containing arsenical oxides</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Grey <i>spodos</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Spodos subterranea nigra</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Schwartzer zechen rauch, auff dem, Altenberge nennet man in kis</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Black <i>spodos</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Spodos subterranea viridis</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Grauer zechen rauch</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Green <i>spodos</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>Pompholyx</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>H�ttenrauch</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;border-right:1px black solid;"><i>Pompholyx</i> (see <a href="#Footnote_26_259">note 26, p. 394</a>)</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+As seen from the following quotations from Agricola, on <i>cadmia</i> and
+cobalt, there was infinite confusion as to the zinc, cobalt, and arsenic
+minerals; nor do we think any good purpose is served by adding to the
+already lengthy discussion of these passages, the obscurity of which is
+natural to the state of knowledge; but we reproduce them as giving a
+fairly clear idea of the amount of confusion then existing. It is,
+however, desirable to bear in mind that the mines familiar to Agricola
+abounded in complex mixtures of cobalt, nickel, arsenic, bismuth, zinc,
+and antimony. Agricola frequently mentions the garlic odour from <i>cadmia
+metallica</i>, which, together with the corrosive qualities mentioned
+below, would obviously be due to arsenic. <i>Bermannus</i> (p. 459). "This
+kind of pyrites miners call <i>cobaltum</i>, if it be allowed to me to use
+our German name. The Greeks call it <i>cadmia</i>. The juices, however, out
+of which pyrites and silver are formed, appear to solidify into one
+body, and thus is produced what they call <i>cobaltum</i>. There are some who
+consider this the same as pyrites, because it is almost the same. There
+are some who distinguish it as a species, which pleases me, for it has
+the distinctive property of being extremely corrosive, so that it
+consumes the hands and feet of the workmen, unless they are well
+protected, which I do not believe that pyrites can do. Three kinds are
+found, and distinguished more by the colour than by other properties;
+they are black (abolite?), grey (smallite?), and iron colour (cobalt
+glance?). Moreover, it contains more silver than does pyrites...."
+<i>Bermannus</i> (p. 431). "It (a sort of pyrites) is so like the colour of
+galena that not without cause might anybody have doubt in deciding
+whether it be pyrites or galena.... Perhaps this kind is neither pyrites
+nor galena, but has a genus of its own. For it has not the colour of
+pyrites, nor the hardness. It is almost the colour of galena, but of
+entirely different components. From it there is made gold and silver,
+and a great quantity is dug out from Reichenstein which is in Silesia,
+as was lately reported to me. Much more is found at Raurici, which they
+call <i>zincum</i>; which species differs from pyrites, for the latter
+contains more silver than gold, the former only gold, or hardly any
+silver."
+</p><p>
+(<i>De Natura Fossilium</i>, p. 170). "<i>Cadmia fossilis</i> has an odour like
+garlic" ... (p. 367). "We now proceed with <i>cadmia</i>, not the <i>cadmia
+fornacis</i> (furnace accretions) of which I spoke in the last book, nor
+the <i>cadmia fossilis</i> (calamine) devoid of metal, which is used to
+colour copper, whose nature I explained in Book V, but the metallic
+mineral (<i>fossilis metallica</i>), which Pliny states to be an ore from
+which copper is made. The Ancients have left no record that another
+metal could be smelted from it. Yet it is a fact <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_114" id="Notes_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>that not only copper
+but also silver may be smelted from it, and indeed occasionally both
+copper and silver together. Sometimes, as is the case with pyrites, it
+is entirely devoid of metal. It is frequently found in copper mines, but
+more frequently still in silver mines. And there are likewise veins of
+<i>cadmia</i> itself.... There are several species of the <i>cadmia fossilis</i>
+just as there were of <i>cadmia fornacum</i>. For one kind has the form of
+grapes and another of broken tiles, a third seems to consist of layers.
+But the <i>cadmia fossilis</i> has much stronger properties than that which
+is produced in the furnaces. Indeed, it often possesses such highly
+corrosive power that it corrodes the hands and feet of the miners. It,
+therefore, differs from pyrites in colour and properties. For pyrites,
+if it does not contain vitriol, is generally either of a gold or silver
+colour, rarely of any other. <i>Cadmia</i> is either black or brown or grey,
+or else reddish like copper when melted in the furnace.... For this
+<i>cadmia</i> is put in a suitable vessel, in the same way as quicksilver, so
+that the heat of the fire will cause it to sublimate, and from it is
+made a black or brown or grey body which the Alchemists call 'sublimated
+<i>cadmia</i>' (<i>cadmiam sublimatam</i>). This possesses corrosive properties of
+the highest degree. Cognate with <i>cadmia</i> and pyrites is a compound
+which the Noricians and Rhetians call <i>zincum</i>. This contains gold and
+silver, and is either red or white. It is likewise found in the Sudetian
+mountains, and is devoid of those metals.... With this <i>cadmia</i> is
+naturally related mineral <i>spodos</i>, known to the Moor Serapion, but
+unknown to the Greeks; and also <i>pompholyx</i>&mdash;for both are produced by
+fire where the miners, breaking the hard rocks in drifts, tunnels, and
+shafts, burn the <i>cadmia</i> or pyrites or galena or other similar
+minerals. From <i>cadmia</i> is made black, brown, and grey <i>spodos</i>; from
+pyrites, white <i>pompholyx</i> and <i>spodos</i>; from galena is made yellow or
+grey <i>spodos</i>. But <i>pompholyx</i> produced from copper stone (<i>lapide
+aeroso</i>) after some time becomes green. The black <i>spodos</i>, similar to
+soot, is found at Altenberg in Meissen. The white <i>pompholyx</i>, like wool
+which floats in the air in summer, is found in Hildesheim in the seams
+in the rocks of almost all quarries except in the sandstone. But the
+grey and the brown and the yellow <i>pompholyx</i> are found in those silver
+mines where the miners break up the rocks by fire. All consist of very
+fine particles which are very light, but the lightest of all is white
+<i>pompholyx</i>."
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Quartz Minerals.</span>
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Quarzum</i> ("which Latins call <i>silex</i>")</td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Quertz oder kiselstein</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Quartz</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Quartz (see <a href="#Footnote_15_249">note 15, p. 380</a>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Silex</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Hornstein oder feurstein</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Flinty or jaspery quartz</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Hornstone</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Crystallum</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Crystal</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Clear crystals</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Crystal</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Achates</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Achat</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Agate</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Agate</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Sarda</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Carneol</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Carnelian</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Carnelian</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Jaspis</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Jaspis</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Part coloured quartz, part jade</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;"><i>Jaspis</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Murrhina</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Chalcedonius</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Chalcedony</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Chalcedony</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Coticula</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Goldstein</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">A black silicious stone</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Touchstone (see <a href="#Footnote_37_209">note 37, p. 252</a>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>Amethystus</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>Amethyst</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;">Amethyst</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;border-bottom:1px black solid;">Amethyst</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="smcap">Lime Minerals.</span>
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Lapis specularis</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;"><i>Gips</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;">Gypsum</td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;border-right:1px black solid;">Gypsum</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Gypsum</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Marmor</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Marmelstein</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Marble</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Marble</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Marmor alabastrites</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Alabaster</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Alabaster</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Alabaster</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Marmor glarea</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">&nbsp;</td><td class="btl" align="left">Calcite (?)</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Calc spar(?)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Saxum calcis</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Kalchstein</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Limestone</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Limestone</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Marga</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Mergel</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Marl</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Marl</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>Tophus</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>Toffstein oder topstein stalagmites, etc.</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;">Sintry limestones,</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>Tophus</i> (see <a href="#Footnote_13_185">note 13, p. 233</a>)</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+<span class="smcap">Miscellaneous.</span>
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Amiantus</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Federwis, pliant salamanderhar</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Usually asbestos</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Asbestos</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Magnetis</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Silberweis oder katzensilber</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="3" style="vertical-align:middle;">Mica</td><td class="btl" align="left" rowspan="3" style="vertical-align:middle;border-right:1px black solid;">*Mica</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Bracteolae magnetidi simile</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Mica</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Katzensilber oder glimmer</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_115" id="Notes_115">[Pg 115]</a></span><i>Silex ex eo ictu ferri facile ignis elicitur.... excubus figuris</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">&nbsp;</td><td class="btl" align="left">Feldspar</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">*Feldspar</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Medulla saxorum</i></td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Steinmarck</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Kaolinite</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">Porcelain clay</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Fluores</i> (<i>lapides gemmarum simili</i>)</td><td class="btl" align="left"><i>Flusse</i></td><td class="btl" align="left">Fluorspar</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">*Fluorspar (see <a href="#Footnote_15_249">note 15, p. 380</a>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>Marmor in metallis repertum</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;"><i>Spat</i></td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;">Barite</td><td class="btl" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;border-bottom:1px black solid;">*Heavy spar</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+Apart from the above, many other minerals are mentioned in other
+chapters, and some information is given with regard to them in the
+footnotes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_135" id="Footnote_9_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_135"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Three <i>librae</i> of silver per <i>centumpondium</i> would be equal
+to 875 ounces per short ton.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_136" id="Footnote_10_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_136"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> As stated in note on p. <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>, Agricola divided "stones so
+called" into four kinds; the first, common stones in which he included
+lodestone and jasper or bloodstone; the second embraced gems; the third
+were decorative stones, such as marble, porphyry, etc.; the fourth were
+rocks, such as sandstone and limestone.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Lodestone.</span> (<i>Magnes</i>; <i>Interpretatio</i> gives <i>Siegelstein oder magnet</i>).
+The lodestone was well-known to the Ancients under various
+names&mdash;<i>magnes</i>, <i>magnetis</i>, <i>heraclion</i>, and <i>sideritis</i>. A review of
+the ancient opinions as to its miraculous properties would require more
+space than can be afforded. It is mentioned by many Greek writers,
+including Hippocrates (460-372 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) and Aristotle; while Theophrastus
+(53), Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>, 105), and Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 42, <span class="smcaplower">XXXVI</span>, 25) describe it
+at length. The Ancients also maintained the existence of a stone,
+<i>theamedes</i>, having repellant properties, and the two were supposed to
+exist at times in the same stone.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Emery.</span> (<i>Smiris</i>; <i>Interpretatio</i> gives <i>smirgel</i>). Agricola (<i>De Natura
+Fossilium</i>, p. 265) says: "The ring-makers polish and clean their hard
+gems with <i>smiris</i>. The glaziers use it to cut their glass into sheets.
+It is found in the silver mines of Annaberg in Meissen and elsewhere."
+Stones used for polishing gems are noted by the ancient authors, and
+Dana (Syst. of Mineralogy, p. 211) considers the stone of Armenia, of
+Theophrastus (77), to be emery, although it could quite well be any hard
+stone, such as Novaculite&mdash;which is found in Armenia. Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>,
+166) describes a stone with which the engravers polish gems.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Lapis Judaicus.</span> (<i>Interpretatio</i> gives <i>J�den stein</i>). This was
+undoubtedly a fossil, possibly a <i>pentremites</i>. Agricola (<i>De Natura
+Fossilium</i>, p. 256) says: "It is shaped like an acorn, from the obtuse
+end to the point proceed raised lines, all equidistant, etc." Many
+fossils were included among the semi-precious stones by the Ancients.
+Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXVII</span>, 55, 66, 73) describes many such stones, among them the
+<i>balanites</i>, <i>phoenicitis</i> and the <i>pyren</i>, which resemble the above.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Trochitis.</span> (<i>Interpretatio</i> gives <i>spangen oder rederstein</i>). This was
+also a fossil, probably crinoid stems. Agricola (<i>De Natura Fossilium</i>,
+p. 256) describes it: "<i>Trochites</i> is so called from a wheel, and is
+related to <i>lapis judaicus</i>. Nature has indeed given it the shape of a
+drum (<i>tympanum</i>). The round part is smooth, but on both ends as it were
+there is a module from which on all sides there extend radii to the
+outer edge, which corresponds with the radii. These radii are so much
+raised that it is fluted. The size of these <i>trochites</i> varies greatly,
+for the smallest is so little that the largest is ten times as big, and
+the largest are a digit in length by a third of a digit in thickness ...
+when immersed in vinegar they make bubbles."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_137" id="Footnote_11_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_137"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> The "extraordinary earths" of Agricola were such
+substances as ochres, tripoli, fullers earth, potters' clay, clay used
+for medicinal purposes, etc., etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_117" id="Notes_117">[Pg 117]</a></span><a name="Footnote_12_138" id="Footnote_12_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_138"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Presumably the ore-body dips into a neighbouring
+property.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_118" id="Notes_118">[Pg 118]</a></span><a name="Footnote_13_139" id="Footnote_13_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_139"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> The various kinds of iron tools are described in great
+detail in <a href="#BOOK_VI">Book VI</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_140" id="Footnote_14_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_140"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Fire-setting as an aid to breaking rock is of very ancient
+origin, and moreover it persisted in certain German and Norwegian mines
+down to the end of the 19th century&mdash;270 years after the first
+application of explosives to mining. The first specific reference to
+fire-setting in mining is by Agatharchides (2nd century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) whose
+works are not extant, but who is quoted by both Diodorus Siculus and
+Photius, for which statement see <a href="#Footnote_8_223">note 8, p. 279</a>. Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 21)
+says: "Occasionally a kind of silex is met with, which must be broken
+with fire and vinegar, or as the tunnels are filled with suffocating
+fumes and smoke, <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_119" id="Notes_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>they frequently use bruising machines, carrying 150
+<i>librae</i> of iron." This combination of fire and vinegar he again refers
+to (<span class="smcaplower">XXIII</span>, 27), where he dilates in the same sentence on the usefulness
+of vinegar for breaking rock and for salad dressing. This myth about
+breaking rocks with fire and vinegar is of more than usual interest, and
+its origin seems to be in the legend that Hannibal thus broke through
+the Alps. Livy (59 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, 17 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>) seems to be the first to produce this
+myth in writing; and, in any event, by Pliny's time (23-79 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>) it had
+become an established method&mdash;in literature. Livy (<span class="smcaplower">XXI</span>, 37) says, in
+connection with Hannibal's crossing of the Alps: "They set fire to it
+(the timber) when a wind had arisen suitable to excite the fire, then
+when the rock was hot it was crumbled by pouring on vinegar (<i>infuso
+aceto</i>). In this manner the cliff heated by the fire was broken by iron
+tools, and the declivities eased by turnings, so that not only the
+beasts of burden but also the elephants could be led down." Hannibal
+crossed the Alps in 218 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> and Livy's account was written 200 years
+later, by which time Hannibal's memory among the Romans was generally
+surrounded by Herculean fables. Be this as it may, by Pliny's time the
+vinegar was generally accepted, and has been ceaselessly debated ever
+since. Nor has the myth ceased to grow, despite the remarks of Gibbon,
+Lavalette, and others. A recent historian (Hennebert, <i>Histoire d'
+Annibal</i> <span class="smcaplower">II</span>, p. 253) of that famous engineer and soldier, soberly sets
+out to prove that inasmuch as literal acceptance of ordinary vinegar is
+impossible, the Phoenicians must have possessed some mysterious high
+explosive. A still more recent biographer swallows this argument <i>in
+toto</i>. (Morris, "Hannibal," London, 1903, p. 103). A study of the
+commentators of this passage, although it would fill a volume with
+sterile words, would disclose one generalization: That the real scholars
+have passed over the passage with the comment that it is either a
+corruption or an old woman's tale, but that hosts of soldiers who set
+about the biography of famous generals and campaigns, almost to a man
+take the passage seriously, and seriously explain it by way of the rock
+being limestone, or snow, or by the use of explosives, or other
+foolishness. It has been proposed, although there are grammatical
+objections, that the text is slightly corrupt and read <i>infosso acuto</i>,
+instead of <i>infuso aceto</i>, in which case all becomes easy from a mining
+point of view. If so, however, it must be assumed that the corruption
+occurred during the 20 years between Livy and Pliny.
+</p><p>
+By the use of fire-setting in recent times at K�nigsberg (Arthur L.
+Collins, "Fire-setting," Federated Inst. of Mining Engineers, Vol. V, p.
+82) an advance of from 5 to 20 feet per month in headings was
+accomplished, and on the score of economy survived the use of gunpowder,
+but has now been abandoned in favour of dynamite. We may mention that
+the use of gunpowder for blasting was first introduced at Schemnitz by
+Caspar Weindle, in 1627, but apparently was not introduced into English
+mines for nearly 75 years afterward, as the late 17th century English
+writers continue to describe fire-setting.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_127" id="Notes_127">[Pg 127]</a></span><a name="Footnote_15_141" id="Footnote_15_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_141"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> The strata here enumerated are given in the Glossary of
+<i>De Re Metallica</i> as follows:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Corium terrae</i></td><td align="left"><i>Die erd oder leim.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Saxum rubrum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Rot gebirge.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Alterum item rubrum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Roterkle.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Argilla cinerea</i></td><td align="left"><i>Thone.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Tertium saxum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Gerhulle.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Cineris vena</i></td><td align="left"><i>Asche.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Quartum saxum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Gniest.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Quintum saxum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Schwehlen.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Sextum saxum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Oberrauchstein.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Septimum saxum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Zechstein.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Octavum saxum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Underrauchstein.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Nonum saxum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Blitterstein.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Decimum saxum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Oberschuelen.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Undecimum saxum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Mittelstein.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Duodecimum saxum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Underschuelen.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Decimumtertium saxum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Dach.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Decimumquartum saxum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Norweg.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Decimumquintum saxum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Lotwerg.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Decimumsextum saxum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Kamme.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Lapis aerosus fissilis</i></td><td align="left"><i>Schifer.</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+The description is no doubt that of the Mannsfeld cupriferous slates. It
+is of some additional interest as the first attempt at stratigraphic
+distinctions, although this must not be taken too literally, for we have
+rendered the different numbered "<i>saxum</i>" in this connection as
+"stratum." The German terms given by Agricola above, can many of them be
+identified in the miners' terms to-day for the various strata at
+Mannsfeld. Over the <i>kupferschiefer</i> the names to-day are <i>kammschale</i>,
+<i>dach</i>, <i>faule</i>, <i>zechstein</i>, <i>rauchwacke</i>, <i>rauchstein</i>, <i>asche</i>. The
+relative thickness of these beds is much the same as given by Agricola.
+The stringers in the 8th stratum of stone, which fuse in the fire of the
+second order, were possibly calcite. The <i>rauchstein</i> of the modern
+section is distinguished by stringers of calcite, which give it at times
+a brecciated appearance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_129" id="Notes_129">[Pg 129]</a></span><a name="Footnote_16_142" id="Footnote_16_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_142"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> The history of surveying and surveying instruments, and in
+a subsidiary way their application to mine work, is a subject upon which
+there exists a most extensive literature. However, that portion of such
+history which relates to the period prior to Agricola represents a much
+less proportion of the whole than do the citations to this chapter in
+<i>De Re Metallica</i>, which is the first comprehensive discussion of the
+mining application. The history of such instruments is too extensive to
+be entered upon in a footnote, but there are some fundamental
+considerations which, if they had been present in the minds of
+historical students of this subject, would have considerably abridged
+the literature on it. First, there can be no doubt that measuring cords
+or rods and boundary stones existed almost from the first division of
+land. There is, therefore, no need to try to discover their origins.
+Second, the history of surveying and surveying instruments really begins
+with the invention of instruments for taking levels, or for the
+determination of angles with a view to geometrical calculation. The
+meagre facts bearing upon this subject do not warrant the endless
+expansion they have received by argument as to what was probable, in
+order to accomplish assumed methods of construction among the Ancients.
+For instance, the argument that in carrying the Grand Canal over
+watersheds with necessary reservoir supply, the Chinese must have had
+accurate levelling and surveying instruments before the Christian Era,
+and must have conceived in advance a completed work, does not hold water
+when any investigation will demonstrate that the canal grew by slow
+accretion from the lateral river systems, until it joined almost by
+accident. Much the same may be said about the preconception of
+engineering results in several other ancient works. There can be no
+certainty as to who first invented instruments of the order mentioned
+above; for instance, the invention of the dioptra has been ascribed to
+Hero, <i>vide</i> his work on the <i>Dioptra</i>. He has been assumed to have
+lived in the 1st or 2nd Century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> Recent investigations, however,
+have shown that he lived about 100 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span> (Sir Thomas Heath, Encyc. Brit.
+11th Ed., <span class="smcaplower">XIII</span>, 378). As this instrument is mentioned by Vitruvius (50 -
+0 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) the myth that Hero was the inventor must also disappear.
+Incidentally Vitruvius (<span class="smcaplower">VIII</span>, 5) describes a levelling instrument called
+a <i>chorobates</i>, which was a frame levelled either by a groove of water
+or by plumb strings. Be the inventor of the <i>dioptra</i> who he may, Hero's
+work on that subject contains the first suggestion of mine surveys in
+the problems (<span class="smcaplower">XIII, XIV, XV, XVI</span>), where geometrical methods are
+elucidated for determining the depths required for the connection of
+shafts and tunnels. On the compass we give further notes on p. <a href="#Notes_56">56</a>. It
+was probably an evolution of the 13th Century. As to the application of
+angle- and level-determining instruments to underground surveys, so far
+as we know there is no reference prior to Agricola, except that of Hero.
+Mr. Bennett Brough (Cantor Lecture, London, 1892) points out that the
+<i>N�tzliche Bergb�chlin</i> (see <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix</a>) describes a mine compass, but
+there is not the slightest reference to its use for anything but surface
+direction of veins.
+</p><p>
+Although map-making of a primitive sort requires no instruments, except
+legs, the oldest map in the world possesses unusual interest because it
+happens to be a map of a mining region. This well-known Turin papyrus
+dates from Seti I. (about 1300 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>), and it represents certain gold
+mines between the Nile and the Red Sea. The best discussion is by Chabas
+(<i>Inscriptions des Mines d'Or</i>, Chalons-sur-Saone, Paris, 1862, p.
+30-36). Fragments of another papyrus, in the Turin Museum, are
+considered by Lieblein (<i>Deux Papyras Hi�ratiques</i>, Christiania, 1868)
+also to represent a mine of the time of Rameses I. If so, this one dates
+from about 1400 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> As to an actual map of underground workings
+(disregarding illustrations) we know of none until after Agricola's
+time. At his time maps were not made, as will be gathered from the
+text.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_132" id="Notes_132">[Pg 132]</a></span><a name="Footnote_17_143" id="Footnote_17_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_143"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> For greater clarity we have in a few places interpolated
+the terms "major" and "minor" triangles.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_137" id="Notes_137">[Pg 137]</a></span><a name="Footnote_18_144" id="Footnote_18_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_144"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> The names of the instruments here described in the
+original text, their German equivalents in the Glossary, and the terms
+adopted in translation are given below:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Latin Text.</span></td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Glossary.</span></td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Terms Adopted.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Funiculus</i></td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Cord</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Pertica</i></td><td align="left"><i>Stab</i></td><td align="left">Rod</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Hemicyclium</i></td><td align="left"><i>Donlege bretlein</i></td><td align="left">Hemicycle</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Tripus</i></td><td align="left"><i>Stul</i></td><td align="left">Tripod</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Instrumentum cui index</i></td><td align="left"><i>Compass</i></td><td align="left">Compass</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Orbis</i></td><td align="left"><i>Scheube</i></td><td align="left">Orbis</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Libra stativa</i></td><td align="left"><i>Auffsafz</i></td><td align="left">Standing plummet level</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Libra pensilis</i></td><td align="left"><i>Wage</i></td><td align="left">Suspended plummet level</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Instrumentum cui index Alpinum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Der schiner compass</i></td><td align="left">Swiss compass</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_139" id="Notes_139">[Pg 139]</a></span><a name="Footnote_19_145" id="Footnote_19_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_145"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> It is interesting to note that the ratio of any length so
+obtained, to the whole length of the staff, is practically equal to the
+cosine of the angle represented by the corresponding gradation on the
+hemicycle; the gradations on the rod forming a fairly accurate table of
+cosines.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_142" id="Notes_142">[Pg 142]</a></span><a name="Footnote_20_146" id="Footnote_20_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_146"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> It must be understood that instead of "plotting" a survey
+on a reduced scale on paper, as modern surveyors do, the whole survey
+was reproduced in full scale on the "surveyor's field."</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149"></a>[Pg 149]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="BOOK_VI" id="BOOK_VI"></a>BOOK VI.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="dropcap"><img src="images/capd.png" alt="D" /></div>
+<p style="text-indent:-1em;">
+igging of veins I have written of, and the timbering of shafts,
+tunnels, drifts, and other excavations, and the art of surveying. I will
+now speak first of all, of the iron tools with which veins and rocks are
+broken, then of the buckets into which the lumps of earth, rock, metal,
+and other excavated materials are thrown, in order that they may be
+drawn, conveyed, or carried out. Also, I will speak of the water vessels
+and drains, then of the machines of different kinds,<a name="FNanchor_1_147" id="FNanchor_1_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_147" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> and lastly of
+the maladies of miners. And while all these matters are being described
+accurately, many methods of work will be explained.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150"></a><a href="images/fig150.jpg"><img src="images/fig150thumb.jpg" alt="Iron tools" /></a><br />
+<span class="smcap">A&mdash;First "iron tool." B&mdash;Second.
+C&mdash;Third. D&mdash;Fourth.<a name="FNanchor_2_148" id="FNanchor_2_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_148" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> E&mdash;Wedge. F&mdash;Iron block. G&mdash;Iron plate.
+H&mdash;Wooden handle. I&mdash;Handle inserted in first tool.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 150]</span></span>
+There are certain iron tools which the miners designate by names of
+their own, and besides these, there are wedges, iron blocks, iron
+plates, hammers, crowbars, pikes, picks, hoes, and shovels. Of those
+which are especially referred to as "iron tools" there are four
+varieties, which are different from one another in length or thickness,
+but not in shape, for the upper end of all of them is broad and square,
+so that it can be struck by the <span class="pagenum">[Pg 150]</span>hammer. The lower end is pointed so as
+to split the hard rocks and veins with its point. All of these have eyes
+except the fourth. The first, which is in daily use among miners, is
+three-quarters of a foot long, a digit and a half wide, and a digit
+thick. The second is of the same width as the first, and the same
+thickness, but one and one half feet long, and is used to shatter the
+hardest veins in such a way that they crack open. The third is the same
+length as the second, but is a little wider and thicker; with this one
+they dig the bottoms of those shafts which slowly accumulate water. The
+fourth is nearly three palms and one digit long, two digits thick, and
+in the upper end it is three digits wide, in the middle it is one palm
+wide, and at the lower end it is pointed like the others; with this they
+cut out the harder veins. The eye in the first tool is one palm distant
+from the upper end, in the second and third it is seven digits distant;
+each swells out around the eye on both sides, and into it they fit a
+wooden handle, which they hold with one hand, while they strike the iron
+tool with a hammer, after placing it against the rock. These tools are
+made larger or smaller as necessary. The smiths, as far as possible,
+sharpen again all that become dull.</p>
+
+<p>A wedge is usually three palms and two digits long and six digits wide;
+at the upper end, for a distance of a palm, it is three digits thick,
+and beyond that point it becomes thinner by degrees, until finally it is
+quite sharp.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151"></a>[Pg 151]</span></p><p>The iron block is six digits in length and width; at the upper end it
+is two digits thick, and at the bottom a digit and a half. The iron
+plate is the same length and width as the iron block, but it is very
+thin. All of these, as I explained in the last book, are used when the
+hardest kind of veins are hewn out. Wedges, blocks, and plates, are
+likewise made larger or smaller.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig151.jpg"><img src="images/fig151thumb.jpg" alt="Hammers" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Smallest of the smaller hammers.
+B&mdash;Intermediate. C&mdash;Largest. D&mdash;Small kind of the larger hammer.
+E&mdash;Large kind. F&mdash;Wooden handle. G&mdash;Handle fixed in the smallest
+hammer.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 151]</span></span>
+Hammers are of two kinds, the smaller ones the miners hold in one hand,
+and the larger ones they hold with both hands. The former, because of
+their size and use, are of three sorts. With the smallest, that is to
+say, the lightest, they strike the second "iron tool;" with the
+intermediate one the first "iron tool;" and with the largest the third
+"iron tool"; this one is two digits wide and thick. Of the larger sort
+of hammers there are two kinds; with the smaller they strike the fourth
+"iron tool;" with the larger they drive the wedges into the cracks; the
+former are three, and the latter five digits wide and thick, and a foot
+long. All swell out in their middle, in which there is an eye for a
+handle, but in most cases the handles are somewhat light, in order that
+the workmen may be able to strike more powerful blows by the hammer's
+full weight being thus concentrated.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152"></a>[Pg 152]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig152a.jpg"><img src="images/fig152athumb.jpg" alt="Crowbars" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Round crowbar. B&mdash;Flat crowbar.
+C&mdash;Pike.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 152]</span></span>
+The iron crowbars are likewise of two kinds, and each kind is pointed
+at one end. One is rounded, and with this they pierce to a shaft full of
+water when a tunnel reaches to it; the other is flat, and with this they
+knock out of the stopes on to the floor, the rocks which have been
+softened by the fire, and which cannot be dislodged by the pike. A
+miner's pike, like a sailor's, is a long rod having an iron head.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153"></a>[Pg 153]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig152b.jpg"><img src="images/fig152bthumb.jpg" alt="Picks" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Pick. B&mdash;Hoe. C&mdash;Shovel.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 152]</span></span>
+The miner's pick differs from a peasant's pick in that the latter is
+wide at the bottom and sharp, but the former is pointed. It is used to
+dig out ore which is not hard, such as earth. Likewise a hoe and shovel
+are in no way different from the common articles, with the one they
+scrape up earth and sand, with the other they throw it into vessels.</p>
+
+<p>Now earth, rock, mineral substances and other things dug out with the
+pick or hewn out with the "iron tools" are hauled out of the shaft in
+buckets, or baskets, or hide buckets; they are drawn out of tunnels in
+wheelbarrows or open trucks, and from both they are sometimes carried in
+trays.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154"></a><a href="images/fig154a.jpg"><img src="images/fig154athumb.jpg" alt="Buckets for hoisting ore" /></a><br /><span class="inum">[Pg 154]</span></span>
+<span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig154b.jpg"><img src="images/fig154bthumb.jpg" alt="Buckets for hoisting ore" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Small bucket. B&mdash;Large
+bucket. C&mdash;Staves. D&mdash;Iron hoops. E&mdash;Iron straps. F&mdash;Iron straps on the
+bottom. G&mdash;Hafts. H&mdash;Iron bale. I&mdash;Hook of drawing-rope. K&mdash;Basket.
+L&mdash;Hide bucket or sack.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 154]</span></span>
+Buckets are of two kinds, which differ in size, but not in material or
+shape. The smaller for the most part hold only about one <i>metreta</i>; the
+larger are generally capable of carrying one-sixth of a <i>congius</i>;
+neither is of unchangeable capacity, but they often vary.<a name="FNanchor_3_149" id="FNanchor_3_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_149" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Each is
+made of staves circled with hoops, one of which binds the top and the
+other the bottom. The hoops are sometimes made of hazel and oak, but
+these are easily broken by dashing against the shaft, while those made
+of iron are more durable. In the larger buckets the staves are thicker
+and wider, as also are both hoops, and in order that the buckets may be
+more firm and strong, they have eight iron straps, somewhat broad, four
+of which run from the upper hoop downwards, and four from the lower hoop
+upwards, as if to meet each other. The bottom of each bucket, both
+inside and outside, is furnished with two or three straps of iron, which
+run from one side of the lower hoop to the other, but the straps which
+are on the outside are fixed crosswise. Each bucket has two iron hafts
+which project above the edge, and it has an iron semi-circular bale
+whose lower ends are fixed directly into the hafts, that the bucket may
+be handled more easily. Each kind of bucket is much deeper than it is
+wide, and each is wider at the top, in order that the material which is
+dug out may be the more easily poured in and poured out again. Into the
+smaller buckets strong boys, and into larger ones men, fill earth from
+the bottom of the shaft with hoes; or the other material dug up is
+shovelled into them or filled in with their hands, for which reason
+these men are called "shovellers.<a name="FNanchor_4_150" id="FNanchor_4_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_150" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>" Afterward they fix the hook of the
+drawing-rope into the bale; then the buckets are drawn up by
+machines&mdash;the smaller ones, because of their lighter weight, by machines
+turned by men, and the larger ones, being heavier, by the machines
+turned by horses. Some, in place of these buckets, substitute baskets
+which hold just as much, or even more, since they are lighter than the
+buckets; some use sacks made of ox-hide instead of buckets, and the
+drawing-rope hook is fastened to their iron bale, usually three of these
+filled with excavated material are drawn up at the same time as three
+are being lowered and three are being filled by boys. The latter are
+generally used at Schneeberg and the former at Freiberg.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 154]</span></p>
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155"></a><a href="images/fig155.jpg"><img src="images/fig155thumb.jpg" alt="Wheelbarrows" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Small wheelbarrow. B&mdash;Long planks
+thereof. C&mdash;End-boards. D&mdash;Small wheel. E&mdash;Larger barrow. F&mdash;Front
+end-board thereof.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 155]</span></span>
+That which we call a <i>cisium</i><a name="FNanchor_5_151" id="FNanchor_5_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_151" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> is a vehicle with one wheel, not with
+two, such as horses draw. When filled with excavated material it is
+pushed <span class="pagenum">[Pg 155]</span>by a workman out of tunnels or sheds. It is made as follows: two
+planks are chosen about five feet long, one foot wide, and two digits
+thick; of each of these the lower side is cut away at the front for a
+length of one foot, and at the back for a length of two feet, while the
+middle is left whole. Then in the front parts are bored circular holes,
+in order that the ends of an axle may revolve in them. The intermediate
+parts of the planks are perforated twice near the bottom, so as to
+receive the heads of two little cleats on which the planks are fixed;
+and they are also perforated in the middle, so as to receive the heads
+of two end-boards, while keys fixed in these projecting heads strengthen
+the whole structure. The handles are made out of the extreme ends of the
+long planks, and they turn downward at the ends that they may be grasped
+more firmly in the hands. The small wheel, of which there is only one,
+neither has a nave nor does it revolve around the axle, but turns around
+with it. From the felloe, which the Greeks called <span class="greek" title="Greek: apsides">&#7936;&psi;&#8150;&delta;&epsilon;&#962;</span>, two
+transverse spokes fixed into it pass through the middle of the axle
+toward the opposite felloe; the axle is square, with the exception of
+the ends, each of which is rounded so as to turn in the opening. A
+workman draws out this barrow full of earth and rock and draws it back
+empty. Miners also have another wheelbarrow, larger than this one, which
+they use when they wash earth mixed with tin-stone on to which a stream
+has been turned. The front end-board of this one is deeper, in order
+that the earth which has been thrown into it may not fall out.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156"></a>[Pg 156]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig156.jpg"><img src="images/fig156thumb.jpg" alt="Trucks" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Rectangular iron bands on truck. B&mdash;Its
+iron straps. C&mdash;Iron axle. D&mdash;Wooden rollers. E&mdash;Small iron keys.
+F&mdash;Large blunt iron pin. G&mdash;Same truck upside down.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 156]</span></span>
+The open truck has a capacity half as large again as a wheelbarrow; it
+is about four feet long and about two and a half feet wide and deep; and
+since its shape is rectangular, it is bound together with three
+rectangular iron bands, and besides these there are iron straps on all
+sides. Two small iron axles are fixed to the bottom, around the ends of
+which wooden rollers revolve on either side; in order that the rollers
+shall not fall off the immovable axles, there are small iron keys. A
+large blunt pin fixed to the bottom of the truck runs in a groove of a
+plank in such a way that the truck does not leave the beaten track.
+Holding the back part with his hands, the carrier pushes out the truck
+laden with excavated material, and pushes it back again empty. Some
+people call it a "dog"<a name="FNanchor_6_152" id="FNanchor_6_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_152" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>, because when it moves it makes a noise which
+seems to them not unlike the bark of a dog. This truck is used when they
+draw loads out of the longest tunnels, both because it is moved more
+easily and because a heavier load can be placed in it.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157"></a><a href="images/fig157.jpg"><img src="images/fig157thumb.jpg" alt="Batea" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Small batea. B&mdash;Rope. C&mdash;Large batea.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 157]</span></span>
+Bateas<a name="FNanchor_7_153" id="FNanchor_7_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_153" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> are hollowed out of a single block of wood; the smaller kind
+are generally two feet long and one foot wide. When they have been
+filled with ore, especially when but little is dug from the shafts and
+tunnels, men either carry them out on their shoulders, or bear them away
+hung from <span class="pagenum">[Pg 157]</span>their necks. Pliny<a name="FNanchor_8_154" id="FNanchor_8_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_154" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> is our authority that among the
+ancients everything which was mined was carried out on men's shoulders,
+but in truth this method of carrying forth burdens is onerous, since it
+causes great fatigue to a great number of men, and involves a large
+expenditure for labour; for this reason it has been rejected and
+abandoned in our day. The length of the larger batea is as much as three
+feet, the width up to a foot and a palm. In these bateas the metallic
+earth is washed for the purpose of testing it.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158"></a><a href="images/fig158a.jpg"><img src="images/fig158athumb.jpg" alt="Buckets for hoisting water" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Smaller
+water-bucket. B&mdash;Larger water-bucket. C&mdash;Dipper.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 158]</span></span>
+Water-vessels differ both in the use to which they are put and in the
+material of which they are made; some draw the water from the shafts and
+pour it into other things, as dippers; while some of the vessels filled
+with water are drawn out by machines, as buckets and bags; some are made
+of wood, as the dippers and buckets, and others of hides, as the bags.
+The water-buckets, just like the buckets which are filled with dry
+material, are of two kinds, the smaller and the larger, but these are
+unlike the other buckets at the top, as in this case they are narrower,
+in order that the water may not be spilled by being bumped against the
+timbers when they are being drawn out of the shafts, especially those
+considerably inclined. The water is poured into these buckets by
+dippers, which are small wooden buckets, but unlike the water-buckets,
+they are neither narrow at the top nor bound with iron hoops, but with
+hazel,&mdash;because there is no necessity for either. The smaller buckets
+are drawn up by machines turned by men, the larger ones by those turned
+by horses.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159"></a>[Pg 159]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig158b.jpg"><img src="images/fig158bthumb.jpg" alt="Bags for hoisting water" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Water-bag which takes
+in water by itself. B&mdash;Water-bag into which water pours when it is
+pushed with a shovel.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 158]</span></span>
+Our people give the name of water-bags to those very large skins for
+carrying water which are made of two, or two and a half, ox-hides. When
+these water-bags have undergone much wear and use, first the hair comes
+off them and they become bald and shining; after this they become torn.
+If the tear is but a small one, a piece of smooth notched stick is put
+into the broken part, and the broken bag is bound into its notches on
+either side and sewn together; but if it is a large one, they mend it
+with a piece of ox-hide. The water-bags are fixed to the hook of a
+drawing-chain and let down and dipped into the water, and as soon as
+they are filled they are drawn up by the largest machine. They are of
+two kinds; the one kind take in the water by themselves; the water pours
+into the other kind when it is pushed in a certain way by a wooden
+shovel.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig159.jpg"><img src="images/fig159thumb.jpg" alt="Trough" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Trough. B&mdash;Hopper.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 159]</span></span>
+When the water has been drawn out from the shafts, it is run off in
+troughs, or into a hopper, through which it runs into the trough.
+Likewise the water which flows along the sides of the tunnels is carried
+off in drains. These are composed of two hollowed beams joined firmly
+together, so as to hold the water which flows through them, and they are
+covered by planks all along their course, from the mouth of the tunnel
+right up to the extreme end of it, to prevent earth or rock falling into
+them and obstructing the flow of the water. If much mud gradually
+settles in them the planks are raised and the drains are cleaned out,
+for they would otherwise become stopped up and obstructed by this
+accident. With regard to the trough lying above <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160"></a>[Pg 160]</span>ground, which miners
+place under the hoppers which are close by the shaft houses, these are
+usually hollowed out of single trees. Hoppers are generally made of four
+planks, so cut on the lower side and joined together that the top part
+of the hopper is broader and the bottom part narrower.</p>
+
+<p>I have sufficiently indicated the nature of the miners' iron tools and
+their vessels. I will now explain their machines, which are of three
+kinds, that is, hauling machines, ventilating machines, and ladders. By
+means of the hauling machines loads are drawn out of the shafts; the
+ventilating machines receive the air through their mouths and blow it
+into shafts or tunnels, for if this is not done, diggers cannot carry on
+their labour without great difficulty in breathing; by the steps of the
+ladders the miners go down into the shafts and come up again.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p>Hauling machines are of varied and diverse forms, some of them being
+made with great skill, and if I am not mistaken, they were unknown to
+the Ancients. They have been invented in order that water may be drawn
+from the depths of the earth to which no tunnels reach, and also the
+excavated material from shafts which are likewise not connected with a
+tunnel, or if so, only with very long ones. Since shafts are not all of
+the same depth, there is a great variety among these hauling machines.
+Of those by which dry loads are drawn out of the shafts, five sorts are
+in the most common use, of which I will now describe the first.
+<span class="figleft"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161"></a><a href="images/fig161.jpg"><img src="images/fig161thumb.jpg" alt="Windlass" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Timber placed in front of the shaft.
+B&mdash;Timber placed at the back of the shaft. C&mdash;Pointed stakes.
+D&mdash;Cross-timbers. E&mdash;Posts or thick planks. F&mdash;Iron sockets. G&mdash;Barrel.
+H&mdash;Ends of barrel. I&mdash;Pieces of wood. K&mdash;handle. L&mdash;Drawing-rope. M&mdash;Its
+hook. N&mdash;Bucket. O&mdash;Bale of the bucket.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 161]</span></span>
+Two
+timbers a little longer than the shaft are placed beside it, the one in
+the front of the shaft, the other at the back. Their extreme ends have
+holes through which stakes, pointed at the bottom like wedges, are
+driven deeply into the ground, so that the timbers may remain
+stationary. Into these timbers are mortised the ends of two
+cross-timbers, one laid on the right end of the shaft, while the other
+is far enough from the left end that between it and that end there
+remains suitable space for placing the ladders. In the middle of the
+cross-timbers, posts are fixed and secured with iron keys. In hollows at
+the top of these posts thick iron sockets hold the ends of the barrel,
+of which each end projects beyond the hollow of the post, and is
+mortised into the end of another piece of wood a foot and a half long, a
+palm wide and three digits thick; the other end of these pieces of wood
+is seven digits wide, and into each of them is fixed a round handle,
+likewise a foot and a half long. A winding-rope is wound around the
+barrel and fastened to it at the middle part. The loop at each end of
+the rope has an iron hook which is engaged in the bale of a bucket, and
+so when the windlass revolves by being turned by the cranks, a loaded
+bucket is always being drawn out of the shaft and an empty one is being
+sent down into it. Two robust men turn the windlass, each having a
+wheelbarrow near him, into which he unloads the bucket which is drawn up
+nearest to him; two buckets generally fill a wheelbarrow; therefore when
+four buckets have been drawn up, each man runs his own wheelbarrow out
+of the shed and empties it. Thus it happens that if shafts are dug deep,
+a hillock rises around the shed of the windlass. If a vein is not
+metal-bearing, they pour out the earth and rock without discriminating;
+whereas if it is metal-bearing, they preserve these materials, <span class="pagenum">[Pg 161]</span>which
+they unload separately and crush and wash. When they draw up buckets of
+water they empty the water through the hopper into a trough, through
+which it flows away.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162"></a><a href="images/fig162.jpg"><img src="images/fig162thumb.jpg" alt="Windlass" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Barrel. B&mdash;Straight levers. C&mdash;Usual
+crank. D&mdash;Spokes of wheel. E&mdash;Rim of the same wheel.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 162]</span></span>
+The next kind of machine, which miners employ when the shaft is deeper,
+differs from the first in that it possesses a wheel as well as cranks.
+This windlass, if the load is not being drawn up from a great depth, is
+turned by one windlass man, the wheel taking the place of the other man.
+But if the depth is greater, then the windlass is turned by three men,
+the wheel being substituted for a fourth, because the barrel having been
+once set in motion, the rapid revolutions of the wheel help, and it can
+be turned more easily. Sometimes masses of lead are hung on to this
+wheel, or are fastened to the spokes, in order that when it is turned
+they depress the spokes by their weight and increase the motion; some
+persons for the same reason fasten into the barrel two, three, or four
+iron rods, and weight their ends with lumps of lead. The windlass wheel
+differs from the wheel of a carriage and from the one <span class="pagenum">[Pg 162]</span>which is turned
+by water power, for it lacks the buckets of a water-wheel and it lacks
+the nave of a carriage wheel. In the place of the nave it has a thick
+barrel, in which are mortised the lower ends of the spokes, just as
+their upper ends are mortised into the rim. When three windlass men turn
+this machine, four straight levers are fixed to the one end of the
+barrel, and to the other the crank which is usual in mines, and which is
+composed of two limbs, of which the rounded horizontal one is grasped by
+the hands; the rectangular limb, which is at right angles to the
+horizontal one, has mortised in its lower end the round handle, and in
+the upper end the end of the barrel. This crank is worked by one man,
+the levers by two men, of whom one pulls while the other pushes; all
+windlass workers, whatsoever kind of a machine they may turn, are
+necessarily robust that they can sustain such great toil.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a><a href="images/fig163.jpg"><img src="images/fig163thumb.jpg" alt="Tread whim" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Upright axle. B&mdash;Block. C&mdash;Roof beam.
+D&mdash;Wheel. E&mdash;Toothed-drum. F&mdash;Horizontal axle. G&mdash;Drum composed of
+rundles. H&mdash;Drawing rope. I&mdash;Pole. K&mdash;Upright posts. L&mdash;Cleats on the
+wheel.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 163]</span></span>
+The third kind of machine is less fatiguing for the workman, while it
+raises larger loads; even though it is slower, like all other machines
+which have drums, yet it reaches greater depths, even to a depth of 180
+feet. It consists of an upright axle with iron journals at its
+extremities, which turn in two iron sockets, the lower of which is fixed
+in a block set in the ground and the upper one in the roof beam. This
+axle has at its lower end a <span class="pagenum">[Pg 163]</span>wheel made of thick planks joined firmly
+together, and at its upper end a toothed drum; this toothed drum turns
+another drum made of rundles, which is on a horizontal axle. A
+winding-rope is wound around this latter axle, which turns in iron
+bearings set in the beams. So that they may not fall, the two workmen
+grasp with their hands a pole fixed to two upright posts, and then
+pushing the cleats of the lower wheel backward with their feet, they
+revolve the machine; as often as they have drawn up and emptied one
+bucket full of excavated material, they turn the machine in the opposite
+direction and draw out another.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165"></a><a href="images/fig165.jpg"><img src="images/fig165thumb.jpg" alt="Horse whim" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Upright beams. B&mdash;Sills laid flat
+upon the ground. C&mdash;Posts. D&mdash;Area. E&mdash;Sill set at the bottom of the
+hole. F&mdash;Axle. G&mdash;Double cross-beams. H&mdash;Drum. I&mdash;Winding-ropes.
+K&mdash;Bucket. L&mdash;Small pieces of wood hanging from double cross-beams.
+M&mdash;Short wooden block. N&mdash;Chain. O&mdash;Pole bar. P&mdash;Grappling hook.</span> (Some
+members mentioned in the text are not shown). <span class="inum">[Pg 165]</span></span>
+The fourth machine raises burdens once and a half as large again as the
+two machines first explained. When it is made, sixteen beams are erected
+each forty feet long, one foot thick and one foot wide, joined at the
+top with clamps and widely separated at the bottom. The lower ends of
+all of them are mortised into separate sills laid flat upon the ground;
+these sills are five feet long, a foot and a half wide, and a foot
+thick. Each beam is also connected with its sill by a post, whose upper
+end is mortised into the beam <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164"></a>[Pg 164]</span>and its lower end mortised into the sill;
+these posts are four feet long, one foot thick, and one foot wide. Thus
+a circular area is made, the diameter of which is fifty feet; in the
+middle of this area a hole is sunk to a depth of ten feet, and rammed
+down tight, and in order to give it sufficient firmness, it is
+strengthened with contiguous small timbers, through which pins are
+driven, for by them the earth around the hole is held so that it cannot
+fall in. In the bottom of the hole is planted a sill, three or four feet
+long and a foot and a half thick and wide; in order that it may remain
+fixed, it is set into the small timbers; in the middle of it is a steel
+socket in which the pivot of the axle turns. In like manner a timber is
+mortised into two of the large beams, at the top beneath the clamps;
+this has an iron bearing in which the other iron journal of the axle
+revolves. Every axle used in mining, to speak of them once for all, has
+two iron journals, rounded off on all sides, one fixed with keys in the
+centre of each end. That part of this journal which is fixed to the end
+of the axle is as broad as the end itself and a digit thick; that which
+projects beyond the axle is round and a palm thick, or thicker if
+necessity requires; the ends of each miner's axle are encircled and
+bound by an iron band to hold the journal more securely. The axle of
+this machine, except at the ends, is square, and is forty feet long, a
+foot and a half thick and wide. Mortised and clamped into the axle above
+the lower end are the ends of four inclined beams; their outer ends
+support two double cross-beams similarly mortised into them; the
+inclined beams are eighteen feet long, three palms thick, and five wide.
+The two cross-beams are fixed to the axle and held together by wooden
+keys so that they will not separate, and they are twenty-four feet long.
+Next, there is a drum which is made of three wheels, of which the middle
+one is seven feet distant from the upper one and from the lower one; the
+wheels have four spokes which are supported by the same number of
+inclined braces, the lower ends of which are joined together round the
+axle by a clamp; one end of each spoke is mortised into the axle and the
+other into the rim. There are rundles all round the wheels, reaching
+from the rim of the lowest one to the rim of the middle one, and
+likewise from the rim of the middle wheel to the rim of the top one;
+around these rundles are wound the drawing-ropes, one between the lowest
+wheel and the middle one, the other between the middle and top wheels.
+The whole of this construction is shaped like a cone, and is covered
+with a shingle roof, with the exception of that square part which faces
+the shaft. Then cross-beams, mortised at both ends, connect a double row
+of upright posts; all of these are eighteen feet long, but the posts are
+one foot thick and one foot wide, and the cross-beams are three palms
+thick and wide. There are sixteen posts and eight cross-beams, and upon
+these cross-beams are laid two timbers a foot wide and three palms
+thick, hollowed out to a width of half a foot and to a depth of five
+digits; the one is laid upon the upper cross-beams and the other upon
+the lower; each is long enough to reach nearly from the drum of the whim
+to the shaft. Near the same drum each timber has a small round wooden
+roller six digits thick, whose ends are <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166"></a>[Pg 166]</span>covered with iron bands and
+revolve in iron rings. Each timber also has a wooden pulley, which
+together with its iron axle revolves in holes in the timber. These
+pulleys are hollowed out all round, in order that the drawing-rope may
+not slip out of them, and thus each rope is drawn tight and turns over
+its own roller and its own pulley. The iron hook of each rope is engaged
+with the bale of the bucket. Further, with regard to the double
+cross-beams which are mortised to the lower part of the main axle, to
+each end of them there is mortised a small piece of wood four feet long.
+These appear to hang from the double cross-beams, and a short wooden
+block is fixed to the lower part of them, on which a driver sits. Each
+of these blocks has an iron clavis which holds a chain, and that in turn
+a pole-bar. In this way it is possible for two horses to draw this whim,
+now this way and now that; turn by turn one bucket is drawn out of the
+shaft full and another is let down into it empty; if, indeed, the shaft
+is very deep four horses turn the whim. When a bucket has been drawn up,
+whether filled with dry or wet materials, it must be emptied, and a
+workman inserts a grappling hook and overturns it; this hook hangs on a
+chain made of three or four links, fixed to a timber.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167"></a><a href="images/fig167.jpg"><img src="images/fig167thumb.jpg" alt="Horse whim" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Toothed drum which is on the upright
+axle. B&mdash;Horizontal axle. C&mdash;Drum which is made of rundles. D&mdash;Wheel
+near it. E&mdash;Drum made of hubs. F&mdash;Brake. G&mdash;Oscillating beam. H&mdash;Short
+beam. I&mdash;Hook.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 167]</span></span>
+The fifth machine is partly like the whim, and partly like the third rag
+and chain pump, which draws water by balls when turned by horse power,
+as I will explain a little later. Like this pump, it is turned by horse
+power and has two axles, namely, an upright one&mdash;about whose lower end,
+which descends into an underground chamber, there is a toothed drum&mdash;and
+a horizontal one, around which there is a drum made of rundles. It has
+indeed two drums around its horizontal axle, similar to those of the big
+machine, but smaller, because it draws buckets from a shaft almost two
+hundred and forty feet deep. One drum is made of hubs to which cleats
+are fixed, and the other is made of rundles; and near the latter is a
+wheel two feet deep, measured on all sides around the axle, and one foot
+wide; and against this impinges a brake,<a name="FNanchor_10_155" id="FNanchor_10_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_155" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> which holds the whim when
+occasion demands that it be stopped. This is necessary when the hide
+buckets are emptied after being drawn up full of rock fragments or
+earth, or as often as water is poured out of buckets similarly drawn up;
+for this machine not only raises dry loads, but also wet ones, just like
+the other four machines which I have already described. By this also,
+timbers fastened on to its winding-chain are let down into a shaft. The
+brake is made of a piece of wood one foot thick and half a foot long,
+projecting from a timber that is suspended by a chain from one end of a
+beam which oscillates on an iron pin, this in turn being supported in
+the claws of an upright post; and from the other end of this oscillating
+beam a long timber is suspended by a chain, and from this long timber
+again a short beam is suspended. A workman sits on the short beam when
+the machine needs to be stopped, and lowers it; he then inserts a plank
+or small stick so that the two timbers are held down and cannot be
+raised. In this way the brake is raised, and seizing the drum, presses
+it so tightly that sparks often fly from it; the suspended timber to
+which the short beam is attached, has several holes in which the chain
+is <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168"></a>[Pg 168]</span>fixed, so that it may be raised as much as is convenient. Above
+this wheel there are boards to prevent the water from dripping down and
+wetting it, for if it becomes wet the brake will not grip the machine so
+well. Near the other drum is a pin from which hangs a chain, in the last
+link of which there is an iron hook three feet long; a ring is fixed to
+the bottom of the bucket, and this hook, being inserted into it, holds
+the bucket back so that the water may be poured out or the fragments of
+rock emptied.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig168.jpg"><img src="images/fig168thumb.jpg" alt="Sleigh for Ore" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Sledge with box placed on it.
+B&mdash;Sledge with sacks placed on it. C&mdash;Stick. D&mdash;Dogs with pack-saddles.
+E&mdash;Pigskin sacks tied to a rope.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 168]</span></span>
+The miners either carry, draw, or roll down the mountains the ore which
+is hauled out of the shafts by these five machines or taken out of the
+tunnels. In the winter time our people place a box on a sledge and draw
+it down the low mountains with a horse; and in this season they also
+fill sacks made of hide and load them on dogs, or place two or three of
+them on a small sledge which is higher in the fore part and lower at the
+back. Sitting on these sacks, not without risk of his life, the bold
+driver guides the sledge as it rushes down the mountain into the valleys
+with a stick, which he carries in his hand; when it is rushing down too
+quickly he arrests it with the stick, or with the same stick brings it
+back to the track when it is turning aside from its proper course. Some
+of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"></a>[Pg 169]</span>Noricians<a name="FNanchor_11_156" id="FNanchor_11_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_156" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> collect ore during the winter into sacks made of
+bristly pigskins, and drag them down from the highest mountains, which
+neither horses, mules nor asses can climb. Strong dogs, that are trained
+to bear pack saddles, carry these sacks when empty into the mountains.
+When they are filled with ore, bound with thongs, and fastened to a
+rope, a man, winding the rope round his arm or breast, drags them down
+through the snow to a place where horses, mules, or asses bearing
+pack-saddles can climb. There the ore is removed from the pigskin sacks
+and put into other sacks made of double or triple twilled linen thread,
+and these placed on the pack-saddles of the beasts are borne down to the
+works where the ores are washed or smelted.
+<span class="figleft"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170"></a><a href="images/fig170.jpg"><img src="images/fig170thumb.jpg" alt="Wagons for Hauling Ore" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Horses with pack-saddles.
+B&mdash;Long box placed on the slope of the cliff. C&mdash;Cleats thereof.
+D&mdash;Wheelbarrow. E&mdash;Two-wheeled cart. F&mdash;Trunks of trees. G&mdash;Wagon.
+H&mdash;Ore being unloaded from the wagon. I&mdash;Bars. K&mdash;Master of the works
+marking the number of carts on a stick. L&mdash;Boxes into which are thrown
+the ore which has to be divided.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 170]</span></span>
+If, indeed, the horses,
+mules, or asses are able to climb the mountains, linen sacks filled with
+ore are placed on their saddles, and they carry these down the narrow
+mountain paths, which are passable neither by wagons nor sledges, into
+the valleys lying below the steeper portions of the mountains. But on
+the declivity of cliffs which beasts cannot climb, are placed long open
+boxes made of planks, with transverse cleats to hold them together; into
+these boxes is thrown the ore which has been brought in wheelbarrows,
+and when it has run down to the level it is gathered into sacks, and the
+beasts either carry it away on their backs or drag it away after it has
+been thrown into sledges or wagons. When the drivers bring ore down
+steep mountain slopes they use two-wheeled carts, and they drag behind
+them on the ground the trunks of two trees, for these by their weight
+hold back the heavily-laden carts, which contain ore in their boxes, and
+check their descent, and but for these the driver would often be obliged
+to bind chains to the wheels. When these men bring down ore from
+mountains which do not have such declivities, they use wagons whose beds
+are twice as long as those of the carts. The planks of these are so put
+together that, when the ore is unloaded by the drivers, they can be
+raised and taken apart, for they are only held together by bars. The
+drivers employed by the owners of the ore bring down thirty or sixty
+wagon-loads, and the master of the works marks on a stick the number of
+loads for each driver. But some ore, especially tin, after being taken
+from the mines, is divided into eight parts, or into nine, if the owners
+of the mine give "ninth parts" to the owners of the tunnel. This is
+occasionally done by measuring with a bucket, but more frequently planks
+are put together on a spot where, with the addition of the level ground
+as a base, it forms a hollow box. Each owner provides for removing,
+washing, and smelting that portion which has fallen to him.
+(Illustration p. <a href="#Page_170">170</a>).</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p>Into the buckets, drawn by these five machines, the boys or men throw
+the earth and broken rock with shovels, or they fill them with their
+hands; hence they get their name of shovellers. As I have said, the same
+machines raise not only dry loads, but also wet ones, or water; but
+before I explain the varied and diverse kinds of machines by which
+miners are wont <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"></a>[Pg 171]</span>to draw water alone, I will explain how heavy bodies,
+such as axles, iron chains, pipes, and heavy timbers, should be lowered
+into deep vertical shafts.
+<span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig171.jpg"><img src="images/fig171thumb.jpg" alt="Windlass" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Windlass. B&mdash;Straight levers.
+C&mdash;Upright beams. D&mdash;Rope. E&mdash;Pulley. F&mdash;Timbers to be lowered.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 171]</span></span>
+A windlass is erected whose barrel has on
+each end four straight levers; it is fixed into upright beams and around
+it is wound a rope, one end of which is fastened to the barrel and the
+other to those heavy bodies which are slowly lowered down by workmen;
+and if these halt at any part of the shaft they are drawn up a little
+way. When these bodies are very heavy, then behind this windlass another
+is erected just like it, that their combined strength may be equal to
+the load, and that it may be lowered slowly. Sometimes for the same
+reason, a pulley is fastened with cords to the roof-beam, and the rope
+descends and ascends over it.</p>
+
+<p>Water is either hoisted or pumped out of shafts. It is hoisted up after
+being poured into buckets or water-bags; the water-bags are generally
+brought up by a machine whose water-wheels have double paddles, while
+the buckets are brought up by the five machines already described,
+although in certain localities the fourth machine also hauls up
+water-bags of moderate size. Water is drawn up also by chains of
+dippers, or by suction pumps, or <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172"></a>[Pg 172]</span>by "rag and chain" pumps.<a name="FNanchor_12_157" id="FNanchor_12_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_157" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> When
+there is but a small quantity, it is either brought up in buckets or
+drawn up by chains of dippers or suction pumps, and when there is much
+water it is either drawn up in hide bags or by rag and chain pumps.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173"></a><a href="images/fig173.jpg"><img src="images/fig173thumb.jpg" alt="Chain Pumps" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Iron frame. B&mdash;Lowest axle.
+C&mdash;Fly-wheel. D&mdash;Smaller drum made of rundles. E&mdash;Second axle.
+F&mdash;Smaller toothed wheel. G&mdash;Larger drum made of rundles. H&mdash;Upper axle.
+I&mdash;Larger toothed wheel. K&mdash;Bearings. L&mdash;Pillow. M&mdash;Framework. N&mdash;Oak
+timber. O&mdash;Support of iron bearing. P&mdash;Roller. Q&mdash;Upper drum. R&mdash;Clamps.
+S&mdash;Chain. T&mdash;Links. V&mdash;Dippers. X&mdash;Crank. Y&mdash;Lower drum or balance
+weight.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 173]</span></span>
+First of all, I will describe the machines which draw water by chains of
+dippers, of which there are three kinds. For the first, a frame is made
+entirely of iron bars; it is two and a half feet high, likewise two and
+a half feet long, and in addition one-sixth and one-quarter of a digit
+long, one-fourth and one-twenty-fourth of a foot wide. In it there are
+three little horizontal iron axles, which revolve in bearings or wide
+pillows of steel, and also four iron wheels, of which two are made with
+rundles and the same number are toothed. Outside the frame, around the
+lowest axle, is a wooden fly-wheel, so that it can be more readily
+turned, and inside the frame is a smaller drum which is made of eight
+rundles, one-sixth and one twenty-fourth of a foot long. Around the
+second axle, which does not project beyond the frame, and is therefore
+only two and a half feet and one-twelfth and one-third part of a digit
+long, there is on the one side, a smaller toothed wheel, which has
+forty-eight teeth, and on the other side a larger drum, which is
+surrounded by twelve rundles one-quarter of a foot long. Around the
+third axle, which is one inch and one-third thick, is a larger toothed
+wheel projecting one foot from the axle in all directions, which has
+seventy-two teeth. The teeth of each wheel are fixed in with screws,
+whose threads are screwed into threads in the wheel, so that those teeth
+which are broken can be replaced by others; both the teeth and rundles
+are steel. The upper axle projects beyond the frame, and is so skilfully
+mortised into the body of another axle that it has the appearance of
+being one; this axle proceeds through a frame made of beams which stands
+around the shaft, into an iron fork set in a stout oak timber, and turns
+on a roller made of pure steel. Around this axle is a drum of the kind
+possessed by those machines which draw water by rag and chain; this drum
+has triple curved iron clamps, to which the links of an iron chain hook
+themselves, so that a great weight cannot tear them away. These links
+are not whole like the links of other chains, but each one being curved
+in the upper part on each side catches the one which comes next, whereby
+it presents the appearance of a double chain. At the point where one
+catches the other, dippers made of iron or brass plates and holding half
+a <i>congius</i><a name="FNanchor_13_158" id="FNanchor_13_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_158" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> are bound to them with thongs; thus, if there are one
+hundred links there will be the same number of dippers pouring out
+water. When the shafts are inclined, the mouths of the dippers project
+and are covered on the top that they may not spill out the water, but
+when the shafts are vertical the dippers do not require a cover. By
+fitting the end of the lowest small axle into the crank, the man who
+works the crank turns the axle, and at the same time the drum whose
+rundles turn the toothed wheel of the second axle; by this wheel is
+driven the one that is made of rundles, which <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174"></a>[Pg 174]</span>again turns the toothed
+wheel of the upper small axle and thus the drum to which the clamps are
+fixed. In this way the chain, together with the empty dippers, is slowly
+let down, close to the footwall side of the vein, into the sump to the
+bottom of the balance drum, which turns on a little iron axle, both ends
+of which are set in a thick iron bearing. The chain is rolled round the
+drum and the dippers fill with water; the chain being drawn up close to
+the hangingwall side, carries the dippers filled with water above the
+drum of the upper axle. Thus there are always three of the dippers
+inverted and pouring water into a lip, from which it flows away into the
+drain of the tunnel. This machine is less useful, because it cannot be
+constructed without great expense, and it carries off but little water
+and is somewhat slow, as also are other machines which possess a great
+number of drums.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig174.jpg"><img src="images/fig174thumb.jpg" alt="Chain Pumps" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Wheel which is turned by treading.
+B&mdash;Axle. C&mdash;Double chain. D&mdash;Link of double chain. E&mdash;Dippers. F&mdash;Simple
+clamps. G&mdash;Clamp with triple curves.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 174]</span></span>
+The next machine of this kind, described in a few words by
+Vitruvius,<a name="FNanchor_14_159" id="FNanchor_14_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_159" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> more rapidly brings up dippers, holding a <i>congius</i>; for
+this reason, it is <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175"></a>[Pg 175]</span>more useful than the first one for drawing water out
+of shafts, into which much water is continually flowing. This machine
+has no iron frame nor drums, but has around its axle a wooden wheel
+which is turned by treading; the axle, since it has no drum, does not
+last very long. In other respects this pump resembles the first kind,
+except that it differs from it by having a double chain. Clamps should
+be fixed to the axle of this machine, just as to the drum of the other
+one; some of these are made simple and others with triple curves, but
+each kind has four barbs.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig175.jpg"><img src="images/fig175thumb.jpg" alt="Chain Pumps" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Wheel whose paddles are turned by
+the force of the stream. B&mdash;Axle. C&mdash;Drum of axle, to which clamps are
+fixed. D&mdash;Chain. E&mdash;Link. F&mdash;Dippers. G&mdash;Balance drum.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 175]</span></span>
+The third machine, which far excels the two just described, is made when
+a running stream can be diverted to a mine; the impetus of the stream
+striking the paddles revolves a water-wheel in place of the wheel turned
+by treading. With regard to the axle, it is like the second machine, but
+the drum which is round the axle, the chain, and the balance drum, are
+like the first machine. It has much more capacious dippers than even the
+second machine, but since the dippers are frequently broken, miners
+rarely use these machines; for they prefer to lift out small quantities
+of water by the first five machines or to draw it up by suction pumps,
+or, if there is <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176"></a>[Pg 176]</span>much water, to drain it by the rag and chain pump or to
+bring it up in water-bags.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177"></a><a href="images/fig177.jpg"><img src="images/fig177thumb.jpg" alt="Suction Pumps" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Sump. B&mdash;Pipes. C&mdash;Flooring.
+D&mdash;Trunk. E&mdash;Perforations of trunk. F&mdash;Valve. G&mdash;Spout. H&mdash;Piston-rod.
+I&mdash;Hand-bar of piston. K&mdash;Shoe. L&mdash;Disc with round openings. M&mdash;Disc
+with oval openings. N&mdash;Cover. O&mdash;This man is boring logs and making them
+into pipes. P&mdash;Borer with auger. Q&mdash;Wider borer.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 177]</span></span>
+Enough, then, of the first sort of pumps. I will now explain the other,
+that is the pump which draws, by means of pistons, water which has been
+raised by suction. Of these there are seven varieties, which though they
+differ from one another in structure, nevertheless confer the same
+benefits upon miners, though some to a greater degree than others. The
+first pump is made as follows. Over the sump is placed a flooring,
+through which a pipe&mdash;or two lengths of pipe, one of which is joined
+into the other&mdash;are let down to the bottom of the sump; they are
+fastened with pointed iron clamps driven in straight on both sides, so
+that the pipes may remain fixed. The lower end of the lower pipe is
+enclosed in a trunk two feet deep; this trunk, hollow like the pipe,
+stands at the bottom of the sump, but the lower opening of it is blocked
+with a round piece of wood; the trunk has perforations round about,
+through which water flows into it. If there is one length of pipe, then
+in the upper part of the trunk which has been hollowed out there is
+enclosed a box of iron, copper, or brass, one palm deep, but without a
+bottom, and a rounded valve so tightly closes it that the water, which
+has been drawn up by suction, cannot run back; but if there are two
+lengths of pipe, the box is enclosed in the lower pipe at the point of
+junction. An opening or a spout in the upper pipe reaches to the drain
+of the tunnel. Thus the workman, eager at his labour, standing on the
+flooring boards, pushes the piston down into the pipe and draws it out
+again. At the top of the piston-rod is a hand-bar and the bottom is
+fixed in a shoe; this is the name given to the leather covering, which
+is almost cone-shaped, for it is so stitched that it is tight at the
+lower end, where it is fixed to the piston-rod which it surrounds, but
+in the upper end where it draws the water it is wide open. Or else an
+iron disc one digit thick is used, or one of wood six digits thick, each
+of which is far superior to the shoe. The disc is fixed by an iron key
+which penetrates through the bottom of the piston-rod, or it is screwed
+on to the rod; it is round, with its upper part protected by a cover,
+and has five or six openings, either round or oval, which taken together
+present a star-like appearance; the disc has the same diameter as the
+inside of the pipe, so that it can be just drawn up and down in it. When
+the workman draws the piston up, the water which has passed in at the
+openings of the disc, whose cover is then closed, is raised to the hole
+or little spout, through which it flows away; then the valve of the box
+opens, and the water which has passed into the trunk is drawn up by the
+suction and rises into the pipe; but when the workman pushes down the
+piston, the valve closes and allows the disc again to draw in the water.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178"></a><a href="images/fig178.jpg"><img src="images/fig178thumb.jpg" alt="Suction Pumps" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Erect timber. B&mdash;Axle. C&mdash;Sweep
+which turns about the axle. D&mdash;Piston rod. E&mdash;Cross-bar. F&mdash;Ring with
+which two pipes are generally joined.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 178]</span></span>
+The piston of the second pump is more easily moved up and down. When
+this pump is made, two beams are placed over the sump, one near the
+right side of it, and the other near the left. To one beam a pipe is
+fixed with iron clamps; to the other is fixed either the forked branch
+of a tree or a timber cut out at the top in the shape of a fork, and
+through the prongs of the fork a round hole is bored. Through a wide
+round hole in the middle of a sweep passes <span class="pagenum">[Pg 178]</span>an iron axle, so fastened
+in the holes in the fork that it remains fixed, and the sweep turns on
+this axle. In one end of the sweep the upper end of a piston-rod is
+fastened with an iron key; at the other end a cross-bar is also fixed,
+to the extreme ends of which are handles to enable it to be held more
+firmly in the hands. And so when the workman pulls the cross-bar upward,
+he forces the piston into the pipe; when he pushes it down again he
+draws the piston out of the pipe; and thus the piston carries up the
+water which has been drawn in at the openings of the disc, and the water
+flows away through the spout into the drains. This pump, like the next
+one, is identical with the first in all that relates to the piston,
+disc, trunk, box, and valve.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"></a><a href="images/fig179.jpg"><img src="images/fig179thumb.jpg" alt="Suction Pumps" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Posts. B&mdash;Axle. C&mdash;Wooden bars.
+D&mdash;Piston rod. E&mdash;Short piece of wood. F&mdash;Drain. G&mdash;This man is
+diverting the water which is flowing out of the drain, to prevent it
+from flowing into the trenches which are being dug.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 179]</span></span>
+The third pump is not unlike the one just described, but in place of one
+upright, posts are erected with holes at the top, and in these holes the
+ends of an axle revolve. To the middle of this axle are fixed two wooden
+bars, to the end of one of which is fixed the piston, and to the end of
+the other a heavy piece of wood, but short, so that it can pass between
+the two posts and may move backward and forward. When the workman pushes
+this piece of wood, the piston is drawn out of the pipe; when it returns
+by its <span class="pagenum">[Pg 179]</span>own weight, the piston is pushed in. In this way, the water
+which the pipe contains is drawn through the openings in the disc and
+emptied by the piston through the spout into the drain. There are some
+who place a hand-bar underneath in place of the short piece of wood.
+This pump, as also the last before described, is less generally used
+among miners than the others.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180"></a><a href="images/fig180.jpg"><img src="images/fig180thumb.jpg" alt="Duplex suction Pumps" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Box. B&mdash;Lower part of box.
+C&mdash;Upper part of same. D&mdash;Clamps. E&mdash;Pipes below the box. F&mdash;Column pipe
+fixed above the box. G&mdash;Iron axle. H&mdash;Piston-rods. I&mdash;Washers to protect
+the bearings. K&mdash;Leathers. L&mdash;Eyes in the axle. M&mdash;Rods whose ends are
+weighted with lumps of lead. N&mdash;Crank.</span> (<i>This plate is unlettered in the
+first edition but corrected in those later.</i>) <span class="inum">[Pg 180]</span></span>
+The fourth kind is not a simple pump but a duplex one. It is made as
+follows. A rectangular block of beechwood, five feet long, two and a
+half feet wide, and one and a half feet thick, is cut in two and
+hollowed out wide and deep enough so that an iron axle with cranks can
+revolve in it. The axle is placed between the two halves of this box,
+and the first part of the axle, which is in contact with the wood, is
+round and the straight end forms a journal. Then the axle is bent down
+the depth of a foot and again bent so as to continue straight, and at
+this point a round piston-rod hangs from it; next it is bent up as far
+as it was bent down; then it continues a little way straight again, and
+then it is bent up a foot and again continues straight, at which point a
+second round piston-rod is hung from it; afterward it <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181"></a>[Pg 181]</span>is bent down the
+same distance as it was bent up the last time; the other end of it,
+which also acts as a journal, is straight. This part which protrudes
+through the wood is protected by two iron washers in the shape of discs,
+to which are fastened two leather washers of the same shape and size, in
+order to prevent the water which is drawn into the box from gushing out.
+These discs are around the axle; one of them is inside the box and the
+other outside. Beyond this, the end of the axle is square and has two
+eyes, in which are fixed two iron rods, and to their ends are weighted
+lumps of lead, so that the axle may have a greater propensity to
+revolve; this axle can easily be turned when its end has been mortised
+in a crank. The upper part of the box is the shallower one, and the
+lower part the deeper; the upper part is bored out once straight down
+through the middle, the diameter of the opening being the same as the
+outside diameter of the column pipe; the lower box has, side by side,
+two apertures also bored straight down; these are for two pipes, the
+space of whose openings therefore is twice as great as that of the upper
+part; this lower part of the box is placed upon the two pipes, which are
+fitted into it at their upper ends, and the lower ends of these pipes
+penetrate into trunks which stand in the sump. These trunks have
+perforations through which the water flows into them. The iron axle is
+placed in the inside of the box, then the two iron piston-rods which
+hang from it are let down through the two pipes to the depth of a foot.
+Each piston has a screw at its lower end which holds a thick iron plate,
+shaped like a disc and full of openings, covered with a leather, and
+similarly to the other pump it has a round valve in a little box. Then
+the upper part of the box is placed upon the lower one and properly
+fitted to it on every side, and where they join they are bound by wide
+thick iron plates, and held with small wide iron wedges, which are
+driven in and are fastened with clamps. The first length of column pipe
+is fixed into the upper part of the box, and another length of pipe
+extends it, and a third again extends this one, and so on, another
+extending on another, until the uppermost one reaches the drain of the
+tunnel. When the crank worker turns the axle, the pistons in turn draw
+the water through their discs; since this is done quickly, and since the
+area of openings of the two pipes over which the box is set, is twice as
+large as the opening of the column pipe which rises from the box, and
+since the pistons do not lift the water far up, the impetus of the water
+from the lower pipes forces it to rise and flow out of the column pipe
+into the drain of the tunnel. Since a wooden box frequently cracks open,
+it is better to make it of lead or copper or brass.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182"></a><a href="images/fig182.jpg"><img src="images/fig182thumb.jpg" alt="Suction Pumps" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Tappets of piston-rods. B&mdash;Cams of
+the barrel. C&mdash;Square upper parts of piston-rods. D&mdash;Lower rounded parts
+of piston-rods. E&mdash;Cross-beams. F&mdash;Pipes. G&mdash;Apertures of pipes.
+H&mdash;Trough.</span> (Fifth kind of pump&mdash;see p. <a href="#Page_181">181</a>). <span class="inum">[Pg 182]</span></span>
+The fifth kind of pump is still less simple, for it is composed of two
+or three pumps whose pistons are raised by a machine turned by men, for
+each piston-rod has a tappet which is raised, each in succession, by two
+cams on a barrel; two or four strong men turn it. When the pistons
+descend into the pipes their discs draw the water; when they are raised
+these force the water out through the pipes. The upper part of each of
+these piston-rods, which is half a foot square, is held in a slot in a
+cross-beam; the lower part, which drops down into the pipes, is made of
+another piece of wood and is round. Each of these three pumps is
+composed of two lengths of pipe fixed <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184"></a>[Pg 184]</span>to the shaft timbers. This
+machine draws the water higher, as much as twenty-four feet. If the
+diameter of the pipes is large, only two pumps are made; if smaller,
+three, so that by either method the volume of water is the same. This
+also must be understood regarding the other machines and their pipes.
+Since these pumps are composed of two lengths of pipe, the little iron
+box having the iron valve which I described before, is not enclosed in a
+trunk, but is in the lower length of pipe, at that point where it joins
+the upper one; thus the rounded part of the piston-rod is only as long
+as the upper length of pipe; but I will presently explain this more
+clearly.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183"></a><a href="images/fig183.jpg"><img src="images/fig183thumb.jpg" alt="Suction Pumps" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Water-wheel. B&mdash;Axle. C&mdash;Trunk on
+which the lowest pipe stands. D&mdash;Basket surrounding trunk.</span> (Sixth kind
+of pump&mdash;see p. <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.) <span class="inum">[Pg 183]</span></span>
+The sixth kind of pump would be just the same as the fifth were it not
+that it has an axle instead of a barrel, turned not by men but by a
+water-wheel, which is revolved by the force of water striking its
+buckets. Since water-power far exceeds human strength, this machine
+draws water through its pipes by discs out of a shaft more than one
+hundred feet deep. The bottom of the lowest pipe, set in the sump, not
+only of this pump but also of the others, is generally enclosed in a
+basket made of wicker-work, to prevent wood shavings and other things
+being sucked in. (See p. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.)</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185"></a><a href="images/fig185.jpg"><img src="images/fig185thumb.jpg" alt="Suction Pumps" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;shaft. B&mdash;Bottom pump. C&mdash;First
+tank. D&mdash;Second pump. E&mdash;Second tank. F&mdash;Third pump. G&mdash;Trough. H&mdash;The
+iron set in the axle. I&mdash;First pump rod. K&mdash;Second pump rod. L&mdash;Third
+pump rod. M&mdash;First piston rod. N&mdash;Second piston rod. O&mdash;Third piston
+rod. P&mdash;Little axles. Q&mdash;"Claws."</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 185]</span></span>
+The seventh kind of pump, invented ten years ago, which is the most
+ingenious, durable, and useful of all, can be made without much expense.
+It is composed of several pumps, which do not, like those last
+described, go down into the shaft together, but of which one is below
+the other, for if there are three, as is generally the case, the lower
+one lifts the water of the sump and pours it out into the first tank;
+the second pump lifts again from that tank into a second tank, and the
+third pump lifts it into the drain of the tunnel. A wheel fifteen feet
+high raises the piston-rods of all these pumps at the same time and
+causes them to drop together. The wheel is made to revolve by paddles,
+turned by the force of a stream which has been diverted to the mountain.
+The spokes of the water-wheel are mortised in an axle six feet long and
+one foot thick, each end of which is surrounded by an iron band, but in
+one end there is fixed an iron journal; to the other end is attached an
+iron like this journal in its posterior part, which is a digit thick and
+as wide as the end of the axle itself. Then the iron extends
+horizontally, being rounded and about three digits in diameter, for the
+length of a foot, and serves as a journal; thence, it bends to a height
+of a foot in a curve, like the horn of the moon, after which it again
+extends straight out for one foot; thus it comes about that this last
+straight portion, as it revolves in an orbit becomes alternately a foot
+higher and a foot lower than the first straight part. From this round
+iron crank there hangs the first flat pump-rod, for the crank is fixed
+in a perforation in the upper end of this flat pump-rod just as the iron
+key of the first set of "claws" is fixed into the lower end. In order to
+prevent the pump-rod from slipping off it, as it could easily do, and
+that it may be taken off when necessary, its opening is wider than the
+corresponding part of the crank, and it is fastened on both sides by
+iron keys. To prevent friction, the ends of the pump-rods are protected
+by iron plates or intervening leathers. This first pump-rod is about
+twelve feet long, the other two are twenty-six feet, and each is a palm
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186"></a>[Pg 186]</span>wide and three digits thick. The sides of each pump-rod are covered and
+protected by iron plates, which are held on by iron screws, so that a
+part which has received damage can be repaired. In the "claws" is set a
+small round axle, a foot and a half long and two palms thick. The ends
+are encircled by iron bands to prevent the iron journals which revolve
+in the iron bearings of the wood from slipping out of it.<a name="FNanchor_15_160" id="FNanchor_15_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_160" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> From this
+little axle the wooden "claws" extend two feet, with a width and
+thickness of six digits; they are three palms distant from each other,
+and both the inner and outer sides are covered with iron plates. Two
+rounded iron keys two digits thick are immovably fixed into the claws.
+The one of these keys perforates the lower end of the first pump-rod,
+and the upper end of the second pump-rod which is held fast. The other
+key, which is likewise immovable, perforates the iron end of the first
+piston-rod, which is bent in a curve and is immovable. Each such
+piston-rod is thirteen feet long and three digits thick, and descends
+into the first pipe of each pump to such depth that its disc nearly
+reaches the valve-box. When it descends into the pipe, the water,
+penetrating through the openings of the disc, raises the leather, and
+when the piston-rod is raised the water presses down the leather, and
+this supports its weight; then the valve closes the box as a door closes
+an entrance. The pipes are joined by two iron bands, one palm wide, one
+outside the other, but the inner one is sharp all round that it may fit
+into each pipe and hold them together. Although at the present time
+pipes lack the inner band, still they have nipples by which they are
+joined together, for the lower end of the upper one holds the upper end
+of the lower one, each being hewn away for a length of seven digits, the
+former inside, the latter outside, so that the one can fit into the
+other. When the piston-rod descends into the first pipe, that valve
+which I have described is closed; when the piston-rod is raised, the
+valve is opened so that the water can run in through the perforations.
+Each one of such pumps is composed of two lengths of pipe, each of which
+is twelve feet long, and the inside diameter is seven digits. The lower
+one is placed in the sump of the shaft, or in a tank, and its lower end
+is blocked by a round piece of wood, above which there are six
+perforations around the pipe through which the water flows into it. The
+upper part of the upper pipe has a notch one foot deep and a palm wide,
+through which the water flows away into a tank or trough. Each tank is
+two feet long and one foot wide and deep. There is the same number of
+axles, "claws," and rods of each kind as there are pumps; if there are
+three pumps, there are only two tanks, because the sump of the shaft and
+the drain of the tunnel take the place of two. The following is the way
+this machine draws water from a shaft. The wheel being turned raises the
+first pump-rod, and the pump-rod raises the first "claw," and thus also
+the second pump-rod, and the first piston-rod; then the second pump-rod
+raises the second "claw," and thus the third pump-rod and the second
+piston-rod; then the third pump-rod raises the third "claw" and the
+third piston-rod, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187"></a>[Pg 187]</span>for there hangs no pump-rod from the iron key of
+these claws, for it can be of no use in the last pump. In turn, when the
+first pump-rod descends, each set of "claws" is lowered, each pump-rod
+and each piston-rod. And by this system, at the same time the water is
+lifted into the tanks and drained out of them; from the sump at the
+bottom of the shaft it is drained out, and it is poured into the trough
+of the tunnel. Further, around the main axle there may be placed two
+water wheels, if the river supplies enough water to turn them, and from
+the back part of each round iron crank, one or two pump-rods can be
+hung, each of which can move the piston-rods of three pumps. Lastly, it
+is necessary that the shafts from which the water is pumped out in pipes
+should be vertical, for as in the case of the hauling machines, all
+pumps which have pipes do not draw the water so high if the pipes are
+inclined in inclined shafts, as if they are placed vertically in
+vertical shafts.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig187.jpg"><img src="images/fig187thumb.jpg" alt="Suction Pumps" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Water wheel of upper machine.
+B&mdash;Its pump. C&mdash;Its trough. D&mdash;Wheel of lower machine. E&mdash;Its pump.
+F&mdash;Race.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 187]</span></span>
+If the river does not supply enough water-power to turn the
+last-described pump, which happens because of the nature of the locality
+or occurs during the summer season when there are daily droughts, a
+machine is built with a wheel so low and light that the water of ever so
+little a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188"></a>[Pg 188]</span>stream can turn it. This water, falling into a race, runs
+therefrom on to a second high and heavy wheel of a lower machine, whose
+pump lifts the water out of a deep shaft. Since, however, the water of
+so small a stream cannot alone revolve the lower water-wheel, the axle
+of the latter is turned at the start with a crank worked by two men, but
+as soon as it has poured out into a pool the water which has been drawn
+up by the pumps, the upper wheel draws up this water by its own pump,
+and pours it into the race, from which it flows on to the lower
+water-wheel and strikes its buckets. So both this water from the mine,
+as well as the water of the stream, being turned down the races on to
+that subterranean wheel of the lower machine, turns it, and water is
+pumped out of the deeper part of the shaft by means of two or three
+pumps.<a name="FNanchor_16_161" id="FNanchor_16_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_161" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189"></a><a href="images/fig189.jpg"><img src="images/fig189thumb.jpg" alt="Duplex suction Pumps" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Upper axle. B&mdash;Wheel whose
+buckets the force of the stream strikes. C&mdash;Toothed drum. D&mdash;Second
+axle. E&mdash;Drum composed of rundles. F&mdash;Curved round irons. G&mdash;Rows of
+pumps.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 189]</span></span>
+If the stream supplies enough water straightway to turn a higher and
+heavier water-wheel, then a toothed drum is fixed to the other end of
+the axle, and this turns the drum made of rundles on another axle set
+below it. To each end of this lower axle there is fitted a crank of
+round iron curved like the horns of the moon, of the kind employed in
+machines of this description. This machine, since it has rows of pumps
+on each side, draws great quantities of water.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191"></a><a href="images/fig191.jpg"><img src="images/fig191thumb.jpg" alt="Rag and Chain Pumps" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Wheel. B&mdash;Axle. C&mdash;Journals.
+D&mdash;Pillows. E&mdash;Drum. F&mdash;Clamps. G&mdash;Drawing-chain. H&mdash;Timbers. I&mdash;Balls.
+K&mdash;Pipe. L&mdash;Race of stream.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 191]</span></span>
+Of the rag and chain pumps there are six kinds known to us, of which the
+first is made as follows: A cave is dug under the surface of earth or in
+a tunnel, and timbered on all sides by stout posts and planks, to
+prevent either the men from being crushed or the machine from being
+broken by its collapse. In this cave, thus timbered, is placed a
+water-wheel fitted to an angular axle. The iron journals of the axle
+revolve in iron pillows, which are held in timbers of sufficient
+strength. The wheel is generally twenty-four feet high, occasionally
+thirty, and in no way different from those which are made for grinding
+corn, except that it is a little narrower. The axle has on one side a
+drum with a groove in the middle of its circumference, to which are
+fixed many four-curved iron clamps. In these clamps catch the links of
+the chain, which is drawn through the pipes out of the sump, and which
+again falls, through a timbered opening, right down to the bottom into
+the sump to a balancing drum. There is an iron band around the small
+axle of the balancing drum, each journal of which revolves in an iron
+bearing fixed to a timber. The chain turning about this drum brings up
+the water by the balls through the pipes. Each length of pipe is
+encircled and protected by five iron bands, a palm wide and a digit
+thick, placed at equal distances from each other; the first band on the
+pipe is shared in common with the preceding length of pipe into which it
+is fitted, the last band with the succeeding length of pipe which is
+fitted into it. Each length of pipe, except the first, is bevelled on
+the outer circumference of the upper end to a distance of seven digits
+and for a depth of three digits, in order that it may be inserted into
+the length of pipe which goes before it; each, except the last, is
+reamed out on the inside of the lower end to a like distance, but to the
+depth <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190"></a>[Pg 190]</span>of a palm, that it may be able to take the end of the pipe which
+follows. And each length of pipe is fixed with iron clamps to the
+timbers of the shaft, that it may remain stationary. Through this
+continuous series of pipes, the water is drawn by the balls of the chain
+up out of the sump as far as the tunnel, where it flows but into the
+drains through an aperture in the highest pipe. The balls which lift the
+water are connected by the iron links of the chain, and are six feet
+distant from one another; they are made of the hair of a horse's tail
+sewn into a covering to prevent it from being pulled out by the iron
+clamps on the drum; the balls are of such size that one can be held in
+each hand. If this machine is set up on the surface of the earth, the
+stream which turns the water-wheel is led away through open-air ditches;
+if in a tunnel, the water is led away through the subterranean drains.
+The buckets of the water-wheel, when struck by the impact of the stream,
+move forward and turn the wheel, together with the drum, whereby the
+chain is wound up and the balls expel the water through the pipes. If
+the wheel of this machine is twenty-four feet in diameter, it draws
+water from a shaft two hundred and ten feet deep; if thirty feet in
+diameter, it will draw water from a shaft two hundred and forty feet
+deep. But such work requires a stream with greater water-power.</p>
+
+<p>The next pump has two drums, two rows of pipes and two drawing-chains
+whose balls lift out the water; otherwise they are like the last pump.
+This pump is usually built when an excessive amount of water flows into
+the sump. These two pumps are turned by water-power; indeed, water draws
+water.</p>
+
+<p>The following is the way of indicating the increase or decrease of the
+water in an underground sump, whether it is pumped by this rag and chain
+pump or by the first pump, or the third, or some other. From a beam
+which is as high above the shaft as the sump is deep, is hung a cord, to
+one end of which there is fastened a stone, the other end being attached
+to a plank. The plank is lowered down by an iron wire fastened to the
+other end; when the stone is at the mouth of the shaft the plank is
+right down the shaft in the sump, in which water it floats. This plank
+is so heavy that it can drag down the wire and its iron clasp and hook,
+together with the cord, and thus pull the stone upwards. Thus, as the
+water decreases, the plank descends and the stone is raised; on the
+contrary, when the water increases the plank rises and the stone is
+lowered. When the stone nearly touches the beam, since this indicates
+that the water has been exhausted from the sump by the pump, the
+overseer in charge of the machine closes the water-race and stops the
+water-wheel; when the stone nearly touches the ground at the side of the
+shaft, this indicates that the sump is full of water which has again
+collected in it, because the water raises the plank and thus the stone
+drags back both the rope and the iron wire; then the overseer opens the
+water-race, whereupon the water of the stream again strikes the buckets
+of the water-wheel and turns the pump. As workmen generally cease from
+their labours on the yearly holidays, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192"></a>[Pg 192]</span>sometimes on working days,
+and are thus not always near the pump, and as the pump, if necessary,
+must continue to draw water all the time, a bell rings aloud
+continuously, indicating that this pump, or any other kind, is uninjured
+and nothing is preventing its turning. The bell is hung by a cord from a
+small wooden axle held in the timbers which stand over the shaft, and a
+second long cord whose upper end is fastened to the small axle is
+lowered into the shaft; to the lower end of this cord is fastened a
+piece of wood; and as often as a cam on the main axle strikes it, so
+often does the bell ring and give forth a sound.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193"></a><a href="images/fig193.jpg"><img src="images/fig193thumb.jpg" alt="Rag and Chain Pumps" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Upright axle. B&mdash;Toothed
+wheel. C&mdash;Teeth. D&mdash;Horizontal axle. E&mdash;Drum which is made of rundles.
+F&mdash;Second drum. G&mdash;Drawing-chain. H&mdash;The balls.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 193]</span></span>
+The third pump of this kind is employed by miners when no river capable
+of turning a water-wheel can be diverted, and it is made as follows.
+They first dig a chamber and erect strong timbers and planks to prevent
+the sides from falling in, which would overwhelm the pump and kill the
+men. The roof of the chamber is protected with contiguous timbers, so
+arranged that the horses which pull the machine can travel over it. Next
+they again set up sixteen beams forty feet long and one foot wide and
+thick, joined by clamps at the top and spreading apart at the bottom,
+and they fit the lower end of each beam into a separate sill laid flat
+on the ground, and join these by a post; thus there is created a
+circular area of which the diameter is fifty feet. Through an opening in
+the centre of this area there descends an upright square axle,
+forty-five feet long and a foot and a half wide and thick; its lower
+pivot revolves in a socket in a block laid flat on the ground in the
+chamber, and the upper pivot revolves in a bearing in a beam which is
+mortised into two beams at the summit beneath the clamps; the lower
+pivot is seventeen feet distant from either side of the chamber, <i>i.e.</i>,
+from its front and rear. At the height of a foot above its lower end,
+the axle has a toothed wheel, the diameter of which is twenty-two feet.
+This wheel is composed of four spokes and eight rim pieces; the spokes
+are fifteen feet long and three-quarters of a foot wide and thick<a name="FNanchor_17_162" id="FNanchor_17_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_162" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>;
+one end of them is mortised in the axle, the other in the two rims where
+they are joined together. These rims are three-quarters of a foot thick
+and one foot wide, and from them there rise and project upright teeth
+three-quarters of a foot high, half a foot wide, and six digits thick.
+These teeth turn a second horizontal axle by means of a drum composed of
+twelve rundles, each three feet long and six digits wide and thick. This
+drum, being turned, causes the axle to revolve, and around this axle
+there is a drum having iron clamps with fourfold curves in which catch
+the links of a chain, which draws water through pipes by means of balls.
+The iron journals of this horizontal axle revolve on pillows which are
+set in the centre of timbers. Above the roof of the chamber there are
+mortised into the upright axle the ends of two beams which rise
+obliquely; the upper ends of these beams support double cross-beams,
+likewise mortised to the axle. In the outer end of each cross-beam there
+is mortised a small wooden piece which appears to hang down; in this
+wooden piece there is similarly <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194"></a>[Pg 194]</span>mortised at the lower end a short
+board; this has an iron key which engages a chain, and this chain again
+a pole-bar. This machine, which draws water from a shaft two hundred and
+forty feet deep, is worked by thirty-two horses; eight of them work for
+four hours, and then these rest for twelve hours, and the same number
+take their place. This kind of machine is employed at the foot of the
+Harz<a name="FNanchor_18_163" id="FNanchor_18_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_163" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> mountains and in the neighbourhood. Further, if necessity
+arises, several pumps of this kind are often built for the purpose of
+mining one vein, but arranged differently in different localities
+varying according to the depth. At Schemnitz, in the Carpathian
+mountains, there are three pumps, of which the lowest lifts water from
+the lowest sump to the first drains, through which it flows into the
+second sump; the intermediate one lifts from the second sump to the
+second drain, from which it flows into the third sump; and the upper one
+lifts it to the drains of the tunnel, through which it flows away. This
+system of three machines of this kind is turned by ninety-six horses;
+these horses go down to the machines by an inclined <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195"></a>[Pg 195]</span>shaft, which slopes
+and twists like a screw and gradually descends. The lowest of these
+machines is set in a deep place, which is distant from the surface of
+the ground 660 feet.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig194.jpg"><img src="images/fig194thumb.jpg" alt="Rag and Chain Pumps" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Axle. B&mdash;Drum.
+C&mdash;Drawing-chain. D&mdash;Balls. E&mdash;Clamps.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 194]</span></span>
+The fourth species of pump belongs to the same genera, and is made as
+follows. Two timbers are erected, and in openings in them, the ends of a
+barrel revolve. Two or four strong men turn the barrel, that is to say,
+one or two pull the cranks, and one or two push them, and in this way
+help the others; alternately another two or four men take their place.
+The barrel of this machine, just like the horizontal axle of the other
+machines, has a drum whose iron clamps catch the links of a
+drawing-chain. Thus water is drawn through the pipes by the balls from a
+depth of forty-eight feet. Human strength cannot draw water higher than
+this, because such very heavy labour exhausts not only men, but even
+horses; only water-power can drive continuously a drum of this kind.
+Several pumps of this kind, as of the last, are often built for the
+purpose of mining on a single vein, but they are arranged differently
+for different positions and depths.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196"></a>[Pg 196]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig195.jpg"><img src="images/fig195thumb.jpg" alt="Rag and Chain Pumps" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Axles. B&mdash;Levers. C&mdash;Toothed
+drum. D&mdash;Drum made of rundles. E&mdash;Drum in which iron clamps are fixed.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 195]</span></span>
+The fifth pump of this kind is partly like the third and partly like
+the fourth, because it is turned by strong men like the last, and like
+the third it has two axles and three drums, though each axle is
+horizontal. The journals of each axle are so fitted in the pillows of
+the beams that they cannot fly out; the lower axle has a crank at one
+end and a toothed drum at the other end; the upper axle has at one end a
+drum made of rundles, and at the other end, a drum to which are fixed
+iron clamps, in which the links of a chain catch in the same way as
+before, and from the same depth, draw water through pipes by means of
+balls. This revolving machine is turned by two pairs of men alternately,
+for one pair stands working while the other sits taking a rest; while
+they are engaged upon the task of turning, one pulls the crank and the
+other pushes, and the drums help to make the pump turn more easily.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197"></a><a href="images/fig197.jpg"><img src="images/fig197thumb.jpg" alt="Rag and Chain Pumps" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Axles. B&mdash;Wheel which is
+turned by treading. C&mdash;Toothed wheel. D&mdash;Drum made of rundles. E&mdash;Drum
+to which are fixed iron clamps. F&mdash;Second wheel. G&mdash;Balls.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 197]</span></span>
+The sixth pump of this kind likewise has two axles. At one end of the
+lower axle is a wheel which is turned by two men treading, this is
+twenty-three feet high and four feet wide, so that one man may stand
+alongside the other. At the other end of this axle is a toothed wheel.
+The upper<a name="FNanchor_19_164" id="FNanchor_19_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_164" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> axle has two drums and one wheel; the first drum is made
+of rundles, and to the other there are fixed the iron clamps. The wheel
+is like the one on the second machine which is chiefly used for drawing
+earth and broken rock out of shafts. The treaders, to prevent themselves
+from falling, grasp in their hands poles which are fixed to the inner
+sides of the wheel. When they turn this wheel, the toothed drum being
+made to revolve, sets in motion the other drum which is made of rundles,
+by which means again the links of the chain catch to the cleats of the
+third drum and draw water through pipes by means of balls,&mdash;from a depth
+of sixty-six feet.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199"></a><a href="images/fig199.jpg"><img src="images/fig199thumb.jpg" alt="Baling Water" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Reservoir. B&mdash;Race. C, D&mdash;Levers.
+E, F&mdash;Troughs under the water gates. G, H&mdash;Double rows of buckets.
+I&mdash;Axle. K&mdash;Larger drum. L&mdash;Drawing-chain. M&mdash;Bag. N&mdash;Hanging cage.
+O&mdash;Man who directs the machine. P, Q&mdash;Men emptying bags.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 199]</span></span>
+But the largest machine of all those which draw water is the one which
+follows. First of all a reservoir is made in a timbered chamber; this
+reservoir is eighteen feet long and twelve feet wide and high. Into this
+reservoir a stream is diverted through a water-race or through the
+tunnel; it has two entrances and the same number of gates. Levers are
+fixed to the upper part of these gates, by which they can be raised and
+let down again, so that by one way the gates are opened and in the other
+way closed. Beneath the openings are two plank troughs which carry the
+water flowing from the reservoir, and pour it on to the buckets of the
+water-wheel, the impact of which turns the wheel. The shorter trough
+carries the water, which strikes the buckets that turn the wheel toward
+the reservoir, and the longer trough carries the water which strikes
+those buckets that turn the wheel in the opposite direction. The casing
+or covering of the wheel is made of joined boards to which strips are
+affixed on the inner side. The wheel itself is thirty-six feet in
+diameter, and is mortised to an axle, and it has, as I have already
+said, two rows of buckets, of which one is set the opposite way to the
+other, so that the wheel may be turned toward the reservoir or in the
+opposite <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198"></a>[Pg 198]</span>direction. The axle is square and is thirty-five feet long
+and two feet thick and wide. Beyond the wheel, at a distance of six
+feet, the axle has four hubs, one foot wide and thick, each one of which
+is four feet distant from the next; to these hubs are fixed by iron
+nails as many pieces of wood as are necessary to cover the hubs, and, in
+order that the wood pieces may fit tight, they are broader on the
+outside and narrower on the inside; in this way a drum is made, around
+which is wound a chain to whose ends are hooked leather bags. The reason
+why a drum of this kind is made, is that the axle may be kept in good
+condition, because this drum when it becomes worn away by use can be
+repaired easily. Further along the axle, not far from the end, is
+another drum one foot broad, projecting two feet on all sides around the
+axle. And to this, when occasion demands, a brake is applied forcibly
+and holds back the machine; this kind of brake I have explained before.
+Near the axle, in place of a hopper, there is a floor with a
+considerable slope, having in front of the shaft a width of fifteen feet
+and the same at the back; at each side of it there is a stout post
+carrying an iron chain which has a large hook. Five men operate this
+machine; one lets down the doors which close the reservoir gates, or by
+drawing down the levers, opens the water-races; this man, who is the
+director of this machine, stands in a hanging cage beside the reservoir.
+When one bag has been drawn out nearly as far as the sloping floor, he
+closes the water gate in order that the wheel may be stopped; when the
+bag has been emptied he opens the other water gate, in order that the
+other set of buckets may receive the water and drive the wheel in the
+opposite direction. If he cannot close the water-gate quickly enough,
+and the water continues to flow, he calls out to his comrade and bids
+him raise the brake upon the drum and stop the wheel. Two men
+alternately empty the bags, one standing on that part of the floor which
+is in front of the shaft, and the other on that part which is at the
+back. When the bag has been nearly drawn up&mdash;of which fact a certain
+link of the chain gives warning&mdash;the man who stands on the one part of
+the floor, catches a large iron hook in one link of the chain, and pulls
+out all the subsequent part of the chain toward the floor, where the bag
+is emptied by the other man. The object of this hook is to prevent the
+chain, by its own weight, from pulling down the other empty bag, and
+thus pulling the whole chain from its axle and dropping it down the
+shaft. His comrade in the work, seeing that the bag filled with water
+has been nearly drawn out, calls to the director of the machine and bids
+him close the water of the tower so that there will be time to empty the
+bag; this being emptied, the director of the machine first of all
+slightly opens the other water-gate of the tower to allow the end of the
+chain, together with the empty bag, to be started into the shaft again,
+and then opens entirely the water-gates. When that part of the chain
+which has been pulled on to the floor has been wound up again, and has
+been let down over the shaft from the drum, he takes out the large hook
+which was fastened into a link of the chain. The fifth man stands in a
+sort of cross-cut beside the sump, that he may not be hurt, if it should
+happen that a link <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200"></a>[Pg 200]</span>is broken and part of the chain or anything else
+should fall down; he guides the bag with a wooden shovel, and fills it
+with water if it fails to take in the water spontaneously. In these
+days, they sew an iron band into the top of each bag that it may
+constantly remain open, and when lowered into the sump may fill itself
+with water, and there is no need for a man to act as governor of the
+bags. Further, in these days, of those men who stand on the floor the
+one empties the bags, and the other closes the gates of the reservoir
+and opens them again, and the same man usually fixes the large hook in
+the link of the chain. In this way, three men only are employed in
+working this machine; or even&mdash;since sometimes the one who empties the
+bag presses the brake which is raised against the other drum and thus
+stops the wheel&mdash;two men take upon themselves the whole labour.</p>
+
+<p>But enough of haulage machines; I will now speak of ventilating
+machines. If a shaft is very deep and no tunnel reaches to it, or no
+drift from another shaft connects with it, or when a tunnel is of great
+length and no shaft reaches to it, then the air does not replenish
+itself. In such a case it weighs heavily on the miners, causing them to
+breathe with difficulty, and sometimes they are even suffocated, and
+burning lamps are also extinguished. There is, therefore, a necessity
+for machines which the Greeks call <span class="greek" title="Greek: pneumatikai">&pi;&nu;&epsilon;&upsilon;&mu;&alpha;&tau;&iota;&kappa;&#940;&iota;</span> and the Latins
+<i>spiritales</i>&mdash;though they do not give forth any sound&mdash;which enable the
+miners to breathe easily and carry on their work.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201"></a><a href="images/fig201.jpg"><img src="images/fig201thumb.jpg" alt="Windsails for Ventilation" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Sills. B&mdash;Pointed
+stakes. C&mdash;Cross-beams. D&mdash;Upright planks. E&mdash;Hollows. F&mdash;Winds.
+G&mdash;Covering disc. H&mdash;Shafts. I&mdash;Machine without a covering.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 201]</span></span>
+These devices are of three genera. The first receives and diverts into
+the shaft the blowing of the wind, and this genus is divided into three
+species, of which the first is as follows. Over the shaft&mdash;to which no
+tunnel connects&mdash;are placed three sills a little longer than the shaft,
+the first over the front, the second over the middle, and the third over
+the back of the shaft. Their ends have openings, through which pegs,
+sharpened at the bottom, are driven deeply into the ground so as to hold
+them immovable, in the same way that the sills of the windlass are
+fixed. Each of these sills is mortised into each of three cross-beams,
+of which one is at the right side of the shaft, the second at the left,
+and the third in the middle. To the second sill and the second
+cross-beam&mdash;each of which is placed over the middle of the shaft&mdash;planks
+are fixed which are joined in such a manner that the one which precedes
+always fits into the groove of the one which follows. In this way four
+angles and the same number of intervening hollows are created, which
+collect the winds that blow from all directions. The planks are roofed
+above with a cover made in a circular shape, and are open below, in
+order that the wind may not be diverted upward and escape, but may be
+carried downward; and thereby the winds of necessity blow into the
+shafts through these four openings. However, there is no need to roof
+this kind of machine in those localities in which it can be so placed
+that the wind can blow down through its topmost part.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 201]</span></p>
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></a><a href="images/fig202.jpg"><img src="images/fig202thumb.jpg" alt="Windsails for Ventilation" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Projecting mouth of
+conduit. B&mdash;Planks fixed to the mouth of the conduit which does not
+project.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 202]</span></span>
+The second machine of this genus turns the blowing wind into a shaft
+through a long box-shaped conduit, which is made of as many lengths of
+planks, joined together, as the depth of the shaft requires; the joints
+are smeared with fat, glutinous clay moistened with water. The mouth of
+this conduit either projects out of the shaft to a height of three or
+four feet, or it does not project; if it projects, it is shaped like a
+rectangular funnel, broader and wider at the top than the conduit
+itself, that it may the more easily gather the wind; if it does not
+project, it is not broader than the conduit, but planks are fixed to it
+away from the direction in which the wind is blowing, which catch the
+wind and force it into the conduit.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203"></a><a href="images/fig203.jpg"><img src="images/fig203thumb.jpg" alt="Windsails for Ventilation" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Wooden barrels.
+B&mdash;Hoops. C&mdash;Blow-holes. D&mdash;Pipe. E&mdash;Table. F&mdash;Axle. G&mdash;Opening in the
+bottom of the barrel. H&mdash;Wing.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 203]</span></span>
+The third of this genus of machine is made of a pipe or pipes and a
+barrel. Above the uppermost pipe there is erected a wooden barrel, four
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg 202]</span>feet high and three feet in diameter, bound with wooden hoops; it has a
+square blow-hole always open, which catches the breezes and guides them
+down either by a pipe into a conduit or by many pipes into the shaft. To
+the top of the upper pipe is attached a circular table as thick as the
+bottom of the barrel, but of a little less diameter, so that the barrel
+may be turned around on it; the pipe projects out of the table and is
+fixed in a round opening in the centre of the bottom of the barrel. To
+the end of the pipe a perpendicular axle is fixed which runs through the
+centre of the barrel into a hole in the cover, in which it is fastened,
+in the same way as at the bottom. Around this fixed axle and the table
+on the pipe, the movable barrel is easily turned by a zephyr, or much
+more by a wind, which govern the wing on it. This wing is made of thin
+boards and fixed to the upper part of the barrel on the side furthest
+away from the blow-hole; this, as I have said, is square and always
+open. The wind, from whatever quarter of <span class="pagenum">[Pg 203]</span>the world it blows, drives the
+wing straight toward the opposite direction, in which way the barrel
+turns the blow-hole towards the wind itself; the blow-hole receives the
+wind, and it is guided down into the shaft by means of the conduit or
+pipes.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204"></a><a href="images/fig204.jpg"><img src="images/fig204thumb.jpg" alt="Ventilation Fans" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Drum. B&mdash;Box-shaped casing.
+C&mdash;Blow-hole. D&mdash;Second hole. E&mdash;Conduit. F&mdash;Axle. G&mdash;Lever of axle.
+H&mdash;Rods.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 204]</span></span>
+The second genus of blowing machine is made with fans, and is likewise
+varied and of many forms, for the fans are either fitted to a windlass
+barrel or to an axle. If to an axle, they are either contained in a
+hollow drum, which is made of two wheels and a number of boards joining
+them together, or else in a box-shaped casing. The drum is stationary
+and closed on the sides, except for round holes of such size that the
+axle may turn in them; it has two square blow-holes, of which the upper
+one receives the air, while the lower one empties into the conduit
+through which the air is led down the shaft. The ends of the axle, which
+project on each side of the drum, are supported by forked posts or
+hollowed beams plated with thick iron; one end of the axle has a crank,
+while in the other end are fixed four rods with thick heavy ends, so
+that they weight the axle, and when turned, make it <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205"></a>[Pg 205]</span>prone to motion as
+it revolves. And so, when the workman turns the axle by the crank, the
+fans, the description of which I will give a little later, draw in the
+air by the blow-hole, and force it through the other blow-hole which
+leads to the conduit, and through this conduit the air penetrates into
+the shaft.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig205.jpg"><img src="images/fig205thumb.jpg" alt="Ventilation Fans" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Box-shaped casing placed on the
+ground. B&mdash;Its blow-hole. C&mdash;Its axle with fans. D&mdash;Crank of the axle.
+E&mdash;Rods of same. F&mdash;Casing set on timbers. G&mdash;Sails which the axle has
+outside the casing.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 205]</span></span>
+The one with the box-shaped casing is furnished with just the same
+things as the drum, but the drum is far superior to the box; for the
+fans so fill the drum that they almost touch it on every side, and drive
+into the conduit all the air that has been accumulated; but they cannot
+thus fill the box-shaped casing, on account of its angles, into which
+the air partly retreats; therefore it cannot be as useful as the drum.
+The kind with a box-shaped casing is not only placed on the ground, but
+is also set up on timbers like a windmill, and its axle, in place of a
+crank, has four sails outside, like the sails of a windmill. When these
+are struck by the wind they turn the axle, and in this way its
+fans&mdash;which are placed within the casing&mdash;drive <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206"></a>[Pg 206]</span>the air through the
+blow-hole and the conduit into the shaft. Although this machine has no
+need of men whom it is necessary to pay to work the crank, still when
+the sky is devoid of wind, as it often is, the machine does not turn,
+and it is therefore less suitable than the others for ventilating a
+shaft.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig206.jpg"><img src="images/fig206thumb.jpg" alt="Ventilation Fans" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Hollow drum. B&mdash;Its blow-hole.
+C&mdash;Axle with fans. D&mdash;Drum which is made of rundles. E&mdash;Lower axle.
+F&mdash;Its toothed wheel. G&mdash;Water wheel.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 206]</span></span>
+In the kind where the fans are fixed to an axle, there is generally a
+hollow stationary drum at one end of the axle, and on the other end is
+fixed a drum made of rundles. This rundle drum is turned by the toothed
+wheel of a lower axle, which is itself turned by a wheel whose buckets
+receive the impetus of water. If the locality supplies an abundance of
+water this machine is most useful, because to turn the crank does not
+need men who require pay, and because it forces air without cessation
+through the conduit into the shaft.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207"></a><a href="images/fig207.jpg"><img src="images/fig207thumb.jpg" alt="Ventilation Fans" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;First kind of fan. B&mdash;Second
+kind of fan. C&mdash;Third kind of fan. D&mdash;Quadrangular part of axle.
+E&mdash;Round part of same. F&mdash;Crank.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 207]</span></span>
+Of the fans which are fixed on to an axle contained in a drum or box,
+there are three sorts. The first sort is made of thin boards of such
+length and width as the height and width of the drum or box require; the
+second <span class="pagenum">[Pg 207]</span>sort is made of boards of the same width, but shorter, to which
+are bound long thin blades of poplar or some other flexible wood; the
+third sort has boards like the last, to which are bound double and
+triple rows of goose feathers. This last is less used than the second,
+which in turn is less used than the first. The boards of the fan are
+mortised into the quadrangular parts of the barrel axle.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208"></a><a href="images/fig208.jpg"><img src="images/fig208thumb.jpg" alt="Bellows for mine ventilation" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Smaller part of
+shaft. B&mdash;Square conduit. C&mdash;Bellows. D&mdash;Larger part of shaft.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 208]</span></span>
+Blowing machines of the third genus, which are no less varied and of no
+fewer forms than those of the second genus, are made with bellows, for
+by its blasts the shafts and tunnels are not only furnished with air
+through conduits or pipes, but they can also be cleared by suction of
+their heavy and pestilential vapours. In the latter case, when the
+bellows is opened it draws the vapours from the conduits through its
+blow-hole and sucks these vapours into itself; in the former case, when
+it is compressed, it drives the air through its nozzle into the conduits
+or pipes. They are compressed either by a man, <span class="pagenum">[Pg 208]</span>or by a horse or by
+water-power; if by a man, the lower board of a large bellows is fixed to
+the timbers above the conduit which projects out of the shaft, and so
+placed that when the blast is blown through the conduit, its nozzle is
+set in the conduit. When it is desired to suck out heavy or pestilential
+vapours, the blow-hole of the bellows is fitted all round the mouth of
+the conduit. Fixed to the upper bellows board is a lever which couples
+with another running downward from a little axle, into which it is
+mortised so that it may remain immovable; the iron journals of this
+little axle revolve in openings of upright posts; and so when the
+workman pulls down the lever the upper board of the bellows is raised,
+and at the same time the flap of the blow-hole is dragged open by the
+force of the wind. If the nozzle of the bellows is enclosed in the
+conduit it draws pure air into itself, but if its blow-hole is fitted
+all round the mouth of the conduit it exhausts the heavy and
+pestilential vapours out of the conduit and thus from the shaft, even if
+it is one hundred and twenty feet deep. A stone placed on the upper
+board of the bellows depresses it and then the flap of the blow-hole is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209"></a>[Pg 209]</span>closed. The bellows, by the first method, blows fresh air into the
+conduit through its nozzle, and by the second method blows out through
+the nozzle the heavy and pestilential vapours which have been collected.
+In this latter case fresh air enters through the larger part of the
+shaft, and the miners getting the benefit of it can sustain their toil.
+A certain smaller part of the shaft which forms a kind of estuary,
+requires to be partitioned off from the other larger part by
+uninterrupted lagging, which reaches from the top of the shaft to the
+bottom; through this part the long but narrow conduit reaches down
+nearly to the bottom of the shaft.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig209.jpg"><img src="images/fig209thumb.jpg" alt="Bellows for mine ventilation" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Tunnel. B&mdash;Pipe.
+C&mdash;Nozzle of double bellows.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 209]</span></span>
+When no shaft has been sunk to such depth as to meet a tunnel driven far
+into a mountain, these machines should be built in such a manner that
+the workman can move them about. Close by the drains of the tunnel
+through which the water flows away, wooden pipes should be placed and
+joined tightly together in such a manner that they can hold the air;
+these should reach from the mouth of the tunnel to its furthest end. At
+the mouth of the tunnel the bellows should be so placed that through its
+nozzle it can blow its accumulated blasts into the pipes or the conduit;
+since one blast <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210"></a>[Pg 210]</span>always drives forward another, they penetrate into the
+tunnel and change the air, whereby the miners are enabled to continue
+their work.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211"></a><a href="images/fig211.jpg"><img src="images/fig211thumb.jpg" alt="Bellows for mine ventilation" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Machine first
+described. B&mdash;This workman, treading with his feet, is compressing the
+bellows. C&mdash;Bellows without nozzles. D&mdash;Hole by which heavy vapours or
+blasts are blown out. E&mdash;Conduits. F&mdash;Tunnel. G&mdash;Second machine
+described. H&mdash;Wooden wheel. I&mdash;Its steps. K&mdash;Bars. L&mdash;Hole in same
+wheel. M&mdash;Pole. N&mdash;Third machine described. O&mdash;Upright axle. P&mdash;Its
+toothed drum. Q&mdash;Horizontal axle. R&mdash;Its drum which is made of rundles.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 211]</span></span>
+If heavy vapours need to be drawn off from the tunnels, generally three
+double or triple bellows, without nozzles and closed in the forepart,
+are placed upon benches. A workman compresses them by treading with his
+feet, just as persons compress those bellows of the organs which give
+out varied and sweet sounds in churches. These heavy vapours are thus
+drawn along the air-pipes and through the blow-hole of the lower bellows
+board, and are expelled through the blow-hole of the upper bellows board
+into the open air, or into some shaft or drift. This blow-hole has a
+flap-valve, which the noxious blast opens, as often as it passes out.
+Since one volume of air constantly rushes in to take the place of
+another which has been drawn out by the bellows, not only is the heavy
+air drawn out of a tunnel as great as 1,200 feet long, or even longer,
+but also the wholesome air is naturally drawn in through that part of
+the tunnel which is open outside the conduits. In this way the air is
+changed, and the miners are enabled to carry on the work they have
+begun. If machines of this kind had not been invented, it would be
+necessary for miners to drive two tunnels into a mountain, and
+continually, at every two hundred feet at most, to sink a shaft from the
+upper tunnel to the lower one, that the air passing into the one, and
+descending by the shafts into the other, would be kept fresh for the
+miners; this could not be done without great expense.</p>
+
+<p>There are two different machines for operating, by means of horses, the
+above described bellows. The first of these machines has on its axle a
+wooden wheel, the rim of which is covered all the way round by steps; a
+horse is kept continually within bars, like those within which horses
+are held to be shod with iron, and by treading these steps with its feet
+it turns the wheel, together with the axle; the cams on the axle press
+down the sweeps which compress the bellows. The way the instrument is
+made which raises the bellows again, and also the benches on which the
+bellows rest, I will explain more clearly in <a href="#BOOK_IX">Book IX</a>. Each bellows, if
+it draws heavy vapours out of a tunnel, blows them out of the hole in
+the upper board; if they are drawn out of a shaft, it blows them out
+through its nozzle. The wheel has a round hole, which is transfixed with
+a pole when the machine needs to be stopped.</p>
+
+<p>The second machine has two axles; the upright one is turned by a horse,
+and its toothed drum turns a drum made of rundles on a horizontal axle;
+in other respects this machine is like the last. Here, also, the nozzles
+of the bellows placed in the conduits blow a blast into the shaft or
+tunnel.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212"></a><a href="images/fig212.jpg"><img src="images/fig212thumb.jpg" alt="Ventilating with Damp Cloth" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Tunnel. B&mdash;Linen
+cloth.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 212]</span></span>
+In the same way that this last machine can refresh the heavy air of a
+shaft or tunnel, so also could the old system of ventilating by the
+constant shaking of linen cloths, which Pliny<a name="FNanchor_20_165" id="FNanchor_20_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_165" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> has explained; the air
+not only grows <span class="pagenum">[Pg 212]</span>heavier with the depth of a shaft, of which fact he has
+made mention, but also with the length of a tunnel.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213"></a><a href="images/fig213.jpg"><img src="images/fig213thumb.jpg" alt="Descent into Mines" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Descending into the shaft by
+ladders. B&mdash;By sitting on a stick. C&mdash;By sitting on the dirt.
+D&mdash;Descending by steps cut in the rock.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 213]</span></span>
+The climbing machines of miners are ladders, fixed to one side of the
+shaft, and these reach either to the tunnel or to the bottom of the
+shaft. I need not describe how they are made, because they are used
+everywhere, and need not so much skill in their construction as care in
+fixing them. However, miners go down into mines not only by the steps of
+ladders, but they are also lowered into them while sitting on a stick or
+a wicker basket, fastened to the rope of one of the three drawing
+machines which I described at first. Further, when the shafts are much
+inclined, miners and other workmen sit in the dirt which surrounds their
+loins and slide down in the same way that boys do in winter-time when
+the water on some hillside has congealed with the cold, and to prevent
+themselves from falling, one arm is wound about a rope, the upper end of
+which is fastened to a beam at the mouth of the shaft, and the lower end
+to a stake fixed in the bottom of the shaft. In these three ways miners
+descend into the shafts. A fourth way may be mentioned which is employed
+when men and horses go down to the underground <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214"></a>[Pg 214]</span>machines and come up
+again, that is by inclined shafts which are twisted like a screw and
+have steps cut in the rock, as I have already described.</p>
+
+<p>It remains for me to speak of the ailments and accidents of miners, and
+of the methods by which they can guard against these, for we should
+always devote more care to maintaining our health, that we may freely
+perform our bodily functions, than to making profits. Of the illnesses,
+some affect the joints, others attack the lungs, some the eyes, and
+finally some are fatal to men.</p>
+
+<p>Where water in shafts is abundant and very cold, it frequently injures
+the limbs, for cold is harmful to the sinews. To meet this, miners
+should make themselves sufficiently high boots of rawhide, which protect
+their legs from the cold water; the man who does not follow this advice
+will suffer much ill-health, especially when he reaches old age. On the
+other hand, some mines are so dry that they are entirely devoid of
+water, and this dryness causes the workmen even greater harm, for the
+dust which is stirred and beaten up by digging penetrates into the
+windpipe and lungs, and produces difficulty in breathing, and the
+disease which the Greeks call <span class="greek" title="Greek: asthma">&#7942;&sigma;&theta;&mu;&alpha;</span>. If the dust has corrosive
+qualities, it eats away the lungs, and implants consumption in the body;
+hence in the mines of the Carpathian Mountains women are found who have
+married seven husbands, all of whom this terrible consumption has
+carried off to a premature death. At Altenberg in Meissen there is found
+in the mines black <i>pompholyx</i>, which eats wounds and ulcers to the
+bone; this also corrodes iron, for which reason the keys of their sheds
+are made of wood. Further, there is a certain kind of <i>cadmia</i><a name="FNanchor_21_166" id="FNanchor_21_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_166" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> which
+eats away the feet of the workmen when they have become wet, and
+similarly their hands, and injures their lungs and eyes. Therefore, for
+their <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215"></a>[Pg 215]</span>digging they should make for themselves not only boots of
+rawhide, but gloves long enough to reach to the elbow, and they should
+fasten loose veils over their faces; the dust will then neither be drawn
+through these into their windpipes and lungs, nor will it fly into their
+eyes. Not dissimilarly, among the Romans<a name="FNanchor_22_167" id="FNanchor_22_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_167" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> the makers of vermilion
+took precautions against breathing its fatal dust.</p>
+
+<p>Stagnant air, both that which remains in a shaft and that which remains
+in a tunnel, produces a difficulty in breathing; the remedies for this
+evil are the ventilating machines which I have explained above. There is
+another illness even more destructive, which soon brings death to men
+who work in those shafts or levels or tunnels in which the hard rock is
+broken by fire. Here the air is infected with poison, since large and
+small veins and seams in the rocks exhale some subtle poison from the
+minerals, which is driven out by the fire, and this poison itself is
+raised with the smoke not unlike <i>pompholyx</i>,<a name="FNanchor_23_168" id="FNanchor_23_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_168" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> which clings to the
+upper part of the walls in the works in which ore is smelted. If this
+poison cannot escape from the ground, but falls down into the pools and
+floats on their surface, it often causes danger, for if at any time the
+water is disturbed through a stone or anything else, these fumes rise
+again from the pools and thus overcome the men, by being drawn in with
+their breath; this is even much worse if the fumes of the fire have not
+yet all escaped. The bodies of living creatures who are infected with
+this poison generally swell immediately and lose all movement and
+feeling, and they die without pain; men even in the act of climbing from
+the shafts by the steps of ladders fall back into the shafts when the
+poison overtakes them, because their hands do not perform their office,
+and seem to them to be round and spherical, and likewise their feet. If
+by good fortune the injured ones escape these evils, for a little while
+they are pale and look like dead men. At such times, no one should
+descend into the mine or into the neighbouring mines, or if he is in
+them he should come out quickly. Prudent and skilled miners burn the
+piles of wood on Friday, towards evening, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216"></a>[Pg 216]</span>they do not descend into
+the shafts nor enter the tunnels again before Monday, and in the
+meantime the poisonous fumes pass away.</p>
+
+<p>There are also times when a reckoning has to be made with Orcus,<a name="FNanchor_24_169" id="FNanchor_24_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_169" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> for
+some metalliferous localities, though such are rare, spontaneously
+produce poison and exhale pestilential vapour, as is also the case with
+some openings in the ore, though these more often contain the noxious
+fumes. In the towns of the plains of Bohemia there are some caverns
+which, at certain seasons of the year, emit pungent vapours which put
+out lights and kill the miners if they linger too long in them. Pliny,
+too, has left a record that when wells are sunk, the sulphurous or
+aluminous vapours which arise kill the well-diggers, and it is a test of
+this danger if a burning lamp which has been let down is extinguished.
+In such cases a second well is dug to the right or left, as an
+air-shaft, which draws off these noxious vapours. On the plains they
+construct bellows which draw up these noxious vapours and remedy this
+evil; these I have described before.</p>
+
+<p>Further, sometimes workmen slipping from the ladders into the shafts
+break their arms, legs, or necks, or fall into the sumps and are
+drowned; often, indeed, the negligence of the foreman is to blame, for
+it is his special work both to fix the ladders so firmly to the timbers
+that they cannot break away, and to cover so securely with planks the
+sumps at the bottom of the shafts, that the planks cannot be moved nor
+the men fall into the water; wherefore the foreman must carefully
+execute his own work. Moreover, he must not set the entrance of the
+shaft-house toward the north wind, lest in winter the ladders freeze
+with cold, for when this happens the men's hands become stiff and
+slippery with cold, and cannot perform their office of holding. The men,
+too, must be careful that, even if none of these things happen, they do
+not fall through their own carelessness.</p>
+
+<p>Mountains, too, slide down and men are crushed in their fall and perish.
+In fact, when in olden days Rammelsberg, in Goslar, sank down, so many
+men were crushed in the ruins that in one day, the records tell us,
+about 400 women were robbed of their husbands. And eleven years ago,
+part of the mountain of Altenberg, which had been excavated, became
+loose and sank, and suddenly crushed six miners; it also swallowed up a
+hut and one mother and her little boy. But this generally occurs in
+those mountains which contain <i>venae cumulatae</i>. Therefore, miners
+should leave numerous arches under the mountains which need support, or
+provide underpinning. Falling pieces of rock also injure their limbs,
+and to prevent this from happening, miners should protect the shafts,
+tunnels, and drifts.</p>
+
+<p>The venomous ant which exists in Sardinia is not found in our mines.
+This animal is, as Solinus<a name="FNanchor_25_170" id="FNanchor_25_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_170" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> writes, very small and like a spider in
+shape; it is called <i>solifuga</i>, because it shuns (<i>fugit</i>) the light
+(<i>solem</i>). It is very common <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217"></a>[Pg 217]</span>in silver mines; it creeps unobserved and
+brings destruction upon those who imprudently sit on it. But, as the
+same writer tells us, springs of warm and salubrious waters gush out in
+certain places, which neutralise the venom inserted by the ants.</p>
+
+<p>In some of our mines, however, though in very few, there are other
+pernicious pests. These are demons of ferocious aspect, about which I
+have spoken in my book <i>De Animantibus Subterraneis</i>. Demons of this
+kind are expelled and put to flight by prayer and fasting.<a name="FNanchor_26_171" id="FNanchor_26_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_171" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<p>Some of these evils, as well as certain other things, are the reason why
+pits are occasionally abandoned. But the first and principal cause is
+that they do not yield metal, or if, for some fathoms, they do bear
+metal they become barren in depth. The second cause is the quantity of
+water which flows in; sometimes the miners can neither divert this water
+into the tunnels, since tunnels cannot be driven so far into the
+mountains, or they cannot draw it out with machines because the shafts
+are too deep; or if they could draw it out with machines, they do not
+use them, the reason undoubtedly being that the expenditure is greater
+than the profits of a moderately poor vein. The third cause is the
+noxious air, which the owners sometimes cannot overcome either by skill
+or expenditure, for which reason the digging is sometimes abandoned, not
+only of shafts, but also of tunnels. The fourth cause is the poison
+produced in particular places, if it is not in our power either
+completely to remove it or to moderate its effects. This is the reason
+why the caverns in the Plain known as Laurentius<a name="FNanchor_27_172" id="FNanchor_27_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_172" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> used not to be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218"></a>[Pg 218]</span>worked, though they were not deficient in silver. The fifth cause are
+the fierce and murderous demons, for if they cannot be expelled, no one
+escapes from them. The sixth cause is that the underpinnings become
+loosened and collapse, and a fall of the mountain usually follows; the
+underpinnings are then only restored when the vein is very rich in
+metal. The seventh cause is military operations. Shafts and tunnels
+should not be re-opened unless we are quite certain of the reasons why
+the miners have deserted them, because we ought not to believe that our
+ancestors were so indolent and spiritless as to desert mines which could
+have been carried on with profit. Indeed, in our own days, not a few
+miners, persuaded by old women's tales, have re-opened deserted shafts
+and lost their time and trouble. Therefore, to prevent future
+generations from being led to act in such a way, it is advisable to set
+down in writing the reason why the digging of each shaft or tunnel has
+been abandoned, just as it is agreed was once done at Freiberg, when the
+shafts were deserted on account of the great inrush of water.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p class="center">END OF BOOK VI.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_149" id="Notes_149">[Pg 149]</a></span><a name="Footnote_1_147" id="Footnote_1_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_147"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> This Book is devoted in the main to winding, ventilating,
+and pumping machinery. Their mechanical principles are very old. The
+block and pulley, the windlass, the use of water-wheels, the
+transmission of power through shafts and gear-wheels, chain-pumps,
+piston-pumps with valves, were all known to the Greeks and Romans, and
+possibly earlier. Machines involving these principles were described by
+Ctesibius, an Alexandrian of 250 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, by Archimedes (287-212 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>), and
+by Vitruvius (1st Century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) As to how far these machines were
+applied to mining by the Ancients we have but little evidence, and this
+largely in connection with handling water. Diodorus Siculus (1st Century
+<span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) referring to the Spanish mines, says (Book V.): "Sometimes at
+great depths they meet great rivers underground, but by art give check
+to the violence of the streams, for by cutting trenches they divert the
+current, and being sure to gain what they aim at when they have begun,
+they never leave off till they have finished it. And they admirably pump
+out the water with those instruments called Egyptian pumps, invented by
+Archimedes, the Syracusan, when he was in Egypt. By these, with constant
+pumping by turns they throw up the water to the mouth of the pit and
+thus drain the mine; for this engine is so ingeniously contrived that a
+vast quantity of water is strangely and with little labour cast out."
+</p><p>
+Strabo (63 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>-24 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>, <span class="smcaplower">III.</span>, 2, 9), also referring to Spanish mines,
+quoting from Posidonius (about 100 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>), says: "He compares with these
+(the Athenians) the activity and diligence of the Turdetani, who are in
+the habit of cutting tortuous and deep tunnels, and draining the streams
+which they frequently encounter by means of Egyptian screws."
+(Hamilton's Tran., Vol. I., p. 221). The "Egyptian screw" was
+Archimedes' screw, and was thus called because much used by the
+Egyptians for irrigation. Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII.</span>, 31) also says, in speaking of
+the Spanish silver-lead mines: "The mountain has been excavated for a
+distance of 1,500 paces, and along this distance there are
+water-carriers standing by torch-light night and day steadily baling the
+water (thus) making quite a river." The re-opening of the mines at Rio
+Tinto in the middle of the 18th Century disclosed old Roman stopes, in
+which were found several water-wheels. These were about 15 feet in
+diameter, lifting the water by the reverse arrangement to an overshot
+water-wheel. A wooden Archimedian screw was also found in the
+neighbourhood. (Nash, The Rio Tinto Mine, its History and Romance,
+London, 1904).
+</p><p>
+Until early in the 18th Century, water formed the limiting factor in the
+depth of mines. To the great devotion to this water problem we owe the
+invention of the steam engine. In 1705 Newcomen&mdash;no doubt inspired by
+Savery's unsuccessful attempt&mdash;invented his engine, and installed the
+first one on a colliery at Wolverhampton, in Staffordshire. With its
+success, a new era was opened to the miner, to be yet further extended
+by Watt's improvements sixty years later. It should be a matter of
+satisfaction to mining engineers that not only was the steam engine the
+handiwork of their profession, but that another mining engineer,
+Stephenson, in his effort to further the advance of his calling,
+invented the locomotive.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_150" id="Notes_150">[Pg 150]</a></span><a name="Footnote_2_148" id="Footnote_2_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_148"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> While these particular tools serve the same purpose as the
+"gad" and the "moil," the latter are not fitted with handles, and we
+have, therefore, not felt justified in adopting these terms, but have
+given a literal rendering of the Latin.
+</p><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_151" id="Notes_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>
+The Latin and old German terms for these tools were:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">First</td><td align="center">Iron tool</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center"><i>Ferramentum</i></td><td align="left"><i>primum</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left"><i>Bergeisen</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Second</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left"><i>secundum</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left"><i>Rutzeisen</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Third</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left"><i>tertium</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left"><i>Sumpffeisen</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fourth</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left"><i>quartum</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left"><i>Fimmel</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Wedge</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left" colspan="2"><i>Cuneus</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left"><i>Keil</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Iron block</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left" colspan="2"><i>Lamina</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left"><i>Pl�tz</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Iron plate</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left" colspan="2"><i>Bractea</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left"><i>Feder</i>.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+The German words obviously had local value and do not bear translation
+literally.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_153" id="Notes_153">[Pg 153]</a></span><a name="Footnote_3_149" id="Footnote_3_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_149"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> One <i>metreta</i>, a Greek measure, equalled about nine English
+gallons, and a <i>congius</i> contained about six pints.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_150" id="Footnote_4_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_150"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> <i>Ingestores</i>. This is a case of Agricola coining a name for
+workmen from the work, the term being derived from <i>ingero</i>, to pour or
+to throw in, used in the previous clause&mdash;hence the "reason." See p.
+<a href="#Page_xxxi">xxxi</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_154" id="Notes_154">[Pg 154]</a></span><a name="Footnote_5_151" id="Footnote_5_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_151"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>Cisium</i>. A two-wheeled cart. In the <a href="#PREFACE">preface</a> Agricola gives
+this as an example of his intended adaptations. See p. <a href="#Page_xxxi">xxxi</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_156" id="Notes_156">[Pg 156]</a></span><a name="Footnote_6_152" id="Footnote_6_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_152"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <i>Canis</i>. The Germans in Agricola's time called a truck a
+<i>hundt</i>&mdash;a hound.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_153" id="Footnote_7_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_153"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> <i>Alveus</i>,&mdash;"Tray." The Spanish term <i>batea</i> has been so
+generally adopted into the mining vocabulary for a wooden bowl for these
+purposes, that we introduce it here.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_157" id="Notes_157">[Pg 157]</a></span><a name="Footnote_8_154" id="Footnote_8_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_154"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII.</span>, 21). "The fragments are carried on
+workmen's shoulders; night and day each passes the material to his
+neighbour, only the last of them seeing the daylight."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_166" id="Notes_166">[Pg 166]</a></span><a name="Footnote_10_155" id="Footnote_10_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_155"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> <i>Harpago</i>,&mdash;A "grapple" or "hook."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_169" id="Notes_169">[Pg 169]</a></span><a name="Footnote_11_156" id="Footnote_11_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_156"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Ancient Noricum covered the region of modern Tyrol, with
+parts of Bavaria, Salzburg, etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_172" id="Notes_172">[Pg 172]</a></span><a name="Footnote_12_157" id="Footnote_12_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_157"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> <i>Machina quae pilis aquas haurit</i>. "Machine which draws
+water with balls." This apparatus is identical with the Cornish "rag and
+chain pump" of the same period, and we have therefore adopted that
+term.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_158" id="Footnote_13_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_158"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> A <i>congius</i> contained about six pints.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_174" id="Notes_174">[Pg 174]</a></span><a name="Footnote_14_159" id="Footnote_14_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_159"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Vitruvius (<span class="smcaplower">X.</span>, 9). "But if the water is to be supplied to
+still higher places, a double chain of iron is made to revolve on the
+axis of the wheel, long enough to reach to the lower level. This is
+furnished with brazen buckets, each holding about a <i>congius</i>. Then by
+turning the wheel, the chain also turns upon the axis and brings the
+buckets to the top thereof, on passing which they are inverted and pour
+into the conduits the water they have raised."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_186" id="Notes_186">[Pg 186]</a></span><a name="Footnote_15_160" id="Footnote_15_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_160"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> This description certainly does not correspond in every
+particular with the illustration.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_188" id="Notes_188">[Pg 188]</a></span><a name="Footnote_16_161" id="Footnote_16_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_161"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> There is a certain deficiency in the hydraulics of this
+machine.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_192" id="Notes_192">[Pg 192]</a></span><a name="Footnote_17_162" id="Footnote_17_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_162"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> The dimensions given in this description for the various
+members do not tally.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_194" id="Notes_194">[Pg 194]</a></span><a name="Footnote_18_163" id="Footnote_18_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_163"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> <i>Melibocian</i>,&mdash;the Harz.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_196" id="Notes_196">[Pg 196]</a></span><a name="Footnote_19_164" id="Footnote_19_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_164"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> In the original text this is given as "lower," and appears
+to be an error.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_210" id="Notes_210">[Pg 210]</a></span><a name="Footnote_20_165" id="Footnote_20_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_165"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXI</span>, 28). "In deep wells, the occurrence of
+<i>sulphurata</i> or <i>aluminosa</i> vapor is fatal to the diggers. The presence
+of this peril is shown if a lighted lamp let down into the well is
+extinguished. If so, other wells are sunk to the right and left, which
+carry off these noxious gases. Apart from these evils, the air itself
+becomes noxious with depth, which can be remedied by constantly shaking
+linen cloths, thus setting the air in motion."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_214" id="Notes_214">[Pg 214]</a></span><a name="Footnote_21_166" id="Footnote_21_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_166"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> This is given in the German translation as <i>kobelt</i>. The
+<i>kobelt</i> (or <i>cobaltum</i> of Agricola) was probably arsenical-cobalt, a
+mineral common in the Saxon mines. The origin of the application of the
+word cobalt to a mineral appears to lie in the German word for the
+gnomes and goblins (<i>kobelts</i>) so universal to Saxon miners'
+imaginations,&mdash;this word in turn probably being derived from the Greek
+<i>cobali</i> (mimes). The suffering described above seems to have been
+associated with the malevolence of demons, and later the word for these
+demons was attached to this disagreeable ore. A quaint series of mining
+"sermons," by Johann Mathesius, entitled <i>Sarepta oder Bergpostill</i>,
+N�rnberg, 1562, contains the following passage (p. 154) which bears out
+this view. We retain the original and varied spelling of cobalt and also
+add another view of Mathesius, involving an experience of Solomon and
+Hiram of Tyre with some mines containing cobalt.
+</p><p>
+"Sometimes, however, from dry hard veins a certain black, greenish, grey
+or ash-coloured earth is dug out, often containing good ore, and this
+mineral being burnt gives strong fumes and is extracted like 'tutty.' It
+is called <i>cadmia fossilis</i>. You miners call it <i>cobelt</i>. Germans call
+the Black Devil and the old Devil's furies, old and black <i>cobel</i>, who
+injure people and their cattle with their witchcrafts. Now the Devil is
+a wicked, malicious spirit, who shoots his poisoned darts into the
+hearts of men, as sorcerers and witches shoot at the limbs of cattle and
+men, and work much evil and mischief with <i>cobalt</i> or <i>hipomane</i> or
+horses' poison. After quicksilver and <i>rotg�ltigen</i> ore, are <i>cobalt</i>
+and <i>wismuth</i> fumes; these are the most poisonous of the metals, and
+with them one can kill flies, mice, cattle, birds, and men. So, fresh
+<i>cobalt</i> and <i>kisswasser</i> (vitriol?) devour the hands and feet of
+miners, and the dust and fumes of <i>cobalt</i> kill many mining people and
+workpeople who do much work among the fumes of the smelters. Whether or
+not the Devil and his hellish crew gave their name to <i>cobelt</i>, or
+<i>kobelt</i>, nevertheless, <i>cobelt</i> is a poisonous and injurious metal even
+if it contains silver. I find in I. Kings 9, the word <i>Cabul</i>. When
+Solomon presented twenty towns in Galilee to the King of Tyre, Hiram
+visited them first, and would not have them, and said the land was well
+named <i>Cabul</i> as Joshua had christened it. It is certain from Joshua
+that these <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_215" id="Notes_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>twenty towns lay in the Kingdom of Aser, not far from our
+<i>Sarepta</i>, and that there had been iron and copper mines there, as Moses
+says in another place. Inasmuch, then, as these twenty places were
+mining towns, and <i>cobelt</i> is a metal, it appears quite likely that the
+mineral took its name from the land of Cabul. History and circumstances
+bear out the theory that Hiram was an excellent and experienced miner,
+who obtained much gold from Ophir, with which he honoured Solomon.
+Therefore, the Great King wished to show his gratitude to his good
+neighbour by honouring a miner with mining towns. But because the King
+of Tyre was skilled in mines, he first inspected the new mines, and saw
+that they only produced poor metal and much wild <i>cobelt</i> ore, therefore
+he preferred to find his gold by digging the gold and silver in India
+rather than by getting it by the <i>cobelt</i> veins and ore. For truly,
+<i>cobelt</i> ores are injurious, and are usually so embedded in other ore
+that they rob them in the fire and consume (<i>madtet und frist</i>) much
+lead before the silver is extracted, and when this happens it is
+especially <i>speysig</i>. Therefore Hiram made a good reckoning as to the
+mines and would not undertake all the expense of working and smelting,
+and so returned Solomon the twenty towns."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_167" id="Footnote_22_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_167"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 40). "Those employed in the works preparing
+vermilion, cover their faces with a bladder-skin, that they may not
+inhale the pernicious powder, yet they can see through the skin."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_168" id="Footnote_23_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_168"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> <i>Pompholyx</i> was a furnace deposit, usually mostly zinc
+oxide, but often containing arsenical oxide, and to this latter quality
+this reference probably applies. The symptoms mentioned later in the
+text amply indicate arsenical poisoning, of which a sort of spherical
+effect on the hands is characteristic. See also note on p. <a href="#Notes_112">112</a> for
+discussion of "corrosive" <i>cadmia</i>; further information on <i>pompholyx</i>
+is given in <a href="#Footnote_26_259">Note 26, p. 394</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_216" id="Notes_216">[Pg 216]</a></span><a name="Footnote_24_169" id="Footnote_24_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_169"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Orcus, the god of the infernal regions,&mdash;otherwise Pluto.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_170" id="Footnote_25_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_170"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Caius Julius Solinus was an unreliable Roman Grammarian of
+the 3rd Century. There is much difference of opinion as to the precise
+animal meant by <i>solifuga</i>. The word is variously spelled <i>solipugus,
+solpugus, solipuga, solipunga</i>, etc., and is mentioned by Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">VIII.</span>,
+43), and other ancient authors all apparently meaning a venomous insect,
+either an ant or a spider. The term in later times indicated a
+scorpion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_217" id="Notes_217">[Pg 217]</a></span><a name="Footnote_26_171" id="Footnote_26_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_171"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> The presence of demons or gnomes in the mines was so
+general a belief that Agricola fully accepted it. This is more
+remarkable, in view of our author's very general scepticism regarding
+the supernatural. He, however, does not classify them all as bad&mdash;some
+being distinctly helpful. The description of gnomes of kindly intent,
+which is contained in the last paragraph in <i>De Animantibus</i> is of
+interest:&mdash;
+</p><p>
+"Then there are the gentle kind which the Germans as well as the Greeks
+call cobalos, because they mimic men. They appear to laugh with glee and
+pretend to do much, but really do nothing. They are called little
+miners, because of their dwarfish stature, which is about two feet. They
+are venerable looking and are clothed like miners in a filleted garment
+with a leather apron about their loins. This kind does not often trouble
+the miners, but they idle about in the shafts and tunnels and really do
+nothing, although they pretend to be busy in all kinds of labour,
+sometimes digging ore, and sometimes putting into buckets that which has
+been dug. Sometimes they throw pebbles at the workmen, but they rarely
+injure them unless the workmen first ridicule or curse them. They are
+not very dissimilar to Goblins, which occasionally appear to men when
+they go to or from their day's work, or when they attend their cattle.
+Because they generally appear benign to men, the Germans call them
+<i>guteli</i>. Those called <i>trulli</i>, which take the form of women as well as
+men, actually enter the service of some people, especially the <i>Suions</i>.
+The mining gnomes are especially active in the workings where metal has
+already been found, or where there are hopes of discovering it, because
+of which they do not discourage the miners, but on the contrary
+stimulate them and cause them to labour more vigorously."
+</p><p>
+The German miners were not alone in such beliefs, for miners generally
+accepted them&mdash;even to-day the faith in "knockers" has not entirely
+disappeared from Cornwall. Neither the sea nor the forest so lends
+itself to the substantiation of the supernatural as does the mine. The
+dead darkness, in which the miners' lamps serve only to distort every
+shape, the uncanny noises of restless rocks whose support has been
+undermined, the approach of danger and death without warning, the sudden
+vanishing or discovery of good fortune, all yield a thousand
+corroborations to minds long steeped in ignorance and prepared for the
+miraculous through religious teaching.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_172" id="Footnote_27_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_172"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> The Plains of Laurentius extend from the mouth of the
+Tiber southward&mdash;say twenty miles south of Rome. What Agricola's
+authority was for silver mines in this region we cannot discover. This
+may, however, refer to the lead-silver district of the Attic Peninsula,
+Laurion being sometimes Latinized as <i>Laurium</i> or <i>Laurius</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219"></a>[Pg 219]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="BOOK_VII" id="BOOK_VII"></a>BOOK VII.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="dropcap"><img src="images/caps.png" alt="S" /></div>
+<p style="text-indent:-1em;">
+ince the Sixth Book has described the iron tools, the vessels and the
+machines used in mines, this Book will describe the methods of
+assaying<a name="FNanchor_1_173" id="FNanchor_1_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_173" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> ores; because it is desirable to first test them in order
+that the material mined may be advantageously smelted, or that the dross
+may be purged away and the metal made pure. Although writers have
+mentioned such tests, yet none of them have set down the directions for
+performing them, wherefore it is no wonder that those who come later
+have written nothing on the subject. By tests of this kind miners can
+determine with certainty whether ores contain any metal in them or not;
+or if it has already been indicated that the ore contains one or more
+metals, the tests show whether it is much or little; the miners also
+ascertain by such tests the method by which the metal can be separated
+from that part of the ore devoid of it; and further, by these tests,
+they determine that part in which there is much metal from that part in
+which there is little. Unless these tests have been carefully applied
+before the metals are melted out, the ore cannot be smelted without
+great loss to the owners, for the parts which do not easily melt in the
+fire carry the metals off with them or consume them. In the last case,
+they pass off with the fumes; in the other case they are mixed with the
+slag and furnace accretions, and in such event the owners lose the
+labour which they have spent in preparing the furnaces and the
+crucibles, and further, it is necessary for them to incur fresh
+expenditure for fluxes and other things. Metals, when they have been
+melted out, are usually assayed in order that we may ascertain what
+proportion of silver is in a <i>centumpondium</i> of copper or lead, or what
+quantity of gold is in one <i>libra</i> of silver; and, on the other hand,
+what proportion of copper or lead is contained in a <i>centumpondium</i> of
+silver, or what quantity of silver is contained in one <i>libra</i> of gold.
+And from this we can calculate whether it will be worth while to
+separate the precious metals from the base metals, or not. Further, a
+test of this kind shows whether coins are good or are debased; and
+readily detects silver, if the coiners have mixed more than is lawful
+with the gold; or copper, if the coiners have alloyed with the gold or
+silver more of it than is allowable. I will explain all these methods
+with the utmost care that I can.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220"></a>[Pg 220]</span></p><p>The method of assaying ore used by mining people, differs from smelting
+only by the small amount of material used. Inasmuch as, by smelting a
+small quantity, they learn whether the smelting of a large <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221"></a>[Pg 221]</span>quantity
+will compensate them for their expenditure; hence, if they are not
+particular to employ assays, they may, as I have already said, sometimes
+smelt the metal from the ore with a loss or sometimes without any
+profit; for they <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222"></a>[Pg 222]</span>can assay the ore at a very small expense, and smelt
+it only at a great expense. Both processes, however, are carried out in
+the same way, for just as we assay ore in a little furnace, so do we
+smelt it in the large furnace. Also in both cases charcoal and not wood
+is burned. Moreover, in the crucible when metals are tested, be they
+gold, silver, copper, or lead, they are mixed in precisely the same way
+as they are mixed in the blast furnace when they are smelted. Further,
+those who assay ores with fire, either pour out the metal in a liquid
+state, or, when it has cooled, break the crucible and clean <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223"></a>[Pg 223]</span>the metal
+from slag; and in the same way the smelter, as soon as the metal flows
+from the furnace into the forehearth, pours in cold water and takes the
+slag from the metal with a hooked bar. Finally, in the same way that
+gold and silver are separated from lead in a cupel, so also are they
+separated in the cupellation furnace.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary that the assayer who is testing ore or metals should be
+prepared and instructed in all things necessary in assaying, and that he
+should close the doors of the room in which the assay furnace stands,
+lest <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224"></a>[Pg 224]</span>anyone coming at an inopportune moment might disturb his thoughts
+when they are intent on the work. It is also necessary for him to place
+his balances in a case, so that when he weighs the little buttons of
+metal the scales may not be agitated by a draught of air, for that is a
+hindrance to his work.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig223a.jpg"><img src="images/fig223athumb.jpg" alt="Muffle Furnace" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Round assay furnace.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 223]</span></span>
+<span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig223b.jpg"><img src="images/fig223bthumb.jpg" alt="Muffle Furnace" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Rectangular assay furnace.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 223]</span></span>
+<span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig224.jpg"><img src="images/fig224thumb.jpg" alt="Muffle Assay Furnace" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Openings in the plate.
+B&mdash;Part of plate which projects beyond the furnace.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 224]</span></span>
+Now I will describe the different things which are necessary in
+assaying, beginning with the assay furnace, of which one differs from
+another in shape, material, and the place in which it is set. In shape,
+they may be round or rectangular, the latter shape being more suited to
+assaying ores. The materials of the assay furnaces differ, in that one
+is made of bricks, another of iron, and certain ones of clay. The one of
+bricks is built on a chimney-hearth which is three and a half feet high;
+the iron one is placed in the same position, and also the one of clay.
+The brick one is a cubit high, a foot wide on the inside, and one foot
+two digits long; at a point five digits above the hearth&mdash;which is
+usually the thickness of an unbaked<a name="FNanchor_2_174" id="FNanchor_2_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_174" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> brick&mdash;an iron plate is laid, and
+smeared over with lute on the upper side to prevent it from being
+injured by the fire; in front of the furnace above the plate is a mouth
+a palm high, five digits wide, and rounded at the top. The iron plate
+has three openings which are one digit wide and three digits long, one
+is at each side and the third at the back; through them sometimes the
+ash falls from the burning charcoal, and sometimes the draught blows
+through the chamber which is below the iron plate, and stimulates the
+fire. For this reason this furnace when used by metallurgists is named
+from assaying, but when used by the alchemists it is named from the
+wind<a name="FNanchor_3_175" id="FNanchor_3_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_175" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>. The part of the iron plate which projects from the furnace is
+generally three-quarters of a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225"></a>[Pg 225]</span>palm long and a palm wide; small pieces
+of charcoal, after being laid thereon, can be placed quickly in the
+furnace through its mouth with a pair of tongs, or again, if necessary,
+can be taken out of the furnace and laid there.</p>
+
+<p>The iron assay furnace is made of four iron bars a foot and a half high;
+which at the bottom are bent outward and broadened a short distance to
+enable them to stand more firmly; the front part of the furnace is made
+from two of these bars, and the back part from two of them; to these
+bars on both sides are joined and welded three iron cross-bars, the
+first at a height of a palm from the bottom, the second at a height of a
+foot, and the third at the top. The upright bars are perforated at that
+point where the side cross-bars are joined to them, in order that three
+similar iron bars on the remaining sides can be engaged in them; thus
+there are twelve cross-bars, which make three stages at unequal
+intervals. At the lower stage, the upright bars are distant from each
+other one foot and five digits; and at the middle stage the front is
+distant from the back three palms and one digit, and the sides are
+distant from each other three palms and as many digits; at the highest
+stage from the front to the back there is a distance of two palms, and
+between the sides three palms, so that in this way the furnace becomes
+narrower at the top. Furthermore, an iron rod, bent to the shape of the
+mouth, is set into the lowest bar of the front; this mouth, just like
+that of the brick furnace, is a palm high and five digits wide. Then the
+front cross-bar of the lower stage is perforated on each side of the
+mouth, and likewise the back one; through these perforations there pass
+two iron rods, thus making altogether four bars in the lower stage, and
+these support an iron plate smeared with lute; part of this plate also
+projects outside the furnace. The outside of the furnace from the lower
+stage to the upper, is covered with iron plates, which are bound to the
+bars by iron wires, and smeared with lute to enable them to bear the
+heat of the fire as long as possible.</p>
+
+<p>As for the clay furnace, it must be made of fat, thick clay, medium so
+far as relates to its softness or hardness. This furnace has exactly the
+same height as the iron one, and its base is made of two earthenware
+tiles, one foot and three palms long and one foot and one palm wide.
+Each side of the fore part of both tiles is gradually cut away for the
+length of a palm, so that they are half a foot and a digit wide, which
+part projects from the furnace; the tiles are about a digit and a half
+thick. The walls are similarly of clay, and are set on the lower tiles
+at a distance of a digit from the edge, and support the upper tiles; the
+walls are three digits high and have four openings, each of which is
+about three digits high; those of the back part and of each side are
+five digits wide, and of the front, a palm and a half wide, to enable
+the freshly made cupels to be conveniently placed on the hearth, when it
+has been thoroughly warmed, that they may be dried there. Both tiles are
+bound on the outer edge with iron wire, pressed into them, so that they
+will be less easily broken; and the tiles, not unlike the iron
+bed-plate, have three openings three digits long and a digit wide, in
+order that when the upper one on account of the heat of the fire or for
+some other reason has become damaged, the lower one may be exchanged and
+take its place. Through these <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226"></a>[Pg 226]</span>holes, the ashes from the burning
+charcoal, as I have stated, fall down, and air blows into the furnace
+after passing through the openings in the walls of the chamber. The
+furnace is rectangular, and inside at the lower part it is three palms
+and one digit wide and three palms and as many digits long. At the upper
+part it is two palms and three digits wide, so that it also grows
+narrower; it is one foot high; in the middle of the back it is cut out
+at the bottom in the shape of a semicircle, of half a digit radius. Not
+unlike the furnace before described, it has in its forepart a mouth
+which is rounded at the top, one palm high and a palm and a digit wide.
+Its door is also made of clay, and this has a window and a handle; even
+the lid of the furnace which is made of clay has its own handle,
+fastened on with iron wire. The outer parts and sides of this furnace
+are bound with iron wires, which are usually pressed in, in the shape of
+triangles. The brick furnaces must remain stationary; the clay and iron
+ones can be carried from one place to another. Those of brick can be
+prepared more quickly, while those of iron are more lasting, and those
+of clay are more suitable. Assayers also make temporary furnaces in
+another way; they stand three bricks on a hearth, one on each side and a
+third one at the back, the forepart lies open to the draught, and on
+these bricks is placed an iron plate, upon which they again stand three
+bricks, which hold and retain the charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>The setting of one furnace differs from another, in that some are placed
+higher and others lower; that one is placed higher, in which the man who
+is assaying the ore or metals introduces the scorifier through the mouth
+with the tongs; that one is placed lower, into which he introduces the
+crucible through its open top.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227"></a><a href="images/fig227.jpg"><img src="images/fig227thumb.jpg" alt="Crucible Assay Furnace" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Iron hoop. B&mdash;Double
+bellows. C&mdash;Its nozzle. D&mdash;Lever.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 227]</span></span>
+In some cases the assayer uses an iron hoop<a name="FNanchor_4_176" id="FNanchor_4_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_176" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> in place of a furnace;
+this is placed upon the hearth of a chimney, the lower edge being daubed
+with lute to prevent the blast of the bellows from escaping under it. If
+the blast is given slowly, the ore will be smelted and the copper will
+melt in the triangular crucible, which is placed in it and taken away
+again with the tongs. The hoop is two palms high and half a digit thick;
+its diameter is generally one foot and one palm, and where the blast
+from the bellows enters into it, it is notched out. The bellows is a
+double one, such as goldworkers use, and sometimes smiths. In the middle
+of the bellows there is a board in which there is an air-hole, five
+digits wide and seven long, covered by a little flap which is fastened
+over the air-hole on the lower side of the board; this flap is of equal
+length and width. The bellows, without its head, is three feet long, and
+at the back is one foot and one palm wide and somewhat rounded, and it
+is three palms wide at the head; the head itself is three palms long and
+two palms and a digit wide at the part where it joins the boards, then
+it gradually becomes narrower. The nozzle, of which there is only one,
+is one foot and two digits long; this nozzle, and one-half of the head
+in which the nozzle is fixed, are placed in an opening of the wall, this
+being one foot and one palm thick; it reaches only to the iron hoop on
+the <span class="pagenum">[Pg 227]</span>hearth, for it does not project beyond the wall. The hide of the
+bellows is fixed to the bellows-boards with its own peculiar kind of
+iron nails. It joins both bellows-boards to the head, and over it there
+are cross strips of hide fixed to the bellows-boards with broad-headed
+nails, and similarly fixed to the head. The middle board of the bellows
+rests on an iron bar, to which it is fastened with iron nails clinched
+on both ends, so that it cannot move; the iron bar is fixed between two
+upright posts, through which it penetrates. Higher up on these upright
+posts there is a wooden axle, with iron journals which revolve in the
+holes in the posts. In the middle of this axle there is mortised a
+lever, fixed with iron nails to prevent it from flying out; the lever is
+five and a half feet long, and its posterior end is engaged in the iron
+ring of an iron rod which reaches to the "tail" of the lowest
+bellows-board, and there engages another similar ring. And so when the
+workman pulls down the lever, the lower part of the bellows is raised
+and drives the wind into the nozzle; then the wind, penetrating through
+the hole in the middle bellows-board, which is called the air-hole,
+lifts up the upper part of the bellows, upon whose upper board is a
+piece of lead, heavy enough to press down that part of the bellows
+again, and this being pressed down blows a blast through the nozzle.
+This is the principle of the double bellows, which is peculiar to the
+iron hoop where are placed the triangular crucibles in which copper ore
+is smelted and copper is melted.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228"></a><a href="images/fig228.jpg"><img src="images/fig228thumb.jpg" alt="Muffles" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Broad little windows of muffle.
+B&mdash;Narrow ones. C&mdash;Openings in the back thereof.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 228]</span></span>
+I have spoken of the furnaces and the iron hoop; I will now speak of the
+muffles and the crucibles. The muffle is made of clay, in the shape of
+an inverted gutter tile; it covers the scorifiers, lest coal dust fall
+into them and interfere with the assay. It is a palm and a half broad,
+and the height, which corresponds with the mouth of the furnace, is
+generally a palm, <span class="pagenum">[Pg 228]</span>and it is nearly as long as the furnace; only at the
+front end does it touch the mouth of the furnace, everywhere else on the
+sides and at the back there is a space of three digits, to allow the
+charcoal to lie in the open space between it and the furnace. The muffle
+is as thick as a fairly thick earthen jar; its upper part is entire; the
+back has two little windows, and each side has two or three or even
+four, through which the heat passes into the scorifiers and melts the
+ore. In place of little windows, some muffles have small holes, ten in
+the back and more on each side. Moreover, in the back below the little
+windows, or small holes, there are cut away three semi-circular notches
+half a digit high, and on each side there are four. The back of the
+muffle is generally a little lower than the front.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229"></a><a href="images/fig229.jpg"><img src="images/fig229thumb.jpg" alt="Containers" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Scorifier. B&mdash;Triangular crucible.
+C&mdash;Cupel.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 229]</span></span>
+The crucibles differ in the materials from which they are made, because
+they are made of either clay or ashes; and those of clay, which we also
+call "earthen," differ in shape and size. Some are made in the shape of
+a moderately thick salver (scorifiers), three digits wide, and of a
+capacity of an <i>uncia</i> measure; in these the ore mixed with fluxes is
+melted, and they are used by those who assay gold or silver ore. Some
+are triangular and much thicker and more capacious, holding five, or
+six, or even more <i>unciae</i>; in these copper is melted, so that it can be
+poured out, expanded, and tested with fire, and in these copper ore is
+usually melted.</p>
+
+<p>The cupels are made of ashes; like the preceding scorifiers they are
+tray-shaped, and their lower part is very thick but their capacity is
+less. In these lead is separated from silver, and by them assays are
+concluded. Inasmuch as the assayers themselves make the cupels,
+something must be said about the material from which they are made, and
+the method of making them. Some make them out of all kinds of ordinary
+ashes; these are not good, because ashes of this kind contain a certain
+amount of fat, whereby such cupels are easily broken when they are hot.
+Others make them likewise out of any kind of ashes which have been
+previously leached; of this kind are the ashes into which warm water has
+been infused for the purpose of making lye. These ashes, after being
+dried in the sun or a furnace, are sifted in a hair sieve; and although
+warm water washes away the <span class="pagenum">[Pg 229]</span>fat from the ashes, still the cupels which
+are made from such ashes are not very good because they often contain
+charcoal dust, sand, and pebbles. Some make them in the same way out of
+any kind of ashes, but first of all pour water into the ashes and remove
+the scum which floats thereon; then, after it has become clear, they
+pour away the water, and dry the ashes; they then sift them and make the
+cupels from them. These, indeed, are good, but not of the best quality,
+because ashes of this kind are also not devoid of small pebbles and
+sand. To enable cupels of the best quality to be made, all the
+impurities must be removed from the ashes. These impurities are of two
+kinds; the one sort light, to which class belong charcoal dust and fatty
+material and other things which float in water, the other sort heavy,
+such as small stones, fine sand, and any other materials which settle in
+the bottom of a vessel. Therefore, first of all, water should be poured
+into the ashes and the light impurities removed; then the ashes should
+be kneaded with the hands, so that they will become properly mixed with
+the water. When the water has become muddy and turbid, it should be
+poured into a second vessel. In this way the small stones and fine sand,
+or any other heavy substance which may be there, remain in the first
+vessel, and should be thrown away. When all the ashes have settled in
+this second vessel, which will be shown if the water has become clear
+and does not taste of the flavour of lye, the water should be thrown
+away, and the ashes which have settled in the vessel should be dried in
+the sun or in a furnace. This material is suitable for the cupels,
+especially if it is the ash of beech wood or other wood which has a
+small annual growth; those ashes made from twigs and limbs of vines,
+which have rapid annual growth, are not so <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230"></a>[Pg 230]</span>good, for the cupels made
+from them, since they are not sufficiently dry, frequently crack and
+break in the fire and absorb the metals. If ashes of beech or similar
+wood are not to be had, the assayer makes little balls of such ashes as
+he can get, after they have been cleared of impurities in the manner
+before described, and puts them in a baker's or potter's oven to burn,
+and from these the cupels are made, because the fire consumes whatever
+fat or damp there may be. As to all kinds of ashes, the older they are
+the better, for it is necessary that they should have the greatest
+possible dryness. For this reason ashes obtained from burned bones,
+especially from the bones of the heads of animals, are the most suitable
+for cupels, as are also those ashes obtained from the horns of deer and
+the spines of fishes. Lastly, some take the ashes which are obtained
+from burnt scrapings of leather, when the tanners scrape the hides to
+clear them from hair. Some prefer to use compounds, that one being
+recommended which has one and a half parts of ashes from the bones of
+animals or the spines of fishes, and one part of beech ashes, and half a
+part of ashes of burnt hide scrapings. From this mixture good cupels are
+made, though far better ones are obtained from equal portions of ashes
+of burnt hide scrapings, ashes of the bones of heads of sheep and
+calves, and ashes of deer horns. But the best of all are produced from
+deer horns alone, burnt to powder; this kind, by reason of its extreme
+dryness, absorbs metals least of all. Assayers of our own day, however,
+generally make the cupels from beech ashes. These ashes, after being
+prepared in the manner just described, are first of all sprinkled with
+beer or water, to make them stick together, and are then ground in a
+small mortar. They are ground again after being mixed with the ashes
+obtained from the skulls of beasts or from the spines of fishes; the
+more the ashes are ground the better they are. Some rub bricks and
+sprinkle the dust so obtained, after sifting it, into the beech ashes,
+for dust of this kind does not allow the hearth-lead to absorb the gold
+or silver by eating away the cupels. Others, to guard against the same
+thing, moisten the cupels with white of egg after they have been made,
+and when they have been dried in the sun, again crush them; especially
+if they want to assay in it an ore of copper which contains iron. Some
+moisten the ashes again and again with cow's milk, and dry them, and
+grind them in a small mortar, and then mould the cupels. In the works in
+which silver is separated from copper, they make cupels from two parts
+of the ashes of the crucible of the cupellation furnace, for these ashes
+are very dry, and from one part of bone-ash. Cupels which have been made
+in these ways also need to be placed in the sun or in a furnace;
+afterward, in whatever way they have been made, they must be kept a long
+time in dry places, for the older they are, the dryer and better they
+are.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231"></a><a href="images/fig231.jpg"><img src="images/fig231thumb.jpg" alt="Cupel Moulds and Pestles" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Little mould.
+B&mdash;Inverted mould. C&mdash;Pestle. D&mdash;Its knob. E&mdash;Second pestle.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 231]</span></span>
+Not only potters, but also the assayers themselves, make scorifiers and
+triangular crucibles. They make them out of fatty clay, which is dry<a name="FNanchor_5_177" id="FNanchor_5_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_177" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>,
+and neither hard nor soft. With this clay they mix the dust of old
+broken crucibles, or of burnt and worn bricks; then they knead with a
+pestle the clay thus mixed with dust, and then dry it. As to these
+crucibles, <span class="pagenum">[Pg 231]</span>the older they are, the dryer and better they are. The
+moulds in which the cupels are moulded are of two kinds, that is, a
+smaller size and a larger size. In the smaller ones are made the cupels
+in which silver or gold is purged from the lead which has absorbed it;
+in the larger ones are made cupels in which silver is separated from
+copper and lead. Both moulds are made out of brass and have no bottom,
+in order that the cupels can be taken out of them whole. The pestles
+also are of two kinds, smaller and larger, each likewise of brass, and
+from the lower end of them there projects a round knob, and this alone
+is pressed into the mould and makes the hollow part of the cupel. The
+part which is next to the knob corresponds to the upper part of the
+mould.</p>
+
+<p>So much for these matters. I will now speak of the preparation of the
+ore for assaying. It is prepared by roasting, burning, crushing, and
+washing. It is necessary to take a fixed weight of ore in order that one
+may determine how great a portion of it these preparations consume. The
+hard stone containing the metal is burned in order that, when its
+hardness has been overcome, it can be crushed and washed; indeed, the
+very hardest kind, before it is burned, is sprinkled with vinegar, in
+order that it may more rapidly soften in the fire. The soft stone should
+be broken with a hammer, crushed in a mortar and reduced to powder; then
+it should be washed and then dried again. If earth is mixed with the
+mineral, it is washed in a basin, and that which settles is assayed in
+the fire after it is dried. All mining products which are washed must
+again be dried. But ore which is rich in metal is neither burned nor
+crushed nor washed, but is roasted, lest that method of preparation
+should lose some of the metal. When the fires have <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232"></a>[Pg 232]</span>been kindled, this
+kind of ore is roasted in an enclosed pot, which is stopped up with
+lute. A less valuable ore is even burned on a hearth, being placed upon
+the charcoal; for we do not make a great expenditure upon metals, if
+they are not worth it. However, I will go into fuller details as to all
+these methods of preparing ore, both a little later, and in the
+<a href="#BOOK_VIII">following Book</a>.</p>
+
+<p>For the present, I have decided to explain those things which mining
+people usually call fluxes<a name="FNanchor_6_178" id="FNanchor_6_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_178" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> because they are added to ores, not only
+for assaying, but also for smelting. Great power is discovered in all
+these fluxes, but we do not see the same effects produced in every case;
+and some are of a very complicated nature. For when they have been mixed
+with the ore and are melted in either the assay or the smelting furnace,
+some of them, because they melt easily, to some extent melt the ore;
+others, because they either make the ore very hot or penetrate into it,
+greatly assist the fire in separating the impurities from the metals,
+and they also mix the fused part with the lead, or they partly protect
+from the fire the ore whose metal contents would be either consumed in
+the fire, or carried up with the fumes and fly out of the furnace; some
+fluxes absorb the metals. To the first order belongs lead, whether it be
+reduced to little granules or resolved into ash by fire, or red-lead<a name="FNanchor_7_179" id="FNanchor_7_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_179" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>,
+or ochre made from lead<a name="FNanchor_8_180" id="FNanchor_8_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_180" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>, or litharge, or hearth-lead, or <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233"></a>[Pg 233]</span>galena;
+also copper, the same either roasted or in leaves or filings<a name="FNanchor_9_181" id="FNanchor_9_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_181" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>; also
+the slags of gold, silver, copper, and lead; also soda<a name="FNanchor_10_182" id="FNanchor_10_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_182" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>, its slags,
+saltpetre, burned alum, vitriol, <i>sal tostus</i>, and melted salt<a name="FNanchor_11_183" id="FNanchor_11_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_183" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>;
+stones which easily melt in hot furnaces, the sand which is made from
+them<a name="FNanchor_12_184" id="FNanchor_12_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_184" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>; soft <i>tophus</i><a name="FNanchor_13_185" id="FNanchor_13_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_185" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234"></a>[Pg 234]</span>and a certain white schist<a name="FNanchor_14_186" id="FNanchor_14_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_186" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>. But lead,
+its ashes, red-lead, ochre, and litharge, are more efficacious for ores
+which melt easily; hearth-lead for those which melt with difficulty; and
+galena for those which melt with greater difficulty. To the second order
+belong iron filings, their slag, <i>sal artificiosus</i>, argol, dried lees
+of vinegar<a name="FNanchor_15_187" id="FNanchor_15_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_187" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>, and the lees of the <i>aqua</i> which separates gold from
+silver<a name="FNanchor_16_188" id="FNanchor_16_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_188" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>; these lees and <i>sal artificiosus</i> have the power of
+penetrating into ore, the argol to a considerable degree, the lees of
+vinegar to a greater degree, but most of all those of the <i>aqua</i> which
+separates gold from silver; filings and slags of iron, since they melt
+more slowly, have the power of heating the ore. To the third order
+belong pyrites, the cakes which are melted from them, soda, its slags,
+salt, iron, iron scales, iron filings, iron slags, vitriol, the sand
+which is resolved from stones which easily melt in the fire, and
+<i>tophus</i>; but first of all are pyrites and the cakes which are melted
+from it, for they absorb the metals of the ore and guard them from the
+fire which consumes them. To the fourth order belong lead and copper,
+and their relations. And so with regard to fluxes, it is manifest that
+some are natural, others fall in the category of slags, and the rest are
+purged from slag. When we <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235"></a>[Pg 235]</span>assay ores, we can without great expense add
+to them a small portion of any sort of flux, but when we smelt them we
+cannot add a large portion without great expense. We must, therefore,
+consider how great the cost is, to avoid incurring a greater expense on
+smelting an ore than the profit we make out of the metals which it
+yields.</p>
+
+<p>The colour of the fumes which the ore emits after being placed on a hot
+shovel or an iron plate, indicates what flux is needed in addition to
+the lead, for the purpose of either assaying or smelting. If the fumes
+have a purple tint, it is best of all, and the ore does not generally
+require any flux whatever. If the fumes are blue, there should be added
+cakes melted out of pyrites or other cupriferous rock; if yellow,
+litharge and sulphur should be added; if red, glass-galls<a name="FNanchor_17_189" id="FNanchor_17_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_189" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> and salt;
+if green, then cakes melted from cupriferous stones, litharge, and
+glass-galls; if the fumes are black, melted salt or iron slag, litharge
+and white lime rock. If they are white, sulphur and iron which is eaten
+with rust; if they are white with green patches, iron slag and sand
+obtained from stones which easily melt; if the middle part of the fumes
+are yellow and thick, but the outer parts green, the same sand and iron
+slag. The colour of the fumes not only gives us information as to the
+proper remedies which should be applied to each ore, but also more or
+less indication as to the solidified juices which are mixed with it, and
+which give forth such fumes. Generally, blue fumes signify that the ore
+contains azure yellow, orpiment; red, realgar; green, chrysocolla;
+black, black bitumen; white, tin<a name="FNanchor_18_190" id="FNanchor_18_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_190" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>; white with green patches, the same
+mixed with chrysocolla; the middle part yellow and other parts green
+show that it contains sulphur. Earth, however, and other things dug up
+which contain metals, sometimes emit similarly coloured fumes.</p>
+
+<p>If the ore contains any <i>stibium</i>, then iron slag is added to it; if
+pyrites, then are added cakes melted from a cupriferous stone and sand
+made from stones which easily melt. If the ore contains iron, then
+pyrites and sulphur are added; for just as iron slag is the flux for an
+ore mixed with sulphur, so on the contrary, to a gold or silver ore
+containing iron, from which they are <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236"></a>[Pg 236]</span>not easily separated, is added
+sulphur and sand made from stones which easily melt.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sal artificiosus</i><a name="FNanchor_19_191" id="FNanchor_19_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_191" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> suitable for use in assaying ore is made in many
+ways. By the first method, equal portions of argol, lees of vinegar, and
+urine, are all boiled down together till turned into salt. The second
+method is from equal portions of the ashes which wool-dyers use, of
+lime, of argol purified, and of melted salt; one <i>libra</i> of each of
+these ingredients is thrown into twenty <i>librae</i> of urine; then all are
+boiled down to one-third and strained, and afterward there is added to
+what remains one <i>libra</i> and four <i>unciae</i> of unmelted salt, eight
+pounds of lye being at the same time poured into the pots, with litharge
+smeared around on the inside, and the whole is boiled till the salt
+becomes thoroughly dry. The third method follows. Unmelted salt, and
+iron which is eaten with rust, are put into a vessel, and after urine
+has been poured in, it is covered with a lid and put in a warm place for
+thirty days; then the iron is washed in the urine and taken out, and the
+residue is boiled until it is turned into salt. In the fourth method by
+which <i>sal artificiosus</i> is prepared, the lye made from equal portions
+of lime and the ashes which wool-dyers use, together with equal portions
+of salt, soap, white argol, and saltpetre, are boiled until in the end
+the mixture evaporates and becomes salt. This salt is mixed with the
+concentrates from washing, to melt them.</p>
+
+<p>Saltpetre is prepared in the following manner, in order that it may be
+suitable for use in assaying ore. It is placed in a pot which is smeared
+on the inside with litharge, and lye made of quicklime is repeatedly
+poured over it, and it is heated until the fire consumes it. Wherefore
+the saltpetre does not kindle with the fire, since it has absorbed the
+lime which preserves it, and thus it is prepared<a name="FNanchor_20_192" id="FNanchor_20_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_192" class="fnanchor">[20]</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The following compositions<a name="FNanchor_21_193" id="FNanchor_21_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_193" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> are recommended to smelt all ores which
+the heat of fire breaks up or melts only with difficulty. Of these, one
+is made from stones of the third order, which easily melt when thrown
+into hot furnaces. They are crushed into pure white powder, and with
+half an <i>uncia</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237"></a>[Pg 237]</span>of this powder there are mixed two <i>unciae</i> of yellow
+litharge, likewise crushed. This mixture is put into a scorifier large
+enough to hold it, and placed under the muffle of a hot furnace; when
+the charge flows like water, which occurs after half an hour, it is
+taken out of the furnace and poured on to a stone, and when it has
+hardened it has the appearance of glass, and this is likewise crushed.
+This powder is sprinkled over any metalliferous ore which does not
+easily melt when we are assaying it, and it causes the slag to exude.</p>
+
+<p>Others, in place of litharge, substitute lead ash,<a name="FNanchor_22_194" id="FNanchor_22_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_194" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> which is made in
+the following way: sulphur is thrown into lead which has been melted in
+a crucible, and it soon becomes covered with a sort of scum; when this
+is removed, sulphur is again thrown in, and the skin which forms is
+again taken off; this is frequently repeated, in fact until all the lead
+is turned into powder. There is a powerful flux compound which is made
+from one <i>uncia</i> each of prepared saltpetre, melted salt, glass-gall,
+and argol, and one-third of an <i>uncia</i> of litharge and a <i>bes</i> of glass
+ground to powder; this flux, being added to an equal weight of ore,
+liquefies it. A more powerful flux is made by placing together in a pot,
+smeared on the inside with litharge, equal portions of white argol,
+common salt, and prepared saltpetre, and these are heated until a white
+powder is obtained from them, and this is mixed with as much litharge;
+one part of this compound is mixed with two parts of the ore which is to
+be assayed. A still more powerful flux than this is made out of ashes of
+black lead, saltpetre, orpiment, <i>stibium</i>, and dried lees of the <i>aqua</i>
+with which gold workers separate gold from silver. The ashes of lead<a name="FNanchor_23_195" id="FNanchor_23_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_195" class="fnanchor">[23]</a>
+are made from one pound of lead and one pound of sulphur; the lead is
+flattened out into sheets by pounding with a hammer, and placed
+alternately with sulphur in a crucible or pot, and they are heated
+together until the fire consumes the sulphur and the lead turns to
+ashes. One <i>libra</i> of crushed saltpetre is mixed with one <i>libra</i> of
+orpiment similarly ground to powder, and the two are cooked in an iron
+pan until they liquefy; they are then poured out, and after cooling are
+again ground to powder. A <i>libra</i> of <i>stibium</i> and a <i>bes</i> of the dried
+lees (<i>of what?</i>) are placed alternately in a crucible and heated to the
+point at which they form a button, which is similarly reduced to powder.
+A <i>bes</i> of this powder and one <i>libra</i> of the ashes of lead, as well as
+a <i>libra</i> of powder made out of the saltpetre and orpiment, are mixed
+together and a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238"></a>[Pg 238]</span>powder is made from them, one part of which added to two
+parts of ore liquefies it and cleanses it of dross. But the most
+powerful flux is one which has two <i>drachmae</i> of sulphur and as much
+glass-galls, and half an <i>uncia</i> of each of the following,&mdash;<i>stibium</i>,
+salt obtained from boiled urine, melted common salt, prepared saltpetre,
+litharge, vitriol, argol, salt obtained from ashes of musk ivy, dried
+lees of the <i>aqua</i> by which gold-workers separate gold from silver, alum
+reduced by fire to powder, and one <i>uncia</i> of camphor<a name="FNanchor_24_196" id="FNanchor_24_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_196" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> combined with
+sulphur and ground into powder. A half or whole portion of this mixture,
+as the necessity of the case requires, is mixed with one portion of the
+ore and two portions of lead, and put in a scorifier; it is sprinkled
+with powder of crushed Venetian glass, and when the mixture has been
+heated for an hour and a half or two hours, a button will settle in the
+bottom of the scorifier, and from it the lead is soon separated.</p>
+
+<p>There is also a flux which separates sulphur, orpiment and realgar from
+metalliferous ore. This flux is composed of equal portions of iron slag,
+white <i>tophus</i>, and salt. After these juices have been secreted, the
+ores themselves are melted, with argol added to them. There is one flux
+which preserves <i>stibium</i> from the fire, that the fire may not consume
+it, and which preserves the metals from the <i>stibium</i>; and this is
+composed of equal portions of sulphur, prepared saltpetre, melted salt,
+and vitriol, heated together in lye until no odour emanates from the
+sulphur, which occurs after a space of three or four hours.<a name="FNanchor_25_197" id="FNanchor_25_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_197" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is also worth while to substitute certain other mixtures. Take two
+portions of ore properly prepared, one portion of iron filings, and
+likewise one portion of salt, and mix; then put them into a scorifier
+and place them in a muffle furnace; when they are reduced by the fire
+and run together, a button will settle in the bottom of the scorifier.
+Or else take equal portions of ore and of lead ochre, and mix with them
+a small quantity of iron filings, and put them into a scorifier, then
+scatter iron filings over the mixture. Or else take ore which has been
+ground to powder and sprinkle it in a crucible, and then sprinkle over
+it an equal quantity of salt that has been three or four times moistened
+with urine and dried; then, again and again alternately, powdered ore
+and salt; next, after the crucible has been covered with a lid and
+sealed, it is placed upon burning charcoal. Or else take one portion of
+ore, one portion of minute lead granules, half a portion of Venetian
+glass, and the same quantity of glass-galls. Or else take one portion of
+ore, one portion of lead granules, half a portion of salt, one-fourth of
+a portion of argol, and the same quantity of lees of the <i>aqua</i> which
+separates gold from silver. Or else take equal portions of prepared ore
+and a powder in which there <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239"></a>[Pg 239]</span>are equal portions of very minute lead
+granules, melted salt, <i>stibium</i> and iron slag. Or else take equal
+portions of gold ore, vitriol, argol, and of salt. So much for the
+fluxes.</p>
+
+<p>In the assay furnace, when it has been prepared in the way in which I
+have described, is first placed a muffle. Then selected pieces of live
+charcoals are laid on it, for, from pieces of inferior quality, a great
+quantity of ash collects around the muffle and hinders the action of the
+fire. Then the scorifiers are placed under the muffle with tongs, and
+glowing coals are placed under the fore part of the muffle to warm the
+scorifiers more quickly; and when the lead or ore is to be placed in the
+scorifiers, they are taken out again with the tongs. When the scorifiers
+glow in the heat, first of all the ash or small charcoals, if any have
+fallen into them, should be blown away with an iron pipe two feet long
+and a digit in diameter; this same thing must be done if ash or small
+coal has fallen into the cupels. Next, put in a small ball of lead with
+the tongs, and when this lead has begun to be turned into fumes and
+consumed, add to it the prepared ore wrapped in paper. It is preferable
+that the assayer should wrap it in paper, and in this way put it in the
+scorifier, than that he should drop it in with a copper ladle; for when
+the scorifiers are small, if he uses a ladle he frequently spills some
+part of the ore. When the paper is burnt, he stirs the ore with a small
+charcoal held in the tongs, so that the lead may absorb the metal which
+is mixed in the ore; when this mixture has taken place, the slag partly
+adheres by its circumference to the scorifier and makes a kind of black
+ring, and partly floats on the lead in which is mixed the gold or
+silver; then the slag must be removed from it.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p>The lead used must be entirely free from every trace of silver, as is
+that which is known as <i>Villacense</i>.<a name="FNanchor_26_198" id="FNanchor_26_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_198" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> But if this kind is not
+obtainable, the lead must be assayed separately, to determine with
+certainty that proportion of silver it contains, so that it may be
+deducted from the calculation of the ore, and the result be exact; for
+unless such lead be used, the assay will be false and misleading.
+<span class="figleft"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240"></a><a href="images/fig240a.jpg"><img src="images/fig240athumb.jpg" alt="Tongs" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Claws of the tongs. B&mdash;Iron, giving form
+of an egg. C&mdash;Opening.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 240]</span></span>
+The
+lead balls are made with a pair of iron tongs, about one foot long; its
+iron claws are so formed that when pressed together they are egg-shaped;
+each claw contains a hollow cup, and when the claws are closed there
+extends upward from the cup a passage, so there are two openings, one of
+which leads to each hollow cup. And so when the molten lead is poured in
+through the openings, it flows down into the hollow cup, and two balls
+are formed by one pouring.</p>
+
+<p>In this place I ought not to omit mention of another method of assaying
+employed by some assayers. They first of all place prepared ore in the
+scorifiers and heat it, and afterward they add the lead. Of this method
+I cannot approve, for in this way the ore frequently becomes cemented,
+and for this reason it does not stir easily afterward, and is very slow
+in mixing with the lead.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 240]</span></p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p>If the whole space of the furnace covered by the muffle is not filled
+with scorifiers, cupels are put in the empty space, in order that they
+may become warmed in the meantime. Sometimes, however, it is filled with
+scorifiers, when we are assaying many different ores, or many portions
+of one ore at the same time. Although the cupels are usually dried in
+one hour, yet smaller ones are done more quickly, and the larger ones
+more slowly. Unless the cupels are heated before the metal mixed with
+lead is placed in them, they frequently break, and the lead always
+sputters and sometimes leaps out of them; if the cupel is broken or the
+lead leaps out of it, it is necessary to assay another portion of ore;
+but if the lead only sputters, then the cupels should be covered with
+broad thin pieces of glowing charcoal, and when the lead strikes these,
+it falls back again, and thus the mixture is slowly exhaled. Further, if
+in the cupellation the lead which is in the mixture is not consumed, but
+remains fixed and set, and is covered by a kind of skin, this is a sign
+that it has not been heated by a sufficiently hot fire; put into the
+mixture, therefore, a dry pine stick, or a twig of a similar tree, and
+hold it in the hand in order that it can be drawn away when it has been
+heated. Then take care that the heat is sufficient and equal; if the
+heat has not passed all round the charge, as it should when everything
+is done rightly, but causes it to have a lengthened shape, so that it
+appears to have a tail, this is a sign that the heat is deficient where
+the tail lies.
+<span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig240b.jpg"><img src="images/fig240bthumb.jpg" alt="Hook" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Small iron hook.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 240]</span></span>
+Then in order that the cupel may be equally heated by the
+fire, turn it around with a small iron hook, whose handle is likewise
+made of iron and is a foot and a half long.</p>
+
+<p>Next, if the mixture has not enough lead, add as much of it as is
+required with the iron tongs, or with the brass ladle to which is
+fastened a very long handle. In order that the charge may not be cooled,
+warm the lead beforehand. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241"></a>[Pg 241]</span>But it is better at first to add as much lead
+as is required to the ore which needs melting, rather than afterward
+when the melting has been half finished, that the whole quantity may not
+vanish in fumes, but part of it remain fast. When the heat of the fire
+has nearly consumed the lead, then is the time when the gold and silver
+gleam in their varied colours, and when all the lead has been consumed
+the gold or silver settles in the cupel. Then as soon as possible remove
+the cupel out of the furnace, and take the button out of it while it is
+still warm, in order that it does not adhere to the ashes. This
+generally happens if the button is already cold when it is taken out. If
+the ashes do adhere to it, do not scrape it with a knife, lest some of
+it be lost and the assay be erroneous, but squeeze it with the iron
+tongs, so that the ashes drop off through the pressure. Finally, it is
+of advantage to make two or three assays of the same ore at the same
+time, in order that if by chance one is not successful, the second, or
+in any event the third, may be certain.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig241.jpg"><img src="images/fig241thumb.jpg" alt="Shield for Muffle Furnace" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Handle of tablet.
+B&mdash;Its crack.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 241]</span></span>
+While the assayer is assaying the ore, in order to prevent the great
+heat of the fire from injuring his eyes, it will be useful for him
+always to have ready a thin wooden tablet, two palms wide, with a handle
+by which it may be held, and with a slit down the middle in order that
+he may look through it as through a crack, since it is necessary for him
+to look frequently within and carefully to consider everything.</p>
+
+<p>Now the lead which has absorbed the silver from a metallic ore is
+consumed in the cupel by the heat in the space of three quarters of an
+hour. When the assays are completed the muffle is taken out of the
+furnace, and the ashes removed with an iron shovel, not only from the
+brick and iron furnaces, but also from the earthen one, so that the
+furnace need not be removed from its foundation.</p>
+
+<p>From ore placed in the triangular crucible a button is melted out, from
+which metal is afterward made. First of all, glowing charcoal is put
+into the iron hoop, then is put in the triangular crucible, which
+contains the ore together with those things which can liquefy it and
+purge it of its dross; then the fire is blown with the double bellows,
+and the ore is heated until the button settles in the bottom of the
+crucible. We have explained that there are two methods of assaying
+ore,&mdash;one, by which the lead is mixed <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242"></a>[Pg 242]</span>with ore in the scorifier and
+afterward again separated from it in the cupel; the other, by which it
+is first melted in the triangular earthen crucible and afterward mixed
+with lead in the scorifier, and later separated from it in the cupel.
+Now let us consider which is more suitable for each ore, or, if neither
+is suitable, by what other method in one way or another we can assay it.</p>
+
+<p>We justly begin with a gold ore, which we assay by both methods, for if
+it is rich and seems not to be strongly resistant to fire, but to
+liquefy easily, one <i>centumpondium</i> of it (known to us as the lesser
+weights),<a name="FNanchor_27_199" id="FNanchor_27_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_199" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> together with one and a half, or two <i>unciae</i> of lead of
+the larger weights, are mixed together and placed in the scorifier, and
+the two are heated in the fire until they are well mixed. But since such
+an ore sometimes resists melting, add a little salt to it, either <i>sal
+torrefactus</i> or <i>sal artificiosus</i>, for this will subdue it, and prevent
+the alloy from collecting much dross; stir it frequently with an iron
+rod, in order that the lead may flow around the gold on every side, and
+absorb it and cast out the waste. When this has been done, take out the
+alloy and cleanse it of slag; then place it in the cupel and heat it
+until it exhales all the lead, and a bead of gold settles in the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>If the gold ore is seen not to be easily melted in the fire, roast it
+and extinguish it with brine. Do this again and again, for the more
+often you roast it and extinguish it, the more easily the ore can be
+crushed fine, and the more quickly does it melt in the fire and give up
+whatever dross it possesses. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243"></a>[Pg 243]</span>Mix one part of this ore, when it has been
+roasted, crushed, and washed, with three parts of some powder compound
+which melts ore, and six parts of lead. Put the charge into the
+triangular crucible, place it in the iron hoop to which the double
+bellows reaches, and heat first in a slow fire, and afterward gradually
+in a fiercer fire, till it melts and flows like water. If the ore does
+not melt, add to it a little more of these fluxes, mixed with an equal
+portion of yellow litharge, and stir it with a hot iron rod until it all
+melts. Then take the crucible out of the hoop, shake off the button when
+it has cooled, and when it has been cleansed, melt first in the
+scorifier and afterward in the cupel. Finally, rub the gold which has
+settled in the bottom of the cupel, after it has been taken out and
+cooled, on the touchstone, in order to find out what proportion of
+silver it contains. Another method is to put a <i>centumpondium</i> (of the
+lesser weights) of gold ore into the triangular crucible, and add to it
+a <i>drachma</i> (of the larger weights) of glass-galls. If it resists
+melting, add half a <i>drachma</i> of roasted argol, and if even then it
+resists, add the same quantity of roasted lees of vinegar, or lees of
+the <i>aqua</i> which separates gold from silver, and the button will settle
+in the bottom of the crucible. Melt this button again in the scorifier
+and a third time in the cupel.</p>
+
+<p>We determine in the following way, before it is melted in the muffle
+furnace, whether pyrites contains gold in it or not: if, after being
+three times roasted and three times quenched in sharp vinegar, it has
+not broken nor changed its colour, there is gold in it. The vinegar by
+which it is quenched should be mixed with salt that is put in it, and
+frequently stirred and dissolved for three days. Nor is pyrites devoid
+of gold, when, after being roasted and then rubbed on the touchstone, it
+colours the touchstone in the same way that it coloured it when rubbed
+in its crude state. Nor is gold lacking in that, whose concentrates from
+washing, when heated in the fire, easily melt, giving forth little smell
+and remaining bright; such concentrates are heated in the fire in a
+hollowed piece of charcoal covered over with another charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>We also assay gold ore without fire, but more often its sand or the
+concentrates which have been made by washing, or the dust gathered up by
+some other means. A little of it is slightly moistened with water and
+heated until it begins to exhale an odour, and then to one portion of
+ore are placed two portions of quicksilver<a name="FNanchor_28_200" id="FNanchor_28_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_200" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> in a wooden dish as deep
+as a basin. They are mixed together with a little brine, and are then
+ground with a wooden pestle for the space of two hours, until the
+mixture becomes of the thickness of dough, and the quicksilver can no
+longer be distinguished from the concentrates made by the washing, nor
+the concentrates from the quicksilver. Warm, or at least tepid, water is
+poured into the dish and the material is washed until the water runs out
+clear. Afterward cold water is poured into the same dish, and soon the
+quicksilver, which has absorbed all the gold, runs together into a
+separate place away from the rest of the concentrates made by washing.
+The quicksilver is afterward separated from the gold by means of a pot
+covered with soft leather, or with canvas made of woven threads of
+cotton; the amalgam is poured into the middle of the cloth or <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244"></a>[Pg 244]</span>leather,
+which sags about one hand's breadth; next, the leather is folded over
+and tied with a waxed string, and the dish catches the quicksilver which
+is squeezed through it. As for the gold which remains in the leather, it
+is placed in a scorifier and purified by being placed near glowing
+coals. Others do not wash away the dirt with warm water, but with strong
+lye and vinegar, for they pour these liquids into the pot, and also
+throw into it the quicksilver mixed with the concentrates made by
+washing. Then they set the pot in a warm place, and after twenty-four
+hours pour out the liquids with the dirt, and separate the quicksilver
+from the gold in the manner which I have described. Then they pour urine
+into a jar set in the ground, and in the jar place a pot with holes in
+the bottom, and in the pot they place the gold; then the lid is put on
+and cemented, and it is joined with the jar; they afterward heat it till
+the pot glows red. After it has cooled, if there is copper in the gold
+they melt it with lead in a cupel, that the copper may be separated from
+it; but if there is silver in the gold they separate them by means of
+the <i>aqua</i> which has the power of parting these two metals. There are
+some who, when they separate gold from quicksilver, do not pour the
+amalgam into a leather, but put it into a gourd-shaped earthen vessel,
+which they place in the furnace and heat gradually over burning
+charcoal; next, with an iron plate, they cover the opening of the
+operculum, which exudes vapour, and as soon as it has ceased to exude,
+they smear it with lute and heat it for a short time; then they remove
+the operculum from the pot, and wipe off the quicksilver which adheres
+to it with a hare's foot, and preserve it for future use. By the latter
+method, a greater quantity of quicksilver is lost, and by the former
+method, a smaller quantity.</p>
+
+<p>If an ore is rich in silver, as is <i>rudis</i> silver<a name="FNanchor_29_201" id="FNanchor_29_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_201" class="fnanchor">[29]</a>, frequently silver
+glance, or rarely ruby silver, gray silver, black silver, brown silver,
+or yellow silver, as soon as it is cleansed and heated, a
+<i>centumpondium</i> (of the lesser weights) of it is placed in an <i>uncia</i> of
+molten lead in a cupel, and is heated until the lead exhales. But if the
+ore is of poor or moderate quality, it must first be dried, then
+crushed, and then to a <i>centumpondium</i> (of the lesser weights) an
+<i>uncia</i> of lead is added, and it is heated in the scorifier until it
+melts. If it is not soon melted by the fire, it should be sprinkled with
+a little powder of the first order of fluxes, and if then it does not
+melt, more is added little by little until it melts and exudes its slag;
+that this result may be reached sooner, the powder which has been
+sprinkled over it should be stirred in with an iron rod. When the
+scorifier has been taken out of the assay furnace, the alloy should be
+poured into a hole in a baked brick; and when it has cooled and been
+cleansed of the slag, it should be placed in a cupel and heated until it
+exhales all its lead; the weight of silver which remains in the cupel
+indicates what proportion of silver is contained in the ore.</p>
+
+<p>We assay copper ore without lead, for if it is melted with it, the
+copper usually exhales and is lost. Therefore, a certain weight of such
+an ore <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245"></a>[Pg 245]</span>is first roasted in a hot fire for about six or eight hours;
+next, when it has cooled, it is crushed and washed; then the
+concentrates made by washing are again roasted, crushed, washed, dried,
+and weighed. The portion which it has lost whilst it is being roasted
+and washed is taken into account, and these concentrates by washing
+represent the cake which will be melted out of the copper ore. Place
+three <i>centumpondia</i> (lesser weights) of this, mixed with three
+<i>centumpondia</i> (lesser weights) each of copper scales<a name="FNanchor_30_202" id="FNanchor_30_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_202" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>, saltpetre,
+and Venetian glass, mixed, into the triangular crucible, and place it in
+the iron hoop which is set on the hearth in front of the double bellows.
+Cover the crucible with charcoal in such a way that nothing may fall
+into the ore which is to be melted, and so that it may melt more
+quickly. At first blow a gentle blast with the bellows in order that the
+ore may be heated gradually in the fire; then blow strongly till it
+melts, and the fire consumes that which has been added to it, and the
+ore itself exudes whatever slag it possesses. Next, cool the crucible
+which has been taken out, and when this is broken you will find the
+copper; weigh this, in order to ascertain how great a portion of the ore
+the fire has consumed. Some ore is only once roasted, crushed, and
+washed; and of this kind of concentrates, three <i>centumpondia</i> (lesser
+weights) are taken with one <i>centumpondium</i> each of common salt, argol
+and glass-galls. Heat them in the triangular crucible, and when the
+mixture has cooled a button of pure copper will be found, if the ore is
+rich in this metal. If, however, it is less rich, a stony lump results,
+with which the copper is intermixed; this lump is again roasted,
+crushed, and, after adding stones which easily melt and saltpetre, it is
+again melted in another crucible, and there settles in the bottom of the
+crucible a button of pure copper. If you wish to know what proportion of
+silver is in this copper button, melt it in a cupel after adding lead.
+With regard to this test I will speak later.</p>
+
+<p>Those who wish to know quickly what portion of silver the copper ore
+contains, roast the ore, crush and wash it, then mix a little yellow
+litharge with one <i>centumpondium</i> (lesser weights) of the concentrates,
+and put the mixture into a scorifier, which they place under the muffle
+in a hot furnace for the space of half an hour. When the slag exudes, by
+reason of the melting force which is in the litharge, they take the
+scorifier out; when it has cooled, they cleanse it of slag and again
+crush it, and with one <i>centumpondium</i> of it they mix one and a half
+<i>unciae</i> of lead granules. They then put it into another scorifier,
+which they place under the muffle in a hot furnace, adding to the
+mixture a little of the powder of some one of the fluxes which cause ore
+to melt; when it has melted they take it out, and after it has cooled,
+cleanse it of slag; lastly, they heat it in the cupel till it has
+exhaled all of the lead, and only silver remains.</p>
+
+<p>Lead ore may be assayed by this method: crush half an <i>uncia</i> of pure
+lead-stone and the same quantity of the <i>chrysocolla</i> which they call
+borax, mix them together, place them in a crucible, and put a glowing
+coal <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246"></a>[Pg 246]</span>in the middle of it. As soon as the borax crackles and the
+lead-stone melts, which soon occurs, remove the coal from the crucible,
+and the lead will settle to the bottom of it; weigh it out, and take
+account of that portion of it which the fire has consumed. If you also
+wish to know what portion of silver is contained in the lead, melt the
+lead in the cupel until all of it exhales.</p>
+
+<p>Another way is to roast the lead ore, of whatsoever quality it be, wash
+it, and put into the crucible one <i>centumpondium</i> of the concentrates,
+together with three <i>centumpondia</i> of the powdered compound which melts
+ore, mixed together, and place it in the iron hoop that it may melt;
+when it has cooled, cleanse it of its slag, and complete the test as I
+have already said. Another way is to take two <i>unciae</i> of prepared ore,
+five <i>drachmae</i> of roasted copper, one <i>uncia</i> of glass, or glass-galls
+reduced to powder, a <i>semi-uncia</i> of salt, and mix them. Put the mixture
+into the triangular crucible, and heat it over a gentle fire to prevent
+it from breaking; when the mixture has melted, blow the fire vigorously
+with the bellows; then take the crucible off the live coals and let it
+cool in the open air; do not pour water on it, lest the lead button
+being acted upon by the excessive cold should become mixed with the
+slag, and the assay in this way be erroneous. When the crucible has
+cooled, you will find in the bottom of it the lead button. Another way
+is to take two <i>unciae</i> of ore, a <i>semi-uncia</i> of litharge, two
+<i>drachmae</i> of Venetian glass and a <i>semi-uncia</i> of saltpetre. If there
+is difficulty in melting the ore, add to it iron filings, which, since
+they increase the heat, easily separate the waste from lead and other
+metals. By the last way, lead ore properly prepared is placed in the
+crucible, and there is added to it only the sand made from stones which
+easily melt, or iron filings, and then the assay is completed as
+formerly.</p>
+
+<p>You can assay tin ore by the following method. First roast it, then
+crush, and afterward wash it; the concentrates are again roasted,
+crushed, and washed. Mix one and a half <i>centumpondia</i> of this with one
+<i>centumpondium</i> of the <i>chrysocolla</i> which they call borax; from the
+mixture, when it has been moistened with water, make a lump. Afterwards,
+perforate a large round piece of charcoal, making this opening a palm
+deep, three digits wide on the upper side and narrower on the lower
+side; when the charcoal is put in its place the latter should be on the
+bottom and the former uppermost. Let it be placed in a crucible, and let
+glowing coal be put round it on all sides; when the perforated piece of
+coal begins to burn, the lump is placed in the upper part of the
+opening, and it is covered with a wide piece of glowing coal, and after
+many pieces of coal have been put round it, a hot fire is blown up with
+the bellows, until all the tin has run out of the lower opening of the
+charcoal into the crucible. Another way is to take a large piece of
+charcoal, hollow it out, and smear it with lute, that the ore may not
+leap out when white hot. Next, make a small hole through the middle of
+it, then fill up the large opening with small charcoal, and put the ore
+upon this; put fire in the small hole and blow the fire with the nozzle
+of a hand bellows; place the piece of charcoal in a small crucible,
+smeared with lute, in which, when the melting is finished, you will find
+a button of tin.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247"></a>[Pg 247]</span></p><p>In assaying bismuth ore, place pieces of ore in the scorifier, and put
+it under the muffle in a hot furnace; as soon as they are heated, they
+drip with bismuth, which runs together into a button.</p>
+
+<p>Quicksilver ore is usually tested by mixing one part of broken ore with
+three-parts of charcoal dust and a handful of salt. Put the mixture into
+a crucible or a pot or a jar, cover it with a lid, seal it with lute,
+place it on glowing charcoal, and as soon as a burnt cinnabar colour
+shows in it, take out the vessel; for if you continue the heat too long
+the mixture exhales the quicksilver with the fumes. The quicksilver
+itself, when it has become cool, is found in the bottom of the crucible
+or other vessel. Another way is to place broken ore in a gourd-shaped
+earthen vessel, put it in the assay furnace, and cover with an operculum
+which has a long spout; under the spout, put an ampulla to receive the
+quicksilver which distills. Cold water should be poured into the
+ampulla, so that the quicksilver which has been heated by the fire may
+be continuously cooled and gathered together, for the quicksilver is
+borne over by the force of the fire, and flows down through the spout of
+the operculum into the ampulla. We also assay quicksilver ore in the
+very same way in which we smelt it. This I will explain in its proper
+place.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, we assay iron ore in the forge of a blacksmith. Such ore is
+burned, crushed, washed, and dried; a magnet is laid over the
+concentrates, and the particles of iron are attracted to it; these are
+wiped off with a brush, and are caught in a crucible, the magnet being
+continually passed over the concentrates and the particles wiped off, so
+long as there remain any particles which the magnet can attract to it.
+These particles are heated in the crucible with saltpetre until they
+melt, and an iron button is melted out of them. If the magnet easily and
+quickly attracts the particles to it, we infer that the ore is rich in
+iron; if slowly, that it is poor; if it appears actually to repel the
+ore, then it contains little or no iron. This is enough for the assaying
+of ores.</p>
+
+<p>I will now speak of the assaying of the metal alloys. This is done both
+by coiners and merchants who buy and sell metal, and by miners, but most
+of all by the owners and mine masters, and by the owners and masters of
+the works in which the metals are smelted, or in which one metal is
+parted from another.</p>
+
+<p>First I will describe the way assays are usually made to ascertain what
+portion of precious metal is contained in base metal. Gold and silver
+are now reckoned as precious metals and all the others as base metals.
+Once upon a time the base metals were burned up, in order that the
+precious metals should be left pure; the Ancients even discovered by
+such burning what portion of gold was contained in silver, and in this
+way all the silver was consumed, which was no small loss. However, the
+famous mathematician, Archimedes<a name="FNanchor_31_203" id="FNanchor_31_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_203" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>, to gratify King Hiero, invented a
+method of testing the silver, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248"></a>[Pg 248]</span>which was not very rapid, and was more
+accurate for testing a large mass than a small one. This I will explain
+in my commentaries. The alchemists have shown us a way of separating
+silver from gold by which neither of them is lost<a name="FNanchor_32_204" id="FNanchor_32_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_204" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gold which contains silver,<a name="FNanchor_33_205" id="FNanchor_33_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_205" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> or silver which contains gold, is first
+rubbed on the touchstone. Then a needle in which there is a similar
+amount of gold or silver is rubbed on the same touchstone, and from the
+lines which are produced in this way, is perceived what portion of
+silver there is in the gold, or what portion of gold there is in the
+silver. Next there is added to the silver which is in the gold, enough
+silver to make it three times as much as the gold. Then lead is placed
+in a cupel and melted; a little later, a small amount of copper is put
+in it, in fact, half an <i>uncia</i> of it, or half an <i>uncia</i> and a
+<i>sicilicus</i> (of the smaller weights) if the gold or silver does not
+contain any copper. The cupel, when the lead and copper are wanting,
+attracts the particles of gold and silver, and absorbs them. Finally,
+one-third of a <i>libra</i> of the gold, and one <i>libra</i><a name="FNanchor_34_206" id="FNanchor_34_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_206" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> of the silver
+must be placed together in the same cupel and melted; for if the gold
+and silver were first placed in the cupel and melted, as I have already
+said, it absorbs particles of them, and the gold, when separated from
+the silver, will not be found pure. These metals are heated until the
+lead and the copper are consumed, and again, the same weight of each is
+melted in the same manner in another cupel. The buttons are pounded with
+a hammer and flattened out, and each little leaf is shaped in the form
+of a tube, and each is put into a small glass ampulla. Over these there
+is poured one <i>uncia</i> and one <i>drachma</i> (of the large weight) of the
+third quality <i>aqua valens</i>, which I will describe in the <a href="#BOOK_X">Tenth Book</a>.
+This is heated over a slow fire, and small bubbles, resembling pearls in
+shape, will be seen to adhere to the tubes. The redder the <i>aqua</i>
+appears, the better it is judged to be; when the redness has vanished,
+small white bubbles are seen to be resting on the tubes, resembling
+pearls not only in shape, but also in colour. After a short time the
+<i>aqua</i> is poured off and other is poured on; when this has again raised
+six or eight small white bubbles, it is poured off and the tubes are
+taken out and washed four or five times with spring water; or if they
+are heated with the same water, when it is boiling, they will shine more
+brilliantly. Then they are placed in a saucer, which is held in the hand
+and gradually dried by the gentle heat of the fire; afterward the saucer
+is placed over glowing charcoal and covered with a charcoal, and a
+moderate blast is blown upon it <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249"></a>[Pg 249]</span>with the mouth and then a blue flame
+will be emitted. In the end the tubes are weighed, and if their weights
+prove equal, he who has undertaken this work has not laboured in vain.
+Lastly, both are placed in another balance-pan and weighed; of each tube
+four grains must not be counted, on account of the silver which remains
+in the gold and cannot be separated from it. From the weight of the
+tubes we learn the weight both of the gold and of the silver which is in
+the button. If some assayer has omitted to add so much silver to the
+gold as to make it three times the quantity, but only double, or two and
+a half times as much, he will require the stronger quality of <i>aqua</i>
+which separates gold from silver, such as the fourth quality. Whether
+the <i>aqua</i> which he employs for gold and silver is suitable for the
+purpose, or whether it is more or less strong than is right, is
+recognised by its effect. That of medium strength raises the little
+bubbles on the tubes and is found to colour the ampulla and the
+operculum a strong red; the weaker one is found to colour them a light
+red, and the stronger one to break the tubes. To pure silver in which
+there is some portion of gold, nothing should be added when they are
+being heated in the cupel prior to their being parted, except a <i>bes</i> of
+lead and one-fourth or one-third its amount of copper of the lesser
+weights. If the silver contains in itself a certain amount of copper,
+let it be weighed, both after it has been melted with the lead, and
+after the gold has been parted from it; by the former we learn how much
+copper is in it, by the latter how much gold. Base metals are burnt up
+even to-day for the purpose of assay, because to lose so little of the
+metal is small loss, but from a large mass of base metal, the precious
+metal is always extracted, as I will explain in Books <a href="#BOOK_X">X.</a> and <a href="#BOOK_XI">XI.</a></p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p>We assay an alloy of copper and silver in the following way. From a few
+cakes of copper the assayer cuts out portions, small samples from small
+cakes, medium samples from medium cakes, and large samples from large
+cakes; the small ones are equal in size to half a hazel nut, the large
+ones do not exceed the size of half a chestnut, and those of medium size
+come between the two. He cuts out the samples from the middle of the
+bottom of each cake. He places the samples in a new, clean, triangular
+crucible and fixes to them pieces of paper upon which are written the
+weight of the cakes of copper, of whatever size they may be; for
+example, he writes, "These samples have been cut from copper which
+weighs twenty <i>centumpondia</i>." When he wishes to know how much silver
+one <i>centumpondium</i> of copper of this kind has in it, first of all he
+throws glowing coals into the iron hoop, then adds charcoal to it. When
+the fire has become hot, the paper is taken out of the crucible and put
+aside, he then sets that crucible on the fire and gradually heats it for
+a quarter of an hour until it becomes red hot. Then he stimulates the
+fire by blowing with a blast from the double bellows for half an hour,
+because copper which is devoid of lead requires this time to become hot
+and to melt; copper not devoid of lead melts quicker. When he has blown
+the bellows for about the space of time stated, he removes the glowing
+charcoal with the tongs, and stirs the copper with a splinter of wood,
+which he grasps with the tongs. If it does not stir easily, it is a sign
+that the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250"></a>[Pg 250]</span>copper is not wholly liquefied; if he finds this is the case,
+he again places a large piece of charcoal in the crucible, and replaces
+the glowing charcoal which had been removed, and again blows the bellows
+for a short time. When all the copper has melted he stops using the
+bellows, for if he were to continue to use them, the fire would consume
+part of the copper, and then that which remained would be richer than
+the cake from which it had been cut; this is no small mistake.
+<span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig250.jpg"><img src="images/fig250thumb.jpg" alt="Copper Mould for Assaying" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Iron mould. B&mdash;Its
+handle.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 250]</span></span>
+Therefore, as soon as the copper has become sufficiently liquefied, he
+pours it out into a little iron mould, which may be large or small,
+according as more or less copper is melted in the crucible for the
+purpose of the assay. The mould has a handle, likewise made of iron, by
+which it is held when the copper is poured in, after which, he plunges
+it into a tub of water placed near at hand, that the copper may be
+cooled. Then he again dries the copper by the fire, and cuts off its
+point with an iron wedge; the portion nearest the point he hammers on an
+anvil and makes into a leaf, which he cuts into pieces.</p>
+
+<p>Others stir the molten copper with a stick of linden tree charcoal, and
+then pour it over a bundle of new clean birch twigs, beneath which is
+placed a wooden tub of sufficient size and full of water, and in this
+manner the copper is broken up into little granules as small as hemp
+seeds. Others employ straw in place of twigs. Others place a broad stone
+in a tub and pour in enough water to cover the stone, then they run out
+the molten copper from the crucible on to the stone, from which the
+minute granules roll off; others pour the molten copper into water and
+stir it until it is resolved into granules. The fire does not easily
+melt the copper in the cupel unless it has been poured and a thin leaf
+made of it, or unless it has been resolved into granules or made into
+filings; and if it does not melt, all the labour has been undertaken in
+vain. In order that they may be accurately weighed out, silver and lead
+are resolved into granules in the same manner as copper. But to return
+to the assay of copper. When the copper has been prepared by these
+methods, if it is free of lead and iron, and rich in silver, to each
+<i>centumpondium</i> (lesser weights) add one and a half <i>unciae</i> of lead
+(larger weights). If, however, the copper contains some lead, add one
+<i>uncia</i> of lead; if it contains iron, add two <i>unciae</i>. First put the
+lead into a cupel, and after it begins to smoke, add the copper; the
+fire generally consumes the copper, together with the lead, in about one
+hour and a quarter. When this is done, the silver <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251"></a>[Pg 251]</span>will be found in the
+bottom of the cupel. The fire consumes both of those metals more quickly
+if they are heated in that furnace which draws in air. It is better to
+cover the upper half of it with a lid, and not only to put on the muffle
+door, but also to close the window of the muffle door with a piece of
+charcoal, or with a piece of brick. If the copper be such that the
+silver can only be separated from it with difficulty, then before it is
+tested with fire in the cupel, lead should first be put into the
+scorifier, and then the copper should be added with a moderate quantity
+of melted salt, both that the lead may absorb the copper and that the
+copper may be cleansed of the dross which abounds in it.</p>
+
+<p>Tin which contains silver should not at the beginning of the assay be
+placed in a cupel, lest the silver, as often happens, be consumed and
+converted into fumes, together with the tin. As soon as the lead<a name="FNanchor_35_207" id="FNanchor_35_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_207" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> has
+begun to fume in the scorifier, then add that<a name="FNanchor_36_208" id="FNanchor_36_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_208" class="fnanchor">[36]</a> to it. In this way the
+lead will take the silver and the tin will boil and turn into ashes,
+which may be removed with a wooden splinter. The same thing occurs if
+any alloy is melted in which there is tin. When the lead has absorbed
+the silver which was in the tin, then, and not till then, it is heated
+in the cupel. First place the lead with which the silver is mixed, in an
+iron pan, and stand it on a hot furnace and let it melt; afterward pour
+this lead into a small iron mould, and then beat it out with a hammer on
+an anvil and make it into leaves in the same way as the copper. Lastly,
+place it in the cupel, which assay can be carried out in the space of
+half an hour. A great heat is harmful to it, for which reason there is
+no necessity either to cover the half of the furnace with a lid or to
+close up its mouth.</p>
+
+<p>The minted metal alloys, which are known as money, are assayed in the
+following way. The smaller silver coins which have been picked out from
+the bottom and top and sides of a heap are first carefully cleansed;
+then, after they have been melted in the triangular crucible, they are
+either resolved into granules, or made into thin leaves. As for the
+large coins which weigh a <i>drachma</i>, a <i>sicilicus</i>, half an <i>uncia</i>, or
+an <i>uncia</i>, beat them into leaves. Then take a <i>bes</i> of the granules, or
+an equal weight of the leaves, and likewise take another <i>bes</i> in the
+same way. Wrap each sample separately in paper, and afterwards place two
+small pieces of lead in two cupels which have first been heated. The
+more precious the money is, the smaller portion of lead do we require
+for the assay, the more base, the larger is the portion required; for if
+a <i>bes</i> of silver is said to contain only half an <i>uncia</i> or one <i>uncia</i>
+of copper, we add to the <i>bes</i> of granules half an <i>uncia</i> of lead. If
+it is composed of equal parts of silver and copper, we add an <i>uncia</i> of
+lead, but if in a <i>bes</i> of copper there is only half an <i>uncia</i> or one
+<i>uncia</i> of silver, we add an <i>uncia</i> and a half of lead. As soon as the
+lead has begun to fume, put into each cupel one of the papers in which
+is wrapped the sample of silver alloyed with copper, and close the mouth
+of the muffle with charcoal. Heat them with a gentle fire until all the
+lead and copper are consumed, for a hot fire by its heat forces the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252"></a>[Pg 252]</span>silver, combined with a certain portion of lead, into the cupel, in
+which way the assay is rendered erroneous. Then take the beads out of
+the cupel and clean them of dross. If neither depresses the pan of the
+balance in which it is placed, but their weight is equal, the assay has
+been free from error; but if one bead depresses its pan, then there is
+an error, for which reason the assay must be repeated. If the <i>bes</i> of
+coin contains but seven <i>unciae</i> of pure silver it is because the King,
+or Prince, or the State who coins the money, has taken one <i>uncia</i>,
+which he keeps partly for profit and partly for the expense of coining,
+he having added copper to the silver. Of all these matters I have
+written extensively in my book <i>De Precio Metallorum et Monetis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>We assay gold coins in various ways. If there is copper mixed with the
+gold, we melt them by fire in the same way as silver coins; if there is
+silver mixed with the gold, they are separated by the strongest <i>aqua
+valens</i>; if there is copper and silver mixed with the gold, then in the
+first place, after the addition of lead, they are heated in the cupel
+until the fire consumes the copper and the lead, and afterward the gold
+is parted from the silver.</p>
+
+<p>It remains to speak of the touchstone<a name="FNanchor_37_209" id="FNanchor_37_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_209" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> with which gold and silver are
+tested, and which was also used by the Ancients. For although the assay
+made by fire is more certain, still, since we often have no furnace, nor
+muffle, nor crucibles, or some delay must be occasioned in using them,
+we can always rub gold or silver on the touchstone, which we can have in
+readiness. Further, when gold coins are assayed in the fire, of what use
+are they afterward? A touchstone must be selected which is thoroughly
+black and free of sulphur, for the blacker it is and the more devoid of
+sulphur, the better it <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253"></a>[Pg 253]</span>generally is; I have written elsewhere of its
+nature<a name="FNanchor_38_210" id="FNanchor_38_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_210" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>. First the gold is rubbed on the touchstone, whether it
+contains silver or whether it is obtained from the mines or from the
+smelting; silver also is rubbed in the same way. Then one of the
+needles, that we judge by its colour to be of similar composition, is
+rubbed on the touchstone; if this proves too pale, another needle which
+has a stronger colour is rubbed on the touchstone; and if this proves
+too deep in colour, a third which has a little paler colour is used. For
+this will show us how great a proportion of silver or copper, or silver
+and copper together, is in the gold, or else how great a proportion of
+copper is in silver.</p>
+
+<p>These needles are of four kinds.<a name="FNanchor_39_211" id="FNanchor_39_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_211" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> The first kind are made of gold and
+silver, the second of gold and copper, the third of gold, silver, and
+copper, and the fourth of silver and copper. The first three kinds of
+needles are used principally for testing gold, and the fourth for
+silver. Needles of this kind are prepared in the following ways. The
+lesser weights correspond proportionately to the larger weights, and
+both of them are used, not only by mining people, but by coiners also.
+The needles are made in accordance with the lesser weights, and each set
+corresponds to a <i>bes</i>, which, in our own vocabulary, is called a
+<i>mark</i>. The <i>bes</i>, which is employed by those who coin gold, is divided
+into twenty-four double <i>sextulae</i>, which <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254"></a>[Pg 254]</span>are now called after the
+Greek name <i>ceratia</i>; and each double <i>sextula</i> is divided into four
+<i>semi-sextulae</i>, which are called <i>granas</i>; and each <i>semi-sextula</i> is
+divided into three units of four <i>siliquae</i> each, of which each unit is
+called a <i>grenlin</i>. If we made the needles to be each four <i>siliquae</i>,
+there would be two hundred and eighty-eight in a <i>bes</i>, but if each were
+made to be a <i>semi-sextula</i> or a double <i>scripula</i>, then there would be
+ninety-six in a <i>bes</i>. By these two methods too many needles would be
+made, and the majority of them, by reason of the small difference in the
+proportion of the gold, would indicate nothing, therefore it is
+advisable to make them each of a double <i>sextula</i>; in this way
+twenty-four needles are made, of which the first is made of twenty-three
+<i>duellae</i> of silver and one of gold. Fannius is our authority that the
+Ancients called the double <i>sextula</i> a <i>duella</i>. When a bar of silver is
+rubbed on the touchstone and colours it just as this needle does, it
+contains one <i>duella</i> of gold. In this manner we determine by the other
+needles what proportion of gold there is, or when the gold exceeds the
+silver in weight, what proportion of silver.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255"></a><a href="images/fig255.jpg"><img src="images/fig255thumb.jpg" alt="Touch-needles" /></a><br /><span class="inum">[Pg 255]</span></span>
+The needles are made<a name="FNanchor_40_212" id="FNanchor_40_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_212" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">The</td><td align="center">1st</td><td align="center">needle of</td><td align="left">23</td><td align="center"><i>duellae</i></td><td align="center">of silver and</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center"><i>duella</i></td><td align="center">of gold.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">2nd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">22</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center"><i>duellae</i></td><td align="center">of gold.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">3rd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">21</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">4th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">20</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">5th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">19</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">6th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">18</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">7th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">17</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">8th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">16</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="pagenum">[Pg 255]</span> "</td><td align="center">9th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">15</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">9</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">10th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">14</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">10</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">11th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">13</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">11</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">12th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">12</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">12</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">13th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">11</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">13</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">14th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">10</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">14</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">15th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">9</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">15</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">16th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">8</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">16</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">17th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">7</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">17</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">18th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">6</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">18</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">19th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">5</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">19</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">20th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">4</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">20</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">21st</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">3</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">21</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">22nd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">2</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">22</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">23rd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left">1</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">23</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">24th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left" colspan="6">pure gold</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>By the first eleven needles, when they are rubbed on the touchstone, we
+test what proportion of gold a bar of silver contains, and with the
+remaining thirteen we test what proportion of silver is in a bar of
+gold; and also what proportion of either may be in money.</p>
+
+<p>Since some gold coins are composed of gold and copper, thirteen needles
+of another kind are made as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256"></a>[Pg 256]</span>The</td><td align="center">1st</td><td align="center">of</td><td align="center">12</td><td align="center"><i>duellae</i></td><td align="center">of gold and</td><td align="center">12</td><td align="center"><i>duellae</i></td><td align="center">of copper.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">2nd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">13</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">11</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">3rd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">14</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">10</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">4th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">15</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">9</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">5th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">16</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">6th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">17</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">7th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">18</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">8th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">19</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">9th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">20</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">10th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">21</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">11th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">22</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">12th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">23</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">13th</td><td align="center">"</td><td  align="left" colspan="6">pure gold.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>These needles are not much used, because gold coins of that kind are
+somewhat rare; the ones chiefly used are those in which there is much
+copper. Needles of the third kind, which are composed of gold, silver,
+and copper, are more largely used, because such gold coins are common.
+But since with the gold there are mixed equal or unequal portions of
+silver and copper, two sorts of needles are made. If the proportion of
+silver and copper is equal, the needles are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center" colspan="2">Gold.</td><td align="center" colspan="4">Silver.</td><td align="center" colspan="4">Copper.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">The</td><td align="center">1st</td><td align="center">of</td><td align="center">12</td><td align="center"><i>duellae</i></td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center"><i>duellae</i></td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center"><i>sextula</i></td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center"><i>duellae</i></td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center"><i>sextula</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">2nd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">13</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">3rd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">14</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">4th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">15</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">5th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">16</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">6th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">17</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">7th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">18</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">8th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">19</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">9th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">20</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">10th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">21</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">11th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">22</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">12th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">23</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">13th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left" colspan="10">pure gold.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>Some make twenty-five needles, in order to be able to detect the two
+<i>scripula</i> of silver or copper which are in a <i>bes</i> of gold. Of these
+needles, the first is composed of twelve <i>duellae</i> of gold and six of
+silver, and the same number of copper. The second, of twelve <i>duellae</i>
+and one <i>sextula</i> of gold and five <i>duellae</i> and one and a half
+<i>sextulae</i> of silver, and the same number of <i>duellae</i> and one and a
+half <i>sextulae</i> of copper. The remaining needles are made in the same
+proportion.</p>
+
+<p>Pliny is our authority that the Romans could tell to within one
+<i>scripulum</i> how much gold was in any given alloy, and how much silver or
+copper.</p>
+
+<p>Needles may be made in either of two ways, namely, in the ways of which
+I have spoken, and in the ways of which I am now about to speak. If
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257"></a>[Pg 257]</span>unequal portions of silver and copper have been mixed with the gold,
+thirty-seven needles are made in the following way:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Gold.</td><td align="center" colspan="3">Silver.</td><td align="center" colspan="3">Copper.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>Duellae</i>.</td><td align="center"><i>Duellae</i></td><td align="center"><i>Sextulae</i></td><td align="center"><i>Siliquae</i>.</td><td align="center"><i>Duellae</i></td><td align="center"><i>Sextulae</i></td><td align="center"><i>Siliquae</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">The</td><td align="center">1st</td><td align="center">of</td><td align="center">12</td><td align="center">9</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">2nd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">12</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">3rd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">12</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">4th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">13</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">5th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">13</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">6th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">13</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">7th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">14</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">8th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">14</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">9th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">14</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">10th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">15</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">11th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">15</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">12th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">15</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">13th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">16</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">14th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">16</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">15th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">16</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">16th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">17</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">17th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">17</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">18th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">17</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">19th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">18</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">20th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">18</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">21st</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">18</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">22nd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">19</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">23rd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">19</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">24th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">19</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">25th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">20</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">26th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">20</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">27th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">20</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">28th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">21</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">29th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">21</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">30th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">21</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">31st</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">22</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">32nd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">22</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">0</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">33rd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">22</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">34th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">23</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">35th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">23</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">36th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">23</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">37th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left" colspan="7">pure gold.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258"></a>[Pg 258]</span></p><p>Since it is rarely found that gold, which has been coined, does not
+amount to at least fifteen <i>duellae</i> gold in a <i>bes</i>, some make only
+twenty-eight needles, and some make them different from those already
+described, inasmuch as the alloy of gold with silver and copper is
+sometimes differently proportioned.</p>
+
+<p>These needles are made:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Gold.</td><td align="center" colspan="3">Silver.</td><td align="center" colspan="3">Copper.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>Duellae</i>.</td><td align="center"><i>Duellae</i></td><td align="center"><i>Sextulae</i></td><td align="center"><i>Siliquae</i>.</td><td align="center"><i>Duellae</i></td><td align="center"><i>Sextulae</i></td><td align="center"><i>Siliquae</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">The</td><td align="center">1st</td><td align="center">of</td><td align="center">15</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">2nd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">15</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">3rd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">15</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">4th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">16</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">5th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">16</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">6th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">16</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">7th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">17</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">8th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">17</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">9th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">17</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">10th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">18</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">11th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">18</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">12th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">18</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">13th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">19</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">14th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">19</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">15th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">19</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">16th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">20</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">17th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">20</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">18th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">20</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">19th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">21</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">20th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">21</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">21st</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">21</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">22nd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">22</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">23rd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">22</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">24th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">22</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">25th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">23</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">26th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">23</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">27th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">23</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">28th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="left" colspan="7">pure gold</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p>Next follows the fourth kind of needles, by which we test silver coins
+which contain copper, or copper coins which contain silver. The <i>bes</i> by
+which we weigh the silver is divided in two different ways. It is either
+divided twelve times, into units of five <i>drachmae</i> and one <i>scripulum</i>
+each, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259"></a>[Pg 259]</span>which the ordinary people call <i>nummi</i><a name="FNanchor_41_213" id="FNanchor_41_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_213" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>; each of these units
+we again divide into twenty-four units of four <i>siliquae</i> each, which
+the same ordinary people call a <i>grenlin</i>; or else the <i>bes</i> is divided
+into sixteen <i>semunciae</i> which are called <i>loths</i>, each of which is
+again divided into eighteen units of four <i>siliquae</i> each, which they
+call <i>grenlin</i>. Or else the <i>bes</i> is divided into sixteen <i>semunciae</i>,
+of which each is divided into four <i>drachmae</i>, and each <i>drachma</i> into
+four <i>pfennige</i>. Needles are made in accordance with each method of
+dividing the <i>bes</i>. According to the first method, to the number of
+twenty-four half <i>nummi</i>; according to the second method, to the number
+of thirty-one half <i>semunciae</i>, that is to say a <i>sicilicus</i>; for if the
+needles were made to the number of the smaller weights, the number of
+needles would again be too large, and not a few of them, by reason of
+the small difference in proportion of silver or copper, would have no
+significance. We test both bars and coined money composed of silver and
+copper by both scales. The one is as follows: the first needle is made
+of twenty-three parts of copper and one part silver; whereby, whatsoever
+bar or coin, when rubbed on the touchstone, colours it just as this
+needle does, in that bar or money there is one twenty-fourth part of
+silver, and so also, in accordance with the proportion of silver, is
+known the remaining proportion of the copper.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">The</td><td align="center">1st</td><td align="center">needle</td><td align="center">is made of</td><td align="center">23</td><td align="center">parts of</td><td align="center">copper and</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">of silver.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">2nd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">22</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">3rd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">21</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">4th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">20</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">5th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">19</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">6th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">18</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">7th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">17</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">8th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">16</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">9th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">15</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">9</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">10th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">14</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">10</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">11th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">13</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">11</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">12th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">12</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">12</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">13th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">11</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">13</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">14th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">10</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">14</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">15th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">9</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">15</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">16th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">16</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">17th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">17</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">18th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">18</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">19th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">19</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">20th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">20</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">21st</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">21</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">22nd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">22</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">23rd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">23</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">24th</td><td align="left" colspan="7">of pure silver.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260"></a>[Pg 260]</span></p><p>The other method of making needles is as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center" colspan="2">Copper.</td><td align="center" colspan="2">Silver.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>Semunciae</i></td><td align="center"><i>Sicilici.</i></td><td align="center"><i>Semunciae</i></td><td align="center"><i>Sicilici.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">The</td><td align="center">1st</td><td align="center">is</td><td align="center">of</td><td align="center">15</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">2nd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">14</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">3rd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">14</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">4th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">13</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">5th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">13</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">6th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">12</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">7th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">12</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">8th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">11</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">9th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">11</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">10th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">10</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">11th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">10</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">12th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">9</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">13th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">9</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">14th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">15th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">16th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">17th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">18th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">9</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">19th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">20th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">10</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">21st</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">11</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">22nd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">11</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">23rd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">24th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">12</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">25th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">13</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">26th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">13</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">27th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">14</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">28th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">14</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">29th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">30th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">15</td><td align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">31st</td><td align="left" colspan="6">of pure silver.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>So much for this. Perhaps I have used more words than those most highly
+skilled in the art may require, but it is necessary for the
+understanding of these matters.</p>
+
+<p>I will now speak of the weights, of which I have frequently made
+mention. Among mining people these are of two kinds, that is, the
+greater weights and the lesser weights. The <i>centumpondium</i> is the first
+and largest weight, and of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261"></a>[Pg 261]</span>course consists of one hundred <i>librae</i>, and
+for that reason is called a hundred weight.</p>
+
+<p>The various weights are:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">1st</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">100</td><td align="left"><i>librae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left"><i>centumpondium</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">2nd</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">50</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">3rd</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">25</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">4th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">16</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">5th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">6th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">7th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">8th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>libra</i>.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>This <i>libra</i> consists of sixteen <i>unciae</i>, and the half part of the
+<i>libra</i> is the <i>selibra</i>, which our people call a <i>mark</i>, and consists
+of eight <i>unciae</i>, or, as they divide it, of sixteen <i>semunciae</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">9th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="left"><i>unciae</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">10th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="left"><i>semunciae</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">11th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">12th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">13th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>semuncia</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">14th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>sicilicus</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">15th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>drachma</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">16th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>dimidi-drachma</i>.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262"></a><a href="images/fig262.jpg"><img src="images/fig262thumb.jpg" alt="Weights for Assay Balances" /></a><br /><span class="inum">[Pg 262]</span></span>
+The above is how the "greater" weights are divided. The "lesser" weights
+are made of silver or brass or copper. Of these, the first and largest
+generally weighs one <i>drachma</i>, for it is necessary for us to weigh, not
+only ore, but also metals to be assayed, and smaller quantities of lead.
+The first of these weights is called a <i>centumpondium</i> and the number of
+<i>librae</i> in it corresponds to the larger scale, being likewise one
+hundred<a name="FNanchor_42_214" id="FNanchor_42_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_214" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">The</td><td align="center">1st</td><td align="center">is called</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>centumpondium</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">2nd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">50</td><td align="left"><i>librae</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">3rd</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">25</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">4th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">16</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">5th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">6th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">7th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">8th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">9th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>selibra</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">10th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="left"><i>semunciae</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">11th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">12th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">13th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">14th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>sicilicus</i>.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The fourteenth is the last, for the proportionate weights which
+correspond with a <i>drachma</i> and half a <i>drachma</i> are not used. On all
+these weights of the lesser scale, are written the numbers of <i>librae</i>
+and of <i>semunciae</i>. Some <span class="pagenum">[Pg 262]</span>copper assayers divide both the lesser and
+greater scale weights into divisions of a different scale. Their largest
+weight of the greater scale weighs one hundred and twelve <i>librae</i>,
+which is the first unit of measurement.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">1st</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">112</td><td align="left"><i>librae</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">2nd</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">64</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">3rd</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">32</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">4th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">16</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">5th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">6th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">7th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">8th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">9th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>selibra</i> or sixteen <i>semunciae</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">10th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="left"><i>semunciae</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">11th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">12th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">13th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>As for the <i>selibra</i> of the lesser weights, which our people, as I have
+often said, call a <i>mark</i>, and the Romans call a <i>bes</i>, coiners who coin
+gold, divide it just like the greater weights scale, into twenty-four
+units of two <i>sextulae</i> each, and each unit of two <i>sextulae</i> is divided
+into four <i>semi-sextulae</i> and each <i>semi-sextula</i> into three units of
+four <i>siliquae</i> each. Some also divide the separate units of four
+<i>siliquae</i> into four individual <i>siliquae</i>, but most, omitting the
+<i>semi-sextulae</i>, then divide the double <i>sextula</i> into twelve units of
+four <i>siliquae</i> each, and do not divide these into four individual
+<i>siliquae</i>. Thus the first and greatest unit of measurement, which is
+the <i>bes</i>, weighs twenty-four double <i>sextulae</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263"></a>[Pg 263]</span>The</td><td align="center">2nd</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">12</td><td align="left">double <i>sextulae</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">3rd</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">4th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">5th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">6th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">7th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="left"><i>semi-sextulae</i> or four <i>semi-sextulae</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">8th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>semi-sextula</i> or 3 units of 4 <i>siliquae</i> each.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">9th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="left">units of four <i>siliquae</i> each.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">10th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Coiners who mint silver also divide the <i>bes</i> of the lesser weights in
+the same way as the greater weights; our people, indeed, divide it into
+sixteen <i>semunciae</i>, and the <i>semuncia</i> into eighteen units of four
+<i>siliquae</i> each.</p>
+
+<p>There are ten weights which are placed in the other pan of the balance,
+when they weigh the silver which remains from the copper that has been
+consumed, when they assay the alloy with fire.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">The</td><td align="center">1st</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">16</td><td align="left"><i>semunciae</i> = 1 <i>bes</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">2nd</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">3rd</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">4th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">5th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;or 18 units of 4 <i>siliquae</i> each.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">6th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">9</td><td align="left">units of 4 <i>siliquae</i> each.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">7th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">8th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">9th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">10th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The coiners of Nuremberg who mint silver, divide the <i>bes</i> into sixteen
+<i>semunciae</i>, but divide the <i>semuncia</i> into four <i>drachmae</i>, and the
+<i>drachma</i> into four <i>pfennige</i>. They employ nine weights.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">The</td><td align="center">1st</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">16</td><td align="left"><i>semunciae</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">2nd</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">3rd</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">4th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">5th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>For they divide the <i>bes</i> in the same way as our own people, but since
+they divide the <i>semuncia</i> into four <i>drachmae</i>,</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">the</td><td align="center">6th</td><td align="center">weight</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="left"><i>drachmae</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">7th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>drachma</i> or 4 <i>pfennige</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">8th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="left"><i>pfennige</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">9th</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>pfennig</i>.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>The men of Cologne and Antwerp<a name="FNanchor_43_215" id="FNanchor_43_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_215" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> divide the <i>bes</i> into twelve units of
+five <i>drachmae</i> and one <i>scripulum</i>, which weights they call <i>nummi</i>.
+Each of these they again divide into twenty-four units of four
+<i>siliquae</i> each, which they call <i>grenlins</i>. They have ten weights, of
+which</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">the</td><td align="center">1st</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">12</td><td align="left"><i>nummi</i> = 1 <i>bes</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">2nd</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">3rd</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">4th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">5th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;= 24 units of 4 <i>siliquae</i> each.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">6th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">12</td><td align="left">units of 4 <i>siliquae</i> each.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">7th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">8th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">9th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">10th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>And so with them, just as with our own people, the <i>mark</i> is divided
+into two hundred and eighty-eight <i>grenlins</i>, and by the people of
+Nuremberg it is divided into two hundred and fifty-six <i>pfennige</i>.
+Lastly, the Venetians divide the <i>bes</i> into eight <i>unciae</i>. The <i>uncia</i>
+into four <i>sicilici</i>, the <i>sicilicus</i> into thirty-six <i>siliquae</i>. They
+make twelve weights, which they use whenever they wish to assay alloys
+of silver and copper. Of these</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">the</td><td align="center">1st</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="left"><i>unciae</i> = 1 <i>bes</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">2nd</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">3rd</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">4th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;or 4 <i>sicilici</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">5th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="left"><i>sicilici</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">6th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>sicilicus</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">7th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">18</td><td align="left"><i>siliquae</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">8th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">9</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">9th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">10th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">3</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">11th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">2</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="center">12th</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Since the Venetians divide the <i>bes</i> into eleven hundred and fifty-two
+<i>siliquae</i>, or two hundred and eighty-eight units of 4 <i>siliquae</i> each,
+into which number our people also divide the <i>bes</i>, they thus make the
+same number of <i>siliquae</i>, and both agree, even though the Venetians
+divide the <i>bes</i> into smaller divisions.</p>
+
+<p>This, then, is the system of weights, both of the greater and the lesser
+kinds, which metallurgists employ, and likewise the system of the lesser
+weights which coiners and merchants employ, when they are assaying
+metals and coined money. The <i>bes</i> of the larger weight with which they
+provide themselves when they weigh large masses of these things, I have
+explained in my work <i>De Mensuris et Ponderibus</i>, and in another book,
+<i>De Precio Metallorum et Monetis</i>.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265"></a><a href="images/fig265.jpg"><img src="images/fig265thumb.jpg" alt="Balances" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;First small balance. B&mdash;Second.
+C&mdash;Third, placed in a case.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 265]</span></span> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264"></a>[Pg 264]</span>
+There are three small balances by which we weigh ore, metals, and
+fluxes. The first, by which we weigh lead and fluxes, is the largest
+among these smaller balances, and when eight <i>unciae</i> (of the greater
+weights) are placed in one of its pans, and the same number in the
+other, it sustains no damage. The second is more delicate, and by this
+we weigh the ore or the metal, which is to be assayed; this is well able
+to carry one <i>centumpondium</i> of the lesser <span class="pagenum">[Pg 265]</span>weights in one pan, and in
+the other, ore or metal as heavy as that weight. The third is the most
+delicate, and by this we weigh the beads of gold or silver, which, when
+the assay is completed, settle in the bottom of the cupel. But if anyone
+weighs lead in the second balance, or an ore in the third, he will do
+them much injury.</p>
+
+<p>Whatsoever small amount of metal is obtained from a <i>centumpondium</i> of
+the lesser weights of ore or metal alloy, the same greater weight of
+metal is smelted from a <i>centumpondium</i> of the greater weight of ore or
+metal alloy.</p>
+
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p class="center">END OF BOOK VII.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_219" id="Notes_219">[Pg 219]</a></span><a name="Footnote_1_173" id="Footnote_1_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_173"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> We have but little record of anything which could be called
+"assaying" among the Greeks and Romans. The fact, however, that they
+made constant use of the touchstone (see <a href="#Footnote_37_209">note 37, p. 252</a>) is sufficient
+proof that they were able to test the purity of gold and silver. The
+description of the touchstone by Theophrastus contains several
+references to "trial" by fire (see <a href="#Footnote_37_209">note 37, p. 252</a>). They were adepts at
+metal working, and were therefore familiar with melting metals on a
+small scale, with the smelting of silver, lead, copper, and tin ores
+(see <a href="#Footnote_1_235">note 1, p. 353</a>) and with the parting of silver and lead by
+cupellation. Consequently, it would not require much of an imaginative
+flight to conclude that there existed some system of tests of ore and
+metal values by fire. Apart from the statement of Theophrastus referred
+to, the first references made to anything which might fill the <i>r�le</i> of
+assaying are from the Alchemists, particularly Geber (prior to 1300),
+for they describe methods of solution, precipitation, distillation,
+fusing in crucibles, cupellation, and of the parting of gold and silver
+by acid and by sulphur, antimony, or cementation. However, they were not
+bent on <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_220" id="Notes_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>determining quantitative values, which is the fundamental object
+of the assayer's art, and all their discussion is shrouded in an obscure
+cloak of gibberish and attempted mysticism. Nevertheless, therein lies
+the foundation of many cardinal assay methods, and even of chemistry
+itself.
+</p><p>
+The first explicit records of assaying are the anonymous booklets
+published in German early in the 16th Century under the title
+<i>Probierb�chlein</i>. Therein the art is disclosed well advanced toward
+maturity, so far as concerns gold and silver, with some notes on lead
+and copper. We refer the reader to <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix B</a> for fuller discussion of
+these books, but we may repeat here that they are a collection of
+disconnected recipes lacking in arrangement, the items often repeated,
+and all apparently the inheritance of wisdom passed from father to son
+over many generations. It is obviously intended as a sort of reminder to
+those already skilled in the art, and would be hopeless to a novice.
+Apart from some notes in Biringuccio (Book <span class="smcaplower">III</span>, Chaps. 1 and 2) on
+assaying gold and silver, there is nothing else prior to <i>De Re
+Metallica</i>. Agricola was familiar with these works and includes their
+material in this chapter. The very great advance which his account
+represents can only be appreciated by comparison, but the exhaustive
+publication of other works is foreign to the purpose of these notes.
+Agricola introduces system into the arrangement of his materials,
+describes implements, and gives a hundred details which are wholly
+omitted from the previous works, all in a manner which would enable a
+beginner to learn the art. Furthermore, the assaying of lead, copper,
+tin, quicksilver, iron, and bismuth, is almost wholly new, together with
+the whole of the argument and explanations. We would call the attention
+of students of the history of chemistry to the general oversight of
+these early 16th Century attempts at analytical chemistry, for in them
+lie the foundations of that science. The statement sometimes made that
+Agricola was the first assayer, is false if for no other reason than
+that science does not develop with such strides at any one human hand.
+He can, however, fairly be accounted as the author of the first proper
+text-book upon assaying. Those familiar with the art will be astonished
+at the small progress made since his time, for in his pages appear most
+of the reagents and most of the critical operations in the dry analyses
+of gold, silver, lead, copper, tin, bismuth, quicksilver, and iron of
+to-day. Further, there will be recognised many of the "kinks" of the art
+used even yet, such as the method of granulation, duplicate assays, the
+"assay ton" method of weights, the use of test lead, the introduction of
+charges in leaf lead, and even the use of beer instead of water to damp
+bone-ash.
+</p><p>
+The following table is given of the substances mentioned requiring some
+comment, and the terms adopted in this book, with notes for convenience
+in reference. The German terms are either from Agricola's Glossary of
+<i>De Re Metallica</i>, his <i>Interpretatio</i>, or the German Translation. We
+have retained the original German spelling. The fifth column refers to
+the page where more ample notes are given:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Terms adopted.</td><td align="left">Latin.</td><td align="left">German.</td><td align="left">Remarks.</td><td align="left">Further Notes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Alum</td><td align="left"><i>Alumen</i></td><td align="left"><i>Alaun</i></td><td align="left">Either potassium or ammonia alum</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_564">564</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ampulla</td><td align="left"><i>Ampulla</i></td><td align="left"><i>Kolb</i></td><td align="left">A distillation jar</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Antimony</td><td align="left"><i>Stibium</i></td><td align="left"><i>Spiesglas</i></td><td align="left">Practically always antimony sulphide</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_428">428</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Aqua valens</i> or <i>aqua</i></td><td align="left"><i>Aqua valens</i></td><td align="left"><i>Scheidewasser</i></td><td align="left">Mostly nitric acid</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_439">439</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Argol</td><td align="left"><i>Feces vini siccae</i></td><td align="left"><i>Die weinheffen</i></td><td align="left">Crude tartar</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_234">234</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ash of lead</td><td align="left"><i>Nigrum plumbum cinereum</i></td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Artificial lead sulphide</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_237">237</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ash of musk ivy (Salt made from)</td><td align="left"><i>Sal ex anthyllidis cinere factus</i></td><td align="left"><i>Salalkali</i></td><td align="left">Mostly potash</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_560">560</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ashes which wool-dyers use</td><td align="left"><i>Cineres quo infectores lanarum</i></td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Mostly potash</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_559">559</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Assay</td><td align="left"><i>Venas experiri</i></td><td align="left"><i>Probiren</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Assay furnace</td><td align="left"><i>Fornacula</i></td><td align="left"><i>Probir ofen</i></td><td align="left">"Little" furnace</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Azure</td><td align="left"><i>Caeruleum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Lasur</i></td><td align="left">Partly copper carbonate (azurite) partly silicate</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_221" id="Notes_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>Bismuth</td><td align="left"><i>Plumbum Cinereum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Wismut</i></td><td align="left"><i>Bismuth</i></td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_433">433</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bitumen</td><td align="left"><i>Bitumen</i></td><td align="left"><i>Bergwachs</i></td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_581">581</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Blast furnace</td><td align="left"><i>Prima fornax</i></td><td align="left"><i>Schmeltzofen</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><a name="TAB_BORAX" id="TAB_BORAX"></a>Borax</td><td align="left"><i>Chrysocolla ex nitro confecta; chrysocolla quam boracem nominant</i></td><td align="left"><i>Borras; Tincar</i></td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_560">560</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Burned alum</td><td align="left"><i>Alumen coctum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Gesottener alaun</i></td><td align="left">Probably dehydrated alum</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_565">565</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Cadmia</i> (see <a href="#Notes_112">note 8, p. 112</a>)</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">(1) Furnace accretions (2) Calamine (3) Zinc blende (4) Cobalt arsenical sulphides</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Camphor</td><td align="left"><i>Camphora</i></td><td align="left"><i>Campffer</i></td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_238">238</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chrysocolla called borax (see <a href="#TAB_BORAX">borax</a>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chrysocolla (copper mineral)</td><td align="left"><i>Chrysocolla</i></td><td align="left"><i>Berggr�n und Schifergr�n</i></td><td align="left">Partly chrysocolla, partly malachite</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Copper filings</td><td align="left"><i>Aeris scobs elimata</i></td><td align="left"><i>Kupferfeilich</i></td><td align="left">Apparently finely divided copper metal</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Copper flowers</td><td align="left"><i>Aeris flos</i></td><td align="left"><i>Kupferbraun</i></td><td align="left">Cupric oxide</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_538">538</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Copper scales</td><td align="left"><i>Aeris squamae</i></td><td align="left"><i>Kupfer hammerschlag oder kessel braun</i></td><td align="left">Probably cupric oxide</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Copper minerals (see <a href="#Notes_109">note 8, p. 109</a>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Crucible (triangular)</td><td align="left"><i>Catillus triangularis</i></td><td align="left"><i>Dreieckichtschirbe</i></td><td align="left">See illustration</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Page_229">229</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cupel</td><td align="left"><i>Catillus cinereus</i></td><td align="left"><i>Capelle</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cupellation furnace</td><td align="left"><i>Secunda fornax</i></td><td align="left"><i>Treibherd</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Flux</td><td align="left"><i>Additamentum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Zusetze</i></td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_232">232</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Furnace accretions</td><td align="left"><i>Cadmia fornacum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Mitlere und obere offenbr�che</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Galena</td><td align="left"><i>Lapis plumbarius</i></td><td align="left"><i>Glantz</i></td><td align="left">Lead sulphide</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Glass-gall</td><td align="left"><i>Recrementum vitri</i></td><td align="left"><i>Glassgallen</i></td><td align="left">Skimmings from glass melting</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_235">235</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Grey antimony or stibium</td><td align="left"><i>Stibi</i> or <i>stibium</i></td><td align="left"><i>Spiesglas</i></td><td align="left">Antimony sulphide, stibnite</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_428">428</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hearth-lead</td><td align="left"><i>Molybdaena</i></td><td align="left"><i>Herdplei</i></td><td align="left">The saturated furnace bottoms from cupellation</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_476">476</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hoop (iron)</td><td align="left"><i>Circulus ferreus</i></td><td align="left"><i>Ring</i></td><td align="left">A forge for crucibles</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_226">226</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Iron filings</td><td align="left"><i>Ferri scobs elimata</i></td><td align="left"><i>Eisen feilich</i></td><td align="left">Metallic iron</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Iron scales</td><td align="left"><i>Squamae ferri</i></td><td align="left"><i>Eisen hammerschlag</i></td><td align="left">Partly iron oxide</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Iron slag</td><td align="left"><i>Recrementum ferri</i></td><td align="left"><i>Sinder</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lead ash</td><td align="left"><i>Cinis plumbi nigri</i></td><td align="left"><i>Pleiasche</i></td><td align="left">Artificial lead sulphide</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_237">237</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lead granules</td><td align="left"><i>Globuli plumbei</i></td><td align="left"><i>Gekornt plei</i></td><td align="left">Granulated lead</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lead ochre</td><td align="left"><i>Ochra plumbaria</i></td><td align="left"><i>Pleigeel</i></td><td align="left">Modern massicot (PbO)</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_232">232</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lees of <i>aqua</i> which separates gold from silver</td><td align="left"><i>Feces aquarum quae aurum ab argento secernunt</i></td><td align="left"><i>Scheidewasser heffe</i></td><td align="left">Uncertain</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_234">234</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dried lees of vinegar</td><td align="left"><i>Siccae feces aceti</i></td><td align="left"><i>Heffe des essigs</i></td><td align="left">Argol</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_234">234</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dried lees of wine</td><td align="left"><i>Feces vini siccae</i></td><td align="left"><i>Wein heffen</i></td><td align="left">Argol</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_234">234</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_222" id="Notes_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>Limestone</td><td align="left"><i>Saxum calcis</i></td><td align="left"><i>Kalchstein</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Litharge</td><td align="left"><i>Spuma argenti</i></td><td align="left"><i>Glette</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lye</td><td align="left"><i>Lixivium</i></td><td align="left"><i>Lauge durch asschen gemacht</i></td><td align="left">Mostly potash</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Muffle</td><td align="left"><i>Tegula</i></td><td align="left"><i>Muffel</i></td><td align="left">Latin, literally "Roof-tile"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Operculum</td><td align="left"><i>Operculum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Helm oder alembick</i></td><td align="left">Helmet or cover for a distillation jar</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Orpiment</td><td align="left"><i>Auripigmentum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Operment</i></td><td align="left">Yellow sulphide of arsenic (As<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>)</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_111">111</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pyrites</td><td align="left"><i>Pyrites</i></td><td align="left"><i>Kis</i></td><td align="left">Rather a genus of sulphides, than iron pyrite in particular</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pyrites (Cakes from)</td><td align="left"><i>Panes ex pyrite conflati</i></td><td align="left"><i>Stein</i></td><td align="left">Iron or Copper matte</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_350">350</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Realgar</td><td align="left"><i>Sandaraca</i></td><td align="left"><i>Rosgeel</i></td><td align="left">Red sulphide of arsenic (AsS)</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_111">111</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Red lead</td><td align="left"><i>Minium</i></td><td align="left"><i>Menning</i></td><td align="left">Pb<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub></td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_232">232</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Roasted copper</td><td align="left"><i>Aes ustum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Gebrandt kupffer</i></td><td align="left">Artificial copper sulphide (?)</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Salt</td><td align="left"><i>Sal</i></td><td align="left"><i>Saltz</i></td><td align="left">NaCl</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Salt (Rock)</td><td align="left"><i>Sal fossilis</i></td><td align="left"><i>Berg saltz</i></td><td align="left">NaCl</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Sal artificiosus</i></td><td align="left"><i>Sal artificiosus</i></td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">A stock flux?</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_236">236</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sal ammoniac</td><td align="left"><i>Sal ammoniacus</i></td><td align="left"><i>Salarmoniac</i></td><td align="left">NH<sub>4</sub>Cl</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_560">560</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saltpetre</td><td align="left"><i>Halinitrum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Salpeter</i></td><td align="left">KNO<sub>3</sub></td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_561">561</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Salt (refined)</td><td align="left"><i>Sal facticius purgatus</i></td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">NaCl</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Sal tostus</i></td><td align="left"><i>Sal tostus</i></td><td align="left"><i>Ger�st saltz</i></td><td align="left">Apparently simply heated or melted common salt</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Sal torrefactus</i></td><td align="left"><i>Sal torrefactus</i></td><td align="left"><i>Ger�st saltz</i></td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Salt (melted)</td><td align="left"><i>Sal liquefactus</i></td><td align="left"><i>Geflossen saltz</i></td><td align="left">Melted salt or salt glass</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scorifier</td><td align="left"><i>Catillus fictilis</i></td><td align="left"><i>Scherbe</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Schist</td><td align="left"><i>Saxum fissile</i></td><td align="left"><i>Schifer</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Silver minerals (see <a href="#Footnote_8_134">note 8, p. 108</a>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Slag</td><td align="left"><i>Recrementum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Schlacken</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Soda</td><td align="left"><i>Nitrum</i></td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Mostly soda from Egypt, Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub></td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_558">558</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Stones which easily melt</td><td align="left"><i>Lapides qui facile igni liquescunt</i></td><td align="left"><i>Fl�s</i></td><td align="left">Quartz and fluorspar</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_380">380</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sulphur</td><td align="left"><i>Sulfur</i></td><td align="left"><i>Schwefel</i></td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_579">579</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Tophus</i></td><td align="left"><i>Tophus</i></td><td align="left"><i>Topstein</i></td><td align="left">Marl?</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_233">233</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Touchstone</td><td align="left"><i>Coticula</i></td><td align="left"><i>Goldstein</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Venetian glass</td><td align="left"><i>Venetianum vitrum</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Verdigris</td><td align="left"><i>Aerugo</i></td><td align="left"><i>Gr�nspan oder Spanschgr�n</i></td><td align="left">Copper sub-acetate</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_440">440</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Vitriol</td><td align="left"><i>Atramentum sutorium</i></td><td align="left"><i>Kupferwasser</i></td><td align="left">Mostly FeSO<sub>4</sub></td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_572">572</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">White schist</td><td align="left"><i>Saxum fissile album</i></td><td align="left"><i>Weisser schifer</i></td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">p. <a href="#Notes_234">234</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Weights (see <a href="#APPENDIX_C">Appendix</a>).</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_224" id="Notes_224">[Pg 224]</a></span><a name="Footnote_2_174" id="Footnote_2_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_174"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> <i>Crudorum</i>,&mdash;unbaked?</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_175" id="Footnote_3_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_175"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> This reference is not very clear. Apparently the names
+refer to the German terms <i>probier ofen</i> and <i>windt ofen</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_226" id="Notes_226">[Pg 226]</a></span><a name="Footnote_4_176" id="Footnote_4_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_176"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> <i>Circulus</i>. This term does not offer a very satisfactory
+equivalent, as such a furnace has no distinctive name in English. It is
+obviously a sort of forge for fusing in crucibles.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_230" id="Notes_230">[Pg 230]</a></span><a name="Footnote_5_177" id="Footnote_5_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_177"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>Spissa</i>,&mdash;"Dry." This term is used in contra-distinction
+to <i>pingue</i>, unctuous or "fatty."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_232" id="Notes_232">[Pg 232]</a></span><a name="Footnote_6_178" id="Footnote_6_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_178"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <i>Additamenta</i>,&mdash;"Additions." Hence the play on words.
+</p><p>
+We have adopted "flux" because the old English equivalent for all these
+materials was "flux," although in modern nomenclature the term is
+generally restricted to those substances which, by chemical combination
+in the furnace, lower the melting point of some of the charge. The
+"additions" of Agricola, therefore, include reducing, oxidizing,
+sulphurizing, desulphurizing, and collecting agents as well as fluxes. A
+critical examination of the fluxes mentioned in the next four pages
+gives point to the Author's assertion that "some are of a very
+complicated nature." However, anyone of experience with home-taught
+assayers has come in contact with equally extraordinary combinations.
+The four orders of "additions" enumerated are quite impossible to
+reconcile from a modern metallurgical point of view.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_179" id="Footnote_7_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_179"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> <i>Minium secundarium</i>. (<i>Interpretatio</i>,&mdash;<i>menning</i>.
+Pb<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>). Agricola derived his Latin term from Pliny. There is great
+confusion in the ancient writers on the use of the word <i>minium</i>, for
+prior to the Middle Ages it was usually applied to vermilion derived
+from cinnabar. Vermilion was much adulterated with red-lead, even in
+Roman times, and finally in later centuries the name came to be
+appropriated to the lead product. Theophrastus (103) mentions a
+substitute for vermilion, but, in spite of commentators, there is no
+evidence that it was red-lead. The first to describe the manufacture of
+real red-lead was apparently Vitruvius (<span class="smcaplower">VII</span>, 12), who calls it
+<i>sandaraca</i> (this name was usually applied to red arsenical sulphide),
+and says: "White-lead is heated in a furnace and by the force of the
+fire becomes red lead. This invention was the result of observation in
+the case of an accidental fire, and by the process a much better
+material is obtained than from the mines." He describes <i>minium</i> as the
+product from cinnabar. Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>, 63), after discussing white-lead,
+says it may be burned until it becomes the colour of <i>sandaracha</i>, and
+is called <i>sandyx</i>. He also states (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>, 69) that those are deceived who
+consider cinnabar to be the same as <i>minium</i>, for <i>minium</i> is made in
+Spain out of stone mixed with silver sands. Therefore he is not in
+agreement with Vitruvius and Pliny on the use of the term. Pliny
+(<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 40) says: "These barren stones (apparently lead ores barren of
+silver) may be recognised by their colour; it is only in the furnace
+that they turn red. After being roasted it is pulverized and is <i>minium
+secundarium</i>. It is known to few and is very inferior to the natural
+kind made from those sands we have mentioned (<i>cinnabar</i>). It is with
+this that the genuine <i>minium</i> is adulterated in the works of the
+Company." This proprietary company who held a monopoly of the Spanish
+quicksilver mines, "had many methods of adulterating it (<i>minium</i>)&mdash;a
+source of great plunder to the Company." Pliny also describes the making
+of red lead from white.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_180" id="Footnote_8_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_180"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> <i>Ochra plumbaria</i>. (<i>Interpretatio</i>,&mdash;<i>pleigeel</i>; modern
+German,&mdash;<i>Bleigelb</i>). The German term indicates that this "Lead Ochre,"
+a form of PbO, is what in the English trade is known as <i>massicot</i>, or
+<i>masticot</i>. This material can be a partial product from almost any
+cupellation where oxidation takes place below the melting point of the
+oxide. It may have been known to the Ancients among the various species
+into which they divided <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_233" id="Notes_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>litharge, but there is no valid reason for
+assigning to it any special one of their terms, so far as we can see.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_181" id="Footnote_9_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_181"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> There are four forms of copper named as re-agents by
+Agricola:
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Copper filings</td><td align="left"><i>Aeris scobs elimata.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Copper scales</td><td align="left"><i>Aeris squamae.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Copper flowers</td><td align="left"><i>Aeris flos.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Roasted copper</td><td align="left"><i>Aes ustum.</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+The first of these was no doubt finely divided copper metal; the second,
+third, and fourth were probably all cupric oxide. According to Agricola
+(<i>De Nat. Fos.</i>, p. 352), the scales were the result of hammering the
+metal; the flowers came off the metal when hot bars were quenched in
+water, and a third kind were obtained from calcining the metal. "Both
+flowers (<i>flos</i>) and hammer-scales (<i>squama</i>) have the same properties
+as <i>crematum</i> copper.... The particles of flower copper are finer than
+scales or <i>crematum</i> copper." If we assume that the verb <i>uro</i> used in
+<i>De Re Metallica</i> is of the same import as <i>cremo</i> in the <i>De Natura
+Fossilium</i>, we can accept this material as being merely cupric oxide,
+but the <i>aes ustum</i> of Pliny&mdash;Agricola's usual source of technical
+nomenclature&mdash;is probably an artificial sulphide. Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>, 47),
+who is apparently the source of Pliny's information, says:&mdash;"Of <i>chalcos
+cecaumenos</i>, the best is red, and pulverized resembles the colour of
+cinnabar; if it turns black, it is over-burnt. It is made from broken
+ship nails put into a rough earthen pot, with alternate layers of equal
+parts of sulphur and salt. The opening should be smeared with potter's
+clay and the pot put in the furnace until it is thoroughly heated," etc.
+Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 23) states: "Moreover Cyprian copper is roasted in crude
+earthen pots with an equal amount of sulphur; the apertures of the pots
+are well luted, and they are kept in the furnace until the pot is
+thoroughly heated. Some add salt, others use <i>alumen</i> instead of
+sulphur, others add nothing, but only sprinkle it with vinegar."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_182" id="Footnote_10_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_182"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> The reader is referred to <a href="#Footnote_6_376">note 6, p. 558</a>, for more ample
+discussion of the alkalis. Agricola gives in this chapter four
+substances of that character:
+</p>
+<blockquote><p>Soda (<i>nitrum</i>). Lye. "Ashes which wool-dyers use." "Salt made
+from the ashes of musk ivy." </p></blockquote>
+<p>
+The last three are certainly potash, probably impure. While the first
+might be either potash or soda, the fact that the last three are
+mentioned separately, together with other evidence, convinces us that by
+the first is intended the <i>nitrum</i> so generally imported into Europe
+from Egypt during the Middle Ages. This imported salt was certainly the
+natural bicarbonate, and we have, therefore, used the term "soda."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_183" id="Footnote_11_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_183"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> In this chapter are mentioned seven kinds of common salt:
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Salt</td><td align="left"><i>Sal.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rock salt</td><td align="left"><i>Sal fossilis.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">"Made" salt</td><td align="left"><i>Sal facticius.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Refined salt</td><td align="left"><i>Sal purgatius.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Melted salt</td><td align="left"><i>Sal liquefactus.</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+And in addition <i>sal tostus</i> and <i>sal torrefactus</i>. <i>Sal facticius</i> is
+used in distinction from rock-salt. The melted salt would apparently be
+salt-glass. What form the <i>sal tostus</i> and <i>sal torrefactus</i> could have
+we cannot say, however, but they were possibly some form of heated salt;
+they may have been combinations after the order of <i>sal artificiosus</i>
+(see p. <a href="#Notes_236">236</a>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_184" id="Footnote_12_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_184"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> "Stones which easily melt in hot furnaces and sand which
+is made from them" (<i>lapides qui in ardentibus fornacibus facile
+liquescunt arenae ab eis resolutae</i>). These were probably quartz in this
+instance, although fluorspar is also included in this same genus. For
+fuller discussion see note on p. <a href="#Notes_380">380</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_185" id="Footnote_13_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_185"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> <i>Tophus</i>. (<i>Interpretatio</i>, <i>Toffstein oder topstein</i>).
+According to Dana (Syst. of Min., p. 678), the German <i>topfstein</i> was
+English potstone or soapstone, a magnesian silicate. It is scarcely
+possible, however, that this is what Agricola meant by this term, for
+such a substance would be highly infusible. Agricola has a good deal to
+say about this mineral in <i>De Natura Fossilium</i> (p. 189 and 313), and
+from these descriptions it would seem to be a tufaceous limestone of
+various sorts, embracing some marls, stalagmites, calcareous sinter,
+etc. He states: "Generally fire does not melt it, but makes it harder
+and breaks it into powder. Tophus is said to be a stone found in
+caverns, made from the dripping of stone juice solidified by cold ...
+sometimes it is found containing many shells, and likewise the
+impressions of alder leaves; our people make lime by burning it." Pliny,
+upon whom Agricola depends largely for his nomenclature, mentions such a
+substance (<span class="smcaplower">XXXVI</span>, 48): "Among the multitude of stones there is <i>tophus</i>.
+It is unsuitable for <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_234" id="Notes_234">[Pg 234]</a></span>buildings, because it is perishable and soft.
+Still, however, there are some places which have no other, as Carthage,
+in Africa. It is eaten away by the emanations from the sea, crumbled to
+dust by the wind, and washed away by the rain." In fact, <i>tophus</i> was a
+wide genus among the older mineralogists, Wallerius (<i>Meditationes
+Physico-Chemicae De Origine Mundi</i>, Stockholm, 1776, p. 186), for
+instance, gives 22 varieties. For the purposes for which it is used we
+believe it was always limestone of some form.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_186" id="Footnote_14_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_186"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> <i>Saxum fissile album.</i> (<i>The Interpretatio</i> gives the
+German as <i>schifer</i>). Agricola mentions it in <i>Bermannus</i> (459), in <i>De
+Natura Fossilium</i> (p. 319), but nothing definite can be derived from
+these references. It appears to us from its use to have been either a
+quartzite or a fissile limestone.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_187" id="Footnote_15_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_187"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Argol (<i>Feces vini siccae</i>,&mdash;"Dried lees of wine." Germ.
+trans. gives <i>die wein heffen</i>, although the usual German term of the
+period was <i>weinstein</i>). The lees of wine were the crude tartar or
+argols of commerce and modern assayers. The argols of white wine are
+white, while they are red from red wine. The white argol which Agricola
+so often specifies would have no special excellence, unless it may be
+that it is less easily adulterated. Agricola (<i>De Nat. Fos.</i>, p. 344)
+uses the expression "<i>Fex vini sicca</i> called <i>tartarum</i>"&mdash;one of the
+earliest appearances of the latter term in this connection. The use of
+argol is very old, for Dioscorides (1st Century <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>) not only describes
+argol, but also its reduction to impure potash. He says (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>, 90): "The
+lees (<i>tryx</i>) are to be selected from old Italian wine; if not, from
+other similar wine. Lees of vinegar are much stronger. They are
+carefully dried and then burnt. There are some who burn them in a new
+earthen pot on a large fire until they are thoroughly incinerated.
+Others place a quantity of the lees on live coals and pursue the same
+method. The test as to whether it is completely burned, is that it
+becomes white or blue, and seems to burn the tongue when touched. The
+method of burning lees of vinegar is the same.... It should be used
+fresh, as it quickly grows stale; it should be placed in a vessel in a
+secluded place." Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXIII</span>, 31) says: "Following these, come the lees
+of these various liquids. The lees of wine (<i>vini faecibus</i>) are so
+powerful as to be fatal to persons on descending into the vats. The test
+for this is to let down a lamp, which, if extinguished, indicates the
+peril.... Their virtues are greatly increased by the action of fire."
+Matthioli, commenting on this passage from Dioscorides in 1565, makes
+the following remark (p. 1375): "The precipitate of the wine which
+settles in the casks of the winery forms stone-like crusts, and is
+called by the works-people by the name <i>tartarum</i>." It will be seen
+above that these lees were rendered stronger by the action of fire, in
+which case the tartar was reduced to potassium carbonate. The
+<i>weinstein</i> of the old German metallurgists was often the material
+lixiviated from the incinerated tartar.
+</p><p>
+Dried lees of vinegar (<i>siccae feces aceti</i>; <i>Interpretatio</i>, <i>die heffe
+des essigs</i>). This would also be crude tartar. Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXIII</span>, 32) says:
+"The lees of vinegar (<i>faex aceti</i>); owing to the more acrid material
+are more aggravating in their effects.... When combined with
+<i>melanthium</i> it heals the bites of dogs and crocodiles."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_188" id="Footnote_16_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_188"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Dried lees of <i>aqua</i> which separates gold and silver.
+(<i>Siccae feces aquarum quae aurum ab argento secernunt</i>. German
+translation, <i>Der scheidwasser heffe</i>). There is no pointed description
+in Agricola's works, or in any other that we can find, as to what this
+material was. The "separating <i>aqua</i>" was undoubtedly nitric acid (see
+p. <a href="#Notes_439">439</a>, Book X). There <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_235" id="Notes_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>are two precipitates possible, both referred to
+as <i>feces</i>,&mdash;the first, a precipitate of silver chloride from clarifying
+the <i>aqua valens</i>, and the second, the residues left in making the acid
+by distillation. It is difficult to believe that silver chloride was the
+<i>feces</i> referred to in the text, because such a precipitate would be
+obviously misleading when used as a flux through the addition of silver
+to the assays, too expensive, and of no merit for this purpose.
+Therefore one is driven to the conclusion that the <i>feces</i> must have
+been the residues left in the retorts when nitric acid was prepared. It
+would have been more in keeping with his usual mode of expression,
+however, to have referred to this material as a <i>residuus</i>. The
+materials used for making acid varied greatly, so there is no telling
+what such a <i>feces</i> contained. A list of possibilities is given in <a href="#Footnote_8_301">note
+8, p. 443</a>. In the main, the residue would be undigested vitriol, alum,
+saltpetre, salt, etc., together with potassium, iron, and alum
+sulphates. The <i>Probierb�chlin</i> (p. 27) also gives this re-agent under
+the term <i>Toden kopff das ist schlam oder feces auss dem scheydwasser</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_189" id="Footnote_17_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_189"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> <i>Recrementum vitri</i>. (<i>Interpretatio</i>, <i>Glassgallen</i>).
+Formerly, when more impure materials were employed than nowadays, the
+surface of the mass in the first melting of glass materials was covered
+with salts, mostly potassium and sodium sulphates and chlorides which
+escaped perfect vitrification. This "slag" or "<i>glassgallen</i>" of
+Agricola was also termed <i>sandiver</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_190" id="Footnote_18_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_190"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> The whole of this expression is "<i>candidus, candido</i>." It
+is by no means certain that this is tin, for usually tin is given as
+<i>plumbum candidum</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_236" id="Notes_236">[Pg 236]</a></span><a name="Footnote_19_191" id="Footnote_19_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_191"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>Sal artificiosus</i>. These are a sort of stock fluxes. Such
+mixtures are common in all old assay books, from the <i>Probierb�chlin</i> to
+later than John Cramer in 1737 (whose Latin lectures on Assaying were
+published in English under the title of "Elements of the Art of Assaying
+Metals," London, 1741). Cramer observes (p. 51) that: "Artificers
+compose a great many fluxes with the above-mentioned salts and with the
+reductive ones; nay, some use as many different fluxes as there are
+different ores and metals; all which, however, we think needless to
+describe. It is better to have explained a few of the simpler ones,
+which serve for all the others, and are very easily prepared, than to
+tire the reader with confused compositions: and this chiefly because
+unskilled artificers sometimes attempt to obtain with many ingredients
+of the same nature heaped up beyond measure, and with much labour,
+though not more properly and more securely, what might have been easily
+effected, with one only and the same ingredient, thus increasing the
+number, not at all the virtue of the things employed. Nevertheless, if
+anyone loves variety, he may, according to the proportions and cautions
+above prescribed, at his will chuse among the simpler kinds such as will
+best suit his purpose, and compose a variety of fluxes with them."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_192" id="Footnote_20_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_192"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> This operation apparently results in a coating to prevent
+the deflagration of the saltpetre&mdash;in fact, it might be permitted to
+translate <i>inflammatur</i> "deflagrate," instead of kindle.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_193" id="Footnote_21_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_193"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> The results which would follow from the use of these
+"fluxes" would obviously depend upon the ore treated. They can all
+conceivably be successful. Of these, the first is the lead-glass of the
+German assayers&mdash;a flux much emphasized by all old authorities,
+<span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_237" id="Notes_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>including Lohneys, Ercker and Cramner, and used even yet. The "powerful
+flux" would be a reducing, desulphurizing, and an acid flux. The "more
+powerful" would be a basic flux in which the reducing action of the
+argols would be largely neutralised by the nitre. The "still more
+powerful" would be a strongly sulphurizing basic flux, while the "most
+powerful" would be a still more sulphurizing flux, but it is badly mixed
+as to its oxidation and basic properties. (See also <a href="#Footnote_19_191">note 19</a> on <i>sal
+artificiosus</i>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_194" id="Footnote_22_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_194"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Lead ash (<i>Cinis Plumbi</i>. Glossary, <i>Pleyasch</i>).&mdash;This was
+obviously, from the method of making, an artificial lead sulphide.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_195" id="Footnote_23_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_195"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Ashes of lead (<i>Nigri plumbi cinis</i>). This, as well as
+lead ash, was also an artificial lead sulphide. Such substances were
+highly valued by the Ancients for medicinal purposes. Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>,
+56) says: "Burned lead (<i>Molybdos cecaumenos</i>) is made in this way:
+Sprinkle sulphur over some very thinnest lead plates and put them into a
+new earthen pot, add other layers, putting sulphur between each layer
+until the pot is full; set it alight and stir the melted lead with an
+iron rod until it is entirely reduced to ashes and until none of the
+lead remains unburned. Then take it off, first stopping up your nose,
+because the fumes of burnt lead are very injurious. Or burn the lead
+filings in a pot with sulphur as aforesaid." Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV.</span>, 50) gives
+much the same directions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_238" id="Notes_238">[Pg 238]</a></span><a name="Footnote_24_196" id="Footnote_24_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_196"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Camphor (<i>camphora</i>). This was no doubt the well-known
+gum. Agricola, however, believed that camphor (<i>De Nat. Fossilium</i>, p.
+224) was a species of bitumen, and he devotes considerable trouble to
+the refutation of the statements by the Arabic authors that it was a
+gum. In any event, it would be a useful reducing agent.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_197" id="Footnote_25_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_197"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Inasmuch as orpiment and realgar are both arsenical
+sulphides, the use of iron "slag," if it contains enough iron, would
+certainly matte the sulphur and arsenic. Sulphur and arsenic are the
+"juices" referred to (see <a href="#Footnote_4_45">note 4, p. 1</a>). It is difficult to see the
+object of preserving the antimony with such a sulphurizing "addition,"
+unless it was desired to secure a regulus of antimony alone from a given
+antimonial ore.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_239" id="Notes_239">[Pg 239]</a></span><a name="Footnote_26_198" id="Footnote_26_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_198"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> The lead free from silver, called <i>villacense</i>, was
+probably from Bleyberg, not far from Villach in Upper Austria, this
+locality having been for centuries celebrated for its pure lead. These
+mines were worked prior to, and long after, Agricola's time.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_242" id="Notes_242">[Pg 242]</a></span><a name="Footnote_27_199" id="Footnote_27_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_199"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> This method of proportionate weights for assay charges is
+simpler than the modern English "assay ton," both because of the use of
+100 units in the standard of weight (the <i>centumpondium</i>), and because
+of the lack of complication between the Avoirdupois and Troy scales. For
+instance, an ore containing a <i>libra</i> of silver to the <i>centumpondium</i>
+would contain 1/100th part, and the same ratio would obtain, no matter
+what the actual weight of a <i>centumpondium</i> of the "lesser weight" might
+be. To follow the matter still further, an <i>uncia</i> being 1/1,200 of a
+<i>centumpondium</i>, if the ore ran one "<i>uncia</i> of the lesser weight" to
+the "<i>centumpondium</i> of the lesser weight," it would also run one actual
+<i>uncia</i> to the actual <i>centumpondium</i>; it being a matter of indifference
+what might be the actual weight of the <i>centumpondium</i> upon which the
+scale of lesser weights is based. In fact Agricola's statement (p. <a href="#Page_261">261</a>)
+indicates that it weighed an actual <i>drachma</i>. We have, in some places,
+interpolated the expressions "lesser" and "greater" weights for clarity.
+</p><p>
+This is not the first mention of this scheme of lesser weights, as it
+appears in the <i>Probierb�chlein</i> (1500? see <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix B</a>) and Biringuccio
+(1540). For a more complete discussion of weights and measures see
+<a href="#APPENDIX_C">Appendix C</a>. For convenience, we repeat here the Roman scale, although,
+as will be seen in the Appendix, Agricola used the Latin terms in many
+places merely as nomenclature equivalents of the old German scale.
+</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">Troy Grains.</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">Ozs.</td><td align="right">dwts.</td><td align="right">gr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="right" colspan="3">per short ton.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>Siliqua</i></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">2.87</td><td align="center">Per</td><td align="center"><i>Centumpondium</i></td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">6</td><td align="left"><i>Siliquae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Scripulum</i></td><td align="right">17.2</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">4</td><td align="left"><i>Scripula</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Sextula</i></td><td align="right">68.7</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">6</td><td align="left"><i>Sextulae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Uncia</i></td><td align="right">412.2</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">24</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">12</td><td align="left"><i>Unciae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Libra</i></td><td align="right">4946.4</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">291</td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">100</td><td align="left"><i>Librae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Centumpondium</i></td><td align="right">494640.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"></td><td align="left" colspan="9">&nbsp;&nbsp;However Agricola may occasionally use</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">16</td><td align="left"><i>Unciae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Libra</i></td><td align="right">6592.0</td><td align="center">(?)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">100</td><td align="left"><i>Librae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Centumpondium</i></td><td align="right">659200.0</td><td align="center">(?)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"></td><td align="left" colspan="9">&nbsp;&nbsp;Also</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">Ozs.</td><td align="right">dwts.</td><td align="right">gr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="right" colspan="3">per short ton.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>Scripulum</i></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">17.2</td><td align="center">Per</td><td align="center"><i>Centumpondium</i></td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">3</td><td align="left"><i>Scripula</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Drachma</i></td><td align="right">51.5</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">0</td><td align="right">19</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">2</td><td align="left"><i>Drachmae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Sicilicus</i></td><td align="right">103.0</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">4</td><td align="left"><i>Sicilici</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Uncia</i></td><td align="right">412.2</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">24</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">8</td><td align="left"><i>Unciae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Bes</i></td><td align="right">3297.6</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">194</td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_243" id="Notes_243">[Pg 243]</a></span><a name="Footnote_28_200" id="Footnote_28_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_200"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The amalgamation of gold ores is fully discussed in <a href="#Footnote_12_225">note
+12, p. 297</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_244" id="Notes_244">[Pg 244]</a></span><a name="Footnote_29_201" id="Footnote_29_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_201"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> For discussion of the silver ores, see <a href="#Footnote_8_134">note 8, p. 108</a>.
+<i>Rudis</i> silver was a fairly pure silver mineral, the various coloured
+silvers were partly horn-silver and partly alteration products.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_245" id="Notes_245">[Pg 245]</a></span><a name="Footnote_30_202" id="Footnote_30_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_202"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> It is difficult to see why copper scales (<i>squamae
+aeris</i>&mdash;copper oxide?) are added, unless it be to collect a small ratio
+of copper in the ore. This additional copper is not mentioned again,
+however. The whole of this statement is very confused.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_247" id="Notes_247">[Pg 247]</a></span><a name="Footnote_31_203" id="Footnote_31_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_203"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> This old story runs that Hiero, King of Syracuse, asked
+Archimedes to tell him whether a crown made for him was pure gold or
+whether it contained some proportion of silver. Archimedes is said to
+have puzzled over it until he noticed the increase in water-level upon
+entering his bath. Whereupon he determined the matter by immersing bars
+of pure gold and pure silver, and thus determining the relative specific
+weights. The best <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_248" id="Notes_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>ancient account of this affair is to be found in
+Vitruvius, <span class="smcaplower">IX</span>, Preface. The story does not seem very probable, seeing
+that Theophrastus, who died the year Archimedes was born, described the
+touchstone in detail, and that it was of common knowledge among the
+Greeks before (see <a href="#Footnote_37_209">note 37</a>). In any event, there is not sufficient
+evidence in this story on which to build the conclusion of Meyer (Hist.
+of Chemistry, p. 14) and others, that, inasmuch as Archimedes was unable
+to solve the problem until his discovery of specific weights, therefore
+the Ancients could not part gold and silver. The probability that he did
+not want to injure the King's jewellery would show sufficient reason for
+his not parting these metals. It seems probable that the Ancients did
+part gold and silver by cementation. (See note on p. <a href="#Notes_458">458</a>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_204" id="Footnote_32_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_204"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> The Alchemists (with whose works Agricola was
+familiar&mdash;<i>vide</i> <a href="#PREFACE">preface</a>) were the inventors of nitric acid separation.
+(See note on p. <a href="#Notes_460">460</a>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_205" id="Footnote_33_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_205"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Parting gold and silver by nitric acid is more
+exhaustively discussed in <a href="#BOOK_X">Book X.</a> and <a href="#Footnote_10_303">note 10, p. 443</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_206" id="Footnote_34_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_206"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> The lesser weights, probably.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_251" id="Notes_251">[Pg 251]</a></span><a name="Footnote_35_207" id="Footnote_35_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_207"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Lead and Tin seem badly mixed in this paragraph.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_208" id="Footnote_36_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_208"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> It is not clear what is added.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_252" id="Notes_252">[Pg 252]</a></span><a name="Footnote_37_209" id="Footnote_37_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_209"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Historical Note on Touchstone.</span> (<i>Coticula</i>.
+<i>Interpretatio</i>,&mdash;<i>Goldstein</i>). Theophrastus is, we believe, the first
+to describe the touchstone, although it was generally known to the
+Greeks, as is evidenced by the metaphors of many of the poets,&mdash;Pindar,
+Theognis, Euripides, etc. The general knowledge of the constituents of
+alloys which is implied, raises the question as to whether the Greeks
+did not know a great deal more about parting metals, than has been
+attributed to them. Theophrastus says (78-80): "The nature of the stone
+which tries gold is also very wonderful, as it seems to have the same
+power with fire; which is also a test of that metal. Some people have
+for this reason questioned the truth of this power in the stone, but
+their doubts are ill-founded, for this trial is not of the same nature
+or made in the same manner as the other. The trial by fire is by the
+colour and by the quantity lost by it; but that by the stone is made
+only by rubbing the metal on it; the stone seeming to have the power to
+receive separately the distinct particles of different metals. It is
+said also that there is a much better kind of this stone now found out,
+than that which was formerly used; insomuch that it now serves not only
+for the trial of refined gold, but also of copper or silver coloured
+with gold; and shows how much of the adulterating matter by weight is
+mixed with gold; this has signs which it yields from the smallest weight
+of the adulterating matter, which is a grain, from thence a colybus, and
+thence a quadrans or semi-obolus, by which it is easy to distinguish if,
+and in what degree, that metal is adulterated. All these stones are
+found in the River Tmolus; their texture is smooth and like that of
+pebbles; their figure broad, not round; and their bigness twice that of
+the common larger sort of pebbles. In their use in the trial of metals
+there is a difference in power between their upper surface, which has
+lain toward the sun, and their under, which has been to the earth; the
+upper performing its office the more nicely; and this is consonant to
+reason, as the upper part is dryer; for the humidity of the other
+surface hinders its receiving so well the particles of metals; for the
+same reason also it does not perform its office as well in hot weather
+as in colder, for in the hot it emits a kind of humidity out of its
+substance, which runs all over it. This hinders the metalline particles
+from adhering perfectly, and makes mistakes in the trials. This
+exudation of a humid matter is also common to many other stones, among
+others, to those of which statues are made; and this has been looked on
+as peculiar to the statue." (Based on <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_253" id="Notes_253">[Pg 253]</a></span>Hill's trans.) This humid
+"exudation of fine-grained stones in summer" would not sound abnormal if
+it were called condensation. Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 43) says: "The mention of
+gold and silver should be accompanied by that of the stone called
+<i>coticula</i>. Formerly, according to Theophrastus, it was only to be found
+in the river Tmolus but now found in many parts, it was found in small
+pieces never over four inches long by two broad. That side which lay
+toward the sun is better than that toward the ground. Those experienced
+with the <i>coticula</i> when they rub ore (<i>vena</i>) with it, can at once say
+how much gold it contains, how much silver or copper. This method is so
+accurate that they do not mistake it to a scruple." This purported use
+for determining values of <i>ore</i> is of about Pliny's average accuracy.
+The first detailed account of touch-needles and their manner of making,
+which we have been able to find, is that of the <i>Probierb�chlein</i> (1527?
+see <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix</a>) where many of the tables given by Agricola may be found.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_210" id="Footnote_38_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_210"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> <i>De Natura Fossilium</i> (p. 267) and <i>De Ortu et Causis
+Subterraneorum</i> (p. 59). The author does not add any material
+mineralogical information to the quotations from Theophrastus and Pliny
+given above.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_211" id="Footnote_39_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_211"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> In these tables Agricola has simply adopted Roman names as
+equivalents of the old German weights, but as they did not always
+approximate in proportions, he coined terms such as "units of 4
+<i>siliquae</i>," etc. It might seem more desirable to have introduced the
+German terms into this text, but while it would apply in this instance,
+as we have discussed on p. <a href="#TN253">259</a>, the actual values of the Roman weights
+are very different from the German, and as elsewhere in the book actual
+Roman weights are applied, we have considered it better to use the Latin
+terms consistently throughout. Further, the obsolete German would be to
+most readers but little improvement upon the Latin. For convenience of
+readers we set out the various scales as used by Agricola, together with
+the German:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center" colspan="4"><span class="smcap">Roman Scale.</span></td><td align="center" colspan="4"><span class="smcap">Old German Scale</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">6</td><td align="left"><i>Siliquae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Scripulum</i></td><td align="center">3</td><td align="left"><i>Grenlin</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Gran</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">4</td><td align="left"><i>Scripula</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Sextula</i></td><td align="center">4</td><td align="left"><i>Gran</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Krat</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">2</td><td align="left"><i>Sextulae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Duella</i></td><td align="center">24</td><td align="left"><i>Kratt</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Mark</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">24</td><td align="left"><i>Duellae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Bes</i></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">or</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">24</td><td align="left"><i>Grenlin</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 "<i>Nummus</i>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">12</td><td align="left">"<i>Nummi</i>"</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Mark</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="8">Also the following scales are applied to fineness by Agricola:&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">3</td><td align="left"><i>Scripula</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Drachma</i></td><td align="center">4</td><td align="left"><i>Pfennige</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Quintlein</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">2</td><td align="left"><i>Drachmae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Sicilicus</i></td><td align="center">4</td><td align="left"><i>Quintlein</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Loth</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">2</td><td align="left"><i>Sicilici</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Semuncia</i></td><td align="center">16</td><td align="left"><i>Loth</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Mark</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">16</td><td align="left"><i>Semunciae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">1 <i>Bes</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+The term "<i>nummus</i>," a coin, given above and in the text, appears in the
+German translation as <i>pfennig</i> as applied to both German scales, but as
+they are of different values, <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_254" id="Notes_254">[Pg 254]</a></span>we have left Agricola's adaptation in one
+scale to avoid confusion. The Latin terms adopted by Agricola are given
+below, together with the German:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Roman Term.</td><td align="left">German Term.</td><td align="right" style="width:5em;">Number in one Mark or Bes.</td><td align="right" style="width:5em;">Value in <i>Siliquae</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Siliqua</i></td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">1152</td><td align="right">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">"Unit of 4 <i>Siliquae</i>"</td><td align="left"><i>Grenlin</i></td><td align="right">288</td><td align="right">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Pfennig</i></td><td align="right">256</td><td align="right">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Scripulum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Scruple</i> (?)</td><td align="right">192</td><td align="right">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Semi-sextula</i></td><td align="left"><i>Gran</i></td><td align="right">96</td><td align="right">12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Drachma</i></td><td align="left"><i>Quintlein</i></td><td align="right">64</td><td align="right">18</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Sextula</i></td><td align="left"><i>Halb Krat</i></td><td align="right">48</td><td align="right">24</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Sicilicus</i></td><td align="left"><i>Halb Loth</i></td><td align="right">32</td><td align="right">36</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Duella</i></td><td align="left"><i>Krat</i></td><td align="right">24</td><td align="right">48</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Semuncia</i></td><td align="left"><i>Loth</i></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">72</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">"<i>Unit of 5 Drachmae &amp; 1 Scripulum</i>"</td><td align="left">"<i>Nummus</i>"</td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">96</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Uncia</i></td><td align="left"><i>Untzen</i></td><td align="right">8</td><td align="right">144</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Bes</i></td><td align="left"><i>Mark</i></td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">1152</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+While the proportions in a <i>bes</i> or <i>mark</i> are the same in both scales,
+the actual weight values are vastly different&mdash;for instance, the <i>mark</i>
+contained about 3609.6, and the <i>bes</i> 3297 Troy Grains. Agricola also
+uses:
+</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Selibra</i></td><td align="left"><i>Halb-pfundt</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Libra</i></td><td align="left"><i>Pfundt</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Centumpondium</i></td><td align="left"><i>Centner</i>.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+As the Roman <i>libra</i> contains 12 <i>unciae</i> and the German <i>pfundt</i> 16
+<i>untzen</i>, the actual weights of these latter quantities are still
+further apart&mdash;the former 4946 and the latter 7219 Troy grains.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_212" id="Footnote_40_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_212"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> There are no tables in the Latin text, the whole having
+been written out <i>in extenso</i>, but they have now been arranged as above,
+as being in a much more convenient and expressive form.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_259" id="Notes_259">[Pg 259]</a></span><a name="Footnote_41_213" id="Footnote_41_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_213"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> See <a href="#Footnote_39_211">note 39 above</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_261" id="Notes_261">[Pg 261]</a></span><a name="Footnote_42_214" id="Footnote_42_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_214"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> See <a href="#Footnote_27_199">note 27, p. 242</a>, for discussion of this "Assay ton"
+arrangement.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_263" id="Notes_263">[Pg 263]</a></span><a name="Footnote_43_215" id="Footnote_43_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_215"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> <i>Agrippinenses</i> and <i>Antuerpiani</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267"></a>[Pg 267]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="BOOK_VIII" id="BOOK_VIII"></a>BOOK VIII.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="dropcap"><img src="images/capq.png" alt="Q" /></div>
+<p style="text-indent:-1em;">
+uestions of assaying were explained in the last Book, and I have now
+come to a greater task, that is, to the description of how we extract
+the metals. First of all I will explain the method of preparing the
+ore<a name="FNanchor_1_216" id="FNanchor_1_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_216" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>; for since Nature usually creates metals in an impure state,
+mixed with earth, stones, and solidified juices, it is necessary to
+separate most of these impurities from the ores as far as can be, before
+they are smelted, and therefore I will now describe the methods by which
+the ores are sorted, broken with hammers, burnt, crushed with stamps,
+ground into powder, sifted, washed, roasted, and calcined<a name="FNanchor_2_217" id="FNanchor_2_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_217" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268"></a>[Pg 268]</span></p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p>I will start at the beginning with the first sort of work. Experienced
+miners, when they dig the ore, sort the metalliferous material from
+earth, stones, and solidified juices before it is taken from the shafts
+and tunnels, and they put the valuable metal in trays and the waste into
+buckets. But if some miner who is inexperienced in mining matters has
+omitted to do this, or even if some experienced miner, compelled by some
+unavoidable necessity, has been unable to do so, as soon as the material
+which has been dug out has been removed from the mine, all of it should
+be examined, and that part of the ore which is rich in metal sorted from
+that part of it which is devoid of metal, whether such part be earth, or
+solidified juices, or stones. To smelt waste together with an ore
+involves a loss, for some expenditure is thrown away, seeing that out of
+earth and stones only empty and useless slags are <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269"></a>[Pg 269]</span>melted out, and
+further, the solidified juices also impede the smelting of the metals
+and cause loss. The rock which lies contiguous to rich ore should also
+be broken into small pieces, crushed, and washed, lest any of the
+mineral should be lost. When, either through ignorance or carelessness,
+the miners while excavating have mixed the ore with earth or broken
+rock, the work of sorting the crude metal or the best ore is done not
+only by men, but also by boys and women.
+<span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig268.jpg"><img src="images/fig268thumb.jpg" alt="Sorting Ore" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Long table. B&mdash;Tray. C&mdash;Tub</span>. <span class="inum">[Pg 268]</span></span>
+They throw the mixed material
+upon a long table, beside which they sit for almost the whole day, and
+they sort out the ore; when it has been sorted out, they collect it in
+trays, and when collected they throw it into tubs, which are carried to
+the works in which the ores are smelted.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig269.jpg"><img src="images/fig269thumb.jpg" alt="Cutting Metal" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Masses of metal. B&mdash;Hammer.
+C&mdash;Chisel. D&mdash;Tree stumps. E&mdash;Iron tool similar to a pair of shears.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 269]</span></span>
+The metal which is dug out in a pure or crude state, to which class
+belong native silver, silver glance, and gray silver, is placed on a
+stone by the mine foreman and flattened out by pounding with heavy
+square hammers. These masses, when they have been thus flattened out
+like plates, are placed either on the stump of a tree, and cut into
+pieces by pounding an iron chisel into them with a hammer, or else they
+are cut with an iron tool similar to a pair of shears. One blade of
+these shears is three feet long, and is firmly fixed in a stump, and the
+other blade which cuts the metal is six feet long. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270"></a>[Pg 270]</span>These pieces of
+metal are afterward heated in iron basins and smelted in the cupellation
+furnace by the smelters.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig270.jpg"><img src="images/fig270thumb.jpg" alt="Spalling Ore" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Tables. B&mdash;Upright planks.
+C&mdash;Hammer. D&mdash;Quadrangular hammer. E&mdash;Deeper vessel. F&mdash;Shallower
+vessel. G&mdash;Iron rod.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 270]</span></span>
+Although the miners, in the shafts or tunnels, have sorted over the
+material which they mine, still the ore which has been broken down and
+carried out must be broken into pieces by a hammer or minutely crushed,
+so that the more valuable and better parts can be distinguished from the
+inferior and worthless portions. This is of the greatest importance in
+smelting ore, for if the ore is smelted without this separation, the
+valuable part frequently receives great damage before the worthless part
+melts in the fire, or else the one consumes the other; this latter
+difficulty can, however, be partly avoided by the exercise of care and
+partly by the use of fluxes. Now, if a vein is of poor quality, the
+better portions which have been broken down and carried out should be
+thrown together in one place, and the inferior portion and the rock
+thrown away. The sorters place a hard broad stone on a table; the tables
+are generally four feet square and made of joined planks, and to the
+edge of the sides and back are fixed upright planks, which rise about a
+foot from the table; the front, where the sorter sits, is left open. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271"></a>[Pg 271]</span>lumps of ore, rich in gold or silver, are put by the sorters on the
+stone and broken up with a broad, but not thick, hammer; they either
+break them into pieces and throw them into one vessel, or they break and
+sort&mdash;whence they get their name&mdash;the more precious from the worthless,
+throwing and collecting them separately into different vessels. Other
+men crush the lumps of ore less rich in gold or silver, which have
+likewise been put on the stone, with a broad thick hammer, and when it
+has been well crushed, they collect it and throw it into one vessel.
+There are two kinds of vessels; one is deeper, and a little wider in the
+centre than at the top or bottom; the other is not so deep though it is
+broader at the bottom, and becomes gradually a little narrower toward
+the top. The latter vessel is covered with a lid, while the former is
+not covered; an iron rod through the handles, bent over on either end,
+is grasped in the hand when the vessel is carried. But, above all, it
+behooves the sorters to be assiduous in their labours.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig271.jpg"><img src="images/fig271thumb.jpg" alt="Spalling Ore" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Pyrites. B&mdash;Leggings. C&mdash;Gloves.
+D&mdash;Hammer.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 271]</span></span>
+By another method of breaking ore with hammers, large hard fragments of
+ore are broken before they are burned. The legs of the workmen&mdash;at all
+events of those who crush pyrites in this manner with large hammers in
+Goslar&mdash;are protected with coverings resembling leggings, and their
+hands <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272"></a>[Pg 272]</span>are protected with long gloves, to prevent them from being
+injured by the chips which fly away from the fragments.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig272.jpg"><img src="images/fig272thumb.jpg" alt="Spalling Ore" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Area paved with stones. B&mdash;Broken
+ore. C&mdash;Area covered with broken ore. D&mdash;Iron tool. E&mdash;Its handle.
+F&mdash;Broom. G&mdash;Short strake. H&mdash;Wooden hoe.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 272]</span></span>
+In that district of Greater Germany which is called Westphalia and in
+that district of Lower Germany which is named Eifel, the broken ore
+which has been burned, is thrown by the workmen into a round area paved
+with the hardest stones, and the fragments are pounded up with iron
+tools, which are very much like hammers in shape and are used like
+threshing sledges. This tool is a foot long, a palm wide, and a digit
+thick, and has an opening in the middle just as hammers have, in which
+is fixed a wooden handle of no great thickness, but up to three and a
+half feet long, in order that the workmen can pound the ore with greater
+force by reason of its weight falling from a greater height. They strike
+and pound with the broad side of the tool, in the same way as corn is
+pounded out on a threshing floor with the threshing sledges, although
+the latter are made of wood and are smooth and fixed to poles. When the
+ore has been broken into small pieces, they sweep it together with
+brooms and remove it to the works, where it is washed <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273"></a>[Pg 273]</span>in a short
+strake, at the head of which stands the washer, who draws the water
+upward with a wooden hoe. The water running down again, carries all the
+light particles into a trough placed underneath. I shall deal more fully
+with this method of washing a little later.</p>
+
+<p>Ore is burned for two reasons; either that from being hard, it may
+become soft and more easily broken and more readily crushed with a
+hammer or stamps, and then can be smelted; or that the fatty things,
+that is to say, sulphur, bitumen, orpiment, or realgar<a name="FNanchor_3_218" id="FNanchor_3_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_218" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> may be
+consumed. Sulphur is frequently found in metallic ores, and, generally
+speaking, is more harmful to the metals, except gold, than are the other
+things. It is most harmful of all to iron, and less to tin than to
+bismuth, lead, silver, or copper. Since very rarely gold is found in
+which there is not some silver, even gold ores containing sulphur ought
+to be roasted before they are smelted, because, in a very vigorous
+furnace fire, sulphur resolves metal into ashes and makes slag of it.
+Bitumen acts in the same way, in fact sometimes it consumes silver,
+which we may see in bituminous <i>cadmia</i><a name="FNanchor_4_219" id="FNanchor_4_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_219" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274"></a><a href="images/fig274.jpg"><img src="images/fig274thumb.jpg" alt="Stall Roasting Ore" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Area. B&mdash;Wood. C&mdash;Ore.
+D&mdash;Cone-shaped piles. E&mdash;Canal.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 274]</span></span>
+I now come to the methods of roasting, and first of all to that one
+which is common to all ores. The earth is dug out to the required
+extent, and thus is made a quadrangular area of fair size, open at the
+front, and above this, firewood is laid close together, and on it other
+wood is laid transversely, likewise close together, for which reason our
+countrymen call this pile of wood a crate; this is repeated until the
+pile attains a height of one or two cubits. Then there is placed upon it
+a quantity of ore that has been broken into small pieces with a hammer;
+first the largest of these pieces, next those of medium size, and lastly
+the smallest, and thus is built up a gently sloping cone. To prevent it
+from becoming scattered, fine sand of the <span class="pagenum">[Pg 274]</span>same ore is soaked with water
+and smeared over it and beaten on with shovels; some workers, if they
+cannot obtain such fine sand, cover the pile with charcoal-dust, just as
+do charcoal-burners. But at Goslar, the pile, when it has been built up
+in the form of a cone, is smeared with <i>atramentum sutorium rubrum</i><a name="FNanchor_5_220" id="FNanchor_5_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_220" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>,
+which is made by the leaching of roasted pyrites soaked with water. In
+some districts the ore is roasted once, in others twice, in others three
+times, as its hardness may require. At Goslar, when pyrites is roasted
+for the third time, that which is placed on the top of the pyre exudes a
+certain greenish, dry, rough, thin substance, as I have elsewhere
+written<a name="FNanchor_6_221" id="FNanchor_6_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_221" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>; this is no more easily burned by the fire than is asbestos.
+Very often also, water is put on <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275"></a>[Pg 275]</span>to the ore which has been roasted,
+while it is still hot, in order to make it softer and more easily
+broken; for after fire has dried up the moisture in the ore, it breaks
+up more easily while it is still hot, of which fact burnt limestone
+affords the best example.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig275.jpg"><img src="images/fig275thumb.jpg" alt="Heap Roasting Ore" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Lighted pyre. B&mdash;Pyre which is
+being constructed. C&mdash;Ore. D&mdash;Wood. E&mdash;Pile of the same wood.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 275]</span></span>
+By digging out the earth they make the areas much larger, and square;
+walls should be built along the sides and back to hold the heat of the
+fire more effectively, and the front should be left open. In these
+compartments tin ore is roasted in the following manner. First of all
+wood about twelve feet long should be laid in the area in four layers,
+alternately straight and transverse. Then the larger pieces of ore
+should be laid upon them, and on these again the smaller ones, which
+should also be placed around the sides; the fine sand of the same ore
+should also be spread over the pile and pounded with shovels, to prevent
+the pile from falling before it has been roasted; the wood should then
+be fired.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276"></a><a href="images/fig276.jpg"><img src="images/fig276thumb.jpg" alt="Stall Roasting Ore" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Burning pyre which is
+composed of lead ore with wood placed above it. B&mdash;Workman throwing ore
+into another area. C&mdash;Oven-shaped furnace. D&mdash;Openings through which the
+smoke escapes.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 276]</span></span>
+Lead ore, if roasting is necessary, should be piled in an area just like
+the last, but sloping, and the wood should be placed over it. A tree
+trunk should be laid right across the front of the ore to prevent it
+from falling out. The ore, being roasted in this way, becomes partly
+melted and resembles slag. <span class="pagenum">[Pg 276]</span>Thuringian pyrites, in which there is gold,
+sulphur, and vitriol, after the last particle of vitriol has been
+obtained by heating it in water, is thrown into a furnace, in which logs
+are placed. This furnace is very similar to an oven in shape, in order
+that when the ore is roasted the valuable contents may not fly away with
+the smoke, but may adhere to the roof of the furnace. In this way
+sulphur very often hangs like icicles from the two openings of the roof
+through which the smoke escapes.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277"></a><a href="images/fig277.jpg"><img src="images/fig277thumb.jpg" alt="Hearths for roasting" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Iron plates full of holes.
+B&mdash;Walls. C&mdash;Plate on which ore is placed. D&mdash;Burning charcoal placed on
+the ore. E&mdash;Pots. F&mdash;Furnace. G&mdash;Middle part of upper chamber. H&mdash;The
+other two compartments. I&mdash;Divisions of the lower chamber. K&mdash;Middle
+wall. L&mdash;Pots which are filled with ore. M&mdash;Lids of same pots.
+N&mdash;Grating.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 277]</span></span>
+If pyrites or <i>cadmia</i>, or any other ore containing metal, possesses a
+good deal of sulphur or bitumen, it should be so roasted that neither is
+lost. For this purpose it is thrown on an iron plate full of holes, and
+roasted with charcoal placed on top; three walls support this plate, two
+on the sides and the third at the back. Beneath the plate are placed
+pots containing water, into which the sulphurous or bituminous vapour
+descends, and in the water the fat accumulates and floats on the top. If
+it is sulphur, it is generally of a yellow colour; if bitumen, it is
+black like pitch. If these were not drawn out they would do much harm to
+the metal, when the ore is being smelted. When they have thus been
+separated they prove of some service to man, especially the sulphurous
+kind. From the vapour which is carried down, not <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278"></a>[Pg 278]</span>into the water, but
+into the ground, there is created a sulphurous or a bituminous substance
+resembling <i>pompholyx</i><a name="FNanchor_7_222" id="FNanchor_7_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_222" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>, and so light that it can be blown away with a
+breath. Some employ a vaulted furnace, open at the front and divided
+into two chambers. A wall built in the middle of the furnace divides the
+lower chamber into two equal parts, in which are set pots containing
+water, as above described. The upper chamber is again divided into three
+parts, the middle one of which is always open, for in it the wood is
+placed, and it is not broader than the middle wall, of which it forms
+the topmost portion. The other two compartments have iron doors which
+are closed, and which, together with the roof, keep in the heat when the
+wood is lighted. In these upper compartments are iron bars which take
+the place of a floor, and on these are arranged pots without bottoms,
+having in place of a bottom, a grating made of iron wire, fixed to each,
+through the openings of which the sulphurous or bituminous vapours
+roasted from the ore run into the lower pots. Each of the upper pots
+holds a hundred <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279"></a>[Pg 279]</span>pounds of ore; when they are filled they are covered
+with lids and smeared with lute.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig278.jpg"><img src="images/fig278thumb.jpg" alt="Heap Roasting" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Heap of cupriferous stones.
+B&mdash;Kindled heap. C&mdash;Stones being taken to the beds of faggots.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 278]</span></span>
+In Eisleben and the neighbourhood, when they roast the schistose stone
+from which copper is smelted, and which is not free from bitumen, they
+do not use piles of logs, but bundles of faggots. At one time, they used
+to pile this kind of stone, when extracted from the pit, on bundles of
+faggots and roast it by firing the faggots; nowadays, they first of all
+carry these same stones to a heap, where they are left to lie for some
+time in such a way as to allow the air and rain to soften them. Then
+they make a bed of faggot bundles near the heap, and carry the nearest
+stones to this bed; afterward they again place bundles of faggots in the
+empty place from which the first stones have been removed, and pile over
+this extended bed, the stones which lay nearest to the first lot; and
+they do this right up to the end, until all the stones have been piled
+mound-shape on a bed of faggots. Finally they fire the faggots, not,
+however, on the side where the wind is blowing, but on the opposite
+side, lest the fire blown up by the force of the wind should consume the
+faggots before the stones are roasted and made soft; by this method the
+stones which are adjacent to the faggots take fire and communicate it to
+the next ones, and these again to the adjoining ones, and in this way
+the heap very often burns continuously for thirty days or more. This
+schist rock when rich in copper, as I have said elsewhere, exudes a
+substance of a nature similar to asbestos.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284"></a><a href="images/fig284.jpg"><img src="images/fig284thumb.jpg" alt="Stamp-mill" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Mortar. B&mdash;Upright posts.
+C&mdash;Cross-beams. D&mdash;Stamps. E&mdash;Their heads. F&mdash;Axle (cam-shaft). G&mdash;Tooth
+of the stamp (tappet). H&mdash;Teeth of axle (cams).</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 284]</span></span>
+Ore is crushed with iron-shod stamps, in order that the metal may be
+separated from the stone and the hangingwall rock.<a name="FNanchor_8_223" id="FNanchor_8_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_223" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> The machines which
+miners use for this purpose are of four kinds, and are made by the
+following method. A block of oak timber six feet long, two feet and a
+palm square, is laid on the ground. In the middle of this is fixed a
+mortar-box, two feet and six digits long, one foot and six digits deep;
+the front, which might be called a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280"></a>[Pg 280]</span>mouth, lies open; the bottom is
+covered with a plate of iron, a palm thick and two palms and as many
+digits wide, each end of which is wedged into the timber with broad
+wedges, and the front and back part of it are fixed to the timber with
+iron nails. To the sides of the mortar above the block are fixed two
+upright posts, whose upper ends are somewhat cut back and are mortised
+to the timbers of the building. Two and a half feet above the mortar
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281"></a>[Pg 281]</span>are placed two cross-beams joined together, one in front and one in the
+back, the ends of which are mortised into the upright posts already
+mentioned. Through each mortise is bored a hole, into which is driven an
+iron clavis; one end of the clavis has two horns, and the other end is
+perforated in order that a wedge driven through, binds the beams more
+firmly; one horn of the clavis turns up and the other down. Three and a
+half feet above the cross-beams, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282"></a>[Pg 282]</span>two other cross-beams of the same kind
+are again joined in a similar manner; these cross-beams have square
+openings, in which the iron-shod stamps are inserted. The stamps are not
+far distant from each other, and fit closely in the cross-beams. Each
+stamp has a tappet at the back, which requires to be daubed with grease
+on the lower side that it can be raised more easily. For each stamp
+there are on a cam-shaft, two cams, rounded on <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283"></a>[Pg 283]</span>the outer end, which
+alternately raise the stamp, in order that, by its dropping into the
+mortar, it may with its iron head pound and crush the rock which has
+been thrown under it. To the cam-shaft is fixed a water-wheel whose
+buckets are turned by water-power. Instead of doors, the mouth of the
+mortar has a board, which is fitted into notches cut out of the front of
+the block. This board can be raised, in order that when the mouth is
+open, the workmen <span class="pagenum">[Pg 284]</span>can remove with a shovel the fine sand, and likewise
+the coarse sand and broken rock, into which the rocks have been crushed;
+this board can be lowered, so that the mouth thus being closed, the
+fresh rock thrown in may be crushed with the iron-shod stamps. If an oak
+block is not available, two timbers are placed on the ground and joined
+together with iron clamps, each of the timbers being six feet long, a
+foot wide, and a foot and a half thick. Such depth as should be allowed
+to the mortar, is obtained by cutting out the first beam to a width of
+three-quarters of a foot and to a length of two and a third and one
+twenty-fourth of a foot. In the bottom of the part thus dug out, there
+should be laid a very hard rock, a foot thick and three-quarters of a
+foot wide; about it, if any space remains, earth or sand should be
+filled in and pounded. On the front, this bed rock is covered with a
+plank; this rock when it has been broken, should be taken away and
+replaced by another. A smaller mortar having room for only three stamps
+may also be made in the same manner.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285"></a><a href="images/fig285.jpg"><img src="images/fig285thumb.jpg" alt="Stamps" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Stamp. B&mdash;Stem cut out in lower part.
+C&mdash;Shoe. D&mdash;The other shoe, barbed and grooved. E&mdash;Quadrangular iron
+band. F&mdash;Wedge. G&mdash;Tappet. H&mdash;Angular cam-shaft. I&mdash;Cams. K&mdash;Pair of
+compasses.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 285]</span></span>
+The stamp-stems are made of small square timbers nine feet long and half
+a foot wide each way. The iron head of each is made in the following
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg 285]</span>way; the lower part of the head is three palms long and the upper part
+the same length. The lower part is a palm square in the middle for two
+palms, then below this, for a length of two digits it gradually spreads
+until it becomes five digits square; above the middle part, for a length
+of two digits, it again gradually swells out until it becomes a palm and
+a half square. Higher up, where the head of the shoe is enclosed in the
+stem, it is bored through and similarly the stem itself is pierced, and
+through the opening of each, there passes a broad iron wedge, which
+prevents the head falling off the stem. To prevent the stamp head from
+becoming broken by the constant striking of fragments of ore or rocks,
+there is placed around it a quadrangular iron band a digit thick, seven
+digits wide, and six digits deep. Those who use three stamps, as is
+common, make them much larger, and they are made square and three palms
+broad each way; then the iron shoe of each has a total length of two
+feet and a palm; at the lower end, it is hexagonal, and at that point it
+is seven digits wide and thick. The lower part of it which projects
+beyond the stem is one foot and two palms long; the upper part, which is
+enclosed in the stem, is three palms long; the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286"></a>[Pg 286]</span>lower part is a palm
+wide and thick; then gradually the upper part becomes narrower and
+thinner, so that at the top it is three digits and a half wide and two
+thick. It is bored through at the place where the angles have been
+somewhat cut away; the hole is three digits long and one wide, and is
+one digit's distance from the top. There are some who make that part of
+the head which is enclosed in the stem, barbed and grooved, in order
+that when the hooks have been fixed into the stem and wedges fitted to
+the grooves, it may remain tightly fixed, especially when it is also
+held with two quadrangular iron bands. Some divide the cam-shaft with a
+compass into six sides, others into nine; it is better for it to be
+divided into twelve sides, in order that successively one side may
+contain a cam and the next be without one.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig286.jpg"><img src="images/fig286thumb.jpg" alt="Stamp-mill" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Box. Although the upper part is not
+open, it is shown open here, that the wheel may be seen. B&mdash;Wheel.
+C&mdash;Cam-shaft. D&mdash;Stamps.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 286]</span></span>The water-wheel is entirely enclosed under a quadrangular box, in case
+either the deep snows or ice in winter, or storms, may impede its
+running and its turning around. The joints in the planks are stopped all
+around with moss. The cover, however, has one opening, through which
+there passes a race bringing down water which, dropping on the buckets
+of the wheel, turns it round, and flows out again in the lower race
+under the box. The spokes of the water-wheel are not infrequently
+mortised into the middle of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287"></a>[Pg 287]</span>the cam-shaft; in this case the cams on
+both sides raise the stamps, which either both crush dry or wet ore, or
+else the one set crushes dry ore and the other set wet ore, just as
+circumstances require the one or the other; further, when the one set is
+raised and the iron clavises in them are fixed into openings in the
+first cross-beam, the other set alone crushes the ore.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig287.jpg"><img src="images/fig287thumb.jpg" alt="Handling stamped material" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Box laid flat on the
+ground. B&mdash;Its bottom which is made of iron wire. C&mdash;Box inverted.
+D&mdash;Iron rods. E&mdash;Box suspended from a beam, the inside being visible.
+F&mdash;Box suspended from a beam, the outside being visible.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 287]</span></span>
+Broken rock or stones, or the coarse or fine sand, are removed from the
+mortar of this machine and heaped up, as is also done with the same
+materials when raked out of the dump near the mine. They are thrown by a
+workman into a box, which is open on the top and the front, and is three
+feet long and nearly a foot and a half wide. Its sides are sloping and
+made of planks, but its bottom is made of iron wire netting, and
+fastened with wire to two iron rods, which are fixed to the two side
+planks. This bottom has openings, through which broken rock of the size
+of a hazel nut cannot pass; the pieces which are too large to pass
+through are removed by the workman, who again places them under stamps,
+while those which have passed through, together with the coarse and fine
+sand, he collects in a large vessel and keeps for the washing. When he
+is performing his laborious <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288"></a>[Pg 288]</span>task he suspends the box from a beam by two
+ropes. This box may rightly be called a quadrangular sieve, as may also
+that kind which follows.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig288.jpg"><img src="images/fig288thumb.jpg" alt="Sifting Ore" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Sieve. B&mdash;Small planks. C&mdash;Post.
+D&mdash;Bottom of sieve. E&mdash;Open box. F&mdash;Small cross-beam. G&mdash;Upright posts.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 288]</span></span>
+Some employ a sieve shaped like a wooden bucket, bound with two iron
+hoops; its bottom, like that of the box, is made of iron wire netting.
+They place this on two small cross-planks fixed upon a post set in the
+ground. Some do not fix the post in the ground, but stand it on the
+ground until there arises a heap of the material which has passed
+through the sieve, and in this the post is fixed. With an iron shovel
+the workman throws into this sieve broken rock, small stones, coarse and
+fine sand raked out of the dump; holding the handles of the sieve in his
+hands, he agitates it up and down in order that by this movement the
+dust, fine and coarse sand, small stones, and fine broken rock may fall
+through the bottom. Others do not use a sieve, but an open box, whose
+bottom is likewise covered with wire netting; this they fix on a small
+cross-beam fastened to two upright beams and tilt it backward and
+forward.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p>Some use a sieve made of copper, having square copper handles on both
+sides, and through these handles runs a pole, of which one end projects
+three-quarters of a foot beyond one handle; the workman then places that
+end in a rope which is suspended from a beam, and rapidly shakes the
+pole alternately <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289"></a>[Pg 289]</span>backward and forward. By this movement the small
+particles fall through the bottom of the sieve. In order that the end of
+the pole may be easily placed in the rope, a stick, two palms long,
+holds open the lower part of the rope as it hangs double, each end of
+the rope being tied to the beam; part of the rope, however, hangs beyond
+the stick to a length of half a foot.
+<span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig289.jpg"><img src="images/fig289thumb.jpg" alt="Sifting Ore" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Box. B&mdash;Bale. C&mdash;Rope. D&mdash;Beam.
+E&mdash;Handles. F&mdash;Five-toothed rake. G&mdash;Sieve. H&mdash;Its handles. I&mdash;Pole.
+K&mdash;Rope. L&mdash;Timber.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 289]</span></span>
+A large box is also used for this
+purpose, of which the bottom is either made of a plank full of holes or
+of iron netting, as are the other boxes. An iron bale is fastened from
+the middle of the planks which form its sides; to this bale is fastened
+a rope which is suspended from a wooden beam, in order that the box may
+be moved or tilted in any direction. There are two handles on each end,
+not unlike the handles of a wheelbarrow; these are held by two workmen,
+who shake the box to and fro. This box is the one principally used by
+the Germans who dwell in the Carpathian mountains. The smaller particles
+are separated from the larger ones by means of three boxes and two
+sieves, in order that those which pass through each, being of equal
+size, may be washed together; for the bottoms of both the boxes and
+sieves have openings which do not let through broken rock of the size of
+a hazel nut. As for the dry remnants <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290"></a>[Pg 290]</span>in the bottoms of the sieves, if
+they contain any metal the miners put them under the stamps. The larger
+pieces of broken rock are not separated from the smaller by this method
+until the men and boys, with five-toothed rakes, have separated them
+from the rock fragments, the little stones, the coarse and the fine sand
+and earth, which have been thrown on to the dumps.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291"></a><a href="images/fig291.jpg"><img src="images/fig291thumb.jpg" alt="Sifting Ore" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Workman carrying broken rock in a
+barrow. B&mdash;First chute. C&mdash;First box. D&mdash;Its handles. E&mdash;Its bales.
+F&mdash;Rope. G&mdash;Beam. H&mdash;Post. I&mdash;Second chute. K&mdash;Second box. L&mdash;Third
+chute. M&mdash;Third box. N&mdash;First table. O&mdash;First sieve. P&mdash;First tub.
+Q&mdash;Second table. R&mdash;Second sieve. S&mdash;Second tub. T&mdash;Third table.
+V&mdash;Third sieve. X&mdash;Third tub. Y&mdash;Plugs.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 291]</span></span>
+At Neusohl, in the Carpathians, there are mines where the veins of
+copper lie in the ridges and peaks of the mountains, and in order to
+save expense being incurred by a long and difficult transport, along a
+rough and sometimes very precipitous road, one workman sorts over the
+dumps which have been thrown out from the mines, and another carries in
+a wheelbarrow the earth, fine and coarse sand, little stones, broken
+rock, and even the poorer ore, and overturns the barrow into a long open
+chute fixed to a steep rock. This chute is held apart by small cleats,
+and the material slides down a distance of about one hundred and fifty
+feet into a short box, whose bottom is made of a thick copper plate,
+full of holes. This box has two handles by which it is shaken to and
+fro, and at the top there are two bales made of hazel sticks, in which
+is fixed the iron hook of a rope hung from the branch of a tree or from
+a wooden beam which projects from an upright post. From time to time a
+sifter pulls this box and thrusts it violently against the tree or post,
+by which means the small particles passing through its holes descend
+down another chute into another short box, in whose bottom there are
+smaller holes. A second sifter, in like manner, thrusts this box
+violently against a tree or post, and a second time the smaller
+particles are received into a third chute, and slide down into a third
+box, whose bottom has still smaller holes. A third sifter, in like
+manner, thrusts this box violently against a tree or post, and for the
+third time the tiny particles fall through the holes upon a table. While
+the workman is bringing in the barrow, another load which has been
+sorted from the dump, each sifter withdraws the hooks from his bale and
+carries away his own box and overturns it, heaping up the broken rock or
+sand which remains in the bottom of it. As for the tiny particles which
+have slid down upon the table, the first washer&mdash;for there are as many
+washers as sifters&mdash;sweeps them off and in a tub nearly full of water,
+washes them through a sieve whose holes are smaller than the holes of
+the third box. When this tub has been filled with the material which has
+passed through the sieve, he draws out the plug to let the water run
+away; then he removes with a shovel that which has settled in the tub
+and throws it upon the table of a second washer, who washes it in a
+sieve with smaller holes. The sediment which has this time settled in
+his tub, he takes out and throws on the table of a third washer, who
+washes it in a sieve with the smallest holes. The copper concentrates
+which have settled in the last tub are taken out and smelted; the
+sediment which each washer has removed with a limp is washed on a canvas
+strake. The sifters at Altenberg, in the tin mines of the mountains
+bordering on Bohemia, use such boxes as I have described, hung from
+wooden beams. These, however, are a little larger and open in the front,
+through which opening the broken rock which has not gone through the
+sieve can be shaken out immediately by thrusting the sieve against its
+post.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292"></a>[Pg 292]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig292.jpg"><img src="images/fig292thumb.jpg" alt="Sifting Ore" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Sieve. B&mdash;Its handles. C&mdash;Tub.
+D&mdash;Bottom of sieve made of iron wires. E&mdash;Hoop. F&mdash;Rods. G&mdash;Hoops.
+H&mdash;Woman shaking the sieve. I&mdash;Boy supplying it with material which
+requires washing. K&mdash;Man with shovel removing from the tub the material
+which has passed through the sieve.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 292]</span></span>
+If the ore is rich in metal, the earth, the fine and coarse sand, and
+the pieces of rock which have been broken from the hangingwall, are dug
+out of the dump with a spade or rake and, with a shovel, are thrown into
+a large sieve or basket, and washed in a tub nearly full of water. The
+sieve is generally a cubit broad and half a foot deep; its bottom has
+holes of such size that the larger pieces of broken rock cannot pass
+through them, for this material rests upon the straight and cross iron
+wires, which at their points of contact are bound by small iron clips.
+The sieve is held together by an iron band and by two cross-rods
+likewise of iron; the rest of the sieve is made of staves in the shape
+of a little tub, and is bound with two iron hoops; some, however, bind
+it with hoops of hazel or oak, but in that case they use three of them.
+On each side it has handles, which are held in the hands by whoever
+washes the metalliferous material. Into this sieve a boy throws the
+material to be washed, and a woman shakes it up and down, turning it
+alternately to the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293"></a>[Pg 293]</span>right and to the left, and in this way passes
+through it the smaller pieces of earth, sand, and broken rock. The
+larger pieces remain in the sieve, and these are taken out, placed in a
+heap and put under the stamps. The mud, together with fine sand, coarse
+sand, and broken rock, which remain after the water has been drawn out
+of the tub, is removed by an iron shovel and washed in the sluice, about
+which I will speak a little later.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig293.jpg"><img src="images/fig293thumb.jpg" alt="Sifting Ore" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Basket. B&mdash;Its handles. C&mdash;Dish.
+D&mdash;Its back part. E&mdash;Its front part. F&mdash;Handles of same.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 293]</span></span>
+The Bohemians use a basket a foot and a half broad and half a foot deep,
+bound together by osiers. It has two handles by which it is grasped,
+when they move it about and shake it in the tub or in a small pool
+nearly full of water. All that passes through it into the tub or pool
+they take out and wash in a bowl, which is higher in the back part and
+lower and flat in the front; it is grasped by the two handles and shaken
+in the water, the lighter particles flowing away, and the heavier and
+mineral portion sinking to the bottom.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294"></a><a href="images/fig294.jpg"><img src="images/fig294thumb.jpg" alt="Mills for Grinding Ore" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Axle. B&mdash;Water-wheel.
+C&mdash;Toothed drum. D&mdash;Drum made of rundles. E&mdash;Iron axle. F&mdash;Millstone.
+G&mdash;Hopper. H&mdash;Round wooden plate. I&mdash;Trough.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 294]</span></span>
+Gold ore, after being broken with hammers or crushed by the stamps, and
+even tin ore, is further milled to powder. The upper millstone, which
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg 294]</span>is turned by water-power, is made in the following way. An axle is
+rounded to compass measure, or is made angular, and its iron pinions
+turn in iron sockets which are held in beams. The axle is turned by a
+water-wheel, the buckets of which are fixed to the rim and are struck by
+the force of a stream. Into the axle is mortised a toothed drum, whose
+teeth are fixed in the side of the rim. These teeth turn a second drum
+of rundles, which are made of very hard material. This drum surrounds an
+iron axle which has a pinion at the bottom and revolves in an iron cup
+in a timber. At the top of the iron axle is an iron tongue, dove-tailed
+into the millstone, and so when the teeth of the one drum turn the
+rundles of the other, the millstone is made to turn round. An
+overhanging machine supplies it with ore through a hopper, and the ore,
+being ground to powder, is discharged from a round wooden plate into a
+trough and flowing away through it accumulates on the floor; from there
+the ore is carried away and reserved for washing. Since this <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295"></a>[Pg 295]</span>method of
+grinding requires the millstone to be now raised and now lowered, the
+timber in whose socket the iron of the pinion axle revolves, rests upon
+two beams, which can be raised and lowered.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296"></a><a href="images/fig296.jpg"><img src="images/fig296thumb.jpg" alt="Mills for Grinding Ore" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;First mill. B&mdash;Wheel
+turned by goats. C&mdash;Second mill. D&mdash;Disc of upright axle. E&mdash;Its toothed
+drum. F&mdash;Third mill. G&mdash;Shape of lower millstone. H&mdash;Small upright axle
+of the same. I&mdash;Its opening. K&mdash;Lever of the upper millstone. L&mdash;Its
+opening.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 296]</span></span>
+There are three mills in use in milling gold ores, especially for
+quartz<a name="FNanchor_11_224" id="FNanchor_11_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_224" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> which is not lacking in metal. They are not all turned by
+water-power, but some by the strength of men, and two of them even by
+the power of beasts of burden. The first revolving one differs from the
+next only in its driving wheel, which is closed in and turned by men
+treading it, or by horses, which are placed inside, or by asses, or even
+by strong goats; the eyes of these beasts are covered by linen bands.
+The second mill, both when pushed and turned round, differs from the two
+above by having an upright axle in the place of the horizontal one; this
+axle has at its lower end a disc, which two workmen turn by treading
+back its cleats with their feet, though frequently one man sustains all
+the labour; or sometimes there projects from the axle a pole which is
+turned by a horse or an ass, for which reason it is called an
+<i>asinaria</i>. The toothed drum which is at the upper end of the axle turns
+the drum which is made of rundles, and together with it the millstone.</p>
+
+<p>The third mill is turned round and round, and not pushed by hand; but
+between this and the others there is a great distinction, for the lower
+millstone is so shaped at the top that it can hold within it the upper
+millstone, which revolves around an iron axle; this axle is fastened in
+the centre of the lower stone and passes through the upper stone. A
+workman, by grasping in his hand an upright iron bar placed in the upper
+millstone, moves it round. The middle of the upper millstone is bored
+through, and the ore, being thrown into this opening, falls down upon
+the lower millstone and is there ground to powder, which gradually runs
+out through its opening; it is washed by various methods before it is
+mixed with quicksilver, which I will explain presently.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299"></a><a href="images/fig299.jpg"><img src="images/fig299thumb.jpg" alt="Stamp-mill" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Water-wheel. B&mdash;Axle. C&mdash;Stamp.
+D&mdash;Hopper in the upper millstone. E&mdash;Opening passing through the centre.
+F&mdash;Lower millstone. G&mdash;Its round depression. H&mdash;Its outlet. I&mdash;Iron
+axle. K&mdash;Its crosspiece. L&mdash;Beam. M&mdash;Drum of rundles on the iron axle.
+N&mdash;Toothed drum of main axle. O&mdash;Tubs. P&mdash;The small planks. Q&mdash;Small
+upright axles. R&mdash;Enlarged part of one. S&mdash;Their paddles. T&mdash;Their drums
+which are made of rundles. V&mdash;Small horizontal axle set into the end of
+the main axle. X&mdash;Its toothed drums. Y&mdash;Three sluices. Z&mdash;Their small
+axles. AA&mdash;Spokes. BB&mdash;Paddles.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 299]</span></span>
+Some people build a machine which at one and the same time can crush,
+grind, cleanse, and wash the gold ore, and mix the gold with
+quicksilver. This machine has one water-wheel, which is turned by a
+stream striking its buckets; the main axle on one side of the
+water-wheel has long cams, which raise the stamps that crush the dry
+ore. Then the crushed ore is thrown into the hopper of the upper
+millstone, and gradually falling through the opening, is ground to
+powder. The lower millstone is square, but has a round depression in
+which the round, upper millstone turns, and it has an outlet from which
+the powder falls into the first tub. A vertical iron axle is dove-tailed
+into a cross-piece, which is in turn fixed into the upper millstone; the
+upper pinion of this axle is held in a bearing fixed in a beam; the drum
+of the vertical axle is made of rundles, and is turned by the toothed
+drum on the main axle, and thus turns the millstone. The powder falls
+continually into the first tub, together with water, and from there runs
+into a second tub which is set lower down, and out of the second into a
+third, which is the lowest; from the third, it generally flows into a
+small trough hewn out of a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297"></a>[Pg 297]</span>tree trunk. Quicksilver<a name="FNanchor_12_225" id="FNanchor_12_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_225" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> is placed in
+each tub, across which is fixed a small plank, and through a hole in the
+middle of each plank there passes a small upright axle, which is
+enlarged above the plank to prevent it from dropping into the tub lower
+than it should. At the lower end of the axle three sets of paddles
+intersect, each made from two little boards fixed to the axle opposite
+each other. The upper end of this axle has a pinion held by a bearing
+set in a beam, and around each of these axles is a small drum made of
+rundles, each of which is turned by a small toothed drum on a horizontal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298"></a>[Pg 298]</span>axle, one end of which is mortised into the large horizontal axle, and
+the other end is held in a hollow covered with thick iron plates in a
+beam. Thus the paddles, of which there are three sets in each tub, turn
+round, and agitating the powder, thoroughly mix it with water and
+separate the minute particles of gold from it, and these are attracted
+by the quicksilver and purified. The water carries away the waste. The
+quicksilver is poured into a bag made of leather or cloth woven from
+cotton, and when this bag is squeezed, as I have described elsewhere,
+the quicksilver drips through it into a jar placed underneath. The pure
+gold<a name="FNanchor_13_226" id="FNanchor_13_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_226" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> remains in the bag. Some people substitute three broad sluices
+for the tubs, each of which has an angular axle on which are set six
+narrow spokes, and to them are fixed the same number of broad paddles;
+the water that is poured in strikes these paddles and turns them round,
+and they agitate the powder which is mixed with the water and separate
+the metal from it. If the powder which is being treated contains gold
+particles, the first method of washing is far superior, because the
+quicksilver in the tubs immediately attracts the gold; if it is powder
+in which are the small black stones from which tin is smelted, this
+latter method is not to be despised. It is very advantageous to place
+interlaced fir boughs in the sluices in which such tin-stuff is washed,
+after it has run through the launders from the mills, because the fine
+tin-stone is either held back by the twigs, or if the current carries
+them along they fall away from the water and settle down.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300"></a>[Pg 300]</span></p><p>Seven methods of washing are in common use for the ores of many metals;
+for they are washed either in a simple buddle, or in a divided buddle,
+or in an ordinary strake, or in a large tank, or in a short strake, or
+in a canvas strake, or in a jigging sieve. Other methods of washing are
+either peculiar to some particular metal, or are combined with the
+method of crushing wet ore by stamps.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301"></a><a href="images/fig301.jpg"><img src="images/fig301thumb.jpg" alt="Buddles" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Head of buddle. B&mdash;Pipe. C&mdash;Buddle.
+D&mdash;Board. E&mdash;Transverse buddle. F&mdash;Shovel. G&mdash;Scrubber.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 301]</span></span>
+A simple buddle is made in the following way. In the first place, the
+head is higher than the rest of the buddle, and is three feet long and a
+foot and a half broad; this head is made of planks laid upon a timber
+and fastened, and on both sides, side-boards are set up so as to hold
+the water, which flows in through a pipe or trough, so that it shall
+fall straight down. The middle of the head is somewhat depressed in
+order that the broken rock and the larger metallic particles may settle
+into it. The buddle is sunk into the earth to a depth of three-quarters
+of a foot below the head, and is twelve feet long and a foot and a half
+wide and deep; the bottom and each side are lined with planks to prevent
+the earth, when it is softened by the water, from falling in or from
+absorbing the metallic particles. The lower end of the buddle is
+obstructed by a board, which is not as high as the sides. To this
+straight buddle there is joined a second transverse buddle, six feet
+long and a foot and a half wide and deep, similarly lined with planks;
+at the lower <span class="pagenum">[Pg 301]</span>end it is closed up with a board, also lower than the
+sides of the buddle so that the water can flow away; this water falls
+into a launder and is carried outside the building. In this simple
+buddle is washed the metallic material which has passed on to the floor
+of the works through the five large sieves. When this has been gathered
+into a heap, the washer throws it into the head of the buddle, and water
+is poured upon it through the pipe or small trough, and the portion
+which sinks and settles in the middle of the head compartment he stirs
+with a wooden scrubber,&mdash;this is what we will henceforth call the
+implement made of a stick to which is fixed a piece of wood a foot long
+and a palm broad. The water is made turbid by this stirring, and carries
+the mud and sand and small particles of metal into the buddle below.
+Together with the broken rock, the larger metallic particles remain in
+the head compartment, and when these have been removed, boys throw them
+upon the platform of a washing tank or the short strake, and separate
+them from the broken rock. When the buddle is full of mud and sand, the
+washer closes the pipe through which the water flows into the head; very
+soon the water which remains in the buddle flows away, and when this has
+taken <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302"></a>[Pg 302]</span>place, he removes with a shovel the mud and sand which are mixed
+with minute particles of metal, and washes them on a canvas strake.
+Sometimes before the buddles have been filled full, the boys throw the
+material into a bowl and carry it to the strakes and wash it.</p>
+
+<p>Pulverized ore is washed in the head of this kind of a buddle; but
+usually when tin-stone is washed in it, interlacing fir boughs are put
+into the buddle, in the same manner as in the sluice when wet ore is
+crushed with stamps. The larger tin-stone particles, which sink in the
+upper part of the buddle, are washed separately in a strake; those
+particles which are of medium size, and settle in the middle part, are
+washed separately in the same way; and the mud mixed with minute
+particles of tin-stone, which has settled in the lowest part of the
+buddle below the fir boughs, is washed separately on the canvas strakes.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig302.jpg"><img src="images/fig302thumb.jpg" alt="Buddles" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Pipe. B&mdash;Cross launder. C&mdash;Small
+troughs. D&mdash;Head of the buddle. E&mdash;Wooden scrubber. F&mdash;Dividing boards.
+G&mdash;Short strake.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 302]</span></span>
+The divided buddle differs from the last one by having several
+cross-boards, which, being placed inside it, divide it off like steps;
+if the buddle is twelve feet long, four of them are placed within; if
+nine feet long, three. The nearer each one is to the head, the greater
+is its height; the further from the head, the lower it is; and so when
+the highest is a foot and a palm high, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303"></a>[Pg 303]</span>the second is usually a foot and
+three digits high, the third a foot and two digits, and the lowest a
+foot and one digit. In this buddle is generally washed that
+metalliferous material which has been sifted through the large sieve
+into the tub containing water. This material is continuously thrown with
+an iron shovel into the head of the buddle, and the water which has been
+let in is stirred up by a wooden scrubber, until the buddle is full,
+then the cross-boards are taken out by the washer, and the water is
+drained off; next the metalliferous material which has settled in the
+compartments is again washed, either on a short strake or on the canvas
+strakes or in the jigging sieves. Since a short strake is often united
+with the upper part of this buddle, a pipe in the first place carries
+the water into a cross launder, from which it flows down through one
+little launder into the buddle, and through another into the short
+strake.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig303.jpg"><img src="images/fig303thumb.jpg" alt="Washing material" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Head. B&mdash;Strake. C&mdash;Trowel.
+D&mdash;Scrubber. E&mdash;Canvas. F&mdash;Rod by which the canvas is made smooth.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 303]</span></span>
+An ordinary strake, so far as the planks are concerned, is not unlike
+the last two. The head of this, as of the others, is first made of earth
+stamped down, then covered with planks; and where it is necessary, earth
+is thrown in and beaten down a second time, so that no crevice may
+remain through which water carrying the particles of metal can escape.
+The water ought to fall straight down into the strake, which has a
+length of eight feet <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304"></a>[Pg 304]</span>and a breadth of a foot and a half; it is
+connected with a transverse launder, which then extends to a settling
+pit outside the building. A boy with a shovel or a ladle takes the
+impure concentrates or impure tin-stone from a heap, and throws them
+into the head of the strake or spreads them over it. A washer with a
+wooden scrubber then agitates them in the strake, whereby the mud mixed
+with water flows away into the transverse launder, and the concentrates
+or the tin-stone settle on the strake. Since sometimes the concentrates
+or fine tin-stone flow down together with the mud into the transverse
+launder, a second washer closes it, after a distance of about six feet,
+with a cross-board and frequently stirs the mud with a shovel, in order
+that when mixed with water it may flow out into the settling-pit; and
+there remains in the launder only the concentrates or tin-stone. The
+tin-stuff of Schlackenwald and Erbisdorff is washed in this kind of a
+strake once or twice; those of Altenberg three or four times; those of
+Geyer often seven times; for in the ore at Schlackenwald and Erbisdorff
+the tin-stone particles are of a fair size, and are crushed with stamps;
+at Altenberg they are of much smaller size, and in the broken ore at
+Geyer only a few particles of tin-stone can be seen occasionally.</p>
+
+<p>This method of washing was first devised by the miners who treated tin
+ore, whence it passed on from the works of the tin workers to those of
+the silver workers and others; this system is even more reliable than
+washing in jigging-sieves. Near this ordinary strake there is generally
+a canvas strake.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305"></a><a href="images/fig305.jpg"><img src="images/fig305thumb.jpg" alt="Washing material" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Upper cross launder. B&mdash;Small
+launders. C&mdash;Heads of strakes. D&mdash;Strakes. E&mdash;Lower transverse launder.
+F&mdash;Settling pit. G&mdash;Socket in the sill. H&mdash;Halved iron rings fixed to
+beam. I&mdash;Pole. K&mdash;Its little scrubber. L&mdash;Second small scrubber.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 305]</span></span>
+In modern times two ordinary strakes, similarly made, are generally
+joined together; the head of one is three feet distant from that of the
+other, while the bodies are four feet distant from each other, and there
+is only one cross launder under the two strakes. One boy shovels, from
+the heap into the head of each, the concentrates or tin-stone mixed with
+mud. There are two washers, one of whom sits at the right side of one
+strake, and the other at the left of the other strake, and each pursues
+his task, using the following sort of implement. Under each strake is a
+sill, from a socket in which a round pole rises, and is held by half an
+iron ring in a beam of the building, so that it may revolve; this pole
+is nine feet long and a palm thick. Penetrating the pole is a small
+round piece of wood, three palms long and as many digits thick, to which
+is affixed a small board two feet long and five digits wide, in an
+opening of which one end of a small axle revolves, and to this axle is
+fixed the handle of a little scrubber. The other end of this axle turns
+in an opening of a second board, which is likewise fixed to a small
+round piece of wood; this round piece, like the first one, is three
+palms long and as many digits thick, and is used by the washer as a
+handle. The little scrubber is made of a stick three feet long, to the
+end of which is fixed a small tablet of wood a foot long, six digits
+broad, and a digit and a half thick. The washer constantly moves the
+handle of this implement with one hand; in this way the little scrubber
+stirs the concentrates or the fine tin-stone mixed with mud in the head
+of the strake, and the mud, on being stirred, flows on to the strake. In
+the other hand he holds a second <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306"></a>[Pg 306]</span>little scrubber, which has a handle
+of half the length, and with this he ceaselessly stirs the concentrates
+or tin-stone which have settled in the upper part of the strake; in this
+way the mud and water flow down into the transverse launder, and from it
+into the settling-pit which is outside the building.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig306.jpg"><img src="images/fig306thumb.jpg" alt="Washing material" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Trough. B&mdash;Platform. C&mdash;Wooden
+scrubber.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 306]</span></span>
+Before the short strake and the jigging-sieve had been invented,
+metalliferous ores, especially tin, were crushed dry with stamps and
+washed in a large trough hollowed out of one or two tree trunks; and at
+the head of this trough was a platform, on which the ore was thrown
+after being completely crushed. The washer pulled it down into the
+trough with a wooden scrubber which had a long handle, and when the
+water had been let into the trough, he stirred the ore with the same
+scrubber.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307"></a><a href="images/fig307.jpg"><img src="images/fig307thumb.jpg" alt="Washing material" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Short strake. B&mdash;Small launder.
+C&mdash;Transverse launder. D&mdash;Wooden scrubber.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 307]</span></span>
+The short strake is narrow in the upper part where the water flows down
+into it through the little launder; in fact it is only two feet wide; at
+the lower end it is wider, being three feet and as many palms. At the
+sides, which are six feet long, are fixed boards two palms high. In
+other respects the head resembles the head of the simple buddle, except
+that it is not depressed in the middle. Beneath is a cross launder
+closed by a low board. In this short strake not only is ore agitated and
+washed with a wooden scrubber, but boys <span class="pagenum">[Pg 307]</span>also separate the concentrates
+from the broken rock in them and collect them in tubs. The short strake
+is now rarely employed by miners, owing to the carelessness of the boys,
+which has been frequently detected; for this reason, the jigging-sieve
+has taken its place. The mud which settles in the launder, if the ore is
+rich, is taken up and washed in a jigging-sieve or on a canvas strake.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308"></a><a href="images/fig308.jpg"><img src="images/fig308thumb.jpg" alt="Washing material" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Beams. B&mdash;Canvas. C&mdash;Head of
+strake. D&mdash;Small launder. E&mdash;Settling pit or tank. F&mdash;Wooden scrubber.
+G&mdash;Tubs.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 308]</span></span>
+A canvas strake is made in the following way. Two beams, eighteen feet
+long and half a foot broad and three palms thick, are placed on a slope;
+one half of each of these beams is partially cut away lengthwise, to
+allow the ends of planks to be fastened in them, for the bottom is
+covered by planks three feet long, set crosswise and laid close
+together. One half of each supporting beam is left intact and rises a
+palm above the planks, in order that the water that is running down may
+not escape at the sides, but shall flow straight down. The head of the
+strake is higher than the rest of the body, and slopes so as to enable
+the water to flow away. The whole strake is covered by six stretched
+pieces of canvas, smoothed with a stick. The first of them occupies the
+lowest division, and the second is so laid as to slightly overlap it; on
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg 308]</span>the second division, the third is similarly laid, and so on, one on the
+other. If they are laid in the opposite way, the water flowing down
+carries the concentrates or particles of tin-stone under the canvas, and
+a useless task is attempted. Boys or men throw the concentrates or
+tin-stuff mixed with mud into the head of the strake, after the canvas
+has been thus stretched, and having opened the small launder they let
+the water flow in; then they stir the concentrates or tin-stone with a
+wooden scrubber till the water carries them all on to the canvas; next
+they gently sweep the linen with the wooden scrubber until the mud flows
+into the settling-pit or into the transverse launder. As soon as there
+is little or no mud on the canvas, but only concentrates or tin-stone,
+they carry the canvas away and wash it in a tub placed close by. The
+tin-stone settles in the tub, and the men return immediately to the same
+task. Finally, they pour the water out of the tub, and collect the
+concentrates or tin-stone. However, if either concentrates or tin-stone
+have washed down from the canvas and settled in the settling-pit or in
+the transverse launder, they wash the mud again.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309"></a><a href="images/fig309.jpg"><img src="images/fig309thumb.jpg" alt="Collecting concentrates" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Canvas strake. B&mdash;Man
+dashing water on the canvas. C&mdash;Bucket. D&mdash;Bucket of another kind.
+E&mdash;Man removing concentrates or tin-stone from the trough.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 309]</span></span>
+Some neither remove the canvas nor wash it in the tubs, but place over
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg 309]</span>it on each edge narrow strips, of no great thickness, and fix them to
+the beams with nails. They agitate the metalliferous material with
+wooden scrubbers and wash it in a similar way. As soon as little or no
+mud remains on the canvas, but only concentrates or fine tin-stone, they
+lift one beam so that the whole strake rests on the other, and dash it
+with water, which has been drawn with buckets out of the small tank, and
+in this way all the sediment which clings to the canvas falls into the
+trough placed underneath. This trough is hewn out of a tree and placed
+in a ditch dug in the ground; the interior of the trough is a foot wide
+at the top, but narrower in the bottom, because it is rounded out. In
+the middle of this trough they put a cross-board, in order that the
+fairly large particles of concentrates or fairly large-sized tin-stone
+may remain in the forepart into which they have fallen, and the fine
+concentrates or fine tin-stone in the lower part, for the water flows
+from one into the other, and at last flows down through an opening into
+the pit. As for the fairly large-sized concentrates or tin-stone which
+have been removed from the trough, they are washed again on the ordinary
+strake. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310"></a>[Pg 310]</span>The fine concentrates and fine tin-stone are washed again on
+this canvas strake. By this method, the canvas lasts longer because it
+remains fixed, and nearly double the work is done by one washer as
+quickly as can be done by two washers by the other method.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311"></a><a href="images/fig311.jpg"><img src="images/fig311thumb.jpg" alt="Jigging Sieve" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Fine sieves. B&mdash;Limp. C&mdash;Finer
+sieve. D&mdash;Finest sieve.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 311]</span></span>
+The jigging sieve has recently come into use by miners. The
+metalliferous material is thrown into it and sifted in a tub nearly full
+of water. The sieve is shaken up and down, and by this movement all the
+material below the size of a pea passes through into the tub, and the
+rest remains on the bottom of the sieve. This residue is of two kinds,
+the metallic particles, which occupy the lower place, and the particles
+of rock and earth, which take the higher place, because the heavy
+substance always settles, and the light is borne upward by the force of
+the water. This light material is taken away with a limp, which is a
+thin tablet of wood almost semicircular in shape, three-quarters of a
+foot long, and half a foot wide. Before the lighter portion is taken
+away the contents of the sieve are generally divided crosswise with a
+limp, to enable the water to penetrate into it more quickly. Afterward
+fresh material is again thrown into the sieve and shaken up and down,
+and when a great quantity of metallic particles have settled in the
+sieve, they are taken out and put into a tray close by. But since there
+fall into the tub with the mud, not only particles of gold or silver,
+but also of sand, pyrites, <i>cadmia</i>, galena, quartz, and other
+substances, and since the water cannot separate these from the metallic
+particles because they are all heavy, this muddy mixture is washed a
+second time, and the part which is useless is thrown away. To prevent
+the sieve passing this sand again too quickly, the washer lays small
+stones or gravel in the bottom of the sieve. However, if the sieve is
+not shaken straight up and down, but is tilted to one side, the small
+stones or broken ore move from one part to another, and the metallic
+material again falls into the tub, and the operation is frustrated. The
+miners of our country have made an even finer sieve, which does not fail
+even with unskilled washers; in washing with this sieve they have no
+need for the bottom to be strewn with small stones. By this method the
+mud settles in the tub with the very fine metallic particles, and the
+larger sizes of metal remain in the sieve and are covered with the
+valueless sand, and this is taken away with a limp. The concentrates
+which have been collected are smelted together with other things. The
+mud mixed with the very fine metallic particles is washed for a third
+time and in the finest sieve, whose bottom is woven of hair. If the ore
+is rich in metal, all the material which has been removed by the limp is
+washed on the canvas strakes, or if the ore is poor it is thrown away.</p>
+
+<p>I have explained the methods of washing which are used in common for the
+ores of many metals. I now come to another method of crushing ore, for I
+ought to speak of this before describing those methods of washing which
+are peculiar to ores of particular metals.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313"></a><a href="images/fig313.jpg"><img src="images/fig313thumb.jpg" alt="Stamp-mill" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Mortar. B&mdash;Open end of mortar.
+C&mdash;Slab of rock. D&mdash;Iron sole plates. E&mdash;Screen. F&mdash;Launder. G&mdash;Wooden
+shovel. H&mdash;Settling pit. I&mdash;Iron shovel. K&mdash;Heap of material which has
+settled. L&mdash;Ore which requires crushing. M&mdash;Small launder.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 313]</span></span>
+In the year 1512, George, the illustrious Duke of Saxony<a name="FNanchor_14_227" id="FNanchor_14_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_227" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>, gave the
+overlordship <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312"></a>[Pg 312]</span>of all the dumps ejected from the mines in Meissen to the
+noble and wise Sigismund Maltitz, father of John, Bishop of Meissen.
+Rejecting the dry stamps, the large sieve, and the stone mills of
+Dippoldswalde and Altenberg, in which places are dug the small black
+stones from which tin is smelted, he invented a machine which could
+crush the ore wet under iron-shod stamps. That is called "wet ore" which
+is softened by water which flows into the mortar box, and they are
+sometimes called "wet stamps" because they are drenched by the same
+water; and on the other hand, the other kinds are called "dry stamps" or
+"dry ore," because no water is used to soften the ore when the stamps
+are crushing. But to return to our subject. This machine is not
+dissimilar to the one which crushes the ore with dry iron-shod stamps,
+but the heads of the wet stamps are larger by half than the heads of the
+others. The mortar-box, which is made of oak or beech timber, is set up
+in the space between the upright posts; it does not open in front, but
+at one end, and it is three feet long, three-quarters of a foot wide,
+and one foot and six digits deep. If it has no bottom, it is set up in
+the same way over a slab of hard, smooth rock placed in the ground,
+which has been dug down a little. The joints are stopped up all round
+with moss or cloth rags. If the mortar has a bottom, then an iron
+sole-plate, three feet long, three-quarters of a foot wide, and a palm
+thick, is placed in it. In the opening in the end of the mortar there is
+fixed an iron plate full of holes, in such a way that there is a space
+of two digits between it and the shoe of the nearest stamp, and the same
+distance between this screen and the upright post, in an opening through
+which runs a small but fairly long launder. The crushed particles of
+silver ore flow through this launder with the water into a settling-pit,
+while the material which settles in the launder is removed with an iron
+shovel to the nearest planked floor; that material which has settled in
+the pit is removed with an iron shovel on to another floor. Most people
+make two launders, in order that while the workman empties one of them
+of the accumulation which has settled in it, a fresh deposit may be
+settling in the other. The water flows in through a small launder at the
+other end of the mortar that is near the water-wheel which turns the
+machine. The workman throws the ore to be crushed into the mortar in
+such a way that the pieces, when they are thrown in among the stamps, do
+not impede the work. By this method a silver or gold ore is crushed very
+fine by the stamps.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314"></a><a href="images/fig314.jpg"><img src="images/fig314thumb.jpg" alt="Buddle" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Launder reaching to the screen.
+B&mdash;Transverse trough. C&mdash;Spouts. D&mdash;Large buddles. E&mdash;Shovel.
+F&mdash;Interwoven twigs. G&mdash;Boards closing the buddles. H&mdash;Cross trough.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 314]</span></span>
+When tin ore is crushed by this kind of iron-shod stamps, as soon as
+crushing begins, the launder which extends from the screen discharges
+the water carrying the fine tin-stone and fine sand into a transverse
+trough, from which the water flows down through the spouts, which pierce
+the side of the trough, into the one or other of the large buddles set
+underneath. The reason why there are two is that, while the washer
+empties the one which is filled with fine tin-stone and sand, the
+material may flow into the other. Each buddle is twelve feet long, one
+cubit deep, and a foot and a half broad. The tin-stone which settles in
+the upper part of the buddles is called the large size; these are
+frequently stirred with a shovel, in order that the medium sized
+particles of tin-stone, and the mud mixed with the very fine <span class="pagenum">[Pg 314]</span>particles
+of the stones may flow away. The particles of medium size generally
+settle in the middle part of the buddle, where they are arrested by
+interwoven fir twigs. The mud which flows down with the water settles
+between the twigs and the board which closes the lower end of the
+buddle. The tin-stone of large size is removed separately from the
+buddle with a shovel; those of medium size are also removed separately,
+and likewise the mud is removed separately, for they are separately
+washed on the canvas strakes and on the ordinary strake, and separately
+roasted and smelted. The tin-stone which has settled in the middle part
+of the buddle, is also always washed separately on the canvas strakes;
+but if the particles are nearly equal in size to those which have
+settled in the upper part of the buddle, they are washed with them in
+the ordinary strake and are roasted and smelted with them. However, the
+mud is never washed with the others, either on the canvas strakes or on
+the ordinary strake, but separately, and the fine tin-stone which is
+obtained from it is roasted and smelted separately. The two large
+buddles discharge into a cross trough, and it again empties through a
+launder into a settling-pit which is outside the building.</p>
+
+<p>This method of washing has lately undergone a considerable change; for
+the launder which carries the water, mixed with the crushed tin-stone
+and fine sand which flow from the openings of the screen, does not reach
+to a transverse trough which is inside the same room, but runs straight
+through a partition into a small settling-pit. A boy draws a
+three-toothed rake through the material which has settled in the portion
+of the launder outside the room, by which means the larger sized
+particles of tin-stone settle at the bottom, and these the washer takes
+out with the wooden shovel and carries into the room; this material is
+thrown into an ordinary strake and swept with a wooden scrubber and
+washed. As for those tin-stone particles which the water carries off
+from the strake, after they have been brought back on to the strake, he
+washes them again until they are clean.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315"></a>[Pg 315]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig315.jpg"><img src="images/fig315thumb.jpg" alt="Buddle" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;First launder. B&mdash;Three-toothed rake.
+C&mdash;Small settling pit. D&mdash;Large buddle. E&mdash;Buddle resembling the simple
+buddle. F&mdash;Small roller. G&mdash;Boards. H&mdash;Their holes. I&mdash;Shovel.
+K&mdash;Building. L&mdash;Stove.</span> (This picture does not entirely agree with the
+text). <span class="inum">[Pg 315]</span></span>
+The remaining tin-stone, mixed with sand, flows into the small
+settling-pit which is within the building, and this discharges into two
+large buddles. The tin-stone of moderate size, mixed with those of
+fairly large size, settle in the upper part, and the small size in the
+lower part; but both are impure, and for this reason they are taken out
+separately and the former is washed twice, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316"></a>[Pg 316]</span>first in a buddle like the
+simple buddle, and afterward on an ordinary strake. Likewise the latter
+is washed twice, first on a canvas strake and afterward on an ordinary
+strake. This buddle, which is like the simple buddle, differs from it in
+the head, the whole of which in this case is sloping, while in the case
+of the other it is depressed in the centre. In order that the boy may be
+able to rest the shovel with which he cleanses the tin-stone, this
+sluice has a small wooden roller which turns in holes in two thick
+boards fixed to the sides of the buddle; if he did not do this, he would
+become over-exhausted by his task, for he spends whole days standing
+over these labours. The large buddle, the one like the simple buddle,
+the ordinary strake, and the canvas strakes, are erected within a
+special building. In this building there is a stove that gives out heat
+through the earthen tiles or iron plates of which it is composed, in
+order that the washers can pursue their labours even in winter, if the
+rivers are not completely frozen over.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317"></a><a href="images/fig317.jpg"><img src="images/fig317thumb.jpg" alt="Workroom with settling-pit" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Launder from the
+screen of the mortar-box. B&mdash;Three-toothed rake. C&mdash;Small settling-pit.
+D&mdash;Canvas. E&mdash;Strakes. F&mdash;Brooms.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 317]</span></span>
+On the canvas strakes are washed the very fine tin-stone mixed with mud
+which has settled in the lower end of the large buddle, as well as in
+the lower end of the simple buddle and of the ordinary strake. The
+canvas is cleaned in a trough hewn out of one tree trunk and partitioned
+off with two boards, so that three compartments are made. The first and
+second pieces of canvas are washed in the first compartment, the third
+and fourth in the second compartment, the fifth and sixth in the third
+compartment. Since among the very fine tin-stone there are usually some
+grains of stone, rock, or marble, the master cleanses them on the
+ordinary strake, lightly brushing the top of the material with a broom,
+the twigs of which do not all run the same way, but some straight and
+some crosswise. In this way the water carries off these impurities from
+the strake into the settling-pit because they are lighter, and leaves
+the tin-stone on the table because it is heavier.</p>
+
+<p>Below all buddles or strakes, both inside and outside the building,
+there are placed either settling-pits or cross-troughs into which they
+discharge, in order that the water may carry on down into the stream but
+very few of the most minute particles of tin-stone. The large
+settling-pit which is outside the building is generally made of joined
+flooring, and is eight feet in length, breadth and depth. When a large
+quantity of mud, mixed with very fine tin-stone, has settled in it,
+first of all the water is let out by withdrawing a plug, then the mud
+which is taken out is washed outside the house on the canvas strakes,
+and afterward the concentrates are washed on the strake which is inside
+the building. By these methods the very finest tin-stone is made clean.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318"></a><a href="images/fig318.jpg"><img src="images/fig318thumb.jpg" alt="Streaming for Tin" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;River. B&mdash;Weir. C&mdash;Gate.
+D&mdash;Area. E&mdash;Meadow. F&mdash;Fence. G&mdash;Ditch.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 318]</span></span>
+The mud mixed with the very fine tin-stone, which has neither settled in
+the large settling-pit nor in the transverse launder which is outside
+the room and below the canvas strakes, flows away and settles in the bed
+of the stream or river. In order to recover even a portion of the fine
+tin-stone, many miners erect weirs in the bed of the stream or river,
+very much like those that are made above the mills, to deflect the
+current into the races through which it flows to the water-wheels. At
+one side of each weir there is an area dug out to a depth of five or six
+or seven feet, and if the nature of <span class="pagenum">[Pg 318]</span>the place will permit, extending
+in every direction more than sixty feet. Thus, when the water of the
+river or stream in autumn and winter inundates the land, the gates of
+the weir are closed, by which means the current carries the mud mixed
+with fine tin-stone into the area. In spring and summer this mud is
+washed on the canvas strakes or on the ordinary strake, and even the
+finest black-tin is collected. Within a distance of four thousand
+fathoms along the bed of the stream or river below the buildings in
+which the tin-stuff is washed, the miners do not make such weirs, but
+put inclined fences in the meadows, and in front of each fence they dig
+a ditch of the same length, so that the mud mixed with the fine
+tin-stone, carried along by the stream or river when in flood, may
+settle in the ditch and cling to the fence. When this mud is collected,
+it is likewise washed on canvas strakes and on the ordinary strake, in
+order that the fine tin-stone may be separated from it. Indeed we may
+see many such areas and fences collecting mud of this kind in Meissen
+below Altenberg in the river Moglitz,&mdash;which is always of a reddish
+colour when the rock containing the black tin is being crushed under the
+stamps.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319"></a>[Pg 319]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320"></a><a href="images/fig320.jpg"><img src="images/fig320thumb.jpg" alt="Stamp-mill" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;First machine. B&mdash;Its stamps. C&mdash;Its
+mortar-box. D&mdash;Second machine. E&mdash;Its stamps. F&mdash;Its mortar-box.
+G&mdash;Third machine. H&mdash;Its stamps. I&mdash;Its mortar-box. K&mdash;Fourth machine.
+L&mdash;Its stamps. M&mdash;Its mortar-box.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 320]</span></span>But to return to the stamping machines. Some usually set up four
+machines of this kind in one place, that is to say, two above and the
+same number below. By this plan it is necessary that the current which
+has been diverted should fall down from a greater height upon the upper
+water-wheels, because these turn axles whose cams raise heavier stamps.
+The stamp-stems of the upper machines should be nearly twice as long as
+the stems of the lower ones, because all the mortar-boxes are placed on
+the same level. These stamps have their tappets near their upper ends,
+not as in the case of the lower stamps, which are placed just above the
+bottom. The water flowing down from the two upper water-wheels is caught
+in two broad races, from which it falls on to the two lower
+water-wheels. Since all these machines have the stamps very close
+together, the stems should be somewhat cut away, to prevent the iron
+shoes from rubbing each other at the point where they are set into the
+stems. Where so many machines cannot be constructed, by reason of the
+narrowness of the valley, the mountain is excavated and levelled in two
+places, one of which is higher than the other, and in this case two
+machines are constructed and generally placed in one building. A broad
+race receives in the same way the water which flows down from the upper
+water-wheel, and similarly lets it fall on the lower water-wheel. The
+mortar-boxes are not then placed on one level, but each on the level
+which is appropriate to its own machine, and for this reason, two
+workmen are then required to throw ore into the mortar-boxes. When no
+stream can be diverted which will fall from a higher place upon the top
+of the water-wheel, one is diverted which will turn the foot of the
+wheel; a great quantity of water from the stream is collected in one
+pool capable of holding it, and from this place, when the gates are
+raised, the water is discharged against the wheel which turns in the
+race. The buckets of a water-wheel of this kind are deeper and bent
+back, projecting upward; those of the former are shallower and bent
+forward, inclining downward.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321"></a><a href="images/fig321.jpg"><img src="images/fig321thumb.jpg" alt="Stamp-mill" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Stamps. B&mdash;Mortar. C&mdash;Plates full of
+holes. D&mdash;Transverse launder. E&mdash;Planks full of cup-like depressions.
+F&mdash;Spout. G&mdash;Bowl into which the concentrates fall. H&mdash;Canvas strake.
+I&mdash;Bowls shaped like a small boat. K&mdash;Settling-pit under the canvas
+strake.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 321]</span></span>
+Further, in the Julian and Rhaetian Alps<a name="FNanchor_15_228" id="FNanchor_15_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_228" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> and in the Carpathian
+Mountains, gold or even silver ore is now put under stamps, which are
+sometimes placed more than twenty in a row, and crushed wet in a long
+mortar-box. The mortar has two plates full of holes through which the
+ore, after being crushed, flows out with the water into the transverse
+launder placed underneath, and from there it is carried down by two
+spouts into the heads of the canvas strakes. Each head is made of a
+thick broad plank, which can be raised and set upright, and to which on
+each side are fixed pieces projecting upward. In this plank there are
+many cup-like depressions equal in size and similar in shape, in each of
+which an egg could be placed. Right down in these depressions are small
+crevices which can retain the concentrates of gold or silver, and when
+the hollows are nearly filled with these materials, the plank is raised
+on one side so that the concentrates will fall into a large bowl. The
+cup-like depressions are washed out by dashing them with water. These
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg 321]</span>concentrates are washed separately in different bowls from those which
+have settled on the canvas. This bowl is smooth and two digits wide and
+deep, being in shape very similar to a small boat; it is broad in the
+fore part, narrow in the back, and in the middle of it there is a cross
+groove, in which the particles of pure gold or silver settle, while the
+grains of sand, since they are lighter, flow out of it.</p>
+
+<p>In some parts of Moravia, gold ore, which consists of quartz mixed with
+gold, is placed under the stamps and crushed wet. When crushed fine it
+flows out through a launder into a trough, is there stirred by a wooden
+scrubber, and the minute particles of gold which settle in the upper end
+of the trough are washed in a black bowl.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p>
+So far I have spoken of machines which crush wet ore with iron-shod
+stamps. I will now explain the methods of washing which are in a measure
+peculiar to the ore of certain metals, beginning with gold. The ore
+which contains particles of this metal, and the sand of streams and
+rivers which <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322"></a>[Pg 322]</span>contains grains of it, are washed in frames or bowls; the
+sands especially are also washed in troughs. More than one method is
+employed for washing on frames, for these frames either pass or retain
+the particles or concentrates of gold; they pass them if they have
+holes, and retain them if they have no holes. But either the frame
+itself has holes, or a box is substituted for it; if the frame itself is
+perforated it passes the particles or concentrates of gold into a
+trough; if the box has them, it passes the gold material into the long
+sluice.
+<span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig322.jpg"><img src="images/fig322thumb.jpg" alt="Frames for Washing Ore or Alluvial" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Head of
+frame. B&mdash;Frame. C&mdash;Holes. D&mdash;Edge-boards. E&mdash;Stools. F&mdash;Scrubber.
+G&mdash;Trough. H&mdash;Launder. I&mdash;Bowl.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 322]</span></span>I will first speak of these two methods of washing. The frame is
+made of two planks joined together, and is twelve feet long and three
+feet wide, and is full of holes large enough for a pea to pass. To
+prevent the ore or sand with which the gold is mixed from falling out at
+the sides, small projecting edge-boards are fixed to it. This frame is
+set upon two stools, the first of which is higher than the second, in
+order that the gravel and small stones can roll down it. The washer
+throws the ore or sand into the head of the frame, which is higher, and
+opening the small launder, lets the water into it, and then agitates it
+with a wooden scrubber. In this way, the gravel and small stones roll
+down the frame on to the ground, while the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323"></a>[Pg 323]</span>particles or concentrates of
+gold, together with the sand, pass through the holes into the trough
+which is placed under the frame, and after being collected are washed in
+the bowl.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig323.jpg"><img src="images/fig323thumb.jpg" alt="Frames for Washing Ore or Alluvial" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Sluice.
+B&mdash;Box. C&mdash;Bottom of inverted box. D&mdash;Open part of it. E&mdash;Iron hoe.
+F&mdash;Riffles. G&mdash;Small launder. H&mdash;Bowl with which settlings are taken
+away. I&mdash;Black bowl in which they are washed.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 323]</span></span>
+A box which has a bottom made of a plate full of holes, is placed over
+the upper end of a sluice, which is fairly long but of moderate width.
+The gold material to be washed is thrown into this box, and a great
+quantity of water is let in. The lumps, if ore is being washed, are
+mashed with an iron shovel. The fine portions fall through the bottom of
+the box into the sluice, but the coarse pieces remain in the box, and
+these are removed with a scraper through an opening which is nearly in
+the middle of one side. Since a large amount of water is necessarily let
+into the box, in order to prevent it from sweeping away any particles of
+gold which have fallen into the sluice, the sluice is divided off by
+ten, or if it is as long again, by fifteen riffles. These riffles are
+placed equidistant from one another, and each is higher than the one
+next toward the lower end of the sluice. The little compartments which
+are thus made are filled with the material and the water which flows
+through <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324"></a>[Pg 324]</span>the box; as soon as these compartments are full and the water
+has begun to flow over clear, the little launder through which this
+water enters into the box is closed, and the water is turned in another
+direction. Then the lowest riffle is removed from the sluice, and the
+sediment which has accumulated flows out with the water and is caught in
+a bowl. The riffles are removed one by one and the sediment from each is
+taken into a separate bowl, and each is separately washed and cleansed
+in a bowl. The larger particles of gold concentrates settle in the
+higher compartments, the smaller size, in the lower compartments. This
+bowl is shallow and smooth, and smeared with oil or some other slippery
+substance, so that the tiny particles of gold may not cling to it, and
+it is painted black, that the gold may be more easily discernible; on
+the exterior, on both sides and in the middle, it is slightly hollowed
+out in order that it may be grasped and held firmly in the hands when
+shaken. By this method the particles or concentrates of gold settle in
+the back part of the bowl; for if the back part of the bowl is tapped or
+shaken with one hand, as is usual, the contents move toward the fore
+part. In this way the Moravians, especially, wash gold ore.</p>
+
+<p>The gold particles are also caught on frames which are either bare or
+covered. If bare, the particles are caught in pockets; if covered, they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325"></a>[Pg 325]</span>cling to the coverings. Pockets are made in various ways, either with
+iron wire or small cross-boards fixed to the frame, or by holes which
+are sunk into the sluice itself or into its head, but which do not quite
+go through. These holes are round or square, or are grooves running
+crosswise. The frames are either covered with skins, pieces of cloth, or
+turf, which I will deal with one by one in turn.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig324.jpg"><img src="images/fig324thumb.jpg" alt="Frames for Washing Ore or Alluvial" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Plank.
+B&mdash;Side-boards. C&mdash;Iron wire. D&mdash;Handles.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 324]</span></span>
+In order to prevent the sand which contains the particles of gold from
+spilling out, the washer fixes side-boards to the edges of a plank which
+is six feet long and one and a quarter wide. He then lays crosswise many
+iron wires a digit apart, and where they join he fixes them to the
+bottom plank with iron nails. Then he makes the head of the frame
+higher, and into this he throws the sand which needs washing, and taking
+in his hands the handles which are at the head of the frame, he draws it
+backward and forward several times in the river or stream. In this way
+the small stones and gravel flow down along the frame, and the sand
+mixed with particles of gold remains in the pockets between the strips.
+When the contents of the pockets have been shaken out and collected in
+one place, he washes them in a bowl and thus cleans the gold dust.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326"></a><a href="images/fig326.jpg"><img src="images/fig326thumb.jpg" alt="Frames for Washing Ore or Alluvial" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Head of the
+sluice. B&mdash;Riffles. C&mdash;Wooden scrubber. D&mdash;Pointed stick. E&mdash;Dish.
+F&mdash;Its cup-like depression. G&mdash;Grooved dish.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 326]</span></span>
+Other people, among whom are the Lusitanians<a name="FNanchor_16_229" id="FNanchor_16_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_229" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>, fix to the sides of a
+sluice, which is about six feet long and a foot and a half broad, many
+cross-strips or riffles, which project backward and are a digit apart.
+The washer or his wife lets the water into the head of the sluice, where
+he throws the sand which contains the particles of gold. As it flows
+down he agitates it with a wooden scrubber, which he moves transversely
+to the riffles. He constantly removes with a pointed wooden stick the
+sediment which settles in the pockets between the riffles, and in this
+way the particles of gold settle in them, while the sand and other
+valueless materials are carried by the water into a tub placed below the
+sluice. He removes the particles of metal with a small wooden shovel
+into a wooden bowl. This bowl does not exceed a foot and a quarter in
+breadth, and by moving it up and down in the stream he cleanses the gold
+dust, for the remaining sand flows out of the dish, and the gold dust
+settles in the middle of it, where there is a cup-like depression. Some
+make use of a bowl which is grooved inside like a shell, but with a
+smooth lip where the water flows out. This smooth place, however, is
+narrower where the grooves run into it, and broader where the water
+flows out.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 326]</span></p>
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327"></a><a href="images/fig327.jpg"><img src="images/fig327thumb.jpg" alt="Frames for Washing Ore or Alluvial" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Head of the
+sluice. B&mdash;Side-boards. C&mdash;Lower end of the sluice. D&mdash;Pockets.
+E&mdash;Grooves. F&mdash;Stools. G&mdash;Shovel. H&mdash;Tub set below. I&mdash;Launder.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 327]</span></span>
+The cup-like pockets and grooves are cut or burned at the same time into
+the bottom of the sluice; the bottom is composed of three planks ten
+feet long, and is about four feet wide; but the lower end, through which
+the water is discharged, is narrower. This sluice, which likewise has
+side-boards fixed to its edges, is full of rounded pockets and of
+grooves which lead to them, there being two grooves to one pocket, in
+order that the water mixed with sand may flow into each pocket through
+the upper groove, and that after the sand has partly settled, the water
+may again flow out through the lower groove. The sluice is set in the
+river or stream or on the bank, and placed on two stools, of which the
+first is higher than the second in order that the gravel and small
+stones may roll down the sluice. The washer throws sand into the head
+with a shovel, and opening the launder, lets in the water, which carries
+the particles of metal with a little sand down into the pockets, while
+the gravel and small stones with the rest of the sand falls into a tub
+placed below the sluice. As soon as the pockets are filled, he brushes
+out the concentrates and washes them in a bowl. He washes again and
+again through this sluice.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 327]</span></p>
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328"></a><a href="images/fig328.jpg"><img src="images/fig328thumb.jpg" alt="Frames for Washing Ore or Alluvial" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Cross
+grooves. B&mdash;Tub set under the sluice. C&mdash;Another tub.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 328]</span></span>
+Some people cut a number of cross-grooves, one palm distant from each
+other, in a sluice similarly composed of three planks eight feet long.
+The upper edge of these grooves is sloping, that the particles of gold
+may slip into them when the washer stirs the sand with a wooden shovel;
+but their lower edge is vertical so that the gold particles may thus be
+unable to slide out of them. As soon as these grooves are full of gold
+particles mixed with fine sand, the sluice is removed from the stools
+and raised up on its head. The head in this case is nothing but the
+upper end of the planks of which the sluice is composed. In this way the
+metallic particles, being turned over backward, fall into another tub,
+for the small stones and gravel have rolled down the sluice. Some people
+place large bowls under the sluice instead of tubs, and as in the other
+cases, the unclean concentrates are washed in the small bowl.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329"></a><a href="images/fig329.jpg"><img src="images/fig329thumb.jpg" alt="Frames for Washing Ore or Alluvial" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Sluice
+covered with canvas. B&mdash;Its head full of pockets and grooves. C&mdash;Head
+removed and washed in a tub. D&mdash;Sluice which has square pockets.
+E&mdash;Sluice to whose planks small shavings cling. F&mdash;Broom. G&mdash;Skins of
+oxen. H&mdash;Wooden scrubber.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 329]</span></span>
+The Thuringians cut rounded pockets, a digit in diameter and depth, in
+the head of the sluice, and at the same time they cut grooves reaching
+from one to another. The sluice itself they cover with canvas. The sand
+which <span class="pagenum">[Pg 328]</span>is to be washed, is thrown into the head and stirred with a
+wooden scrubber; in this way the water carries the light particles of
+gold on to the canvas, and the heavy ones sink in the pockets, and when
+these hollows are full, the head is removed and turned over a tub, and
+the concentrates are collected and washed in a bowl. Some people make
+use of a sluice which has square pockets with short vertical recesses
+which hold the particles of gold. Other workers use a sluice made of
+planks, which are rough by reason of the very small shavings which still
+cling to them; these sluices are used instead of those with coverings,
+of which this sluice is bare, and when the sand is washed, the particles
+of gold cling no less to these shavings than to canvas, or skins, or
+cloths, or turf. The washer sweeps the sluice upward with a broom, and
+when he has washed as much of the sand as he wishes, he lets a more
+abundant supply of water into the sluice again to wash out the
+concentrates, which he collects in a tub set below the sluice, and then
+washes again in a bowl. Just as Thuringians cover the sluice with
+canvas, so some people cover it with the skins of oxen or horses. They
+push the auriferous sand upward with a wooden scrubber, and by this
+system the light material flows away with the water, while the particles
+of gold settle among the hairs; the skins are afterward washed in a tub;
+and the concentrates are collected in a bowl.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330"></a>[Pg 330]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig330.jpg"><img src="images/fig330thumb.jpg" alt="Washing material in spring" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Spring. B&mdash;Skin.
+C&mdash;Argonauts.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 330]</span></span>
+The Colchians<a name="FNanchor_17_230" id="FNanchor_17_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_230" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> placed the skins of animals in the pools of springs;
+and since many particles of gold had clung to them when they were
+removed, poets invented the "golden fleece" of the Colchians. In like
+manner, it can be contrived by the methods of miners that skins should
+take up, not only particles of gold, but also of silver and gems.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331"></a>[Pg 331]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig331.jpg"><img src="images/fig331thumb.jpg" alt="Frames for Washing Ore or Alluvial" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Head of
+frame. B&mdash;Frame. C&mdash;Cloth. D&mdash;small launder. E&mdash;Tub set below the frame.
+F&mdash;Tub in which cloth is washed.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 331]</span></span>
+Many people cover the frame with a green cloth as long and wide as the
+frame itself, and fasten it with iron nails in such a way that they can
+easily draw them out and remove the cloth. When the cloth appears to be
+golden because of the particles which adhere to it, it is washed in a
+special tub and the particles are collected in a bowl. The remainder
+which has run down into the tub is again washed on the frame.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332"></a>[Pg 332]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig332.jpg"><img src="images/fig332thumb.jpg" alt="Frames for Washing Ore or Alluvial" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Cloth full
+of small knots, spread out. B&mdash;Small knots more conspicuously shown.
+C&mdash;Tub in which cloth is washed.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 332]</span></span>
+Some people, in place of a green cloth, use a cloth of tightly woven
+horsehair, which has a rough knotty surface. Since these knots stand out
+and the cloth is rough, even the very small particles of gold adhere to
+it; these cloths are likewise washed in a tub with water.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333"></a>[Pg 333]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig333.jpg"><img src="images/fig333thumb.jpg" alt="Frames for Washing Ore or Alluvial" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Head of
+frame. B&mdash;Small launder through which water flows into head of frame.
+C&mdash;Pieces of turf. D&mdash;Trough placed under frame. E&mdash;Tub in which pieces
+of turf are washed.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 333]</span></span>
+Some people construct a frame not unlike the one covered with canvas,
+but shorter. In place of the canvas they set pieces of turf in rows.
+They wash the sand, which has been thrown into the head of the frame, by
+letting in water. In this way the particles of gold settle in the turf,
+the mud and sand, together with the water, are carried down into the
+settling-pit or trough below, which is opened when the work is finished.
+After all the water has passed out of the settling-pit, the sand and mud
+are carried away and washed over again in the same manner. The particles
+which have clung to the turf are afterward washed down into the
+settling-pit or trough by a stronger current of the water, which is let
+into the frame through a small launder. The concentrates are finally
+collected and washed in a bowl. Pliny was not ignorant of this method of
+washing gold. "The ulex," he says, "after being dried, is burnt, and its
+ashes are washed over a grassy turf, that the gold may settle on it."</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334"></a>[Pg 334]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig334.jpg"><img src="images/fig334thumb.jpg" alt="Trays for Washing Alluvial" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Tray. B&mdash;Bowl-like
+depression. C&mdash;Handles.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 334]</span></span>
+Sand mixed with particles of gold is also washed in a tray, or in a
+trough or bowl. The tray is open at the further end, is either hewn out
+of a squared trunk of a tree or made out of a thick plank to which
+side-boards are fixed, and is three feet long, a foot and a half wide,
+and three digits deep. The bottom is hollowed out into the shape of an
+elongated bowl whose narrow end is turned toward the head, and it has
+two long handles, by which it is drawn backward and forward in the
+river. In this way the fine sand is washed, whether it contains
+particles of gold or the little black stones from which tin is made.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335"></a><a href="images/fig335.jpg"><img src="images/fig335thumb.jpg" alt="Trough for washing alluvial" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Trough. B&mdash;Its open
+end. C&mdash;End that may be closed. D&mdash;Stream. E&mdash;Hoe. F&mdash;End-board.
+G&mdash;Bag.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 335]</span></span>
+The Italians who come to the German mountains seeking gold, in order to
+wash the river sand which contains gold-dust and garnets,<a name="FNanchor_19_231" id="FNanchor_19_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_231" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> use a
+fairly long shallow trough hewn out of a tree, rounded within and
+without, open at one end and closed at the other, which they turn in the
+bed of the stream in such a way that the water does not dash into it,
+but flows in gently. They stir the sand, which they throw into it, with
+a wooden hoe, also rounded. To prevent the particles of gold or garnets
+from running out with the light sand, they close the end with a board
+similarly rounded, but lower than the sides of the trough. The
+concentrates of gold or garnets which, <span class="pagenum">[Pg 335]</span>with a small quantity of heavy
+sand, have settled in the trough, they wash in a bowl and collect in
+bags and carry away with them.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336"></a><a href="images/fig336.jpg"><img src="images/fig336thumb.jpg" alt="Bowls for Alluvial Washing" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Large bowl. B&mdash;Ropes.
+C&mdash;Beam. D&mdash;Other large bowl which coiners use. E&mdash;Small bowl.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 336]</span></span>
+Some people wash this kind of sand in a large bowl which can easily be
+shaken, the bowl being suspended by two ropes from a beam in a building.
+The sand is thrown into it, water is poured in, then the bowl is shaken,
+and the muddy water is poured out and clear water is again poured in,
+this being done again and again. In this way, the gold particles settle
+in the back part of the bowl because they are heavy, and the sand in the
+front part because it is light; the latter is thrown away, the former
+kept for smelting. The one who does the washing then returns immediately
+to his task. This method of washing is rarely used by miners, but
+frequently by coiners and goldsmiths when they wash gold, silver, or
+copper. The bowl they employ has only three handles, one of which they
+grasp in their hands when they shake the bowl, and in the other two is
+fastened a rope by which the bowl is hung from a beam, or from a
+cross-piece which is upheld by the forks of two upright posts fixed in
+the ground. Miners frequently wash ore in a small bowl to test <span class="pagenum">[Pg 336]</span>it. This
+bowl, when shaken, is held in one hand and thumped with the other hand.
+In other respects this method of washing does not differ from the last.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337"></a><a href="images/fig337.jpg"><img src="images/fig337thumb.jpg" alt="Ground Sluicing" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Stream. B&mdash;Ditch. C&mdash;Mattock.
+D&mdash;Pieces of turf. E&mdash;Seven-pronged fork. F&mdash;Iron shovel. G&mdash;Trough.
+H&mdash;Another trough below it. I&mdash;Small wooden trowel.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 337]</span></span>
+I have spoken of the various methods of washing sand which contains
+grains of gold; I will now speak of the methods of washing the material
+in which are mixed the small black stones from which tin is made<a name="FNanchor_20_232" id="FNanchor_20_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_232" class="fnanchor">[20]</a>.
+Eight such methods are in use, and of these two have been invented
+lately. Such metalliferous material is usually found torn away from
+veins and stringers and scattered far and wide by the impetus of water,
+although sometimes <i>venae dilatatae</i> are composed of it. The miners dig
+out the latter material with a broad mattock, while they dig the former
+with a pick. But they dig out the little stones, which are not rare in
+this kind of ore, with an instrument like the bill of a duck. In
+districts which contain this material, if there is an abundant supply of
+water, and if there are valleys or gentle slopes and hollows, so that
+rivers can be diverted into them, the washers in summer-time <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338"></a>[Pg 338]</span>first of
+all dig a long ditch sloping so that the water will run through it
+rapidly. Into the ditch is thrown the metallic material, together with
+the surface material, which is six feet thick, more or less, and often
+contains moss, roots of plants, shrubs, trees, and earth; they are all
+thrown in with a broad mattock, and the water flows through the ditch.
+The sand and tin-stone, as they are heavy, sink to the bottom of the
+ditch, while the moss and roots, as they are light, are carried away by
+the water which flows through the ditch. The bottom of the ditch is
+obstructed with turf and stones in order to prevent the water from
+carrying away the tin-stone at the same time. The washers, whose feet
+are covered with high boots made of hide, though not of rawhide,
+themselves stand in the ditch and throw out of it the roots of the
+trees, shrubs, and grass with seven-pronged wooden forks, and push back
+the tin-stone toward the head of the ditch. After four weeks, in which
+they have devoted much work and labour, they raise the tin-stone in the
+following way; the sand with which it is mixed is repeatedly lifted from
+the ditch <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339"></a>[Pg 339]</span>with an iron shovel and agitated hither and thither in the
+water, until the sand flows away and only the tin-stone remains on the
+shovel. The tin-stone is all collected together and washed again in a
+trough by pushing it up and turning it over with a wooden trowel, in
+order that the remaining sand may separate from it. Afterward they
+return to their task, which they continue until the metalliferous
+material is exhausted, or until the water can no longer be diverted into
+the ditches.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig338.jpg"><img src="images/fig338thumb.jpg" alt="Sluicing Tin" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Trough. B&mdash;Wooden shovel. C&mdash;Tub.
+D&mdash;Launder. E&mdash;Wooden trowel. F&mdash;Transverse trough. G&mdash;Plug. H&mdash;Falling
+water. I&mdash;Ditch. K&mdash;Barrow conveying material to be washed. L&mdash;Pick like
+the beak of a duck with which the miner digs out the material from which
+the small stones are obtained.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 338]</span></span>
+The trough which I mentioned is hewn out of the trunk of a tree and the
+interior is five feet long, three-quarters of a foot deep, and six
+digits wide. It is placed on an incline and under it is put a tub which
+contains interwoven fir twigs, or else another trough is put under it,
+the interior of which is three feet long and one foot wide and deep; the
+fine tin-stone, which has run out with the water, settles in the bottom.
+Some people, in place of a trough, put a square launder underneath, and
+in like manner they wash the tin-stone in this by agitating it up and
+down and turning it over with a small wooden trowel. A transverse trough
+is put under the launder, which is either open on one end and drains off
+into a tub or settling-pit, or else is closed and perforated through the
+bottom; in this case, it drains into a ditch beneath, where the water
+falls when the plug has been partly removed. The nature of this ditch I
+will now describe.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340"></a><a href="images/fig340.jpg"><img src="images/fig340thumb.jpg" alt="Sluicing Tin" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Launder. B&mdash;Interlacing fir twigs.
+C&mdash;Logs; three on one side, for the fourth cannot be seen because the
+ditch is so full with material now being washed. D&mdash;Logs at the head of
+the ditch. E&mdash;Barrow. F&mdash;Seven-pronged fork. G&mdash;Hoe.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 340]</span></span>
+If the locality does not supply an abundance of water, the washers dig a
+ditch thirty or thirty-six feet long, and cover the bottom, the full
+length, with logs joined together and hewn on the side which lies flat
+on the ground. On each side of the ditch, and at its head also, they
+place four logs, one above the other, all hewn smooth on the inside. But
+since the logs are laid obliquely along the sides, the upper end of the
+ditch is made four feet wide and the tail end, two feet. The water has a
+high drop from a launder and first of all it falls into interlaced fir
+twigs, in order that it shall fall straight down for the most part in an
+unbroken stream and thus break up the lumps by its weight. Some do not
+place these twigs under the end of the launder, but put a plug in its
+mouth, which, since it does not entirely close the launder, nor
+altogether prevent the discharge from it, nor yet allow the water to
+spout far afield, makes it drop straight down. The workman brings in a
+wheelbarrow the material to be washed, and throws it into the ditch. The
+washer standing in the upper end of the ditch breaks the lumps with a
+seven-pronged fork, and throws out the roots of trees, shrubs, and grass
+with the same instrument, and thereby the small black stones settle
+down. When a large quantity of the tin-stone has accumulated, which
+generally happens when the washer has spent a day at this work, to
+prevent it from being washed away he places it upon the bank, and other
+material having been again thrown into the upper end of the ditch, he
+continues the task of washing. A boy stands at the lower end of the
+ditch, and with a thin pointed hoe stirs up the sediment which has
+settled at the lower end, to prevent the washed tin-stone from being
+carried further, which occurs when the sediment has accumulated to such
+an extent that the fir branches at the outlet of the ditch are covered.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 340]</span></p>
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341"></a><a href="images/fig341.jpg"><img src="images/fig341thumb.jpg" alt="Sifting Ore" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Strakes. B&mdash;Tank. C&mdash;Launder.
+D&mdash;Plug. E&mdash;Wooden shovel. F&mdash;Wooden mallet. G&mdash;Wooden shovel with short
+handle. H&mdash;The plug in the strake. I&mdash;Tank placed under the plug.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 341]</span></span>
+The third method of washing materials of this kind follows. Two strakes
+are made, each of which is twelve feet long and a foot and a half wide
+and deep. A tank is set at their head, into which the water flows
+through a little launder. A boy throws the ore into one strake; if it is
+of poor quality he puts in a large amount of it, if it is rich he puts
+in less. The water is let in by removing the plug, the ore is stirred
+with a wooden shovel, and in this way the tin-stone, mixed with the
+heavier material, settles in the bottom of the strake, and the water
+carries the light material into the launder, through which it flows on
+to a canvas strake. The very fine tin-stone, carried by the water,
+settles on to the canvas and is cleansed. A low cross-board is placed in
+the strake near the head, in order that the largest sized tin-stone may
+settle there. As soon as the strake is filled with the material which
+has been washed, he closes the mouth of the tank and continues washing
+in the other strake, and then the plug is withdrawn and the water and
+tin-stone flow down into a tank below. Then he pounds the sides <span class="pagenum">[Pg 341]</span>of the
+loaded strake with a wooden mallet, in order that the tin-stone clinging
+to the sides may fall off; all that has settled in it, he throws out
+with a wooden shovel which has a short handle. Silver slags which have
+been crushed under the stamps, also fragments of silver-lead alloy and
+of cakes melted from pyrites, are washed in a strake of this kind.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342"></a><a href="images/fig342.jpg"><img src="images/fig342thumb.jpg" alt="Sifting Ore" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Sieve. B&mdash;Tub. C&mdash;Water flowing out
+of the bottom of it. D&mdash;Strake. E&mdash;Three-toothed rake. F&mdash;Wooden
+scrubber.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 342]</span></span>
+Material of this kind is also washed while wet, in a sieve whose bottom
+is made of woven iron wire, and this is the fourth method of washing.
+The sieve is immersed in the water which is contained in a tub, and is
+violently shaken. The bottom of this tub has an opening of such size
+that as much water, together with tailings from the sieve, can flow
+continuously out of it as water flows into it. The material which
+settles in the strake, a boy either digs over with a three-toothed iron
+rake or sweeps with a wooden scrubber; in this way the water carries off
+a great part of both sand and mud. The tin-stone or metalliferous
+concentrates settle in the strake and are afterward washed in another
+strake.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343"></a><a href="images/fig343.jpg"><img src="images/fig343thumb.jpg" alt="Sluicing Tin" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Box. B&mdash;Perforated plate.
+C&mdash;Trough. D&mdash;Cross-boards. E&mdash;Pool. F&mdash;Launder. G&mdash;Shovel. H&mdash;Rake.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 343]</span></span>
+These are ancient methods of washing material which contains tin-stone;
+there follow two modern methods. If the tin-stone mixed with <span class="pagenum">[Pg 342]</span>earth or
+sand is found on the slopes of mountains or hills, or in the level
+fields which are either devoid of streams or into which a stream cannot
+be diverted, miners have lately begun to employ the following method of
+washing, even in the winter months. An open box is constructed of
+planks, about six feet long, three feet wide, and two feet and one palm
+deep. At the upper end on the inside, an iron plate three feet long and
+wide is fixed, at a depth of one foot and a half from the top; this
+plate is very full of holes, through which tin-stone about the size of a
+pea can fall. A trough hewn from a tree is placed under the box, and
+this trough is about twenty-four feet long and three-quarters of a foot
+wide and deep; very often three cross-boards are placed in it, dividing
+it off into compartments, each one of which is lower than the next. The
+turbid waters discharge into a settling-pit.</p>
+
+<p>The metalliferous material is sometimes found not very deep beneath the
+surface of the earth, but sometimes so deep that it is necessary to
+drive tunnels and sink shafts. It is transported to the washing-box in
+wheelbarrows, and when the washers are about to begin they lay a small
+launder, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344"></a>[Pg 344]</span>through which there flows on to the iron plate so much water
+as is necessary for this washing. Next, a boy throws the metalliferous
+material on to the iron plate with an iron shovel and breaks the small
+lumps, stirring them this way and that with the same implement. Then the
+water and sand penetrating the holes of the plate, fall into the box,
+while all the coarse gravel remains on the plate, and this he throws
+into a wheelbarrow with the same shovel. Meantime, a younger boy
+continually stirs the sand under the plate with a wooden scrubber nearly
+as wide as the box, and drives it to the upper end of the box; the
+lighter material, as well as a small amount of tin-stone, is carried by
+the water down into the underlying trough. The boys carry on this labour
+without intermission until they have filled four wheelbarrows with the
+coarse and worthless residues, which they carry off and throw away, or
+three wheelbarrows if the material is rich in black tin. Then the
+foreman has the plank removed which was in front of the iron plate, and
+on which the boy stood. The sand, mixed with the tin-stone, is
+frequently pushed backward and forward with a scrubber, and the same
+sand, because it is lighter, takes the upper place, and is removed as
+soon as it appears; that which takes the lower place is turned over with
+a spade, in order that any that is light can flow away; when all the
+tin-stone is heaped together, he shovels it out of the box and carries
+it away. While the foreman does this, one boy with an iron hoe stirs the
+sand mixed with fine tin-stone, which has run out of the box and has
+settled in the trough and pushes it back to the uppermost part of the
+trough, and this material, since it contains a very great amount of
+tin-stone, is thrown on to the plate and washed again. The material
+which has settled in the lowest part of the trough is taken out
+separately and piled in a heap, and is washed on the ordinary strake;
+that which has settled in the pool is washed on the canvas strake. In
+the summer-time this fruitful labour is repeated more often, in fact ten
+or eleven times. The tin-stone which the foreman removes from the box,
+is afterward washed in a jigging sieve, and lastly in a tub, where at
+length all the sand is separated out. Finally, any material in which are
+mixed particles of other metals, can be washed by all these methods,
+whether it has been disintegrated from veins or stringers, or whether it
+originated from <i>venae dilatatae</i>, or from streams and rivers.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345"></a><a href="images/fig345.jpg"><img src="images/fig345thumb.jpg" alt="Ground Sluicing" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Launder. B&mdash;Cross trough. C&mdash;Two
+spouts. D&mdash;Boxes. E&mdash;Plate. F&mdash;Grating. G&mdash;Shovels. H&mdash;Second cross
+trough. I&mdash;Strake. K&mdash;Wooden scrubber. L&mdash;Third cross trough.
+M&mdash;Launder. N&mdash;Three-toothed rake.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 345]</span></span>
+The sixth method of washing material of this kind is even more modern
+and more useful than the last. Two boxes are constructed, into each of
+which water flows through spouts from a cross trough into which it has
+been discharged through a pipe or launder. When the material has been
+agitated and broken up with iron shovels by two boys, part of it runs
+down and falls through the iron plates full of holes, or through the
+iron grating, and flows out of the box over a sloping surface into
+another cross trough, and from this into a strake seven feet long and
+two and a half feet wide. Then the foreman again stirs it with a wooden
+scrubber that it may become clean. As for the material which has flowed
+down with the water and settled in the third cross trough, or in the
+launder which leads from it, a third boy rakes it with a two-toothed
+rake; in this way the fine tin-stone settles down <span class="pagenum">[Pg 345]</span>and the water carries
+off the valueless sand into the creek. This method of washing is most
+advantageous, for four men can do the work of washing in two boxes,
+while the last method, if doubled, requires six men, for it requires two
+boys to throw the material to be washed on to the plate and to stir it
+with iron shovels; two more are required with wooden scrubbers to keep
+stirring the sand, mixed with the tin-stone, under the plate, and to
+push it toward the upper end of the box; further, two foremen are
+required to clean the tin-stone in the way I have described. In the
+place of a plate full of holes, they now fix in the boxes a grating made
+of iron wire as thick as the stalks of rye; that these may not be
+depressed by the weight and become bent, three iron bars support them,
+being laid crosswise underneath. To prevent the grating from being
+broken by the iron shovels with which the material is stirred in
+washing, five or six iron rods are placed on top in cross lines, and are
+fixed to the box so that the shovels may rub them instead of the
+grating; for this reason the grating lasts longer than the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346"></a>[Pg 346]</span>plates,
+because it remains intact, while the rods, when worn by rubbing, can
+easily be replaced by others.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig346.jpg"><img src="images/fig346thumb.jpg" alt="Ground Sluicing" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Pits. B&mdash;Torrent.
+C&mdash;Seven-pronged fork. D&mdash;Shovel.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 346]</span></span>
+Miners use the seventh method of washing when there is no stream of
+water in the part of the mountain which contains the black tin, or
+particles of gold, or of other metals. In this case they frequently dig
+more than fifty ditches on the slope below, or make the same number of
+pits, six feet long, three feet wide, and three-quarters of a foot deep,
+not any great distance from each other. At the season when a torrent
+rises from storms of great violence or long duration, and rushes down
+the mountain, some of the miners dig the metalliferous material in the
+woods with broad hoes and drag it to the torrent. Other miners divert
+the torrent into the ditches or pits, and others throw the roots of
+trees, shrubs, and grass out of the ditches or pits with seven-pronged
+wooden forks. When the torrent has run down, they remove with shovels
+the uncleansed tin-stone or particles of metal which have settled in the
+ditches or pits, and cleanse it.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347"></a><a href="images/fig347.jpg"><img src="images/fig347thumb.jpg" alt="Ground Sluicing" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Gully. B&mdash;Ditch. C&mdash;Torrent.
+D&mdash;Sluice box employed by the Lusitanians.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 347]</span></span>
+The eighth method is also employed in the regions which the Lusitanians
+hold in their power and sway, and is not dissimilar to the last. They
+drive <span class="pagenum">[Pg 347]</span>a great number of deep ditches in rows in the gullies, slopes,
+and hollows of the mountains. Into these ditches the water, whether
+flowing down from snow melted by the heat of the sun or from rain,
+collects and carries together with earth and sand, sometimes tin-stone,
+or, in the case of the Lusitanians, the particles of gold loosened from
+veins and stringers. As soon as the waters of the torrent have all run
+away, the miners throw the material out of the ditches with iron
+shovels, and wash it in a common sluice box.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348"></a><a href="images/fig348.jpg"><img src="images/fig348thumb.jpg" alt="Trough for washing alluvial" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Trough. B&mdash;Launder.
+C&mdash;Hoe. D&mdash;Sieve.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 348]</span></span>
+The Poles wash the impure lead from <i>venae dilatatae</i> in a trough ten
+feet long, three feet wide, and one and one-quarter feet deep. It is
+mixed with moist earth and is covered by a wet and sandy clay, and so
+first of all the clay, and afterward the ore, is dug out. The ore is
+carried to a stream or river, and thrown into a trough into which water
+is admitted by a little launder, and the washer standing at the lower
+end of the trough drags the ore out with a narrow and nearly pointed
+hoe, whose wooden handle is nearly ten feet long. It is washed over
+again once or twice in the same way and thus made pure. Afterward when
+it has been dried in the sun <span class="pagenum">[Pg 348]</span>they throw it into a copper sieve, and
+separate the very small pieces which pass through the sieve from the
+larger ones; of these the former are smelted in a faggot pile and the
+latter in the furnace. Of such a number then are the methods of washing.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349"></a><a href="images/fig349.jpg"><img src="images/fig349thumb.jpg" alt="Tin burning Furnace" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnace. B&mdash;Its mouth.
+C&mdash;Poker. D&mdash;Rake with two teeth. E&mdash;Hoe.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 349]</span></span>
+One method of burning is principally employed, and two of roasting. The
+black tin is burned by a hot fire in a furnace similar to an oven<a name="FNanchor_21_233" id="FNanchor_21_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_233" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>;
+it is burned if it is a dark-blue colour, or if pyrites and the stone
+from which iron is made are mixed with it, for the dark blue colour if
+not burnt, consumes the tin. If pyrites and the other stone are not
+volatilised into fumes in a furnace of this kind, the tin which is made
+from the tin-stone is impure. The tin-stone is thrown either into the
+back part of the furnace, or into one side of it; but in the former case
+the wood is placed in front, in the latter case alongside, in such a
+manner, however, that neither firebrands nor coals may fall upon the
+tin-stone itself or touch it. The fuel is manipulated by a poker made of
+wood. The tin-stone is now stirred with a rake with two <span class="pagenum">[Pg 349]</span>teeth, and now
+again levelled down with a hoe, both of which are made of iron. The very
+fine tin-stone requires to be burned less than that of moderate size,
+and this again less than that of the largest size. While the tin-stone
+is being thus burned, it frequently happens that some of the material
+runs together.</p>
+
+<p>The burned tin-stone should then be washed again on the strake, for in
+this way the material which has been run together is carried away by the
+water into the cross-trough, where it is gathered up and worked over,
+and again washed on the strake. By this method the metal is separated
+from that which is devoid of metal.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350"></a><a href="images/fig350.jpg"><img src="images/fig350thumb.jpg" alt="Stall Roasting Matte" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Pits. B&mdash;Wood. C&mdash;Cakes.
+D&mdash;Launder.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 350]</span></span>
+Cakes from pyrites, or <i>cadmia</i>, or cupriferous stones, are roasted in
+quadrangular pits, of which the front and top are open, and these pits
+are generally twelve feet long, eight feet wide, and three feet deep.
+The cakes of melted pyrites are usually roasted twice over, and those of
+<i>cadmia</i> once. These latter are first rolled in mud moistened with
+vinegar, to prevent the fire from consuming too much of the copper with
+the bitumen, or sulphur, or orpiment, or realgar. The cakes of pyrites
+are first roasted in a slow fire and afterward in a fierce one, and in
+both cases, during the whole following night, water is let in, <span class="pagenum">[Pg 350]</span>in order
+that, if there is in the cakes any alum or vitriol or saltpetre capable
+of injuring the metals, although it rarely does injure them, the water
+may remove it and make the cakes soft. The solidified juices are nearly
+all harmful to the metal, when cakes or ore of this kind are smelted.
+The cakes which are to be roasted are placed on wood piled up in the
+form of a crate, and this pile is fired<a name="FNanchor_22_234" id="FNanchor_22_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_234" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351"></a><a href="images/fig351.jpg"><img src="images/fig351thumb.jpg" alt="Matte Roasting" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Cakes. B&mdash;Bundles of faggots.
+C&mdash;Furnaces.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 351]</span></span>
+The cakes which are made of copper smelted from schist are first thrown
+upon the ground and broken, and then placed in the furnace on bundles of
+faggots, and these are lighted. These cakes are generally roasted seven
+times and occasionally nine times. While this is being done, if they are
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg 351]</span>bituminous, then the bitumen burns and can be smelled. These furnaces
+have a structure like the structure of the furnaces in which ore is
+smelted, except that they are open in front; they are six feet high and
+four feet wide. As for this kind of furnace, three of them are required
+for one of those in which the cakes are melted. First of all they are
+roasted in the first furnace, then when they are cooled, they are
+transferred into the second furnace and again roasted; later they are
+carried to the third, and afterward back to the first, and this order is
+preserved until they have been roasted seven or nine times.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p class="center">END OF BOOK VIII.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_267" id="Notes_267">[Pg 267]</a></span><a name="Footnote_1_216" id="Footnote_1_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_216"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> As would be expected, practically all the technical terms
+used by Agricola in this chapter are adaptations. The Latin terms,
+<i>canalis</i>, <i>area</i>, <i>lacus</i>, <i>vasa</i>, <i>cribrum</i>, and <i>fossa</i>, have had to
+be pressed into service for many different devices, largely by
+extemporised combinations. Where the devices described have become
+obsolete, we have adopted the nomenclature of the old works on Cornish
+methods. The following examples may be of interest:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Simple buddle</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left"><i>Canalis simplex</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Divided buddle</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left"><i>Canalis tabellis distinctus</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ordinary strake</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left"><i>Canalis devexus</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Short strake</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left"><i>Area curta</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Canvas strake</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left"><i>Area linteis extensis contecta</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Limp</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left"><i>Radius</i>.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+The strake (or streke) when applied to alluvial tin, would have been
+termed a "tye" in some parts of Cornwall, and the "short strake" a
+"gounce." In the case of the stamp mill, inasmuch as almost every
+mechanical part has its counterpart in a modern mill, we have considered
+the reader will have less difficulty if the modern designations are used
+instead of the old Cornish. The following are the essential terms in
+modern, old Cornish, and Latin:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Stamp</td><td align="left">Stamper</td><td align="left"><i>Pilum</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Stamp-stem</td><td align="left">Lifter</td><td align="left"><i>Pilum</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Shoes</td><td align="left">Stamp-heads</td><td align="left"><i>Capita</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mortar-box</td><td align="left">Box</td><td align="left"><i>Capsa</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cam-shaft</td><td align="left">Barrell</td><td align="left"><i>Axis</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cams</td><td align="left">Caps</td><td align="left"><i>Dentes</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tappets</td><td align="left">Tongues</td><td align="left"><i>Pili dentes</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Screen</td><td align="left">Crate</td><td align="left"><i>Laminae foraminum plenae</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Settling pit</td><td align="left">Catchers</td><td align="left"><i>Lacus</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Jigging sieve</td><td align="left">Dilleugher</td><td align="left"><i>Cribrum angustum</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_217" id="Footnote_2_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_217"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Agricola uses four Latin verbs in connection with heat
+operations at temperatures under the melting point: <i>Calefacio</i>, <i>uro</i>,
+<i>torreo</i>, and <i>cremo</i>. The first he always uses in the sense of "to
+warm" or "to heat," but the last three he uses indiscriminately in much
+the same way as the English verbs burn, roast, and calcine are used; but
+in general he uses the Latin verbs in the order given to indicate
+degrees of heat. We have used the English verbs in their technical sense
+as indicated by the context.
+</p><p>
+It is very difficult to say when roasting began as a distinct and
+separate metallurgical step in sulphide ore treatment. The Greeks and
+Romans worked both lead and copper sulphides (see note on p. <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>, and
+note on p. <a href="#Notes_403">403</a>), but neither in the remains of old works nor in their
+literature is there anything from which satisfactory details of such a
+step can be obtained. The Ancients, of course, understood lime-burning,
+and calcined several salts to purify them or to render them more
+caustic. Practically the only specific mention is by Pliny regarding
+lead ores (see p. <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>). Even the statement of Theophilus (1050-1100,
+<span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>), may refer simply to rendering ore more fragile, for he says (p.
+305) in regard to copper ore: "This stone dug up in abundance is placed
+upon a pile and burned (<i>comburitur</i>) after the manner of lime. Nor does
+it change colour, but loses its hardness and can be broken up, and
+afterward it is smelted." The <i>Probierb�chlein</i> casually mentions
+roasting prior to assaying, and Biringuccio (<span class="smcaplower">III</span>, 2) mentions
+incidentally that "dry and ill-disposed ores before everything must be
+roasted in an open oven so that the air can get in." He gives no further
+information; and therefore this account of Agricola's becomes
+practically the first. Apparently roasting, as a preliminary to the
+treatment of copper sulphides, did not come into use in England until
+some time later than Agricola, for in Col. Grant Francis' "Smelting of
+Copper in the Swansea District" (London, 1881, p. 29), a report is set
+of the "Doeinges of Jochim Ganse"&mdash;an imported German&mdash;at the "Mynes by
+Keswicke in Cumberland, <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>, 1581," wherein the delinquencies of the
+then current practice are described: "Thei never coulde, nether yet can
+make (copper) under <span class="smcaplower">XXII.</span> tymes passinge thro the fire, and <span class="smcaplower">XXII.</span> weekes
+doeing thereof ane sometyme more. But now the nature of these <span class="smcaplower">IX.</span>
+hurtfull humors abovesaid being discovered and opened by Jochim's way of
+doeing, we can, by his order of workeinge, so correct theim, that parte
+of theim beinge by nature hurtfull to the <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_268" id="Notes_268">[Pg 268]</a></span>copper in wasteinge of it, ar
+by arte maide freindes, and be not onely an encrease to the copper, but
+further it in smeltinge; and the rest of the other evill humors shalbe
+so corrected, and their humors so taken from them, that by once
+rosteinge and once smeltinge the ure (which shalbe done in the space of
+three dayes), the same copper ure shall yeeld us black copper." Jochim
+proposed by 'rostynge' to be rid of "sulphur, arsineque, and antimony."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_273" id="Notes_273">[Pg 273]</a></span><a name="Footnote_3_218" id="Footnote_3_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_218"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Orpiment</i> and <i>realgar</i> are the red and yellow arsenical
+sulphides. (See note on p. <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_219" id="Footnote_4_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_219"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> <i>Cadmia bituminosa</i>. The description of this substance by
+Agricola, given below, indicates that it was his term for the complex
+copper-zinc-arsenic-cobalt minerals found in the well-known, highly
+bituminous, copper schists at Mannsfeld. The later Mineralogists,
+Wallerius (<i>Mineralogia</i>, Stockholm, 1747), Valmont De Bomare
+(<i>Mineralogie</i>, Paris, 1762), and others assume Agricola's <i>cadmia
+bituminosa</i> to be "black arsenic" or "arsenic noir," but we see no
+reason for this assumption. Agricola's statement (<i>De Nat. Foss.</i>, p.
+369) is "... the schistose stone dug up at the foot of the Melibocus
+Mountains, or as they are now called the Harz (<i>Hercynium</i>), near
+Eisleben, Mannsfeld, and near Hettstedt, is similar to <i>spinos</i> (a
+bituminous substance described by Theophrastus), if not identical with
+it. This is black, bituminous, and cupriferous, and when first extracted
+from the mine it is thrown out into an open space and heaped up in a
+mound. Then the lower part of the mound is surrounded by faggots, on to
+which are likewise thrown stones of the same kind. Then the faggots are
+kindled and the fire soon spreads to the stones placed upon them; by
+these the fire is communicated to the next, which thus spreads to the
+whole heap. This easy reception of fire is a characteristic which
+bitumen possesses in common with sulphur. Yet the small, pure and black
+bituminous ore is distinguished from the stones as follows: when they
+burn they emit the kind of odour which is usually given off by burning
+bituminous coal, and besides, if while they are burning a small shower
+of rain should fall, they burn more brightly and soften more quickly.
+Indeed, when the wind carries the fumes so that they descend into nearby
+standing waters, there can be seen floating in it something like a
+bituminous liquid, either black, or brown, or purple, which is
+sufficient to indicate that those stones were bituminous. And that genus
+of stones has been recently found in the Harz in layers, having
+occasionally gold-coloured specks of pyrites adhering to them,
+representing various flat sea-fish or pike or perch or birds, and
+poultry cocks, and sometimes salamanders."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_274" id="Notes_274">[Pg 274]</a></span><a name="Footnote_5_220" id="Footnote_5_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_220"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>Atramentum sutorium rubrum</i>. Literally, this would be red
+vitriol. The German translation gives <i>rot kupferwasser</i>, also red
+vitriol. We must confess that we cannot make this substance out, nor can
+we find it mentioned in the other works of Agricola. It may be the
+residue from leaching roasted pyrites for vitriol, which would be
+reddish oxide of iron.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_221" id="Footnote_6_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_221"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> The statement "elsewhere" does not convey very much more
+information. It is (<i>De Nat. Fos.</i>, p. 253): "When Goslar pyrites and
+Eisleben (copper) schists are placed on the pyre and roasted for the
+third time, they both exude a certain substance which is of a greenish
+colour, dry, rough, and fibrous (<i>tenue</i>). This substance, like
+asbestos, is not consumed by the fire. The schists exude it more
+plentifully than the pyrites." The <i>Interpretatio</i> gives <i>federwis</i>, as
+the German equivalent of <i>amiantus</i> (asbestos). This term was used for
+the feathery alum efflorescence on aluminous slates.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_278" id="Notes_278">[Pg 278]</a></span><a name="Footnote_7_222" id="Footnote_7_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_222"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Bearing in mind that bituminous cadmia contained
+arsenical-cobalt minerals, this substance "resembling <i>pompholyx</i>" would
+probably be arsenic oxide. In <i>De Natura Fossilium</i> (p. 368). Agricola
+discusses the <i>pompholyx</i> from <i>cadmia</i> at length and pronounces it to
+be of remarkably "corrosive" quality. (See also note on p. <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_279" id="Notes_279">[Pg 279]</a></span><a name="Footnote_8_223" id="Footnote_8_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_223"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Historical Note on Crushing and Concentration of Ores.</span>
+There can be no question that the first step in the metallurgy of ores
+was direct smelting, and that this antedates human records. The obvious
+advantages of reducing the bulk of the material to be smelted by the
+elimination of barren portions of the ore, must have appealed to
+metallurgists at a very early date. Logically, therefore, we should find
+the second step in metallurgy to be concentration in some form. The
+question of crushing is so much involved with concentration that we have
+not endeavoured to keep them separate. The earliest indication of these
+processes appears to be certain inscriptions on monuments of the <span class="smcaplower">IV</span>
+Dynasty (4,000 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>?) depicting gold washing (Wilkinson, The Ancient
+Egyptians, London, 1874, <span class="smcaplower">II</span>, p. 137). Certain stelae of the <span class="smcaplower">XII</span> Dynasty
+(2,400 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) in the British Museum (144 Bay 1 and 145 Bay 6) refer to
+gold washing in the Sudan, and one of them appears to indicate the
+working of gold ore as distinguished from alluvial. The first written
+description of the Egyptian methods&mdash;and probably that reflecting the
+most ancient technology of crushing and concentration&mdash;is that of
+Agatharchides, a Greek geographer of the second Century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> This work
+is lost, but the passage in question is quoted by Diodorus Siculus (1st
+Century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) and by Photius (died 891 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>). We give Booth's
+translation of Diodorus (London, 1700, p. 89), slightly amended: "In the
+confines of Egypt and the neighbouring countries of Arabia and Ethiopia
+there is a place full of rich gold mines, out of which with much cost
+and pains of many labourers gold is dug. The soil here is naturally
+black, but in the body of the earth run many white veins, shining like
+white marble, surpassing in lustre all other bright things. Out of these
+laborious mines, those appointed overseers cause the gold to be dug up
+by the labour of a vast multitude of people. For the Kings of Egypt
+condemn to these mines notorious criminals, captives taken in war,
+persons sometimes falsely accused, or against whom the King is incens'd;
+and not only they themselves, but sometimes all their <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_280" id="Notes_280">[Pg 280]</a></span>kindred and
+relations together with them, are sent to work here, both to punish
+them, and by their labour to advance the profit and gain of the Kings.
+There are infinite numbers upon these accounts thrust down into these
+mines, all bound in fetters, where they work continually, without being
+admitted any rest night or day, and so strictly guarded that there is no
+possibility or way left to make an escape. For they set over them
+barbarians, soldiers of various and strange languages, so that it is not
+possible to corrupt any of the guard by discoursing one with another, or
+by the gaining insinuations of familiar converse. The earth which is
+hardest and full of gold they soften by putting fire under it, and then
+work it out with their hands. The rocks thus soften'd and made more
+pliant and yielding, several thousands of profligate wretches break in
+pieces with hammers and pickaxes. There is one artist that is the
+overseer of the whole work, who marks out the stone, and shows the
+labourers the way and manner how he would have it done. Those that are
+the strongest amongst them that are appointed to this slavery, provided
+with sharp iron pickaxes, cleave the marble-shining rock by mere force
+and strength, and not by arts or sleight-of-hand. They undermine not the
+rock in a direct line, but follow the bright shining vein of the mine.
+They carry lamps fastened to their foreheads to give them light, being
+otherwise in perfect darkness in the various windings and turnings
+wrought in the mine; and having their bodies appearing sometimes of one
+colour and sometimes of another (according to the nature of the mine
+where they work) they throw the lumps and pieces of the stone cut out of
+the rock upon the floor. And thus they are employed continually without
+intermission, at the very nod of the overseer, who lashes them severely
+besides. And there are little boys who penetrate through the galleries
+into the cavities and with great labour and toil gather up the lumps and
+pieces hewed out of the rock as they are cast upon the ground, and carry
+them forth and lay them upon the bank. Those that are over thirty years
+of age take a piece of the rock of such a certain quantity, and pound it
+in a stone mortar with iron pestles till it be as small as a vetch; then
+those little stones so pounded are taken from them by women and older
+men, who cast them into mills that stand together there near at hand in
+a long row, and two or three of them being employed at one mill they
+grind a certain measure given to them at a time, until it is as small as
+fine meal. No care at all is taken of the bodies of these poor
+creatures, so that they have not a rag so much as to cover their
+nakedness, and no man that sees them can choose but commiserate their
+sad and deplorable condition. For though they are sick, maimed, or lame,
+no rest nor intermission in the least is allowed them; neither the
+weakness of old age, nor women's infirmities are any plea to excuse
+them; but all are driven to their work with blows and cudgelling, till
+at length, overborne with the intolerable weight of their misery, they
+drop down dead in the midst of their insufferable labours; so that these
+miserable creatures always expect the future to be more terrible than
+even the present, and therefore long for death as far more desirable
+than life.
+</p><p>
+"At length the masters of the work take the stone thus ground to powder,
+and carry it away in order to perfect it. They spread the mineral so
+ground upon a broad board, somewhat sloping, and pouring water upon it,
+rub it and cleanse it; and so all the earthy and drossy part being
+separated from the rest by the water, it runs off the board, and the
+gold by reason of its weight remains behind. Then washing it several
+times again, they first rub it lightly with their hands; afterward they
+draw off any earthy and drossy matter with slender sponges gently
+applied to the powdered dust, till it be clean, pure gold. At last other
+workmen take it away by weight and measure, and these put it into
+earthen pots, and according to the quantity of the gold in every pot
+they mix with it some lead, grains of salt, a little tin and barley
+bran. Then, covering every pot close, and carefully daubing them over
+with clay, they put them in a furnace, where they abide five days and
+nights together; then after a convenient time that they have stood to
+cool, nothing of the other matter is to be found in the pots but only
+pure, refined gold, some little thing diminished in the weight. And thus
+gold is prepared in the borders of Egypt, and perfected and completed
+with so many and so great toils and vexations. And, therefore, I cannot
+but conclude that nature itself teaches us, that as gold is got with
+labour and toil, so it is kept with difficulty; it creates everywhere
+the greatest cares; and the use of it is mixed both with pleasure and
+sorrow."
+</p><p>
+The remains at Mt. Laurion show many of the ancient mills and
+concentration works of the Greeks, but we cannot be absolutely certain
+at what period in the history of these mines crushing and concentration
+were introduced. While the mines were worked with <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_281" id="Notes_281">[Pg 281]</a></span>great activity prior
+to 500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> (see <a href="#Footnote_6_77">note 6, p. 27</a>), it was quite feasible for the ancient
+miner to have smelted these argentiferous lead ores direct. However, at
+some period prior to the decadence of the mines in the 3rd Century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>,
+there was in use an extensive system of milling and concentration. For
+the following details we are indebted mostly to Edouard Ardaillon (<i>Les
+Mines Du Laurion dans l'Antiquit�</i>, Chap. <span class="smcaplower">IV.</span>). The ore was first
+hand-picked (in 1869 one portion of these rejects was estimated at
+7,000,000 tons) and afterward it was apparently crushed in stone mortars
+some 16 to 24 inches in diameter, and thence passed to the mills. These
+mills, which crushed dry, were of the upper and lower millstone order,
+like the old-fashioned flour mills, and were turned by hand. The stones
+were capable of adjustment in such a way as to yield different sizes.
+The sand was sifted and the oversize returned to the mills. From the
+mills it was taken to washing plants, which consisted essentially of an
+inclined area, below which a canal, sometimes with riffles, led through
+a series of basins, ultimately returning the water again to near the
+head of the area. These washing areas, constructed with great care, were
+made of stone cemented over smoothly, and were so efficiently done as to
+remain still intact. In washing, a workman brushed upward the pulp
+placed on the inclined upper portion of the area, thus concentrating
+there a considerable proportion of the galena; what escaped had an
+opportunity to settle in the sequence of basins, somewhat on the order
+of the buddle. A quotation by Strabo (<span class="smcaplower">III</span>, 2, 10) from the lost work of
+Polybius (200-125 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) also indicates concentration of lead-silver ores
+in Spain previous to the Christian era: "Polybius speaking of the silver
+mines of New Carthage, tells us that they are extremely large, distant
+from the city about 20 stadia, and occupy a circuit of 400 stadia, that
+there are 40,000 men regularly engaged in them, and that they yield
+daily to the Roman people (a revenue of) 25,000 drachmae. The rest of
+the process I pass over, as it is too long, but as for the silver ore
+collected, he tells us that it is broken up, and sifted through sieves
+over water; that what remains is to be again broken, and the water
+having been strained off, it is to be sifted and broken a third time.
+The dregs which remain after the fifth time are to be melted, and the
+lead being poured off, the silver is obtained pure. These silver mines
+still exist; however, they are no longer the property of the state,
+neither these nor those elsewhere, but are possessed by private
+individuals. The gold mines, on the contrary, nearly all belong to the
+state. Both at Castlon and other places there are singular lead mines
+worked. They contain a small proportion of silver, but not sufficient to
+pay for the expense of refining." (Hamilton's Translation, Vol. I., p.
+222). While Pliny gives considerable information on vein mining and on
+alluvial washing, the following obscure passage (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 21) appears to
+be the only reference to concentration of ores: "That which is dug out
+is crushed, washed, roasted, and ground to powder. This powder is called
+<i>apitascudes</i>, while the silver (lead?) which becomes disengaged in the
+furnace is called <i>sudor</i> (sweat). That which is ejected from the
+chimney is called <i>scoria</i> as with other metals. In the case of gold
+this <i>scoria</i> is crushed and melted again." It is evident enough from
+these quotations that the Ancients by "washing" and "sifting," grasped
+the practical effect of differences in specific gravity of the various
+components of an ore. Such processes are barely mentioned by other
+medi�val authors, such as Theophilus, Biringuccio, etc., and thus the
+account in this chapter is the first tangible technical description.
+Lead mining has been in active progress in Derbyshire since the 13th
+century, and concentration was done on an inclined board until the 16th
+century, when <a name="HUMPHREY1" id="HUMPHREY1"></a>William Humphrey (see <a href="#HUMPHREY2">below</a>) introduced the jigging sieve.
+Some further notes on this industry will be found in <a href="#Footnote_1_110">note 1, p. 77</a>.
+However, the buddle and strake which appear at that time, are but modest
+improvements over the board described by Agatharchides in the quotation
+above.
+</p><p>
+The ancient crushing appliances, as indicated by the ancient authors and
+by the Greek and Roman remains scattered over Europe, were hand-mortars
+and mill-stones of the same order as those with which they ground flour.
+The stamp-mill, the next advance over grinding in mill-stones, seems to
+have been invented some time late in the 15th or early in the 16th
+centuries, but who invented it is unknown. Beckmann (Hist. of
+Inventions, <span class="smcaplower">II</span>, p. 335) says: "In the year 1519 the process of sifting
+and wet-stamping was established at Joachimsthal by Paul Grommestetter,
+a native of Schwarz, named on that account the Schwarzer, whom Melzer
+praises as an ingenious and active washer; and we are told that he had
+before introduced the same improvements at Schneeberg. Soon after, that
+is in 1521, a large stamping-work was erected at Joachimsthal, and the
+process of washing was begun. A considerable saving was thus made, as a
+great many metallic particles were before left in the washed sand, which
+was either thrown away or used as mortar for building. In the year 1525,
+Hans P�rtner employed at Schlackenwalde the <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_282" id="Notes_282">[Pg 282]</a></span>wet method of stamping,
+whereas before that period the ore there was ground. In the Harz this
+invention was introduced at Wildenmann by Peter Philip, who was
+assay-master there soon after the works at the Upper Harz were resumed
+by Duke Henry the Younger, about the year 1524. This we learn from the
+papers of Herdan Hacke or Haecke, who was preacher at Wildenmann in
+1572."
+</p><p>
+In view of the great amount of direct and indirect reference to tin
+mining in Cornwall, covering four centuries prior to Agricola, it would
+be natural to expect some statement bearing upon the treatment of ore.
+Curiously enough, while alluvial washing and smelting of the black-tin
+are often referred to, there is nothing that we have been able to find,
+prior to Richard Carew's "Survey of Cornwall" (London, 1602, p. 12)
+which gives any tangible evidence on the technical phases of
+ore-dressing. In any event, an inspection of charters, tax-rolls,
+Stannary Court proceedings, etc., prior to that date gives the
+impression that vein mining was a very minor portion of the source of
+production. Although Carew's work dates 45 years after Agricola, his
+description is of interest: "As much almost dooth it exceede credite,
+that the Tynne, for and in so small quantitie digged up with so great
+toyle, and passing afterwards thorow the managing of so many hands, ere
+it comes to sale, should be any way able to acquite the cost: for being
+once brought above ground in the stone, it is first broken in peeces
+with hammers; and then carryed, either in waynes, or on horses' backs,
+to a stamping mill, where three, and in some places sixe great logges of
+timber, bounde at the ends with yron, and lifted up and downe by a
+wheele, driven with the water, doe break it smaller. If the stones be
+over-moyst, they are dried by the fire in an yron cradle or grate. From
+the stamping mill, it passeth to the crazing mill, which betweene two
+grinding stones, turned also with a water-wheel, bruseth the same to a
+find sand; howbeit, of late times they mostly use wet stampers, and so
+have no need of the crazing mills for their best stuffe, but only for
+the crust of their tayles. The streame, after it hath forsaken the mill,
+is made to fall by certayne degrees, one somewhat distant from another;
+upon each of which, at every discent, lyeth a greene turfe, three or
+foure foote square, and one foote thick. On this the Tinner layeth a
+certayne portion of the sandie Tinne, and with his shovel softly tosseth
+the same to and fro, that, through this stirring, the water which
+runneth over it may wash away the light earth from the Tinne, which of a
+heavier substance lyeth fast on the turfe. Having so clensed one
+portion, he setteth the same aside, and beginneth with another, until
+his labour take end with his taske. The best of those turfes (for all
+sorts serve not) are fetched about two miles to the eastwards of S.
+Michael's Mount, where at low water they cast aside the sand, and dig
+them up; they are full of rootes of trees, and on some of them nuts have
+been found, which confirmeth my former assertion of the sea's intrusion.
+After it is thus washed, they put the remnant into a wooden dish, broad,
+flat, and round, being about two foote over, and having two handles
+fastened at the sides, by which they softly shogge the same to and fro
+in the water betweene their legges, as they sit over it, untill
+whatsoever of the earthie substance that was yet left be flitted away.
+Some of later time, with a sleighter invention, and lighter labour, doe
+cause certayne boyes to stir it up and down with their feete, which
+worketh the same effect; the residue, after this often clensing, they
+call Blacke Tynne."
+</p><p>
+It will be noticed that the "wet stampers" and the buddle&mdash;worked with
+"boyes feete"&mdash;are "innovations of late times." And the interesting
+question arises as to whether Cornwall did not derive the stamp-mill,
+buddle, and strake, from the Germans. The first adequate detailed
+description of Cornish appliances is that of Pryce (<i>Mineralogia
+Cornubiensis</i>, London, 1778) where the apparatus is identical with that
+described by Agricola 130 years before. The word "stamper" of Cornwall
+is of German origin, from <i>stampfer</i>, or, as it is often written in old
+German works, <i>stamper</i>. However, the pursuit of the subject through
+etymology ends here, for no derivatives in German can be found for
+buddle, tye, strake, or other collateral terms. The first tangible
+evidence of German influence is to be found in Carew who, continuing
+after the above quotation, states: "But sithence I gathered stickes to
+the building of this poore nest, Sir Francis Godolphin (whose kind helpe
+hath much advanced this my playing labour) entertained a Dutch Mynerall
+man, and taking light from his experience, but building thereon farre
+more profitable conclusions of his owne invention, hath practised a more
+saving way in these matters, and besides, made Tynne with good profit of
+that refuse which Tynners rejected as nothing worth." Beyond this
+quotation we can find no direct evidence of the influence of "Dutch
+Mynerall men" in Cornish tin mining at this time. There can be no doubt,
+however, that in copper mining in Cornwall and elsewhere in England, the
+"Dutch Mynerall men" did play a large part in the latter <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_283" id="Notes_283">[Pg 283]</a></span>part of the
+16th Century. Pettus (<i>Fodin� Regales</i>, London, 1670, p. 20) states that
+"about the third year of Queen Elizabeth (1561) she by the advice of her
+Council sent over for some Germans experienced in mines, and being
+supplied, she, on the tenth of October, in the sixth of her reign,
+granted the mines of eight counties ... to Houghsetter, a German whose
+name and family still continue in Cardiganshire." Elizabeth granted
+large mining rights to various Germans, and the opening paragraphs of
+two out of several Charters may be quoted in point. This grant is dated
+1565, and in part reads: "<span class="smcap">Elizabeth</span>, by the Grace of God, Queen of
+England, France, and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, &amp;c. To all Men to
+whom these Letters Patents shall come, Greeting. Where heretofore we
+have granted Privileges to Cornelius de Voz, for the Mining and Digging
+in our Realm of England, for Allom and Copperas, and for divers Ewers of
+Metals that were to be found in digging for the said Allom and Copperas,
+incidently and consequently without fraud or guile, as by the same our
+Privilege may appear. And where we also moved, by credible Report to us
+made, of one Daniel Houghsetter, a German born, and of his Skill and
+Knowledge of and in all manner of Mines, of Metals and Minerals, have
+given and granted Privilege to Thomas Thurland, Clerk, one of our
+Chaplains, and Master of the Hospital of Savoy, and to the same Daniel,
+for digging and mining for all manner of Ewers of Gold, Silver, Copper,
+and Quicksilver, within our Counties of York, Lancaster, Cumberland,
+Westmorland, Cornwall, Devon, Gloucester, and Worcester, and within our
+Principality of Wales; and with the same further to deal, as by our said
+Privilege thereof granted and made to the said Thomas Thurland and
+Daniel Houghsetter may appear. <i>And</i> we now being minded that the said
+Commodities, and all other Treasures of the Earth, in all other Places
+of our Realm of England...." On the same date another grant reads:
+"<span class="smcap">Elizabeth</span>, by the Grace of God, Queen of England, France, and Ireland,
+Defender of the Faith, &amp;c. To all Men to whom these our Letters Patents
+shall come, Greeting. Where we have received credible Information that
+our faithful and well-beloved Subject William Humfrey, Saymaster of our
+Mint within our Tower of London, by his great Endeavour, Labour, and
+Charge, hath brought into this our Realm of England one Christopher
+Shutz, an Almain, born at <i>St. Annen Berg</i>, under the Obedience of the
+Electer of Saxony; a Workman as it is reported, of great Cunning,
+Knowledge, and Experience, as well in the finding of the Calamin Stone,
+call'd in Latin, <i>lapis calaminaris</i>, and in the right and proper use
+and commodity thereof, for the Composition of the mix'd Metal commonly
+call'd <i>latten</i>, etc." Col. Grant-Francis, in his most valuable
+collection (Smelting of Copper in the Swansea District, London, 1881)
+has published a collection of correspondence relating to early mining
+and smelting operations in Great Britain. And among them (p. 1., etc.)
+are letters in the years 1583-6 from William Carnsewe and others to
+Thomas Smyth, with regard to the first smelter erected at Neath, which
+was based upon copper mines in Cornwall. He mentions "Mr. Weston's (a
+partner) provydence in bringynge hys Dutch myners hether to aplye such
+businys in this countrye ys more to be commendyd than his ignorance of
+our countrymen's actyvytyes in suche matters." The principal "Dutche
+Mineral Master" referred to was one Ulrick Frosse, who had charge of the
+mine at Perin Sands in Cornwall, and subsequently of the smelter at
+Neath. Further on is given (p. 25) a Report by Jochim Gaunse upon the
+Smelting of copper ores at Keswick in Cumberland in 1581, referred to in
+<a href="#Footnote_2_217">note 2, p. 267</a>. The Daniel Hochstetter mentioned in the Charter above,
+together with other German and English gentlemen, formed the "Company of
+Mines Royal" and among the properties worked were those with which
+Gaunse's report is concerned. There is in the Record Office, London
+(Exchequer K.R. Com. Derby 611. Eliz.) the record of an interesting
+inquisition into Derbyshire methods in which a then recent great
+improvement was the jigging sieve, the introduction of which was due to
+<a name="HUMPHREY2" id="HUMPHREY2"></a>William Humphrey (mentioned <a href="#HUMPHREY1">above</a>). It is possible that he learned of it
+from the German with whom he was associated. Much more evidence of the
+activity of the Germans in English mining at this period can be adduced.
+</p><p>
+On the other hand, Cornwall has laid claims to having taught the art of
+tin mining and metallurgy to the Germans. Matthew Paris, a Benedictine
+monk, by birth an Englishman, who died in 1259, relates (<i>Historia Major
+Angliae</i>, London, 1571) that a Cornishman who fled to Germany on account
+of a murder, first discovered tin there in 1241, and that in consequence
+the price of tin fell greatly. This statement is recalled with great
+persistence by many writers on Cornwall. (Camden, <i>Britannia</i>, London,
+1586; Borlase, Natural History of Cornwall, Oxford, 1758; Pryce,
+<i>Mineralogia Cornubiensis</i>, London, 1778, p. 70, and others).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_295" id="Notes_295">[Pg 295]</a></span><a name="Footnote_11_224" id="Footnote_11_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_224"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> <i>Lapidibus liquescentibus</i>. (See <a href="#Footnote_15_249">note 15, p. 380</a>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_297" id="Notes_297">[Pg 297]</a></span><a name="Footnote_12_225" id="Footnote_12_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_225"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Historical Note on Amalgamation.</span> The recovery of gold by
+the use of mercury possibly dates from Roman times, but the application
+of the process to silver does not seem to go back prior to the 16th
+Century. Quicksilver was well-known to the Greeks, and is described by
+Theophrastus (105) and others (see <a href="#Footnote_58_291">note 58, p. 432</a>, on quicksilver).
+However, the Greeks made no mention of its use for amalgamation, and, in
+fact, Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>, 70) says "it is kept in vessels of glass, lead,
+tin or silver; if kept in vessels of any other kind it consumes them and
+flows away." It was used by them for medicinal purposes. The Romans
+amalgamated gold with mercury, but whether they took advantage of the
+principle to recover gold from ores we do not know. Vitruvius (<span class="smcaplower">VII</span>, 8)
+makes the following statement:&mdash;"If quicksilver be placed in a vessel
+and a stone of a hundred pounds' weight be placed on it, it will swim at
+the top, and will, notwithstanding its weight, be incapable of pressing
+the liquid so as to break or separate it. If this be taken out, and only
+a single scruple of gold be put in, that will not swim, but immediately
+descend to the bottom. This is a proof that the gravity of a body does
+not depend on its weight, but on its nature. Quicksilver is used for
+many purposes; without it, neither silver nor brass can be properly
+gilt. When gold is embroidered on a garment which is worn out and no
+longer fit for use, the cloth is burnt over the fire in earthen pots;
+the ashes are thrown into water and quicksilver added to them; this
+collects all the particles of gold and unites with them. The water is
+then poured off and the residuum placed in a cloth, which, when squeezed
+with the hands, suffers the liquid quicksilver to pass through the pores
+of the cloth, but retains the gold in a mass within it." (Gwilt's
+Trans., p. 217). Pliny is rather more explicit (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 32): "All floats
+on it (quicksilver) except gold. This it draws into itself, and on that
+account is the best means of purifying; for, on being repeatedly
+agitated in earthen pots it casts out the other things and the
+impurities. These things being rejected, in order that it may give up
+the gold, it is squeezed in prepared skins, through which, exuding like
+perspiration, it leaves the gold pure." It may be noted particularly
+that both these authors state that gold is the only substance that does
+not float, and, moreover, nowhere do we find any reference to silver
+combining with mercury, although Beckmann (Hist. of Inventions, Vol. <span class="smcaplower">I</span>,
+p. 14) not only states that the above passage from Pliny refers to
+silver, but in further error, attributes the origin of silver
+amalgamation of ores to the Spaniards in the Indies.
+</p><p>
+The Alchemists of the Middle Ages were well aware that silver would
+amalgamate with mercury. There is, however, difficulty in any conclusion
+that it was applied by them to separating silver or gold from ore. The
+involved gibberish in which most of their utterances was couched,
+obscures most of their reactions in any event. The School of Geber
+(<a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix B</a>) held that all metals were a compound of "spiritual" mercury
+and sulphur, and they clearly amalgamated silver with mercury, and
+separated them by distillation. The <i>Probierb�chlein</i> (1520?) describes
+a method of recovering silver from the cement used in parting gold and
+silver, by mixing the cement (silver chlorides) with quicksilver.
+Agricola nowhere in this work mentions the treatment of silver ores by
+amalgamation, although he was familiar with Biringuccio (<i>De La
+Pirotechnia</i>), as he himself mentions in the <a href="#PREFACE">Preface</a>. This work,
+published at least ten years before <i>De Re Metallica</i>, contains the
+first comprehensive account of silver amalgamation. There is more than
+usual interest in the description, because, not only did it precede <i>De
+Re Metallica</i>, but it is also a specific explanation of the fundamental
+essentials of the Patio Process long before the date when the Spaniards
+could possibly have invented that process in Mexico. We quote Mr. A.
+Dick's translation from Percy (Metallurgy of Silver and Gold, p. 560):
+</p><p>
+"He was certainly endowed with much useful and ingenious thought who
+invented the short method of extracting metal from the sweepings
+produced by those arts which have to do with gold and silver, every
+substance left in the refuse by smelters, and also the substance from
+certain ores themselves, without the labour of fusing, but by the sole
+means and virtue of mercury. To effect this, a large basin is first
+constructed of stone or timber and walled, into which is fitted a
+millstone made to turn like that of a mill. Into the hollow of this
+basin is placed matter containing gold (<i>della materia vra che tiene
+oro</i>), well ground in a mortar and afterward washed and dried; and, with
+the above-mentioned <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_298" id="Notes_298">[Pg 298]</a></span>millstone, it is ground while being moistened with
+vinegar, or water, in which has been dissolved corrosive sublimate
+(<i>solimato</i>), verdigris (<i>verde rame</i>), and common salt. Over these
+materials is then put as much mercury as will cover them; they are then
+stirred for an hour or two, by turning the millstone, either by hand, or
+horse-power, according to the plan adopted, bearing in mind that the
+more the mercury and the materials are bruised together by the
+millstone, the more the mercury may be trusted to have taken up the
+substance which the materials contain. The mercury, in this condition,
+can then be separated from the earthy matter by a sieve, or by washing,
+and thus you will recover the auriferous mercury (<i>el vro mercurio</i>).
+After this, by driving off the mercury by means of a flask (<i>i.e.</i>, by
+heating in a retort or an alembic), or by passing it through a bag,
+there will remain, at the bottom, the gold, silver, or copper, or
+whatever metal was placed in the basin under the millstone to be ground.
+Having been desirous of knowing this secret, I gave to him who taught it
+to me a ring with a diamond worth 25 ducats; he also required me to give
+him the eighth part of any profit I might make by using it. This I
+wished to tell you, not that you should return the ducats to me for
+teaching you the secret, but in order that you should esteem it all the
+more and hold it dear."
+</p><p>
+In another part of the treatise Biringuccio states that washed
+(concentrated) ores may be ultimately reduced either by lead or mercury.
+Concerning these silver concentrates he writes: "Afterward drenching
+them with vinegar in which has been put green copper (<i>i.e.</i>,
+verdigris); or drenching them with water in which has been dissolved
+vitriol and green copper...." He next describes how this material should
+be ground with mercury. The question as to who was the inventor of
+silver amalgamation will probably never be cleared up. According to
+Ulloa (<i>Relacion Historica Del Viage a la America Meridional</i>, Madrid,
+1748) Dom Pedro Fernandes De Velasco discovered the process in Mexico in
+1566. The earliest technical account is that of Father Joseph De Acosta
+(<i>Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias</i>, Seville, 1590, English trans.
+Edward Grimston, London, 1604, re-published by the Hakluyt Society,
+1880). Acosta was born in 1540, and spent the years 1570 to 1585 in
+Peru, and 1586 in Mexico. It may be noted that Potosi was discovered in
+1545. He states that refining silver with mercury was introduced at
+Potosi by Pedro Fernandes de Velasco from Mexico in 1571, and states
+(Grimston's Trans., Vol. <span class="smcaplower">I</span>, p. 219): "... They put the powder of the
+metall into the vessels upon furnaces, whereas they anoint it and
+mortifie it with brine, putting to every fiftie quintalles of powder
+five quintalles of salt. And this they do for that the salt separates
+the earth and filth, to the end the quicksilver may the more easily draw
+the silver unto it. After, they put quicksilver <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_300" id="Notes_300">[Pg 300]</a></span>into a piece of holland
+and presse it out upon the metall, which goes forth like a dewe, alwaies
+turning and stirring the metall, to the end it may be well incorporate.
+Before the invention of these furnaces of fire, they did often mingle
+their metall with quicksilver in great troughes, letting it settle some
+daies, and did then mix it and stirre it againe, until they thought all
+the quicksilver were well incorporate with the silver, the which
+continued twentie daies and more, and at least nine daies." Frequent
+mention of the different methods of silver amalgamation is made by the
+Spanish writers subsequent to this time, the best account being that of
+Alonso Barba, a priest. Barba was a native of Lepe, in Andalusia, and
+followed his calling at various places in Peru from about 1600 to about
+1630, and at one time held the Curacy of St. Bernard at Potosi. In 1640
+he published at Madrid his <i>Arte de los Metales</i>, etc., in five books.
+The first two books of this work were translated into English by the
+Earl of Sandwich, and published in London in 1674, under the title "The
+First Book of the Art of Metals." This translation is equally wretched
+with those in French and German, as might be expected from the
+translators' total lack of technical understanding. Among the methods of
+silver amalgamation described by Barba is one which, upon later
+"discovery" at Virginia City, is now known as the "Washoe Process." None
+of the Spanish writers, so far as we know, make reference to
+Biringuccio's account, and the question arises whether the Patio Process
+was an importation from Europe or whether it was re-invented in Mexico.
+While there is no direct evidence on the point, the presumption is in
+favour of the former.
+</p><p>
+The general introduction of the amalgamation of silver ores into Central
+Europe seems to have been very slow, and over 200 years elapsed after
+its adoption in Peru and Mexico before it received serious attention by
+the German Metallurgists. Ignaz Elder v. Born was the first to establish
+the process effectually in Europe, he having in 1784 erected a
+"quick-mill" at Glasshutte, near Shemnitz. He published an elaborate
+account of a process which he claimed as his own, under the title <i>Ueber
+das Anquicken der Gold und Silberh�ltigen Erze</i>, Vienna, 1786. The only
+thing new in his process seems to have been mechanical agitation.
+According to Born, a Spaniard named Don Juan de Corduba, in the year
+1588, applied to the Court at Vienna offering to extract silver from
+ores with mercury. Various tests were carried out under the celebrated
+Lazarus Erckern, and although it appears that some vitriol and salt were
+used, the trials apparently failed, for Erckern concluded his report
+with the advice: "That their Lordships should not suffer any more
+expense to be thrown away upon this experiment." Born's work was
+translated into English by R. E. Raspe, under the title&mdash;"Baron Inigo
+Born's New Process of Amalgamation, etc.," London, 1791. Some interest
+attaches to Raspe, in that he was not only the author of "Baron
+Munchausen," but was also the villain in Scott's "Antiquary." Raspe was
+a German Professor at Cassel, who fled to England to avoid arrest for
+theft. He worked at various mines in Cornwall, and in 1791 involved Sir
+John Sinclair in a fruitless mine, but disappeared before that was
+known. The incident was finally used by Sir Walter Scott in this novel.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_226" id="Footnote_13_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_226"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> <i>Aurum in ea remanet purum</i>. This same error of assuming
+squeezed amalgam to be pure gold occurs in Pliny; see <a href="#Footnote_12_225">previous
+footnote</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_310" id="Notes_310">[Pg 310]</a></span><a name="Footnote_14_227" id="Footnote_14_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_227"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> George, Duke of Saxony, surnamed "The Bearded," was born
+1471, and died 1539. He was chiefly known for his bitter opposition to
+the Reformation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_319" id="Notes_319">[Pg 319]</a></span><a name="Footnote_15_228" id="Footnote_15_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_228"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> The Julian Alps are a section east of the Carnic Alps and
+lie north of Trieste. The term Rhaetian Alps is applied to that section
+along the Swiss Italian Boundary, about north of Lake Como.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_325" id="Notes_325">[Pg 325]</a></span><a name="Footnote_16_229" id="Footnote_16_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_229"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Ancient Lusitania comprised Portugal and some neighbouring
+portions of Spain.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_330" id="Notes_330">[Pg 330]</a></span><a name="Footnote_17_230" id="Footnote_17_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_230"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Colchis, the traditional land of the Golden Fleece, lay
+between the Caucasus on the north, Armenia on the south, and the Black
+Sea on the west. If Agricola's account of the metallurgical purpose of
+the fleece is correct, then Jason must have had real cause for complaint
+as to the tangible results of his expedition. The fact that we hear
+nothing of the fleece after the day it was taken from the dragon would
+thus support Agricola's theory. Tons of ink have been expended during
+the past thirty centuries in explanations of what the fleece really was.
+These explanations range through the supernatural and metallurgical, but
+more recent writers have endeavoured to construct the journey of the
+Argonauts into an epic of the development of the Greek trade in gold
+with the Euxine. We will not attempt to traverse them from a
+metallurgical point of view further than to maintain that Agricola's
+explanation is as probable and equally as ingenious as any other,
+although Strabo (<span class="smcaplower">XI</span>, 2, 19.) gives much the same view long before.
+</p><p>
+Alluvial mining&mdash;gold washing&mdash;being as old as the first glimmer of
+civilization, it is referred to, directly or indirectly, by a great
+majority of ancient writers, poets, historians, geographers, and
+naturalists. Early Egyptian inscriptions often refer to this industry,
+but from the point of view of technical methods the description by Pliny
+is practically the only one of interest, and in Pliny's chapter on the
+subject, alluvial is badly confused <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_331" id="Notes_331">[Pg 331]</a></span>with vein mining. This passage
+(<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 21) is as follows: "Gold is found in the world in three ways,
+to say nothing of that found in India by the ants, and in Scythia by the
+Griffins. The first is as gold dust found in streams, as, for instance,
+in the Tagus in Spain, in the Padus in Italy, in the Hebrus in Thracia,
+in the Pactolus in Asia, and in the Ganges in India; indeed, there is no
+gold found more perfect than this, as the current polishes it thoroughly
+by attrition.... Others by equal labour and greater expense bring rivers
+from the mountain heights, often a hundred miles, for the purpose of
+washing this debris. The ditches thus made are called <i>corrugi</i>, from
+our word <i>corrivatio</i>, I suppose; and these entail a thousand fresh
+labours. The fall must be steep, that the water may rush down from very
+high places, rather than flow gently. The ditches across the valleys are
+joined by aqueducts, and in other places, impassable rocks have to be
+cut away and forced to make room for troughs of hollowed-out logs. Those
+who cut the rocks are suspended by ropes, so that to those who watch
+them from a distance, the workmen seem not so much beasts as birds.
+Hanging thus, they take the levels and trace the lines which the ditch
+is to take; and thus, where there is no place for man's footstep,
+streams are dragged by men. The water is vitiated for washing if the
+current of the <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_332" id="Notes_332">[Pg 332]</a></span>stream carries mud with it. This kind of earth is called
+<i>urium</i>, hence these ditches are laid out to carry the water over beds
+of pebbles to avoid this <i>urium</i>. When they have reached the head of the
+fall, at the top of the mountain, reservoirs are excavated a couple of
+hundred feet long and wide, and about ten feet deep. In these reservoirs
+there are generally five gates left, about three feet square, so that
+when the reservoir is full, the gates are opened, and the torrent bursts
+forth with such violence that the rocks are hurled along. When they have
+reached the plain there is yet more labour. Trenches called <i>agogae</i> are
+dug for the flow of the water. The bottoms of these are spread at
+regular intervals with <i>ulex</i> to catch the gold. This <i>ulex</i> is similar
+to rosemary, rough and prickly. The sides, too, are closed in with
+planks and are suspended when crossing precipitous spots. The earth is
+carried to the sea and thus the shattered mountain is washed away and
+scattered; and this deposition of the earth in the sea has extended the
+shore of Spain.... The gold procured from <i>arrugiae</i> does not require to
+be melted, but is already pure gold. It is found in lumps, in shafts as
+well, sometimes even exceeding ten <i>librae</i> in weight. These lumps are
+called <i>palagae</i> and <i>palacurnae</i>, while the small grains are called
+<i>baluce</i>. The Ulex is dried and burnt and the ashes are washed on a bed
+of grassy turf in order that the gold may settle thereon."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_334" id="Notes_334">[Pg 334]</a></span><a name="Footnote_19_231" id="Footnote_19_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_231"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>Carbunculus Carchedonius</i>&mdash;Carthaginian carbuncle. The
+German is given by Agricola in the <i>Interpretatio</i> as <i>granat</i>, <i>i.e.</i>,
+garnet.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_336" id="Notes_336">[Pg 336]</a></span><a name="Footnote_20_232" id="Footnote_20_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_232"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> As the concentration of crushed tin ore has been
+exhaustively treated of already, the descriptions from here on probably
+refer entirely to alluvial tin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_348" id="Notes_348">[Pg 348]</a></span><a name="Footnote_21_233" id="Footnote_21_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_233"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> From a metallurgical point of view all of these operations
+are roasting. Even to-day, however, the expression "burning" tin is in
+use in some parts of Cornwall, and in former times it was general.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_350" id="Notes_350">[Pg 350]</a></span><a name="Footnote_22_234" id="Footnote_22_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_234"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> There can be no doubt that these are mattes, as will
+develop in <a href="#BOOK_IX">Book IX</a>. The German term in the Glossary for <i>panes ex
+pyrite</i> is <i>stein</i>, the same as the modern German for matte. Orpiment
+and realgar are the yellow and red arsenical sulphides. The <i>cadmia</i> was
+no doubt the cobalt-arsenic minerals (see note on p. <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>). The
+"solidified juices" were generally anything that could be expelled short
+of smelting, <i>i.e.</i>, roasted off or leached out, as shown in <a href="#Footnote_4_45">note 4, p.
+1</a>; they embrace the sulphates, salts, sulphur, bitumen, and arsenical
+sulphides, etc. For further information on leaching out the sulphates,
+alum, etc., see <a href="#Footnote_10_380">note 10, p. 564</a>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353"></a>[Pg 353]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="BOOK_IX" id="BOOK_IX"></a>BOOK IX.<a name="FNanchor_1_235" id="FNanchor_1_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_235" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h2>
+
+
+<div class="dropcap"><img src="images/caps.png" alt="S" /></div>
+<p style="text-indent:-1em;">
+ince I have written of the varied work of preparing the ores, I will
+now write of the various methods of smelting them. Although those who
+burn, roast and calcine<a name="FNanchor_2_236" id="FNanchor_2_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_236" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> the ore, take from it something which is
+mixed or combined with the metals; and those who crush it with stamps
+take away much; and those who wash, screen and sort it, take away still
+more; yet they cannot remove all which conceals the metal from the eye
+and renders it crude and unformed. Wherefore smelting is necessary, for
+by this means earths, solidified juices, and stones are separated from
+the metals so that they obtain their proper colour and become pure, and
+may be of great use to mankind in many ways. When the ore is smelted,
+those things which were mixed with the metal before it was melted are
+driven forth, because the metal is perfected by fire in this manner.
+Since metalliferous ores differ greatly amongst themselves, first as to
+the metals which they contain, then as to the quantity of the metal
+which is in them, and then by the fact that some are rapidly melted by
+fire and others slowly, there are, therefore, many methods of smelting.
+Constant practice has taught the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354"></a>[Pg 354]</span>smelters by which of these methods
+they can obtain the most metal from any one ore. Moreover, while
+sometimes there are many methods of smelting the same ore, by which an
+equal weight of metal is melted out, yet one is done at a greater cost
+and labour than the others. Ore is either melted with a furnace or
+without one; if smelted with a furnace the tap-hole is either
+temporarily closed or always open, and if smelted without a furnace, it
+is done either in pots or in trenches. But in order to make this matter
+clearer, I will describe each in detail, beginning with the buildings
+and the furnaces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355"></a>[Pg 355]</span></p><p>A wall which will be called the "second wall" is constructed of brick
+or stone, two feet and as many palms thick, in order that it may be
+strong enough to bear the weight. It is built fifteen feet high, and its
+length depends on the number of furnaces which are put in the works;
+there are usually six furnaces, rarely more, and often less. There are
+three furnace walls, a back one which is against the "second" wall, and
+two side ones, of which I will speak later. These should be made of
+natural stone, as this is more serviceable than burnt bricks, because
+bricks soon become defective and crumble away, when the smelter or his
+deputy chips off the accretions which adhere to the walls when the ore
+is smelted. Natural stone resists injury by the fire and lasts a long
+time, especially that which is soft and devoid of cracks; but, on the
+contrary, that which is hard and has many cracks is burst asunder by the
+fire and destroyed. For this reason, furnaces which are made of the
+latter are easily weakened by the fire, and when the accretions are
+chipped off they crumble to pieces. The front furnace wall should be
+made of brick, and there should be in the lower part a mouth three palms
+wide and one and a half feet high, when the hearth is completed. A hole
+slanting upward, three palms long, is made through the back furnace
+wall, at the height of a cubit, before the hearth has been prepared;
+through this hole and a hole one foot long in the "second" wall&mdash;as the
+back of this wall has an arch&mdash;is inserted a pipe of iron or bronze, in
+which are fixed the nozzles <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356"></a>[Pg 356]</span>of the bellows. The whole of the front
+furnace wall is not more than five feet high, so that the ore may be
+conveniently put into the furnace, together with those things which the
+master needs for his work of smelting. Both the side walls of the
+furnace are six feet high, and the back one seven feet, and they are
+three palms thick. The interior of the furnace is five palms wide, six
+palms and a digit long, the width being measured by the space which lies
+between the two side walls, and the length by the space between the
+front and the back walls; however, the upper part of the furnace widens
+out somewhat.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357"></a><a href="images/fig357.jpg"><img src="images/fig357thumb.jpg" alt="Blast Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnaces. B&mdash;Forehearths.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 357]</span></span>
+There are two doors in the second wall if there are six furnaces, one of
+the doors being between the second and third furnaces and the other
+between the fourth and fifth furnaces. They are a cubit wide and six
+feet high, in order that the smelters may not have mishaps in coming and
+going. It is necessary to have a door to the right of the first furnace,
+and similarly one to the left of the last, whether the wall is longer or
+not. The second wall is carried further when the rooms for the
+cupellation furnaces, or any other building, adjoin the rooms for the
+blast furnaces, these buildings being only divided by a partition. The
+smelter, and the ones who attend to the first and the last furnaces, if
+they wish to look at the bellows or to do anything else, go out through
+the doors at the end of the wall, and the other people go through the
+other doors, which are the common ones. The furnaces are placed at a
+distance of six feet from one another, in order that the smelters and
+their assistants may more easily sustain the fierceness of the heat.
+Inasmuch as the interior of each furnace is five palms wide and each is
+six feet distant from the other, and inasmuch as there is a space of
+four feet three palms at the right side of the first furnace and as much
+at the left side of the last furnace, and there are to be six furnaces
+in one building, then it is necessary to make the second wall fifty-two
+feet long; because the total of the widths of all of the furnaces is
+seven and a half feet, the total of the spaces between the furnaces is
+thirty feet, the space on the outer sides of the first and last furnaces
+is nine feet and two palms, and the thickness of the two transverse
+walls is five feet, which make a total measurement of fifty-two feet.<a name="FNanchor_3_237" id="FNanchor_3_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_237" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>Outside each furnace hearth there is a small pit full of powder which is
+compressed by ramming, and in this manner is made the forehearth which
+receives the metal flowing from the furnaces. Of this I will speak
+later.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358"></a><a href="images/fig358.jpg"><img src="images/fig358thumb.jpg" alt="Blast Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnaces. B&mdash;Forehearth. C&mdash;Door.
+D&mdash;Water tank. E&mdash;Stone which covers it. F&mdash;Material of the vent walls.
+G&mdash;Stone which covers it. H&mdash;Pipe exhaling the vapour.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 358]</span></span>
+Buried about a cubit under the forehearth and the hearth of the furnace
+is a transverse water-tank, three feet long, three palms wide and a
+cubit deep. It is made of stone or brick, with a stone cover, for if it
+were not covered, the heat would draw the moisture from below and the
+vapour might be blown into the hearth of the furnace as well as into the
+forehearth, and would dampen the blast. The moisture would vitiate the
+blast, and part of the metal would be absorbed and part would be mixed
+with the slags, and in this manner the melting would be greatly damaged.
+From each water-tank is built a walled vent, to the same depth as the
+tank, but six digits wide; <span class="pagenum">[Pg 358]</span>this vent slopes upward, and sooner or
+later penetrates through to the other side of the wall, against which
+the furnace is built. At the end of this vent there is an opening where
+the steam, into which the water has been converted, is exhausted through
+a copper or iron tube or pipe. This method of making the tank and the
+vent is much the best. Another kind has a similar vent but a different
+tank, for it does not lie transversely under the forehearth, but
+lengthwise; it is two feet and a palm long, and a foot and three palms
+wide, and a foot and a palm deep. This method of making tanks is not
+condemned by us, as is the construction of those tanks without a vent;
+the latter, which have no opening into the air through which the vapour
+may discharge freely, are indeed to be condemned.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359"></a><a href="images/fig359.jpg"><img src="images/fig359thumb.jpg" alt="Bellows for blast furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="inum">[Pg 359]</span></span>
+Fifteen feet behind the second wall is constructed the first wall,
+thirteen feet high. In both of these are fixed roof beams<a name="FNanchor_4_238" id="FNanchor_4_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_238" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>, which are
+a foot wide and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360"></a>[Pg 360]</span>thick, and nineteen feet and a palm long; these are
+placed three feet distant from one another. As the second wall is two
+feet higher than the first wall, recesses are cut in the back of it two
+feet high, one foot wide, and a palm deep, and in these recesses, as it
+were in mortises, are placed one end of each of the beams. Into these
+ends are mortised the bottoms of just as many posts; these posts are
+twenty-four feet high, three palms wide and thick, and from the tops of
+the posts the same number of rafters stretch downward to the ends of the
+beams superimposed on the first wall; the upper ends of the rafters are
+mortised into the posts and the lower ends are mortised into the ends of
+the beams laid on the first wall; the rafters support the roof, which
+consists of burnt tiles. Each separate rafter is propped up by a
+separate timber, which is a cross-beam, and is joined to its post.
+Planks close together are affixed to the posts above the furnaces; these
+planks are about two digits thick and a palm wide, and they, together
+with the wicker work interposed between the timbers, are covered with
+lute so that there may be no risk of fire to the timbers and
+wicker-work. In this practical manner is constructed the back part of
+the works, which contains the bellows, their frames, the mechanism for
+compressing the bellows, and the instrument for distending them, of all
+of which I will speak hereafter.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361"></a><a href="images/fig361.jpg"><img src="images/fig361thumb.jpg" alt="Plan of Smelter Building" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">The four long walls:
+A&mdash;First. B&mdash;Second. C&mdash;Third. D&mdash;Fourth. The seven transverse walls:
+E&mdash;First. F&mdash;Second. G&mdash;Third. H&mdash;Fourth. I&mdash;Fifth. K&mdash;Sixth.
+L&mdash;Seventh, or middle.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 361]</span></span>
+In front of the furnaces is constructed the third long wall and likewise
+the fourth. Both are nine feet high, but of the same length and
+thickness as the other two, the fourth being nine feet distant from the
+third; the third is twenty-one and a half feet from the second. At a
+distance of twelve feet from the second wall, four posts seven and a
+half feet high, a cubit wide and thick, are set upon rock laid
+underneath. Into the tops of the posts the roof beam is mortised; this
+roof beam is two feet and as many palms longer than the distance between
+the second and the fifth transverse walls, in order that its ends may
+rest on the transverse walls. If there should not be so long a beam at
+hand, two are substituted for it. As the length of the long beam is as
+above, and as the posts are equidistant, it is necessary that the posts
+should be a distance of nine feet, one palm, two and two-fifths digits
+from each other, and the end ones this distance from the transverse
+walls. On this longitudinal beam and to the third and fourth walls are
+fixed twelve secondary beams twenty-four feet long, one foot wide, three
+palms thick, and distant from each other three feet, one palm, and two
+digits. In these secondary beams, where they rest on the longitudinal
+beams, are mortised the ends of the same number of rafters as there are
+posts which stand on the second wall. The ends of the rafters do not
+reach to the tops of the posts, but are two feet away from them, that
+through this opening, which is like the open part of a forge, the
+furnaces can emit their fumes. In order that the rafters should not fall
+down, they are supported partly by iron rods, which extend from each
+rafter to the opposite post, and partly supported by a few tie-beams,
+which in the same manner extend from some rafters to the posts opposite,
+and give them stability. To these tie-beams, as well as to the rafters
+which face the posts, a number of boards, about two digits thick and a
+palm wide, are fixed at a distance of a palm from each other, and are
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg 361]</span>covered with lute so that they do not catch fire. In the secondary
+beams, where they are laid on the fourth wall, are mortised the lower
+ends of the same number of rafters as those in a set of rafters<a name="FNanchor_5_239" id="FNanchor_5_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_239" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
+opposite them. From the third long wall these rafters are joined and
+tied to the ends of the opposite rafters, so that they may not slip, and
+besides they are strengthened with substructures which are made of cross
+and oblique timbers. The rafters support the roof.</p>
+
+<p>In this manner the front part of the building is made, and is divided
+into three parts; the first part is twelve feet wide and is under the
+hood, which consists of two walls, one vertical and one inclined. The
+second part is the same number of feet wide and is for the reception of
+the ore to be smelted, the fluxes, the charcoal, and other things which
+are needed by the smelter. The third part is nine feet wide and contains
+two separate rooms of equal size, in one of which is the assay furnace,
+while the other contains the metal to be melted in the cupellation
+furnaces. It is thus necessary that in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362"></a>[Pg 362]</span>building there should be,
+besides the four long walls, seven transverse walls, of which the first
+is constructed from the upper end of the first long wall to the upper
+end of the second long wall; the second proceeds from the end of this to
+the end of the third long wall; the third likewise from this end of the
+last extends to the end of the fourth long wall; the fourth leads from
+the lower end of the first long wall to the lower end of the second long
+wall; the fifth extends from the end of this to the end of the third
+long wall; the sixth extends from this last end to the end of the fourth
+long wall; the seventh divides into two parts the space between the
+third and fourth long walls.</p>
+
+<p>To return to the back part of the building, in which, as I said, are the
+bellows<a name="FNanchor_6_240" id="FNanchor_6_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_240" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>, their frames, the machinery for compressing them, and the
+instrument for distending them. Each bellows consists of a body and a
+head. The body is composed of two "boards," two bows, and two hides. The
+upper board is a palm thick, five feet and three palms long, and two and
+a half feet wide at the back part, where each of the sides is a little
+curved, and it is a cubit wide at the front part near the head. The
+whole of the body of the bellows tapers toward the head. That which we
+now call the "board" consists of two pieces of pine, joined and glued
+together, and of two strips of linden wood which bind the edges of the
+board, these being seven digits wide at the back, and in front near the
+head of the bellows one and a half digits wide. These strips are glued
+to the boards, so that there shall be less damage from the iron nails
+driven through the hide. There are some people who do not surround the
+boards with strips, but use boards only, which are very thick. The upper
+board has an aperture and a handle; the aperture is in the middle of the
+board and is one foot three palms distant from where the board joins the
+head of the bellows, and is six digits long and four wide. The lid for
+this aperture is two palms and a digit long and wide, and three digits
+thick; toward the back of the lid is a little notch cut into the surface
+so that it may be caught by the hand; a groove is cut out of the top of
+the front and sides, so that it may engage in mouldings a palm wide and
+three digits thick, which are also cut out in a similar manner under the
+edges. Now, when the lid is drawn forward the hole is closed, and when
+drawn back it is opened; the smelter opens the aperture a little so that
+the air may escape from the bellows through it, if he fears the hides
+might be burst when the bellows are too vigorously and quickly inflated;
+he, however, closes the aperture if the hides are ruptured and the air
+escapes. Others perforate the upper board with two or three round holes
+in the same place as the rectangular one, and they insert plugs in them
+which they draw out <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363"></a>[Pg 363]</span>when it is necessary. The wooden handle is seven
+palms long, or even longer, in order that it may extend outside;
+one-half of this handle, two palms wide and one thick, is glued to the
+end of the board and fastened with pegs covered with glue; the other
+half projects beyond the board, and is rounded and seven digits thick.
+Besides this, to the handle and to the board is fixed a cleat two feet
+long, as many palms wide and one palm thick, and to the under side of
+the same board, at a distance of three palms from the end, is fixed
+another cleat two feet long, in order that the board may sustain the
+force of distension and compression; these two cleats are glued to the
+board, and are fastened to it with pegs covered with glue.</p>
+
+<p>The lower bellows-board, like the upper, is made of two pieces of pine
+and of two strips of linden wood, all glued together; it is of the same
+width and thickness as the upper board, but is a cubit longer, this
+extension being part of the head of which I have more to say a little
+later. This lower bellows-board has an air-hole and an iron ring. The
+air-hole is about a cubit distant from the posterior end, and it is
+midway between the sides of the bellows-board, and is a foot long and
+three palms wide; it is divided into equal parts by a small rib which
+forms part of the board, and is not cut from it; this rib is a palm long
+and one-third of a digit wide. The flap of the air-hole is a foot and
+three digits long, three palms and as many digits wide; it is a thin
+board covered with goat skin, the hairy part of which is turned toward
+the ground. There is fixed to one end of the flap, with small iron
+nails, one-half of a doubled piece of leather a palm wide and as long as
+the flap is wide; the other half of the leather, which is behind the
+flap, is twice perforated, as is also the bellows-board, and these
+perforations are seven digits apart. Passing through these a string is
+tied on the under side of the board; and thus the flap when tied to the
+board does not fall away. In this manner are made the flap and the
+air-hole, so when the bellows are distended the flap opens, when
+compressed it closes. At a distance of about a foot beyond the air-hole
+a slightly elliptical iron ring, two palms long and one wide, is
+fastened by means of an iron staple to the under part of the
+bellows-board; it is at a distance of three palms from the back of the
+bellows. In order that the lower bellows-board may remain stationary, a
+wooden bolt is driven into the ring, after it penetrates through the
+hole in the transverse supporting plank which forms part of the frame
+for the bellows. There are some who dispense with the ring and fasten
+the bellows-board to the frame with two iron screws something like
+nails.</p>
+
+<p>The bows are placed between the two boards and are of the same length as
+the upper board. They are both made of four pieces of linden wood three
+digits thick, of which the two long ones are seven digits wide at the
+back and two and a half at the front; the third piece, which is at the
+back, is two palms wide. The ends of the bows are a little more than a
+digit thick, and are mortised to the long pieces, and both having been
+bored through, wooden pegs covered with glue are fixed in the holes;
+they are thus joined and glued to the long pieces. Each of the ends is
+bowed (<i>arcuatur</i>) to meet the end of the long part of the bow, whence
+its name "bow" originated. The fourth <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364"></a>[Pg 364]</span>piece keeps the ends of the bow
+distended, and is placed a cubit distant from the head of the bellows;
+the ends of this piece are mortised into the ends of the bow and are
+joined and glued to them; its length without the tenons is a foot, and
+its width a palm and two digits. There are, besides, two other very
+small pieces glued to the head of the bellows and to the lower board,
+and fastened to them by wooden pegs covered with glue, and they are
+three palms and two digits long, one palm high, and a digit thick, one
+half being slightly cut away. These pieces keep the ends of the bow away
+from the hole in the bellows-head, for if they were not there, the ends,
+forced inward by the great and frequent movement, would be broken.</p>
+
+<p>The leather is of ox-hide or horse-hide, but that of the ox is far
+preferable to that of the horse. Each of these hides, for there are two,
+is three and a half feet wide where they are joined at the back part of
+the bellows. A long leathern thong is laid along each of the
+bellows-boards and each of the bows, and fastened by T-shaped iron nails
+five digits long; each of the horns of the nails is two and a half
+digits long and half a digit wide. The hide is attached to the
+bellows-boards by means of these nails, so that a horn of one nail
+almost touches the horn of the next; but it is different with the bows,
+for the hide is fastened to the back piece of the bow by only two nails,
+and to the two long pieces by four nails. In this practical manner they
+put ten nails in one bow and the same number in the other. Sometimes
+when the smelter is afraid that the vigorous motion of the bellows may
+pull or tear the hide from the bows, he also fastens it with little
+strips of pine by means of another kind of nail, but these strips cannot
+be fastened to the back pieces of the bow, because these are somewhat
+bent. Some people do not fix the hide to the bellows-boards and bows by
+iron nails, but by iron screws, screwed at the same time through strips
+laid over the hide. This method of fastening the hide is less used than
+the other, although there is no doubt that it surpasses it in
+excellence.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, the head of the bellows, like the rest of the body, consists of
+two boards, and of a nozzle besides. The upper board is one cubit long,
+one and a half palms thick. The lower board is part of the whole of the
+lower bellows-board; it is of the same length as the upper piece, but a
+palm and a digit thick. From these two glued together is made the head,
+into which, when it has been perforated, the nozzle is fixed. The back
+part of the head, where it is attached to the rest of the bellows-body,
+is a cubit wide, but three palms forward it becomes two digits narrower.
+Afterward it is somewhat cut away so that the front end may be rounded,
+until it is two palms and as many digits in diameter, at which point it
+is bound with an iron ring three digits wide.</p>
+
+<p>The nozzle is a pipe made of a thin plate of iron; the diameter in front
+is three digits, while at the back, where it is encased in the head of
+the bellows, it is a palm high and two palms wide. It thus gradually
+widens out, especially at the back, in order that a copious wind can
+penetrate into it; the whole nozzle is three feet long.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366"></a>[Pg 366]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365"></a><a href="images/fig365.jpg"><img src="images/fig365thumb.jpg" alt="Bellows for blast furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Upper bellows-board.
+B&mdash;Lower bellows-board. C&mdash;The two pieces of wood of which each
+consists. D&mdash;Posterior arched part of each. E&mdash;Tapered front part of
+each. F&mdash;Pieces of linden wood. G&mdash;Aperture in the upper board. H&mdash;Lid.
+I&mdash;Little mouldings of wood. K&mdash;Handle. L&mdash;Cleat on the outside. The
+cleat inside I am not able to depict. M&mdash;Interior of the lower
+bellows-board. N&mdash;Part of the head. O&mdash;Air-hole. P&mdash;Supporting bar.
+Q&mdash;Flap. R&mdash;Hide. S&mdash;Thong. T&mdash;Exterior of the lower board. V&mdash;Staple.
+X&mdash;Ring. Y&mdash;Bow. Z&mdash;Its long pieces. AA&mdash;Back piece of the bow. BB&mdash;The
+bowed ends. CC&mdash;Crossbar distending the bow. DD&mdash;The two little pieces.
+EE&mdash;Hide. FF&mdash;Nail. GG&mdash;Horn of the nail. HH&mdash;A screw. II&mdash;Long thong.
+KK&mdash;Head. LL&mdash;Its lower board. MM&mdash;Its upper board. NN&mdash;Nozzle. OO&mdash;The
+whole of the lower bellows-board. PP&mdash;The two exterior plates of the
+head hinges. QQ&mdash;Their curved piece. RR&mdash;Middle plate of the head.
+SS&mdash;The two outer plates of the upper bellows-board. TT&mdash;Its middle
+plate. VV&mdash;Little axle. XX&mdash;Whole bellows.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 365]</span></span>
+The upper bellows-board is joined to the head of the bellows in the
+following way. An iron plate<a name="FNanchor_7_241" id="FNanchor_7_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_241" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>, a palm wide and one and a half palms
+long, is first fastened to the head at a distance of three digits from
+the end; from this plate there projects a piece three digits long and
+two wide, curved in a small circle. The other side has a similar plate.
+Then in the same part of the upper board are fixed two other iron
+plates, distant two digits from the edge, each of which are six digits
+wide and seven long; in each of these plates the middle part is cut away
+for a little more than three digits in length and for two in depth, so
+that the curved part of the plates on the head corresponding to them may
+fit into this cut out part. From both sides of each plate there project
+pieces, three digits long and two digits wide, similarly curved into
+small circles. A little iron pin is passed through these curved pieces
+of the plates, like a little axle, so that the upper board of the
+bellows may turn upon it. The little axle is six digits long and a
+little more than a digit thick, and a small groove is cut out of the
+upper board, where the plates are fastened to it, in such a manner that
+the little axle when fixed to the plates may not fall out. Both plates
+fastened to the bellows-board are affixed by four iron nails, of which
+the heads are on the inner part of the board, whereas the points,
+clinched at the top, are transformed into heads, so to speak. Each of
+the other plates is fastened to the head of the bellows by means of a
+nail with a wide head, and by two other nails of which the heads are on
+the edge of the bellows-head. Midway between the two plates on the
+bellows-board there remains a space two palms wide, which is covered by
+an iron plate fastened to the board by little nails; and another plate
+corresponding to this is fastened to the head between the other two
+plates; they are two palms and the same number of digits wide.</p>
+
+<p>The hide is common to the head as to all the other parts of the body;
+the plates are covered with it, as well as the front part of the upper
+bellows-board, and both the bows and the back of the head of the
+bellows, so that the wind may not escape from that part of the bellows.
+It is three palms and as many digits wide, and long enough to extend
+from one of the sides of the lower board over the back of the upper; it
+is fastened by many T-headed nails on one side to the upper board, and
+on the other side to the head of the bellows, and both ends are fastened
+to the lower bellows-board.</p>
+
+<p>In the above manner the bellows is made. As two are required for each
+furnace, it is necessary to have twelve bellows, if there are to be six
+furnaces in one works.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368"></a><a href="images/fig368.jpg"><img src="images/fig368thumb.jpg" alt="Bellows for blast furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Front sill. B&mdash;Back
+sill. C&mdash;Front posts. D&mdash;Their slots. E&mdash;Beam imposed upon them.
+F&mdash;Higher posts. G&mdash;Their slots. H&mdash;Beam imposed upon them. I&mdash;Timber
+joined in the mortises of the posts. K&mdash;Planks. L&mdash;Transverse supporting
+planks. M&mdash;The holes in them. N&mdash;Pipe. O&mdash;Its front end. P&mdash;Its rear
+end.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 368]</span></span>
+Now it is time to describe their framework. First, two sills a little
+shorter than the furnace wall are placed on the ground. The front one of
+these is three palms wide and thick, and the back one three palms and
+two digits. The front one is two feet distant from the back wall of the
+furnace, and the back one is six feet three palms distant from the front
+one. They are set into the earth, that they may remain firm; there are
+some who accomplish this by means of pegs which, through several holes,
+penetrate deeply into the ground.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367"></a>[Pg 367]</span></p><p>Then twelve short posts are erected, whose lower ends are mortised into
+the sill that is near the back of the furnace wall; these posts are two
+feet high, exclusive of the tenons, and are three palms and the same
+number of digits wide, and two palms thick. A slot one and a half palms
+wide is cut through them, beginning two palms from the bottom and
+extending for a height of three palms. All the posts are not placed at
+the same intervals, the first being at a distance of three feet five
+digits from the second, and likewise the third from the fourth, but the
+second is two feet one palm and three digits from the third; the
+intervals between the other posts are arranged in the same manner, equal
+and unequal, of which each four pertain to two furnaces. The upper ends
+of these posts are mortised into a transverse beam which is twelve feet,
+two palms, and three digits long, and projects five digits beyond the
+first post and to the same distance beyond the fourth; it is two palms
+and the same number of digits wide, and two palms thick. Since each
+separate transverse beam supports four bellows, it is necessary to have
+three of them.</p>
+
+<p>Behind the twelve short posts the same number of higher posts are
+erected, of which each has the middle part of the lower end cut out, so
+that its two resulting lower ends are mortised into the back sill; these
+posts, exclusive of the tenons, are twelve feet and two palms high, and
+are five palms wide and two palms thick. They are cut out from the
+bottom upward, the slot being four feet and five digits high and six
+digits wide. The upper ends of these posts are mortised into a long beam
+imposed upon them; this long beam is placed close under the timbers
+which extend from the wall at the back of the furnace to the first long
+wall; the beam is three palms wide and two palms thick, and forty-three
+feet long. If such a long one is not at hand, two or three may be
+substituted for it, which when joined together make up that length.
+These higher posts are not placed at equal distances, but the first is
+at a distance of two feet three palms one digit from the second, and the
+third is at the same distance from the fourth; while the second is at a
+distance of one foot three palms and the same number of digits from the
+third, and in the same manner the rest of the posts are arranged at
+equal and unequal intervals. Moreover, there is in every post, where it
+faces the shorter post, a mortise at a foot and a digit above the slot;
+in these mortises of the four posts is tenoned a timber which itself has
+four mortises. Tenons are enclosed in mortises in order that they may be
+better joined, and they are transfixed with wooden pins. This timber is
+thirteen feet three palms one digit long, and it projects beyond the
+first post a distance of two palms and two digits, and to the same
+number of palms and digits beyond the fourth post. It is two palms and
+as many digits wide, and also two palms thick. As there are twelve posts
+it is necessary to have three timbers of this kind.</p>
+
+<p>On each of these timbers, and on each of the cross-beams which are laid
+upon the shorter posts, are placed four planks, each nine feet long, two
+palms three digits wide, and two palms one digit thick. The first plank
+is five feet one palm one digit distant from the second, at the front as
+well as at the back, <span class="pagenum">[Pg 368]</span>for each separate plank is placed outside of the
+posts. The third is at the same distance from the fourth, but the second
+is one foot and three digits distant from the third. In the same manner
+the rest of the eight planks are arranged at intervals, the fifth from
+the sixth and the seventh from the eighth are at the same distances as
+the first from the second and the third from the fourth; the sixth is at
+the same distance from the seventh as the second from the third.</p>
+
+<p>Two planks support one transverse plank six feet long, one foot wide,
+one palm thick, placed at a distance of three feet and two palms from
+the back posts. When there are six of these supporting planks, on each
+separate one are placed two bellows; the lower bellows-boards project a
+palm beyond them. From each of the bellows-boards an iron ring descends
+through a hole in its supporting plank, and a wooden peg is driven into
+the ring, so that the bellows-board may remain stationary, as I stated
+above.</p>
+
+<p>The two bellows communicate, each by its own plank, to the back of a
+copper pipe in which are set both of the nozzles, and their ends are
+tightly <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369"></a>[Pg 369]</span>fastened in it. The pipe is made of a rolled copper or iron
+plate, a foot and two palms and the same number of digits long; the
+plate is half a digit thick, but a digit thick at the back. The interior
+of the pipe is three digits wide, and two and a half digits high in the
+front, for it is not absolutely round; and at the back it is a foot and
+two palms and three digits in diameter. The plate from which the pipe is
+made is not entirely joined up, but at the front there is left a crack
+half a digit wide, increasing at the back to three digits. This pipe is
+placed in the hole in the furnace, which, as I said, was in the middle
+of the wall and the arch. The nozzles of the bellows, placed in this
+pipe, are a distance of five digits from its front end.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370"></a><a href="images/fig370.jpg"><img src="images/fig370thumb.jpg" alt="Bellows for blast furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Lever which when
+depressed by means of a cam compresses the bellows. B&mdash;Slots through the
+posts. C&mdash;Bar. D&mdash;Iron implement with a rectangular link. E&mdash;Iron
+instrument with round ring. F&mdash;Handle of bellows. G&mdash;Upper post.
+H&mdash;Upper lever. I&mdash;Box with equal sides. K&mdash;Box narrow at the bottom.
+L&mdash;Pegs driven into the upper lever.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 370]</span></span>
+The levers are of the same number as the bellows, and when depressed by
+the cams of the long axle they compress the bellows. These levers are
+eight feet three palms long, one palm wide and thick, and the ends are
+inserted in the slots of the posts; they project beyond the front posts
+to a distance of two palms, and the same distance beyond the back posts
+in order that each may have its end depressed by its two cams on the
+axle. The cams not only penetrate into the slots of the back posts, but
+project three digits beyond them. An iron pin is set in round holes made
+through both sides of the slot of each front post, at three palms and as
+many digits from the bottom; the pin penetrates the lever, which turns
+about it when depressed or raised. The back of the lever for the length
+of a cubit is a palm and a digit wider than the rest, and is perforated;
+in this hole is engaged a bar six feet and two palms long, three digits
+wide, and about one and one-half digits thick; it is somewhat hooked at
+the upper end, and approaches the handle of the bellows. Under the lever
+there is a nail, which penetrates through a hole in the bar, so that the
+lever and bar may move together. The bar is perforated in the upper end
+at a distance of six digits from the top; this hole is two palms long
+and a digit wide, and in it is engaged the hook of an iron implement
+which is a digit thick. At the upper part this implement has either a
+round or square opening, like a link, and at the lower end is hooked;
+the link is two digits high and wide and the hook is three digits long;
+the middle part between the link and the hook is three palms and two
+digits long. The link of this implement engages either the handle of the
+bellows, or else a large ring which does engage it. This iron ring is a
+digit thick, two palms wide on the inside of the upper part, and two
+digits in the lower part, and this iron ring, not unlike the first one,
+engages the handle of the bellows. The iron ring either has its narrower
+part turned upward, and in it is engaged the ring of another iron
+implement, similar to the first, whose hook, extending upward, grips the
+rope fastened to the iron ring holding the end of the second lever, of
+which I will speak presently; or else the iron ring grips this lever,
+and then in its hook is engaged the ring of the other implement whose
+ring engages the handle of the bellows, and in this case the rope is
+dispensed with.</p>
+
+<p>Resting on beams fixed in the two walls is a longitudinal beam, at a
+distance of four and a half feet from the back posts; it is two palms
+wide, <span class="pagenum">[Pg 370]</span>one and a half palms thick. There are mortised into this
+longitudinal beam the lower ends of upper posts three palms wide and two
+thick, which are six feet two palms high, exclusive of their tenons. The
+upper ends of these posts are mortised into an upper longitudinal beam,
+which lies close under the rafters of the building; this upper
+longitudinal beam is two palms wide and one thick. The upper posts have
+a slot cut out upward from a point two feet from the bottom, and the
+slot is two feet high and six digits wide. Through these upper posts a
+round hole is bored from one side to the other at a point three feet one
+palm from the bottom, and a small iron axle penetrates through the hole
+and is fastened there. Around this small iron axle turns the second
+lever when it is depressed and raised. This lever is eight feet long,
+and its other end is three digits wider than the rest of the lever; at
+this widest point is a hole two digits wide and three high, in which is
+fixed an iron ring, to which is tied the rope I have mentioned; it is
+five palms long, its upper loop is two palms and as many digits wide,
+and the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371"></a>[Pg 371]</span>lower one is one palm one digit wide. This half of the second
+lever, the end of which I have just mentioned, is three palms high and
+one wide; it projects three feet beyond the slot of the post on which it
+turns; the other end, which faces the back wall of the furnaces, is one
+foot and a palm high and a foot wide.</p>
+
+<p>On this part of the lever stands and is fixed a box three and a half
+feet long, one foot and one palm wide, and half a foot deep; but these
+measurements vary; sometimes the bottom of this box is narrower,
+sometimes equal in width to the top. In either case, it is filled with
+stones and earth to make it heavy, but the smelters have to be on their
+guard and make provision against the stones falling out, owing to the
+constant motion; this is prevented by means of an iron band which is
+placed over the top, both ends being wedge-shaped and driven into the
+lever so that the stones can be held in. Some people, in place of the
+box, drive four or more pegs into the lever and put mud between them,
+the required amount being added to the weight or taken away from it.</p>
+
+<p>There remains to be considered the method of using this machine. The
+lower lever, being depressed by the cams, compresses the bellows, and
+the compression drives the air through the nozzle. Then the weight of
+the box on the other end of the upper lever raises the upper
+bellows-board, and the air is drawn in, entering through the air-hole.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372"></a><a href="images/fig372.jpg"><img src="images/fig372thumb.jpg" alt="Bellows for blast furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Axle. B&mdash;Water-wheel.
+C&mdash;Drum composed of rundles. D&mdash;Other axle. E&mdash;Toothed wheel. F&mdash;Its
+spokes. G&mdash;Its segments. H&mdash;Its teeth. I&mdash;Cams of the axle.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 372]</span></span>
+The machine whose cams depress the lower lever is made as follows. First
+there is an axle, on whose end outside the building is a water-wheel; at
+the other end, which is inside the building, is a drum made of rundles.
+This drum is composed of two double hubs, a foot apart, which are five
+digits thick, the radius all round being a foot and two digits; but they
+are double, because each hub is composed of two discs, equally thick,
+fastened together with wooden pegs glued in. These hubs are sometimes
+covered above and around by iron plates. The rundles are thirty in
+number, a foot and two palms and the same number of digits long, with
+each end fastened into a hub; they are rounded, three digits in
+diameter, and the same number of digits apart. In this practical manner
+is made the drum composed of rundles.</p>
+
+<p>There is a toothed wheel, two palms and a digit thick, on the end of
+another axle; this wheel is composed of a double disc<a name="FNanchor_8_242" id="FNanchor_8_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_242" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>. The inner disc
+is composed of four segments a palm thick, everywhere two palms and a
+digit wide. The outer disc, like the inner, is made of four segments,
+and is a palm and a digit thick; it is not equally wide, but where the
+head of the spokes are inserted it is a foot and a palm and digit wide,
+while on each side of the spokes it becomes a little narrower, until the
+narrowest part is only two palms and the same number of digits wide. The
+outer segments are joined to the inner ones in such a manner that, on
+the one hand, an outer segment ends in the middle of an inner one, and,
+on the other hand, the ends of the inner segments are joined in the
+middle of the outer ones; there is no doubt that by this kind of joining
+the wheel is made stronger. The outer segments are fastened to the inner
+by means of a large number of wooden pegs. Each <span class="pagenum">[Pg 372]</span>segment, measured over
+its round back, is four feet and three palms long. There are four
+spokes, each two palms wide and a palm and a digit thick; their length,
+excluding the tenons, being two feet and three digits. One end of the
+spoke is mortised into the axle, where it is firmly fastened with pegs;
+the wide part of the other end, in the shape of a triangle, is mortised
+into the outer segment opposite it, keeping the shape of the same as far
+as the segment ascends. They also are joined together with wooden pegs
+glued in, and these pegs are driven into the spokes under the inner
+disc. The parts of the spokes in the shape of the triangle are on the
+inside; the outer part is simple. This triangle has two sides equal, the
+erect ones as is evident, which are a palm long; the lower side is not
+of the same length, but is five digits long, and a mortise of the same
+shape is cut out of the segments. The wheel has sixty teeth, since it is
+necessary that the rundle drum should revolve twice while the toothed
+wheel revolves once. The teeth are a foot long, and project one palm
+from the inner disc of the wheel, and three digits from the outer disc;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373"></a>[Pg 373]</span>they are a palm wide and two and a half digits thick, and it is
+necessary that they should be three digits apart, as were the rundles.</p>
+
+<p>The axle should have a thickness in proportion to the spokes and the
+segments. As it has two cams to depress each of the levers, it is
+necessary that it should have twenty-four cams, which project beyond it
+a foot and a palm and a digit. The cams are of almost semicircular
+shape, of which the widest part is three palms and a digit wide, and
+they are a palm thick; they are distributed according to the four sides
+of the axle, on the upper, the lower and the two lateral sides. The axle
+has twelve holes, of which the first penetrates through from the upper
+side to the lower, the second from one lateral side to the other; the
+first hole is four feet two palms distant from the second; each
+alternate one of these holes is made in the same direction, and they are
+arranged at equal intervals. Each single cam must be opposite another;
+the first is inserted into the upper part of the first hole, the second
+into the lower part of the same hole, and so fixed by pegs that they do
+not fall out; the third cam is inserted into that part of the second
+hole which is on the right side, and the fourth into that part on the
+left. In like manner all the cams are inserted into the consecutive
+holes, for which reason it happens that the cams depress the levers of
+the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374"></a>[Pg 374]</span>bellows in rotation. Finally we must not omit to state that this is
+only one of many such axles having cams and a water-wheel.</p>
+
+<p>I have arrived thus far with many words, and yet it is not unreasonable
+that I have in this place pursued the subject minutely, since the
+smelting of all the metals, to which I am about to proceed, could not be
+undertaken without it.</p>
+
+<p>The ores of gold, silver, copper, and lead, are smelted in a furnace by
+four different methods. The first method is for the rich ores of gold or
+silver, the second for the mediocre ores, the third for the poor ores,
+and the fourth method is for those ores which contain copper or lead,
+whether they contain precious metals or are wanting in them. The
+smelting of the first ores is performed in the furnace of which the
+tap-hole is intermittently closed; the other three ores are melted in
+furnaces of which the tap-holes are always open.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig373.jpg"><img src="images/fig373thumb.jpg" alt="Stamp-mill" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Charcoal. B&mdash;Mortar-box. C&mdash;Stamps.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 373]</span></span>
+First, I will speak of the manner in which the furnaces are prepared for
+the smelting of the ores, and of the first method of smelting. The
+powder from which the hearth and forehearth should be made is composed
+of charcoal and earth (clay?). The charcoal is crushed by the stamps in
+a mortar-box, the front of which is closed by a board at the top, while
+the charcoal, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375"></a>[Pg 375]</span>crushed to powder, is removed through the open part
+below; the stamps are not shod with iron, but are made entirely of wood,
+although at the lower part they are bound round at the wide part by an
+iron band.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig374.jpg"><img src="images/fig374thumb.jpg" alt="Clay Washing" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Tub. B&mdash;Sieve. C&mdash;Rods.
+D&mdash;Bench-frame.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 374]</span></span>
+The powder into which the charcoal is crushed is thrown on to a sieve
+whose bottom consists of interwoven withes of wood. The sieve is drawn
+backward and forward over two wooden or iron rods placed in a triangular
+position on a tub, or over a bench-frame set on the floor of the
+building; the powder which falls into the tub or on to the floor is of
+suitable size, but the pieces of small charcoal which remain in the
+sieve are emptied out and thrown back under the stamps.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig375.jpg"><img src="images/fig375thumb.jpg" alt="Clay Washing" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Screen. B&mdash;Poles. C&mdash;Shovel.
+D&mdash;Two-wheeled cart. E&mdash;Hand-sieve. F&mdash;Narrow boards. G&mdash;Box. H&mdash;Covered
+pit.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 375]</span></span>
+When the earth is dug up it is first exposed to the sun that it may dry.
+Later on it is thrown with a shovel on to a screen&mdash;set up obliquely and
+supported by poles,&mdash;made of thick, loosely woven hazel withes, and in
+this way the fine earth and its small lumps pass through the holes of
+the screen, but the clods and stones do not pass through, but run down
+to the ground. The earth which passes through the screen is conveyed in
+a two-wheeled cart to the works and there sifted. This sieve, which is
+not dissimilar to the one <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376"></a>[Pg 376]</span>described above, is drawn backward and
+forward upon narrow boards of equal length placed over a long box; the
+powder which falls through the sieve into the box is suitable for the
+mixture; the lumps that remain in the sieve are thrown away by some
+people, but by others they are placed under the stamps. This powdered
+earth is mixed with powdered charcoal, moistened, and thrown into a pit,
+and in order that it may remain good for a long time, the pit is covered
+up with boards so that the mixture may not become contaminated.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377"></a><a href="images/fig377.jpg"><img src="images/fig377thumb.jpg" alt="Implements for Furnace Work" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnace. B&mdash;Ladder.
+C&mdash;Board fixed to it. D&mdash;Hoe. E&mdash;Five-toothed rake. F&mdash;Wooden spatula.
+G&mdash;Broom. H&mdash;Rammer. I&mdash;Rammer, same diameter. K&mdash;Two wooden spatulas.
+L&mdash;Curved blade. M&mdash;Bronze rammer. N&mdash;Another bronze rammer. O&mdash;Wide
+spatula. P&mdash;Rod. Q&mdash;Wicker basket. R&mdash;Two buckets of leather in which
+water is carried for putting out a conflagration, should the <i>officina</i>
+catch fire. S&mdash;Brass pump with which the water is squirted out. T&mdash;Two
+hooks. V&mdash;Rake. X&mdash;Workman beating the clay with an iron implement.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 377]</span></span>
+They take two parts of pulverised charcoal and one part of powdered
+earth, and mix them well together with a rake; the mixture is moistened
+by pouring water over it so that it may easily be made into shapes
+resembling snowballs; if the powder be light it is moistened with more
+water, if heavy with less. The interior of the new furnace is lined with
+lute, so that the cracks in the walls, if there are any, may be filled
+up, but especially in order to preserve the rock from injury by fire. In
+old furnaces in which ore has been melted, as soon as the rocks have
+cooled the assistant chips away, with a spatula, the accretions which
+adhere to the walls, and then breaks them up with an iron hoe or a rake
+with five teeth. The cracks of the furnace are first filled in with
+fragments of rock or brick, which he does by passing his hand into the
+furnace through its mouth, or else, having placed a ladder against it,
+he mounts by the rungs to the upper open part of the furnace. To the
+upper part of the ladder a board is fastened that he may lean and
+recline against it. Then standing on the same ladder, with a wooden
+spatula, he smears the furnace walls over with lute; this spatula is
+four feet long, a digit thick, and for a foot upward from the bottom it
+is a palm wide, or even wider, generally two and a half digits. He
+spreads the lute equally over the inner walls of the furnace. The mouth
+of the copper pipe<a name="FNanchor_9_243" id="FNanchor_9_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_243" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> should not protrude from the lute, lest sows<a name="FNanchor_10_244" id="FNanchor_10_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_244" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>
+form round about it and thus impede the melting, for the furnace bellows
+could not force a blast through them. Then the same assistant throws a
+little powdered charcoal into the pit of the forehearth and sprinkles it
+with pulverised earth. Afterward, with a bucket he pours water into it
+and sweeps this all over the forehearth pit, and with the broom drives
+the turbid water into the furnace hearth and likewise sweeps it out.
+Next he throws the mixed and moistened powder into the furnace, and then
+a second time mounting the steps of the ladder, he introduces the rammer
+into the furnace and pounds the powder so that the hearth is made solid.
+The rammer is rounded and three palms long; at the bottom it is five
+digits in diameter, at the top three and a half, therefore it is made in
+the form of a truncated cone; the handle of the rammer is round and five
+feet long and <span class="pagenum">[Pg 377]</span>two and a half digits thick; the upper part of the
+rammer, where the handle is inserted, is bound with an iron band two
+digits wide. There are some who, instead, use two rounded rammers three
+and a half digits in diameter, the same at the bottom as at the top.
+Some people prefer two wooden spatulas, or a rammer spatula.</p>
+
+<p>In a similar manner, mixed and moistened powder is thrown and pounded
+with a rammer in the forehearth pit, which is outside the furnace. When
+this is nearly completed, powder is again put in, and pushed with the
+rammer up toward the protruding copper pipe, so that from a point a
+digit under the mouth of the copper pipe the hearth slopes down into the
+crucible of the forehearth,<a name="FNanchor_11_245" id="FNanchor_11_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_245" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> and the metal can run down. The same is
+repeated until the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378"></a>[Pg 378]</span>forehearth pit is full, then afterward this is
+hollowed out with a curved blade; this blade is of iron, two palms and
+as many digits long, three digits wide, blunt at the top and sharp at
+the bottom. The crucible of the forehearth must be round, a foot in
+diameter and two palms deep if it has to contain a <i>centumpondium</i> of
+lead, or if only seventy <i>librae</i>, then three palms in diameter and two
+palms deep like the other. When the forehearth has been hollowed out it
+is pounded with a round bronze rammer. This is five digits high and the
+same in diameter, having a curved round handle one and a half digits
+thick; or else another bronze rammer is used, which is fashioned in the
+shape of a cone, truncated at the top, on which is imposed another cut
+away at the bottom, so that the middle part of the rammer may be grasped
+by the hand; this is six digits high, and five digits in diameter at the
+lower end and four at the top. Some use in its place a wooden spatula
+two and a half palms wide at the lower end and one palm thick.</p>
+
+<p>The assistant, having prepared the forehearth, returns to the furnace
+and besmears both sides as well as the top of the mouth with simple
+lute. In the lower part of the mouth he places lute that has been dipped
+in charcoal dust, to guard against the risk of the lute attracting to
+itself the powder of the hearth and vitiating it. Next he lays in the
+mouth of the furnace a straight round rod three quarters of a foot long
+and three digits in diameter. Afterward he places a piece of charcoal on
+the lute, of the same length and width as the mouth, so that it is
+entirely closed up; if there be not at hand one piece of charcoal so
+large, he takes two instead. When the mouth is thus closed up, he throws
+into the furnace a wicker basket full of charcoal, and in order that the
+piece of charcoal with which the mouth of the furnace is closed should
+not then fall out, the master holds it in with his hand. The pieces of
+charcoal which are thrown into the furnace should be of medium size, for
+if they are large they impede the blast of the bellows and prevent it
+from blowing through the tap-hole of the furnace into the forehearth to
+heat it. Then the master covers over the charcoal, placed at the mouth
+of the furnace, with lute and extracts the wooden rod, and thus the
+furnace is prepared. Afterward the assistant throws four or five larger
+baskets full of charcoal into the furnace, filling it right up; he also
+throws a little charcoal into the forehearth, and places glowing coals
+upon it in order that it may be kindled, but in order that the flames of
+this fire should not enter through the tap-hole of the furnace and fire
+the charcoal inside, he covers the tap-hole with lute or closes it with
+fragments of pottery. Some do not warm the forehearth the same evening,
+but place large charcoals round the edge of it, one leaning on the
+other; those who follow the first method sweep out the forehearth in the
+morning, and clean out the little pieces of charcoal and cinders, while
+those who follow the latter method take, early in the morning, burning
+firebrands, which have been prepared by the watchman of the works, and
+place them on the charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>At the fourth hour the master begins his work. He first inserts a small
+piece of glowing coal into the furnace, through the bronze nozzle-pipe
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379"></a>[Pg 379]</span>of the bellows, and blows up the fire with the bellows; thus within the
+space of half an hour the forehearth, as well as the hearth, becomes
+warmed, and of course more quickly if on the preceding day ores have
+been smelted in the same furnace, but if not then it warms more slowly.
+If the hearth and forehearth are not warmed before the ore to be smelted
+is thrown in, the furnace is injured and the metals lost; or if the
+powder from which both are made is damp in summer or frozen in winter,
+they will be cracked, and, giving out a sound like thunder, they will
+blow out the metals and other substances with great peril to the
+workmen. After the furnace has been warmed, the master throws in slags,
+and these, when melted, flow out through the tap-hole into the
+forehearth. Then he closes up the tap-hole at once with mixed lute and
+charcoal dust; this plug he fastens with his hand to a round wooden
+rammer that is five digits thick, two palms high, with a handle three
+feet long. The smelter extracts the slags from the forehearth with a
+hooked bar; if the ore to be smelted is rich in gold or silver he puts
+into the forehearth a <i>centumpondium</i> of lead, or half as much if the
+ore is poor, because the former requires much lead, the latter little;
+he immediately throws burning firebrands on to the lead so that it
+melts. Afterward he performs everything according to the usual manner
+and order, whereby he first throws into the furnace as many cakes melted
+from pyrites<a name="FNanchor_12_246" id="FNanchor_12_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_246" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>, as he requires to smelt the ore; then he puts in two
+wicker baskets full of ore with litharge and hearth-lead<a name="FNanchor_13_247" id="FNanchor_13_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_247" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>, and stones
+which fuse easily by fire of the second order, all mixed together; then
+one wicker basket full of charcoal, and lastly the slags. The furnace
+now being filled with all the things I have mentioned, the ore is slowly
+smelted; he does not put too much of it against the back wall of the
+furnace, lest sows should form around the nozzles of the bellows and the
+blast be impeded and the fire burn less fiercely.</p>
+
+<p>This, indeed, is the custom of many most excellent smelters, who know
+how to govern the four elements<a name="FNanchor_14_248" id="FNanchor_14_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_248" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>. They combine in right proportion
+the ores, which are part earth, placing no more than is suitable in the
+furnaces; they pour in the needful quantity of water; they moderate with
+skill the air from the bellows; they throw the ore into that part of the
+fire which burns fiercely. The master sprinkles water into each part of
+the furnace to dampen the charcoal slightly, so that the minute parts of
+ore may adhere to it, which otherwise the blast of the bellows and the
+force of the fire would agitate and blow away with the fumes. But as the
+nature of the ores to be smelted varies, the smelters have to arrange
+the hearth now high, now low, and to place the pipe in which the nozzles
+of the bellows are inserted sometimes on a great and sometimes at a
+slight angle, so that the blast of the bellows may <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380"></a>[Pg 380]</span>blow into the
+furnace in either a mild or a vigorous manner. For those ores which heat
+and fuse easily, a low hearth is necessary for the work of the smelters,
+and the pipe must be placed at a gentle angle to produce a mild blast
+from the bellows. On the contrary, those ores that heat and fuse slowly
+must have a high hearth, and the pipe must be placed at a steep incline
+in order to blow a strong blast of the bellows, and it is necessary, for
+this kind of ore, to have a very hot furnace in which slags, or cakes
+melted from pyrites, or stones which melt easily in the fire<a name="FNanchor_15_249" id="FNanchor_15_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_249" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>, are
+first melted, so that the ore should not settle in the hearth of the
+furnace and obstruct and choke up the tap-hole, as the minute metallic
+particles that have been washed from the ores are wont to do. Large
+bellows have wide nozzles, for if they were narrow the copious and
+strong blast would be too much compressed and too acutely blown into the
+furnace, and then the melted material would be chilled, and would form
+sows around the nozzle, and thus obstruct the opening into the furnace,
+which would cause great damage to the proprietors' property. If the ores
+agglomerate and do not fuse, the smelter, mounting on the ladder placed
+against the side of the furnace, divides the charge with a pointed or
+hooked bar, which he also pushes down into the pipe in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381"></a>[Pg 381]</span>which the nozzle
+of the bellows is placed, and by a downward movement dislodges the ore
+and the sows from around it.</p>
+
+<p>After a quarter of an hour, when the lead which the assistant has placed
+in the forehearth is melted, the master opens the tap-hole of the
+furnace with a tapping-bar. This bar is made of iron, is three and a
+half feet long, the forward end pointed and a little curved, and the
+back end hollow so that into it may be inserted a wooden handle, which
+is three feet long and thick enough to be well grasped by the hand. The
+slag first flows from the furnace into the forehearth, and in it are
+stones mixed with metal or with the metal adhering to them partly
+altered, the slag also containing earth and solidified juices. After
+this the material from the melted pyrites flows out, and then the molten
+lead contained in the forehearth absorbs the gold and silver. When that
+which has run out has stood for some time in the forehearth, in order to
+be able to separate one from the other, the master first either skims
+off the slags with the hooked bar or else lifts them off with an iron
+fork; the slags, as they are very light, float on the top. He next draws
+off the cakes of melted pyrites, which as they are of medium weight hold
+the middle place; he leaves in the forehearth the alloy of gold or
+silver with the lead, for these being the heaviest, sink to the bottom.
+As, however, there is a difference <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382"></a>[Pg 382]</span>in slags, the uppermost containing
+little metal, the middle more, and the lowest much, he puts these away
+separately, each in its own place, in order that to each heap, when it
+is re-smelted, he may add the proper fluxes, and can put in as much lead
+as is demanded for the metal in the slag; when the slag is re-melted, if
+it emits much odour, there is some metal in it; if it emits no odour,
+then it contains none. He puts the cakes of melted pyrites away
+separately, as they were nearest in the forehearth to the metal, and
+contain a little more of it than the slags; from all these cakes a
+conical mound is built up, by always placing the widest of them at the
+bottom. The hooked bar has a hook on the end, hence its name; otherwise
+it is similar to other bars.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383"></a><a href="images/fig383.jpg"><img src="images/fig383thumb.jpg" alt="Blast Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A, B, C&mdash;Three furnaces. At the
+first stands the smelter, who with a ladle pours the alloy out of the
+forehearth into the moulds. D&mdash;Forehearth. E&mdash;Ladle. F&mdash;Moulds. G&mdash;Round
+wooden rammer. H&mdash;Tapping-bar. At the second furnace stands the smelter,
+who opens the tap-hole with his tapping-bar. The assistant, standing on
+steps placed against the third furnace which has been broken open, chips
+off the accretions. I&mdash;Steps. K&mdash;Spatula. L&mdash;The other hooked bar.
+M&mdash;Mine captain carrying a cake, in which he has stuck the pick, to the
+scales to be weighed. N&mdash;Another mine captain opens a chest in which his
+things are kept.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 383]</span></span>
+Afterward the master closes up the tap-hole and fills the furnace with
+the same materials I described above, and again, the ores having been
+melted, he opens the tap-hole, and with a hooked bar extracts the slags
+and the cakes melted from pyrites, which have run down into the
+forehearth. He repeats the same operation until a certain and definite
+part of the ore has been smelted, and the day's work is at an end; if
+the ore was rich the work is finished in eight hours; if poor, it takes
+a longer time. But if the ore was so rich as to be smelted in less than
+eight hours, another operation is in the meanwhile combined with the
+first, and both are performed in the space of ten hours. When all the
+ore has been smelted, he throws into the furnace a basket full of
+litharge or hearth-lead, so that the metal which has remained in the
+accretions may run out with these when melted. When he has finally drawn
+out of the forehearth the slags and the cakes melted from pyrites, he
+takes out, with a ladle, the lead alloyed with gold or silver and pours
+it into little iron or copper pans, three palms wide and as many digits
+deep, but first lined on the inside with lute and dried by warming, lest
+the glowing molten substances should break through. The iron ladle is
+two palms wide, and in other respects it is similar to the others, all
+of which have a sufficiently long iron shaft, so that the fire should
+not burn the wooden part of the handle. When the alloy has been poured
+out of the forehearth, the smelter foreman and the mine captain weigh
+the cakes.</p>
+
+<p>Then the master breaks out the whole of the mouth of the furnace with a
+crowbar, and with that other hooked bar, the rabble and the five-toothed
+rake, he extracts the accretions and the charcoal. This crowbar is not
+unlike the other hooked one, but larger and wider; the handle of the
+rabble is six feet long and is half of iron and half of wood. The
+furnace having cooled, the master chips off the accretions clinging to
+the walls with a rectangular spatula six digits long, a palm broad, and
+sharp on the front edge; it has a round handle four feet long, half of
+it being of iron and half of wood. This is the first method of smelting
+ores.</p>
+
+<p>Because they generally consist of unequal constituents, some of which
+melt rapidly and others slowly, the ores rich in gold and silver cannot
+be smelted as rapidly or as easily by the other methods as they can by
+the first method, for three important reasons. The first reason is that,
+as often as the closed tap-hole of the furnace is opened with a
+tapping-bar, so often can the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384"></a>[Pg 384]</span>smelter observe whether the ore is
+melting too quickly or too slowly, or whether it is flaming in scattered
+bits, and not uniting in one mass; in the first case the ore is smelting
+too slowly and not without great expense; in the second case the metal
+mixes with the slag which flows out of the furnace into the forehearth,
+wherefore there is the expense of melting it again; in the third case,
+the metal is consumed by the violence of the fire. Each of these evils
+has its remedy; if the ore melts slowly or does not come together, it is
+necessary to add some amount of fluxes which melt the ore; or if they
+melt too readily, to decrease the amount.</p>
+
+<p>The second reason is that each time that the furnace is opened with a
+tapping-bar, it flows out into the forehearth, and the smelter is able
+to test the alloy of gold and lead or of silver with lead, which is
+called <i>stannum</i>.<a name="FNanchor_16_250" id="FNanchor_16_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_250" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> When the tap-hole is opened the second or third
+time, this test shows us whether the alloy of gold or silver has become
+richer, or whether the lead is too debilitated and wanting in strength
+to absorb any more gold or silver. If it has become richer, some portion
+of lead added to it should renew its strength; if it has not become
+richer, it is poured out of the forehearth that it may be replaced with
+fresh lead.</p>
+
+<p>The third reason is that if the tap-hole of the furnace is always open
+when the ore and other things are being smelted, the fluxes, which are
+easily melted, run out of the furnace before the rich gold and silver
+ores, for these are sometimes of a kind that oppose and resist melting
+by the fire for a longer period. It follows in this case, that some part
+of the ore is either consumed or is mixed with the accretions, and as a
+result little lumps of ore not yet melted are now and then found in the
+accretions. Therefore when these ores are being smelted, the tap-hole of
+the furnace should be closed for a time, as it is necessary to heat and
+mix the ore and the fluxes at the same time; since the fluxes fuse more
+rapidly than the ore, when the molten fluxes are held in the furnace,
+they thus melt the ore which does not readily fuse or mix with the lead.
+The lead absorbs the gold or silver, just as tin or lead when melted in
+the forehearth absorbs the other unmelted metal which has been thrown
+into it. But if the molten matter is poured upon that which is not
+molten, it runs off on all sides and consequently does not melt it. It
+follows from all this that ores rich in gold or silver, when put into a
+furnace with its tap-hole always open, cannot for that reason be smelted
+so successfully as in one where the tap-hole is closed for a time, so
+that during this time the ore may be melted by the molten fluxes.
+Afterward, when the tap-hole has been opened, they flow into the
+forehearth and mix there with the molten lead. This method of smelting
+the ores is used by us and by the Bohemians.</p>
+
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385"></a><a href="images/fig385.jpg"><img src="images/fig385thumb.jpg" alt="Blast Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A, B&mdash;Two furnaces. C&mdash;Forehearths.
+D&mdash;Dipping-pot. The smelter standing by the first furnace draws off the
+slags with a hooked bar. E&mdash;Hooked bar. F&mdash;Slags. G&mdash;The assistant
+drawing a bucket of water which he pours over the glowing slags to
+quench them. H&mdash;Basket made of twigs of wood intertwined. I&mdash;Rabble.
+K&mdash;Ore to be smelted. L&mdash;The master stands at the other furnace and
+prepares the forehearth by ramming it with two rammers. M&mdash;Crowbar.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 385]</span></span>
+The three remaining methods of smelting ores are similar to each other
+in that the tap-holes of the furnaces always remain open, so that the
+molten metals may continually run out. They differ greatly from each
+other, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386"></a>[Pg 386]</span>however, for the tap-hole of the first of this kind is deeper
+in the furnace and narrower than that of the third, and besides it is
+invisible and concealed. It easily discharges into the forehearth, which
+is one and a half feet higher than the floor of the building, in order
+that below it to the left a dipping-pot can be made. When the forehearth
+is nearly full of the slags, which well up from the invisible tap-hole
+of the furnace, they are skimmed off from the top with a hooked bar;
+then the alloy of gold or silver with lead and the melted pyrites, being
+uncovered, flow into the dipping-pot, and the latter are made into
+cakes; these cakes are broken and thrown back into the furnace so that
+all their metal may be smelted out. The alloy is poured into little iron
+moulds.</p>
+
+<p>The smelter, besides lead and cognate things, uses fluxes which combine
+with the ore, of which I gave a sufficient account in <a href="#BOOK_VII">Book VII</a>. The
+metals which are melted from ores that fuse readily in the fire, are
+profitable because they are smelted in a short time, while those which
+are difficult to fuse are not as profitable, because they take a long
+time. When fluxes remain in the furnace and do not melt, they are not
+suitable; for this reason, accretions and slags are the most convenient
+for smelting, because they melt quickly. It is necessary to have an
+industrious and experienced smelter, who in the first place takes care
+not to put into the furnace more ores mixed with fluxes than it can
+accommodate.</p>
+
+<p>The powder out of which this furnace hearth and the adjoining forehearth
+and the dipping-pot are usually made, consists mostly of equal
+proportions of charcoal dust and of earth, or of equal parts of the same
+and of ashes. When the hearth of the furnace is prepared, a rod that
+will reach to the forehearth is put into it, higher up if the ore to be
+smelted readily fuses, and lower down if it fuses with difficulty. When
+the dipping-pot and forehearth are finished, the rod is drawn out of the
+furnace so that the tap-hole is open, and through it the molten material
+flows continuously into the forehearth, which should be very near the
+furnace in order that it may keep very hot and the alloy thus be made
+purer. If the ore to be smelted does not melt easily, the hearth of the
+furnace must not be made too sloping, lest the molten fluxes should run
+down into the forehearth before the ore is smelted, and the metal thus
+remain in the accretions on the sides of the furnace. The smelter must
+not ram the hearth so much that it becomes too hard, nor make the
+mistake of ramming the lower part of the mouth to make it hard, for it
+could not breathe<a name="FNanchor_17_251" id="FNanchor_17_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_251" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>, nor could the molten matter flow freely out of
+the furnace. The ore which does not readily melt is thrown as much as
+possible to the back of the furnace, and toward that part where the fire
+burns very fiercely, so that it may be smelted longer. In this way the
+smelter may direct it whither he wills. Only when it glows at the part
+near the bellows' nozzle does it signify that all the ore is smelted
+which has been thrown to the side of the furnace in which the nozzles
+are placed. If the ore is easily melted, one or two wicker baskets full
+are thrown into the front part of the furnace so that the fire, being
+driven back by it, may also smelt the ore and the sows that <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388"></a>[Pg 388]</span>form round
+about the nozzles of the bellows. This process of smelting is very
+ancient among the Tyrolese<a name="FNanchor_18_252" id="FNanchor_18_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_252" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>, but not so old among the Bohemians.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387"></a><a href="images/fig387.jpg"><img src="images/fig387thumb.jpg" alt="Blast Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A, B&mdash;Two furnaces. C&mdash;Forehearth.
+D&mdash;Dipping-pots. The master stands at the one furnace and draws away the
+slags with an iron fork. E&mdash;Iron fork. F&mdash;Wooden hoe with which the
+cakes of melted pyrites are drawn out. G&mdash;The forehearth crucible:
+one-half inside is to be seen open in the other furnace. H&mdash;The half
+outside the furnace. I&mdash;The assistant prepares the forehearth, which is
+separated from the furnace that it may be seen. K&mdash;Bar. L&mdash;Wooden
+rammer. M&mdash;Ladder. N&mdash;Ladle.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 387]</span></span>
+The second method of smelting ores stands in a measure midway between
+that one performed in a furnace of which the tap-hole is closed
+intermittently, and the first of the methods performed in a furnace
+where the tap-hole is always open. In this manner are smelted the ores
+of gold and silver that are neither very rich nor very poor, but
+mediocre, which fuse easily and are readily absorbed by the lead. It was
+found that in this way a large quantity of ore could be smelted at one
+operation without much labour or great expense, and could thus be
+alloyed with lead. This furnace has two crucibles, one of which is half
+inside the furnace and half outside, so that the lead being put into
+this crucible, the part of the lead which is in the furnace absorbs the
+metals of the ores which easily fuse; the other crucible is lower, and
+the alloy and the molten pyrites run into it. Those who make use of this
+method of smelting, tap the alloy of gold or silver with lead from the
+upper crucible once or twice if need be, and throw in other lead or
+litharge, and each absorbs that flux which is nearest. This method of
+smelting is in use in Styria<a name="FNanchor_19_253" id="FNanchor_19_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_253" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389"></a><a href="images/fig389.jpg"><img src="images/fig389thumb.jpg" alt="Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A, B&mdash;Two furnaces. C&mdash;Tap-holes of
+furnaces. D&mdash;Forehearths. E&mdash;Their tap-holes. F&mdash;Dipping-pots. G&mdash;At the
+one furnace stands the smelter carrying a wicker basket full of
+charcoal. At the other furnace stands a smelter who with the third
+hooked bar breaks away the material which has frozen the tap-hole of the
+furnace. H&mdash;Hooked bar. I&mdash;Heap of charcoal. K&mdash;Barrow on which is a box
+made of wicker work in which the coals are measured. L&mdash;Iron spade.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 389]</span></span>
+The furnace in the third method of smelting ores has the tap-hole
+likewise open, but the furnace is higher and wider than the others, and
+its bellows are larger; for these reasons a larger charge of the ore can
+be thrown into it. When the mines yield a great abundance of ore for the
+smelter, they smelt in the same furnace continuously for three days and
+three nights, providing there be no defect either in the hearth or in
+the forehearth. In this kind of a furnace almost every kind of accretion
+will be found. The forehearth of the furnace is not unlike the
+forehearth of the first furnace of all, except that it has a tap-hole.
+However, because large charges of ore are smelted uninterruptedly, and
+the melted material runs out and the slags are skimmed off, there is
+need for a second forehearth crucible, into which the molten material
+runs through an opened tap-hole when the first is full. When a smelter
+has spent twelve hours' labour on this work, another always takes his
+place. The ores of copper and lead and the poorest ores of gold and
+silver are smelted by this method, because they cannot be smelted by the
+other three methods on account of the greater expense occasioned. Yet by
+this method a <i>centumpondium</i> of ore containing only one or two
+<i>drachmae</i> of gold, or only a half to one <i>uncia</i>, of silver,<a name="FNanchor_20_254" id="FNanchor_20_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_254" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> can be
+smelted; because there is a large amount of ore in each charge, smelting
+is continuous, and without expensive fluxes such as lead, litharge, and
+hearth-lead. In this method of smelting we must use only cupriferous
+pyrites which easily melt in the fire, in truth the cakes melted out
+from this, if they no longer absorb <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390"></a>[Pg 390]</span>much gold or silver, are
+replenished again from crude pyrites alone. If from this poor ore, with
+melted pyrites alone, material for cakes cannot be made, there are added
+other fluxes which have not previously been melted. These fluxes are,
+namely, lead ore, stones easily fused by fire of the second order and
+sand made from them, limestone, <i>tophus</i>, white schist, and iron
+stone<a name="FNanchor_21_255" id="FNanchor_21_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_255" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Although this method of smelting ores is rough and might not seem to be
+of great use, yet it is clever and useful; for a great weight of ores,
+in which the gold, silver, or copper are in small quantities, may be
+reduced into a few cakes containing all the metal. If on being first
+melted they are too crude to be suitable for the second melting, in
+which the lead absorbs the precious metals that are in the cakes, or in
+which the copper is melted out of them, yet they can be made suitable if
+they are repeatedly roasted, sometimes as often as seven or eight times,
+as I have explained in the last book. Smelters of this kind are so
+clever and expert, that in smelting they take out all the gold and
+silver which the assayer in assaying the ores has stated to be contained
+in them, because if during the first operation, when he makes the cakes,
+there is a <i>drachma</i> of gold or half an <i>uncia</i> of silver lost from the
+ores, the smelter obtains it from the slags by the second smelting. This
+method of smelting ores is old and very common to most of those who use
+other methods.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393"></a><a href="images/fig393.jpg"><img src="images/fig393thumb.jpg" alt="Lead smelting Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnace of the Carni.
+B&mdash;Low wall. C&mdash;Wood. D&mdash;Ore dripping lead. E&mdash;Large crucible.
+F&mdash;Moulds. G&mdash;Ladle. H&mdash;Slabs of lead. I&mdash;Rectangular hole at the back
+of the furnace. K&mdash;Saxon furnace. L&mdash;Opening in the back of the furnace.
+M&mdash;Wood. N&mdash;Upper crucible. O&mdash;Dipping-pot. P&mdash;Westphalian method of
+melting. Q&mdash;Heaps of charcoal. R&mdash;Straw. S&mdash;Wide slabs. T&mdash;Crucibles.
+V&mdash;Polish hearth.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 393]</span></span>
+Although lead ores are usually smelted in the third furnace&mdash;whose
+tap-hole is always open,&mdash;yet not a few people melt them in special
+furnaces by a method which I will briefly explain. The <i>Carni</i><a name="FNanchor_22_256" id="FNanchor_22_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_256" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> first
+burn such lead ores, and afterward break and crush them with large round
+mallets. Between the two low walls of a hearth, which is inside a
+furnace made of and vaulted with a rock that resists injury by the fire
+and does not burn into chalk, they place green wood with a layer of dry
+wood on the top of it; then they throw the ore on to this, and when the
+wood is kindled the lead drips down and runs on to the underlying
+sloping hearth<a name="FNanchor_23_257" id="FNanchor_23_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_257" class="fnanchor">[23]</a>. This hearth is made of pulverised <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391"></a>[Pg 391]</span>charcoal and
+earth, as is also a large crucible, one-half of which lies under the
+furnace and the other half outside it, into which runs the lead. The
+smelter, having first skimmed off the slags and other things with a hoe,
+pours the lead with a ladle into moulds, taking out the cakes after they
+have cooled. At the back of the furnace is a rectangular hole, so that
+the fire may be allowed more draught, and so that the smelter can crawl
+through it into the furnace if necessity demands.</p>
+
+<p>The Saxons who inhabit Gittelde, when smelting lead ore in a furnace not
+unlike a baking oven, put the wood in through a hole at the back of the
+furnace, and when it begins to burn vigorously the lead trickles out of
+the ore into a forehearth. When this is full, the smelting being
+accomplished, the tap-hole is opened with a bar, and in this way the
+lead, together with the slags, runs into the dipping-pots below.
+Afterward the cakes of lead, when they are cold, are taken from the
+moulds.</p>
+
+<p>In Westphalia they heap up ten wagon-loads of charcoal on some hillside
+which adjoins a level place, and the top of the heap being made flat,
+straw is thrown upon it to the thickness of three or four digits. On the
+top of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392"></a>[Pg 392]</span>this is laid as much pure lead ore as the heap can bear; then
+the charcoal is kindled, and when the wind blows, it fans the fire so
+that the ore is smelted. In this wise the lead, trickling down from the
+heap, flows on to the level and forms broad thin slabs. A few hundred
+pounds of lead ore are kept at hand, which, if things go well, are
+scattered over the heap. These broad slabs are impure and are laid upon
+dry wood which in turn is placed on green wood laid over a large
+crucible, and the former having been kindled, the lead is re-melted.</p>
+
+<p>The Poles use a hearth of bricks four feet high, sloping on both sides
+and plastered with lute. On the upper level part of the hearth large
+pieces of wood are piled, and on these is placed small wood with lute
+put in between; over the top are laid wood shavings, and upon these
+again pure lead ore covered with large pieces of wood. When these are
+kindled, the ore melts and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394"></a>[Pg 394]</span>runs down on to the lower layer of wood;
+and when this is consumed by the fire, the metal is collected. If
+necessity demand, it is melted over and over again in the same manner,
+but it is finally melted by means of wood laid over the large crucible,
+the slabs of lead being placed upon it.</p>
+
+<p>The concentrates from washing are smelted together with slags (fluxes?)
+in a third furnace, of which the tap-hole is always open.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395"></a><a href="images/fig395.jpg"><img src="images/fig395thumb.jpg" alt="Blast Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnaces. B&mdash;Vaulted roof.
+C&mdash;Columns. D&mdash;Dust-chamber. E&mdash;Opening. F&mdash;Chimney. G&mdash;Window. H&mdash;Door.
+I&mdash;Chute.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 395]</span></span>
+It is worth while to build vaulted dust-chambers over the furnaces,
+especially over those in which the precious ores are to be smelted, in
+order that the thicker part of the fumes, in which metals are not
+wanting, may be caught and saved. In this way two or more furnaces are
+combined under the same vaulted ceiling, which is supported by the wall,
+against which the furnaces are built, and by four columns. Under this
+the smelters of the ore perform their work. There are two openings
+through which the fumes rise from the furnaces into the wide vaulted
+chamber, and the wider this is the more fumes it collects; in the middle
+of this chamber over the arch is an opening three palms high and two
+wide. This catches the fumes of both furnaces, which have risen up from
+both sides of the vaulted chamber to its arch, and have fallen again
+because they could not force their way out; and they thus pass out
+through the opening mentioned, into the chimney which the Greeks call
+<span class="greek" title="Greek: kapnodoch�">&kappa;&alpha;&pi;&nu;&omicron;&delta;&#972;&chi;&eta;</span>, the name being taken from the object. The chimney
+has thin iron plates fastened into the walls, to which the thinner
+metallic substances adhere when ascending with the fumes. The thicker
+metallic substances, or <i>cadmia</i>,<a name="FNanchor_25_258" id="FNanchor_25_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_258" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> adhere to the vaulted chamber, and
+often harden into stalactites. On one side of the chamber is a window in
+which are set panes of glass, so that the light may be transmitted, but
+the fumes kept in; on the other side is a door, which is kept entirely
+closed while the ores are being smelted in the furnaces, so that none of
+the fumes may escape. It is opened in order that the workman, passing
+through it, may be enabled to enter the chamber and remove the soot and
+<i>pompholyx</i><a name="FNanchor_26_259" id="FNanchor_26_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_259" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> and chip off <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396"></a>[Pg 396]</span>the <i>cadmia</i>; this sweeping is done twice
+a year. The soot mixed with <i>pompholyx</i> and the <i>cadmia</i>, being chipped
+off, is thrown down through a long chute made of four boards joined in
+the shape of a rectangle, that they should not fly away. They fall on to
+the floor, and are sprinkled with salt water, and are again smelted with
+ore and litharge, and become an emolument to the proprietors. Such
+chambers, which catch the metallic substances that rise with the fumes,
+are profitable for all metalliferous ores; but especially for the minute
+metallic particles collected by washing crushed ores and rock, because
+these usually fly out with the fire of the furnaces.</p>
+
+<p>I have explained the four general methods of smelting ores; now I will
+state how the ores of each metal are smelted, or how the metal is
+obtained from the ore. I will begin with gold. Its sand, the
+concentrates from washing, or the gold dust collected in any other
+manner, should very often not be smelted, but should be mixed with
+quicksilver and washed with tepid water, so that all the impurities may
+be eliminated. This method I explained in <a href="#BOOK_VII">Book VII</a>. Or they are placed
+in the <i>aqua</i> which separates gold from silver, for this also separates
+its impurities. In this method we see the gold sink in the glass
+ampulla, and after all the <i>aqua</i> has been drained from the particles,
+it frequently remains as a gold-coloured residue at the bottom; this
+powder, when it has been moistened with oil made from argol<a name="FNanchor_27_260" id="FNanchor_27_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_260" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>, is then
+dried and placed in a crucible, where it is melted with borax or with
+saltpetre and salt; or the same very fine dust is thrown into molten
+silver, which absorbs it, and from this it is again parted by <i>aqua
+valens</i><a name="FNanchor_28_261" id="FNanchor_28_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_261" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to smelt gold ore either outside the blast furnace in a
+crucible, or inside the blast furnace; in the former case a small charge
+of ore is used, in the latter a large charge of it. <i>Rudis</i> gold, of
+whatever colour it is, is crushed with a <i>libra</i> each of sulphur and
+salt, a third of a <i>libra</i> of copper, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397"></a>[Pg 397]</span>and a quarter of a <i>libra</i> of
+argol; they should be melted in a crucible on a slow fire for three
+hours, then the alloy is put into molten silver that it may melt more
+rapidly. Or a <i>libra</i> of the same crude gold, crushed up, is mixed
+together with half a <i>libra</i> of <i>stibium</i> likewise crushed, and put into
+a crucible with half an <i>uncia</i> of copper filings, and heated until they
+melt, then a sixth part of granulated lead is thrown into the same
+crucible. As soon as the mixture emits an odour, iron-filings are added
+to it, or if these are not at hand, iron hammer-scales, for both of
+these break the strength of the <i>stibium</i>. When the fire consumes it,
+not alone with it is some strength of the <i>stibium</i> consumed, but some
+particles of gold and also of silver, if it be mixed with the gold<a name="FNanchor_29_262" id="FNanchor_29_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_262" class="fnanchor">[29]</a>.
+When the button has been taken out of the crucible and cooled, it is
+melted in a cupel, first until the antimony is exhaled, and thereafter
+until the lead is separated from it.</p>
+
+<p>Crushed pyrites which contains gold is smelted in the same way; it and
+the <i>stibium</i> should be of equal weight and in truth the gold may be
+made from them in a number of different ways<a name="FNanchor_30_263" id="FNanchor_30_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_263" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>. One part of crushed
+material is mixed with six parts of copper, one part of sulphur, half a
+part of salt, and they are all placed in a pot and over them is poured
+wine distilled by heating liquid argol in an ampulla. The pot is covered
+and smeared over with lute and is put in a hot place, so that the
+mixture moistened with wine may dry for the space of six days, then it
+is heated for three hours over a gentle fire that it may combine more
+rapidly with the lead. Finally it is put into a cupel and the gold is
+separated from the lead<a name="FNanchor_31_264" id="FNanchor_31_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_264" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Or else one <i>libra</i> of the concentrates from washing pyrites, or other
+stones to which gold adheres, is mixed with half a <i>libra</i> of salt, half
+a <i>libra</i> of argol, a third of a <i>libra</i> of glass-galls, a sixth of a
+<i>libra</i> of gold or silver slags, and a <i>sicilicus</i> of copper. The
+crucible into which these are put, after it has been covered with a lid,
+is sealed with lute and placed in a small furnace that is provided with
+small holes through which the air is drawn in, and then it is heated
+until it turns red and the substances put in have alloyed; this should
+take place within four or five hours. The alloy having cooled, it is
+again crushed to powder and a pound of litharge is added to it; then it
+is heated again in another crucible until it melts. The button is taken
+out, purged of slag, and placed in a cupel, where the gold is separated
+from the lead.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398"></a>[Pg 398]</span></p><p>Or to a <i>libra</i> of the powder prepared from such metalliferous
+concentrates, is added a <i>libra</i> each of salt, of saltpetre, of argol,
+and of glass-galls, and it is heated until it melts. When cooled and
+crushed, it is washed, then to it is added a <i>libra</i> of silver, a third
+of copper filings, a sixth of litharge, and it is likewise heated again
+until it melts. After the button has been purged of slag, it is put into
+the cupel, and the gold and silver are separated from the lead; the gold
+is parted from the silver with <i>aqua valens</i>. Or else a <i>libra</i> of the
+powder prepared from such metalliferous concentrates, a quarter of a
+<i>libra</i> of copper filings, and two <i>librae</i> of that second powder<a name="FNanchor_32_265" id="FNanchor_32_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_265" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>
+which fuses ores, are heated until they melt. The mixture when cooled is
+again reduced to powder, roasted and washed, and in this manner a blue
+powder is obtained. Of this, and silver, and that second powder which
+fuses ores, a <i>libra</i> each are taken, together with three <i>librae</i> of
+lead, and a quarter of a <i>libra</i> of copper, and they are heated together
+until they melt; then the button is treated as before. Or else a <i>libra</i>
+of the powder prepared from such metalliferous concentrates, half a
+<i>libra</i> of saltpetre, and a quarter of a <i>libra</i> of salt are heated
+until they melt. The alloy when cooled is again crushed to powder, one
+<i>libra</i> of which is absorbed by four pounds of molten silver. Or else a
+<i>libra</i> of the powder made from that kind of concentrates, together with
+a <i>libra</i> of sulphur, a <i>libra</i> and a half of salt, a third of a <i>libra</i>
+of salt made from argol, and a third of a <i>libra</i> of copper resolved
+into powder with sulphur, are heated until they melt. Afterward the lead
+is re-melted, and the gold is separated from the other metals. Or else a
+<i>libra</i> of the powder of this kind of concentrates, together with two
+<i>librae</i> of salt, half a <i>libra</i> of sulphur, and one <i>libra</i> of
+litharge, are heated, and from these the gold is melted out. By these
+and similar methods concentrates containing gold, if there be a small
+quantity of them or if they are very rich, can be smelted outside the
+blast furnace.</p>
+
+<p>If there be much of them and they are poor, then they are smelted in the
+blast furnace, especially the ore which is not crushed to powder, and
+particularly when the gold mines yield an abundance of it<a name="FNanchor_33_266" id="FNanchor_33_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_266" class="fnanchor">[33]</a>. The gold
+concentrates mixed with litharge and hearth-lead, to which are added
+iron-scales, are smelted in the blast furnace whose tap-hole is
+intermittently closed, or else in the first or the second furnaces in
+which the tap-hole is always open. In this manner an <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399"></a>[Pg 399]</span>alloy of gold and
+lead is obtained which is put into the cupellation furnace. Two parts of
+roasted pyrites or <i>cadmia</i> which contain gold, are put with one part of
+unroasted, and are smelted together in the third furnace whose tap-hole
+is always open, and are made into cakes. When these cakes have been
+repeatedly roasted, they are re-smelted in the furnace whose tap-hole is
+temporarily closed, or in one of the two others whose tap-holes are
+always open. In this manner the lead absorbs the gold, whether pure or
+argentiferous or cupriferous, and the alloy is taken to the cupellation
+furnace. Pyrites, or other gold ore which is mixed with much material
+that is consumed by fire and flies out of the furnace, is melted with
+stone from which iron is melted, if this is at hand. Six parts of such
+pyrites, or of gold ore reduced to powder and sifted, four of stone from
+which iron is made, likewise crushed, and three of slaked lime, are
+mixed together and moistened with water; to these are added two and a
+half parts of the cakes which contain some copper, together with one and
+a half parts of slag. A basketful of fragments of the cakes is thrown
+into the furnace, then the mixture of other things, and then the slag.
+Now when the middle part of the forehearth is filled with the molten
+material which runs down from the furnace, the slags are first skimmed
+off, and then the cakes made of pyrites; afterward the alloy of copper,
+gold and silver, which settles at the bottom, is taken out. The cakes
+are gently roasted and re-smelted with lead, and made into cakes, which
+are carried to other works. The alloy of copper, gold, and silver is not
+roasted, but is re-melted again in a crucible with an equal portion of
+lead. Cakes are also made much richer in copper and gold than those I
+spoke of. In order that the alloy of gold and silver may be <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400"></a>[Pg 400]</span>made
+richer, to eighteen <i>librae</i> of it are added forty-eight <i>librae</i> of
+crude ore, three <i>librae</i> of the stone from which iron is made, and
+three-quarters of a <i>libra</i> of the cakes made from pyrites, and mixed
+with lead, all are heated together in the crucible until they melt. When
+the slag and the cakes melted from pyrites have been skimmed off, the
+alloy is carried to other furnaces.</p>
+
+<p>There now follows silver, of which the native silver or the lumps of
+<i>rudis</i> silver<a name="FNanchor_34_267" id="FNanchor_34_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_267" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> obtained from the mines are not smelted in the blast
+furnaces, but in small iron pans, of which I will speak at the proper
+place; these lumps are heated and thrown into molten silver-lead alloy
+in the cupellation furnace when the silver is being separated from the
+lead, and refined. The tiny flakes or tiny lumps of silver adhering to
+stones or marble or rocks, or again the same little lumps mixed with
+earth, or silver not pure enough, should be smelted in the furnace of
+which the tap-hole is only closed for a short time, together with cakes
+melted from pyrites, with silver slags, and with stones which easily
+fuse in fire of the second order.</p>
+
+<p>In order that particles of silver should not fly away<a name="FNanchor_35_268" id="FNanchor_35_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_268" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> from the lumps
+of ore consisting of minute threads of pure silver and twigs of native
+silver, they are enclosed in a pot, and are placed in the same furnace
+where the rest of the silver ores are being smelted. Some people smelt
+lumps of native silver not sufficiently pure, in pots or triangular
+crucibles, whose lids are sealed with lute. They do not place these pots
+in the blast furnace, but arrange them in the assay furnace into which
+the draught of the air blows through small holes. To one part of the
+native silver they add three parts of powdered litharge, as many parts
+of hearth-lead, half a part of galena<a name="FNanchor_36_269" id="FNanchor_36_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_269" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>, and a small quantity of salt
+and iron-scales. The alloy which settles at the bottom of the other
+substances in the pot is carried to the cupellation furnace, and the
+slags are re-melted with the other silver slags. They crush under the
+stamps and wash the pots or crucibles to which silver-lead alloy or
+slags adhere, and having collected the concentrates they smelt them
+together with the slags. This method of smelting <i>rudis</i> silver, if
+there is a small quantity of it, is the best, because the smallest
+portion of silver does not fly out of the pot or the crucible, and get
+lost.</p>
+
+<p>If bismuth ore or antimony ore or lead ore<a name="FNanchor_37_270" id="FNanchor_37_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_270" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> contains silver, it is
+smelted with the other ores of silver; likewise galena or pyrites, if
+there is a small amount of it. If there be much galena, whether it
+contain a large or a small amount of silver, it is smelted separately
+from the others; which process I will explain a little further on.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401"></a>[Pg 401]</span></p><p>Because lead and copper ores and their metals have much in common with
+silver ores, it is fitting that I should say a great deal concerning
+them, both now and later on. Also in the same manner, pyrites are
+smelted separately if there be much of them. To three parts of roasted
+lead or copper ore and one part of crude ore, are added concentrates if
+they were made by washing the same ore, together with slags, and all are
+put in the third furnace whose tap-hole is always open. Cakes are made
+from this charge, which, when they have been quenched with water, are
+roasted. Of these roasted cakes generally four parts are again mixed
+with one part of crude pyrites and re-melted in the same furnace. Cakes
+are again made from this charge, and if there is a large amount of
+copper in these cakes, copper is made immediately after they have been
+roasted and re-melted; if there is little copper in the cakes they are
+also roasted, but they are re-smelted with a little soft slag. In this
+method the molten lead in the forehearth absorbs the silver. From the
+pyritic material which floats on the top of the forehearth are made
+cakes for the third time, and from them when they have been roasted and
+re-smelted is made copper. Similarly, three parts of roasted
+<i>cadmia</i><a name="FNanchor_38_271" id="FNanchor_38_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_271" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> in which there is silver, are mixed with one part of crude
+pyrites, together with slag, and this charge is smelted and cakes are
+made from it; these cakes having been roasted are re-smelted in the same
+furnace. By this method the lead contained in the forehearth absorbs the
+silver, and the silver-lead is taken to the cupellation furnace. Crude
+quartz and stones which easily fuse in fire of the third order, together
+with other ores in which there is a small amount of silver, ought to be
+mixed with crude roasted pyrites or <i>cadmia</i>, because the roasted cakes
+of pyrites or <i>cadmia</i> cannot be profitably smelted separately. In a
+similar manner earths which contain little silver are mixed with the
+same; but if pyrites and <i>cadmia</i> are not available to the smelter, he
+smelts such silver ores and earths with litharge, hearth-lead, slags,
+and stones which easily melt in the fire. The concentrates<a name="FNanchor_39_272" id="FNanchor_39_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_272" class="fnanchor">[39]</a>
+originating from the washing of <i>rudis</i> silver, after first being
+roasted<a name="FNanchor_40_273" id="FNanchor_40_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_273" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> until they melt, are smelted with mixed litharge and
+hearth-lead, or else, after being moistened with water, they are smelted
+with cakes made from pyrites and <i>cadmia</i>. By neither of these methods
+do (the concentrates) fall back in the furnace, or fly out of it, driven
+by the blast of the bellows and the agitation of the fire. If the
+concentrates originated from galena they are smelted with it after
+having been roasted; and if from pyrites, then with pyrites.</p>
+
+<p>Pure copper ore, whether it is its own colour or is tinged with
+chrysocolla or azure, and copper glance, or grey or black <i>rudis</i>
+copper, is smelted in a furnace of which the tap-hole is closed for a
+very short time, or else is always <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402"></a>[Pg 402]</span>open<a name="FNanchor_41_274" id="FNanchor_41_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_274" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>. If there is a large amount
+of silver in the ore it is run into the forehearth, and the greater part
+of the silver is absorbed by the molten lead, and the remainder is sold
+with the copper to the proprietor of the works in which silver is parted
+from copper<a name="FNanchor_42_275" id="FNanchor_42_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_275" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>. If there is a small amount of silver in the ore, no
+lead is put into the forehearth to absorb the silver, and the
+above-mentioned <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403"></a>[Pg 403]</span>proprietors buy it in with the copper; if there be no
+silver, copper is made direct. If such copper ore contains some minerals
+which do not easily melt, as pyrites or <i>cadmia metallica fossilis</i><a name="FNanchor_43_276" id="FNanchor_43_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_276" class="fnanchor">[43]</a>,
+or stone from which iron is melted, then crude pyrites which easily fuse
+are added to it, together with slag. From this charge, when smelted,
+they make cakes; and from <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404"></a>[Pg 404]</span>these, when they have been roasted as much as
+is necessary and re-smelted, the copper is made. But if there be some
+silver in the cakes, for which an outlay of lead has to be made, then it
+is first run into the forehearth, and the molten lead absorbs the
+silver.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, <i>rudis</i> copper ore of inferior quality, whether ash-coloured or
+purple, blackish and occasionally in parts blue, is smelted in the first
+furnace whose tap-hole is always open. This is the method of the
+Tyrolese. To as much <i>rudis</i> copper ore as will fill eighteen vessels,
+each of which holds <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405"></a>[Pg 405]</span>almost as much as seven Roman <i>moduli</i><a name="FNanchor_44_277" id="FNanchor_44_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_277" class="fnanchor">[44]</a>, the
+first smelter&mdash;for there are three&mdash;adds three cartloads of lead slags,
+one cartload of schist, one fifth of a <i>centumpondium</i> of stones which
+easily fuse in the fire, besides a small quantity of concentrates
+collected from copper slag and accretions, all of which he smelts for
+the space of twelve hours, and from which he makes six <i>centumpondia</i> of
+primary cakes and one-half of a <i>centumpondium</i> of alloy. One half of
+the latter consists of copper and silver, and it settles to the bottom
+of the forehearth. In every <i>centumpondium</i> of the cakes there is half a
+<i>libra</i> of silver and sometimes half an <i>uncia</i> besides; in the half of
+a <i>centumpondium</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406"></a>[Pg 406]</span>of the alloy there is a <i>bes</i> or three-quarters of
+silver. In this way every week, if the work is for six days, thirty-six
+<i>centumpondia</i> of cakes are made and three <i>centumpondia</i> of alloy, in
+all of which there is often almost twenty-four <i>librae</i> of silver. The
+second smelter separates from the primary cakes the greater part of the
+silver by absorbing it in lead. To eighteen <i>centumpondia</i> of cakes made
+from crude copper ore, he adds twelve <i>centumpondia</i> of hearth-lead and
+litharge, three <i>centumpondia</i> of stones from which lead is smelted,
+five <i>centumpondia</i> of hard cakes rich in silver, and two <i>centumpondia</i>
+of exhausted liquation cakes<a name="FNanchor_45_278" id="FNanchor_45_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_278" class="fnanchor">[45]</a>; he adds besides, some of the slags
+resulting from smelting crude copper, together with a small quantity of
+concentrates made from accretions, all of which he melts for the space
+of twelve hours, and makes eighteen <i>centumpondia</i> of secondary cakes,
+and twelve <i>centumpondia</i> of copper-lead-silver alloy; in each
+<i>centumpondium</i> of the latter there is half a <i>libra</i> of silver. After
+he has taken off the cakes with a hooked bar, he pours the alloy out
+into copper or iron moulds; by this method they make four cakes of
+alloy, which are carried to the works in which silver is parted from
+copper. On the following day, the same smelter, taking eighteen
+<i>centumpondia</i> of the secondary cakes, again adds twelve <i>centumpondia</i>
+of hearth-lead and litharge, three <i>centumpondia</i> of stones from which
+lead is smelted, five <i>centumpondia</i> of hard cakes rich in silver,
+together with slags from the smelting of the primary cakes, and with
+concentrates washed from the accretions which are usually made at that
+time. This charge is likewise smelted for the space of twelve hours, and
+he makes as many as thirteen <i>centumpondia</i> of tertiary cakes and eleven
+<i>centumpondia</i> of copper-lead-silver alloy, each <i>centumpondium</i> of
+which contains one-third of a <i>libra</i> and half an <i>uncia</i> of silver.
+When he has skimmed off the tertiary cakes with a hooked bar, the alloy
+is poured into copper moulds, and by this method four cakes of alloy are
+made, which, like the preceding four cakes of alloy, are carried to the
+works in which silver is parted from copper. By this method the second
+smelter makes primary cakes on alternate days and secondary cakes on the
+intermediate days. The third smelter takes eleven cartloads of the
+tertiary cakes and adds to them three cartloads of hard cakes poor in
+silver, together with the slag from smelting the secondary cakes, and
+the concentrates from the accretions which are usually made at that
+time. From this charge when smelted, he makes twenty <i>centumpondia</i> of
+quaternary cakes, which are called "hard cakes," and also fifteen
+<i>centumpondia</i> of those "hard cakes rich in silver," each
+<i>centumpondium</i> of which contains a third of a <i>libra</i> of silver. These
+latter cakes the second smelter, as I said before, adds to the primary
+and secondary cakes when he re-melts them. In the same way, from eleven
+cartloads of quaternary cakes thrice roasted, he makes the "final"
+cakes, of which one <i>centumpondium</i> contains only half an <i>uncia</i> of
+silver. In this operation he also makes fifteen <i>centumpondia</i> of "hard
+cakes poor in silver," in each <i>centumpondium</i> of which is a sixth of a
+<i>libra</i> of silver. These hard cakes the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407"></a>[Pg 407]</span>third smelter, as I have said,
+adds to the tertiary cakes when he re-smelts them, while from the
+"final" cakes, thrice roasted and re-smelted, is made black copper<a name="FNanchor_46_279" id="FNanchor_46_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_279" class="fnanchor">[46]</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>rudis</i> copper from which pure copper is made, if it contains little
+silver or if it does not easily melt, is first smelted in the third
+furnace of which the tap-hole is always open; and from this are made
+cakes, which after being seven times roasted are re-smelted, and from
+these copper is melted out; the cakes of copper are carried to a furnace
+of another kind, in which they are melted for the third time, in order
+that in the copper "bottoms" there may be more silver, while in the
+"tops" there may be less, which process is explained in <a href="#BOOK_XI">Book XI</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408"></a>[Pg 408]</span></p><p>Pyrites, when they contain not only copper, but also silver, are
+smelted in the manner I described when I treated of ores of silver. But
+if they are poor in silver, and if the copper which is melted out of
+them cannot easily be treated, they are smelted according to the method
+which I last explained.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, the copper schists containing bitumen or sulphur are roasted,
+and then smelted with stones which easily fuse in a fire of the second
+order, and are made into cakes, on the top of which the slags float.
+From these cakes, usually roasted seven times and re-melted, are melted
+out slags and two kinds of cakes; one kind is of copper and occupies the
+bottom of the crucible, and these are sold to the proprietors of the
+works in which silver is parted from copper; the other kind of cakes are
+usually re-melted with primary cakes. If the schist contains but a small
+amount of copper, it is burned, crushed under the stamps, washed and
+sieved, and the concentrates obtained from it are melted down; from this
+are made cakes from which, when roasted, copper is made. If either
+chrysocolla or azure, or yellow or black earth containing copper and
+silver, adheres to the schist, it is not washed, but is crushed and
+smelted with stones which easily fuse in fire of the second order.</p>
+
+<p>Lead ore, whether it be <i>molybdaena</i><a name="FNanchor_47_280" id="FNanchor_47_280"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_280" class="fnanchor">[47]</a>, pyrites, (galena?) or stone
+from which it is melted, is often smelted in a special furnace, of which
+I have spoken above, but no less often in the third furnace of which the
+tap-hole is always open. The hearth and forehearth are made from powder
+containing a small portion of iron hammer-scales; iron slag forms the
+principal flux for such ores; both of these the expert smelters consider
+useful and to the owner's advantage, because it is the nature of iron to
+attract lead. If it is <i>molybdaena</i> or the stone from which lead is
+smelted, then the lead runs down from the furnace into the forehearth,
+and when the slags have been skimmed off, the lead is poured out with a
+ladle. If pyrites are smelted, the first to flow from the furnace into
+the forehearth, as may be seen at Goslar, is a white molten substance,
+injurious and noxious to silver, for it consumes it. For this reason the
+slags which float on the top having been skimmed off, this substance is
+poured out; or if it hardens, then it is taken out with a hooked bar;
+and the walls of the furnace exude the same substance<a name="FNanchor_48_281" id="FNanchor_48_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_281" class="fnanchor">[48]</a>. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409"></a>[Pg 409]</span>Then the
+<i>stannum</i> runs out of the furnace into the forehearth; this is an alloy
+of lead and silver. From the silver-lead alloy they first skim off the
+slags, not rarely white, as some pyrites<a name="FNanchor_49_282" id="FNanchor_49_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_282" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> are, and afterward they
+skim off the cakes of pyrites, if there are any. In these cakes there is
+usually some copper; but since there is usually but a very small
+quantity, and as the forest <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410"></a>[Pg 410]</span>charcoal is not abundant, no copper is made
+from them. From the silver-lead poured into iron moulds they likewise
+make cakes; when these cakes have been melted in the cupellation
+furnace, the silver is parted from the lead, because part of the lead is
+transformed into litharge and part into hearth-lead, from which in the
+blast furnace on re-melting they make <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411"></a>[Pg 411]</span>de-silverized lead, for in this
+lead each <i>centumpondium</i> contains only a <i>drachma</i> of silver, when
+before the silver was parted from it each <i>centumpondium</i> contained more
+or less than three <i>unciae</i> of silver<a name="FNanchor_50_283" id="FNanchor_50_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_283" class="fnanchor">[50]</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The little black stones<a name="FNanchor_51_284" id="FNanchor_51_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_284" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> and others from which tin is made, are
+smelted in their own kind of furnace, which should be narrower than the
+other furnaces, that there may be only the small fire which is necessary
+for this ore. These furnaces are higher, that the height may compensate
+for the narrowness and make them of almost the same capacity as the
+other furnaces. At the top, in front, they are closed and on the other
+side they are open, where there are steps, because they cannot have the
+steps in front on account of the forehearth; the smelters ascend by
+these steps to put the tin-stone into the furnace. The hearth of the
+furnace is not made of powdered earth and charcoal, but on the floor of
+the works are placed sandstones which are not too hard; these are set on
+a slight slope, and are two and three-quarters feet long, the same
+number of feet wide, and two feet thick, for the thicker they are the
+longer they last in the fire. Around them is constructed a rectangular
+furnace eight or nine feet high, of broad sandstones, or of those common
+substances which by nature are composed of diverse materials<a name="FNanchor_52_285" id="FNanchor_52_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_285" class="fnanchor">[52]</a>. On the
+inside the furnace is everywhere evenly covered with lute. The upper
+part of the interior is two feet long and one foot wide, but below it is
+not so long and wide. Above it are two hood-walls, between which the
+fumes ascend from the furnace into the dust chamber, and through this
+they escape by a narrow opening in the roof. The sandstones are sloped
+at the bed of the furnace, so that the tin melted from the tin-stone may
+flow through the tap-hole of the furnace into the forehearth.<a name="FNanchor_53_286" id="FNanchor_53_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_286" class="fnanchor">[53]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412"></a>[Pg 412]</span></p><p>As there is no need for the smelters to have a fierce fire, it is not
+necessary to place the nozzles of the bellows in bronze or iron pipes,
+but only through a hole in the furnace wall. They place the bellows
+higher at the back so that the blast from the nozzles may blow straight
+toward the tap-hole of the furnace. That it may not be too fierce, the
+nozzles are wide, for if the fire were fiercer, tin could not be melted
+out from the tin-stone, as it would be consumed and turned into ashes.
+Near the steps is a hollowed stone, in which is placed the tin-stone to
+be smelted; as often as the smelter throws into the furnace an iron
+shovel-ful of this tin-stone, he puts on charcoal that was first put
+into a vat and washed with water to be cleansed from the grit and small
+stones which adhere to it, lest they melt at the same time as the
+tin-stone and obstruct the tap-hole and impede the flow of tin from the
+furnace. The tap-hole of the furnace is always open; in front of it is a
+forehearth a little more than half a foot deep, three-quarters of two
+feet long and one foot wide; this is lined with lute, and the tin from
+the tap-hole flows into it. On one side of the forehearth is a low wall,
+three-quarters of a foot wider and one foot longer than the forehearth,
+on which lies charcoal powder. On the other side the floor of the
+building slopes, so that the slags may conveniently run down and be
+carried away. As soon as the tin begins to run from the tap-hole of the
+furnace into the forehearth, the smelter scrapes <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413"></a>[Pg 413]</span>down some of the
+powdered charcoal into it from the wall, so that the slags may be
+separated from the hot metal, and so that it may be covered, lest any
+part of it, being very hot, should fly away with the fumes. If after the
+slag has been skimmed off, the powder does not cover up the whole of the
+tin, the smelter draws a little more charcoal off the wall with a
+scraper. After he has opened the tap-hole of the forehearth with a
+tapping-bar, in order that the tin can flow into the tapping-pot,
+likewise smeared with lute, he again closes the tap-hole with pure lute
+or lute mixed with powdered charcoal. The smelter, if he be diligent and
+experienced, has brooms at hand with which he sweeps down the walls
+above the furnace; to these walls and to the dust chamber minute
+tin-stones sometimes adhere with part of the fumes. If he be not
+sufficiently experienced in these matters and has melted at the same
+time all of the tin-stone,&mdash;which is commonly of three sizes, large,
+medium, and very small,&mdash;not a little waste of the proprietor's tin
+results; because, before the large or the medium sizes have melted, the
+small have either been burnt up in the furnace, or else, flying up from
+it, they not only adhere to the walls but also fall in the dust chamber.
+The owner of the works has the sweepings by right from the owner of the
+ore. For the above reasons the most experienced smelter melts them down
+separately; indeed, he melts the very small size in a wider furnace, the
+medium in a medium-sized furnace, and the largest size in the narrowest
+furnace. When he melts down the small size he uses a gentle blast from
+the bellows, with the medium-sized a moderate one, with the large size a
+violent blast; and when he smelts the first size he needs a slow fire,
+for the second a medium one, and for the third a fierce one; yet he uses
+a much less fierce fire than when he smelts the ores of gold, silver, or
+copper. When the workmen have spent three consecutive days and nights in
+this work, as is usual, they have finished their labours; in this time
+they are able to melt out a large weight of small <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414"></a>[Pg 414]</span>sized tin-stone which
+melts quickly, but less of the large ones which melt slowly, and a
+moderate quantity of the medium-sized which holds the middle course.
+Those who do not smelt the tin-stone in furnaces made sometimes wide,
+sometimes medium, or sometimes narrow, in order that great loss should
+not be occasioned, throw in first the smallest size, then the medium,
+then the large size, and finally those which are not quite pure; and the
+blast of the bellows is altered as required. In order that the tin-stone
+thrown into the furnace should not roll off from the large charcoal into
+the forehearth before the tin is melted out of it, the smelter uses
+small charcoal; first some of this moistened with water is placed in the
+furnace, and then he frequently repeats this succession of charcoal and
+tin-stone.</p>
+
+<p>The tin-stone, collected from material which during the summer was
+washed in a ditch through which a stream was diverted, and during the
+winter was screened on a perforated iron plate, is smelted in a furnace
+a palm wider than that in which the fine tin-stone dug out of the earth
+is smelted. For the smelting of these, a more vigorous blast of the
+bellows and a fiercer fire is needed than for the smelting of the large
+tin-stone. Whichever kind of tin-stone is being smelted, if the tin
+first flows from the furnace, much of it is made, and if slags first
+flow from the furnace, then only a little. It happens that the tin-stone
+is mixed with the slags when it is either less pure or ferruginous&mdash;that
+is, not enough roasted&mdash;and is imperfect when put into the furnace, or
+when it has been put in in a larger quantity than was necessary; then,
+although it may be pure and melt easily, the ore either runs out of the
+furnace at the same time, mixed with the slags, or else it settles so
+firmly at the bottom of the furnace that the operation of smelting being
+necessarily interrupted, the furnace freezes up.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415"></a><a href="images/fig415.jpg"><img src="images/fig415thumb.jpg" alt="Tin smelting Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnace. B&mdash;Its tap-hole.
+C&mdash;Forehearth. D&mdash;Its tap-hole. E&mdash;Slags. F&mdash;Scraper. G&mdash;Dipping-pot.
+H&mdash;Walls of the chimney. I&mdash;Broom. K&mdash;Copper plate. L&mdash;Latticework bars.
+M&mdash;Iron seal or die. N&mdash;Hammer.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 415]</span></span>
+The tap-hole of the forehearth is opened and the tin is diverted into
+the dipping-pot, and as often as the slags flow down the sloping floor
+of the building they are skimmed off with a rabble; as soon as the tin
+has run out of the forehearth, the tap-hole is again closed up with lute
+mixed with powdered charcoal. Glowing coals are put in the dipping-pot
+so that the tin, after it has run out, should not get chilled. If the
+metal is so impure that nothing can be made from it, the material which
+has run out is made into cakes to be re-smelted in the hearth, of which
+I shall have something to say later; if the metal is pure, it is poured
+immediately upon thick copper plates, at first in straight lines and
+then transversely over these to make a lattice. Each of these lattice
+bars is impressed with an iron die; if the tin was melted out of ore
+excavated from mines, then one stamp only, namely, that of the
+Magistrate, is usually imprinted, but if it is made from tin-stone
+collected on the ground after washing, then it is impressed with two
+seals, one the Magistrate's and the other a fork which the washers use.
+Generally, three of this kind of lattice bars are beaten and amalgamated
+into one mass with a wooden mallet.</p>
+
+<p>The slags that are skimmed off are afterward thrown with an iron shovel
+into a small trough hollowed from a tree, and are cleansed from
+charcoal <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416"></a>[Pg 416]</span>by agitation; when taken out they are broken up with a square
+iron mallet, and then they are re-melted with the fine tin-stone next
+smelted. There are some who crush the slags three times under wet stamps
+and re-melt them three times; if a large quantity of this be smelted
+while still wet, little tin is melted from it, because the slag, soon
+melted again, flows from the furnace into the forehearth. Under the wet
+stamps are also crushed the lute and broken rock with which such
+furnaces are lined, and also the accretions, which often contain fine
+tin-stone, either not melted or half-melted, and also prills of tin. The
+tin-stone not yet melted runs out through the screen into a trough, and
+is washed in the same way as tin-stone, while the partly melted and the
+prills of tin are taken from the mortar-box and washed in the sieve on
+which not very minute particles remain, and thence to the canvas strake.
+The soot which adheres to that part of the chimney which emits the
+smoke, also often contains very fine tin-stone which flies from the
+furnace with the fumes, and this is washed in the strake which I have
+just mentioned, and in other sluices. The prills of tin and the partly
+melted tin-stone that are contained in the lute and broken rock with
+which the furnace is lined, and in the remnants of the tin from the
+forehearth and the dipping-pot, are smelted together with the tin-stone.</p>
+
+<p>When tin-stone has been smelted for three days and as many nights in a
+furnace prepared as I have said above, some little particles of the rock
+from which the furnace is constructed become loosened by the fire and
+fall down; and then the bellows being taken away, the furnace is broken
+through at the back, and the accretions are first chipped off with
+hammers, and afterward the whole of the interior of the furnace is
+re-fitted with the prepared sandstone, and again evenly lined with lute.
+The sandstone placed on the bed of the furnace, if it has become faulty,
+is taken out, and another is laid down in its place; those rocks which
+are too large the smelter chips off and fits with a sharp pick.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417"></a><a href="images/fig417.jpg"><img src="images/fig417thumb.jpg" alt="Tin smelting Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnaces. B&mdash;Forehearths.
+C&mdash;Their tap-holes. D&mdash;Dipping-pots. E&mdash;Pillars. F&mdash;Dust-chamber.
+G&mdash;Window. H&mdash;Chimneys. I&mdash;Tub in which the coals are washed.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 417]</span></span>
+Some build two furnaces against the wall just like those I have
+described, and above them build a vaulted ceiling supported by the wall
+and by four pillars. Through holes in the vaulted ceiling the fumes from
+the furnaces ascend into a dust chamber, similar to the one described
+before, except that there is a window on each side and there is no door.
+The smelters, when they have to clear away the flue-dust, mount by the
+steps at the side of the furnaces, and climb by ladders into the dust
+chamber through the apertures in the vaulted ceilings over the furnaces.
+They then remove the flue-dust from everywhere and collect it in
+baskets, which are passed from one to the other and emptied. This dust
+chamber differs from the other described, in the fact that the chimneys,
+of which it has two, are not dissimilar to those of a house; they
+receive the fumes which, being unable to escape through the upper part
+of the chamber, are turned back and re-ascend and release the tin; thus
+the tin set free by the fire and turned to ash, and the little
+tin-stones which fly up with the fumes, remain in the dust chamber or
+else adhere to copper plates in the chimney.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418"></a>[Pg 418]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig418.jpg"><img src="images/fig418thumb.jpg" alt="Refining Tin" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Hearths. B&mdash;Dipping-pots. C&mdash;Wood.
+D&mdash;Cakes. E&mdash;Ladle. F&mdash;Copper plate. G&mdash;Lattice-shaped bars. H&mdash;Iron
+dies. I&mdash;Wooden mallet. K&mdash;Mass of tin bars. L&mdash;Shovel.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 418]</span></span>
+If the tin is so impure that it cracks when struck with the hammer, it
+is not immediately made into lattice-like bars, but into the cakes which
+I have spoken of before, and these are refined by melting again on a
+hearth. This hearth consists of sandstones, which slope toward the
+centre and a little toward a dipping-pot; at their joints they are
+covered with lute. Dry logs are arranged on each side, alternately
+upright and lengthwise, and more closely in the middle; on this wood are
+placed five or six cakes of tin which all together weigh about six
+<i>centumpondia</i>; the wood having been kindled, the tin drips down and
+flows continuously into the dipping-pot which is on the floor. The
+impure tin sinks to the bottom of this dipping-pot and the pure tin
+floats on the top; then both are ladled out by the master, who first
+takes out the pure tin, and by pouring it over thick plates of copper
+makes lattice-like bars. Afterward he takes out the impure tin from
+which he makes cakes; he discriminates between them, when he ladles and
+pours, by the ease or difficulty of the flow. One <i>centumpondium</i> of the
+lattice-like bars sells for more than a <i>centumpondium</i> of cakes, for
+the price of the former <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419"></a>[Pg 419]</span>exceeds the price of the latter by a gold
+coin<a name="FNanchor_54_287" id="FNanchor_54_287"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_287" class="fnanchor">[54]</a>. These lattice-like bars are lighter than the others, and when
+five of them are pounded and amalgamated with a wooden mallet, a mass is
+made which is stamped with an iron die. There are some who do not make a
+dipping-pot on the floor for the tin to run into, but in the hearth
+itself; out of this the master, having removed the charcoal, ladles the
+tin and pours it over the copper-plate. The dross which adheres to the
+wood and the charcoal, having been collected, is re-smelted in the
+furnace.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig419.jpg"><img src="images/fig419thumb.jpg" alt="Blast Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnace. B&mdash;Bellows. C&mdash;Iron
+Disc. D&mdash;Nozzle. E&mdash;Wooden Disc. F&mdash;Blow-hole. G&mdash;Handle. H&mdash;Haft.
+I&mdash;Hoops. K&mdash;Masses of tin.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 419]</span></span>
+Some of the Lusitanians melt tin from tin-stone in small furnaces. They
+use round bellows made of leather, of which the fore end is a round iron
+disc and the rear end a disc of wood; in a hole in the former is fixed
+the nozzle, in the middle of the latter the blow-hole. Above this is the
+handle or haft, which draws open the round bellows and lets in the air,
+or compresses it and drives the air out. Between the discs are several
+iron hoops to which the leather is fastened, making such folds as are to
+be seen in paper lanterns that <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420"></a>[Pg 420]</span>are folded together. Since this kind of
+bellows does not give a vigorous blast, because they are drawn apart and
+compressed slowly, the smelter is not able during a whole day to smelt
+much more than half a <i>centumpondium</i> of tin.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422"></a><a href="images/fig422.jpg"><img src="images/fig422thumb.jpg" alt="Iron smelting Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Hearth. B&mdash;Heap.
+C&mdash;Slag-vent. D&mdash;Iron mass. E&mdash;Wooden mallets. F&mdash;Hammer. G&mdash;Anvil.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 422]</span></span>
+Very good iron ore is smelted<a name="FNanchor_55_288" id="FNanchor_55_288"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_288" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> in a furnace almost like the
+cupellation furnace. The hearth is three and a half feet high, and five
+feet long and wide; in the centre of it is a crucible a foot deep and
+one and a half feet wide, but it may be deeper or shallower, wider or
+narrower, according to whether more or less ore is to be made into iron.
+A certain quantity of iron ore is given to the master, out of which he
+may smelt either much or little iron. He being about to expend his skill
+and labour on this matter, first throws charcoal into the crucible, and
+sprinkles over it an iron shovel-ful of crushed iron ore mixed with
+unslaked lime. Then he repeatedly throws on charcoal and sprinkles it
+with ore, and continues this until he has slowly built up a heap; it
+melts when the charcoal has been kindled and the fire violently
+stimulated by the blast of the bellows, which are skilfully fixed in a
+pipe. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421"></a>[Pg 421]</span>He is able to complete this work sometimes in eight hours,
+sometimes in ten; and again sometimes in twelve. In order that the heat
+of the fire should not burn his face, he covers it entirely with a cap,
+in which, however, there are holes through which he may see and breathe.
+At the side of the hearth is a bar which he raises as often as is
+necessary, when the bellows blow too violent a blast, or when he adds
+more ore and charcoal. He also uses the bar to draw off the slags, or to
+open or close the gates of the sluice, through which the waters flow
+down on to the wheel which turns the axle that compresses the bellows.
+In this sensible way, iron is melted out and a mass weighing two or
+three <i>centumpondia</i> may be made, providing the iron ore was rich. When
+this is done the master opens the slag-vent with the tapping-bar, and
+when all has run out he allows the iron mass to cool. Afterward he and
+his assistant stir the iron with the bar, and then in order to chip off
+the slags which had until then adhered to it, and to condense and
+flatten it, they take it down from the furnace to the floor, and beat it
+with large wooden mallets having slender handles five feet long.
+Thereupon it is immediately <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423"></a>[Pg 423]</span>placed on the anvil, and repeatedly beaten
+by the large iron hammer that is raised by the cams of an axle turned by
+a water-wheel. Not long afterward it is taken up with tongs and placed
+under the same hammer, and cut up with a sharp iron into four, five, or
+six pieces, according to whether it is large or small. These pieces,
+after they have been re-heated in the blacksmith's forge and again
+placed on the anvil, are shaped by the smith into square bars or into
+ploughshares or tyres, but mainly into bars. Four, six, or eight of
+these bars weigh one-fifth of a <i>centumpondium</i>, and from these they
+make various implements. During the blows from the hammer by which it is
+shaped by the smith, a youth pours water with a ladle on to the glowing
+iron, and this is why the blows make such a loud sound that they may be
+heard a long distance from the works. The masses, if they remain and
+settle in the crucible of the furnace in which the iron is smelted,
+become hard iron which can only be hammered with difficulty, and from
+these they make the iron-shod heads for the stamps, and such-like very
+hard articles.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424"></a><a href="images/fig424.jpg"><img src="images/fig424thumb.jpg" alt="Iron smelting Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnace. B&mdash;Stairs.
+C&mdash;Ore. D&mdash;Charcoal.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 424]</span></span>
+But to iron ore which is cupriferous, or which when heated<a name="FNanchor_56_289" id="FNanchor_56_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_289" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> melts
+with difficulty, it is necessary for us to give a fiercer fire and more
+labour; because not only must we separate the parts of it in which there
+is metal from those in which there is no metal, and break it up by dry
+stamps, but we must also roast it, so that the other metals and noxious
+juices may be exhaled; and we must wash it, so that the lighter parts
+may be separated from it. Such ores are smelted in a furnace similar to
+the blast furnace, but much wider and higher, so that it may hold a
+great quantity of ore and much charcoal; mounting the stairs at the side
+of the furnace, the smelters fill it partly with fragments of ore not
+larger than nuts, and partly with charcoal; and from this kind of ore
+once or twice smelted they make iron which is suitable for re-heating in
+the blacksmith's forge, after it is flattened out with the large iron
+hammer and cut into pieces with the sharp iron.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425"></a><a href="images/fig425.jpg"><img src="images/fig425thumb.jpg" alt="Steel making Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Forge. B&mdash;Bellows.
+C&mdash;Tongs. D&mdash;Hammer. E&mdash;Cold stream.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 425]</span></span>
+By skill with fire and fluxes is made that kind of iron from which steel
+is made, which the Greeks call <span class="greek" title="Greek: stom�ma">&sigma;&tau;&#972;&mu;&omega;&mu;&alpha;</span>. Iron should be selected
+which is easy to melt, is hard and malleable. Now although iron may be
+smelted from ore which contains other metals, yet it is then either soft
+or brittle; such (iron) must be broken up into small pieces when it is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426"></a>[Pg 426]</span>hot, and then mixed with crushed stone which melts. Then a crucible is
+made in the hearth of the smith's furnace, from the same moistened
+powder from which are made the forehearths in front of the furnaces in
+which ores of gold or silver are smelted; the width of this crucible is
+about one and a half feet and the depth one foot. The bellows are so
+placed that the blast may be blown through the nozzle into the middle of
+the crucible. Then the whole of the crucible is filled with the best
+charcoal, and it is surrounded by fragments of rock to hold in place the
+pieces of iron and the superimposed charcoal. As soon as all the
+charcoal is kindled and the crucible is glowing, a blast is blown from
+the bellows and the master pours in gradually as much of the mixture of
+iron and flux as he wishes. Into the middle of this, when it is melted,
+he puts four iron masses each weighing thirty pounds, and heats them for
+five or six hours in a fierce fire; he frequently stirs the melted iron
+with a bar, so that the small pores in each mass absorb the minute
+particles, and these particles by their own strength consume and expand
+the thick particles of the masses, which they render soft and similar to
+dough. Afterward the master, aided by his assistant, takes out a mass
+with the tongs and places it on the anvil, where it is pounded by the
+hammer which is alternately raised and dropped by means of the
+water-wheel; then, without delay, while it is still hot, he throws it
+into water and tempers it; when it is tempered, he places it again on
+the anvil, and breaks it with a blow from the same hammer. Then at once
+examining the fragments, he decides whether the iron in some part or
+other, or as a whole, appears to be dense and changed into steel; if so,
+he seizes one mass after another with the tongs, and taking them out he
+breaks them into pieces. Afterward he heats the mixture up again, and
+adds a portion afresh to take the place of that which has been absorbed
+by the masses. This restores the energy of that which is left, and the
+pieces of the masses are again put back into the crucible and made
+purer. Each of these, after having been heated, is seized with the
+tongs, put under the hammer and shaped into a bar. While they are still
+glowing, he at once throws them into the very coldest nearby running
+water, and in this manner, being suddenly condensed, they are changed
+into pure steel, which is much harder and whiter than iron.</p>
+
+<p>The ores of the other metals are not smelted in furnaces. Quicksilver
+ores and also antimony are melted in pots, and bismuth in troughs.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427"></a><a href="images/fig427.jpg"><img src="images/fig427thumb.jpg" alt="Quicksilver distillation Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Hearth.
+B&mdash;Poles. C&mdash;Hearth without fire in which the pots are placed. D&mdash;Rocks.
+E&mdash;Rows of pots. F&mdash;Upper pots. G&mdash;Lower pots.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 427]</span></span>
+I will first speak of quicksilver. This is collected when found in pools
+formed from the outpourings of the veins and stringers; it is cleansed
+with vinegar and salt, and then it is poured into canvas or soft
+leather, through which, when squeezed and compressed, the quicksilver
+runs out into a pot or pan. The ore of quicksilver is reduced in double
+or single pots. If in double pots, then the upper one is of a shape not
+very dissimilar to the glass ampullas used by doctors, but they taper
+downward toward the bottom, and the lower ones are little pots similar
+to those in which men and women make cheese, but both are larger than
+these; it is necessary to sink the lower pots up to the rims in earth,
+sand, or ashes. The ore, broken up into small pieces is put into the
+upper pots; these having been entirely closed up <span class="pagenum">[Pg 427]</span>with moss, are placed
+upside down in the openings of the lower pots, where they are joined
+with lute, lest the quicksilver which takes refuge in them should be
+exhaled. There are some who, after the pots have been buried, do not
+fear to leave them uncemented, and who boast that they are able to
+produce no less weight of quicksilver than those who do cement them, but
+nevertheless cementing with lute is the greatest protection against
+exhalation. In this manner seven hundred pairs of pots are set together
+in the ground or on a hearth. They must be surrounded on all sides with
+a mixture consisting of crushed earth and charcoal, in such a way that
+the upper pots protrude to a height of a palm above it. On both sides of
+the hearth rocks are first laid, and upon them poles, across which the
+workmen place other poles transversely; these poles do not touch the
+pots, nevertheless the fire heats the quicksilver, which fleeing from
+the heat is forced to run down through the moss into the lower pots. If
+the ore is being reduced in the upper pots, it flees from them, wherever
+there is an exit, into the lower pots, but if the ore on the contrary is
+put in the lower pots the quicksilver rises into the upper pot or into
+the operculum, which, together with the gourd-shaped vessels, are
+cemented to the upper pots.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428"></a>[Pg 428]</span></p><p>The pots, lest they should become defective, are moulded from the best
+potters' clay, for if there are defects the quicksilver flies out in the
+fumes. If the fumes give out a very sweet odour it indicates that the
+quicksilver is being lost, and since this loosens the teeth, the
+smelters and others standing by, warned of the evil, turn their backs to
+the wind, which drives the fumes in the opposite direction; for this
+reason, the building should be open around the front and the sides, and
+exposed to the wind. If these pots are made of cast copper they last a
+long time in the fire. This process for reducing the ores of quicksilver
+is used by most people.</p>
+
+<p>In a similar manner the antimony ore,<a name="FNanchor_57_290" id="FNanchor_57_290"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_290" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> if free from other metals, is
+reduced in upper pots which are twice as large as the lower ones. Their
+size, however, depends on the cakes, which have not the same weight
+everywhere; for in some places they are made to weigh six <i>librae</i>, in
+other places ten, and elsewhere twenty. When the smelter has concluded
+his operation, he extinguishes the fire with water, removes the lids
+from the pots, throws earth mixed with ash around and over them, and
+when they have cooled, takes out the cakes from the pots.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429"></a>[Pg 429]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig429.jpg"><img src="images/fig429thumb.jpg" alt="Quicksilver distillation Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Pots.
+B&mdash;Opercula. C&mdash;Nozzles. D&mdash;Gourd-shaped earthenware vessels.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 429]</span></span>
+Other methods for reducing quicksilver are given below. Big-bellied
+pots, having been placed in the upper rectangular open part of a
+furnace, are filled with the crushed ore. Each of these pots is covered
+with a lid with a long nozzle&mdash;commonly called a <i>campana</i>&mdash;in the shape
+of a bell, and they are cemented. Each of the small earthenware vessels
+shaped like a gourd receives two of these nozzles, and these are
+likewise cemented. Dried wood having been placed in the lower part of
+the furnace and kindled, the ore is heated until all the quicksilver has
+risen into the operculum which is over the pot; it then flows from the
+nozzle and is caught in the earthenware gourd-shaped vessel.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430"></a>[Pg 430]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig430.jpg"><img src="images/fig430thumb.jpg" alt="Quicksilver distillation Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Enclosed
+chamber. B&mdash;Door. C&mdash;Little windows. D&mdash;Mouths through the walls.
+E&mdash;Furnace in the enclosed chamber. F&mdash;Pots.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 430]</span></span>
+Others build a hollow vaulted chamber, of which the paved floor is made
+concave toward the centre. Inside the thick walls of the chamber are the
+furnaces. The doors through which the wood is put are in the outer part
+of the same wall. They place the pots in the furnaces and fill them with
+crushed ore, then they cement the pots and the furnaces on all sides
+with lute, so that none of the vapour may escape from them, and there is
+no entrance to the furnaces except through their mouths. Between the
+dome and the paved floor they arrange green trees, then they close the
+door and the little windows, and cover them on all sides with moss and
+lute, so that none of the quicksilver can exhale from the chamber. After
+the wood has been kindled the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431"></a>[Pg 431]</span>ore is heated, and exudes the
+quicksilver; whereupon, impatient with the heat, and liking the cold, it
+escapes to the leaves of the trees, which have a cooling power. When the
+operation is completed the smelter extinguishes the fire, and when all
+gets cool he opens the door and the windows, and collects the
+quicksilver, most of which, being heavy, falls of its own accord from
+the trees, and flows into the concave part of the floor; if all should
+not have fallen from the trees, they are shaken to make it fall.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig431.jpg"><img src="images/fig431thumb.jpg" alt="Quicksilver distillation Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Larger pot.
+B&mdash;Smaller. C&mdash;Tripod. D&mdash;Tub in which the sand is washed.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 431]</span></span>
+The following is the fourth method of reducing ores of quicksilver. A
+larger pot standing on a tripod is filled with crushed ore, and over the
+ore is put sand or ashes to a thickness of two digits, and tamped; then
+in the mouth of this pot is inserted the mouth of another smaller pot
+and cemented with lute, lest the vapours are emitted. The ore heated by
+the fire exhales the quicksilver, which, penetrating through the sand or
+the ashes, takes refuge in the upper pot, where condensing into drops it
+falls back into the sand or the ashes, from which the quicksilver is
+washed and collected.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432"></a><a href="images/fig432.jpg"><img src="images/fig432thumb.jpg" alt="Quicksilver distillation Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Pots. B&mdash;Lids.
+C&mdash;Stones. D&mdash;Furnace.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 432]</span></span>
+The fifth method is not very unlike the fourth. In the place of these
+pots are set other pots, likewise of earthenware, having a narrow bottom
+and a wide mouth. These are nearly filled with crushed ore, which is
+likewise covered with ashes to a depth of two digits and tamped in. The
+pots are <span class="pagenum">[Pg 432]</span>covered with lids a digit thick, and they are smeared over on
+the inside with liquid litharge, and on the lid are placed heavy stones.
+The pots are set on the furnace, and the ore is heated and similarly
+exhales quicksilver, which fleeing from the heat takes refuge in the
+lid; on congealing there, it falls back into the ashes, from which, when
+washed, the quicksilver is collected.</p>
+
+<p>By these five methods quicksilver may be made, and of these not one is
+to be despised or repudiated; nevertheless, if the mine supplies a great
+abundance of ore, the first is the most expeditious and practical,
+because a large quantity of ore can be reduced at the same time without
+great expense.<a name="FNanchor_58_291" id="FNanchor_58_291"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_291" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433"></a>[Pg 433]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434"></a><a href="images/fig434.jpg"><img src="images/fig434thumb.jpg" alt="Bismuth Smelting" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Pit across which wood is
+placed. B&mdash;Forehearth. C&mdash;Ladle. D&mdash;Iron mould. E&mdash;Cakes. F&mdash;Empty pot
+lined with stones in layers. G&mdash;Troughs. H&mdash;Pits dug at the foot of the
+troughs. I&mdash;Small wood laid over the troughs. K&mdash;Wind.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 434]</span></span>
+Bismuth<a name="FNanchor_59_292" id="FNanchor_59_292"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_292" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> ore, free from every kind of silver, is smelted by various
+methods. First a small pit is dug in the dry ground; into this
+pulverised charcoal is thrown and tamped in, and then it is dried with
+burning charcoal. Afterward, thick dry pieces of beech wood are placed
+over the pit, and the bismuth ore is thrown on it. As soon as the
+kindled wood burns, the heated ore drips with bismuth, which runs down
+into the pit, from which when cooled the cakes are removed. Because
+pieces of burnt wood, or often charcoal and occasionally slag, drop into
+the bismuth which collects in the pit, and make it impure, it is put
+back into another kind of crucible to be melted, so that pure cakes may
+be made. There are some who, bearing these things in mind, dig a pit on
+a sloping place and below it put a forehearth, into which the bismuth
+continually flows, and thus remains clean; then they take it out with
+ladles and pour it into iron pans lined inside with lute, and make cakes
+of it. They cover such pits with flat stones, whose joints are besmeared
+with a lute of mixed dust and crushed charcoal, lest the joints should
+absorb the molten bismuth. Another method is to put the ore in troughs
+made of fir-wood and placed on sloping ground; they place small firewood
+over it, kindling it when a gentle wind blows, and thus the ore is
+heated. In this manner the bismuth melts and runs down from the troughs
+into a pit below, while there remains slag, or stones, which are of a
+yellow colour, as is also the wood laid across the pit. These are also
+sold.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435"></a>[Pg 435]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig435.jpg"><img src="images/fig435thumb.jpg" alt="Bismuth Smelting" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Wood. B&mdash;Bricks. C&mdash;Pans.
+D&mdash;Furnace. E&mdash;Crucible. F&mdash;Pipe. G&mdash;Dipping-pot.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 435]</span></span>
+Others reduce the ore in iron pans as next described. They lay small
+pieces of dry wood alternately straight and transversely upon bricks,
+one and a half feet apart, and set fire to it. Near it they put small
+iron pans lined on the inside with lute, and full of broken ore; then
+when the wind blows the flame of the fierce fire over the pans, the
+bismuth drips out of the ore; wherefore, in order that it may run, the
+ore is stirred with the tongs; but when they decide that all the bismuth
+is exuded, they seize the pans with the tongs and remove them, and pour
+out the bismuth into empty pans, and by turning many into one they make
+cakes. Others reduce the ore, when it is not mixed with <i>cadmia</i>,<a name="FNanchor_60_293" id="FNanchor_60_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_293" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> in
+a furnace similar to the iron furnace. In this case they make a pit and
+a crucible of crushed earth mixed with pulverised charcoal, and into it
+they put the broken ore, or the concentrates from washing, from which
+they make more bismuth. If they put in ore, they reduce it with charcoal
+and small dried wood mixed, and if concentrates, they use charcoal only;
+they blow both materials with a gentle blast from <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436"></a>[Pg 436]</span>a bellows. From the
+crucible is a small pipe through which the molten bismuth runs down into
+a dipping-pot, and from this cakes are made.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig436.jpg"><img src="images/fig436thumb.jpg" alt="Bismuth Smelting" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Hearth in which ore is melted.
+B&mdash;Hearth on which lie drops of bismuth. C&mdash;Tongs. D&mdash;Basket. E&mdash;Wind.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 436]</span></span>
+On a dump thrown up from the mines, other people construct a hearth
+exposed to the wind, a foot high, three feet wide, and four and a half
+feet long. It is held together by four boards, and the whole is thickly
+coated at the top with lute. On this hearth they first put small dried
+sticks of fir wood, then over them they throw broken ore; then they lay
+more wood over it, and when the wind blows they kindle it. In this
+manner the bismuth drips out of the ore, and afterward the ashes of the
+wood consumed by the fire and the charcoals are swept away. The drops of
+bismuth which fall down into the hearth are congealed by the cold, and
+they are taken away with the tongs and thrown into a basket. From the
+melted bismuth they make cakes in iron pans.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437"></a><a href="images/fig437.jpg"><img src="images/fig437thumb.jpg" alt="Bismuth Smelting" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Box. B&mdash;Pivot. C&mdash;Transverse
+wood beams. D&mdash;Grate. E&mdash;Its feet. F&mdash;Burning wood. G&mdash;Stick. H&mdash;Pans in
+which the bismuth is melted. I&mdash;Pans for moulds. K&mdash;Cakes. L&mdash;Fork.
+M&mdash;Brush.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 437]</span></span>
+Others again make a box eight feet long, four feet wide, and two feet
+high, which they fill almost full of sand and cover with bricks, thus
+making the hearth. The box has in the centre a wooden pivot, which turns
+in a hole in two beams laid transversely one upon the other; these beams
+are hard and thick, are sunk into the ground, both ends are perforated,
+and through <span class="pagenum">[Pg 437]</span>these holes wedge-shaped pegs are driven, in order that the
+beams may remain fixed, and that the box may turn round, and may be
+turned toward the wind from whichever quarter of the sky in may blow. In
+such a hearth they put an iron grate, as long and wide as the box and
+three-quarters of a foot high; it has six feet, and there are so many
+transverse bars that they almost touch one another. On the grate they
+lay pine-wood and over it broken ore, and over this they again lay
+pine-wood. When it has been kindled the ore melts, out of which the
+bismuth drips down; since very little wood is burned, this is the most
+profitable method of smelting the bismuth. The bismuth drips through the
+grate on to the hearth, while the other things remain upon the grate
+with the charcoal. When the work is finished, the workman takes a stick
+from the hearth and overturns the grate, and the things which have been
+accumulated on it; with the brush he sweeps up the bismuth and collects
+it in a basket, and then he melts it in an iron pan and makes cakes. As
+soon as possible after it is cool, he turns the pans over, so that the
+cakes may fall out, using for this purpose a two-pronged fork of which
+one prong is again forked. And immediately afterward he returns to his
+labours.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p class="center">END OF BOOK IX.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_353" id="Notes_353">[Pg 353]</a></span><a name="Footnote_1_235" id="Footnote_1_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_235"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The history of the fusion of ores and of metals is the
+history of individual processes, and such information as we have been
+able to discover upon the individual methods previous to Agricola we
+give on the pages where such processes are discussed. In general the
+records of the beginnings of metallurgy are so nebular that, if one
+wishes to shirk the task, he can adopt the explanation of William Pryce
+one hundred and fifty years ago: "It is very probable that the nature
+and use of Metals were not revealed to Adam in his state of innocence:
+the toil and labour necessary to procure and use those implements of the
+iron age could not be known, till they made part of the curse incurred
+by his fall: 'In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread, till thou
+return unto the ground; in sorrow shalt thou eat of it all the days of
+thy life' (Genesis). That they were very early discovered, however, is
+manifest from the Mosaick account of Tubal Cain, who was the first
+instructor of every artificer in Brass [<i>sic</i>] and Iron" (<i>Mineralogia
+Cornubiensis</i>, p. 2).
+</p><p>
+It is conceivable that gold could be found in large enough pieces to
+have had general use in pre-historic times, without fusion; but copper,
+which was also in use, must have been smelted, and therefore we must
+assume a considerable development of human knowledge on the subject
+prior to any human record. Such incidental mention as exists after
+record begins does not, of course, extend to the beginning of any
+particular branch of the art&mdash;in fact, special arts obviously existed
+long before such mention, and down to the complete survey of the state
+of the art by Agricola our dates are necessarily "prior to" some first
+mention in literature, or "prior to" the known period of existing
+remains of metallurgical operations. The scant Egyptian records, the
+Scriptures, and the Shoo King give a little insight prior to 1000 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>
+The more extensive Greek literature of about the 5th to the 3rd
+centuries <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, together with the remains of Greek mines, furnish
+another datum point of view, and the Roman and Greek writers at the
+beginning of the Christian era give a still larger view. After them our
+next step is to the Monk Theophilus and the Alchemists, from the 12th to
+the 14th centuries. Finally, the awakening of learning at the end of the
+15th and the beginning of the 16th centuries, enables us for the first
+time to see practically all that was known. The wealth of literature
+which exists subsequent to this latter time makes history thereafter a
+matter of some precision, but it is not included in this undertaking.
+Considering the great part that the metals have played in civilization,
+it is astonishing what a minute amount of information is available on
+metallurgy. Either the ancient metallurgists were secretive as to their
+art, or the ancient authors despised such common things, or, as is
+equally probable, the very partial preservation of ancient literature,
+by painful transcription over a score of centuries, served only for
+those works of more general interest. In any event, if all the direct or
+indirect material on metallurgy prior to the 15th century were compiled,
+it would not fill 40 pages such as these.
+</p><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_354" id="Notes_354">[Pg 354]</a></span>
+It may be of service to give a tabular summary indicating approximately
+the time when evidence of particular operations appear on the historical
+horizon:
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center" style="margin-left:5%;margin-right:5%;">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Gold washed from alluvial</td><td align="left">Prior to recorded civilization</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Copper reduced from ores by smelting</td><td align="left">Prior to recorded civilization</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bitumen mined and used</td><td align="left">Prior to recorded civilization</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tin reduced from ores by smelting</td><td align="left">Prior to 3500 B.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bronze made</td><td align="left">Prior to 3500 B.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Iron reduced from ores by smelting</td><td align="left">Prior to 3500 B.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Soda mined and used</td><td align="left">Prior to 3500 B.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Gold reduced from ores by concentration</td><td align="left">Prior to 2500 B.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Silver reduced from ores by smelting</td><td align="left">Prior to 2000 B.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lead reduced from ores by smelting</td><td align="left">Prior to 2000 B.C. (perhaps prior to 3500 B.C.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Silver parted from lead by cupellation</td><td align="left">Prior to 2000 B.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bellows used in furnaces</td><td align="left">Prior to 1500 B.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Steel produced</td><td align="left">Prior to 1000 B.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Base metals separated from ores by water concentration</td><td align="left">Prior to 500 B.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Gold refined by cupellation</td><td align="left">Prior to 500 B.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sulphide ores smelted for lead</td><td align="left">Prior to 500 B.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mercury reduced from ores by (?)</td><td align="left">Prior to 400 B.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">White-lead made with vinegar</td><td align="left">Prior to 300 B.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Touchstone known for determining gold and silver fineness</td><td align="left">Prior to 300 B.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Quicksilver reduced from ore by distillation</td><td align="left">Prior to Christian Era</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Silver parted from gold by cementation with salt</td><td align="left">Prior to &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Brass made by cementation of copper and calamine</td><td align="left">Prior to &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Zinc oxides obtained from furnace fumes by construction of dust chambers</td><td align="left">Prior to &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Antimony reduced from ores by smelting (accidental)</td><td align="left">Prior to &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Gold recovered by amalgamation</td><td align="left">Prior to &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Refining of copper by repeated fusion</td><td align="left">Prior to &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sulphide ores smelted for copper</td><td align="left">Prior to &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Vitriol (blue and green) made</td><td align="left">Prior to &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Alum made</td><td align="left">Prior to &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Copper refined by oxidation and poling</td><td align="left">Prior to 1200 A.D.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Gold parted from copper by cupelling with lead</td><td align="left">Prior to 1200 A.D.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Gold parted from silver by fusion with sulphur</td><td align="left">Prior to 1200 A.D.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Manufacture of nitric acid and <i>aqua regia</i></td><td align="left">Prior to 1400 A.D.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Gold parted from silver by nitric acid</td><td align="left">Prior to 1400 A.D.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Gold parted from silver with antimony sulphide</td><td align="left">Prior to 1500 A.D.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Gold parted from copper with sulphur</td><td align="left">Prior to 1500 A.D.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Silver parted from iron with antimony sulphide</td><td align="left">Prior to 1500 A.D.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">First text book on assaying</td><td align="left">Prior to 1500 A.D.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Silver recovered from ores by amalgamation</td><td align="left">Prior to 1500 A.D.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Separation of silver from copper by liquation</td><td align="left">Prior to 1540 A.D.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cobalt and manganese used for pigments</td><td align="left">Prior to 1540 A.D.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Roasting copper ores prior to smelting</td><td align="left">Prior to 1550 A.D.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Stamp-mill used</td><td align="left">Prior to 1550 A.D.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bismuth reduced from ore</td><td align="left">Prior to 1550 A.D.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Zinc reduced from ore (accidental)</td><td align="left">Prior to 1550 A.D.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+Further, we believe it desirable to sketch at the outset the development
+of metallurgical appliances as a whole, leaving the details to special
+footnotes; otherwise a comprehensive view of the development of such
+devices is difficult to grasp.
+</p><p>
+We can outline the character of metallurgical appliances at various
+periods in a few words. It is possible to set up a description of the
+imaginary beginning of the <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_355" id="Notes_355">[Pg 355]</a></span>"bronze age" prior to recorded civilization,
+starting with the savage who accidentally built a fire on top of some
+easily reducible ore, and discovered metal in the ashes, etc.; but as
+this method has been pursued times out of number to no particular
+purpose, we will confine ourselves to a summary of such facts as we can
+assemble. "Founders' hoards" of the bronze age are scattered over
+Western Europe, and indicate that smelting was done in shallow pits with
+charcoal. With the Egyptians we find occasional inscriptions showing
+small furnaces with forced draught, in early cases with a blow-pipe, but
+later&mdash;about 1500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>&mdash;with bellows also. The crucible was apparently
+used by the Egyptians in secondary melting, such remains at Mt. Sinai
+probably dating before 2000 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> With the advent of the Prophets, and
+the first Greek literature&mdash;9th to 7th century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>&mdash;we find frequent
+references to bellows. The remains of smelting appliances at Mt. Laurion
+(500-300 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) do not indicate much advance over the primitive hearth;
+however, at this locality we do find evidence of the ability to separate
+minerals by specific gravity, by washing crushed ore over inclined
+surfaces with a sort of buddle attachment. Stone grinding-mills were
+used to crush ore from the earliest times of Mt. Laurion down to the
+Middle Ages. About the beginning of the Christian era the writings of
+Diodorus, Strabo, Dioscorides, and Pliny indicate considerable advance
+in appliances. Strabo describes high stacks to carry off lead fumes;
+Dioscorides explains a furnace with a dust-chamber to catch <i>pompholyx</i>
+(zinc oxide); Pliny refers to the upper and lower crucibles (a
+forehearth) and to the pillars and arches of the furnaces. From all of
+their descriptions we may conclude that the furnaces had then reached
+some size, and were, of course, equipped with bellows. At this time
+sulphide copper and lead ores were smelted; but as to fluxes, except
+lead for silver, and lead and soda for gold, we have practically no
+mention. Charcoal was the universal fuel for smelting down to the 18th
+century. Both Dioscorides and Pliny describe a distillation apparatus
+used to recover quicksilver. A formidable list of mineral products and
+metal alloys in use, indicate in themselves considerable apparatus, of
+the details of which we have no indication; in the main these products
+were lead sulphide, sulphate, and oxide (red-lead and litharge); zinc
+oxide; iron sulphide, oxide and sulphate; arsenic and antimony
+sulphides; mercury sulphide, sulphur, bitumen, soda, alum and potash;
+and of the alloys, bronze, brass, pewter, electrum and steel.
+</p><p>
+From this period to the period of the awakening of learning our only
+light is an occasional gleam from Theophilus and the Alchemists. The
+former gave a more detailed description of metallurgical appliances than
+had been done before, but there is little vital change apparent from the
+apparatus of Roman times. The Alchemists gave a great stimulus to
+industrial chemistry in the discovery of the mineral acids, and
+described distillation apparatus of approximately modern form.
+</p><p>
+The next period&mdash;the Renaissance&mdash;is one in which our descriptions are
+for the first time satisfactory, and a discussion would be but a review
+of <i>De Re Metallica</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_236" id="Footnote_2_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_236"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> See <a href="#Footnote_2_217">footnote 2, p. 267</a>, on verbs used for roasting.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_356" id="Notes_356">[Pg 356]</a></span><a name="Footnote_3_237" id="Footnote_3_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_237"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Agricola has here either forgotten to take into account his
+three-palm-thick furnace walls, which will make the length of this long
+wall sixty-one feet, or else he has included this foot and a half in
+each case in the six-foot distance between the furnaces, so that the
+actual clear space is only four and a half feet between the furnace with
+four feet on the ends.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_358" id="Notes_358">[Pg 358]</a></span><a name="Footnote_4_238" id="Footnote_4_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_238"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The paucity of terms in Latin for describing structural
+members, and the consequent repetition of "beam" (<i>trabs</i>), "timber"
+(<i>tignum</i>), "billet" (<i>tigillum</i>), "pole" (<i>asser</i>), with such
+modifications as small, large, and transverse, and with long explanatory
+clauses showing their location, renders the original very difficult to
+follow. We have, therefore, introduced such terms as "posts,"
+"tie-beams," "sweeps," "levers," "rafters," "sills," "moulding,"
+"braces," "cleats," "supports," etc., as the context demands.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_361" id="Notes_361">[Pg 361]</a></span><a name="Footnote_5_239" id="Footnote_5_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_239"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> This set of rafters appears to start from the longitudinal
+beam.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_362" id="Notes_362">[Pg 362]</a></span><a name="Footnote_6_240" id="Footnote_6_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_240"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Devices for creating an air current must be of very old
+invention, for it is impossible to conceive of anything but the crudest
+melting of a few simple ores without some forced draft. Wilkinson (The
+Ancient Egyptians, <span class="smcaplower">II</span>, p. 316) gives a copy of an illustration of a
+foot-bellows from a tomb of the time of Thotmes III. (1500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>). The
+rest of the world therefore, probably obtained them from the Egyptians.
+They are mentioned frequently in the Bible, the most pointed reference
+to metallurgical purposes being Jeremiah (<span class="smcaplower">VI</span>, 29): "The bellows are
+burned, the lead is consumed in the fire; the founder melteth in vain;
+for the wicked are not plucked away." Strabo (<span class="smcaplower">VII</span>, 3) states that
+Ephorus ascribed the invention of bellows to Anacharsis&mdash;a Thracian
+prince of about 600 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_366" id="Notes_366">[Pg 366]</a></span><a name="Footnote_7_241" id="Footnote_7_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_241"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> This whole arrangement could be summarized by the word
+"hinge."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_371" id="Notes_371">[Pg 371]</a></span><a name="Footnote_8_242" id="Footnote_8_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_242"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The rim of this wheel is obviously made of segments fixed
+in two layers; the "disc" meaning the aggregate of segments on either
+side of the wheel.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_376" id="Notes_376">[Pg 376]</a></span><a name="Footnote_9_243" id="Footnote_9_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_243"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> It has not been considered necessary to introduce the
+modern term <i>twyer</i> in these descriptions, as the literal rendering is
+sufficiently clear.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_244" id="Footnote_10_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_244"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> <i>Ferruminata</i>. These accretions are practically always
+near the hearth, and would correspond to English "sows," and therefore
+that term has been adopted. It will be noted that, like most modern
+metallurgists, Agricola offers no method for treating them. Pliny
+(<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 37) describes a "sow," and uses the verb <i>ferruminare</i> (to weld
+or solder): "Some say that in the furnace there are certain masses of
+stone which become soldered together, and that the copper fuses around
+it, the mass not becoming liquid unless it is transferred to another
+furnace; it thus forms a sort of knot, as it were, of the metal."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_377" id="Notes_377">[Pg 377]</a></span><a name="Footnote_11_245" id="Footnote_11_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_245"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> What are known in English as "crucible," "furnace well,"
+"forehearth," "dipping-pot," "tapping-pot," "receiving-pot," etc., are
+in the text all <i>catinus</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, crucible. For easier reading,
+however, we have assigned the names indicated in the context.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_379" id="Notes_379">[Pg 379]</a></span><a name="Footnote_12_246" id="Footnote_12_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_246"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> <i>Panes ex pyrite conflati</i>. While the term <i>matte</i> would
+cover most cases where this expression appears, and in many cases would
+be more expressive to the modern reader, yet there are instances where
+the expression as it stands indicates its particular origin, and it has
+been, therefore, considered advisable to adhere to the literal
+rendering.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_247" id="Footnote_13_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_247"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> <i>Molybdaena</i>. See <a href="#Footnote_37_330">note 37, p. 476</a>. It was the saturated
+furnace bottoms from cupellation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_248" id="Footnote_14_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_248"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> The four elements were earth, air, fire, and water.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_380" id="Notes_380">[Pg 380]</a></span><a name="Footnote_15_249" id="Footnote_15_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_249"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> "Stones which easily melt in the fire." Nowhere in <i>De Re
+Metallica</i> does the author explain these substances. However in the
+<i>Interpretatio</i> (p. 465) he gives three genera or orders with their
+German equivalents, as follows:&mdash;"<i>Lapides qui igni liquescunt primi
+generis,&mdash;Sch�ne fl�sse; secundi,&mdash;fl�sse zum schmeltzen flock quertze;
+tertii,&mdash;quertze oder kiselstein."</i> We confess our inability to make
+certain of most of the substances comprised in the first and second
+orders. We consider they were in part fluor-spar, and in any event the
+third order embraced varieties of quartz, flint, and silicious material
+generally. As the matter is of importance from a metallurgical point of
+view, we reproduce at some length Agricola's own statements on the
+subject from <i>Bermannus</i> and <i>De Natura Fossilium</i>. In the latter (p.
+268) he states: "Finally there now remain those stones which I call
+'stones which easily melt in the fire,' because when thrown into hot
+furnaces they flow (<i>fluunt</i>). There are three orders (<i>genera</i>) of
+these. The first resembles the transparent gems; the second is not
+similar, and is generally not translucent; it is translucent in some
+part, and in rare instances altogether translucent. The first is
+sparingly found in silver and other mines; the second abounds in veins
+of its own. The third genus is the material from which glass is made,
+although it can also be made out of the other two. The stones of the
+first order are not only transparent, but are also resplendent, and have
+the colours of gems, for some resemble crystal, others emerald,
+heliotrope, lapis lazuli, amethyst, sapphire, ruby, <i>chrysolithus</i>,
+<i>morion</i> (cairngorm?), and other gems, but they differ from them in
+hardness.... To the first genus belongs the <i>lapis alabandicus</i> (modern
+albandite?), if indeed it was different from the alabandic carbuncle. It
+can be melted, according to Pliny, in the fire, and fused for the
+preparation of glass. It is black, but verging upon purple. It comes
+from Caria, near Alabanda, and from Miletus in the same province. The
+second order of stones does not show a great variety of colours, and
+seldom beautiful ones, for it is generally white, whitish, greyish, or
+yellowish. Because these (stones) very readily melt in the fire, they
+are added to the ores from which the metals are smelted. The small
+stones found in veins, veinlets, and the spaces between the veins, of
+the highest peaks of the Sudetic range (<i>Suditorum montium</i>), belong
+partly to this genus and partly to the first. They differ in size, being
+large and small; and in shape, some being round or angular or pointed;
+in colour they are black or ash-grey, or yellow, or purple, or violet,
+or iron colour. All of these are lacking in metals. Neither do the
+little stones contain any metals which are usually found in the streams
+where gold dust is collected by washing.... In the rivers where are
+collected the small stones from which tin is smelted, there are three
+genera of small stones to be found, all somewhat rounded and of very
+light weight, and devoid of all metals. The largest are black, both on
+the outside and inside, smooth and brilliant like a mirror; the
+medium-sized are either bluish black or ash-grey; the smallest are of a
+yellowish colour, somewhat like a silkworm. But because both the former
+and the latter stones are devoid of metals, and fly to pieces under the
+blows of the hammer, we classify them as sand or gravel. Glass is made
+from the stones of the third order, and particularly from sand. For when
+this is thrown into the heated furnace it is melted by the fire.... This
+kind of stone is either found <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_381" id="Notes_381">[Pg 381]</a></span>in its own veins, which are occasionally
+very wide, or else scattered through the mines. It is less hard than
+flint, on account of which no fire can be struck from it. It is not
+transparent, but it is of many colours&mdash;that is to say, white,
+yellowish, ash-grey, brown, black, green, blue, reddish or red. This
+genus of stones occurs here and there in mountainous regions, on banks
+of rivers, and in the fields. Those which are black right through to the
+interior, and not merely on the surface, are more rare; and very
+frequently one coloured vein is intersected by another of a different
+colour&mdash;for instance, a white one by a red one; the green is often
+spotted with white, the ash-grey with black, the white with crimson.
+Fragments of these stones are frequently found on the surface of the
+earth, and in the running water they become polished by rubbing against
+stones of their own or of another genus. In this way, likewise,
+fragments of rocks are not infrequently shaped into spherical forms....
+This stone is put to many uses; the streets are paved with it, whatever
+its colour; the blue variety is added to the ash of pines for making
+those other ashes which are used by wool-dyers. The white variety is
+burned, ground, and sifted, and from this they make the sand out of
+which glass is made. The whiter the sand is, the more useful it is."
+</p><p>
+Perusal of the following from <i>Bermannus</i> (p. 458) can leave little
+doubt as to the first or second order being in part fluor-spar. Agricola
+derived the name <i>fluores</i> from <i>fluo</i> "to flow," and we in turn obtain
+"fluorite," or "fluorspar," from Agricola. "<i>Bermannus</i>.&mdash;These stones
+are similar to gems, but less hard. Allow me to explain word for word.
+Our miners call them <i>fluores</i>, not inappropriately to my mind, for by
+the heat of fire, like ice in the sun, they liquefy and flow away. They
+are of varied and bright colours. <i>Naevius</i>.&mdash;Theophrastus says of them
+that they are made by a conflux in the earth. These red <i>fluores</i>, to
+employ the words just used by you, are the ruby silver which you showed
+us before. <i>Bermannus</i>.&mdash;At the first glance it appears so, although it
+is not infrequently translucent. <i>Naevius</i>.&mdash;Then they are rubies?
+<i>Bermannus</i>.&mdash;Not that either. <i>Naevius</i>.&mdash;In what way, then, can they
+be distinguished from rubies? <i>Bermannus</i>.&mdash;Chiefly by this sign, that
+they glitter more feebly when translucent. Those which are not
+translucent may be distinguished from rubies. Moreover, <i>fluores</i> of all
+kinds melt when they are subject to the first fire; rubies do not melt
+in fire. <i>Naevius</i>.&mdash;You distinguish well. <i>Bermannus</i>.&mdash;You see the
+other kind, of a paler purple colour? <i>Naevius</i>.&mdash;They appear to be an
+inferior kind of amethyst, such as are found in many places in Bohemia.
+<i>Bermannus</i>.&mdash;Indeed, they are not very dissimilar, therefore the common
+people who do not know amethysts well, set them in rings for gems, and
+they are easily sold. The third kind, as you see here, is white.
+<i>Naevius</i>.&mdash;I should have thought it a crystal. <i>Bermannus</i>.&mdash;A fourth
+is a yellow colour, a fifth ash colour, a sixth blackish. Some are
+violet, some green, others gold-coloured. <i>Anton</i>.&mdash;What is the use of
+<i>fluores</i>? <i>Bermannus</i>.&mdash;They are wont to be made use of when metals are
+smelted, as they cause the material in the fire to be much more fluid,
+exactly like a kind of stone which we said is made from pyrites (matte);
+it is, indeed, made not far from here, at Breitenbrunn, which is near
+Schwarzenberg. Moreover, from <i>fluores</i> they can make colours which
+artists use."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_384" id="Notes_384">[Pg 384]</a></span><a name="Footnote_16_250" id="Footnote_16_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_250"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> <i>Stannum</i>. (<i>Interpretatio</i>,&mdash;<i>werck</i>, modern <i>werk</i>).
+This term has been rendered throughout as "silver-lead" or "silver-lead
+alloy." It was the argentiferous lead suitable for cupellation.
+Agricola, in using it in this sense, was no doubt following his
+interpretation of its use by Pliny. Further remarks upon this subject
+will be found in <a href="#Footnote_33_326">note 33, p. 473</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_386" id="Notes_386">[Pg 386]</a></span><a name="Footnote_17_251" id="Footnote_17_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_251"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> <i>Expirare</i>,&mdash;to exhale or blow out.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_388" id="Notes_388">[Pg 388]</a></span><a name="Footnote_18_252" id="Footnote_18_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_252"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> <i>Rhetos</i>. The ancient Rhaetia comprised not only the
+greater part of Tyrol, but also parts of Switzerland and Lombardy. The
+mining section was, however, in Tyrol.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_253" id="Footnote_19_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_253"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>Noricum</i> was a region south of the Danube, embracing not
+only modern Styria, but also parts of Austria, Salzberg, and Carinthia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_254" id="Footnote_20_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_254"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> One <i>drachma</i> of gold to a <i>centumpondium</i> would be (if we
+assume these were Roman weights) 3 ozs. 1 dwt. Troy per short ton.
+One-half <i>uncia</i> of silver would be 12 ozs. 3 dwts. per short ton.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_390" id="Notes_390">[Pg 390]</a></span><a name="Footnote_21_255" id="Footnote_21_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_255"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> For discussion of these fluxes see note page <a href="#Notes_232">232</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_256" id="Footnote_22_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_256"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> <i>Carni</i>. Probably the people of modern Austrian Carniola,
+which lies south of Styria and west of Croatia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_257" id="Footnote_23_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_257"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Historical Note on Smelting Lead and Silver.</span>&mdash;The history
+of lead and silver smelting is by no means a sequent array of exact
+facts. With one possible exception, lead does not appear upon the
+historical horizon until long after silver, and yet their metallurgy is
+so inextricably mixed that neither can be considered wholly by itself.
+As silver does not occur native in any such quantities as would have
+supplied the amounts possessed by the Ancients, we must, therefore,
+assume its reduction by either (1) intricate chemical processes, (2)
+amalgamation, (3) reduction with copper, (4) reduction with lead. It is
+impossible to conceive of the first with the ancient knowledge of
+chemistry; the second (see <a href="#Footnote_12_225">note 12, p. 297</a>) does not appear to have been
+known until after Roman times; in any event, quicksilver appears only at
+about 400 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> The third was impossible, as the parting of silver from
+copper without lead involves metallurgy only possible during the last
+century. Therefore, one is driven to the conclusion that the fourth case
+obtained, and that the lead must have been known practically
+contemporaneously with silver. There is a leaden figure exhibited in the
+British Museum among the articles recovered from the Temple of Osiris at
+Abydos, and considered to be of the Archaic period&mdash;prior to 3800 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>
+The earliest known Egyptian silver appears to be a necklace of beads,
+supposed to be of the XII. Dynasty (2400 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>), which is described in
+the 17th Memoir, Egyptian Exploration Fund (London, 1898, p. 22). With
+this exception of the above-mentioned lead specimen, silver articles
+antedate positive evidence of lead by nearly a millennium, and if we
+assume lead as a necessary factor in silver production, we must conclude
+it was known long prior to any direct (except the above solitary
+possibility) evidence of lead itself. Further, if we are to conclude its
+necessary association with silver, we must assume a knowledge of
+cupellation for the parting of the two metals. Lead is mentioned in 1500
+<span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_391" id="Notes_391">[Pg 391]</a></span>among the spoil captured by Thotmes III. Leaden objects have
+frequently been found in Egyptian tombs as early as Rameses III. (1200
+<span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>). The statement is made by Pulsifer (Notes for a History of Lead,
+New York 1888, p. 146) that Egyptian pottery was glazed with lead. We
+have been unable to find any confirmation of this. It may be noted,
+incidentally, that lead is not included in the metals of the "Tribute of
+Y�" in the Shoo King (The Chinese Classics, 2500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>?), although silver
+is so included.
+</p><p>
+After 1200 or 1300 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> evidences of the use of lead become frequent.
+Moses (Numbers <span class="smcaplower">XXXI</span>, 22-23) directs the Israelites with regard to their
+plunder from the Midianites (1300 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>): "Only the gold and the silver,
+the brass [<i>sic</i>], the iron, the tin, and the lead. Everything that may
+abide the fire, ye shall make it go through the fire, and it shall be
+clean; nevertheless, it shall be purified with the water of separation,
+and all that abideth not the fire ye shall make go through the water."
+Numerous other references occur in the Scriptures (Psalms <span class="smcaplower">XII</span>, 6;
+Proverbs <span class="smcaplower">XVII</span>, 3; <span class="smcaplower">XXV</span>, 4; etc.), one of the most pointed from a
+metallurgical point of view being that of Jeremiah (600 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>), who says
+(<span class="smcaplower">VI</span>, 29-30): "The bellows are burned, the lead is consumed of the fire;
+the founder melteth in vain; for the wicked are not plucked away.
+Reprobate silver shall men call them because the Lord hath rejected
+them." From the number of his metaphors in metallurgical terms we may
+well conclude that Jeremiah was of considerable metallurgical
+experience, which may account for his critical tenor of mind. These
+Biblical references all point to a knowledge of separating silver and
+lead. Homer mentions lead (Iliad <span class="smcaplower">XXIV</span>, 109), and it has been found in
+the remains of ancient Troy and Mycenae (H. Schliemann, "Troy and its
+Remains," London, 1875, and "Mycenae," New York, 1877). Both Herodotus
+(<span class="smcaplower">I</span>, 186) and Diodorus (<span class="smcaplower">II</span>, 1) speak of the lead used to fix iron clamps
+in the stone bridge of Nitocris (600 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) at Babylon.
+</p><p>
+Our best evidence of ancient lead-silver metallurgy is the result of the
+studies at Mt. Laurion by Edouard Ardaillon (<i>Mines du Laurion dans
+l'Antiquit�</i>, Paris, 1897). Here the very extensive old workings and the
+slag heaps testify to the greatest activity. The re-opening of the mines
+in recent years by a French Company has well demonstrated their
+technical character, and the frequent mention in Greek History easily
+determines their date. These deposits of argentiferous galena were
+extensively worked before 500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> and while the evidence of
+concentration methods is ample, there is but little remaining of the
+ancient smelters. Enough, however, remains to demonstrate that the
+galena was smelted in small furnaces at low heat, with forced draught,
+and that it was subsequently cupelled. In order to reduce the sulphides
+the ancient smelters apparently depended upon partial roasting in the
+furnace at a preliminary period in reduction, or else upon the
+ferruginous character of the ore, or upon both. See notes p. <a href="#Notes_27">27</a> and p.
+<a href="#TN391">265</a>. Theognis (6th century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) and Hippocrates (5th century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) are
+frequently referred to as mentioning the refining of gold with lead; an
+inspection of the passages fails to corroborate the importance which has
+been laid upon them. Among literary evidences upon lead metallurgy of
+later date, Theophrastus (300 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) describes the making of white-lead
+with lead plates and vinegar. Diodorus Siculus (1st century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>), in
+his well-known quotation from Agatharchides (2nd century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) with
+regard to gold mining and treatment in Egypt, describes the refining of
+gold with lead. (See <a href="#Footnote_8_223">note 8, p. 279</a>.) Strabo (63 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>-24 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>) says
+(<span class="smcaplower">III</span>, 2, 8): "The furnaces for <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_392" id="Notes_392">[Pg 392]</a></span>silver are constructed lofty in order
+that the vapour, which is dense and pestilent, may be raised and carried
+off." And again (<span class="smcaplower">III</span>, 2, 10), in quoting from Polybius (204-125 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>):
+"Polybius, speaking of the silver mines of New Carthage, tells us that
+they are extremely large, distant from the city about 20 stadia, and
+occupy a circuit of 400 stadia; that there are 40,000 men regularly
+engaged in them, and that they yield daily to the Roman people (a
+revenue of) 25,000 drachmae. The rest of the process I pass over, as it
+is too long; but as for the silver ore collected, he tells us that it is
+broken up and sifted through sieves over water; that what remains is to
+be again broken, and the water having been strained off it is to be
+sifted and broken a third time. The dregs which remain after the fifth
+time are to be melted, and the lead being poured off, the silver is
+obtained pure. These silver mines still exist; however, they are no
+longer the property of the State, neither these nor those elsewhere, but
+are possessed by private individuals. The gold mines, on the contrary,
+nearly all belong to the State. Both at Castlon and other places there
+are singular lead mines worked. They contain a small proportion of
+silver, but not sufficient to pay for the expense of refining"
+(Hamilton's Trans.). Dioscorides (1st century <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>), among his
+medicines, describes several varieties of litharge, their origin, and
+the manner of making white-lead (see on pp. <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>, <a href="#Notes_440">440</a>), but he gives no
+very tangible information on lead smelting. Pliny, at the same period in
+speaking of silver, (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 31), says: "After this we speak of silver,
+the next folly. Silver is only found in shafts, there being no
+indications like shining particles as in the case of gold. This earth is
+sometimes red, sometimes of an ashy colour. It is impossible to melt it
+except with lead ore (<i>vena plumbi</i>), called <i>galena</i>, which is
+generally found next to silver veins. And this the same agency of fire
+separates part into lead, which floats on the silver like oil on water."
+(We have transferred lead and silver in this last sentence, otherwise it
+means nothing.) Also (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 47) he says: "There are two different
+sources of lead, it being smelted from its own ore, whence it comes
+without the admixture of any other substance, or else from an ore which
+contains it in common with silver. The metal, which flows liquid at the
+first melting in the furnace, is called <i>stannum</i> that at the second
+melting is silver; that which remains in the furnace is <i>galena</i>, which
+is added to a third part of the ore. This being again melted, produces
+lead with a deduction of two-ninths." We have, despite some grammatical
+objections, rendered this passage quite differently from other
+translators, none of whom have apparently had any knowledge of
+metallurgy; and we will not, therefore, take the several pages of space
+necessary to refute their extraordinary and unnecessary hypotheses. From
+a metallurgical point of view, two facts must be kept in mind,&mdash;first,
+that <i>galena</i> in this instance was the same substance as <i>molybdaena</i>,
+and they were both either a variety of litharge or of lead carbonates;
+second, that the <i>stannum</i> of the Ancients was silver-lead alloy.
+Therefore, the metallurgy of this paragraph becomes a simple melting of
+an argentiferous lead ore, its subsequent cupellation, with a return of
+the litharge to the furnace. Pliny goes into considerable detail as to
+varieties of litharge, for further notes upon which see p. <a href="#Notes_466">466</a>. The
+Romans were most active lead-silver miners, not only in Spain, but also
+in Britain. There are scores of lead pigs of the Roman era in various
+English museums, many marked "<i>ex argent</i>." Bruce (The Roman Wall,
+London, 1852, p. 432) describes some Roman lead furnaces in Cumberland
+where the draught was secured by driving a tapering tunnel into the
+hills. The Roman lead slag ran high in metal, and formed a basis for
+quite an industry in England in the early 18th century (Hunt, British
+Mining, London, 1887, p. 26, etc.). There is nothing in medi�val
+literature which carries us further with lead metallurgy than the
+knowledge displayed by Pliny, until we arrive at Agricola's period. The
+history of cupellation is specially dealt with in note on p. <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_394" id="Notes_394">[Pg 394]</a></span><a name="Footnote_25_258" id="Footnote_25_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_258"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> <i>Cadmia</i>. In the German Translation this is given as
+<i>kobelt</i>. It would be of uncertain character, but no doubt partially
+furnace calamine. (See note on p. <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_259" id="Footnote_26_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_259"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> <i>Pompholyx</i>. (<i>Interpretatio</i> gives the German as <i>Weisser
+h�tten rauch als ober dem garherde und ober dem kupfer ofen</i>). This was
+the impure protoxide of zinc deposited in the furnace outlets, and is
+modern "tutty." The ancient products, no doubt, contained arsenical
+oxides as well. It was well known to the Ancients, and used extensively
+for medicinal purposes, they dividing it into two species&mdash;<i>pompholyx</i>
+and <i>spodos</i>. The first adequate description is by Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>, 46):
+"<i>Pompholyx</i> differs from <i>spodos</i> in species, not in genus. For
+<i>spodos</i> is blacker, and is often heavier, full of straws and hairs,
+like the refuse that is swept from the floors of copper smelters. But
+<i>pompholyx</i> is fatty, unctuous, white and light enough to fly in the
+air. Of this there are two kinds&mdash;the one inclines to sky blue and is
+unctuous; the other is exceedingly white, and is extremely light. White
+<i>pompholyx</i> is made every time that the artificer, in the preparation
+and perfecting of copper (brass?) sprinkles powdered <i>cadmia</i> upon it to
+make it more perfect, for the soot which rises being very fine becomes
+<i>pompholyx</i>. Other <i>pompholyx</i> is made, not only in working copper
+(brass?), but is also made from <i>cadmia</i> by continually blowing with
+bellows. The manner of doing it is as follows:&mdash;The furnace is
+constructed in a two-storied building, and there is a medium-sized
+aperture opening to the upper chamber; the building wall nearest the
+furnace is pierced with a small opening to admit the nozzle of the
+bellows. The building must have a fair-sized door for the artificer to
+pass in and out. Another small building must adjoin this, in which are
+the bellows and the man who works them. Then the charcoal in the furnace
+is lighted, and the artificer continually throws broken bits of <i>cadmia</i>
+from the place above the furnace, whilst his assistant, who is below,
+throws in charcoals, until all of the <i>cadmia</i> inside is consumed. By
+this means the finest and lightest part of the <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_396" id="Notes_396">[Pg 396]</a></span>stuff flies up with the
+smoke to the upper chamber, and adheres to the walls of the roof. The
+substance which is thus formed has at first the appearance of bubbles on
+water, afterward increasing in size, it looks like skeins of wool. The
+heaviest parts settle in the bottom, while some fall over and around the
+furnaces, and some lie on the floor of the building. This latter part is
+considered inferior, as it contains a lot of earth and becomes full of
+dirt."
+</p><p>
+Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 33) appears somewhat confused as to the difference between
+the two species: "That which is called <i>pompholyx</i> and <i>spodos</i> is found
+in the copper-smelting furnaces, the difference between them being that
+<i>pompholyx</i> is separated by washing, while <i>spodos</i> is not washed. Some
+have called that which is white and very light <i>pompholyx</i>, and it is
+the soot of copper and <i>cadmia</i>; whereas <i>spodos</i> is darker and heavier.
+It is scraped from the walls of the furnace, and is mixed with particles
+of metal, and sometimes with charcoal." (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 34.) "The Cyprian
+<i>spodos</i> is the best. It is formed by fusing <i>cadmia</i> with copper ore.
+This being the lightest part of the metal, it flies up in the fumes from
+the furnace, and adheres to the roof, being distinguished from the soot
+by its whiteness. That which is less white is immature from the furnace,
+and it is this which some call '<i>pompholyx</i>.'" Agricola (<i>De Natura
+Fossilium</i>, p. 350) traverses much the same ground as the authors
+previously quoted, and especially recommends the <i>pompholyx</i> produced
+when making brass by melting alternate layers of copper and calamine
+(<i>cadmia fossilis</i>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_260" id="Footnote_27_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_260"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> <i>Oleo, ex fece vini sicca confecto</i>. This oil, made from
+argol, is probably the same substance mentioned a few lines further on
+as "wine," distilled by heating argol in a retort. Still further on,
+salt made from argol is mentioned. It must be borne in mind that this
+argol was crude tartrates from wine vats, and probably contained a good
+deal of organic matter. Heating argol sufficiently would form potash,
+but that the distillation product could be anything effective it is
+difficult to see.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_261" id="Footnote_28_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_261"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <i>Aqua valens</i>. No doubt mainly nitric acid, the
+preparation of which is explained at length in <a href="#BOOK_X">Book X, p. 439</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_397" id="Notes_397">[Pg 397]</a></span><a name="Footnote_29_262" id="Footnote_29_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_262"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>Quod cum ignis consumit non modo una cum eo, quae ipsius
+stibii vis est, aliqua auri particula, sed etiam argenti, si cum auro
+fuerit permistum, consumitur.</i> The meaning is by no means clear. On p.
+<a href="#Page_451">451</a> is set out the old method of parting silver from gold with antimony
+sulphide, of which this may be a variation. The silver combines with
+sulphur, and the reduced antimony forms an alloy with the gold. The
+added iron and copper would also combine with the sulphur from the
+antimony sulphide, and no doubt assist by increasing the amount of free
+collecting agent and by increasing the volume of the matte. (See <a href="#Footnote_17_310">note
+17, p. 451</a>.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_263" id="Footnote_30_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_263"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> There follow eight different methods of treating crude
+bullion or rich concentrates. In a general way three methods are
+involved,&mdash;1st, reduction with lead or antimony, and cupellation; 2nd,
+reduction with silver, and separation with nitric acid; 3rd, reduction
+with lead and silver, followed by cupellation and parting with nitric
+acid. The use of sulphur or antimony sulphide would tend to part out a
+certain amount of silver, and thus obtain fairly pure bullion upon
+cupellation. But the introduction of copper could only result
+deleteriously, except that it is usually accompanied by sulphur in some
+form, and would thus probably pass off harmlessly as a matte carrying
+silver. (See <a href="#Footnote_33_266">note 33 below</a>.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_264" id="Footnote_31_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_264"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> It is not very clear where this lead comes from. Should it
+be antimony? The German translation gives this as "silver."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_398" id="Notes_398">[Pg 398]</a></span><a name="Footnote_32_265" id="Footnote_32_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_265"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> These powders are described in Book VII., p. <a href="#Page_236">236</a>. It is
+difficult to say which the second really is. There are numbers of such
+recipes in the <i>Probierb�chlein</i> (see <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix B</a>), with which a portion
+of these are identical.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_266" id="Footnote_33_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_266"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> A variety of methods are involved in this paragraph: 1st,
+crude gold ore is smelted direct; 2nd, gold concentrates are smelted in
+a lead bath with some addition of iron&mdash;which would simply matte
+off&mdash;the lead bullion being cupelled; 3rd, roasted and unroasted pyrites
+and <i>cadmia</i> (probably blende, cobalt, arsenic, etc.) are melted into a
+matte; this matte is repeatedly roasted, and then re-melted in a lead
+bath; 4th, if the material "flies out of the furnace" it is briquetted
+with iron ore and lime, and the briquettes smelted with copper matte.
+Three products result: (<i>a</i>) slag; (<i>b</i>) matte; (<i>c</i>) copper-gold-silver
+alloy. The matte is roasted, re-smelted with lead, and no doubt a button
+obtained, and further matte. The process from this point is not clear.
+It appears that the copper bullion is melted with lead, and normally
+this product would be taken to the liquation furnace, but from the text
+it would appear that the lead-copper bullion was melted again with iron
+ore and pyrites, in which case some of the copper would be turned into
+the matte, and the lead alloy would be richer in gold and silver.
+</p>
+<p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_399" id="Notes_399">[Pg 399]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Historical Note on Gold.</span>&mdash;There is ample evidence of gold being used for
+ornamental purposes prior to any human record. The occurrence of large
+quantities of gold in native form, and the possibility of working it
+cold, did not necessitate any particular metallurgical ingenuity. The
+earliest indications of metallurgical work are, of course, among the
+Egyptians, the method of washing being figured as early as the monuments
+of the IV Dynasty (prior to 3800 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>). There are in the British Museum
+two stelae of the XII Dynasty (2400 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) (144 Bay 1 and 145 Bay 6)
+relating to officers who had to do with gold mining in Nubia, and upon
+one there are references to working what appears to be ore. If this be
+true, it is the earliest reference to this subject. The Papyrus map
+(1500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) of a gold mine, in the Turin Museum (see <a href="#Footnote_16_142">note 16, p. 129</a>),
+probably refers to a quartz mine. Of literary evidences there is
+frequent mention of refining gold and passing it through the fire in the
+Books of Moses, arts no doubt learned from the Egyptians. As to working
+gold, ore as distinguished from alluvial, we have nothing very tangible,
+unless it be the stelae above, until the description of Egyptian gold
+mining by Agatharchides (see <a href="#Footnote_8_223">note 8, p. 279</a>). This geographer, of about
+the 2nd century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, describes very clearly indeed the mining,
+crushing, and concentration of ore and the refining of the concentrates
+in crucibles with lead, salt, and barley bran. We may mention in passing
+that Theognis (6th Century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) is often quoted as mentioning the
+refining of gold with lead, but we do not believe that the passage in
+question (1101): "But having been put to the test and being rubbed
+beside (or against) lead as being refined gold, you will be fair," etc.;
+or much the same statement again (418) will stand much metallurgical
+interpretation. In any event, the myriads of metaphorical references to
+fining and purity of gold in the earliest shreds of literature do not
+carry us much further than do those of Shakespeare or Milton. Vitruvius
+and Pliny mention the recovery or refining of gold with mercury (see
+<a href="#Footnote_12_225">note 12, p. 297</a> on Amalgamation); and it appears to us that gold was
+parted from silver by cementation with salt prior to the Christian era.
+We first find mention of parting with sulphur in the 12th century, with
+nitric acid prior to the 14th century, by antimony sulphide prior to the
+15th century, and by cementation with nitre by Agricola. (See historical
+note on parting gold and silver, p. <a href="#Notes_458">458</a>.) The first mention of parting
+gold from copper occurs in the early 16th century (see <a href="#Footnote_24_317">note 24, p. 462</a>).
+The first comprehensive description of gold metallurgy in all its
+branches is in <i>De Re Metallica</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_400" id="Notes_400">[Pg 400]</a></span><a name="Footnote_34_267" id="Footnote_34_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_267"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> <i>Rudis</i> silver comprised all fairly pure silver ores, such
+as silver sulphides, chlorides, arsenides, etc. This is more fully
+discussed in <a href="#Footnote_6_132">note 6, p. 108</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_268" id="Footnote_35_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_268"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <i>Evolent</i>,&mdash;volatilize?</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_269" id="Footnote_36_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_269"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> <i>Lapidis plumbarii facile liquescentis</i>. The German
+Translation gives <i>glantz</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, Galena, and the <i>Interpretatio</i> also
+gives <i>glantz</i> for <i>lapis plumbarius</i>. We are, however, uncertain
+whether this "easily melting" material is galena or some other lead
+ore.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_270" id="Footnote_37_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_270"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> <i>Molybdaena</i> is usually hearth-lead in <i>De Re Metallica</i>,
+but the German translation in this instance uses <i>pleyertz</i>, lead ore.
+From the context it would not appear to mean hearth-lead&mdash;saturated
+bottoms of cupellation furnaces&mdash;for such material would not contain
+appreciable silver. Agricola does confuse what are obviously lead
+carbonates with his other <i>molybdaena</i> (see <a href="#Footnote_37_330">note 37, p. 476</a>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_401" id="Notes_401">[Pg 401]</a></span><a name="Footnote_38_271" id="Footnote_38_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_271"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> The term <i>cadmia</i> is used in this paragraph without the
+usual definition. Whether it was <i>cadmia fornacis</i> (furnace accretions)
+or <i>cadmia metallica</i> (cobalt-arsenic-blende mixture) is uncertain. We
+believe it to be the former.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_272" id="Footnote_39_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_272"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> <i>Ramentum si lotura ex argento rudi</i>. This expression is
+generally used by the author to indicate concentrates, but it is
+possible that in this sentence it means the tailings after washing rich
+silver minerals, because the treatment of the <i>rudis</i> silver has been
+already discussed above.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_273" id="Footnote_40_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_273"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> <i>Ustum</i>. This might be rendered "burnt." In any event, it
+seems that the material is sintered.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_402" id="Notes_402">[Pg 402]</a></span><a name="Footnote_41_274" id="Footnote_41_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_274"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> <i>Aes purum sive proprius ei color insederit, sive
+chrysocolla vel caeruleo fuerit tinctum, et rude plumbei coloris, aut
+fusci, aut nigri.</i> There are six copper minerals mentioned in this
+sentence, and from our study of Agricola's <i>De Natura Fossilium</i> we
+hazard the following:&mdash;<i>Proprius ei color insederit</i>,&mdash;"its own
+colour,"&mdash;probably cuprite or "ruby copper." <i>Tinctum
+chrysocolla</i>&mdash;partly the modern mineral of that name and partly
+malachite. <i>Tinctum caeruleo</i>, partly azurite and partly other blue
+copper minerals. <i>Rude plumbei coloris</i>,&mdash;"lead coloured,"&mdash;was
+certainly chalcocite (copper glance). We are uncertain of <i>fusci aut
+nigri</i>, but they were probably alteration products. For further
+discussion see note on p. <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_275" id="Footnote_42_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_275"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Historical Note on Copper Smelting.</span>&mdash;The discoverer of the
+reduction of copper by fusion, and his method, like the discoverer of
+tin and iron, will never be known, because he lived long before humanity
+began to make records of its discoveries and doings. Moreover, as
+different races passed independently and at different times through the
+so-called "Bronze Age," there may have been several independent
+discoverers. Upon the metallurgy of pre-historic man we have some
+evidence in the many "founders' hoards" or "smelters' hoards" of the
+Bronze Age which have been found, and they indicate a simple shallow pit
+in the ground into which the ore was placed, underlaid with charcoal.
+Rude round copper cakes eight to ten inches in diameter resulted from
+the cooling of the metal in the bottom of the pit. Analyses of such
+Bronze Age copper by Professor Gowland and others show a small
+percentage of sulphur, and this is possible only by smelting oxidized
+ores. Copper objects appear in the pre-historic remains in Egypt, are
+common throughout the first three dynasties, and bronze articles have
+been found as early as the IV Dynasty (from 3800 to 4700 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, according
+to the authority adopted). The question of the origin of this bronze,
+whether from ores containing copper and tin or by alloying the two
+metals, is one of wide difference of opinion, and we further discuss the
+question in <a href="#Footnote_53_286">note 53, p. 411</a>, under Tin. It is also interesting to note
+that the crucible is the emblem of copper in the hieroglyphics. The
+earliest source of Egyptian copper was probably the Sinai Peninsula,
+where there are reliefs as early as Seneferu (about 3700 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>),
+indicating that he worked the copper mines. Various other evidences
+exist of active copper mining prior to 2500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> (Petrie, Researches in
+Sinai, London, 1906, p. 51, etc.). The finding of crucibles here would
+indicate some form of refining. Our knowledge of Egyptian copper
+metallurgy is limited to deductions from their products, to a few
+pictures of crude furnaces and bellows, and to the minor remains on the
+Sinai Peninsula; none of the pictures were, so far as we are aware,
+prior to 2300 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, but they indicate a considerable advance over the
+crude hearth, for they depict small furnaces with forced draught&mdash;first
+a blow-pipe, and in the XVIII Dynasty (about 1500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) the bellows
+appear. Many copper articles have been found scattered over the Eastern
+Mediterranean and Asia Minor of pre-Mycenaean Age, some probably as
+early as 3000 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> This metal is mentioned in the "Tribute of Y�" in the
+Shoo King (2500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>?); but even less is known of early Chinese
+metallurgy than of the Egyptian. The remains of Mycenaean, Phoenician,
+Babylonian, and Assyrian civilizations, stretching over the period from
+1800 to 500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, have yielded endless copper and bronze objects, the
+former of considerable purity, and the latter a fairly constant
+proportion of from 10% to 14% tin. The copper supply of the pre-Roman
+world seems to have come largely, first from Sinai, and later from
+Cyprus, and from the latter comes our word copper, by way of the Romans
+shortening <i>aes cyprium</i> (Cyprian copper) to <i>cuprum</i>. Research in this
+island shows that it produced copper from 3000 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, and largely because
+of its copper it passed successively under the domination of the
+Egyptians, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Greeks, Persians, and Romans. The
+bronze objects found in Cyprus show 2% to 10% of tin, although tin does
+not, so far as modern research goes, occur on that island. There can be
+no doubt that the Greeks obtained their metallurgy from the Egyptians,
+either direct or second-hand&mdash;possibly through Mycenae or Phoenicia.
+Their metallurgical gods and the tradition of Cadmus indicate this much.
+</p><p>
+By way of literary evidences, the following lines from Homer (Iliad,
+<span class="smcaplower">XVIII.</span>) have interest as being the first preserved description in any
+language of a metallurgical work. Hephaestus was much interrupted by
+Thetis, who came to secure a shield for Achilles, and whose general
+conversation we therefore largely omit. We adopt Pope's translation:&mdash;
+</p>
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">There the lame architect the goddess found<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Obscure in smoke, his forges flaming round,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">While bathed in sweat from fire to fire he flew;<br /></span>
+<span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_403" id="Notes_403">[Pg 403]</a></span><span class="i0">And puffing loud the roaring bellows blew.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">* * *<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In moulds prepared, the glowing ore (metal?) he pours.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">* * *<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">"Vouchsafe, oh Thetis! at our board to share<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The genial rites and hospitable fare;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">While I the labours of the forge forego,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And bid the roaring bellows cease to blow."<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Then from his anvil the lame artist rose;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Wide with distorted legs oblique he goes,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And stills the bellows, and (in order laid)<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Locks in their chests his instruments of trade;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Then with a sponge, the sooty workman dress'd<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">His brawny arms embrown'd and hairy breast.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">* * *<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Thus having said, the father of the fires<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To the black labours of his forge retires.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Soon as he bade them blow the bellows turn'd<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Their iron mouths; and where the furnace burn'd<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Resounding breathed: at once the blast expires,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And twenty forges catch at once the fires;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Just as the God directs, now loud, now low,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">They raise a tempest, or they gently blow;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In hissing flames huge silver bars are roll'd,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And stubborn brass (copper?) and tin, and solid gold;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Before, deep fixed, the eternal anvils stand.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The ponderous hammer loads his better hand;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">His left with tongs turns the vex'd metal round.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And thick, strong strokes, the doubling vaults rebound<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Then first he formed the immense and solid shield;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+<p>
+Even if we place the siege of Troy at any of the various dates from 1350
+to 1100 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, it does not follow that the epic received its final form
+for many centuries later, probably 900-800 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>; and the experience of
+the race in metallurgy at a much later period than Troy may have been
+drawn upon to fill in details. It is possible to fill a volume with
+indirect allusion to metallurgical facts and to the origins of the art,
+from Greek mythology, from Greek poetry, from the works of the
+grammarians, and from the Bible. But they are of no more technical value
+than the metaphors from our own tongue. Greek literature in general is
+singularly lacking in metallurgical description of technical value, and
+it is not until Dioscorides (1st Century <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>) that anything of much
+importance can be adduced. Aristotle, however, does make an interesting
+reference to what may be brass (see note on p. <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>), and there can be no
+doubt that if we had the lost work of Aristotle's successor,
+Theophrastus (372-288 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>), on metals we should be in possession of the
+first adequate work on metallurgy. As it is, we find the green and blue
+copper minerals from Cyprus mentioned in his "Stones." And this is the
+first mention of any particular copper ore. He also mentions (<span class="smcaplower">XIX.</span>)
+pyrites "which melt," but whether it was a copper variety cannot be
+determined. Theophrastus further describes the making of verdigris (see
+<a href="#Footnote_4_297">note 4, p. 440</a>). From Dioscorides we get a good deal of light on copper
+treatment, but as his objective was to describe medicinal preparations,
+the information is very indirect. He states (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>, 100) that "pyrites is a
+stone from which copper is made." He mentions <i>chalcitis</i> (copper
+sulphide, see note on, p. <a href="#Notes_573">573</a>); while his <i>misy</i>, <i>sory</i>, <i>melanteria</i>,
+<i>caeruleum</i>, and <i>chrysocolla</i> were all oxidation copper or iron
+minerals. (See notes on p. <a href="#Notes_573">573</a>.) In giving a method of securing
+<i>pompholyx</i> (zinc oxide), "the soot flies up when the copper refiners
+sprinkle powdered <i>cadmia</i> over the molten metal" (see <a href="#Footnote_26_259">note 26, p. 394</a>);
+he indirectly gives us the first definite indication of making brass,
+and further gives some details as to the furnaces there employed, which
+embraced bellows and dust chambers. In describing the making of flowers
+of copper (see <a href="#Footnote_26_360">note 26, p. 538</a>) he states that in refining copper, when
+the "molten metal flows through its tube into a receptacle, the workmen
+<span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_404" id="Notes_404">[Pg 404]</a></span>pour cold water on it, the copper spits and throws off the flowers." He
+gives the first description of vitriol (see <a href="#Footnote_11_381">note 11, p. 572</a>), and
+describes the pieces as "shaped like dice which stick together in
+bunches like grapes." Altogether, from Dioscorides we learn for the
+first time of copper made from sulphide ores, and of the recovery of
+zinc oxides from furnace fumes; and he gives us the first certain
+description of making brass, and finally the first notice of blue
+vitriol.
+</p><p>
+The next author we have who gives any technical detail of copper work is
+Pliny (23-79 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>), and while his statements carry us a little further
+than Dioscorides, they are not as complete as the same number of words
+could have afforded had he ever had practical contact with the subject,
+and one is driven to the conclusion that he was not himself much of a
+metallurgist. Pliny indicates that copper ores were obtained from veins
+by underground mining. He gives the same minerals as Dioscorides, but is
+a good deal confused over <i>chrysocolla</i> and <i>chalcitis</i>. He gives no
+description of the shapes of furnaces, but frequently mentions the
+bellows, and speaks of the <i>cadmia</i> and <i>pompholyx</i> which adhered to the
+walls and arches of the furnaces. He has nothing to say as to whether
+fluxes are used or not. As to fuel, he says (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 30) that "for
+smelting copper and iron pine wood is the best." The following (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>,
+20) is of the greatest interest on the subject:&mdash;"Cyprian copper is
+known as <i>coronarium</i> and <i>regulare</i>; both are ductile.... In other
+mines are made that known as <i>regulare</i> and <i>caldarium</i>. These differ,
+because the <i>caldarium</i> is only melted, and is brittle to the hammer;
+whereas the <i>regulare</i> is malleable or ductile. All Cyprian copper is
+this latter kind. But in other mines with care the difference can be
+eliminated from <i>caldarium</i>, the impurities being carefully purged away
+by smelting with fire, it is made into <i>regulare</i>. Among the remaining
+kinds of copper the best is that of Campania, which is most esteemed for
+vessels and utensils. This kind is made in several ways. At Capua it is
+melted with wood, not with charcoal, after which it is sprinkled with
+water and washed through an oak sieve. After it is melted a number of
+times Spanish <i>plumbum argentum</i> (probably pewter) is added to it in
+proportion of ten pounds of the lead to one hundred pounds of copper,
+and thereby it is made pliable and assumes that pleasing colour which in
+other kinds of copper is effected by oil and the sun. In many parts of
+the Italian provinces they make a similar kind of metal; but there they
+add eight pounds of lead, and it is re-melted over charcoal because of
+the scarcity of wood. Very different is the method carried on in Gaul,
+particularly where the ore is smelted between red hot stones, for this
+burns the metal and renders it black and brittle. Moreover, it is
+re-melted only a single time, whereas the oftener this operation is
+repeated the better the quality becomes. It is well to remark that all
+copper fuses best when the weather is intensely cold." The red hot
+stones in Gaul were probably as much figments of imagination as was the
+assumption of one commentator that they were a reverberatory furnace.
+Apart from the above, Pliny says nothing very direct on refining copper.
+It is obvious that more than one melting was practised, but that
+anything was known of the nature of oxidation by a blast and reduction
+by poling is uncertain. We produce the three following statements in
+connection with some bye-products used for medicinal purposes, which at
+least indicate operations subsequent to the original melting. As to
+whether they represent this species of refining or not, we leave it to
+the metallurgical profession (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 24):&mdash;"The flowers of copper are
+used in medicine; they are made by fusing copper and moving it to
+another furnace, where the rapid blast separates it into a thousand
+particles, which are called flowers. These scales are also made when the
+copper cakes are cooled in water (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 35). <i>Smega</i> is prepared in the
+copper works; when the metal is melted and thoroughly smelted charcoal
+is added to it and gradually kindled; after this, being blown upon by a
+powerful bellows, it spits out, as it were, copper chaff (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 37).
+There is another product of these works easily distinguished from
+<i>smega</i>, which the Greeks call <i>diphrygum</i>. This substance has three
+different origins.... A third way of making it is from the residues
+which fall to the bottom in copper furnaces. The difference between the
+different substances (in the furnace) is that the copper itself flows
+into a receiver; the slag makes its escape from the furnace; the flowers
+float on the top (of the copper?), and the <i>diphrygum</i> remains behind.
+Some say that in the furnace there are certain masses of stone which,
+being smelted, become soldered together, and that the copper fuses
+around it, the mass not becoming liquid unless it is transferred to
+another furnace. It thus forms a sort of knot, as it were, in the
+metal."
+</p><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_405" id="Notes_405">[Pg 405]</a></span>
+Pliny is a good deal confused over the copper alloys, failing to
+recognise <i>aurichalcum</i> as the same product as that made by mixing
+<i>cadmia</i> and molten copper. Further, there is always the difficulty in
+translation arising from the fact that the Latin <i>aes</i> was
+indiscriminately copper, brass, and bronze. He does not, except in one
+instance (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV.</span>, 2), directly describe the mixture of <i>cadmia</i> and
+copper. "Next to Livian (copper) this kind (<i>corduban</i>, from Spain) most
+readily absorbs <i>cadmia</i>, and becomes almost as excellent as
+<i>aurichalcum</i> for making <i>sesterces</i>." As to bronze, there is no very
+definite statement; but the <i>argentatium</i> given in the quotation above
+from <span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 20, is stated in <span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 48, to be a mixture of tin and lead.
+The Romans carried on most extensive copper mining in various parts of
+their empire; these activities extended from Egypt through Cyprus,
+Central Europe, the Spanish Peninsula, and Britain. The activity of such
+works is abundantly evidenced in the mines, but very little remains upon
+the surface to indicate the equipment; thus, while mining methods are
+clear enough, the metallurgy receives little help from these sources. At
+Rio Tinto there still remain enormous slag heaps from the Romans, and
+the Phoenician miners before them. Professor W. A. Carlyle informs us
+that the ore worked must have been almost exclusively sulphides, as only
+negligible quantities of carbonates exist in the deposits; they probably
+mixed basic and siliceous ores. There is some evidence of roasting, and
+the slags run from .2 to .6%. They must have run down mattes, but as to
+how they ultimately arrived at metallic copper there is no evidence to
+show.
+</p><p>
+The special processes for separating other metals from copper by
+liquation and matting, or of refining by poling, etc., are none of them
+clearly indicated in records or remains until we reach the 12th century.
+Here we find very adequate descriptions of copper smelting and refining
+by the Monk Theophilus (see <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix B</a>). We reproduce two paragraphs of
+interest from Hendrie's excellent translation (p. 305 and 313): "Copper
+is engendered in the earth. When a vein of which is found, it is
+acquired with the greatest labour by digging and breaking. It is a stone
+of a green colour and most hard, and naturally mixed with lead. This
+stone, dug up in abundance, is placed upon a pile and burned after the
+manner of chalk, nor does it change colour, but yet loses its hardness,
+so that it can be broken up. Then, being bruised small, it is placed in
+the furnace; coals and the bellows being applied, it is incessantly
+forged by day and night. This should be done carefully and with caution;
+that is, at first coals are placed in, then small pieces of stone are
+distributed over them, and again coals, and then stone anew, and it is
+thus arranged until it is sufficient for the size of the furnace. And
+when the stone has commenced to liquefy, the lead flows out through some
+small cavities, and the copper remains within. (313) Of the purification
+of copper. Take an iron dish of the size you wish, and line it inside
+and out with clay strongly beaten and mixed, and it is carefully dried.
+Then place it before a forge upon the coals, so that when the bellows
+act upon it the wind may issue partly within and partly above it, and
+not below it. And very small coals being placed round it, place copper
+in it equally, and add over it a heap of coals. When, by blowing a long
+time, this has become melted, uncover it and cast immediately fine ashes
+of coals over it, and stir it with a thin and dry piece of wood as if
+mixing it, and you will directly see the burnt lead adhere to these
+ashes like a glue. Which being cast out again superpose coals, and
+blowing for a long time, as at first, again uncover it, and then do as
+you did before. You do this until at length, by cooking it, you can
+withdraw the lead entirely. Then pour it over the mould which you have
+prepared for this, and you will thus prove if it be pure. Hold it with
+pincers, glowing as it is, before it has become cold, and strike it with
+a large hammer strongly over the anvil, and if it be broken or split you
+must liquefy it anew as before."
+</p><p>
+The next writer of importance was Biringuccio, who was contemporaneous
+with Agricola, but whose book precedes <i>De Re Metallica</i> by 15 years.
+That author (<span class="smcaplower">III</span>, 2) is the first to describe particularly the furnace
+used in Saxony and the roasting prior to smelting, and the first to
+mention fluxes in detail. He, however, describes nothing of matte
+smelting; in copper refining he gives the whole process of poling, but
+omits the pole. It is not until we reach <i>De Re Metallica</i> that we find
+adequate descriptions of the copper minerals, roasting, matte smelting,
+liquation, and refining, with a wealth of detail which eliminates the
+necessity for a large amount of conjecture regarding technical methods
+of the time.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_276" id="Footnote_43_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_276"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> <i>Cadmia metallica fossilis</i> (see note on p. <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>). This was
+undoubtedly the complex cobalt-arsenic-zinc minerals found in Saxony. In
+the German translation, however, this is given as <i>Kalmey</i>, calamine,
+which is unlikely from the association with pyrites.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_277" id="Footnote_44_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_277"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> The Roman <i>modius</i> (<i>modulus</i>?) held about 550 cubic
+inches, the English peck holding 535 cubic inches. Then, perhaps, his
+seven <i>moduli</i> would be roughly, 1 bushel 3 pecks, and 18 vessels full
+would be about 31 bushels&mdash;say, roughly, 5,400 lbs. of ore.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_406" id="Notes_406">[Pg 406]</a></span><a name="Footnote_45_278" id="Footnote_45_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_278"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Exhausted liquation cakes (<i>panes aerei fathiscentes</i>).
+This is the copper sponge resulting from the first liquation of lead,
+and still contains a considerable amount of lead. The liquation process
+is discussed in great detail in <a href="#BOOK_XI">Book XI</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_407" id="Notes_407">[Pg 407]</a></span><a name="Footnote_46_279" id="Footnote_46_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_279"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> The method of this paragraph involves two main
+objectives&mdash;first, the gradual enrichment of matte to blister copper;
+and, second, the creation of large cakes of copper-lead-silver alloy of
+suitable size and ratio of metals for liquation. This latter process is
+described in detail in <a href="#BOOK_XI">Book XI</a>. The following groupings show the circuit
+of the various products, the "lbs." being Roman <i>librae</i>:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Charge.</span></td><td align="center" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Products.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="center">1st</td><td class="bt" align="left">Crude ore</td><td align="left" class="bt">5,400 lbs.</td><td align="left" class="btl">Primary matte (1)</td><td class="bt" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">600 lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"></td><td align="left">Lead slags</td><td align="left">3 cartloads</td><td class="bl" align="left">Silver-copper alloy (A)</td><td class="br" align="left">50 &nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"></td><td align="left">Schist</td><td align="left">1 cartload</td><td class="bl" align="left">Slags (B)</td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"></td><td align="left">Flux</td><td align="left">20 lbs.</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"></td><td align="left">Concentrates from slags &amp; accretions</td><td align="left">Small quantity</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="center">2nd</td><td class="bt" align="left">Primary matte (1)</td><td class="bt" align="left">1,800 lbs.</td><td class="btl" align="left">Secondary matte (2)</td><td class="bt" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">1,800 lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"></td><td align="left">Hearth-lead &amp; litharge</td><td align="left">1,200 &nbsp;"</td><td class="bl" align="left">Silver-copper-lead alloy (liquation cakes) (A<sub>2</sub>)</td><td align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">1,200 &nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"></td><td align="left">Lead ore</td><td align="left">300 &nbsp;"</td><td class="bl" align="left">Slags (B<sub>2</sub>)</td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"></td><td align="left">Rich hard cakes (A<sub>4</sub>)</td><td align="left">500 &nbsp;"</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"></td><td align="left">Liquated cakes</td><td align="left">200 &nbsp;"</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"></td><td align="left">Slags (B)</td><td></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"></td><td align="left">Concentrates from accretions</td><td></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="center">3rd</td><td class="bt" align="left">Secondary matte (2)</td><td class="bt" align="left">1,800 lbs.</td><td class="btl" align="left">Tertiary matte (3)</td><td class="bt" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">1,300 lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"></td><td align="left">Hearth-lead &amp; litharge</td><td align="left">1,200 &nbsp;"</td><td class="bl" align="left">Silver-copper-lead alloy (liquation cakes) (A<sub>3</sub>)</td><td align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">1,100 &nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"></td><td align="left">Lead ore</td><td align="left">300 &nbsp;"</td><td class="bl" align="left">Slags (B<sub>3</sub>)</td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"></td><td align="left">Rich hard cakes (A<sub>4</sub>)</td><td align="left">500 &nbsp;"</td><td class="bl"></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"></td><td align="left">Slags (B<sub>2</sub>)</td><td></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"></td><td align="left">Concentrates from accretions</td><td></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="center">4th</td><td class="bt" align="left">Tertiary matte (3)</td><td class="bt" align="left">11 cartloads</td><td class="btl" align="left">Quaternary hard cakes matte (4)</td><td class="bt" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">2,000 lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"></td><td align="left">Poor hard cakes (A<sub>5</sub>)</td><td align="left">3 &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td class="bl" align="left">Rich hard cakes of matte (A<sub>4</sub>)</td><td align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">1,500 &nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"></td><td align="left">Slags (B<sub>3</sub>)</td><td></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"></td><td align="left">Concentrates from accretions</td><td></td><td class="bl"></td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="center">5th</td><td class="bt" align="left">Roasted quartz</td><td class="bt" align="left"></td><td class="btl" align="left">Poor hard cakes of matte (A<sub>5</sub>)</td><td class="bt" align="left" style="border-right:1px black solid;">1,500 lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"></td><td align="left">Matte (4) (three times roasted)</td><td align="left">11 cartloads</td><td class="bl" align="left">Final cakes of matte (5)</td><td class="br"></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="center" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;">6th</td><td class="bt" align="left" colspan="4" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;border-right:1px black solid;">Final matte three times roasted is smelted to blister copper.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>
+The following would be a rough approximation of the value of the various
+products:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">(1.)</td><td align="left">Primary matte</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">158</td><td align="left">ounces troy per short ton.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">(2.)</td><td align="left">Secondary matte</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">85</td><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp; "&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; "&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">(3.)</td><td align="left">Tertiary matte</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">60</td><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp; "&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; "&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">(4.)</td><td align="left">Quaternary matte</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left" colspan="2">Indeterminate.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> A.</td><td align="left">Copper-silver alloy</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">388</td><td align="left">ounces Troy per short ton.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> A<sub>2</sub></td><td align="left">Copper-silver-lead alloy</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">145</td><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp; "&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; "&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> A<sub>3</sub></td><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp; "&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; "&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; "</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">109</td><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp; "&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; "&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> A<sub>4</sub></td><td align="left">Rich hard cakes</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">97</td><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp; "&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; "&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> A<sub>5</sub></td><td align="left">Poor hard cakes</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left" colspan="2">Indeterminate.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> &nbsp;</td><td align="left">Final blister copper</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">12</td><td align="left">ozs. Troy per short ton.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_408" id="Notes_408">[Pg 408]</a></span><a name="Footnote_47_280" id="Footnote_47_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_280"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> This expression is usually used for hearth-lead, but in
+this case the author is apparently confining himself to lead ore, and
+apparently refers to lead carbonates. The German Translation gives
+<i>pleyschweiss</i>. The pyrites mentioned in this paragraph may mean galena,
+as pyrites was to Agricola a sort of genera.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_281" id="Footnote_48_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_281"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> (<i>Excoquitur</i>) ... "<i>si ver� pyrites, prim� � fornace, ut
+Goselariae videre licet, in catinum defluit liquor quidam candidus,
+argento inimicus et nocivus; id enim comburit: quo circa recrementis,
+quae supernatant, detractis effunditur: vel induratus conto uncinato
+extrahitur: eundem liquorem parietes fornacis exudant.</i>" In the Glossary
+the following statement appears: "<i>Liquor candidus primo � fornace
+defluens cum Goselariae excoquitur pyrites,&mdash;kobelt; quem parietes
+fornacis exudant,&mdash;conterfei.</i>" In this latter statement Agricola
+apparently recognised that there were two different substances, <i>i.e.</i>,
+that the substance found in the furnace walls&mdash;<i>conterfei</i>&mdash;was not the
+same substance as that which first flowed from the furnace&mdash;<i>kobelt</i>. We
+are at no difficulty in recognizing <i>conterfei</i> as metallic zinc; it was
+long known by that term, and this accidental occurrence is repeatedly
+mentioned by other authors after Agricola. The substance which first
+flowed into the forehearth presents greater difficulties; it certainly
+was not zinc. In <i>De Natura Fossilium</i> (p. 347), Agricola says that at
+Goslar the lead has a certain white slag floating upon it, the "colour
+derived from the pyrites (<i>pyriten argenteum</i>) from which it was
+produced." <i>Pyriten argenteum</i> was either marcasite or mispickel,
+neither of which offers much suggestion; nor are we able to hazard an
+explanation of value.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Historical Note on Zinc.</span> The history of zinc metallurgy falls into two
+distinct <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_409" id="Notes_409">[Pg 409]</a></span>lines&mdash;first, that of the metal, and second, that of zinc ore,
+for the latter was known and used to make brass by cementation with
+copper and to yield oxides by sublimation for medicinal purposes, nearly
+2,000 years before the metal became generally known and used in Europe.
+</p><p>
+There is some reason to believe that metallic zinc was known to the
+Ancients, for bracelets made of it, found in the ruins of Cameros (prior
+to 500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>), may have been of that age (Raoul Jagnaux, <i>Trait� de
+Chimie G�n�rale</i>, 1887, <span class="smcaplower">II</span>, 385); and further, a passage in Strabo (63
+<span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>-24 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>) is of much interest. He states: (<span class="smcaplower">XIII</span>, 1, 56) "There is
+found at Andeira a stone which when burnt becomes iron. It is then put
+into a furnace, together with some kind of earth, when it distils a mock
+silver (<i>pseudargyrum</i>), or with the addition of copper it becomes the
+compound called <i>orichalcum</i>. There is found a mock silver near Tismolu
+also." (Hamilton's Trans., II, p. 381). About the Christian era the
+terms <i>orichalcum</i> or <i>aurichalcum</i> undoubtedly refer to brass, but
+whether these terms as used by earlier Greek writers do not refer to
+bronze only, is a matter of considerable doubt. Beyond these slight
+references we are without information until the 16th Century. If the
+metal was known to the Ancients it must have been locally, for by its
+greater adaptability to brass-making it would probably have supplanted
+the crude melting of copper with zinc minerals.
+</p><p>
+It appears that the metal may have been known in the Far East prior to
+such knowledge in Europe; metallic zinc was imported in considerable
+quantities from the East as early as the 16th and 17th centuries under
+such terms as <i>tuteneque</i>, <i>tuttanego</i>, <i>cala�m</i>, and <i>spiauter</i>&mdash;the
+latter, of course, being the progenitor of our term spelter. The
+localities of Eastern production have never been adequately
+investigated. W. Hommel (Engineering and Mining Journal, June 15, 1912)
+gives a very satisfactory review of the Eastern literature upon the
+subject, and considers that the origin of manufacture was in India,
+although the most of the 16th and 17th Century product came from China.
+The earliest certain description seems to be some recipes for
+manufacture quoted by Praphulla Chandra Ray (A History of Hindu
+Chemistry, London, 1902, p. 39) dating from the 11th to the 14th
+Centuries. There does not appear to be any satisfactory description of
+the Chinese method until that of Sir George Staunton (Journal Asiatique
+Paris, 1835, p. 141.) We may add that spelter was produced in India by
+crude distillation of calamine in clay pots in the early part of the
+19th Century (Brooke, Jour. Asiatic Soc. of Bengal, vol. <span class="smcaplower">XIX</span>, 1850, p.
+212), and the remains of such smelting in Rajputana are supposed to be
+very ancient.
+</p><p>
+The discovery of zinc in Europe seems to have been quite independent of
+the East, but precisely where and when is clouded with much uncertainty.
+The <i>marchasita aurea</i> of Albertus Magnus has been called upon to serve
+as metallic zinc, but such belief requires a hypothesis based upon a
+great deal of assumption. Further, the statement is frequently made that
+zinc is mentioned in Basil Valentine's Triumphant Chariot of Antimony
+(the only one of the works attributed to this author which may date
+prior to the 17th Century), but we have been unable to find any such
+reference. The first certain mention of metallic zinc is generally
+accredited to Paracelsus (1493-1541), who states (<i>Liber Mineralium</i>
+<span class="smcaplower">II.</span>): "Moreover there is another metal generally unknown called
+<i>zinken</i>. It is of peculiar nature and origin; many other metals
+adulterate it. It can be melted, for it is generated from three fluid
+principles; it is not malleable. Its colour is different from other
+metals and does not resemble others in its growth. Its ultimate matter
+(<i>ultima materia</i>) is not to me yet fully known. It admits of no mixture
+and does not permit of the <i>fabricationes</i> of other metals. It stands
+alone entirely to itself." We do not believe that this book was
+published until after Agricola's works. Agricola introduced the
+following statements into his revised edition of <i>Bermannus</i> (p. 431),
+published in 1558: "It (a variety of pyrites) is almost the colour of
+galena, but of entirely different components. From it there is made gold
+and silver, and a great quantity is dug in Reichenstein, which is in
+Silesia, as was recently reported to me. Much more is found at Raurici,
+which they call <i>zincum</i>, which species differs from pyrites, for the
+latter contains more silver than gold, the former only gold or hardly
+any silver." In <i>De Natura Fossilium</i> (p. 368): "For this <i>cadmia</i> is
+put, in the same way as quicksilver, in a suitable vessel so that the
+heat of the fire will cause it to sublime, and from it is made a black
+or brown or grey body which the Alchemists call <i>cadmia sublimata</i>. This
+possesses corrosive properties to the highest degree. Cognate with this
+<i>cadmia</i> and pyrites is a compound which the Noricans and Rhetians call
+<i>zincum</i>." We leave it to readers to decide how near this comes to
+metallic zinc; in any event, he apparently did not <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_410" id="Notes_410">[Pg 410]</a></span>recognise his
+<i>conterfei</i> from the furnaces as the same substance as the <i>zincum</i> from
+Silesia. The first correlation of these substances was apparently by
+Lohneys, in 1617, who says (<i>Vom Bergwerk</i>, p. 83-4): "When the people
+in the smelting works are smelting, there is made under the furnace and
+in the cracks in the walls among the badly plastered stones, a metal
+which is called <i>zinc</i> or <i>counterfeht</i>, and when the wall is scraped it
+falls into a vessel placed to receive it. This metal greatly resembles
+tin, but it is harder and less malleable.... The Alchemists have a great
+desire for this <i>zinc</i> or bismuth." That this metal originated from
+blende or calamine was not recognised until long after, and Libavis
+(<i>Alchymia</i>, Frankfort, 1606), in describing specimens which came from
+the East, did not so identify it, this office being performed by
+Glauber, who says (<i>De Prosperitate Germanias</i>, Amsterdam, 1656): "Zink
+is a volatile mineral or half-ripe metal when it is extracted from its
+ore. It is more brilliant than tin and not so fusible or malleable ...
+it turns (copper) into brass, as does <i>lapis calaminaris</i>, for indeed
+this stone is nothing but infusible zinc, and this zinc might be called
+a fusible <i>lapis calaminaris</i>, inasmuch as both of them partake of the
+same nature.... It sublimates itself up into the cracks of the furnace,
+whereupon the smelters frequently break it out." The systematic
+distillation of zinc from calamine was not discovered in Europe until
+the 18th Century. Henkel is generally accredited with the first
+statement to that effect. In a contribution published as an Appendix to
+his other works, of which we have had access only to a French
+translation (<i>Pyritologie</i>, Paris, 1760, p. 494), he concludes that zinc
+is a half-metal of which the best ore is calamine, but believes it is
+always associated with lead, and mentions that an Englishman lately
+arrived from Bristol had seen it being obtained from calamine in his own
+country. He further mentions that it can be obtained by heating calamine
+and lead ore mixed with coal in a thick earthen vessel. The Bristol
+works were apparently those of John Champion, established about 1740.
+The art of distillation was probably learned in the East.
+</p><p>
+Definite information as to the zinc minerals goes back to but a little
+before the Christian Era, unless we accept nebular references to
+<i>aurichalcum</i> by the poets, or what is possibly zinc ore in the "earth"
+mentioned by Aristotle (<i>De Mirabilibus</i>, 62): "Men say that the copper
+of the Mossynoeci is very brilliant and white, no tin being mixed with
+it; but there is a kind of earth there which is melted with it." This
+might quite well be an arsenical mineral. But whether we can accept the
+poets or Aristotle or the remark of Strabo given above, as sufficient
+evidence or not, there is no difficulty with the description of <i>cadmia</i>
+and <i>pompholyx</i> and <i>spodos</i> of Dioscorides (1st Century), parts of
+which we reproduce in <a href="#Footnote_26_259">note 26, p. 394</a>. His <i>cadmia</i> is described as
+rising from the copper furnaces and clinging to the iron bars, but he
+continues: "<i>Cadmia</i> is also prepared by burning the stone called
+pyrites, which is found near Mt. Soloi in Cyprus.... Some say that
+<i>cadmia</i> may also be found in stone quarries, but they are deceived by
+stones having a resemblance to <i>cadmia</i>." <i>Pompholyx</i> and <i>spodos</i> are
+evidently furnace calamine. From reading the quotation given on p. <a href="#Notes_394">394</a>,
+there can be no doubt that these materials, natural or artificial, were
+used to make brass, for he states (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>, 46): "White <i>pompholyx</i> is made
+every time that the artificer in the working and perfecting of the
+copper sprinkles powdered <i>cadmia</i> upon it to make it more perfect, the
+soot arising from this ... is <i>pompholyx</i>." Pliny is confused between
+the mineral <i>cadmia</i> and furnace <i>calamine</i>, and none of his statements
+are very direct on the subject of brass making. His most pointed
+statement is (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 2): "... Next to Livian (copper) this kind best
+absorbs <i>cadmia</i>, and is almost as good as <i>aurichalcum</i> for making
+sesterces and double asses." As stated above, there can be little doubt
+that the <i>aurichalcum</i> of the Christian Era was brass, and further, we
+do know of brass sesterces of this period. Other Roman writers of this
+and later periods refer to earth used with copper for making brass.
+Apart from these evidences, however, there is the evidence of analyses
+of coins and objects, the earliest of which appears to be a large brass
+of the Cassia family of 20 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, analyzed by Phillips, who found 17.3%
+zinc (Records of Mining and Metallurgy, London, 1857, p. 13). Numerous
+analyses of coins and other objects dating during the following century
+corroborate the general use of brass. Professor Gowland (Presidential
+Address, Inst. of Metals, 1912) rightly considers the Romans were the
+first to make brass, and at about the above period, for there appears to
+be no certainty of any earlier production. The first adequate technical
+description of brass making is in about 1200 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span> being that of
+Theophilus, who describes (Hendrie's Trans., p. 307) calcining
+<i>calamina</i> and mixing it with finely divided copper in glowing
+crucibles. The process was repeated by adding more calamine and copper
+until the pots were full of molten metal. This method is repeatedly
+described with minor variations by Biringuccio, Agricola (<i>De Nat.
+Fos.</i>), and others, down to the 18th Century. For discussion of the zinc
+minerals see note on p. <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_282" id="Footnote_49_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_282"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> "<i>... non raro, ut nonnulli pyritae sunt, candida....</i>"
+This is apparently the unknown substance mentioned above.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_411" id="Notes_411">[Pg 411]</a></span><a name="Footnote_50_283" id="Footnote_50_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_283"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> One <i>drachma</i> is about 3 ounces Troy per short ton. Three
+<i>unciae</i> are about 72 ounces 6 dwts. Troy per short ton.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_284" id="Footnote_51_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_284"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> In this section, which treats of the metallurgy of
+<i>plumbum candidum</i>, "tin," the word <i>candidum</i> is very often omitted in
+the Latin, leaving only <i>plumbum</i>, which is confusing at times with
+lead. The black tin-stone, <i>lapilli nigri</i> has been treated in a similar
+manner, <i>lapilli</i> (small stones) constantly occurring alone in the
+Latin. This has been rendered as "tin-stone" throughout, and the
+material prior to extraction of the <i>lapilli nigri</i> has been rendered
+"tin-stuff," after the Cornish.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_285" id="Footnote_52_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_285"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> "<i>... ex saxis vilibus, quae natura de diversa materia
+composuit.</i>" The Glossary gives <i>grindstein</i>. Granite (?).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_286" id="Footnote_53_286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_286"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Historical Notes on Tin Metallurgy.</span> The first appearance
+of tin lies in the ancient bronzes. And while much is written upon the
+"Bronze Age" by arch�ologists, we seriously doubt whether or not a large
+part of so-called bronze is not copper. In any event, this period varied
+with each race, and for instance, in Britain may have been much later
+than Egyptian historic times. The bronze articles of the IV Dynasty
+(from 3800 to 4700 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> depending on the authority) place us on certain
+ground of antiquity. Professor Gowland (Presidential Address, Inst. of
+Metals, London, 1912) maintains that the early bronzes were the result
+of direct smelting of stanniferous copper ores, and while this may be
+partially true for Western Europe, the distribution and nature of the
+copper deposits do not warrant this assumption for the earlier scenes of
+human activity&mdash;Asia Minor, Egypt, and India. Further, the lumps of
+rough tin and also of copper found by Borlase (Tin Mining in Spain, Past
+and Present, London, 1897, p. 25) in Cornwall, mixed with bronze celts
+under conditions certainly indicating the Bronze Age, is in itself of
+considerable evidence of independent melting. To our mind the vast
+majority of ancient bronzes must have been made from copper and tin
+mined and smelted independently. As to the source of supply of ancient
+tin, we are on clear ground only with the advent of the Ph&oelig;nicians,
+1500-1000 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, who, as is well known, distributed to the ancient world
+a supply from Spain and Britain. What the source may have been prior to
+this time has been subject to much discussion, and while some <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_412" id="Notes_412">[Pg 412]</a></span>slender
+threads indicate the East, we believe that a more local supply to Egypt,
+etc., is not impossible. The discovery of large tin fields in Central
+Africa and the native-made tin ornaments in circulation among the
+negroes, made possible the entrance of the metal into Egypt along the
+trade routes. Further, we see no reason why alluvial tin may not have
+existed within easy reach and have become exhausted. How quickly such a
+source of metal supply can be forgotten and no evidence remain, is
+indicated by the seldom remembered alluvial gold supply from Ireland.
+However, be these conjectures as they may, the East has long been the
+scene of tin production and of transportation activity. Among the
+slender evidences that point in this direction is that the Sanskrit term
+for tin is <i>kastira</i>, a term also employed by the Chaldeans, and
+represented in Arabic by <i>kasdir</i>, and it may have been the progenitor
+of the Greek <i>cassiteros</i>. There can be no doubt that the Ph&oelig;nicians
+also traded with Malacca, etc., but beyond these threads there is little
+to prove the pre-western source. The strained argument of Beckmann
+(Hist. of Inventions, vol. <span class="smcaplower">II.</span>, p. 207) that the <i>cassiteros</i> of Homer
+and the <i>bedil</i> of the Hebrews was possibly not tin, and that tin was
+unknown at this time, falls to the ground in the face of the vast amount
+of tin which must have been in circulation to account for the bronze
+used over a period 2,000 years prior to those peoples. Tin is early
+mentioned in the Scriptures (Numbers <span class="smcaplower">XXXI</span>, 22), being enumerated among
+the spoil of the Midianites (1200 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>?), also Ezekiel (600 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, <span class="smcaplower">XXVII</span>,
+12) speaks of tin from Tarshish (the Ph&oelig;nician settlement on the
+coast of Spain). According to Homer tin played considerable part in
+Vulcan's metallurgical stores. Even approximately at what period the
+Ph&oelig;nicians began their distribution from Spain and Britain cannot be
+determined. They apparently established their settlements at Gades
+(Cadiz) in Tarshish, beyond Gibraltar, about 1100 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> The remains of
+tin mining in the Spanish peninsula prior to the Christian Era indicate
+most extensive production by the Ph&oelig;nicians, but there is little
+evidence as to either mining or smelting methods. Generally as to the
+technical methods of mining and smelting tin, we are practically without
+any satisfactory statement down to Agricola. However, such scraps of
+information as are available are those in Homer (see note on p. <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>),
+Diodorus, and Pliny.
+</p><p>
+Diodorus says (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>, 2) regarding tin in Spain: "They dig it up, and melt
+it down in the same way as they do gold and silver;" and again, speaking
+of the tin in Britain, he says: "These people make tin, which they dig
+up with a great deal of care and labour; being rocky, the metal is mixed
+with earth, out of which they melt the metal, and then refine it." Pliny
+(<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 47), in the well-known and much-disputed passage: "Next to be
+considered are the characteristics of lead, which is of two kinds, black
+and white. The most valuable is the white; the Greeks called it
+<i>cassiteros</i>, and there is a fabulous story of its being searched for
+and carried from the islands of Atlantis in barks covered with hides.
+Certainly it is obtained in Lusitania and Gallaecia on the surface of
+the earth from black-coloured sand. It is discovered by its great
+weight, and it is mixed with small pebbles in <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_413" id="Notes_413">[Pg 413]</a></span>the dried beds of
+torrents. The miners wash these sands, and that which settles they heat
+in the furnace. It is also found in gold mines, which are called
+<i>alutiae</i>. A stream of water passing through detaches small black
+pebbles variegated with white spots, the weight of which is the same as
+gold. Hence it is that they remain in the baskets of the gold collectors
+with the gold; afterward, they are separated in a <i>camillum</i> and when
+melted become white lead."
+</p><p>
+There is practically no reference to the methods of Cornish tin-working
+over the whole period of 2,000 years that mining operations were carried
+on there prior to the Norman occupation. From then until Agricola's
+time, a period of some four centuries, there are occasional references
+in Stannary Court proceedings, Charters, and such-like official
+documents which give little metallurgical insight. From a letter of
+William de Wrotham, Lord Warden of the Stannaries, in 1198, setting out
+the regulations for the impost on tin, it is evident that the black tin
+was smelted once at the mines and that a second smelting or refining was
+carried out in specified towns under the observation of the Crown
+Officials. In many other official documents there are repeated
+references to the right to dig turfs and cut wood for smelting the tin.
+Under <a href="#Notes_282">note 8, p. 282</a>, we give some further information on tin
+concentration, and the relation of Cornish and German tin miners.
+Biringuccio (1540) gives very little information on tin metallurgy, and
+we are brought to <i>De Re Metallica</i> for the first clear exposition.
+</p><p>
+As to the description on these pages it must be remembered that the
+tin-stone has been already roasted, thus removing some volatile
+impurities and oxidizing others, as described on page <a href="#Page_348">348</a>. The furnaces
+and the methods of working the tin, here described, are almost identical
+with those in use in Saxony to-day. In general, since Agricola's time
+tin has not seen the mechanical and metallurgical development of the
+other metals. The comparatively small quantities to be dealt with; the
+necessity of maintaining a strong reducing atmosphere, and consequently
+a mild cold blast; and the comparatively low temperature demanded, gave
+little impetus to other than crude appliances until very modern times.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_419" id="Notes_419">[Pg 419]</a></span><a name="Footnote_54_287" id="Footnote_54_287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_287"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> <i>Aureo nummo</i>. German Translation gives <i>reinschen
+g�lden</i>, which was the equivalent of about $1.66, or 6.9 shillings. The
+purchasing power of money was, however, several times as great as at
+present.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_420" id="Notes_420">[Pg 420]</a></span><a name="Footnote_55_288" id="Footnote_55_288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_288"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> In the following descriptions of iron-smelting, we have
+three processes described; the first being the direct reduction of
+malleable iron from ore, the second the transition stage then in
+progress from the direct to indirect method by way of cast-iron; and the
+third a method of making steel by cementation. The first method is that
+of primitive iron-workers of all times and all races, and requires
+little comment. A pasty mass was produced, which was subsequently
+hammered to make it exude the slag, the hammered mass being the ancient
+"bloom." The second process is of considerable interest, for it marks
+one of the earliest descriptions of working iron in "a furnace similar
+to a blast furnace, but much wider and higher." This original German
+<i>St�ckofen</i> or high bloomery furnace was used for making "masses" of
+wrought-iron under essentially the same conditions as its progenitor the
+forge&mdash;only upon a larger scale. With high temperatures, however, such a
+furnace would, if desired, yield molten metal, and thus the step to
+cast-iron as a preliminary to wrought-iron became very easy and natural,
+in fact Agricola mentions above that if the iron is left to settle in
+the furnace it becomes hard. The making of malleable iron by subsequent
+treatment of the cast-iron&mdash;the indirect method&mdash;originated in about
+Agricola's time, and marks the beginning of one of those subtle economic
+currents destined to have the widest bearing upon civilization. It is to
+us uncertain whether he really understood the double treatment or not.
+In the above paragraph he says from ore "once or twice smelted they make
+iron," etc., and in <i>De Natura Fossilium</i> (p. 339) some reference is
+made to pouring melted iron, all of which would appear to be cast-iron.
+He does not, however, describe the 16th Century method of converting
+cast into wrought iron by way of in effect roasting the pig iron to
+eliminate carbon by oxidation, with subsequent melting into a "ball" or
+"mass." It must be borne in mind that puddling for this purpose did not
+come into use until the end of the 18th Century. A great deal of
+discussion has arisen as to where and at what time cast-iron was made
+systematically, but without satisfactory answer; in any event, it seems
+to have been in about the end of the 14th Century, as cast cannon began
+to appear about that time. It is our impression that the whole of this
+discussion on iron in <i>De Re Metallica</i> is an abstract from Biringuccio,
+who wrote 15 years earlier, as it is in so nearly identical terms. Those
+interested will find a translation of Biringuccio's statement with
+regard to steel in Percy's Metallurgy of Iron and Steel, London, 1864,
+p. 807.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Historical Note on Iron Smelting.</span> The arch�ologists' division of the
+history of racial development into the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages,
+based upon objects found in tumuli, burial places, etc., would on the
+face of it indicate the prior discovery of copper metallurgy over iron,
+and it is generally so maintained by those scientists. The metallurgists
+have not hesitated to protest that while this distinction of "Ages" may
+serve the arch�ologists, and no doubt represents the sequence in which
+the metal objects are found, yet it by no means follows that this was
+the order of their discovery or use, but that iron by its rapidity of
+oxidation has simply not been preserved. The arguments which may be
+advanced from our side are in the main these. Iron ore is of more
+frequent occurrence than copper ores, and the necessary reduction of
+copper oxides (as most surface ores must have been) to fluid metal
+requires a temperature very much higher than does the reduction of iron
+oxides to wrought-iron blooms, which do not necessitate fusion. The
+comparatively greater simplicity of iron metallurgy under primitive
+conditions is well exemplified by the hill tribes of Northern Nigeria,
+where in village forges the negroes reduce iron <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_421" id="Notes_421">[Pg 421]</a></span>sufficient for their
+needs, from hematite. Copper alone would not be a very serviceable metal
+to primitive man, and he early made the advance to bronze; this latter
+metal requires three metallurgical operations, and presents immeasurably
+greater difficulties than iron. It is, as Professor Gowland has
+demonstrated (Presidential Address, Inst. of Metals, London, 1912) quite
+possible to make bronze from melting stanniferous copper ores, yet such
+combined occurrence at the surface is rare, and, so far as known, the
+copper sources from which Asia Minor and Egypt obtained their supply do
+not contain tin. It seems to us, therefore, that in most cases the
+separate fusions of different ores and their subsequent re-melting were
+required to make bronze. The arguments advanced by the arch�ologists
+bear mostly upon the fact that, had iron been known, its superiority
+would have caused the primitive races to adopt it, and we should not
+find such an abundance of bronze tools. As to this, it may be said that
+bronze weapons and tools are plentiful enough in Egyptian, Mycen�an, and
+early Greek remains, long after iron was demonstrably well known. There
+has been a good deal pronounced by etymologists on the history of iron
+and copper, for instance, by Max M�ller, (Lectures on the Science of
+Language, Vol. <span class="smcaplower">II</span>, p. 255, London, 1864), and many others, but the
+amazing lack of metallurgical knowledge nullifies practically all their
+conclusions. The oldest Egyptian texts extant, dating 3500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, refer
+to iron, and there is in the British Museum a piece of iron found in the
+Pyramid of Kephron (3700 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) under conditions indicating its
+co-incident origin. There is exhibited also a fragment of oxidized iron
+lately found by Professor Petrie and placed as of the VI Dynasty (<span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>
+3200). Despite this evidence of an early knowledge of iron, there is
+almost a total absence of Egyptian iron objects for a long period
+subsequent to that time, which in a measure confirms the view of its
+disappearance rather than that of ignorance of it. Many writers have
+assumed that the Ancients must have had some superior art of hardening
+copper or bronze, because the cutting of the gigantic stonework of the
+time could not have been done with that alloy as we know it; no such
+hardening appears among the bronze tools found, and it seems to us that
+the argument is stronger that the oldest Egyptian stoneworkers employed
+mostly iron tools, and that these have oxidized out of existence. The
+reasons for preferring copper alloys to iron for decorative objects were
+equally strong in ancient times as in the present day, and accounts
+sufficiently for these articles, and, therefore, iron would be devoted
+to more humble objects less likely to be preserved. Further, the
+Egyptians at a later date had some prejudices against iron for sacred
+purposes, and the media of preservation of most metal objects were not
+open to iron. We know practically nothing of very early Egyptian
+metallurgy, but in the time of Thotmes III. (1500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) bellows were
+used upon the forge.
+</p><p>
+Of literary evidences the earliest is in the Shoo King among the Tribute
+of Y� (2500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>?). Iron is frequently mentioned in the Bible, but it is
+doubtful if any of the early references apply to steel. There is
+scarcely a Greek or Latin author who does not mention iron in some
+connection, and of the earliest, none are so suggestive from a
+metallurgical point of view as Homer, by whom "laboured" mass
+(wrought-iron?) is often referred to. As, for instance, in the Odyssey
+(<span class="smcaplower">I.</span>, 234) Pallas in the guise of Mentes, says according to Pope:
+</p>
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"Freighted with iron from my native land<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I steer my voyage to the Brutian strand,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To gain by commerce for the laboured mass<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">A just proportion of refulgent brass."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+<p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_423" id="Notes_423">[Pg 423]</a></span>
+(Brass is modern poetic licence for copper or bronze). Also, in the
+Odyssey (<span class="smcaplower">IX</span>, 465) when Homer describes how Ulysses plunged the stake
+into Cyclop's eye, we have the first positive evidence of steel,
+although hard iron mentioned in the Tribute of Y�, above referred to, is
+sometimes given as steel:
+</p>
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">"And as when armourers temper in the ford<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The keen-edg'd pole-axe, or the shining sword,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The red-hot metal hisses in the lake."<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+<p>
+No doubt early wrought-iron was made in the same manner as Agricola
+describes. We are, however, not so clear as to the methods of making
+steel. Under primitive methods of making wrought-iron it is quite
+possible to carburize the iron sufficiently to make steel direct from
+ore. The primitive method of India and Japan was to enclose lumps of
+wrought-iron in sealed crucibles with charcoal and sawdust, and heat
+them over a long period. Neither Pliny nor any of the other authors of
+the period previous to the Christian Era give us much help on steel
+metallurgy, although certain obscure expressions of Aristotle have been
+called upon (for instance, St. John V. Day, Prehistoric Use of Iron and
+Steel, London, 1877, p. 134) to prove its manufacture by immersing
+wrought-iron in molten cast-iron.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_289" id="Footnote_56_289"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_289"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> <i>Quae vel aerosa est, vel cocta</i>. It is by no means
+certain that <i>cocta</i>, "cooked" is rightly translated, for the author has
+not hitherto used this expression for heated. This may be residues from
+roasting and leaching pyrites for vitriol, etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_428" id="Notes_428">[Pg 428]</a></span><a name="Footnote_57_290" id="Footnote_57_290"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_290"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Agricola draws no sharp line of distinction between
+antimony the metal, and its sulphide. He uses the Roman term <i>stibi</i> or
+<i>stibium</i> (<i>Interpretatio</i>,&mdash;<i>Spiesglas</i>) throughout this book, and
+evidently in most cases means the sulphide, but in others, particularly
+in parting gold and silver, metallic antimony would be reduced out. We
+have been in much doubt as to the term to introduce into the text, as
+the English "stibnite" carries too much precision of meaning. Originally
+the "antimony" of trade was the sulphide. Later, with the application of
+that term to the metal, the sulphide was termed "grey antimony," and we
+have either used <i>stibium</i> for lack of better alternative, or adopted
+"grey antimony." The method described by Agricola for treating antimony
+sulphide is still used in the Harz, in Bohemia, and elsewhere. The
+stibnite is liquated out at a low heat and drips from the upper to the
+lower pot. The resulting purified antimony sulphide is the modern
+commercial "crude antimony" or "grey antimony."
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Historical Note on the Metallurgy of Antimony.</span> The Egyptologists have
+adopted the term "antimony" for certain cosmetics found in Egyptian
+tombs from a very early period. We have, however, failed to find any
+reliable analyses which warrant this assumption, and we believe that it
+is based on the knowledge that antimony was used as a base for eye
+ointments in Greek and Roman times, and not upon proper chemical
+investigation. It may be that the ideograph which is interpreted as
+antimony may really mean that substance, but we only protest that the
+chemist should have been called in long since. In St. Jerome's
+translation of the Bible, the cosmetic used by Jezebel (<span class="smcaplower">II.</span> Kings <span class="smcaplower">IX</span>,
+30) and by the lady mentioned by Ezekiel (<span class="smcaplower">XXIII</span>, 40), "who didst wash
+thyself and paintedst thine eyes" is specifically given as <i>stibio</i>. Our
+modern translation carries no hint of the composition of the cosmetic,
+and whether some of the Greek or Hebrew MSS. do furnish a basis for such
+translation we cannot say. The Hebrew term for this mineral was <i>kohl</i>,
+which subsequently passed into "alcool" and "alkohol" in other
+languages, and appears in the Spanish Bible in the above passage in
+Ezekiel as <i>alcoholaste</i>. The term <i>antimonium</i> seems to have been first
+used in Latin editions of Geber published in the latter part of the 15th
+Century. In any event, the metal is clearly mentioned by Dioscorides
+(1st Century), who calls it <i>stimmi</i>, and Pliny, who termed it
+<i>stibium</i>, and they leave no doubt that it was used as a cosmetic for
+painting the eyebrows and dilating the eyes. Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>, 59) says:
+"The best <i>stimmi</i> is very brilliant and radiant. When broken it divides
+into layers with no part earthy or dirty; it is brittle. Some call it
+<i>stimmi</i>, others <i>platyophthalmon</i> (wide eyed); others <i>larbason</i>,
+others <i>gynaekeion</i> (feminine).... It is roasted in a ball of dough with
+charcoal until it becomes a cinder.... It is also roasted by putting it
+on live charcoal and blowing it. If it is roasted too much it becomes
+lead." Pliny states (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 33 and 34): "In the same mines in which
+silver is found, properly speaking there is a stone froth. It is white
+and shining, not transparent; is called <i>stimmi</i>, or <i>stibi</i>, or
+<i>alabastrum</i>, and <i>larbasis</i>. There are two kinds of it, the male and
+the female. The most approved is the female, the male being more uneven,
+rougher, less heavy, not so radiant, and more gritty. The female kind is
+bright and friable, laminar and not globular. It is astringent and
+refrigerative, and its principal use is for the eyes.... It is burned in
+manure in a furnace, is quenched with milk, ground with rain water in a
+mortar, and while thus turbid it is poured into a copper vessel and
+purified with nitrum ... above all in roasting it care <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_429" id="Notes_429">[Pg 429]</a></span>should be taken
+that it does not turn to lead." There can be little doubt from
+Dioscorides' statement of its turning to lead that he had seen the metal
+antimony, although he thought it a species of lead. Of further interest
+in connection with the ancient knowledge of the metal is the Chaldean
+vase made of antimony described by Berthelot (<i>Comptes Rendus</i>, 1887,
+<span class="smcaplower">CIV</span>, 265). It is possible that Agricola knew the metal, although he
+gives no details as to de-sulphurizing it or for recovering the metal
+itself. In <i>De Natura Fossilium</i> (p. 181) he makes a statement which
+would indicate the metal, "<i>Stibium</i> when melted in the crucible and
+refined has as much right to be regarded as a metal as is accorded to
+lead by most writers. If when smelted a certain portion be added to tin,
+a printer's alloy is made from which type is cast that is used by those
+who print books." Basil Valentine, in his "Triumphal Chariot of
+Antimony," gives a great deal that is new with regard to this metal,
+even if we can accredit the work with no earlier origin than its
+publication&mdash;about 1600; it seems <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_430" id="Notes_430">[Pg 430]</a></span>possible however, that it was written
+late in the 15th Century (see <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix B</a>). He describes the preparation
+of the metal from the crude ore, both by roasting and reduction from the
+oxide with argol and saltpetre, and also by fusing with metallic iron.
+While the first description of these methods is usually attributed to
+Valentine, it may be pointed out that in the <i>Probierb�chlein</i> (1500) as
+well as in Agricola the separation of silver from iron by antimony
+sulphide implies the same reaction, and the separation of silver and
+gold with antimony sulphide, often attributed to Valentine, is
+repeatedly set out in the <i>Probierb�chlein</i> and in <i>De Re Metallica</i>.
+Biringuccio (1540) has nothing of importance to say as to the treatment
+of antimonial ores, but mentions it as an alloy for bell-metal, which
+would imply the metal.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_432" id="Notes_432">[Pg 432]</a></span><a name="Footnote_58_291" id="Footnote_58_291"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_291"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Historical Note on the Metallurgy of Quicksilver.</span> The
+earliest mention of quicksilver appears to have been by Aristotle
+(<i>Meteorologica</i> <span class="smcaplower">IV</span>, 8, 11), who speaks of it as fluid silver (<i>argyros
+chytos</i>). Theophrastus (105) states: "Such is the production of
+quicksilver, which has its uses. This is obtained from cinnabar rubbed
+with vinegar in a brass mortar with a brass pestle." (Hill's Trans., p.
+139). Theophrastus also (103) mentions cinnabar from Spain and
+elsewhere. Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>, 70) appears to be the first to describe the
+recovery of quicksilver by distillation: "Quicksilver (<i>hydrargyros</i>,
+<i>i.e.</i>, liquid silver) is made from <i>ammion</i>, which is called
+<i>cinnabari</i>. An iron bowl containing <i>cinnabari</i> is put into an earthen
+vessel and covered over with a cup-shaped lid smeared with clay. Then it
+is set on a fire of coals and the soot which sticks to the cover when
+wiped off and cooled is quicksilver. Quicksilver is also found in drops
+falling from the walls of the silver mines. Some say there are
+quicksilver mines. It can be kept only in vessels of glass, lead, tin
+(?), or silver, for if put in vessels of any other substances it
+consumes them and flows <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_433" id="Notes_433">[Pg 433]</a></span>through." Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 41): "There has been
+discovered a way of extracting <i>hydrargyros</i> from the inferior <i>minium</i>
+as a substitute for quicksilver, as mentioned. There are two methods:
+either by pounding <i>minium</i> and vinegar in a brass mortar with a brass
+pestle, or else by putting <i>minium</i> into a flat earthen dish covered
+with a lid, well luted with potter's clay. This is set in an iron pan
+and a fire is then lighted under the pan, and continually blown by a
+bellows. The perspiration collects on the lid and is wiped off and is
+like silver in colour and as liquid as water." Pliny is somewhat
+confused over the <i>minium</i>&mdash;or the text is corrupt, for this should be
+the genuine <i>minium</i> of Roman times. The methods of condensation on the
+leaves of branches placed in a chamber, of condensing in ashes placed
+over the mouth of the lower pot, and of distilling in a retort, are
+referred to by Biringuccio (<span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span> 1540), but with no detail.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_292" id="Footnote_59_292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_292"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Most of these methods depend upon simple liquation of
+native bismuth. The sulphides, oxides, etc., could not be obtained
+without fusing in a furnace with appropriate de-sulphurizing or reducing
+agents, to which Agricola dimly refers. In <i>Bermannus</i> (p. 439), he
+says: "<i>Bermannus</i>.&mdash;I will show you another kind of mineral which is
+numbered amongst metals, but appears to me to have been unknown to the
+Ancients; we call it <i>bisemutum</i>. <i>Naevius</i>.&mdash;Then in your opinion there
+are more kinds of metals than the seven commonly believed?
+<i>Bermannus</i>.&mdash;More, I consider; for this which just now I said we called
+<i>bisemutum</i>, cannot correctly be called <i>plumbum candidum</i> (tin) nor
+<i>nigrum</i> (lead), but is different from both, and is a third one.
+<i>Plumbum candidum</i> is whiter and <i>plumbum nigrum</i> is darker, as you see.
+<i>Naevius</i>.&mdash;We see that this is of the colour of <i>galena</i>. <i>Ancon</i>.&mdash;How
+then can <i>bisemutum</i>, as you call it, be distinguished from <i>galena</i>?
+<i>Bermannus</i>.&mdash;Easily; when you take it in your hands it stains them with
+black unless it is quite hard. The hard kind is not friable like
+<i>galena</i>, but can be cut. It is blacker than the kind of crude silver
+which we say is almost the colour of lead, and thus is different from
+both. Indeed, it not rarely contains some silver. It generally shows
+that there is silver beneath the place where it is found, and because of
+this our miners are accustomed to call it the 'roof of silver.' They are
+wont to roast this mineral, and from the better part they make metal;
+from the poorer part they make a pigment of a kind not to be despised."
+This pigment was cobalt blue (see note on p. <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>), indicating a
+considerable confusion of these minerals. This quotation is the first
+description of bismuth, and the above text the first description of
+bismuth treatment. There is, however, bare mention of the mineral
+earlier, in the following single line from the <i>Probierb�chlein</i> (p. 1):
+"Jupiter (controls) the ores of tin and <i>wismundt</i>." And it is noted in
+the <i>N�tzliche Bergb�chlein</i> in association with silver (see <a href="#APPENDIX_B">Appendix
+B</a>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_435" id="Notes_435">[Pg 435]</a></span><a name="Footnote_60_293" id="Footnote_60_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_293"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> This <i>cadmia</i> is given in the German translation as
+<i>kobelt</i>. It is probably the cobalt-arsenic-bismuth minerals common in
+Saxony. A large portion of the world's supply of bismuth to-day comes
+from the cobalt treatment works near Schneeberg. For further discussion
+of <i>cadmia</i> see note on p. <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439"></a>[Pg 439]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="BOOK_X" id="BOOK_X"></a>BOOK X.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="dropcap"><img src="images/capq.png" alt="Q" /></div>
+<p style="text-indent:-1em;">
+uestions as to the methods of smelting ores and of obtaining metals I
+discussed in Book IX. Following this, I should explain in what manner
+the precious metals are parted from the base metals, or on the other
+hand the base metals from the precious<a name="FNanchor_1_294" id="FNanchor_1_294"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_294" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>. Frequently two metals,
+occasionally more than two, are melted out of one ore, because in nature
+generally there is some amount of gold in silver and in copper, and some
+silver in gold, copper, lead, and iron; likewise some copper in gold,
+silver, lead, and iron, and some lead in silver; and lastly, some iron
+in copper<a name="FNanchor_2_295" id="FNanchor_2_295"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_295" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>. But I will begin with gold.</p>
+
+<p>Gold is parted from silver, or likewise the latter from the former,
+whether it be mixed by nature or by art, by means of <i>aqua valens</i><a name="FNanchor_3_296" id="FNanchor_3_296"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_296" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>,
+and by powders which consist of almost the same things as this <i>aqua</i>.
+In order to preserve the sequence, I will first speak of the ingredients
+of which this <i>aqua</i> is made, then of the method of making it, then of
+the manner in which gold is parted from silver or silver from gold.
+Almost all these ingredients contain vitriol or alum, which, by
+themselves, but much more when joined with saltpetre, are powerful to
+part silver from gold. As to the other things that are added to them,
+they cannot individually by their own strength and nature separate those
+metals, but joined they are very powerful. Since there are many
+combinations, I will set out a few. In the first, the use of which is
+common and general, there is one <i>libra</i> of vitriol and as much salt,
+added to a third of a <i>libra</i> of spring water. The second contains two
+<i>librae</i> of vitriol, one of saltpetre, and as much spring or river water
+by weight as will pass away whilst the vitriol is being reduced to
+powder by the fire. The third consists of four <i>librae</i> of vitriol, two
+and a half <i>librae</i> of saltpetre, half a <i>libra</i> of alum, and one and a
+half <i>librae</i> of spring water. The fourth consists of two <i>librae</i> of
+vitriol, as many <i>librae</i> of saltpetre, one quarter of a <i>libra</i> of
+alum, and three-quarters of a <i>libra</i> of spring water. The fifth is
+composed of one <i>libra</i> of saltpetre, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440"></a>[Pg 440]</span>three <i>librae</i> of alum, half a
+<i>libra</i> of brick dust, and three-quarters of a <i>libra</i> of spring water.
+The sixth consists of four <i>librae</i> of vitriol, three <i>librae</i> of
+saltpetre, one of alum, one <i>libra</i> likewise of stones which when thrown
+into a fierce furnace are easily liquefied by fire of the third order,
+and one and a half <i>librae</i> of spring water. The seventh is made of two
+<i>librae</i> of vitriol, one and a half <i>librae</i> of saltpetre, half a
+<i>libra</i> of alum, and one <i>libra</i> of stones which when thrown into a
+glowing furnace are easily liquefied by fire of the third order, and
+five-sixths of a <i>libra</i> of spring water. The eighth is made of two
+<i>librae</i> of vitriol, the same number of <i>librae</i> of saltpetre, one and a
+half <i>librae</i> of alum, one <i>libra</i> of the lees of the <i>aqua</i> which parts
+gold from silver; and to each separate <i>libra</i> a sixth of urine is
+poured over it. The ninth contains two <i>librae</i> of powder of baked
+bricks, one <i>libra</i> of vitriol, likewise one <i>libra</i> of saltpetre, a
+handful of salt, and three-quarters of a <i>libra</i> of spring water. Only
+the tenth lacks vitriol and alum, but it contains three <i>librae</i> of
+saltpetre, two <i>librae</i> of stones which when thrown into a hot furnace
+are easily liquefied by fire of the third order, half a <i>libra</i> each of
+verdigris<a name="FNanchor_4_297" id="FNanchor_4_297"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_297" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>, of <i>stibium</i>, of iron scales and filings, and of
+asbestos<a name="FNanchor_5_298" id="FNanchor_5_298"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_298" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>, and one and one-sixth <i>librae</i> of spring water.</p>
+
+<p>All the vitriol from which the <i>aqua</i> is usually made is first reduced
+to powder in the following way. It is thrown into an earthen crucible
+lined on the inside with litharge, and heated until it melts; then it is
+stirred with a copper wire, and after it has cooled it is pounded to
+powder. In the same manner saltpetre melted by the fire is pounded to
+powder when it has cooled. Some indeed place alum upon an iron plate,
+roast it, and make it into powder.</p>
+
+<p>Although all these <i>aquae</i> cleanse gold concentrates or dust from
+impurities, yet there are certain compositions which possess singular
+power. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441"></a>[Pg 441]</span>The first of these consists of one <i>libra</i> of verdigris and
+three-quarters of a <i>libra</i> of vitriol. For each <i>libra</i> there is poured
+over it one-sixth of a <i>libra</i> of spring or river water, as to which,
+since this pertains to all these compounds, it is sufficient to have
+mentioned once for all. The second composition is made from one <i>libra</i>
+of each of the following, artificial orpiment, vitriol, lime, alum, ash
+which the dyers of wool use, one quarter of a <i>libra</i> of verdigris, and
+one and a half <i>unciae</i> of <i>stibium</i>. The third consists of three
+<i>librae</i> of vitriol, one of saltpetre, half a <i>libra</i> of asbestos, and
+half a <i>libra</i> of baked bricks. The fourth consists of one <i>libra</i> of
+saltpetre, one <i>libra</i> of alum, and half a <i>libra</i> of sal-ammoniac.<a name="FNanchor_6_299" id="FNanchor_6_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_299" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442"></a><a href="images/fig442.jpg"><img src="images/fig442thumb.jpg" alt="Nitric Acid Making" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnace. B&mdash;Its round hole.
+C&mdash;Air-holes. D&mdash;Mouth of the furnace. E&mdash;Draught opening under it.
+F&mdash;Earthenware crucible. G&mdash;Ampulla. H&mdash;Operculum. I&mdash;Its spout.
+K&mdash;Other ampulla. L&mdash;Basket in which this is usually placed lest it be
+broken.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 442]</span></span>
+The furnace in which <i>aqua valens</i> is made<a name="FNanchor_7_300" id="FNanchor_7_300"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_300" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> is built of bricks,
+rectangular, two feet long and wide, and as many feet high and a half
+besides. It is covered with iron plates supported with iron rods; these
+plates are smeared on the top with lute, and they have in the centre a
+round hole, large enough to hold the earthen vessel in which the glass
+ampulla is placed, and on each side of the centre hole are two small
+round air-holes. The lower part of the furnace, in order to hold the
+burning charcoal, has iron plates at the height of a palm, likewise
+supported by iron rods. In the middle of the front there is the mouth,
+made for the purpose of putting the fire into the furnace; this mouth is
+half a foot high and wide, and rounded at the top, and under it is the
+draught opening. Into the earthen vessel set over the hole is placed
+clean sand a digit deep, and in it the glass ampulla is set as deeply as
+it is smeared with lute. The lower quarter is smeared eight or ten times
+with nearly liquid lute, each time to the thickness of a blade, and each
+time it is dried again, until it has become as thick as the thumb; this
+kind of lute is well beaten with an iron rod, and is thoroughly mixed
+with hair or cotton thread, or with wool and salt, that it should not
+crackle. The many things of which the compounds are made must not fill
+the ampulla completely, lest when boiling they rise into the operculum.
+The operculum is likewise made of glass, and is closely joined to the
+ampulla with linen, cemented with wheat flour and white of egg moistened
+with water, and then lute free from salt is spread over that part of it.
+In a similar way the spout of the operculum is joined by linen covered
+with lute to another glass ampulla which receives the distilled <i>aqua</i>.
+A kind of thin iron nail or small wooden peg, a little thicker than a
+needle, is fixed in this joint, in order that when air seems necessary
+to the artificer distilling by this process he can pull it out; this is
+necessary when too much of the vapour has been driven into the upper
+part. The four air-holes which, as I have said, are on the top of the
+furnace beside the large hole on which the ampulla is placed, are
+likewise covered with lute.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 442]</span></p>
+<p>All this preparation having been accomplished in order, and the
+ingredients placed in the ampulla, they are gradually heated over
+burning charcoal until they begin to exhale vapour and the ampulla is
+seen to trickle with moisture. But when this, on account of the rising
+of the vapour, turns red, and the <i>aqua</i> distils through the spout of
+the operculum, then one must work with the utmost care, lest the drops
+should fall at a quicker rate than one for every five movements of the
+clock or the striking of its bell, and not slower than one for every
+ten; for if it falls faster the glasses will be broken, and if it drops
+more slowly the work begun cannot be completed within the definite time,
+that is within the space of twenty-four hours. To prevent the first
+accident, part of the coals are extracted by means of an iron implement
+similar to pincers; and in order to prevent the second happening, small
+dry pieces of oak are placed upon the coals, and the substances in the
+ampulla are heated with a sharper fire, and the air-holes on the furnace
+are re-opened if need arise. As soon as the drops are being distilled,
+the glass ampulla which receives them is covered with a piece of linen
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443"></a>[Pg 443]</span>moistened with water, in order that the powerful vapour which arises
+may be repelled. When the ingredients have been heated and the ampulla
+in which they were placed is whitened with moisture, it is heated by a
+fiercer fire until all the drops have been distilled<a name="FNanchor_8_301" id="FNanchor_8_301"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_301" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>. After the
+furnace has cooled, the <i>aqua</i> is filtered and poured into a small glass
+ampulla, and into the same is put half a <i>drachma</i> of silver<a name="FNanchor_9_302" id="FNanchor_9_302"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_302" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>, which
+when dissolved makes the turbid <i>aqua</i> clear. This is poured into the
+ampulla containing all the rest of the <i>aqua</i>, and as soon as the lees
+have sunk to the bottom the <i>aqua</i> is poured off, removed, and reserved
+for use.</p>
+
+<p>Gold is parted from silver by the following method<a name="FNanchor_10_303" id="FNanchor_10_303"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_303" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>. The alloy, with
+lead added to it, is first heated in a cupel until all the lead is
+exhaled, and eight <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444"></a>[Pg 444]</span>ounces of the alloy contain only five <i>drachmae</i> of
+copper or at most six, for if there is more copper in it, the silver
+separated from the gold soon unites with it again. Such molten silver
+containing gold is formed into granules, being stirred by means of a rod
+split at the lower end, or else is poured into an iron mould, and when
+cooled is made into thin leaves. As the process of making granules from
+argentiferous gold demands greater care and diligence than making them
+from any other metals, I will now explain the method briefly. The alloy
+is first placed in a crucible, which is then covered with a lid and
+placed in another earthen crucible containing a few ashes. Then they are
+placed in the furnace, and after they are surrounded by charcoal, the
+fire is blown by the blast of a bellows, and lest the charcoal fall away
+it is surrounded by stones or bricks. Soon afterward charcoal is thrown
+over the upper crucible and covered with live coals; these again are
+covered with charcoal, so that the crucible is surrounded and covered on
+all sides with it. It is necessary to heat the crucibles with charcoal
+for the space of half an hour or a little longer, and to provide that
+there is no deficiency of charcoal, lest the alloy become chilled; after
+this the air is blown in through the nozzle of the bellows, that the
+gold may begin to melt. Soon afterward it is turned round, and a test is
+quickly taken to see whether it be melted, and if it is melted, fluxes
+are thrown into it; it is advisable to cover up the crucible again
+closely that the contents may not be exhaled. The contents are heated
+together for as long as it would take to walk fifteen paces, and then
+the crucible is seized with tongs and the gold is emptied into an oblong
+vessel containing very cold water, by pouring it slowly from a height so
+that the granules will not be too big; in proportion as they are
+lighter, more fine and more irregular, the better they are, therefore
+the water is frequently stirred with a rod split into four parts from
+the lower end to the middle.</p>
+
+<p>The leaves are cut into small pieces, and they or the silver granules
+are put into a glass ampulla, and the <i>aqua</i> is poured over them to a
+height of a digit above the silver. The ampulla is covered with a
+bladder or with waxed linen, lest the contents exhale. Then it is heated
+until the silver is dissolved, the indication of which is the bubbling
+of the <i>aqua</i>. The gold remains in the bottom, of a blackish colour, and
+the silver mixed with the <i>aqua</i> floats above. Some pour the latter into
+a copper bowl and pour into it cold water, which immediately congeals
+the silver; this they take out and dry, having poured off the
+<i>aqua</i><a name="FNanchor_11_304" id="FNanchor_11_304"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_304" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>. They heat the dried silver in an earthenware crucible until
+it melts, and when it is melted they pour it into an iron mould.</p>
+
+<p>The gold which remains in the ampulla they wash with warm water, filter,
+dry, and heat in a crucible with a little <i>chrysocolla</i> which is called
+borax, and when it is melted they likewise pour it into an iron mould.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445"></a>[Pg 445]</span></p><p>Some workers, into an ampulla which contains gold and silver and the
+<i>aqua</i> which separates them, pour two or three times as much of this
+<i>aqua valens</i> warmed, and into the same ampulla or into a dish into
+which all is poured, throw fine leaves of black lead and copper; by this
+means the gold adheres to the lead and the silver to the copper, and
+separately the lead from the gold, and separately the copper from the
+silver, are parted in a cupel. But no method is approved by us which
+loses the <i>aqua</i> used to part gold from silver, for it might be used
+again<a name="FNanchor_12_305" id="FNanchor_12_305"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_305" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446"></a><a href="images/fig446.jpg"><img src="images/fig446thumb.jpg" alt="Parting precious metals with nitric acid" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Ampullae arranged in the vessels. B&mdash;An ampulla standing upright
+between iron rods. C&mdash;Ampullae placed in the sand which is contained in
+a box, the spouts of which reach from the opercula into ampullae placed
+under them. D&mdash;Ampullae likewise placed in sand which is contained in a
+box, of which the spouts from the opercula extend crosswise into
+ampullae placed under them. E&mdash;Other ampullae receiving the distilled
+<i>aqua</i> and likewise arranged in sand contained in the lower boxes.
+F&mdash;Iron tripod, in which the ampulla is usually placed when there are
+not many particles of gold to be parted from the silver. G&mdash;Vessel.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 446]</span></span>
+A glass ampulla, which bulges up inside at the bottom like a cone, is
+covered on the lower part of the outside with lute in the way explained
+above, and into it is put silver bullion weighing three and a half Roman
+<i>librae</i>. The <i>aqua</i> which parts the one from the other is poured into
+it, and the ampulla is placed in sand contained in an earthen vessel, or
+in a box, that it may be warmed with a gentle fire. Lest the <i>aqua</i>
+should be exhaled, the top of the ampulla is plastered on all sides with
+lute, and it is covered with a glass operculum, under whose spout is
+placed another ampulla which receives the distilled drops; this receiver
+is likewise arranged in a box containing sand. When the contents are
+heated it reddens, but when the redness no longer appears to increase,
+it is taken out of the vessel or box and shaken; by this motion the
+<i>aqua</i> becomes heated again and grows red; if this is done two or three
+times before other <i>aqua</i> is added to it, the operation is sooner
+concluded, and much less <i>aqua</i> is consumed. When the first charge has
+all been distilled, as much silver as at first is again put into the
+ampulla, for if too much were put in at once, the gold would be parted
+from it with difficulty. Then the second <i>aqua</i> is poured in, but it is
+warmed in order that it and the ampulla may be of equal temperature, so
+that the latter may not be cracked by the cold; also if a cold wind
+blows on it, it is apt to crack. Then the third <i>aqua</i> is poured in, and
+also if circumstances require it, the fourth, that is to say more <i>aqua</i>
+and again more is poured in until the gold assumes the colour of burned
+brick. The artificer keeps in hand two <i>aquae</i>, one of which is stronger
+than the other; the stronger is used at first, then the less strong,
+then at the last again the stronger. When the gold becomes of a reddish
+yellow colour, spring water is poured in and heated until it boils. The
+gold is washed four times and then heated in the crucible until it
+melts. The water with which it was washed is put back, for there is a
+little silver in it; for this reason it is poured into an ampulla and
+heated, and the drops first distilled are received by one ampulla, while
+those which come later, that is to say when the operculum begins to get
+red, fall into another. This latter <i>aqua</i> is useful for testing the
+gold, the former for washing it; the former may also be poured over the
+ingredients from which the <i>aqua valens</i> is made.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>aqua</i> that was first distilled, which contains the silver, is
+poured into an ampulla wide at the base, the top of which is also
+smeared with lute and covered by an operculum, and is then boiled as
+before in order that it may be separated from the silver. If there be so
+much <i>aqua</i> that (when boiled) it <span class="pagenum">[Pg 446]</span>rises into the operculum, there is
+put into the ampulla one lozenge or two; these are made of soap, cut
+into small pieces and mixed together with powdered argol, and then
+heated in a pot over a gentle fire; or else the contents are stirred
+with a hazel twig split at the bottom, and in both cases the <i>aqua</i>
+effervesces, and soon after again settles. When the powerful vapour
+appears, the <i>aqua</i> gives off a kind of oil, and the operculum becomes
+red. But, lest the vapours should escape from the ampulla and the
+operculum in that part where their mouths communicate, they are entirely
+sealed all round. The <i>aqua</i> is boiled continually over a fiercer fire,
+and enough charcoal must be put into the furnace so that the live coals
+touch the vessel. The ampulla is taken out as soon as all the <i>aqua</i> has
+been distilled, and the silver, which is dried by the heat of the fire,
+alone remains in it; the silver is shaken out and put in an earthenware
+crucible, and heated until it melts. The molten glass is extracted with
+an iron rod curved at the lower end, and the silver is made <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447"></a>[Pg 447]</span>into cakes.
+The glass extracted from the crucible is ground to powder, and to this
+are added litharge, argol, glass-galls, and saltpetre, and they are
+melted in an earthen crucible. The button that settles is transferred to
+the cupel and re-melted.</p>
+
+<p>If the silver was not sufficiently dried by the heat of the fire, that
+which is contained in the upper part of the ampulla will appear black;
+this when melted will be consumed. When the lute, which was smeared
+round the lower part of the ampulla, has been removed, it is placed in
+the crucible and is re-melted, until at last there is no more appearance
+of black<a name="FNanchor_13_306" id="FNanchor_13_306"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_306" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>.</p>
+
+<p>If to the first <i>aqua</i> the other which contains silver is to be added,
+it must be poured in before the powerful vapours appear, and the <i>aqua</i>
+gives off the oily substance, and the operculum becomes red; for he who
+pours in the <i>aqua</i> after the vapour appears causes a loss, because the
+<i>aqua</i> generally spurts out and the glass breaks. If the ampulla breaks
+when the gold is being parted from the silver or the silver from the
+<i>aqua</i>, the <i>aqua</i> will be absorbed by the sand or the lute or the
+bricks, whereupon, without any delay, the red hot coals should be taken
+out of the furnace and the fire extinguished. The sand and bricks after
+being crushed should be thrown into a copper vessel, warm water should
+be poured over them, and they should be put aside for the space of
+twelve hours; afterward the water should be strained through a canvas,
+and the canvas, since it contains silver, should be dried by the heat of
+the sun or the fire, and then placed in an earthen crucible and heated
+until the silver melts, this being poured out into an iron mould. The
+strained water should be poured into an ampulla and separated from the
+silver, of which it contains a minute portion; the sand should be mixed
+with litharge, glass-galls, argol, saltpetre, and salt, and heated in an
+earthen crucible. The button which settles at the bottom should be
+transferred to a cupel, and should be re-melted, in order that the lead
+may be separated from the silver. The lute, with lead added, should be
+heated in an earthen crucible, then re-melted in a cupel.</p>
+
+<p>We also separate silver from gold by the same method when we assay them.
+For this purpose the alloy is first rubbed against a touchstone, in
+order to learn what proportion of silver there is in it; then as much
+silver as is necessary is added to the argentiferous gold, in a <i>bes</i> of
+which there must be less than a <i>semi-uncia</i> or a <i>semi-uncia</i> and a
+<i>sicilicus</i><a name="FNanchor_14_307" id="FNanchor_14_307"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_307" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> of copper. After lead has been added, it is melted in a
+cupel until the lead and the copper have exhaled, then the alloy of gold
+with silver is flattened out, and little tubes are made of the leaves;
+these are put into a glass ampulla, and strong <i>aqua</i> is poured over
+them two or three times. The tubes after this are absolutely pure, with
+the exception of only a quarter of a <i>siliqua</i>, which is silver; for
+only this much silver remains in eight <i>unciae</i> of gold<a name="FNanchor_15_308" id="FNanchor_15_308"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_308" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448"></a>[Pg 448]</span></p><p>As great expense is incurred in parting the metals by the methods that
+I have explained, as night vigils are necessary when <i>aqua valens</i> is
+made, and as generally much labour and great pains have to be expended
+on this matter, other methods for parting have been invented by clever
+men, which are less costly, less laborious, and in which there is less
+loss if through carelessness an error is made. There are three methods,
+the first performed with sulphur, the second with antimony, the third by
+means of some compound which consists of these or other ingredients.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449"></a><a href="images/fig449.jpg"><img src="images/fig449thumb.jpg" alt="Parting precious metals with sulphur" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Pot.
+B&mdash;Circular fire. C&mdash;Crucibles. D&mdash;Their lids. E&mdash;Lid of the pot.
+F&mdash;Furnace. G&mdash;Iron rod.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 449]</span></span>
+In the first method,<a name="FNanchor_16_309" id="FNanchor_16_309"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_309" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> the silver containing some gold is melted in a
+crucible and made into granules. For every <i>libra</i> of granules, there is
+taken a sixth of a <i>libra</i> and a <i>sicilicus</i> of sulphur (not exposed to
+the fire); this, when crushed, is sprinkled over the moistened granules,
+and then they are put into a new earthen pot of the capacity of four
+<i>sextarii</i>, or into several of them if there is an abundance of
+granules. The pot, having been filled, is covered with an earthen lid
+and smeared over, and placed within a circle of fire set one and a half
+feet distant from the pot on all sides, in order that the sulphur added
+to the silver should not be distilled when melted. The pot is opened,
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg 449]</span>the black-coloured granules are taken out, and afterward thirty-three
+<i>librae</i> of these granules are placed in an earthen crucible, if it has
+such capacity. For every <i>libra</i> of silver granules, weighed before they
+were sprinkled with <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450"></a>[Pg 450]</span>sulphur, there is weighed out also a sixth of a
+<i>libra</i> and a <i>sicilicus</i> of copper, if each <i>libra</i> consists either of
+three-quarters of a <i>libra</i> of silver and a quarter of a <i>libra</i> of
+copper, or of three-quarters of a <i>libra</i> and a <i>semi-uncia</i> of silver
+and a sixth of a <i>libra</i> and a <i>semi-uncia</i> of copper. If, however, the
+silver contains five-sixths of a <i>libra</i> of silver and a sixth of a
+<i>libra</i> of copper, or five-sixths of a <i>libra</i> and a <i>semi-uncia</i> of
+silver and an <i>uncia</i> and a half of copper, then there are weighed out a
+quarter of a <i>libra</i> of copper granules. If a <i>libra</i> contains
+eleven-twelfths of a <i>libra</i> of silver and one <i>uncia</i> of copper, or
+eleven-twelfths and a <i>semi-uncia</i> of silver and a <i>semi-uncia</i> of
+copper, then are weighed out a quarter of a <i>libra</i> and a <i>semi-uncia</i>
+and a <i>sicilicus</i> of copper granules. Lastly, if there is only pure
+silver, then as much as a third of a <i>libra</i> and a <i>semi-uncia</i> of
+copper granules are added. Half of these copper granules are added soon
+afterward to the black-coloured silver granules. The crucible should be
+tightly covered and smeared over with lute, and placed in a furnace,
+into which the air is drawn through the draught-holes. As soon as the
+silver is melted, the crucible is opened, and there is placed in it a
+heaped ladleful more of granulated copper, and also a heaped ladleful of
+a powder which consists of equal parts of litharge, of granulated lead,
+of salt, and of glass-galls; then the crucible is again covered with the
+lid. When the copper granules are melted, more are put in, together with
+the powder, until all have been put in.</p>
+
+<p>A little of the regulus is taken from the crucible, but not from the
+gold lump which has settled at the bottom, and a <i>drachma</i> of it is put
+into each of the cupels, which contain an <i>uncia</i> of molten lead; there
+should be many of these cupels. In this way half a <i>drachma</i> of silver
+is made. As soon as the lead and copper have been separated from the
+silver, a third of it is thrown into a glass ampulla, and <i>aqua valens</i>
+is poured over it. By this method is shown whether the sulphur has
+parted all the gold from the silver, or not. If one wishes to know the
+size of the gold lump which has settled at the bottom of the crucible,
+an iron rod moistened with water is covered with chalk, and when the rod
+is dry it is pushed down straight into the crucible, and the rod remains
+bright to the height of the gold lump; the remaining part of the rod is
+coloured black by the regulus, which adheres to the rod if it is not
+quickly removed.</p>
+
+<p>If when the rod has been extracted the gold is observed to be
+satisfactorily parted from the silver, the regulus is poured out, the
+gold button is taken out of the crucible, and in some clean place the
+regulus is chipped off from it, although it usually flies apart. The
+lump itself is reduced to granules, and for every <i>libra</i> of this gold
+they weigh out a quarter of a <i>libra</i> each of crushed sulphur and of
+granular copper, and all are placed together in an earthen crucible, not
+into a pot. When they are melted, in order that the gold may more
+quickly settle at the bottom, the powder which I have mentioned is
+added.</p>
+
+<p>Although minute particles of gold appear to scintillate in the regulus
+of copper and silver, yet if all that are in a <i>libra</i> do not weigh as
+much as a single sesterce, then the sulphur has satisfactorily parted
+the gold from the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451"></a>[Pg 451]</span>silver; but if it should weigh a sesterce or more,
+then the regulus is thrown back again into the earthen crucible, and it
+is not advantageous to add sulphur, but only a little copper and powder,
+by which method a gold lump is again made to settle at the bottom; and
+this one is added to the other button which is not rich in gold.</p>
+
+<p>When gold is parted from sixty-six <i>librae</i> of silver, the silver,
+copper, and sulphur regulus weighs one hundred and thirty-two <i>librae</i>.
+To separate the copper from the silver we require five hundred <i>librae</i>
+of lead, more or less, with which the regulus is melted in the second
+furnace. In this manner litharge and hearth-lead are made, which are
+re-smelted in the first furnace. The cakes that are made from these are
+placed in the third furnace, so that the lead may be separated from the
+copper and used again, for it contains very little silver. The crucibles
+and their covers are crushed, washed, and the sediment is melted
+together with litharge and hearth-lead.</p>
+
+<p>Those who wish to separate all the silver from the gold by this method
+leave one part of gold to three of silver, and then reduce the alloy to
+granules. Then they place it in an ampulla, and by pouring <i>aqua valens</i>
+over it, part the gold from the silver, which process I explained in
+<a href="#BOOK_VII">Book VII</a>.</p>
+
+<p>If sulphur from the lye with which <i>sal artificiosus</i> is made, is strong
+enough to float an egg thrown into it, and is boiled until it no longer
+emits fumes, and melts when placed upon glowing coals, then, if such
+sulphur is thrown into the melted silver, it parts the gold from it.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453"></a><a href="images/fig453.jpg"><img src="images/fig453thumb.jpg" alt="Parting precious metals with antimony" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnace in
+which the air is drawn in through holes. B&mdash;Goldsmith's forge.
+C&mdash;Earthen crucibles. D&mdash;Iron pots. E&mdash;Block.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 453]</span></span>
+Silver is also parted from gold by means of <i>stibium</i><a name="FNanchor_17_310" id="FNanchor_17_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_310" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>. If in a <i>bes
+of</i> gold there are seven, or six, or five double <i>sextulae</i> of silver,
+then three parts of <i>stibium</i> are added to one part of gold; but in
+order that the <i>stibium</i> should not consume the gold, it is melted with
+copper in a red hot earthen crucible. If the gold contains some portion
+of copper, then to eight <i>unciae</i> of <i>stibium</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452"></a>[Pg 452]</span>a <i>sicilicus</i> of copper
+is added; and if it contains no copper, then half an <i>uncia</i>, because
+copper must be added to <i>stibium</i> in order to part gold from silver. The
+gold is first placed in a red hot earthen crucible, and when melted it
+swells, and a little <i>stibium</i> is added to it lest it run over; in a
+short space of time, when this has melted, it likewise again swells, and
+when this occurs it is advisable to put in all the remainder of the
+<i>stibium</i>, and to cover the crucible with a lid, and then to heat the
+mixture for the time required to walk thirty-five paces. Then it is at
+once poured out into an iron pot, wide at the top and narrow at the
+bottom, which was first heated and smeared over with tallow or wax, and
+set on an iron or wooden block. It is shaken violently, and by this
+agitation the gold lump settles to the bottom, and when the pot has
+cooled it is tapped loose, and is again melted four times in the same
+way. But each time a less weight of <i>stibium</i> is added to the gold,
+until finally only twice as much <i>stibium</i> is added as there is gold, or
+a little more; then the gold lump is melted in a cupel. The <i>stibium</i> is
+melted again three or four times in an earthen crucible, and each time a
+gold lump settles, so that there are three or four gold lumps, and these
+are all melted together in a cupel.</p>
+
+<p>To two <i>librae</i> and a half of such <i>stibium</i> are added two <i>librae</i> of
+argol and one <i>libra</i> of glass-galls, and they are melted in an earthen
+crucible, where a lump likewise settles at the bottom; this lump is
+melted in the cupel. Finally, the <i>stibium</i> with a little lead added, is
+melted in the cupel, in which, after all the rest has been consumed by
+the fire, the silver alone remains. If the <i>stibium</i> is not first melted
+in an earthen crucible with argol and glass-galls, before it is melted
+in the cupel, part of the silver is consumed, and is absorbed by the ash
+and powder of which the cupel is made.</p>
+
+<p>The crucible in which the gold and silver alloy are melted with
+<i>stibium</i>, and also the cupel, are placed in a furnace, which is usually
+of the kind <span class="pagenum">[Pg 453]</span>in which the air is drawn in through holes; or else they
+are placed in a goldsmith's forge.</p>
+
+<p>Just as <i>aqua valens</i> poured over silver, from which the sulphur has
+parted the gold, shows us whether all has been separated or whether
+particles of gold remain in the silver; so do certain ingredients, if
+placed in the pot or crucible "alternately" with the gold, from which
+the silver has been parted by <i>stibium</i>, and heated, show us whether all
+have been separated or not.</p>
+
+<p>We use cements<a name="FNanchor_18_311" id="FNanchor_18_311"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_311" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> when, without <i>stibium</i>, we part silver or copper or
+both so ingeniously and admirably from gold. There are various cements.
+Some <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454"></a>[Pg 454]</span>consist of half a <i>libra</i> of brick dust, a quarter of a <i>libra</i> of
+salt, an <i>uncia</i> of saltpetre, half an <i>uncia</i> of sal-ammoniac, and half
+an <i>uncia</i> of rock salt. The bricks or tiles from which the dust is made
+must be composed of fatty clays, free from sand, grit, and small stones,
+and must be moderately burnt and very old.</p>
+
+<p>Another cement is made of a <i>bes</i> of brick dust, a third of rock salt,
+an <i>uncia</i> of saltpetre, and half an <i>uncia</i> of refined salt. Another
+cement is made of a <i>bes</i> of brick dust, a quarter of refined salt, one
+and a half <i>unciae</i> of saltpetre, an <i>uncia</i> of sal-ammoniac, and half
+an <i>uncia</i> of rock salt. Another has one <i>libra</i> of brick dust, and half
+a <i>libra</i> of rock salt, to which some add a sixth of a <i>libra</i> and a
+<i>sicilicus</i> of vitriol. Another is made of half a <i>libra</i> of brick dust,
+a third of a <i>libra</i> of rock salt, an <i>uncia</i> and a half of vitriol, and
+one <i>uncia</i> of saltpetre. Another consists of a <i>bes</i> of brick dust, a
+third of refined salt, a sixth of white vitriol<a name="FNanchor_19_312" id="FNanchor_19_312"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_312" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>, half an <i>uncia</i> of
+verdigris, and likewise half an <i>uncia</i> of saltpetre. Another is made of
+one and a third <i>librae</i> of brick dust, a <i>bes</i> of rock salt, a sixth of
+a <i>libra</i> and half an <i>uncia</i> of sal-ammoniac, a sixth and half an
+<i>uncia</i> of vitriol, and a sixth of saltpetre. Another contains a <i>libra</i>
+of brick dust, a third of refined salt, and one and a half <i>unciae</i> of
+vitriol.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455"></a>[Pg 455]</span></p><p>Those ingredients above are peculiar to each cement, but what follows
+is common to all. Each of the ingredients is first separately crushed to
+powder; the bricks are placed on a hard rock or marble, and crushed with
+an iron implement; the other things are crushed in a mortar with a
+pestle; each is separately passed through a sieve. Then they are all
+mixed together, and are moistened with vinegar in which a little
+sal-ammoniac has been dissolved, if the cement does not contain any. But
+some workers, however, prefer to moisten the gold granules or gold-leaf
+instead.</p>
+
+<p>The cement should be placed, alternately with the gold, in new and clean
+pots in which no water has ever been poured. In the bottom the cement is
+levelled with an iron implement, and afterward the gold granules or
+leaves are placed one against the other, so that they may touch it on
+all sides; then, again, a handful of the cement, or more if the pots are
+large, is thrown in and levelled with an iron implement; the granules
+and leaves are laid over this in the same manner, and this is repeated
+until the pot is filled. Then it is covered with a lid, and the place
+where they join is smeared over with artificial lute, and when this is
+dry the pots are placed in the furnace.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig455.jpg"><img src="images/fig455thumb.jpg" alt="Parting precious metals by cementation" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnace.
+B&mdash;Pot. C&mdash;Lid. D&mdash;Air-holes.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 455]</span></span>
+The furnace has three chambers, the lowest of which is a foot high; into
+this lowest chamber the air penetrates through an opening, and into it
+the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456"></a>[Pg 456]</span>ashes fall from the burnt wood, which is supported by iron rods,
+arranged to form a grating. The middle chamber is two feet high, and the
+wood is pushed in through its mouth. The wood ought to be oak, holmoak,
+or turkey-oak, for from these the slow and lasting fire is made which is
+necessary for this operation. The upper chamber is open at the top so
+that the pots, for which it has the depth, may be put into it; the floor
+of this chamber consists of iron rods, so strong that they may bear the
+weight of the pots and the heat of the fire; they are sufficiently far
+apart that the fire may penetrate well and may heat the pots. The pots
+are narrow at the bottom, so that the fire entering into the space
+between them may heat them; at the top the pots are wide, so that they
+may touch and hold back the heat of the fire. The upper part of the
+furnace is closed in with bricks not very thick, or with tiles and lute,
+and two or three air-holes are left, through which the fumes and flames
+may escape.</p>
+
+<p>The gold granules or leaves and the cement, alternately placed in the
+pots, are heated by a gentle fire, gradually increasing for twenty-four
+hours, if the furnace was heated for two hours before the full pots were
+stood in it, and if this was not done, then for twenty-six hours. The
+fire should be increased in such a manner that the pieces of gold and
+the cement, in which is the potency to separate the silver and copper
+from the gold, may not melt, for in this case the labour and cost will
+be spent in vain; therefore, it is ample to have the fire hot enough
+that the pots always remain red. After so many hours all the burning
+wood should be drawn out of the furnace. Then the refractory bricks or
+tiles are removed from the top of the furnace, and the glowing pots are
+taken out with the tongs. The lids are removed, and if there is time it
+is well to allow the gold to cool by itself, for then there is less
+loss; but if time cannot be spared for that operation, the pieces of
+gold are immediately placed separately into a wooden or bronze vessel of
+water and gradually quenched, lest the cement which absorbs the silver
+should exhale it. The pieces of gold, and the cement adhering to them,
+when cooled or quenched, are rolled with a little mallet so as to crush
+the lumps and free the gold from the cement. Then they are sifted by a
+fine sieve, which is placed over a bronze vessel; in this manner the
+cement containing the silver or the copper or both, falls from the sieve
+into the bronze vessel, and the gold granules or leaves remain on it.
+The gold is placed in a vessel and again rolled with the little mallet,
+so that it may be cleansed from the cement which absorbs silver and
+copper.</p>
+
+<p>The particles of cement, which have dropped through the holes of the
+sieve into the bronze vessel, are washed in a bowl, over a wooden tub,
+being shaken about with the hands, so that the minute particles of gold
+which have fallen through the sieve may be separated. These are again
+washed in a little vessel, with warm water, and scrubbed with a piece of
+wood or a twig broom, that the moistened cement may be detached.
+Afterward all the gold is again washed with warm water, and collected
+with a bristle brush, and should be washed in a copper full of holes,
+under which is placed a little vessel. Then it is necessary to put the
+gold on an iron plate, under which is a vessel, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457"></a>[Pg 457]</span>and to wash it with
+warm water. Finally, it is placed in a bowl, and, when dry, the granules
+or leaves are rubbed against a touchstone at the same time as a
+touch-needle, and considered carefully as to whether they be pure or
+alloyed. If they are not pure enough, the granules or the leaves,
+together with the cement which attracts silver and copper, are arranged
+alternately in layers in the same manner, and again heated; this is done
+as often as is necessary, but the last time it is heated as many hours
+as are required to cleanse the gold.</p>
+
+<p>Some people add another cement to the granules or leaves. This cement
+lacks the ingredients of metalliferous origin, such as verdigris and
+vitriol, for if these are in the cement, the gold usually takes up a
+little of the base metal; or if it does not do this, it is stained by
+them. For this reason some very rightly never make use of cements
+containing these things, because brick dust and salt alone, especially
+rock salt, are able to extract all the silver and copper from the gold
+and to attract it to themselves.</p>
+
+<p>It is not necessary for coiners to make absolutely pure gold, but to
+heat it only until such a fineness is obtained as is needed for the gold
+money which they are coining.</p>
+
+<p>The gold is heated, and when it shows the necessary golden yellow colour
+and is wholly pure, it is melted and made into bars, in which case they
+are either prepared by the coiners with <i>chrysocolla</i>, which is called
+by the Moors borax, or are prepared with salt of lye made from the ashes
+of ivy or of other salty herbs.</p>
+
+<p>The cement which has absorbed silver or copper, after water has been
+poured over it, is dried and crushed, and when mixed with hearth-lead
+and de-silverized lead, is smelted in the blast furnace. The alloy of
+silver and lead, or of silver and copper and lead, which flows out, is
+again melted in the cupellation furnace, in order that the lead and
+copper may be separated from the silver. The silver is finally
+thoroughly purified in the refining furnace, and in this practical
+manner there is no silver lost, or only a minute quantity.</p>
+
+<p>There are besides this, certain other cements<a name="FNanchor_20_313" id="FNanchor_20_313"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_313" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> which part gold from
+silver, composed of sulphur, <i>stibium</i> and other ingredients. One of
+these compounds consists of half an <i>uncia</i> of vitriol dried by the heat
+of the fire and reduced to powder, a sixth of refined salt, a third of
+<i>stibium</i>, half a <i>libra</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458"></a>[Pg 458]</span>of prepared sulphur (not exposed to the
+fire), one <i>sicilicus</i> of glass, likewise one <i>sicilicus</i> of saltpetre,
+and a <i>drachma</i> of sal-ammoniac.<a name="FNanchor_21_314" id="FNanchor_21_314"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_314" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> The sulphur is prepared as follows:
+it is first crushed to powder, then it is heated for six hours in sharp
+vinegar, and finally poured into a vessel and washed with warm water;
+then that which settles at the bottom of the vessel is dried. To refine
+the salt it is placed in river water and boiled, and again evaporated.
+The second compound contains one <i>libra</i> of sulphur (not exposed to
+fire) and two <i>librae</i> of refined salt. The third compound is made from
+one <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459"></a>[Pg 459]</span><i>libra</i> of sulphur (not exposed to the fire), half a <i>libra</i> of
+refined salt, a quarter of a <i>libra</i> of sal-ammoniac, and one <i>uncia</i> of
+red-lead. The fourth compound consists of one <i>libra</i> each of refined
+salt, sulphur (not exposed to the fire) and argol, and half a <i>libra</i> of
+<i>chrysocolla</i> which the Moors call borax. The fifth compound has equal
+proportions of sulphur (not exposed to the fire), sal-ammoniac,
+saltpetre, and verdigris.</p>
+
+<p>The silver which contains some portion of gold is first melted with lead
+in an earthen crucible, and they are heated together until the silver
+exhales the lead. If there was a <i>libra</i> of silver, there must be six
+<i>drachmae</i> of lead. Then the silver is sprinkled with two <i>unciae</i> of
+that powdered compound <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460"></a>[Pg 460]</span>and is stirred; afterward it is poured into
+another crucible, first warmed and lined with tallow, and then violently
+shaken. The rest is performed according to the process I have already
+explained.</p>
+
+<p>Gold may be parted without injury from silver goblets and from other
+gilt vessels and articles<a name="FNanchor_22_315" id="FNanchor_22_315"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_315" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>, by means of a powder, which consists of
+one part of sal-ammoniac and half a part of sulphur. The gilt goblet or
+other article is smeared with oil, and the powder is dusted on; the
+article is seized in the hand, or with tongs, and is carried to the fire
+and sharply tapped, and by this means the gold falls into water in
+vessels placed underneath, while the goblet remains uninjured.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461"></a>[Pg 461]</span></p><p>Gold is also parted from silver on gilt articles by means of
+quicksilver. This is poured into an earthen crucible, and so warmed by
+the fire that the finger can bear the heat when dipped into it; the
+silver-gilt objects are placed in it, and when the quicksilver adheres
+to them they are taken out and placed on a dish, into which, when
+cooled, the gold falls, together with the quicksilver. Again and
+frequently the same silver-gilt object is placed in heated quicksilver,
+and the same process is continued until at last no more gold is visible
+on the object; then the object is placed in the fire, and the
+quicksilver which adheres to it is exhaled. Then the artificer takes a
+hare's foot, and brushes up into a dish the quicksilver and the gold
+which have <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462"></a>[Pg 462]</span>fallen together from the silver article, and puts them into
+a cloth made of woven cotton or into a soft leather; the quicksilver is
+squeezed through one or the other into another dish.<a name="FNanchor_23_316" id="FNanchor_23_316"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_316" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> The gold
+remains in the cloth or the leather, and when collected is placed in a
+piece of charcoal hollowed out, and is heated until it melts, and a
+little button is made from it. This button is heated with a little
+<i>stibium</i> in an earthen crucible and poured out into another little
+vessel, by which method the gold settles at the bottom, and the
+<i>stibium</i> is seen to be on the top; then the work is completed. Finally,
+the gold button is put in a hollowed-out brick and placed in the fire,
+and by this method the gold is made pure. By means of the above methods
+gold is parted from silver and also silver from gold.</p>
+
+<p>Now I will explain the methods used to separate copper from gold<a name="FNanchor_24_317" id="FNanchor_24_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_317" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463"></a>[Pg 463]</span>The salt which we call <i>sal-artificiosus</i>,<a name="FNanchor_25_318" id="FNanchor_25_318"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_318" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> is made from a <i>libra</i>
+each of vitriol, alum, saltpetre, and sulphur not exposed to the fire,
+and half a <i>libra</i> of sal-ammoniac; these ingredients when crushed are
+heated with one part of lye made from the ashes used by wool dyers, one
+part of unslaked lime, and four parts of beech ashes. The ingredients
+are boiled in the lye until the whole has been dissolved. Then it is
+immediately dried and kept in a hot place, lest it turn into oil; and
+afterward when crushed, a <i>libra</i> of lead-ash is mixed with it. With
+each <i>libra</i> of this powdered compound one and a half <i>unciae</i> of the
+copper is gradually sprinkled into a hot crucible, and it is stirred
+rapidly and frequently with an iron rod. When the crucible has cooled
+and been broken up, the button of gold is found.</p>
+
+<p>The second method for parting is the following. Two <i>librae</i> of sulphur
+not exposed to the fire, and four <i>librae</i> of refined salt are crushed
+and mixed; a sixth of a <i>libra</i> and half an <i>uncia</i> of this powder is
+added to a <i>bes</i> of granules made of lead, and twice as much copper
+containing gold; they are heated together in an earthen crucible until
+they melt. When cooled, the button is taken out and purged of slag. From
+this button they again make granules, to a third of a <i>libra</i> of which
+is added half a <i>libra</i> of that powder of which I have spoken, and they
+are placed in alternate layers in the crucible; it is well to cover the
+crucible and to seal it up, and afterward it is heated over a gentle
+fire until the granules melt. Soon afterward, the crucible is taken off
+the fire, and when it is cool the button is extracted. From this, when
+purified and again melted down, the third granules are made, to which,
+if they weigh a sixth of a <i>libra</i>, is added one half an <i>uncia</i> and a
+<i>sicilicus</i> of the powder, and they are heated in the same manner, and
+the button of gold settles at the bottom of the crucible.</p>
+
+<p>The third method is as follows. From time to time small pieces of
+sulphur, enveloped in or mixed with wax, are dropped into six <i>librae</i>
+of the molten copper, and consumed; the sulphur weighs half an <i>uncia</i>
+and a <i>sicilicus</i>. Then one and a half <i>sicilici</i> of powdered saltpetre
+are dropped into the same copper and likewise consumed; then again half
+an <i>uncia</i> and a <i>sicilicus</i> of sulphur enveloped in wax; afterward one
+and a half <i>sicilici</i> of lead-ash enveloped in wax, or of minium made
+from red-lead. Then immediately the copper is taken out, and to the gold
+button, which is now mixed with only a little copper, they add <i>stibium</i>
+to double the amount of the button; these are heated together until the
+<i>stibium</i> is driven off; then the button, together with lead of half the
+weight of the button, are heated in a cupel. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464"></a>[Pg 464]</span>Finally, the gold is taken
+out of this and quenched, and if there is a blackish colour settled in
+it, it is melted with a little of the <i>chrysocolla</i> which the Moors call
+borax; if too pale, it is melted with <i>stibium</i>, and acquires its own
+golden-yellow colour. There are some who take out the molten copper with
+an iron ladle and pour it into another crucible, whose aperture is
+sealed up with lute, and they place it over glowing charcoal, and when
+they have thrown in the powders of which I have spoken, they stir the
+whole mass rapidly with an iron rod, and thus separate the gold from the
+copper; the former settles at the bottom of the crucible, the latter
+floats on the top. Then the aperture of the crucible is opened with the
+red-hot tongs, and the copper runs out. The gold which remains is
+re-heated with <i>stibium</i>, and when this is exhaled the gold is heated
+for the third time in a cupel with a fourth part of lead, and then
+quenched.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth method is to melt one and a third <i>librae</i> of the copper with
+a sixth of a <i>libra</i> of lead, and to pour it into another crucible
+smeared on the inside with tallow or gypsum; and to this is added a
+powder consisting of half an <i>uncia</i> each of prepared sulphur,
+verdigris, and saltpetre, and an <i>uncia</i> and a half of <i>sal coctus</i>. The
+fifth method consists of placing in a crucible one <i>libra</i> of the copper
+and two <i>librae</i> of granulated lead, with one and a half <i>unciae</i> of
+<i>sal-artificiosus</i>; they are at first heated over a gentle fire and then
+over a fiercer one. The sixth method consists in heating together a
+<i>bes</i> of the copper and one-sixth of a <i>libra</i> each of sulphur, salt,
+and <i>stibium</i>. The seventh method consists of heating together a <i>bes</i>
+of the copper and one-sixth each of iron scales and filings, salt,
+<i>stibium</i>, and glass-galls. The eighth method consists of heating
+together one <i>libra</i> of the copper, one and a half <i>librae</i> of sulphur,
+half a <i>libra</i> of verdigris, and a <i>libra</i> of refined salt. The ninth
+method consists of placing in one <i>libra</i> of the molten copper as much
+pounded sulphur, not exposed to the fire, and of stirring it rapidly
+with an iron rod; the lump is ground to powder, into which quicksilver
+is poured, and this attracts to itself the gold.</p>
+
+<p>Gilded copper articles are moistened with water and placed on the fire,
+and when they are glowing they are quenched with cold water, and the
+gold is scraped off with a brass rod. By these practical methods gold is
+separated from copper.</p>
+
+<p>Either copper or lead is separated from silver by the methods which I
+will now explain.<a name="FNanchor_26_319" id="FNanchor_26_319"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_319" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> This is carried on in a building near by the
+works, or in the works in which the gold or silver ores or alloys are
+smelted. The middle wall of such a building is twenty-one feet long and
+fifteen feet high, and from this a front wall is distant fifteen feet
+toward the river; the rear wall <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465"></a>[Pg 465]</span>is nineteen feet distant, and both
+these walls are thirty-six feet long and fourteen feet high; a
+transverse wall extends from the end of the front wall to the end of the
+rear wall; then fifteen feet back a second transverse wall is built out
+from the front wall to the end of the middle wall. In that space which
+is between those two transverse walls are set up the stamps, by means of
+which the ores and the necessary ingredients for smelting are broken up.
+From the further end of the front wall, a third transverse wall leads to
+the other end of the middle wall, and from the same to the end of the
+rear wall. The space between the second and third transverse walls, and
+between the rear and middle long walls, contains the cupellation
+furnace, in which lead <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466"></a>[Pg 466]</span>is separated from gold or silver. The vertical
+wall of its chimney is erected upon the middle wall, and the sloping
+chimney-wall rests on the beams which extend from the second transverse
+wall to the third; these are so located that they are at a distance of
+thirteen feet from the middle long wall and four from the rear wall, and
+they are two feet wide and thick. From the ground up to the roof-beams
+is twelve feet, and lest the sloping chimney-wall should fall down, it
+is partly supported by means of many iron rods, and partly by means of a
+few tie-beams covered with lute, which extend from the small beams of
+the sloping chimney-wall to the beams of the vertical chimney-wall. The
+rear roof is arranged in the same way as the roof <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467"></a>[Pg 467]</span>of the works in which
+ore is smelted. In the space between the middle and the front long walls
+and between the second<a name="FNanchor_27_320" id="FNanchor_27_320"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_320" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> and the third transverse walls are the
+bellows, the machinery for depressing and the instrument for raising
+them. A drum on the axle of a water-wheel has rundles which turn the
+toothed drum of an axle, whose long cams depress the levers of the
+bellows, and also another toothed drum on an axle, whose cams raise the
+tappets of the stamps, but in the opposite direction. So that if the
+cams which depress the levers of the bellows turn from north to south,
+the cams of the stamps turn from south to north.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468"></a><a href="images/fig468.jpg"><img src="images/fig468thumb.jpg" alt="Cupellation Furnace" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Rectangular stones.
+B&mdash;Sole-stone. C&mdash;Air-holes. D&mdash;Internal walls. E&mdash;Dome. F&mdash;Crucible.
+G&mdash;Bands. H&mdash;Bars. I&mdash;Apertures in the dome. K&mdash;Lid of the dome.
+L&mdash;Rings. M&mdash;Pipes. N&mdash;Valves. O&mdash;Chains.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 468]</span></span>
+Lead is separated from gold or silver in a cupellation furnace, of which
+the structure consists of rectangular stones, of two interior walls of
+which the one intersects the other transversely, of a round sole, and of
+a dome. Its crucible is made from powder of earth and ash; but I will
+first speak of the structure and also of the rectangular stones. A
+circular wall is built four feet and three palms high, and one foot
+thick; from the height of two feet and three palms from the bottom, the
+upper part of the interior is cut away to the width of one palm, so that
+the stone sole may rest upon it. There are usually as many as fourteen
+stones; on the outside they are a foot and a palm wide, and on the
+inside narrower, because the inner circle is much smaller than the
+outer; if the stones are wider, fewer are required, if narrower more;
+they are sunk into the earth to a depth of a foot and a palm. At the top
+each one is joined to the next by an iron staple, the points of which
+are embedded in holes, and into each hole is poured molten lead. This
+stone structure has six air-holes near the ground, at a height of a foot
+above the ground; they are two feet and a palm from the bottom of the
+stones; each of these air-holes is in two stones, and is two palms high,
+and a palm and three digits wide. One of them is on the right side,
+between the wall which protects the main wall from the fire, and the
+channel through which the litharge flows out of the furnace crucible;
+the other five air-holes are distributed all round at equal distances
+apart; through these escapes the moisture which the earth exhales when
+heated, and if it were not for these openings the crucible would absorb
+the moisture and be damaged. In such a case a lump would be raised, like
+that which a mole throws up from the earth, and the ash would float on
+the top, and the crucible would absorb the silver-lead alloy; there are
+some who, because of this, make the rear part of the structure entirely
+open. The two inner walls, of which one intersects the other, are built
+of bricks, and are a brick in thickness. There are four air-holes in
+these, one in each part, which are about one digit's breadth higher and
+wider than the others. Into the four compartments is thrown a
+wheelbarrowful of slag, and over this is placed a large wicker basket
+full of charcoal dust. These walls extend a cubit above the ground, and
+on these, and on the ledge cut in the rectangular stones, is placed the
+stone sole; this sole is a palm and three digits thick, and on all sides
+touches the rectangular stones; if there are any cracks in it they are
+filled up with fragments of stone or brick. The front part of the sole
+is sloped so that a channel can be made, through which <span class="pagenum">[Pg 468]</span>the litharge
+flows out. Copper plates are placed on this part of the sole-stone so
+that the silver-lead or other alloy may be more rapidly heated.</p>
+
+<p>A dome which has the shape of half a sphere covers the crucible. It
+consists of iron bands and of bars and of a lid. There are three bands,
+each about a palm wide and a digit thick; the lowest is at a distance of
+one foot from the middle one, and the middle one a distance of two feet
+from the upper one. Under them are eighteen iron bars fixed by iron
+rivets; these bars are of the same width and thickness as the bands, and
+they are of such a length, that curving, they reach from the lower band
+to the upper, that is two feet and three palms long, while the dome is
+only one foot and three palms high. All the bars and bands of the dome
+have iron plates fastened on the underside with iron wire. In addition,
+the dome has four apertures; the rear one, which is situated opposite
+the channel through which the litharge flows out, is two feet wide at
+the bottom; toward the top, since it slopes gently, it is narrower,
+being a foot, three palms, and a digit wide; there is no bar at this
+place, for the aperture extends from the upper band to the middle one,
+but not to the lower one. The second aperture is situated above the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469"></a>[Pg 469]</span>channel, is two and a half feet wide at the bottom, and two feet and a
+palm at the top; and there is likewise no bar at this point; indeed, not
+only does the bar not extend to the lower band, but the lower band
+itself does not extend over this part, in order that the master can draw
+the litharge out of the crucible. There are besides, in the wall which
+protects the principal wall against the heat, near where the nozzles of
+the bellows are situated, two apertures, three palms wide and about a
+foot high, in the middle of which two rods descend, fastened on the
+inside with plates. Near these apertures are placed the nozzles of the
+bellows, and through the apertures extend the pipes in which the nozzles
+of the bellows are set. These pipes are made of iron plates rolled up;
+they are two palms three digits long, and their inside diameter is three
+and a half digits; into these two pipes the nozzles of the bellows
+penetrate a distance of three digits from their valves. The lid of the
+dome consists of an iron band at the bottom, two digits wide, and of
+three curved iron bars, which extend from one point on the band to the
+point opposite; they cross each other at the top, where they are fixed
+by means of iron rivets. On the under side of the bars there are
+likewise plates fastened by rivets; each of the plates has small holes
+the size of a finger, so that the lute will adhere when the interior is
+lined. The dome has three iron rings engaged in wide holes in the heads
+of iron claves, which fasten the bars to the middle band at these
+points. Into these rings are fastened the hooks of the chains with which
+the dome is raised, when the master is preparing the crucible.</p>
+
+<p>On the sole and the copper plates and the rock of the furnace, lute
+mixed with straw is placed to a depth of three digits, and it is pounded
+with a wooden rammer until it is compressed to a depth of one digit
+only. The rammer-head is round and three palms high, two palms wide at
+the bottom, and tapering upward; its handle is three feet long, and
+where it is set into the rammer-head it is bound around with an iron
+band. The top of the stonework in which the dome rests is also covered
+with lute, likewise mixed with straw, to the thickness of a palm. All
+this, as soon as it becomes loosened, must be repaired.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470"></a><a href="images/fig470.jpg"><img src="images/fig470thumb.jpg" alt="Cupellation Furnace" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;An artificer tamping the
+crucible with a rammer. B&mdash;Large rammer. C&mdash;Broom. D&mdash;Two smaller
+rammers. E&mdash;Curved iron plates. F&mdash;Part of a wooden strip. G&mdash;Sieve.
+H&mdash;Ashes. I&mdash;Iron shovel. K&mdash;Iron plate. L&mdash;block of wood. M&mdash;Rock.
+N&mdash;Basket made of woven twigs. O&mdash;Hooked bar. P&mdash;Second hooked bar.
+Q&mdash;Old linen rag. R&mdash;bucket. S&mdash;Doeskin. T&mdash;Bundles of straw. V&mdash;Wood.
+X&mdash;Cakes of lead alloy. Y&mdash;Fork. Z&mdash;Another workman covers the outside
+of the furnace with lute where the dome fits on it. AA&mdash;Basket full of
+ashes. BB&mdash;Lid of the dome. CC&mdash;The assistant standing on the steps
+pours charcoal into the crucible through the hole at the top of the
+dome. DD&mdash;Iron implement with which the lute is beaten. EE&mdash;Lute.
+FF&mdash;Ladle with which the workman or master takes a sample. GG&mdash;Rabble
+with which the scum of impure lead is drawn off. HH&mdash;Iron wedge with
+which the silver mass is raised.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 470]</span></span>
+The artificer who undertakes the work of parting the metals, distributes
+the operation into two shifts of two days. On the one morning he
+sprinkles a little ash into the lute, and when he has poured some water
+over it he brushes it over with a broom. Then he throws in sifted ashes
+and dampens them with water, so that they could be moulded into balls
+like snow. The ashes are those from which lye has been made by letting
+water percolate through them, for other ashes which are fatty would have
+to be burnt again in order to make them less fat. When he has made the
+ashes smooth by pressing them with his hands, he makes the crucible
+slope down toward the middle; then he tamps it, as I have described,
+with a rammer. He afterward, with two small wooden rammers, one held in
+each hand, forms the channel through which the litharge flows out. The
+heads of these small rammers are each a palm wide, two digits thick, and
+one foot high; the handle of each is somewhat rounded, is a digit and a
+half less in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471"></a>[Pg 471]</span>diameter than the rammer-head, and is three feet in
+length; the rammer-head as well as the handle is made of one piece of
+wood. Then with shoes on, he descends into the crucible and stamps it in
+every direction with his feet, in which manner it is packed and made
+sloping. Then he again tamps it with a large rammer, and removing his
+shoe from his right foot he draws a circle around the crucible with it,
+and cuts out the circle thus drawn with an iron plate. This plate is
+curved at both ends, is three palms long, as many digits wide, and has
+wooden handles a palm and two digits long, and two digits thick; the
+iron plate is curved back at the top and ends, which penetrate into
+handles. There are some who use in the place of the plate a strip of
+wood, like the rim of a sieve; this is three digits wide, and is cut out
+at both ends that it may be held in the hands. Afterward he tamps the
+channel through which the litharge discharges. Lest the ashes should
+fall out, he blocks up the aperture with a stone shaped to fit it,
+against which he places a board, and lest this fall, he props it with a
+stick. Then he pours in a basketful of ashes and tamps them with the
+large rammer; then again and again he pours in ashes and tamps them with
+the rammer. When the channel has been made, he throws dry ashes all over
+the crucible with a sieve, and smooths and rubs it with his hands. Then
+he throws three basketsful of damp ashes on the margin all round the
+edge of the crucible, and lets down the dome. Soon after, climbing upon
+the crucible, he builds up ashes all around it, lest the molten alloy
+should flow out. Then, having raised the lid of the dome, he throws a
+basketful of charcoal into the crucible, together with an iron shovelful
+of glowing coals, and he also throws some of the latter through the
+apertures in the sides of the dome, and he spreads them with the same
+shovel. This work and labour is finished in the space of two hours.</p>
+
+<p>An iron plate is set in the ground under the channel, and upon this is
+placed a wooden block, three feet and a palm long, a foot and two palms
+and as many digits wide at the back, and two palms and as many digits
+wide in front; on the block of wood is placed a stone, and over it an
+iron plate similar to the bottom one, and upon this he puts a basketful
+of charcoal, and also an iron shovelful of burning charcoals. The
+crucible is heated in an hour, and then, with the hooked bar with which
+the litharge is drawn off, he stirs the remainder of the charcoal about.
+This hook is a palm long and three digits wide, has the form of a double
+triangle, and has an iron handle four feet long, into which is set a
+wooden one six feet long. There are some who use instead a simple hooked
+bar. After about an hour's time, he stirs the charcoal again with the
+bar, and with the shovel throws into the crucible the burning charcoals
+lying in the channel; then again, after the space of an hour, he stirs
+the burning charcoals with the same bar. If he did not thus stir them
+about, some blackness would remain in the crucible and that part would
+be damaged, because it would not be sufficiently dried. Therefore the
+assistant stirs and turns the burning charcoal that it may be entirely
+burnt up, and so that the crucible may be well heated, which takes three
+hours; then the crucible is left quiet for the remaining two hours.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472"></a>[Pg 472]</span></p><p>When the hour of eleven has struck, he sweeps up the charcoal ashes
+with a broom and throws them out of the crucible. Then he climbs on to
+the dome, and passing his hand in through its opening, and dipping an
+old linen rag in a bucket of water mixed with ashes, he moistens the
+whole of the crucible and sweeps it. In this way he uses two bucketsful
+of the mixture, each holding five Roman <i>sextarii</i>,<a name="FNanchor_28_321" id="FNanchor_28_321"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_321" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> and he does this
+lest the crucible, when the metals are being parted, should break open;
+after this he rubs the crucible with a doe skin, and fills in the
+cracks. Then he places at the left side of the channel, two fragments of
+hearth-lead, laid one on the top of the other, so that when partly
+melted they remain fixed and form an obstacle, that the litharge will
+not be blown about by the wind from the bellows, but remain in its
+place. It is expedient, however, to use a brick in the place of the
+hearth-lead, for as this gets much hotter, therefore it causes the
+litharge to form more rapidly. The crucible in its middle part is made
+two palms and as many digits deeper.<a name="FNanchor_29_322" id="FNanchor_29_322"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_322" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
+
+<p>There are some who having thus prepared the crucible, smear it over with
+incense<a name="FNanchor_30_323" id="FNanchor_30_323"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_323" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>, ground to powder and dissolved in white of egg, soaking it
+up in a sponge and then squeezing it out again; there are others who
+smear over it a liquid consisting of white of egg and double the amount
+of bullock's blood or marrow. Some throw lime into the crucible through
+a sieve.</p>
+
+<p>Afterward the master of the works weighs the lead with which the gold or
+silver or both are mixed, and he sometimes puts a hundred
+<i>centumpondia</i><a name="FNanchor_31_324" id="FNanchor_31_324"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_324" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> into the crucible, but frequently only sixty, or
+fifty, or much less. After it has been weighed, he strews about in the
+crucible three small bundles of straw, lest the lead by its weight
+should break the surface. Then he places in the channel several cakes of
+lead alloy, and through the aperture at the rear of the dome he places
+some along the sides; then, ascending to the opening at the top of the
+dome, he arranges in the crucible round about the dome the cakes which
+his assistant hands to him, and after ascending again and passing his
+hands through the same aperture, he likewise places other cakes inside
+the crucible. On the second day those which remain he, with an iron
+fork, places on the wood through the rear aperture of the dome.</p>
+
+<p>When the cakes have been thus arranged through the hole at the top of
+the dome, he throws in charcoal with a basket woven of wooden twigs.
+Then he places the lid over the dome, and the assistant covers over the
+joints with lute. The master himself throws half a basketful of charcoal
+into the crucible through the aperture next to the nozzle pipe, and
+prepares the bellows, in order to be able to begin the second operation
+on the morning of the following day. It takes the space of one hour to
+carry out such a piece of work, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473"></a>[Pg 473]</span>at twelve all is prepared. These
+hours all reckoned up make a sum of eight hours.</p>
+
+<p>Now it is time that we should come to the second operation. In the
+morning the workman takes up two shovelsful of live charcoals and throws
+them into the crucible through the aperture next to the pipes of the
+nozzles; then through the same hole he lays upon them small pieces of
+fir-wood or of pitch pine, such as are generally used to cook fish.
+After this the water-gates are opened, in order that the machine may be
+turned which depresses the levers of the bellows. In the space of one
+hour the lead alloy is melted; and when this has been done, he places
+four sticks of wood, twelve feet long, through the hole in the back of
+the dome, and as many through the channel; these sticks, lest they
+should damage the crucible, are both weighted on the ends and supported
+by trestles; these trestles are made of a beam, three feet long, two
+palms and as many digits wide, two palms thick, and have two spreading
+legs at each end. Against the trestle, in front of the channel, there is
+placed an iron plate, lest the litharge, when it is extracted from the
+furnace, should splash the smelter's shoes and injure his feet and legs.
+With an iron shovel or a fork he places the remainder of the cakes
+through the aperture at the back of the dome on to the sticks of wood
+already mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The native silver, or silver glance, or grey silver, or ruby silver, or
+any other sort, when it has been flattened out<a name="FNanchor_32_325" id="FNanchor_32_325"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_325" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>, and cut up, and
+heated in an iron crucible, is poured into the molten lead mixed with
+silver, in order that impurities may be separated. As I have often said,
+this molten lead mixed with silver is called <i>stannum</i><a name="FNanchor_33_326" id="FNanchor_33_326"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_326" class="fnanchor">[33]</a>.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474"></a><a href="images/fig474.jpg"><img src="images/fig474thumb.jpg" alt="Cupellation Furnace" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnace. B&mdash;Sticks of wood.
+C&mdash;Litharge. D&mdash;Plate. E&mdash;The foreman when hungry eats butter, that the
+poison which the crucible exhales may not harm him, for this is a
+special remedy against that poison.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 474]</span></span>
+When the long sticks of wood are burned up at the fore end, the master,
+with a hammer, drives into them pointed iron bars, four feet long and
+two digits wide at the front end, and beyond that one and a half digits
+wide <span class="pagenum">[Pg 474]</span>and thick; with these he pushes the sticks of wood forward and the
+bars then rest on the trestles. There are others who, when they separate
+metals, put two such sticks of wood into the crucible through the
+aperture which is between the bellows, as many through the holes at the
+back, and one through the channel; but in this case a larger number of
+long sticks of wood is necessary, that is, sixty; in the former case,
+forty long sticks of wood suffice to carry out the operation. When the
+lead has been heated for two hours, it is stirred with a hooked bar,
+that the heat may be increased.</p>
+
+<p>If it be difficult to separate the lead from the silver, he throws
+copper and charcoal dust into the molten silver-lead alloy. If the alloy
+of argentiferous gold and lead, or the silver-lead alloy, contains
+impurities from the ore, then he throws in either equal portions of
+argol and Venetian glass or of sal-ammoniac, or of Venetian glass and of
+Venetian soap; or else unequal portions, that is, two of argol and one
+of iron rust; there are some who mix a little saltpetre with each
+compound. To one <i>centumpondium</i> of the alloy is added a <i>bes</i> or a
+<i>libra</i> and a third of the powder, according to whether it is more or
+less impure. The powder certainly separates the impurities from the
+alloy. Then, with a kind of rabble he draws out through <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475"></a>[Pg 475]</span>the channel,
+mixed with charcoal, the scum, as one might say, of the lead; the lead
+makes this scum when it becomes hot, but that less of it may be made it
+must be stirred frequently with the bar.</p>
+
+<p>Within the space of a quarter of an hour the crucible absorbs the lead;
+at the time when it penetrates into the crucible it leaps and bubbles.
+Then the master takes out a little lead with an iron ladle, which he
+assays, in order to find what proportion of silver there is in the whole
+of the alloy; the ladle is five digits wide, the iron part of its handle
+is three feet long and the wooden part the same. Afterward, when they
+are heated, he extracts with a bar the litharge which comes from the
+lead and the copper, if there be any of it in the alloy. Wherefore, it
+might more rightly be called <i>spuma</i> of lead than of silver<a name="FNanchor_34_327" id="FNanchor_34_327"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_327" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>. There
+is no injury to the silver, when the lead and copper are separated from
+it. In truth the lead becomes much purer in the crucible of the other
+furnace, in which silver is refined. In ancient times, as the author
+Pliny<a name="FNanchor_35_328" id="FNanchor_35_328"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_328" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> relates, there was under the channel of the crucible another
+crucible, and the litharge flowed down from the upper one into the lower
+one, out of which it was lifted up and rolled round with a stick in
+order that it might be of moderate weight. For which reason, they
+formerly made it into small tubes or pipes, but now, since it is not
+rolled round a stick, they make it into bars.</p>
+
+<p>If there be any danger that the alloy might flow out with the litharge,
+the foreman keeps on hand a piece of lute, shaped like a cylinder and
+pointed at both ends; fastening this to a hooked bar he opposes it to
+the alloy so that it will not flow out.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476"></a><a href="images/fig476.jpg"><img src="images/fig476thumb.jpg" alt="Cleansing of Silver Cakes" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Cake. B&mdash;Stone.
+C&mdash;Hammer. D&mdash;Brass wire. E&mdash;Bucket containing water. F&mdash;Furnace from
+which the cake has been taken, which is still smoking. G&mdash;Labourer
+carrying a cake out of the works.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 476]</span></span>
+Now when the colour begins to show in the silver, bright spots appear,
+some of them being almost white, and a moment afterward it becomes
+absolutely white. Then the assistant lets down the water-gates, so that,
+the race being closed, the water-wheel ceases to turn and the bellows
+are still. Then the master pours several buckets of water on to the
+silver to cool it; others pour beer over it to make it whiter, but this
+is of no importance since the silver has yet to be refined. Afterward,
+the cake of silver is raised with the pointed iron bar, which is three
+feet long and two digits wide, and has a wooden handle four feet long
+fixed in its socket. When the cake of silver has been taken from the
+crucible, it is laid upon a stone, and from part of it the hearth-lead,
+and from the other part the litharge, is chipped away with a hammer;
+then it is cleansed with a bundle of brass wire dipped in water. When
+the lead is separated from the silver, more silver is frequently found
+than when it was assayed; for instance, if before there were three
+<i>unciae</i> and as many <i>drachmae</i> in a <i>centumpondium</i>, they now sometimes
+find three <i>unciae</i> and a half<a name="FNanchor_36_329" id="FNanchor_36_329"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_329" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>. Often the hearth-lead remaining in
+the crucible is a palm deep; it is taken out with the rest of the ashes
+and is sifted, and that which remains in the sieve, since it is
+hearth-lead, is added to the hearth-lead<a name="FNanchor_37_330" id="FNanchor_37_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_330" class="fnanchor">[37]</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 476]</span></p>
+<p>The ashes which pass through the sieve are of the same use as they were
+at first, for, indeed, from these and pulverised bones they make the
+cupels. Finally, when much of it has accumulated, the yellow <i>pompholyx</i>
+adhering to the walls of the furnace, and likewise to those rings of the
+dome near the apertures, is cleared away.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479"></a><a href="images/fig479.jpg"><img src="images/fig479thumb.jpg" alt="Crane for cupellation furnace" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Crane-post.
+B&mdash;Socket. C&mdash;Oak cross-sills. D&mdash;Band. E&mdash;Roof-beam. F&mdash;Frame. G&mdash;Lower
+small cross-beam. H&mdash;Upright timber. I&mdash;Bars which come from the sides
+of the crane-post. K&mdash;Bars which come from the sides of the upright
+timber. L&mdash;Rundle drums. M&mdash;Toothed wheels. N&mdash;Chain. O&mdash;Pulley.
+P&mdash;Beams of the crane-arm. Q&mdash;Oblique beams supporting the beams of the
+crane-arm. R&mdash;Rectangular iron plates. S&mdash;Trolley. T&mdash;Dome of the
+furnace. V&mdash;Ring. X&mdash;Three chains. Y&mdash;Crank. Z&mdash;The crane-post of the
+other contrivance. AA&mdash;Crane-arm. BB&mdash;Oblique beam. CC&mdash;Ring of the
+crane-arm. DD&mdash;The second ring. EE&mdash;Lever-bar. FF&mdash;Third ring. GG&mdash;Hook.
+HH&mdash;Chain of the dome. II&mdash;Chain of the lever-bar.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 479]</span></span>
+I must also describe the crane with which the dome is raised. When it is
+made, there is first set up a rectangular upright post twelve feet long,
+each side of which measures a foot in width. Its lower pinion turns in a
+bronze socket set in an oak sill; there are two sills placed crosswise
+so <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477"></a>[Pg 477]</span>that the one fits in a mortise in the middle of the other, and the
+other likewise fits in the mortise of the first, thus making a kind of a
+cross; these sills are three feet long and one foot wide and thick. The
+crane-post is round at its upper end and is cut down to a depth of three
+palms, and turns in a band fastened at each end to a roof-beam, from
+which springs the inclined chimney wall. To the crane-post is affixed a
+frame, which is made in this way: first, at a height of a cubit from the
+bottom, is mortised into the crane-post a small cross-beam, a cubit and
+three digits long, except its tenons, and two palms in width and
+thickness. Then again, at a height of five feet above it, is another
+small cross-beam of equal length, width, and thickness, mortised into
+the crane-post. The other ends of these two small cross-beams are
+mortised into an upright timber, six feet three palms long, and
+three-quarters wide and thick; the mortise is transfixed by wooden pegs.
+Above, at a height of three palms from the lower small cross-beam, are
+two bars, one foot one palm long, not including the tenons, a palm three
+digits wide, and a palm thick, which are mortised in the other sides of
+the crane-post. In the same manner, under the upper small cross-beam are
+two bars of the same size. Also in the upright timber there are mortised
+the same number of bars, of the same length as the preceding, but three
+digits thick, a palm two digits wide, the two lower ones being above the
+lower small cross-beam. From the upright timber near the upper small
+cross-beam, which at its other end is mortised into the crane-post, are
+two mortised bars. On the outside of this frame, boards are fixed to the
+small cross-beams, but the front and back parts of the frame have doors,
+whose hinges are fastened to the boards which are fixed to the bars that
+are mortised to the sides of the crane-post.</p>
+
+<p>Then boards are laid upon the lower small cross-beam, and at a height of
+two palms above these there is a small square iron axle, the sides of
+which are two digits wide; both ends of it are round and turn in bronze
+or iron bearings, one of these bearings being fastened in the
+crane-post, the other in the upright timber. About each end of the small
+axle is a wooden disc, of three palms and a digit radius and one palm
+thick, covered on the rim with an iron band; these two discs are distant
+two palms and as many digits from each <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478"></a>[Pg 478]</span>other, and are joined with five
+rundles; these rundles are two and a half digits thick and are placed
+three digits apart. Thus a drum is made, which is a palm and a digit
+distant from the upright timber, but further from the crane-post,
+namely, a palm and three digits. At a height of a foot and a palm above
+this little axle is a second small square iron axle, the thickness of
+which is three digits; this one, like the first one, turns in bronze or
+iron bearings. Around it is a toothed wheel, composed of two discs a
+foot three palms in diameter, a palm and two digits thick; on the rim of
+this there are twenty-three teeth, a palm wide and two digits thick;
+they protrude a palm from the wheel and are three digits apart. And
+around this same axle, at a distance of two palms and as many digits
+toward the upright timber, is another disc of the same diameter as the
+wheel and a palm thick; this turns in a hollowed-out place in the
+upright timber. Between this disc and the disc of the toothed wheel
+another drum is made, having likewise five rundles. There is, in
+addition to this second axle, at a height of a cubit above it, a small
+wooden axle, the journals of which are of iron; the ends are bound round
+with iron rings so that the journals may remain firmly fixed, and the
+journals, like the little iron axles, turn in bronze or iron bearings.
+This third axle is at a distance of about a cubit from the upper small
+cross-beam; it has, near the upright timber, a toothed wheel two and a
+half feet in diameter, on the rim of which are twenty-seven teeth; the
+other part of this axle, near the crane-post, is covered with iron
+plates, lest it should be worn away by the chain which winds around it.
+The end link of the chain is fixed in an iron pin driven into the little
+axle; this chain passes out of the frame and turns over a little pulley
+set between the beams of the crane-arm.</p>
+
+<p>Above the frame, at a height of a foot and a palm, is the crane-arm.
+This consists of two beams fifteen feet long, three palms wide, and two
+thick, mortised into the crane-post, and they protrude a cubit from the
+back of the crane-post and are fastened together. Moreover, they are
+fastened by means of a wooden pin which penetrates through them and the
+crane-post; this pin has at the one end a broad head, and at the other a
+hole, through which is driven an iron bolt, so that the beams may be
+tightly bound into the crane-post. The beams of the crane-arm are
+supported and stayed by means of two oblique beams, six feet and two
+palms long, and likewise two palms wide and thick; these are mortised
+into the crane-post at their lower ends, and their upper ends are
+mortised into the beams of the crane-arm at a point about four feet from
+the crane-post, and they are fastened with iron nails. At the back of
+the upper end of these oblique beams, toward the crane-post, is an iron
+staple, fastened into the lower sides of the beams of the crane-arm, in
+order that it may hold them fast and bind them. The outer end of each
+beam of the crane-arm is set in a rectangular iron plate, and between
+these are three rectangular iron plates, fixed in such a manner that the
+beams of the crane-arm can neither move away from, nor toward, each
+other. The upper sides of these crane-arm beams are covered with iron
+plates for a length of six feet, so that a trolley can move on it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480"></a>[Pg 480]</span></p><p>The body of the trolley is made of wood from the Ostrya or any other
+hard tree, and is a cubit long, a foot wide, and three palms thick; on
+both edges of it the lower side is cut out to a height and width of a
+palm, so that the remainder may move backward and forward between the
+two beams of the crane-arm; at the front, in the middle part, it is cut
+out to a width of two palms and as many digits, that a bronze pulley,
+around a small iron axle, may turn in it. Near the corners of the
+trolley are four holes, in which as many small wheels travel on the
+beams of the crane-arm. Since this trolley, when it travels backward and
+forward, gives out a sound somewhat similar to the barking of a dog, we
+have given it this name<a name="FNanchor_38_331" id="FNanchor_38_331"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_331" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>. It is propelled forward by means of a
+crank, and is drawn back by means of a chain. There is an iron hook
+whose ring turns round an iron pin fastened to the right side of the
+trolley, which hook is held by a sort of clavis, which is fixed in the
+right beam of the crane-arm.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of the crane-post is a bronze pulley, the iron axle of which
+is fastened in the beams of the crane-arm, and over which the chain
+passes as it comes from the frame, and then, penetrating through the
+hollow in the top of the trolley, it reaches to the little bronze pulley
+of the trolley, and passing over this it hangs down. A hook on its end
+engages a ring, in which are fixed the top links of three chains, each
+six feet long, which pass through the three iron rings fastened in the
+holes of the claves which are fixed into the middle iron band of the
+dome, of which I have spoken.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore when the master wishes to lift the dome by means of the crane,
+the assistant fits over the lower small iron axle an iron crank, which
+projects from the upright beam a palm and two digits; the end of the
+little axle is rectangular, and one and a half digits wide and one digit
+thick; it is set into a similar rectangular hole in the crank, which is
+two digits long and a little more than a digit wide. The crank is
+semi-circular, and one foot three palms and two digits long, as many
+digits wide, and one digit thick. Its handle is straight and round, and
+three palms long, and one and a half digits thick. There is a hole in
+the end of the little axle, through which an iron pin is driven so that
+the crank may not come off. The crane having four drums, two of which
+are rundle-drums and two toothed-wheels, is more easily moved than
+another having two drums, one of which has rundles and the other teeth.</p>
+
+<p>Many, however, use only a simple contrivance, the pivots of whose
+crane-post turn in the same manner, the one in an iron socket, the other
+in a ring. There is a crane-arm on the crane-post, which is supported by
+an oblique beam; to the head of the crane-arm a strong iron ring is
+fixed, which engages a second iron ring. In this iron ring a strong
+wooden lever-bar is fastened firmly, the head of which is bound by a
+third iron ring, from which hangs an iron hook, which engages the rings
+at the ends of the chains from the dome. At the other end of the
+lever-bar is another chain, which, when it is pulled down, raises the
+opposite end of the bar and thus the dome; and when it is relaxed the
+dome is lowered.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482"></a>[Pg 482]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481"></a><a href="images/fig481.jpg"><img src="images/fig481thumb.jpg" alt="Cupellation Furnace at Freiberg" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Chamber of the
+furnace. B&mdash;Its bed. C&mdash;Passages. D&mdash;Rammer. E&mdash;Mallet. F&mdash;Artificer
+making tubes from litharge according to the Roman method. G&mdash;Channel.
+H&mdash;Litharge. I&mdash;Lower crucible or hearth. K&mdash;Stick. L&mdash;Tubes.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 481]</span></span>
+In certain places, as at Freiberg in Meissen, the upper part of the
+cupellation furnace is vaulted almost like an oven. This chamber is four
+feet high and has either two or three apertures, of which the first, in
+front, is one and a half feet high and a foot wide, and out of this
+flows the litharge; the second aperture and likewise the third, if there
+be three, are at the sides, and are a foot and a half high and two and a
+half feet wide, in order that he who prepares the crucible may be able
+to creep into the furnace. Its circular bed is made of cement, it has
+two passages two feet high and one foot wide, for letting out the
+vapour, and these lead directly through from one side to the other, so
+that the one passage crosses the other at right angles, and thus four
+openings are to be seen; these are covered at the top by rocks, wide,
+but only a palm thick. On these and on the other parts of the interior
+of the bed made of cement, is placed lute mixed with straw, to a depth
+of three digits, as it was placed over the sole and the plates of copper
+and the rocks of that other furnace. This, together with the ashes which
+are thrown in, the master or the assistant, who, upon his knees,
+prepares the crucible, tamps down with short wooden rammers and with
+mallets likewise made of wood.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483"></a>[Pg 483]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig482.jpg"><img src="images/fig482thumb.jpg" alt="Cupellation Furnace in Poland" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnace similar to
+an oven. B&mdash;Passage. C&mdash;Iron bars. D&mdash;Hole through which the litharge is
+drawn out. E&mdash;Crucible which lacks a dome. F&mdash;Thick sticks. G&mdash;Bellows.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 482]</span></span>
+The cupellation furnace in Poland and Hungary is likewise vaulted at
+the top, and is almost similar to an oven, but in the lower part the bed
+is solid, and there is no opening for the vapours, while on one side of
+the crucible is a wall, between which and the bed of the crucible is a
+passage in place of the opening for vapours; this passage is covered by
+iron bars or rods extending from the wall to the crucible, and placed a
+distance of two digits from each other. In the crucible, when it is
+prepared, they first scatter straw, and then they lay in it cakes of
+silver-lead alloy, and on the iron bars they lay wood, which when
+kindled heats the crucible. They melt cakes to the weight of sometimes
+eighty <i>centumpondia</i> and sometimes a hundred <i>centumpondia</i><a name="FNanchor_39_332" id="FNanchor_39_332"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_332" class="fnanchor">[39]</a>. They
+stimulate a mild fire by means of a blast from the bellows, and throw on
+to the bars as much wood as is required to make a flame which will reach
+into the crucible, and separate the lead from the silver. The litharge
+is drawn out on the other side through an aperture that is just wide
+enough for the master to creep through into the crucible. The Moravians
+and Carni, who very rarely make more than a <i>bes</i> or five-sixths of a
+<i>libra</i> of silver, separate the lead from it, neither in a furnace
+resembling an oven, nor in the crucible covered by a dome, but on a
+crucible which is without a cover and exposed to the wind; on this
+crucible they lay cakes of silver-lead alloy, and over them they place
+dry wood, and over these again thick green wood. The wood having been
+kindled, they stimulate the fire by means of a bellows.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484"></a><a href="images/fig484.jpg"><img src="images/fig484thumb.jpg" alt="Refining Silver" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Pestle with teeth. B&mdash;Pestle
+without teeth. C&mdash;Dish or tray full of ashes. D&mdash;Prepared tests placed
+on boards or shelves. E&mdash;Empty tests. F&mdash;Wood. G&mdash;Saw.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 484]</span></span>
+<span class="figleft"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485"></a><a href="images/fig485.jpg"><img src="images/fig485thumb.jpg" alt="Refining Silver" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Straight knife having wooden
+handles. B&mdash;Curved knife likewise having wooden handles. C&mdash;Curved knife
+without wooden handles. D&mdash;Sieve. E&mdash;Balls. F&mdash;Iron door which the
+master lets down when he refines silver, lest the heat of the fire
+should injure his eyes. G&mdash;Iron implement on which the wood is placed
+when the liquid silver is to be refined. H&mdash;Its other part passing
+through the ring of another iron implement enclosed in the wall of the
+furnace. I&mdash;Tests in which burning charcoal has been thrown.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 485]</span></span>
+I have explained the method of separating lead from gold or silver. Now
+I will speak of the method of refining silver, for I have already
+explained the process for refining gold. Silver is refined in a refining
+furnace, over whose hearth is an arched chamber built of bricks; this
+chamber in the front part is three feet high. The hearth itself is five
+feet long and four wide. The walls are unbroken along the sides and
+back, but in front one chamber is placed over the other, and above these
+and the wall is the upright chimney. The hearth has a round pit, a cubit
+wide and two palms deep, into which are thrown sifted ashes, and in this
+is placed a prepared earthenware "test," in such a manner that it is
+surrounded on all sides by ashes to a height equal to its own. The
+earthenware test is filled with a powder consisting of equal portions of
+bones ground to powder, and of ashes taken from the crucible in which
+lead is separated from gold or silver; others mix crushed brick with the
+ashes, for by this method the powder attracts no silver to itself. When
+the powder has been made up and moistened with water, a little is thrown
+into the earthenware test and tamped with a wooden pestle. This pestle
+is round, a foot long, and a palm and a digit wide, out of which extend
+six teeth, each a digit thick, and a digit and a third long and wide,
+and almost a digit apart; these six teeth form a circle, and in the
+centre of them is the seventh tooth, which is round and of the same
+length as the others, but a digit and a half thick; this pestle tapers a
+little from the bottom up, that the upper part of the handle may be
+round and three digits thick. Some use a round pestle without teeth.
+Then a <span class="pagenum">[Pg 484]</span>little powder is again moistened, and thrown into the test, and
+tamped; this work is repeated until the test is entirely full of the
+powder, which the master then cuts out with a knife, sharp on both
+sides, and turned upward at both ends so that the central part is a palm
+and a digit long; therefore it is partly straight and partly curved. The
+blade is one and a half digits wide, and at each end it turns upward two
+palms, which ends to the depth of a palm are either not sharpened or
+they are enclosed in wooden handles. The master holds the knife with one
+hand and cuts out the powder from the test, so that it is left three
+digits thick all round; then he sifts the powder of dried bones over it
+through a sieve, the bottom of which is made of closely-woven bristles.
+Afterward a ball made of very hard wood, six digits in diameter, is
+placed in the test and rolled about with both hands, in order to make
+the inside even and smooth; for that matter he may move the ball about
+with only one hand. The tests<a name="FNanchor_40_333" id="FNanchor_40_333"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_333" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> are of various capacities, for some of
+them when prepared <span class="pagenum">[Pg 485]</span>hold much less than fifteen <i>librae</i> of silver,
+others twenty, some thirty, others forty, and others fifty. All these
+tests thus prepared are dried in the sun, or set in a warm and covered
+place; the more dry and old they are the better. All of them, when used
+for refining silver, are heated by means of burning charcoal placed in
+them. Others use instead of these tests an iron ring; but the test is
+more useful, for if the powder deteriorates the silver remains in it,
+while there being no bottom to the ring, it falls out; besides, it is
+easier to place in the hearth the test than the iron ring, and
+furthermore it requires much less powder. In order that the test should
+not break and damage the silver, some bind it round with an iron band.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486"></a><a href="images/fig486.jpg"><img src="images/fig486thumb.jpg" alt="Refining Silver" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Grate. B&mdash;Brass block. C&mdash;Block
+of wood. D&mdash;Cakes of silver. E&mdash;Hammer. F&mdash;Block of wood channelled in
+the middle. G&mdash;Bowl full of holes. H&mdash;Block of wood fastened to an iron
+implement. I&mdash;Fir-wood. K&mdash;Iron bar. L&mdash;Implement with a hollow end. The
+implement which has a circular end is shown in the next picture.
+M&mdash;Implement, the extremity of which is bent upwards. N&mdash;Implement in
+the shape of tongs.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 486]</span></span>
+In order that they may be more easily broken, the silver cakes are
+placed upon an iron grate by the refiner, and are heated by burning
+charcoal placed under them. He has a brass block two palms and two
+digits long and wide, with a channel in the middle, which he places upon
+a block of hard wood. Then with a double-headed hammer, he beats the hot
+cakes of silver <span class="pagenum">[Pg 486]</span>placed on the brass block, and breaks them in pieces.
+The head of this hammer is a foot and two digits long, and a palm wide.
+Others use for this purpose merely a block of wood channelled in the
+top. While the fragments of the cake are still hot, he seizes them with
+the tongs and throws them into a bowl with holes in the bottom, and
+pours water over them. When the fragments are cooled, he puts them
+nicely into the test by placing them so that they stand upright and
+project from the test to a height of two palms, and lest one should fall
+against the other, he places little pieces of charcoal between them;
+then he places live charcoal in the test, and soon two twig basketsful
+of charcoal. Then he blows in air with the bellows. This bellows is
+double, and four feet two palms long, and two feet and as many palms
+wide at the back; the other parts are similar to those described in <a href="#BOOK_VII">Book
+VII</a>. The nozzle of the bellows is placed in a bronze pipe a foot long,
+the aperture in this pipe being a digit in diameter in front and quite
+round, and at the back two palms wide. The master, because he needs for
+the operation of refining <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487"></a>[Pg 487]</span>silver a fierce fire, and requires on that
+account a vigorous blast, places the bellows very much inclined, in
+order that, when the silver has melted, it may blow into the centre of
+the test. When the silver bubbles, he presses the nozzle down by means
+of a small block of wood moistened with water and fastened to an iron
+rod, the outer end of which bends upward. The silver melts when it has
+been heated in the test for about an hour; when it is melted, he removes
+the live coals from the test and places over it two billets of fir-wood,
+a foot and three palms long, a palm two digits wide, one palm thick at
+the upper part, and three digits at the lower. He joins them together at
+the lower edges, and into the billets he again throws the coals, for a
+fierce fire is always necessary in refining silver. It is refined in two
+or three hours, according to whether it was pure or impure, and if it is
+impure it is made purer by dropping granulated copper or lead into the
+test at the same time. In order that the refiner may sustain the great
+heat from the fire while the silver is being refined, he lets down an
+iron door, which is three feet long and a foot and three palms high;
+this door is held on both ends in iron plates, and when the operation is
+concluded, he raises it again with an iron shovel, so that its edge
+holds against the iron hook in the arch, and thus the door is held open.
+When the silver is nearly refined, which may be judged by the space of
+time, he dips into it an iron bar, three and a half feet long and a
+digit thick, having a round steel point. The small drops of silver that
+adhere to the bar he places on the brass block and flattens with a
+hammer, and from their colour he decides whether the silver is
+sufficiently refined or not. If it is thoroughly purified it is very
+white, and in a <i>bes</i> there is only a <i>drachma</i> of impurities. Some
+ladle up the silver with a hollow iron implement. Of each <i>bes</i> of
+silver one <i>sicilicus</i> is consumed, or occasionally when very impure,
+three <i>drachmae</i> or half an <i>uncia</i><a name="FNanchor_41_334" id="FNanchor_41_334"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_334" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488"></a><a href="images/fig488.jpg"><img src="images/fig488thumb.jpg" alt="Cleansing of Silver Cakes" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Implement with a ring.
+B&mdash;Ladle. C&mdash;Its hole. D&mdash;Pointed bar. E&mdash;Forks. F&mdash;Cake of silver laid
+upon the implement shaped like tongs. G&mdash;Tub of water. H&mdash;Block of wood,
+with a cake laid upon it. I&mdash;Hammer. K&mdash;Silver again placed upon the
+implement resembling tongs. L&mdash;Another tub full of water. M&mdash;Brass
+wires. N&mdash;Tripod. O&mdash;Another block. P&mdash;Chisel. Q&mdash;Crucible of the
+furnace. R&mdash;Test still smoking.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 488]</span></span>
+The refiner governs the fire and stirs the molten silver with an iron
+implement, nine feet long, a digit thick, and at the end first curved
+toward the right, then curved back in order to form a circle, the
+interior of which is a palm in diameter; others use an iron implement,
+the end of which is bent directly upward. Another iron implement has the
+shape of tongs, with which, by compressing it with his hands, he seizes
+the coals and puts them on or takes them off; this is two feet long, one
+and a half digits wide, and the third of a digit thick.</p>
+
+<p>When the silver is seen to be thoroughly refined, the artificer removes
+the coals from the test with a shovel. Soon afterward he draws water in
+a copper ladle, which has a wooden handle four feet long; it has a small
+hole at a point half-way between the middle of the bowl and the edge,
+through which a hemp seed just passes. He fills this ladle three times
+with water, and three times it all flows out through the hole on to the
+silver, and slowly quenches it; if he suddenly poured much water on it,
+it would burst asunder and injure those standing near. The artificer has
+a pointed iron bar, three <span class="pagenum">[Pg 488]</span>feet long, which has a wooden handle as many
+feet long, and he puts the end of this bar into the test in order to
+stir it. He also stirs it with a hooked iron bar, of which the hook is
+two digits wide and a palm deep, and the iron part of its handle is
+three feet long and the wooden part the same. Then he removes the test
+from the hearth with a shovel or a fork, and turns it over, and by this
+means the silver falls to the ground in the shape of half a sphere; then
+lifting the cake with a shovel he throws it into a tub of water, where
+it gives out a great sound. Or else, having lifted the cake of silver
+with a fork, he lays it upon the iron implement similar to tongs, which
+are placed across a tub full of water; afterward, when cooled, he takes
+it from the tub again and lays it on the block made of hard wood and
+beats it with a hammer, in order to break off any of the powder from the
+test which adheres to it. The cake is then placed on the implement
+similar to tongs, laid over the tub full of water, and cleaned with a
+bundle of brass wire <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489"></a>[Pg 489]</span>dipped into the water; this operation of beating
+and cleansing is repeated until it is all clean. Afterward he places it
+on an iron grate or tripod; the tripod is a palm and two digits high,
+one and a half digits wide, and its span is two palms wide; then he puts
+burning charcoal under the tripod or grate, in order again to dry the
+silver that was moistened by the water. Finally, the Royal Inspector<a name="FNanchor_42_335" id="FNanchor_42_335"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_335" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>
+in the employment of the King or Prince, or the owner, lays the silver
+on a block of wood, and with an engraver's chisel he cuts out two small
+pieces, one from the under and the other from the upper side. These are
+tested by fire, in order to ascertain whether the silver is thoroughly
+refined or not, and at what price it should be sold to the merchants.
+Finally he impresses upon it the seal of the King or the Prince or the
+owner, and, near the same, the amount of the weight.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig489.jpg"><img src="images/fig489thumb.jpg" alt="Refining Silver" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Muffle. B&mdash;Its little windows.
+C&mdash;Its little bridge. D&mdash;Bricks. E&mdash;Iron door. F&mdash;Its little window.
+G&mdash;Bellows. H&mdash;Hammer-chisel. I&mdash;Iron ring which some use instead of the
+test. K&mdash;Pestle with which the ashes placed in the ring are pounded.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 489]</span></span>
+There are some who refine silver in tests placed under iron or
+earthenware muffles. They use a furnace, on the hearth of which they
+place the test containing the fragments of silver, and they place the
+muffle over it; the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490"></a>[Pg 490]</span>muffle has small windows at the sides, and in front
+a little bridge. In order to melt the silver, at the sides of the muffle
+are laid bricks, upon which the charcoal is placed, and burning
+firebrands are put on the bridge. The furnace has an iron door, which is
+covered on the side next to the fire with lute in order that it may not
+be injured. When the door is closed it retains the heat of the fire, but
+it has a small window, so that the artificers may look into the test and
+may at times stimulate the fire with the bellows. Although by this
+method silver is refined more slowly than by the other, nevertheless it
+is more useful, because less loss is caused, for a gentle fire consumes
+fewer particles than a fierce fire continually excited by the blast of
+the bellows. If, on account of its great size, the cake of silver can be
+carried only with difficulty when it is taken out of the muffle, they
+cut it up into two or three pieces while it is still hot, with a wedge
+or a hammer-chisel; for if they cut it up after it has cooled, little
+pieces of it frequently fly off and are lost.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p class="center">END OF BOOK X.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_439" id="Notes_439">[Pg 439]</a></span><a name="Footnote_1_294" id="Footnote_1_294"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_294"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> <i>Vile a precioso</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_295" id="Footnote_2_295"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_295"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The reagents mentioned in this Book are much the same as
+those of Book VII, where (p. <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>) a table is given showing the Latin and
+Old German terms. Footnotes in explanation of our views as to these
+substances may be most easily consulted through the <a href="#GENERAL_INDEX">index</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_296" id="Footnote_3_296"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_296"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Aqua valens</i>, literally strong, potent, or powerful water.
+It will appear later, from the method of manufacture, that hydrochloric,
+nitric, and sulphuric acids and <i>aqua regia</i> were more or less all
+produced and all included in this term. We have, therefore, used either
+the term <i>aqua valens</i> or simply <i>aqua</i> as it occurs in the text. The
+terms <i>aqua fortis</i> and <i>aqua regia</i> had come into use prior to
+Agricola, but he does not use them; the Alchemists used various terms,
+often <i>aqua dissolvia</i>. It is apparent from the uses to which this
+reagent was put in separating gold and silver, from the method of
+clarifying it with silver and from the red fumes, that Agricola could
+have had practical contact only with nitric acid. It is probable that he
+has copied part of the recipes for the compounds to be distilled from
+the Alchemists and from such works as the <i>Probierb�chlein</i>. In any
+event he could not have had experience with them all, for in some cases
+the necessary ingredients for making nitric acid are not all present,
+and therefore could be of no use for gold and silver separation. The
+essential ingredients for the production of this acid by distillation,
+were saltpetre, water, and either vitriol or alum. The other substances
+mentioned were unnecessary, and any speculation as to the combinations
+which would result, forms a useful exercise in chemistry, but of little
+purpose here. The first recipe would no doubt produce hydrochloric
+acid.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_440" id="Notes_440">[Pg 440]</a></span><a name="Footnote_4_297" id="Footnote_4_297"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_297"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Agricola, in the <i>Interpretatio</i>, gives the German
+equivalent for the Latin <i>aerugo</i> as <i>Spanschgr�n</i>&mdash;"because it was
+first brought to Germany from Spain; foreigners call it <i>viride aeris</i>
+(copper green)." The English "verdigris" is a corruption of <i>vert de
+grice</i>. Both verdigris and white lead were very ancient products, and
+they naturally find mention together among the ancient authors. The
+earliest description of the method of making is from the 3rd Century
+<span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, by Theophrastus, who says (101-2): "But these are works of art, as
+is also Ceruse (<i>psimythion</i>) to make which, lead is placed in earthen
+vessels over sharp vinegar, and after it has acquired some thickness of
+a kind of rust, which it commonly does in about ten days, they open the
+vessels and scrape off, as it were, a kind of foulness; they then place
+the lead over the vinegar again, repeating over and over again the same
+method of scraping it till it is wholly dissolved; what has been scraped
+off they then beat to powder and boil for a long time; and what at last
+subsides to the bottom of the vessel is the white lead.... Also in a
+manner somewhat resembling this, verdigris (<i>ios</i>) is made, for copper
+is placed over lees of wine (grape refuse?), and the rust which it
+acquires by this means is taken off for use. And it is by this means
+that the rust which appears is produced." (Based on Hill's translation.)
+Vitruvius (<span class="smcaplower">VII</span>, 12), Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>, 51), and Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 26 and 54),
+all describe the method of making somewhat more elaborately.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_298" id="Footnote_5_298"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_298"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>Amiantus</i> (<i>Interpretatio</i> gives <i>federwis</i>, <i>pliant</i>,
+<i>salamanderhar</i>). From Agricola's elaborate description in <i>De Natura
+Fossilium</i> (p. 252) there can be no doubt that he means asbestos. This
+mineral was well-known to the Ancients, and is probably earliest
+referred to (3rd Century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) by Theophrastus in the following passage
+(29): "There is also found in the mines of Scaptesylae a stone, in its
+external appearance somewhat resembling wood, on which, if oil be
+poured, it burns; but when the oil is burnt away, the burning of the
+stone ceases, as if it were in itself not liable to such accidents."
+There can be no doubt that Strabo (<span class="smcaplower">X</span>, 1) describes the mineral: "At
+Carystus there is found in the earth a stone, which is combed like wool,
+and woven, so that napkins are made of this substance, which, when
+soiled, are thrown into the fire and cleaned, as in the washing of
+linen." It is also described by Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>, 113) and Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XIX</span>, 4).
+Asbestos cloth has been found in Pre-Augustinian Roman tombs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_441" id="Notes_441">[Pg 441]</a></span><a name="Footnote_6_299" id="Footnote_6_299"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_299"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> This list of four recipes is even more obscure than the
+previous list. If they were distilled, the first and second mixtures
+would not produce nitric acid, although possibly some sulphuric would
+result. The third might yield nitric, and the fourth <i>aqua regia</i>. In
+view of the water, they were certainly not used as cements, and the
+first and second are deficient in the vital ingredients.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_300" id="Footnote_7_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_300"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> <i>Distillation</i>, at least in crude form, is very old.
+Aristotle (<i>Meteorologica</i>, <span class="smcaplower">IV.</span>) states that sweet water can be made by
+evaporating salt-water and condensing the steam. Dioscorides and Pliny
+both describe the production of mercury by distillation (<a href="#Footnote_58_291">note 58, p.
+432</a>). The Alchemists of the Alexandrian School, from the 1st to the 6th
+Centuries, mention forms of imperfect apparatus&mdash;an ample discussion of
+which may be found in Kopp, <i>Beitr�ge zur Geschichte der Chemie</i>,
+Braunschweig, 1869, p. 217.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_443" id="Notes_443">[Pg 443]</a></span><a name="Footnote_8_301" id="Footnote_8_301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_301"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> It is desirable to note the contents of the residues in the
+retort, for it is our belief that these are the materials to which the
+author refers as "lees of the water which separates gold from silver,"
+in many places in <a href="#BOOK_VII">Book VII</a>. They would be strange mixtures of sodium,
+potassium, aluminium sulphates, with silica, brickdust, asbestos, and
+various proportions of undigested vitriol, salt, saltpetre, alum, iron
+oxides, etc. Their effect must have been uncertain. Many old German
+metallurgies also refer to the <i>Todenkopf der Scheidwasser</i>, among them
+the <i>Probierb�chlein</i> before Agricola, and after him Lazarus Ercker
+(<i>Beschreibung Allerf�rnemsten</i>, etc., Prague, 1574). See also <a href="#Footnote_16_188">note 16,
+p. 234</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_302" id="Footnote_9_302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_302"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> This use of silver could apply to one purpose only, that
+is, the elimination of minor amounts of hydrochloric from the nitric
+acid, the former originating no doubt from the use of salt among the
+ingredients. The silver was thus converted into a chloride and
+precipitated. This use of a small amount of silver to purify the nitric
+acid was made by metallurgists down to fairly recent times. Biringuccio
+(<span class="smcaplower">IV</span>, 2) and Lazarus Ercker (p. 71) both recommend that the silver be
+dissolved first in a small amount of acid, and the solution poured into
+the newly-manufactured supply. They both recommend preserving this
+precipitate and its cupellation after melting with lead&mdash;which Agricola
+apparently overlooked.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_303" id="Footnote_10_303"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_303"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> In this description of parting by nitric acid, the author
+digresses from his main theme on pages 444 and 445, to explain a method
+apparently for small quantities where the silver was precipitated by
+copper, and to describe another cryptic method of precipitation. These
+subjects are referred to in notes <a href="#Footnote_11_304">11</a> and <a href="#Footnote_12_305">12</a> below. The method of parting
+set out here falls into six stages: <i>a</i>&mdash;cupellation, <i>b</i>&mdash;granulation,
+<i>c</i>&mdash;solution in acid, <i>d</i>&mdash;treatment of the gold residues,
+<i>e</i>&mdash;evaporation of the solution, <i>f</i>&mdash;reduction of the silver nitrate.
+For nitric acid parting, bullion must be free from impurities, which
+cupellation would ensure; if copper were left in, it would have the
+effect he mentions if we understand "the silver separated from the gold
+soon unites with it again," to mean that the silver unites with the
+copper, for the copper would go into solution and come down with the
+silver on evaporation. Agricola does not specifically mention the
+necessity of an excess of silver in this description, although he does
+so elsewhere, and states that the ratio must be at least three parts
+silver to one part gold. The first description of the solution of the
+silver is clear enough, but that on p. <a href="#Page_445">445</a> is somewhat difficult to
+follow, for the author states that the bullion is placed in a retort
+with the acid, and that distillation is carried on between each
+additional charge of acid. So far as the arrangement of a receiver might
+relate to the saving of any acid that came over accidentally in the
+boiling, it can be understood, but to distill off much acid would soon
+result in the crystallization of the silver nitrate, which would greatly
+impede the action of subsequent acid additions, and finally the gold
+could not be separated from such nitrate in the way described. The
+explanation may be (apart from incidental evaporation when heating) that
+the acids used were very weak, and that by the evaporation of a certain
+amount of water, not only was the acid concentrated, but room was
+provided for the further charges. The acid in the gold wash-water,
+mentioned in the following paragraph, was apparently thus concentrated.
+The "glass" mentioned as being melted with litharge, argols, nitre,
+etc., was no doubt the silver nitrate. The precipitation of the silver
+from the solution as a chloride, by the use of salt, so generally used
+during the 18th and 19th Centuries, was known in Agricola's time,
+although he does not mention it. It is mentioned in Geber and the
+<i>Probierb�chlein</i>. The clarity of the latter on the subject is of some
+interest (p. 34a): "How to pulverise silver and again make it into
+silver. Take the silver and dissolve it in water with the
+<i>starckenwasser</i>, <i>aqua fort</i>, and when that is done, take the silver
+water and pour it into warm salty water, and immediately the silver
+settles to the bottom and becomes powder. Let it stand awhile until it
+has well settled, then pour away the water from it and dry the
+settlings, which will become a powder like ashes. Afterward one can
+again make it into silver. Take the powder and put it on a <i>test</i>, and
+add thereto the powder from the settlings from which the <i>aqua forte</i>
+has been made, and add lead. Then if there is a great deal, blow on <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_444" id="Notes_444">[Pg 444]</a></span>it
+until the lead has incorporated itself ... blow it until it <i>plickt</i>
+(<i>blickens</i>). Then you will have as much silver as before."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_304" id="Footnote_11_304"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_304"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> The silver is apparently precipitated by the copper of the
+bowl. It would seem that this method was in considerable use for small
+amounts of silver nitrate in the 16th Century. Lazarus Ercker gives
+elaborate directions for this method (<i>Beschreibung Allerf�rnemsten</i>,
+etc., Prague, 1574, p. 77).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_445" id="Notes_445">[Pg 445]</a></span><a name="Footnote_12_305" id="Footnote_12_305"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_305"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> We confess to a lack of understanding of this operation
+with leaves of lead and copper.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_447" id="Notes_447">[Pg 447]</a></span><a name="Footnote_13_306" id="Footnote_13_306"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_306"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> We do not understand this "appearance of black." If the
+nitrate came into contact with organic matter it would, of course, turn
+black by reduction of the silver, and sunlight would have the same
+effect.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_307" id="Footnote_14_307"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_307"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> This would be equal to from 62 to 94 parts of copper in
+1,000.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_308" id="Footnote_15_308"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_308"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> As 144 <i>siliquae</i> are 1 <i>uncia</i>, then <span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> <i>siliqua</i> in 8
+<i>unciae</i> would equal one part silver in 4,608 parts gold, or about 999.8
+fine.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_448" id="Notes_448">[Pg 448]</a></span><a name="Footnote_16_309" id="Footnote_16_309"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_309"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> The object of this treatment with sulphur and copper is to
+separate a considerable portion of silver from low-grade bullion
+(<i>i.e.</i>, silver containing some gold), in preparation for final
+treatment of the richer gold-silver alloy with nitric acid. Silver
+sulphide is created by adding sulphur, and is drawn off in a
+silver-copper regulus. After the first sentence, the author uses silver
+alone where he obviously means silver "containing some gold," and
+further he speaks of the "gold lump" (<i>massula</i>) where he likewise means
+a button containing a great deal of silver. For clarity we introduced
+the term "regulus" for the Latin <i>mistura</i>. The operation falls into six
+stages: <i>a</i>, granulation; <i>b</i>, sulphurization of the granulated bullion;
+<i>c</i>, melting to form a combination of the silver sulphide with copper
+into a regulus, an alloy of gold and silver settling out; <i>d</i>,
+repetition of the treatment to abstract further silver from the "lump;"
+<i>e</i>, refining the "lump" with nitric acid; <i>f</i>, recovery of the silver
+from the regulus by addition of lead, liquation and cupellation.
+</p><p>
+The use of a "circle of fire" secures a low temperature that would
+neither volatilize the sulphur nor melt the bullion. The amount of
+sulphur given is equal to a ratio of 48 parts bullion and 9 parts
+sulphur. We are not certain about the translation of the paragraph in
+relation to the proportion of copper added to the granulated bullion;
+because in giving definite quantities of copper to be added in the
+contingencies of various original copper contents in the bullion, it
+would be expected that they were intended to produce some positive ratio
+of copper and silver. However, the ratio as we understand the text in
+various cases works out to irregular amounts, <i>i.e.</i>, 48 parts of silver
+to 16, 12.6, 24, 20.5, 20.8, 17.8, or 18 parts of copper. In order to
+obtain complete separation there should be sufficient sulphur to have
+formed a sulphide of the copper as well as of the silver, or else some
+of the copper and silver would come down metallic with the "lump". The
+above ratio of copper added to the sulphurized silver, in the first
+instance would give about 18 parts of copper and 9 parts of sulphur to
+48 parts of silver. The copper would require 4.5 parts of sulphur to
+convert it into sulphide, and the silver about 7 parts, or a total of
+11.5 parts required against 9 parts furnished. It is plain, therefore,
+that insufficient sulphur is given. Further, the litharge would probably
+take up some sulphur and throw down metallic lead into the "lump".
+However, it is necessary that there should be some free metallics to
+collect the gold, and, therefore, the separation could not be complete
+in one operation. In any event, on the above ratios the "gold lump" from
+the first operation was pretty coppery, and contained some lead and
+probably a good deal of silver, because the copper would tend to
+desulphurize the latter. The "powder" of glass-galls, salt, and litharge
+would render the mass more liquid and assist the "gold lump" to separate
+out.
+</p><p>
+The Roman silver <i>sesterce</i>, worth about 2<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>8</sub></span> pence or 4.2 American
+cents, was no doubt used by Agricola merely to indicate an infinitesimal
+quantity. The test to be applied to the regulus by way of cupellation
+and parting of a sample with nitric acid, requires no explanation. The
+truth of the description as to determining whether the gold had settled
+out, by using a chalked iron rod, can only be tested by actual
+experiment. It is probable, however, that the sulphur in the regulus
+would attack the iron and make it black. The re-melting of the regulus,
+if some gold remains in it, with copper and "powder" without more
+sulphur, would provide again free metallics to gather the remaining
+gold, and by desulphurizing some silver this button would probably not
+be very pure.
+</p><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_449" id="Notes_449">[Pg 449]</a></span>
+From the necessity for some free metallics besides the gold in the first
+treatment, it will be seen that a repetition of the sulphur addition and
+re-melting is essential gradually to enrich the "lump". Why more copper
+is added is not clear. In the second melting, the ratio is 48 parts of
+the "gold lump", 12 parts of sulphur and 12 parts copper. In this case
+the added copper would require about 3 parts sulphur, and if we consider
+the deficiency of sulphur in the first operations pertained entirely to
+the copper, then about 2.5 parts would be required to make good the
+shortage, or in other words the second addition of sulphur is
+sufficient. In the final parting of the "lump" it will be noticed that
+the author states that the silver ratio must be arranged as three of
+silver to one of gold. As to the recovery of the silver from the
+regulus, he states that 66 <i>librae</i> of silver give 132 <i>librae</i> of
+<i>regulus</i>. To this, 500 <i>librae</i> of lead are added, and it is melted in
+the "second" furnace, and the litharge and hearth-lead made are
+re-melted in the "first" furnace, the cakes made being again treated in
+the "third" furnace to separate the copper and lead. The "first" is
+usually the blast furnace, the "second" furnace is the cupellation
+furnace, and the "third" the liquation furnace. It is difficult to
+understand this procedure. The charge sent to the cupellation furnace
+would contain between 3% and 5% copper, and between 3% and 5% sulphur.
+However, possibly the sulphur and copper could be largely abstracted in
+the skimmings from the cupellation furnace, these being subsequently
+liquated in the "third" furnace. It may be noted that two whole lines
+from this paragraph are omitted in the editions of <i>De Re Metallica</i>
+after 1600. For historical note on sulphur separation see page <a href="#Notes_461">461</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_451" id="Notes_451">[Pg 451]</a></span><a name="Footnote_17_310" id="Footnote_17_310"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_310"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> There can be no doubt that in most instances Agricola's
+<i>stibium</i> is antimony sulphide, but it does not follow that it was the
+mineral <i>stibnite</i>, nor have we considered it desirable to introduce the
+precision of either of these modern terms, and have therefore retained
+the Latin term where the sulphide is apparently intended. The use of
+antimony sulphide to part silver from gold is based upon the greater
+affinity of silver than antimony for sulphur. Thus the silver, as in the
+last process, is converted into a sulphide, and is absorbed in the
+regulus, while the metallic antimony alloys with the gold and settles to
+the bottom of the pot. This process has several advantages over the
+sulphurization with crude sulphur; antimony is a more convenient vehicle
+of sulphur, for it saves the preliminary sulphurization with its
+attendant difficulties of volatilization of the sulphur; it also saves
+the granulation necessary in the former method; and the treatment of the
+subsequent products is simpler. However, it is possible that the
+sulphur-copper process was better adapted to bullion where the
+proportion of gold was low, because the fineness of the bullion
+mentioned in connection with the antimonial process was apparently much
+higher than the previous process. For instance, a <i>bes</i> of gold,
+containing 5, 6, or 7 double <i>sextulae</i> of silver would be .792, .750 or
+.708 fine. The antimonial method would have an advantage over nitric
+acid separation, in that high-grade bullion could be treated direct
+without artificial decrease of fineness required by inquartation to
+about .250 fine, with the consequent incidental losses of silver
+involved.
+</p><p>
+The process in this description falls into six operations: <i>a</i>,
+sulphurization of the silver by melting with antimony sulphide; <i>b</i>,
+separation of the gold "lump" (<i>massula</i>) by jogging; <i>c</i>, re-melting
+the regulus (<i>mistura</i>) three or four times for recovery of further
+"lumps"; <i>d</i>, re-melting of the "lump" four times, with further
+additions of antimony sulphide; <i>e</i>, cupellation of the regulus to
+recover the silver; <i>f</i>, cupellation of the antimony from the "lump" to
+recover the gold. Percy seems to think it difficult to understand the
+insistence upon the addition of copper. Biringuccio (<span class="smcaplower">IV</span>, 6) states,
+among other things, that copper makes the ingredients more liquid. The
+later metallurgists, however, such as Ercker, Lohneys, and Schl�ter, do
+not mention this addition; they do mention the "swelling and <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_452" id="Notes_452">[Pg 452]</a></span>frothing,"
+and recommend that the crucible should be only partly filled. As to the
+copper, we suggest that it would desulphurize part of the antimony and
+thus free some of that metal to collect the gold. If we assume bullion
+of the medium fineness mentioned and containing no copper, then the
+proportions in the first charge would be about 36 parts gold, 12 parts
+silver, 41 parts sulphur, 103 parts antimony, and 9 parts copper. The
+silver and copper would take up 4.25 parts of sulphur, and thus free
+about 10.6 parts of antimony as metallics. It would thus appear that the
+amount of metallics provided to assist the collection of the gold was
+little enough, and that the copper in freeing 5.6 parts of the antimony
+was useful. It appears to have been necessary to have a large excess of
+antimony sulphide; for even with the great surplus in the first charge,
+the reaction was only partial, as is indicated by the necessity for
+repeated melting with further antimony.
+</p><p>
+The later metallurgists all describe the separation of the metallic
+antimony from the gold as being carried out by oxidation of the
+antimony, induced by a jet of air into the crucible, this being
+continued until the mass appears limpid and no cloud forms in the
+surface in cooling. Agricola describes the separation of the silver from
+the regulus by preliminary melting with argols, glass-gall, and some
+lead, and subsequent cupellation of the lead-silver alloy. The statement
+that unless this preliminary melting is done, the cupel will absorb
+silver, might be consonant with an attempt at cupellation of sulphides,
+and it is difficult to see that much desulphurizing could take place
+with the above fluxes. In fact, in the later descriptions of the
+process, iron is used in this melting, and we are under the impression
+that Agricola had omitted this item for a desulphurizing reagent. At the
+Dresden Mint, in the methods described by Percy (Metallurgy Silver and
+Gold, p. 373) the gold lumps were tested for fineness, and from this the
+amount of gold retained in the regulus was computed. It is not clear
+from Agricola's account whether the test with nitric acid was applied to
+the regulus or to the "lumps". For historical notes see p. <a href="#Notes_461">461</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_453" id="Notes_453">[Pg 453]</a></span><a name="Footnote_18_311" id="Footnote_18_311"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_311"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> As will be shown in the historical note, this process of
+separating gold and silver is of great antiquity&mdash;in all probability the
+only process known prior to the Middle Ages, and in any event, the first
+one used. In general the process was performed by "cementing" the
+disintegrated bullion with a paste and subjecting the mass to
+long-continued heat at a temperature under the melting point of the
+bullion. The cement (<i>compositio</i>) is of two different species; in the
+first species saltpetre and vitriol and some aluminous or silicious
+medium are the essential ingredients, and through them the silver is
+converted into nitrate and absorbed by the mass; in the second species,
+common salt and the same sort of medium are the essentials, and in this
+case the silver is converted into a chloride. Agricola does not
+distinguish between these two species, for, as shown by the text, his
+ingredients are badly mixed.
+</p>
+<p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_454" id="Notes_454">[Pg 454]</a></span>
+The process as here described falls into five operations: <i>a</i>,
+granulation of the bullion or preparation of leaves; <i>b</i>, heating
+alternate layers of cement and bullion in pots; <i>c</i>, washing the gold to
+free it of cement; <i>d</i>, melting the gold with borax or soda; <i>e</i>,
+treatment of the cement by way of melting with lead and cupellation to
+recover the silver. Investigation by Boussingault (<i>Ann. De Chimie</i>,
+1833, p. 253-6), D'Elhuyar (<i>Bergbaukunde</i>, Leipzig, 1790, Vol. <span class="smcaplower">II</span>, p.
+200), and Percy (Metallurgy of Silver and Gold, p. 395), of the action
+of common salt upon silver under cementation conditions, fairly well
+demonstrated the reactions involved in the use of this species of
+cement. Certain factors are essential besides salt: <i>a</i>, the admission
+of air, which is possible through the porous pots used; <i>b</i>, the
+presence of some moisture to furnish hydrogen; <i>c</i>, the addition of
+alumina or silica. The first would be provided by Agricola in the use of
+new pots, the second possibly by use of wood fuel in a closed furnace,
+the third by the inclusion of brickdust. The alumina or silica at high
+temperatures decomposes the salt, setting free hydrochloric acid and
+probably also free chlorine. The result of the addition of vitriol in
+Agricola's ingredients is not discussed by those investigators, but
+inasmuch as vitriol decomposes into sulphuric acid under high
+temperatures, this acid would react upon the salt to free hydrochloric
+acid, and thus assist to overcome deficiencies in the other factors. It
+is possible also that sulphuric acid under such conditions would react
+directly upon the silver to form silver sulphates, which would be
+absorbed into the cement. As nitric acid is formed by vitriol and
+saltpetre at high temperatures, the use of these two substances as a
+cementing compound would produce nitric acid, which would at once attack
+the silver to form silver nitrate, which would be absorbed into the
+melted cement. In this case the brickdust probably acted merely as a
+vehicle for the absorption, and to lower the melting point of the mass
+and prevent fusion of the metal. While nitric acid will only part gold
+and silver when the latter is in great excess, yet when applied as fumes
+under cementation conditions it appears to react upon a minor ratio of
+silver. While the reactions of the two above species of compounds can be
+accounted for in a general way, the problem furnished by Agricola's
+statements is by no means simple, for only two of his compounds are
+simply salt cements, the others being salt and nitre mixtures. An
+inspection of these compounds produces at once a sense of confusion.
+Salt is present in every compound, saltpetre in all but two, vitriol in
+all but three. Lewis (<i>Trait� Singulier de M�tallique</i>, Paris, 1743, <span class="smcaplower">II</span>,
+pp. 48-60), in discussing these processes, states that salt and
+saltpetre must never be used together, as he asserts that in this case
+<i>aqua regia</i> would be formed and the gold dissolved. Agricola, however,
+apparently found no such difficulty. As to the other ingredients, apart
+from nitre, salt, vitriol, and brickdust, they can have been of no use.
+Agricola himself points out that ingredients of "metallic origin"
+corrupt the gold and that brickdust and common salt are sufficient. In a
+description of this process in the <i>Probierb�chlein</i> (p. 58), no nitre
+is mentioned. This booklet does mention the recovery of the silver from
+the cement by amalgamation with mercury&mdash;the earliest mention of silver
+amalgamation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_312" id="Footnote_19_312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_312"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> While a substance which we now know to be natural zinc
+sulphate was known to Agricola (see <a href="#Footnote_11_381">note 11, p. 572</a>), it is hardly
+possible that it is referred to here. If green vitriol be dehydrated and
+powdered, it is white.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_457" id="Notes_457">[Pg 457]</a></span><a name="Footnote_20_313" id="Footnote_20_313"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_313"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> The processes involved by these "other" compounds are
+difficult to understand, because of the lack of information given as to
+the method of operation. It might be thought that these were five
+additional recipes for cementing pastes, but an inspection of their
+internal composition soon dissipates any such assumption, because, apart
+from the lack of brickdust or some other similar necessary ingredient,
+they all contain more or less sulphur. After describing a preliminary
+treatment of the bullion by cupellation, the author says: "Then the
+silver is sprinkled with two <i>unciae</i> of that powdered compound and is
+stirred. Afterward it is poured into another crucible ... and violently
+shaken. The rest is performed according to the process I have already
+explained." As he has already explained four or five parting processes,
+it is not very clear to which one this refers. In fact, the whole of
+this discussion reads as if he were reporting hearsay, for it lacks in
+every respect the infinite detail of his usual descriptions. In any
+event, if the powder was introduced into the molten bullion, the effect
+would be to form some silver sulphides in a regulus of different
+composition depending upon the varied ingredients of different
+compounds. The enriched bullion was settled out in a "lump" and treated
+"as I have explained," which is not clear.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_458" id="Notes_458">[Pg 458]</a></span><a name="Footnote_21_314" id="Footnote_21_314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_314"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> <span class="smcap">Historical Note on Parting Gold and Silver.</span> Although the
+earlier Classics contain innumerable references to refining gold and
+silver, there is little that is tangible in them, upon which to hinge
+the metallurgy of parting the precious metals. It appears to us,
+however, that some ability to part the metals is implied in the use of
+the touchstone, for we fail to see what use a knowledge of the ratio of
+gold and silver in bullion could have been without the power to separate
+them. The touchstone was known to the Greeks at least as early as the
+5th Century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> (see <a href="#Footnote_37_209">note 37, p. 252</a>), and a part of Theophrastus'
+statement (<span class="smcaplower">LXXVIII.</span>) on this subject bears repetition in this
+connection: "The nature of the stone which tries gold is also very
+wonderful, as it seems to have the same power as fire; which is also a
+test of that metal.... The trial by fire is by the colour and the
+quantity lost by it, but that of the stone is made only by rubbing,"
+etc. This trial by fire certainly implies a parting of the metals. It
+has been argued from the common use of <i>electrum</i>&mdash;a gold-silver
+alloy&mdash;by the Ancients, that they did not know how to part the two
+metals or they would not have wasted gold in such a manner, but it seems
+to us that the very fact that <i>electrum</i> was a positive alloy (20% gold,
+80% silver), and that it was deliberately made (Pliny <span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 23) and
+held of value for its supposed superior brilliancy to silver and the
+belief that goblets made of it detected poison, is sufficient answer to
+this.
+</p><p>
+To arrive by a process of elimination, we may say that in the Middle
+Ages, between 1100 and 1500 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>, there were known four methods of
+parting these metals: <i>a</i>, parting by solution in nitric acid; <i>b</i>,
+sulphurization of the silver in finely-divided bullion by heating it
+with sulphur, and the subsequent removal of the silver sulphide in a
+regulus by melting with copper, iron, or lead; <i>c</i>, melting with an
+excess of antimony sulphide, and the direct conversion of the silver to
+sulphide and its removal in a regulus; <i>d</i>, cementation of the
+finely-divided bullion with salt, and certain necessary collateral
+re-agents, and the separation of the silver by absorption into the
+cement as silver chloride. Inasmuch as it can be clearly established
+that mineral acids were unknown to the Ancients, we can eliminate that
+method. Further, we may say at once that there is not, so far as has yet
+been found, even a remote statement that could be applied to the
+sulphide processes. As to cementation with salt, however, we have some
+data at about the beginning of the Christian Era.
+</p><p>
+Before entering into a more detailed discussion of the history of
+various processes, it may be useful, in a word, to fix in the mind of
+the reader our view of the first authority on various processes, and his
+period.
+</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span style="position: absolute; right: 80%; text-align: right;">(1)</span> Separation by cementation with salt, Strabo (?) 63 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>-24
+<span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>; Pliny 23-79 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>
+</p><p>
+<span style="position: absolute; right: 80%; text-align: right;">(2)</span> Separation by sulphur, Theophilus, 1150-1200 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>
+</p><p>
+<span style="position: absolute; right: 80%; text-align: right;">(3)</span> Separation by nitric acid, Geber, prior to 14th Century.
+</p><p>
+<span style="position: absolute; right: 80%; text-align: right;">(4)</span> Separation by antimony sulphide, Basil Valentine, end 14th
+Century, or <i>Probierb�chlein</i>, beginning 15th Century.
+</p><p>
+<span style="position: absolute; right: 80%; text-align: right;">(5)</span> Separation by antimony sulphide and copper, or sulphur and
+copper, <i>Probierb�chlein</i>, beginning 15th Century.
+</p><p>
+<span style="position: absolute; right: 80%; text-align: right;">(6)</span> Separation by cementation with saltpetre, Agricola, 1556.
+</p><p>
+<span style="position: absolute; right: 80%; text-align: right;">(7)</span> Separation by sulphur and iron, Schl�ter, 1738.
+</p><p>
+<span style="position: absolute; right: 80%; text-align: right;">(8)</span> Separation by sulphuric acid, D'Arcet, 1802.
+</p><p>
+<span style="position: absolute; right: 80%; text-align: right;">(9)</span> Separation by chloride gas, Thompson, 1833.
+</p><p>
+<span style="position: absolute; right: 80%; text-align: right;">(10)</span> Separation electrolytically, latter part 19th Century. </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>
+<span class="smcap">Parting by Cementation.</span> The following passage from Strabo is of prime
+interest as the first definite statement on parting of any kind (<span class="smcaplower">III</span>, 2,
+8): "That when they have melted the gold and purified it by means of a
+kind of aluminous earth, the residue left is <i>electrum</i>. This, which
+contains a mixture of silver and gold, being again subjected to the
+fire, the silver is separated and the gold left (pure); for this metal
+is easily dissipated and fat, and on this account gold is most easily
+molten by straw, the flame of which is soft, and bearing a similarity
+(to the gold) causes it easily to dissolve, whereas coal, besides
+wasting a great deal, melts it too much, by reason of its vehemence, and
+carries it off (in vapour)." This statement has provoked the liveliest
+discussion, not only on account of the metallurgical <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_459" id="Notes_459">[Pg 459]</a></span>interest and
+obscurity, but also because of differences of view as to its
+translation; we have given that of Mr. H. C. Hamilton (London, 1903). A
+review of this discussion will be found in Percy's Metallurgy of Gold
+and Silver, p. 399. That it refers to cementation at all hangs by a
+slender thread, but it seems more nearly this than anything else.
+</p><p>
+Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 25) is a little more ample: "(The gold) is heated with
+double its weight of salt and thrice its weight of <i>misy</i>, and again
+with two portions of salt and one of a stone which they call <i>schistos</i>.
+The <i>virus</i> is drawn out when these things are burnt together in an
+earthen crucible, itself remaining pure and incorrupt, the remaining ash
+being preserved in an earthen pot and mixed with water as a lotion for
+<i>lichen</i> (ring-worm) on the face." Percy (Metallurgy Silver and Gold, p.
+398) rightly considers that this undoubtedly refers to the parting of
+silver and gold by cementation with common salt. Especially as Pliny
+further on states that with regard to <i>misy</i>, "In purifying gold they
+mix it with this substance." There can be no doubt from the explanations
+of Pliny and Dioscorides that <i>misy</i> was an oxidized pyrite, mostly iron
+sulphate. Assuming the latter case, then all of the necessary elements
+of cementation, <i>i.e.</i>, vitriol, salt, and an aluminous or silicious
+element, are present.
+</p><p>
+The first entirely satisfactory evidence on parting is to be found in
+Theophilus (12th Century), and we quote the following from Hendrie's
+translation (p. 245): "Of Heating the Gold. Take gold, of whatsoever
+sort it may be, and beat it until thin leaves are made in breadth three
+fingers, and as long as you can. Then cut out pieces that are equally
+long and wide and join them together equally, and perforate through all
+with a fine cutting iron. Afterwards take two earthen pots proved in the
+fire, of such size that the gold can lie flat in them, and break a tile
+very small, or clay of the furnace burned and red, weigh it, powdered,
+into two equal parts, and add to it a third part salt for the same
+weight; which things being slightly sprinkled with urine, are mixed
+together so that they may not adhere together, but are scarcely wetted,
+and put a little of it upon a pot about the breadth of the gold, then a
+piece of the gold itself, and again the composition, and again the gold,
+which in the digestion is thus always covered, that gold may not be in
+contact with gold; and thus fill the pot to the top and cover it above
+with another pot, which you carefully lute round with clay, mixed and
+beaten, and you place it over the fire, that it may be dried. In the
+meantime compose a furnace from stones and clay, two feet in height, and
+a foot and a half in breadth, wide at the bottom, but narrow at the top,
+where there is an opening in the middle, in which project three long and
+hard stones, which may be able to sustain the flame for a long time,
+upon which you place the pots with the gold, and cover them with other
+tiles in abundance. Then supply fire and wood, and take care that a
+copious fire is not wanting for the space of a day and night. In the
+morning taking out the gold, again melt, beat and place it in the
+furnace as before. Again also, after a day and night, take it away and
+mixing a little copper with it, melt it as before, and replace it upon
+the furnace. And when you have taken it away a third time, wash and dry
+it carefully, and so weighing it, see how much is wanting, then fold it
+up and keep it."
+</p><p>
+The next mention is by Geber, of whose date and authenticity there is
+great doubt, but, in any event, the work bearing his name is generally
+considered to be prior to the 14th, although he has been placed as early
+as the 8th Century. We quote from Russell's translation, pp. 17 and 224,
+which we have checked with the Latin edition of 1542: "Sol, or gold, is
+beaten into thin plates and with them and common salt very well prepared
+lay upon lay in a vessel of calcination which set into the furnace and
+calcine well for three days until the whole is subtily calcined. Then
+take it out, grind well and wash it with vinegar, and dry it in the sun.
+Afterwards grind it well with half its weight of cleansed
+<i>sal-armoniac</i>; then set it to be dissolved until the whole be dissolved
+into most clear water." Further on: "Now we will declare the way of
+cementing. Seeing it is known to us that cement is very necessary in the
+examen of perfection, we say it is compounded of inflammable things. Of
+this <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_460" id="Notes_460">[Pg 460]</a></span>kind are, all blackening, flying, penetrating, and burned things;
+as is vitriol, <i>sal-armoniac</i>, <i>flos aeris</i> (copper oxide scales) and
+the ancient <i>fictile</i> stone (earthen pots), and a very small quantity,
+or nothing, of sulphur, and urine with like acute and penetrating
+things. All these are impasted with urine and spread upon thin plates of
+that body which you intend shall be examined by this way of probation.
+Then the said plates must be laid upon a grate of iron included in an
+earthen vessel, yet so as one touch not the other that the virtue of the
+fire may have free and equal access to them. Thus the whole must be kept
+in fire in a strong earthen vessel for the space of three days. But here
+great caution is required that the plates may be kept but not melt."
+</p><p>
+Albertus Magnus (1205-1280) <i>De Mineralibus et Rebus Metallicis</i>, Lib.
+IV, describes the process as follows:&mdash;"But when gold is to be purified
+an earthen vessel is made like a cucurbit or dish, and upon it is placed
+a similar vessel; and they are luted together with the tenacious lute
+called by alchemists the lute of wisdom. In the upper vessel there are
+numerous holes by which vapour and smoke may escape; afterwards the gold
+in the form of short thin leaves is arranged in the vessel, the leaves
+being covered consecutively with a mixture obtained by mixing together
+soot, salt, and brick dust; and the whole is strongly heated until the
+gold becomes perfectly pure and the base substances with which it was
+mixed are consumed." It will be noted that salt is the basis of all
+these cement compounds. We may also add that those of Biringuccio and
+all other writers prior to Agricola were of the same kind, our author
+being the first to mention those with nitre.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Parting with Nitric Acid.</span> The first mention of nitric acid is in
+connection with this purpose, and, therefore, the early history of this
+reagent becomes the history of the process. Mineral acids of any kind
+were unknown to the Greeks or Romans. The works of the Alchemists and
+others from the 12th to the 15th Centuries, have been well searched by
+chemical historians for indications of knowledge of the mineral acids,
+and many of such suspected indications are of very doubtful order. In
+any event, study of the Alchemists for the roots of chemistry is fraught
+with the greatest difficulty, for not only is there the large ratio of
+fraud which characterised their operations, but there is even the much
+larger field of fraud which characterised the authorship and dates of
+writing attributed to various members of the cult. The mention of
+saltpetre by Roger Bacon (1214-94), and Albertus Magnus (1205-80), have
+caused some strain to read a knowledge of mineral acids into their
+works, but with doubtful result. Further, the Monk Theophilus
+(1150-1200) is supposed to have mentioned products which would be
+mineral acids, but by the most careful scrutiny of that work we have
+found nothing to justify such an assertion, and it is of importance to
+note that as Theophilus was a most accomplished gold and silver worker,
+his failure to mention it is at least evidence that the process was not
+generally known. The transcribed manuscripts and later editions of such
+authors are often altered to bring them "up-to-date." The first mention
+is in the work attributed to Geber, as stated above, of date prior to
+the 14th Century. The following passage from his <i>De Inventione
+Veritatis</i> (Nuremberg edition, 1545, p. 182) is of interest:&mdash;"First
+take one <i>libra</i> of vitriol of Cyprus and one-half <i>libra</i> of saltpetre
+and one-quarter of alum of Jameni, extract the <i>aqua</i> with the redness
+of the alembic&mdash;for it is very solvative&mdash;and use as in the foregoing
+chapters. This can be made acute if in it you dissolve a quarter of
+sal-ammoniac, which dissolves gold, sulphur, and silver." Distilling
+vitriol, saltpetre and alum would produce nitric acid. The addition of
+sal-ammoniac would make <i>aqua regia</i>; Geber used this solvent
+water&mdash;probably without being made "more acute"&mdash;to dissolve silver, and
+he crystallized out silver nitrate. It <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_461" id="Notes_461">[Pg 461]</a></span>would not be surprising to find
+all the Alchemists subsequent to Geber mentioning acids. It will thus be
+seen that even the approximate time at which the mineral-acids were
+first made cannot be determined, but it was sometime previous to the
+15th Century, probably not earlier than the 12th Century. Beckmann
+(Hist. of Inventions II, p. 508) states that it appears to have been an
+old tradition that acid for separating the precious metals was first
+used at Venice by some Germans; that they chiefly separated the gold
+from Spanish silver and by this means acquired great riches. Beckmann
+considers that the first specific description of the process seems to be
+in the work of William Budaeus (<i>De Asse</i>, 1516, <span class="smcaplower">III</span>, p. 101), who
+speaks of it as new at this time. He describes the operation of one, Le
+Conte, at Paris, who also acquired a fortune through the method.
+Beckmann and others have, however, entirely overlooked the early
+<i>Probierb�chlein</i>. If our conclusions are correct that the first of
+these began to appear at about 1510, then they give the first
+description of inquartation. This book (see <a href="#APPENDIX_B">appendix</a>) is made up of
+recipes, like a cook-book, and four or five different recipes are given
+for this purpose; of these we give one, which sufficiently indicates a
+knowledge of the art (p. 39): "If you would part them do it this way:
+Beat the silver which you suppose to contain gold, as thin as possible;
+cut it in small pieces and place it in 'strong' water (<i>starkwasser</i>).
+Put it on a mild fire till it becomes warm and throws up blisters or
+bubbles. Then take it and pour off the water into a copper-bowl; let it
+stand and cool. Then the silver settles itself round the copper bowl;
+let the silver dry in the copper bowl, then pour the water off and melt
+the silver in a crucible. Then take the gold also out of the glass
+<i>kolken</i> and melt it together." Biringuccio (1540, Book VI.) describes
+the method, but with much less detail than Agricola. He made his acid
+from alum and saltpetre and calls it <i>lacque forti</i>.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Parting with Sulphur.</span> This process first appears in Theophilus
+(1150-1200), and in form is somewhat different from that mentioned by
+Agricola. We quote from Hendrie's Translation, p. 317, "How gold is
+separated from silver. When you have scraped the gold from silver, place
+this scraping in a small cup in which gold or silver is accustomed to be
+melted, and press a small linen cloth upon it, that nothing may by
+chance be abstracted from it by the wind of the bellows, and placing it
+before the furnace, melt it; and directly lay fragments of sulphur in
+it, according to the quantity of the scraping, and carefully stir it
+with a thin piece of charcoal until its fumes cease; and immediately
+pour it into an iron mould. Then gently beat it upon the anvil lest by
+chance some of that black may fly from it which the sulphur has burnt,
+because it is itself silver. For the sulphur consumes nothing of the
+gold, but the silver only, which it thus separates from the gold, and
+which you will carefully keep. Again melt this gold in the same small
+cup as before, and add sulphur. This being stirred and poured out, break
+what has become black and keep it, and do thus until the gold appear
+pure. Then gather together all that black, which you have carefully
+kept, upon the cup made from the bone and ash, and add lead, and so burn
+it that you may recover the silver. But if you wish to keep it for the
+service of niello, before you burn it add to it copper and lead,
+according to the measure mentioned above, and mix with sulphur." This
+process appears in the <i>Probierb�chlein</i> in many forms, different
+recipes containing other ingredients besides sulphur, such as salt,
+saltpetre, sal-ammoniac, and other things more or less effective. In
+fact, a series of hybrid methods between absolute melting with sulphur
+and cementation with salt, were in use, much like those mentioned by
+Agricola on p. <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Parting with Antimony Sulphide.</span> The first mention of this process lies
+either in Basil Valentine's "Triumphant Chariot of Antimony" or in the
+first <i>Probierb�chlein</i>. The date to be assigned to the former is a
+matter of great doubt. It was probably written about the end of the 15th
+Century, but apparently published considerably later. The date of the
+<i>Probierb�chlein</i> we have referred to above. The statement in the
+"Triumphal Chariot" is as follows (Waite's Translation, p. 117-118):
+"The elixir prepared in this way has the same power of penetrating and
+pervading the body with its purifying properties that antimony has of
+penetrating and purifying gold.... This much, however, I have proved
+beyond a possibility of doubt, that antimony not only purifies gold and
+frees it <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_462" id="Notes_462">[Pg 462]</a></span>from foreign matter, but it also ameliorates all other metals,
+but it does the same for animal bodies." There are most specific
+descriptions of this process in the other works attributed to Valentine,
+but their authenticity is so very doubtful that we do not quote. The
+<i>Probierb�chlein</i> gives several recipes for this process, all to the
+same metallurgical effect, of which we quote two: "How to separate
+silver from gold. Take 1 part of golden silver, 1 part of <i>spiesglass</i>,
+1 part copper, 1 part lead; melt them together in a crucible. When
+melted pour into the crucible pounded sulphur and directly you have
+poured it in cover it up with soft lime so that the fumes cannot escape,
+and let it get cold and you will find your gold in a button. Put that
+same in a pot and blow on it." "How to part gold and silver by melting
+or fire. Take as much gold-silver as you please and granulate it; take 1
+<i>mark</i> of these grains, 1 <i>mark</i> of powder; put them together in a
+crucible. Cover it with a small cover, put it in the fire, and let it
+slowly heat; blow on it gently until it melts; stir it all well together
+with a stick, pour it out into a mould, strike the mould gently with a
+knife so that the button may settle better, let it cool, then turn the
+mould over, strike off the button and twice as much <i>spiesglas</i> as the
+button weighs, put them in a crucible, blow on it till it melts, then
+pour it again into a mould and break away the button as at first. If you
+want the gold to be good always add to the button twice as much
+<i>spiesglass</i>. It is usually good gold in three meltings. Afterward take
+the button, place it on a cupel, blow on it till it melts. And if it
+should happen that the gold is covered with a membrane, then add a very
+little lead, then it shines (<i>plickt</i>) and becomes clearer." Biringuccio
+(1540) also gives a fairly clear exposition of this method. All the old
+refiners varied the process by using mixtures of salt, antimony
+sulphide, and sulphur, in different proportions, with and without lead
+or copper; the net effect was the same. Later than Agricola these
+methods of parting bullion by converting the silver into a sulphide and
+carrying it off in a regulus took other forms. For instance, Schl�ter
+(<i>H�tte-Werken</i>, Braunschweig, 1738) describes a method by which, after
+the granulated bullion had been sulphurized by cementation with sulphur
+in pots, it was melted with metallic iron. Lampadius (<i>Grundriss Einer
+Allgemeinen H�ttenkunde</i>, G�ttingen, 1827) describes a treatment of the
+bullion, sulphurized as above, with litharge, thus creating a
+lead-silver regulus and a lead-silver-gold bullion which had to be
+repeatedly put through the same cycle. The principal object of these
+processes was to reduce silver bullion running low in gold to a ratio
+acceptable for nitric acid treatment.
+</p><p>
+Before closing the note on the separation of gold and silver, we may add
+that with regard to the three processes largely used to-day, the
+separation by solution of the silver from the bullion by concentrated
+sulphuric acid where silver sulphate is formed, was first described by
+D'Arcet, Paris, in 1802; the separation by introducing chlorine gas into
+the molten bullion and thus forming silver chlorides was first described
+by Lewis Thompson in a communication to the Society of Arts, 1833, and
+was first applied on a large scale by F. B. Miller at the Sydney Mint in
+1867-70; we do not propose to enter into the discussion as to who is the
+inventor of electrolytic separation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_315" id="Footnote_22_315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_315"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> There were three methods of gilding practised in the
+Middle Ages&mdash;the first by hammering on gold leaf; the second by laying a
+thin plate of gold on a thicker plate of silver, expanding both
+together, and fabricating the articles out of the sheets thus prepared;
+and the third by coating over the article with gold amalgam, and
+subsequently driving off the mercury by heat. Copper and iron objects
+were silver-plated by immersing them in molten silver after coating with
+sal-ammoniac or borax. Tinning was done in the same way.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_316" id="Footnote_23_316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_316"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> See <a href="#Footnote_12_225">note 12, p. 297</a>, for complete discussion of
+amalgamation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_317" id="Footnote_24_317"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_317"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> These nine methods of separating gold from copper are
+based fundamentally upon the sulphur introduced in each case, whereby
+the copper is converted into sulphides and separated off as a matte. The
+various methods are much befogged by the introduction of extraneous
+ingredients, some of which serve as fluxes, while others would provide
+metallics in the shape of lead or antimony for collection of the gold,
+but others would be of no effect, except to increase the matte or slag.
+Inspection will show that the amount of sulphur introduced in many
+instances is in so large ratio that unless a good deal of volatilization
+took place there would be insufficient metallics to collect the gold, if
+it happened to be in small quantities. In a general way the auriferous
+button is gradually impoverished in copper <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_463" id="Notes_463">[Pg 463]</a></span>until it is fit for
+cupellation with lead, except in one case where the final stage is
+accomplished by amalgamation. The lore of the old refiners was much
+after the order of that of modern cooks&mdash;they treasured and handed down
+various efficacious recipes, and of those given here most can be found
+in identical terms in the <i>Probierb�chlein</i>, some editions of which, as
+mentioned before, were possibly fifty years before <i>De Re Metallica</i>.
+This knowledge, no doubt, accumulated over long experience; but, so far
+as we are aware, there is no description of sulphurizing copper for this
+purpose prior to the publication mentioned.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_318" id="Footnote_25_318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_318"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> <i>Sal artificiosus</i>. The compound given under this name is
+of quite different ingredients from the stock fluxes given in <a href="#BOOK_VII">Book VII</a>
+under the same term. The method of preparation, no doubt, dehydrated
+this one; it would, however, be quite effective for its purpose of
+sulphurizing the copper. There is a compound given in the
+<i>Probierb�chlein</i> identical with this, and it was probably Agricola's
+source of information.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_464" id="Notes_464">[Pg 464]</a></span><a name="Footnote_26_319" id="Footnote_26_319"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_319"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Throughout the book the cupellation furnace is styled the
+<i>secunda fornax</i> (Glossary, <i>Treibeherd</i>). Except in one or two cases,
+where there is some doubt as to whether the author may not refer to the
+second variety of blast furnace, we have used "cupellation furnace."
+Agricola's description of the actual operation of the old German
+cupellation is less detailed than that of such authors as Schl�ter
+(<i>H�tte-Werken</i>, Braunschweig, 1738) or Winkler (<i>Beschreibung der
+Freyberger Schmelz Huttenprozesse</i>, Freyberg, 1837). The operation falls
+into four periods. In the first period, or a short time after melting,
+the first scum&mdash;the <i>abzug</i>&mdash;arises. This material contains most of the
+copper, iron, zinc, or sulphur impurities in the lead. In the second
+period, at a higher temperature, and with the blast turned on, a second
+scum <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_465" id="Notes_465">[Pg 465]</a></span>arises&mdash;the <i>abstrich</i>. This material contains most of the antimony
+and arsenical impurities. In the third stage the litharge comes over. At
+the end of this stage the silver brightens&mdash;"<i>blicken</i>"&mdash;due to
+insufficient litharge to cover the entire surface. Winkler gives the
+following average proportion of the various products from a charge of
+100 <i>centners</i>:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Abzug</i></td><td align="center">2</td><td align="center"><i>centners</i>,</td><td align="center">containing</td><td align="center">64%</td><td align="center">lead</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Abstrich</i></td><td align="center">5<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">73%</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Herdtplei</i></td><td align="center">21<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">60%</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Impure litharge</td><td align="center">18</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">85%</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Litharge</td><td align="center">66</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">89%</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Total</td><td class="bt" align="center">113</td><td align="center"><i>centners</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+He estimates the lead loss at from 8% to 15%, and gives the average
+silver contents of <i>blicksilber</i> as about 90%. Many analyses of the
+various products may be found in Percy (Metallurgy of Lead, pp.
+198-201), Schnabel and Lewis (Metallurgy, Vol. <span class="smcaplower">I</span>, p. 581); but as they
+must vary with every charge, a repetition of them here is of little
+purpose.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Historical Note on Cupellation.</span> The cupellation process is of great
+antiquity, and the separation of silver from lead in this manner very
+probably antedates the separation of gold and silver. We can be certain
+that the process has been used continuously for at least 2,300 years,
+and was only supplanted in part by Pattinson's crystallization process
+in 1833, and further invaded by Parks' zinc method in 1850, and during
+the last fifteen years further supplanted in some works by electrolytic
+methods. However, it yet survives as an important process. It seems to
+us that there is no explanation possible of the recovery of the large
+amounts of silver possessed from the earliest times, without assuming
+reduction of that metal with lead, and this necessitates cupellation. If
+this be the case, then cupellation was practised in 2500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> The
+subject has been further discussed on p. <a href="#TN465">389</a>. The first direct evidence
+of the process, however, is from the remains at Mt. Laurion (<a href="#Footnote_6_77">note 6, p.
+27</a>), where the period of greatest activity was at 500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, and it was
+probably in use long before that time. Of literary evidences, there are
+the many metaphorical references to "fining silver" and "separating
+dross" in the Bible, such as Job (<span class="smcaplower">XXVIII</span>, 1), Psalms (<span class="smcaplower">XII</span>, 6, <span class="smcaplower">LXVI</span>, 10),
+Proverbs (<span class="smcaplower">XVII</span>, 3). The most certain, however, is Jeremiah (<span class="smcaplower">VI</span>, 28-30):
+"They are all brass [<i>sic</i>] and iron; they are corrupters. The bellows
+are burned, the lead is consumed in the fire, the founder melteth in
+vain; for the wicked are not plucked away. Reprobate silver shall men
+call them." Jeremiah lived about 600 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> His contemporary Ezekiel
+(<span class="smcaplower">XXII</span>, 18) also makes remark: "All they are brass and tin and iron and
+lead in the midst of the furnace; they are even the dross of the
+silver." Among Greek authors Theognis (6th century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) and Hippocrates
+(5th century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) are often cited as mentioning the refining of gold
+with lead, but we do not believe their statements will stand this
+construction without strain. Aristotle (Problems <span class="smcaplower">XXIV</span>, 9) makes the
+following remark, which has been construed not only as cupellation, but
+also as the refining of silver in "tests." "What is the reason that
+boiling water does not leap out of the vessel ... silver also does this
+when it is purified. Hence those whose office it is in the silversmiths'
+shops to purify silver, derive gain by appropriation to themselves of
+the sweepings of silver which leap out of the melting-pot."
+</p><p>
+The quotation of Diodorus Siculus from Agatharchides (2nd century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>)
+on gold refining with lead and salt in Egypt we give in <a href="#Footnote_8_223">note 8, p. 279</a>.
+The methods quoted by Strabo (63 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>-24 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>) from Polybius (204-125
+<span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) for treating silver, which appear to involve cupellation, are
+given in <a href="#Notes_281">note 8, p. 281</a>. It is not, however, until the beginning of the
+Christian era that we get definite literary information, especially with
+regard to litharge, in Dioscorides and Pliny. The former describes many
+substances under the terms <i>scoria</i>, <i>molybdaena</i>, <i>scoria argyros</i> and
+<i>lithargyros</i>, which are all varieties of litharge. Under the latter
+term he says (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>, 62): "One kind is produced from a lead sand
+(concentrates?), which has been heated in the furnaces until completely
+fused; another (is made) out of silver; another from lead. The best is
+<span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_466" id="Notes_466">[Pg 466]</a></span>from Attica, the second (best) from Spain; after that the kinds made in
+Puteoli, in Campania, and at Baia in Sicily, for in these places it is
+mostly produced by burning lead plates. The best of all is that which is
+a bright golden colour, called <i>chrysitis</i>, that from Sicily (is called)
+<i>argyritis</i>, that made from silver is called <i>lauritis</i>." Pliny refers
+in several passages to litharge (<i>spuma argenti</i>) and to what is
+evidently cupellation, (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 31): "And this the same agency of fire
+separates part into lead, which floats on the silver like oil on water"
+(<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 47). "The metal which flows liquid at the first melting is
+called <i>stannum</i>, the second melting is silver; that which remains in
+the furnace is <i>galena</i>, which is added to a third part of the ore. This
+being again melted, produced lead with a deduction of two-ninths."
+Assuming <i>stannum</i> to be silver-lead alloy, and <i>galena</i> to be
+<i>molybdaena</i>, and therefore litharge, this becomes a fairly clear
+statement of cupellation (see <a href="#Notes_392">note 23, p. 392</a>). He further states
+(<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 35): "There is made in the same mines what is called <i>spuma
+argenti</i> (litharge). There are three varieties of it; the best, known as
+<i>chrysitis</i>; the second best, which is called <i>argyritis</i>; and a third
+kind, which is called <i>molybditis</i>. And generally all these colours are
+to be found in the same tubes (see p. <a href="#TN466">480</a>). The most approved kind is
+that of Attica; the next, that which comes from Spain. <i>Chrysitis</i> is
+the product from the ore itself; <i>argyritis</i> is made from the silver,
+and <i>molybditis</i> is the result of smelting of lead, which is done at
+Puteoli, and from this has its name. All three are made as the material
+when smelted flows from an upper crucible into a lower one. From this
+last it is raised with an iron bar, and is then twirled round in the
+flames in order to make it less heavy (made in tubes). Thus, as may be
+easily perceived from the name, it is in reality the <i>spuma</i> of a
+boiling substance&mdash;of the future metal, in fact. It differs from slag in
+the same way that the scum of a liquid differs from the lees, the one
+being purged from the material while purifying itself, the other an
+excretion of the metal when purified."
+</p><p>
+The works of either Theophilus (1150-1200 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>) or Geber (prior to the
+14th century) are the first where adequate description of the cupel
+itself can be found. The uncertainty of dates renders it difficult to
+say which is earliest. Theophilus (Hendrie's Trans., p. 317) says: "How
+gold is separated from copper: But if at any time you have broken copper
+or silver-gilt vessels, or any other work, you can in this manner
+separate the gold. Take the bones of whatever animal you please, which
+(bones) you may have found in the street, and burn them, being cold,
+grind them finely, and mix with them a third part of beechwood ashes,
+and make cups as we have mentioned above in the purification of silver;
+you will dry these at the fire or in the sun. Then you carefully scrape
+the gold from the copper, and you will fold this scraping in lead beaten
+thin, and one of these cups being placed in the embers before the
+furnace, and now become warm, you place in this fold of lead with the
+scraping, and coals being heaped upon it you will blow it. And when it
+has become melted, in the same manner as silver is accustomed to be
+purified, sometimes by removing the embers and by adding lead, sometimes
+by re-cooking and warily blowing, you burn it until, the copper being
+entirely absorbed, the gold may appear pure."
+</p><p>
+We quote Geber from the Nuremberg edition of 1545, p. 152: "Now we
+describe the method of this. Take sifted ashes or <i>calx</i>, or the powder
+of the burned bones of animals, or all of them mixed, or some of them;
+moisten with water, and press it with your hand to make the mixture firm
+and solid, and in the middle of this bed make a round solid crucible and
+sprinkle a quantity of crushed glass. Then permit it to dry. When it is
+dry, place into the crucible that which we have mentioned which you
+intend to test. On it kindle a strong fire, and blow upon the surface of
+the body that is being tested until it melts, which, when melted, piece
+after piece of lead is thrown upon it, and blow over it a strong flame.
+When you see it agitated and moved with strong shaking motion it is not
+pure. Then wait until all of the lead is exhaled. If it vanishes and
+does not cease its motion it is not purified. Then again throw lead and
+blow again until the lead separates. If it does not become quiet again,
+throw in lead and blow on it until it is quiet and you see it bright and
+clear on the surface."
+</p><p>
+Cupellation is mentioned by most of the alchemists, but as a
+metallurgical operation on a large scale the first description is by
+Biringuccio in 1540.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_467" id="Notes_467">[Pg 467]</a></span><a name="Footnote_27_320" id="Footnote_27_320"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_320"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> In Agricola's text this is "first,"&mdash;obviously an error.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_472" id="Notes_472">[Pg 472]</a></span><a name="Footnote_28_321" id="Footnote_28_321"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_321"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> The Roman <i>sextarius</i> was about a pint.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_322" id="Footnote_29_322"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_322"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> This sentence continues, <i>Ipsa vero media pars praeterea
+digito</i>, to which we are unable to attribute any meaning.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_323" id="Footnote_30_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_323"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> <i>Thus</i>, or <i>tus</i>&mdash;"incense."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_324" id="Footnote_31_324"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_324"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> One <i>centumpondium</i>, Roman, equals about 70.6 lbs.
+avoirdupois; one <i>centner</i>, old German, equals about 114.2 lbs.
+avoirdupois. Therefore, if German weights are meant, the maximum charge
+would be about 5.7 short tons; if Roman weights, about 3.5 short tons.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_473" id="Notes_473">[Pg 473]</a></span><a name="Footnote_32_325" id="Footnote_32_325"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_325"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> See description, p. <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_326" id="Footnote_33_326"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_326"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>Stannum</i>, as a term for lead-silver alloys, is a term
+which Agricola (<i>De Natura Fossilium</i>, pp. 341-3) adopted from his views
+of Pliny. In the <i>Interpretatio</i> and the Glossary he gives the German
+equivalent as <i>werk</i>, which would sufficiently identify his meaning were
+it not obvious from the context. There can be little doubt that Pliny
+uses the term for lead alloys, but it had come into general use for tin
+before Agricola's time. The Roman term was <i>plumbum candidum</i>, and as a
+result of Agricola's insistence on using it and <i>stannum</i> in what he
+conceived was their original sense, he managed to give considerable
+confusion to mineralogic literature for a century or two. The passages
+from Pliny, upon which he bases his use, are (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 47): "The metal
+which flows liquid at the first melting in the furnace is called
+<i>stannum</i>, the second melting is silver," etc. (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 48): "When copper
+vessels are coated with <i>stannum</i> they produce a less disagreeable
+flavour, and it prevents verdigris. It is also remarkable that the
+weight is not increased.... At the present day a counterfeit <i>stannum</i>
+is made by adding one-third of white copper to tin. It is also made in
+another way, by mixing together equal parts of tin and lead; this last
+is called by some <i>argentarium</i>.... There is also a composition called
+<i>tertiarium</i>, a mixture of two parts of lead and one of tin. Its price
+is twenty <i>denarii</i> per pound, and it is used for soldering pipes.
+Persons still more dishonest mix together equal parts of <i>tertiarium</i>
+and tin, and calling the compound <i>argentarium</i>, when it is melted coat
+articles with it." Although this last passage probably indicates that
+<i>stannum</i> was a tin compound, yet it is not inconsistent with the view
+that the genuine <i>stannum</i> was silver-lead, and that the counterfeits
+were made as stated by Pliny. At what period the term <i>stannum</i> was
+adopted for tin is uncertain. As shown by Beckmann (Hist. of Inventions
+<span class="smcaplower">II</span>, p. 225), it is used as early as the 6th century in occasions where
+tin was undoubtedly meant. We may point out that this term appears
+continuously in the official documents relating to Cornish tin mining,
+beginning with the report of William de Wrotham in 1198.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_475" id="Notes_475">[Pg 475]</a></span><a name="Footnote_34_327" id="Footnote_34_327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_327"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> The Latin term for litharge is <i>spuma argenti</i>, spume of
+silver.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_328" id="Footnote_35_328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_328"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Pliny, <span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 35. This quotation is given in full in the
+<a href="#Notes_466">footnote p. 466</a>. Agricola illustrates these "tubes" of litharge on p.
+<a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_329" id="Footnote_36_329"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_329"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Assuming Roman weights, three <i>unciae</i> and three
+<i>drachmae</i> per <i>centumpondium</i> would be about 82 ozs., and the second
+case would equal about 85 ozs. per short ton.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_330" id="Footnote_37_330"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_330"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Agricola uses throughout <i>De Re Metallica</i> the term
+<i>molybdaena</i> for this substance. <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_476" id="Notes_476">[Pg 476]</a></span>It is obvious from the context that he
+means saturated furnace bottoms&mdash;the <i>herdpley</i> of the old German
+metallurgists&mdash;and, in fact, he himself gives this equivalent in the
+<i>Interpretatio</i>, and describes it in great detail in <i>De Natura
+Fossilium</i> (p. 353). The derivatives coined one time and another from
+the Greek <i>molybdos</i> for lead, and their applications, have resulted in
+a stream of wasted ink, to which we also must contribute. Agricola chose
+the word <i>molybdaena</i> in the sense here used from his interpretation of
+Pliny. The statements in Pliny are a hopeless confusion of <i>molybdaena</i>
+and <i>galena</i>. He says (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 35): "There are three varieties of it
+(litharge)&mdash;the best-known is <i>chrysitis</i>; the second best is called
+<i>argyritis</i>; and a third kind is called <i>molybditis</i>.... <i>Molybditis</i> is
+the result of the smelting of lead.... Some people make two kinds of
+litharge, which they call <i>scirerytis</i> and <i>peumene</i>; and a third
+variety being <i>molybdaena</i>, will be mentioned with lead." (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 53):
+"<i>Molybdaena</i>, which in another place I have called <i>galena</i>, is an ore
+of mixed silver <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_477" id="Notes_477">[Pg 477]</a></span>and lead. It is considered better in quality the nearer
+it approaches to a golden colour and the less lead there is in it; it is
+also friable and moderately heavy. When it is boiled with oil it becomes
+liver-coloured, adheres to the gold and silver furnaces, and in this
+state it is called <i>metallica</i>." From these two passages it would seem
+that <i>molybdaena</i>, a variety of litharge, might quite well be
+hearth-lead. Further (in <span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>, 47), he says: "The metal which flows
+liquid at the first melting in the furnace is called <i>stannum</i>, at the
+second melting is silver, that which remains in the furnace is
+<i>galena</i>." If we still maintain that <i>molybdaena</i> is hearth-lead, and
+<i>galena</i> is its equivalent, then this passage becomes clear enough, the
+second melting being cupellation. The difficulty with Pliny, however,
+arises from the passage (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 31), where, speaking of silver ore, he
+says: "It is impossible to melt it except with lead ore, called
+<i>galena</i>, which is generally found next to silver veins." Agricola
+(<i>Bermannus</i>, p. 427, &amp;c.), devotes a great deal of inconclusive
+discussion to an attempt to reconcile this conflict of Pliny, and also
+that of Dioscorides. The probable explanation of this conflict arises in
+the resemblance of cupellation furnace bottoms to lead carbonates, and
+the native <i>molybdaena</i> of Dioscorides; and some of those referred to by
+Pliny may be this sort of lead ores. In fact, in one or two places in
+<a href="#BOOK_IX">Book IX</a>, Agricola appears to use the term in this sense himself. After
+Agricola's time the term <i>molybdaenum</i> was applied to substances
+resembling lead, such as graphite, and what we now know as <i>molybdenite</i>
+(<i>MoS<sub>2</sub></i>). Some time in the latter part of the 18th century, an
+element being separated from the latter, it was dubbed <i>molybdenum</i>, and
+confusion was five times confounded.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_480" id="Notes_480">[Pg 480]</a></span><a name="Footnote_38_331" id="Footnote_38_331"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_331"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Agricola here refers to the German word used in this
+connection, <i>i.e.</i>, <i>hundt</i>, a dog.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_483" id="Notes_483">[Pg 483]</a></span><a name="Footnote_39_332" id="Footnote_39_332"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_332"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> If Agricola means the German <i>centner</i>, this charge would
+be from about 4.6 to 5.7 short tons. If he is using Roman weights, it
+would be from about 3 to 3.7 short tons.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_484" id="Notes_484">[Pg 484]</a></span><a name="Footnote_40_333" id="Footnote_40_333"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_333"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> The refining of silver in "tests" (Latin <i>testa</i>) is
+merely a second cupellation, with greater care and under stronger blast.
+Stirring the mass with an iron rod serves to raise the impurities which
+either volatilize as litharge or, floating to the edges, are absorbed
+into the "test." The capacity of the tests, from 15 <i>librae</i> to 50
+<i>librae</i>, would be from about 155 to 515 ozs. Troy.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_487" id="Notes_487">[Pg 487]</a></span><a name="Footnote_41_334" id="Footnote_41_334"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_334"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> A <i>drachma</i> of impurities in a <i>bes</i>, would be one part in
+64, or 984.4 fine. A loss of a <i>sicilicus</i> of silver to the <i>bes</i>, would
+be one part in 32, or about 3.1%; three <i>drachmae</i> would equal 4.7%, and
+half an <i>uncia</i> 6.2%, or would indicate that the original bullion had a
+fineness in the various cases of about 950, 933, and 912.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_489" id="Notes_489">[Pg 489]</a></span><a name="Footnote_42_335" id="Footnote_42_335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_335"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> <i>Praefectus Regis</i>.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491"></a>[Pg 491]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="BOOK_XI" id="BOOK_XI"></a>BOOK XI.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="dropcap"><img src="images/capd.png" alt="D" /></div>
+<p style="text-indent:-1em;">
+ifferent methods of parting gold from silver, and, on the other hand,
+silver from gold, were discussed in the last book; also the separation
+of copper from the latter, and further, of lead from gold as well as
+from silver; and, lastly, the methods for refining the two precious
+metals. Now I will speak of the methods by which silver must be
+separated from copper, and likewise from iron.<a name="FNanchor_1_336" id="FNanchor_1_336"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_336" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493"></a><a href="images/fig493.jpg"><img src="images/fig493thumb.jpg" alt="Building Plan for Refinery" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">Six long walls: A&mdash;The
+first. B&mdash;The first part of the second. C&mdash;The further part of the
+second. D&mdash;The third. E&mdash;The fourth. F&mdash;The fifth. G&mdash;The sixth.
+Fourteen transverse walls: H&mdash;The first. I&mdash;The second. K&mdash;The third.
+L&mdash;The fourth. M&mdash;The fifth. N&mdash;The sixth. O&mdash;The seventh. P&mdash;The
+eighth. Q&mdash;The ninth. R&mdash;The tenth. S&mdash;The eleventh. T&mdash;The twelfth.
+V&mdash;The thirteenth. X&mdash;The fourteenth.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 493]</span></span>
+The <i>officina</i>, or the building necessary for the purposes and use of
+those who separate silver from copper, is constructed in this manner.
+First, four long walls are built, of which the first, which is parallel
+with the bank of a stream, and the second, are both two hundred and
+sixty-four feet long. The second, however, stops at one hundred and
+fifty-one feet, and after, as it were, a break for a length of
+twenty-four feet, it continues again until it is of a length equal to
+the first wall. The third wall is one hundred and twenty feet long,
+starting at a point opposite the sixty-seventh foot of the other walls,
+and reaching to their one hundred and eighty-sixth foot. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492"></a>[Pg 492]</span>The fourth
+wall is one hundred and fifty-one feet long. The height of each of these
+walls, and likewise of the other two and of the transverse walls, of
+which I will speak later on, is ten feet, and the thickness two feet and
+as many palms. The second long wall only is built fifteen feet high,
+because of the furnaces which must be built against it. The first long
+wall is distant fifteen feet from the second, and the third is distant
+the same number of feet from the fourth, but the second is distant
+thirty-nine feet from the third. Then transverse walls are built, the
+first of which leads from the beginning of the first long wall to the
+beginning of the second long wall; and the second transverse wall from
+the beginning of the second long wall to the beginning of the fourth
+long wall, for the third long wall does not reach so far. Then from the
+beginning of the third long wall are built two walls&mdash;the one to the
+sixty-seventh foot of the second long wall, the other to the same point
+in the fourth long wall. The fifth transverse wall is built at a
+distance of ten feet from the fourth transverse wall toward the second
+transverse wall; <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494"></a>[Pg 494]</span>it is twenty feet long, and starts from the fourth
+long wall. The sixth transverse wall is built also from the fourth long
+wall, at a point distant thirty feet from the fourth transverse wall,
+and it extends as far as the back of the third long wall. The seventh
+transverse wall is constructed from the second long wall, where this
+first leaves off, to the third long wall; and from the back of the third
+long wall the eighth transverse wall is built, extending to the end of
+the fourth long wall. Then the fifth long wall is built from the seventh
+transverse wall, starting at a point nineteen feet from the second long
+wall; it is one hundred and nine feet in length; and at a point
+twenty-four feet along it, the ninth transverse wall is carried to the
+third end of the second long wall, where that begins again. The tenth
+transverse wall is built from the end of the fifth long wall, and leads
+to the further end of the second long wall; and from there the eleventh
+transverse wall leads to the further end of the first long wall. Behind
+the fifth long wall, and five feet toward the third long wall, the sixth
+long wall is built, leading from the seventh transverse wall; its length
+is thirty-five feet, and from its further end the twelfth transverse
+wall is built to the third long wall, and from it the thirteenth
+transverse wall is built to the fifth long wall. The fourteenth
+transverse wall divides into equal parts the space which lies between
+the seventh transverse wall and the twelfth.</p>
+
+<p>The length, height, breadth, and position of the walls are as above.
+Their archways, doors, and openings are made at the same time that the
+walls are built. The size of these and the way they are made will be
+much better understood hereafter. I will now speak of the furnace hoods
+and of the roofs. The first side<a name="FNanchor_2_337" id="FNanchor_2_337"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_337" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> of the hood stands on the second
+long wall, and is similar in every respect to those whose structure I
+explained in <a href="#BOOK_IX">Book IX</a>, when I described the works in whose furnaces are
+smelted the ores of gold, silver, and copper. From this side of the hood
+a roof, which consists of burnt tiles, extends to the first long wall;
+and this part of the building contains the bellows, the machinery for
+compressing them, and the instruments for inflating them. In the middle
+space, which is situated between the second and third transverse walls,
+an upright post eight feet high and two feet thick <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495"></a>[Pg 495]</span>and wide, is erected
+on a rock foundation, and is distant thirteen feet from the second long
+wall. On that upright post, and in the second transverse wall, which has
+at that point a square hole two feet high and wide, is placed a beam
+thirty-four feet and a palm long. Another beam, of the same length,
+width, and thickness, is fixed on the same upright post and in the third
+transverse wall. The heads of those two beams, where they meet, are
+joined together with iron staples. In a similar manner another post is
+erected, at a distance of ten feet from the first upright post in the
+direction of the fourth wall, and two beams are laid upon it and into
+the same walls in a similar way to those I have just now described. On
+these two beams and on the fourth long wall are fixed seventeen
+cross-beams, forty-three feet and three palms long, a foot wide, and
+three palms thick; the first of these is laid upon the second transverse
+wall, the last lies along the third and fourth transverse walls; the
+rest are set in the space between them. These cross-beams are three feet
+apart one from the other.</p>
+
+<p>In the ends of these cross-beams, facing the second long wall, are
+mortised the ends of the same number of rafters reaching to those
+timbers which stand upright on the second long wall, and in this manner
+is made the inclined side of the hood in a similar way to the one
+described in <a href="#BOOK_IX">Book IX</a>. To prevent this from falling toward the vertical
+wall of the hood, there are iron rods securing it, but only a few,
+because the four brick chimneys which have to be built in that space
+partly support it. Twelve feet back are likewise mortised into the
+cross-beams, which lie upon the two longitudinal beams and the fourth
+long wall, the lower ends of as many rafters, whose upper ends are
+mortised into the upper ends of an equal number of similar rafters,
+whose lower ends are mortised to the ends of the beams at the fourth
+long wall. From the first set of rafters<a name="FNanchor_4_338" id="FNanchor_4_338"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_338" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> to the second set of rafters
+is a distance of twelve feet, in order that a gutter may be well placed
+in the middle space. Between these two are again erected two sets of
+rafters, the lower ends of which are likewise mortised into the beams,
+which lie on the two longitudinal beams and the fourth long wall, and
+are interdistant a cubit. The upper ends of the ones fifteen feet long
+rest on the backs of the rafters of the first set; the ends of the
+others, which are eighteen feet long, rest on the backs of the rafters
+of the second set, which are longer; in this manner, in the middle of
+the rafters, is a sub-structure. Upon each alternate cross-beam which is
+placed upon the two longitudinal beams and the fourth long wall is
+erected an upright post, and that it may be sufficiently firm it is
+strengthened by means of a slanting timber. Upon these posts is laid a
+long beam, upon which rests one set of middle rafters. In a similar
+manner the other set of middle rafters rests on a long beam which is
+placed upon other posts. Besides this, two feet above every cross-beam,
+which is placed on the two longitudinal beams and the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496"></a>[Pg 496]</span>fourth long wall,
+is placed a tie-beam which reaches from the first set of middle rafters
+to the second set of middle rafters; upon the tie-beams is placed a
+gutter hollowed out from a tree. Then from the back of each of the first
+set of middle rafters a beam six feet long reaches almost to the gutter;
+to the lower end of this beam is attached a piece of wood two feet long;
+this is repeated with each rafter of the first set of middle rafters.
+Similarly from the back of each rafter of the second set of middle
+rafters a little beam, seven feet long, reaches almost to the gutter; to
+the lower end of it is likewise attached a short piece of wood; this is
+repeated on each rafter of the second set of middle rafters. Then in the
+upper part, to the first and second sets of principal rafters are
+fastened long boards, upon which are fixed the burnt tiles; and in the
+same manner, in the middle part, they are fastened to the first and
+second sets of middle rafters, and at the lower part to the little beams
+which reach from each rafter of the first and second set of middle
+rafters almost to the gutter; and, finally, to the little boards
+fastened to the short pieces of wood are fixed shingles of pine-wood
+extending into the gutter, so that the violent rain or melted snow may
+not penetrate into the building. The substructures in the interior which
+support the second set of rafters, and those on the opposite side which
+support the third, being not unusual, I need not explain.</p>
+
+<p>In that part of the building against the second long wall are the
+furnaces, in which exhausted liquation cakes which have already been
+"dried" are smelted, that they may recover once again the appearance and
+colour of copper, inasmuch as they really are copper. The remainder of
+the room is occupied by the passage which leads from the door to the
+furnaces, together with two other furnaces, in one of which the whole
+cakes of copper are heated, and in the other the exhausted liquation
+cakes are "dried" by the heat of the fire.</p>
+
+<p>Likewise, in the room between the third and seventh<a name="FNanchor_5_339" id="FNanchor_5_339"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_339" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> transverse walls,
+two posts are erected on rock foundation; both of them are eight feet
+high and two feet wide and thick. The one is at a distance of thirteen
+feet from the second long wall; the other at the same distance from the
+third long wall; there is a distance of thirteen feet between them. Upon
+these two posts and upon the third transverse wall are laid two
+longitudinal beams, forty-one feet and one palm long, and two feet wide
+and thick. Two other beams of the same length, width, and thickness are
+laid upon the upright posts and upon the seventh transverse wall, and
+the heads of the two long beams, where they meet, are joined with iron
+staples. On these longitudinal beams are again placed twenty-one
+transverse beams, thirteen feet long, a foot wide, and three palms
+thick, of which the first is set on the third transverse wall, and the
+last on the seventh transverse wall; the rest are laid in the space
+between these two, and they are distant from one another three feet.
+Into the ends of the transverse beams which face the second long wall,
+are mortised the ends of the same number of rafters erected toward the
+upright posts which are placed upon the second long wall, and in this
+manner is made <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497"></a>[Pg 497]</span>the second inclined side wall of the hood. Into the ends
+of the transverse beams facing the third long wall, are mortised the
+ends of the same number of rafters rising toward the rafters of the
+first inclined side of the second hood, and in this manner is made the
+other inclined side of the second hood. But to prevent this from falling
+in upon the opposite inclined side of the hood, and that again upon the
+opposite vertical one, there are many iron rods reaching from some of
+the rafters to those opposite them; and this is also prevented in part
+by means of a few tie-beams, extending from the back of the rafters to
+the back of those which are behind them. These tie-beams are two palms
+thick and wide, and have holes made through them at each end; each of
+the rafters is bound round with iron bands three digits wide and half a
+digit thick, which hold together the ends of the tie-beams of which I
+have spoken; and so that the joints may be firm, an iron nail, passing
+through the plate on both sides, is driven through the holes in the ends
+of the beams. Since one weight counter-balances another, the rafters on
+the opposite hoods cannot fall. The tie-beams and middle posts which
+have to support the gutters and the roof, are made in every particular
+as I stated above, except only that the second set of middle rafters are
+not longer than the first set of middle rafters, and that the little
+beams which reach from the back of each rafter of the second set of
+middle rafters nearly to the gutter are not longer than the little beams
+which reach from the back of each rafter of the first set of middle
+rafters almost to the gutter. In this part of the building, against the
+second long wall, are the furnaces in which copper is alloyed with lead,
+and in which "slags" are re-smelted. Against the third long wall are the
+furnaces in which silver and lead are liquated from copper. The interior
+is also occupied by two cranes, of which one deposits on the ground the
+cakes of copper lifted out of the moulding pans; the other lifts them
+from the ground into the second furnace.</p>
+
+<p>On the third and the fourth long walls are set twenty-one beams eighteen
+feet and three palms long. In mortises in them, two feet behind the
+third long wall, are set the ends of the same number of rafters erected
+opposite to the rafters of the other inclined wall of the second furnace
+hood, and in this manner is made the third inclined wall, exactly
+similar to the others. The ends of as many rafters are mortised into
+these beams where they are fixed in the fourth long wall; these rafters
+are erected obliquely, and rest against the backs of the preceding ones
+and support the roof, which consists entirely of burnt tiles and has the
+usual substructures. In this part of the building there are two rooms,
+in the first of which the cakes of copper, and in the other the cakes of
+lead, are stored.</p>
+
+<p>In the space enclosed between the ninth and tenth transverse walls and
+the second and fifth long walls, a post twelve feet high and two feet
+wide and thick is erected on a rock foundation; it is distant thirteen
+feet from the second long wall, and six from the fifth long wall. Upon
+this post and upon the ninth transverse wall is laid a beam thirty-three
+feet and three palms long, and two palms wide and thick. Another beam,
+also of the same length, width and thickness, is laid upon the same post
+and upon the tenth transverse <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498"></a>[Pg 498]</span>wall, and the ends of these two beams
+where they meet are joined by means of iron staples. On these beams and
+on the fifth long wall are placed ten cross-beams, eight feet and three
+palms long, the first of which is placed on the ninth transverse wall,
+the last on the tenth, the remainder in the space between them; they are
+distant from one another three feet. Into the ends of the cross-beams
+facing the second long wall, are mortised the ends of the same number of
+rafters inclined toward the posts which stand vertically upon the second
+long wall. This, again, is the manner in which the inclined side of the
+furnace hood is made, just as with the others; at the top where the
+fumes are emitted it is two feet distant from the vertical side. The
+ends of the same number of rafters are mortised into the cross-beams,
+where they are set in the fifth long wall; each of them is set up
+obliquely and rests against the back of one of the preceding set; they
+support the roof, made of burnt tiles. In this part of the building,
+against the second long wall, are four furnaces in which lead is
+separated from silver, together with the cranes by means of which the
+domes are lifted from the crucibles.</p>
+
+<p>In that part of the building which lies between the first long wall and
+the break in the second long wall, is the stamp with which the copper
+cakes are crushed, and the four stamps with which the accretions that
+are chipped off the walls of the furnace are broken up and crushed to
+powder, and likewise the bricks on which the exhausted liquation cakes
+of copper are stood to be "dried." This room has the usual roof, as also
+has the space between the seventh transverse wall and the twelfth and
+thirteenth transverse walls.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499"></a><a href="images/fig499.jpg"><img src="images/fig499thumb.jpg" alt="Hearths for melting lead cakes" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Hearth. B&mdash;Rocks
+sunk into the ground. C&mdash;Walls which protect the fourth long wall from
+damage by fire. D&mdash;Dipping-pot. E&mdash;Masses of lead. F&mdash;Trolley. G&mdash;Its
+wheels. H&mdash;Crane. I&mdash;Tongs. K&mdash;Wood. L&mdash;Moulds. M&mdash;Ladle. N&mdash;Pick.
+O&mdash;Cakes.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 499]</span></span>
+At the sides of these rooms are the fifth, the sixth, and the third long
+walls. This part of the building is divided into two parts, in the first
+of which stand the little furnaces in which the artificer assays metals;
+and the bone ash, together with the other powders, are kept here. In the
+other room is prepared the powder from which the hearths and the
+crucibles of the furnaces are made. Outside the building, at the back of
+the fourth long wall, near the door to the left as you enter, is a
+hearth in which smaller masses of lead are melted from large ones, that
+they may be the more easily weighed; because the masses of lead, just as
+much as the cakes of copper, ought to be first prepared so that they can
+be weighed, and a definite weight can be melted and alloyed in the
+furnaces. To begin with, the hearth in which the masses of lead are
+liquefied is six feet long and five wide; it is protected on both sides
+by rocks partly sunk into the earth, but a palm higher than the hearth,
+and it is lined in the inside with lute. It slopes toward the middle and
+toward the front, in order that the molten lead may run down and flow
+out into the dipping-pot. There is a wall at the back of the hearth
+which protects the fourth long wall from damage by the heat; this wall,
+which is made of bricks and lute, is four feet high, three palms thick,
+and five feet long at the bottom, and at the top three feet and two
+palms long; therefore it narrows gradually, and in the upper part are
+laid seven bricks, the middle ones of which are set upright, and the end
+ones inclined; they are all thickly coated with lute. In front of the
+hearth is a dipping-pot, whose pit is a foot deep, and a foot and three
+palms wide at the top, and gradually narrows. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500"></a>[Pg 500]</span>When the masses of lead
+are to be melted, the workman first places the wood in the hearth so
+that one end of each billet faces the wall, and the other end the
+dipping-pot. Then, assisted by other workmen, he pushes the mass of lead
+forward with crowbars on to a low trolley, and draws it to the crane.
+The trolley consists of planks fastened together, is two and one-half
+feet wide and five feet long, and has two small iron axles, around which
+at each end revolve small iron wheels, two palms in diameter and as many
+digits wide. The trolley has a tongue, and attached to this is a rope,
+by which it is drawn to the crane. The crane is exactly similar to those
+in the second part of the works, except that the crane-arm is not so
+long. The tongs in whose jaws<a name="FNanchor_6_340" id="FNanchor_6_340"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_340" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> the masses of lead are seized, are two
+feet a palm and two digits long; both of the jaws, when struck with a
+hammer, impinge upon the mass and are driven into it. The upper part of
+both handles of the tongs are curved back, the one to the right, the
+other to the left, and each handle is engaged in one of the lowest links
+of two short chains, which are three links long. The upper links are
+engaged in a large round ring, in which is fixed the hook of a chain let
+down from the pulley of the crane-arm. When the crank of the crane is
+turned, the mass is lifted and is carried by the crane-arm to the hearth
+and placed on the wood. The workmen wheel up one mass after another and
+place them in a similar manner on the wood of the hearth; masses which
+weigh a total of about a hundred and sixty <i>centumpondia</i><a name="FNanchor_7_341" id="FNanchor_7_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_341" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> are usually
+placed upon the wood and melted at one time. Then a workman throws
+charcoal on the masses, and all are made ready in the evening. If he
+fears that it may rain, he covers it up with a cover, which may be moved
+here and there; at the back this cover has two legs, so that the rain
+which it collects may flow down the slope on to the open ground. Early
+in the morning of the following day, he throws live coals on the
+charcoal with a shovel, and by this method the masses of lead melt, and
+from time to time charcoal is added. The lead, as soon as it begins to
+run into the dipping-pot, is ladled out with an iron ladle into copper
+moulds such as the refiners generally use. If it does not cool
+immediately he pours water over it, and then sticks the pointed pick
+into it and pulls it out. The pointed end of the pick is three palms
+long and the round end is two digits long. It is necessary to smear the
+moulds with a wash of lute, in order that, when they have been turned
+upside down and struck with the broad round end of the pick, the cakes
+of lead may fall out easily. If the moulds are not washed over with the
+lute, there is a risk that they may be melted by the lead and let it
+through. Others take hold of a billet of wood with their left hand, and
+with the heavy lower end of it they pound the mould, and with the right
+hand they stick the point of the pick into the cake of lead, and thus
+pull it out. Then immediately the workman pours other lead into the
+empty moulds, and this he does until the work of melting the lead is
+finished. When the lead is melted, something similar to litharge is
+produced; but it is no wonder that it should be possible to make <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501"></a>[Pg 501]</span>it in
+this case, when it used formerly to be produced at Puteoli from lead
+alone when melted by a fierce fire in the cupellation furnace.<a name="FNanchor_8_342" id="FNanchor_8_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_342" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>
+Afterward these cakes of lead are carried into the lead store-room.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig501.jpg"><img src="images/fig501thumb.jpg" alt="Stamp-mill for breaking copper cakes" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Block of
+wood. B&mdash;Upright posts. C&mdash;Transverse beams. D&mdash;Head of the stamp.
+E&mdash;Its tooth. F&mdash;The hole in the stamp-stem. G&mdash;Iron bar. H&mdash;Masses of
+lead. I&mdash;The bronze saddle. K&mdash;Axle. L&mdash;Its arms. M&mdash;Little iron axle.
+N&mdash;Bronze pipe.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 501]</span></span>
+The cakes of copper, put into wheelbarrows, are carried into the third
+part of the building, where each is laid upon a saddle, and is broken up
+by the impact of successive blows from the iron-shod stamp. This machine
+is made by placing upon the ground a block of oak, five feet long and
+three feet wide and thick; it is cut out in the middle for a length of
+two feet and two palms, a width of two feet, and a depth of three palms
+and two digits, and is open in front; the higher part of it is at the
+back, and the wide part lies flat in the block. In the middle of it is
+placed a bronze saddle. Its base is a palm and two digits wide, and is
+planted between two masses of lead, and extends under them to a depth of
+a palm on both sides. The whole saddle is three palms and two digits
+wide, a foot long, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502"></a>[Pg 502]</span>two palms thick. Upon each end of the block
+stands a post, a cubit wide and thick, the upper end of which is
+somewhat cut away and is mortised into the beams of the building. At a
+height of four feet and two digits above the block there are joined to
+the posts two transverse beams, each of which is three palms wide and
+thick; their ends are mortised into the upright posts, and holes are
+bored through them; in the holes are driven iron claves, horned in front
+and so driven into the post that one of the horns of each points upward
+and the other downward; the other end of each clavis is perforated, and
+a wide iron wedge is inserted and driven into the holes, and thus holds
+the transverse beams in place. These transverse beams have in the middle
+a square opening three palms and half a digit wide in each direction,
+through which the iron-shod stamp passes. At a height of three feet and
+two palms above these transverse beams there are again two beams of the
+same kind, having also a square opening and holding the same stamp. This
+stamp is square, eleven feet long, three palms wide and thick; its iron
+shoe is a foot and a palm long; its head is two palms long and wide, a
+palm two digits thick at the top, and at the bottom the same number of
+digits, for it gradually narrows. But the tail is three palms long;
+where the head begins is two palms wide and thick, and the further it
+departs from the same the narrower it becomes. The upper part is
+enclosed in the stamp-stem, and it is perforated so that an iron bolt
+may be driven into it; it is bound by three rectangular iron bands, the
+lowest of which, a palm wide, is between the iron shoe and the head of
+the stamp; the middle band, three digits wide, follows next and binds
+round the head of the stamp, and two digits above is the upper one,
+which is the same number of digits wide. At a distance of two feet and
+as many digits above the lowest part of the iron shoe, is a rectangular
+tooth, projecting from the stamp for a distance of a foot and a palm; it
+is two palms thick, and when it has extended to a distance of six digits
+from the stamp it is made two digits narrower. At a height of three
+palms upward from the tooth there is a round hole in the middle of the
+stamp-stem, into which can be thrust a round iron bar two feet long and
+a digit and a half in diameter; in its hollow end is fixed a wooden
+handle two palms and the same number of digits long. The bar rests on
+the lower transverse beam, and holds up the stamp when it is not in use.
+The axle which raises the stamp has on each side two arms, which are two
+palms and three digits distant from each other, and which project from
+the axle a foot, a palm and two digits; penetrating through them are
+bolts, driven in firmly; the arms are each a palm and two digits wide
+and thick, and their round heads, for a foot downward on either side,
+are covered with iron plates of the same width as the arms and fastened
+by iron nails. The head of each arm has a round hole, into which is
+inserted an iron pin, passing through a bronze pipe; this little axle
+has at the one end a wide head, and at the other end a perforation
+through which is driven an iron nail, lest this little axle should fall
+out of the arms. The bronze pipe is two palms long and one in diameter;
+the little iron axle penetrates through its round interior, which is two
+digits in diameter. The bronze pipe not only revolves round the little
+iron axle, but it also <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503"></a>[Pg 503]</span>rotates with it; therefore, when the axle
+revolves, the little axle and the bronze tube in their turn raise the
+tooth and the stamp. When the little iron axle and the bronze pipe have
+been taken out of the arms, the tooth of the stamps is not raised, and
+other stamps may be raised without this one. Further on, a drum with
+spindles fixed around the axle of a water-wheel moves the axle of a
+toothed drum, which depresses the sweeps of the bellows in the adjacent
+fourth part of the building; but it turns in the contrary direction; for
+the axis of the drum which raises the stamps turns toward the north,
+while that one which depresses the sweeps of the bellows turns toward
+the south.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504"></a><a href="images/fig504.jpg"><img src="images/fig504thumb.jpg" alt="Hearths for heating copper cakes" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Back wall.
+B&mdash;Walls at the sides. C&mdash;Upright posts. D&mdash;Chimney. E&mdash;The cakes
+arranged. F&mdash;Iron plates. G&mdash;Rocks. H&mdash;Rabble with two prongs.
+I&mdash;Hammers.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 504]</span></span>
+Those cakes which are too thick to be rapidly broken by blows from the
+iron-shod stamp, such as are generally those which have settled in the
+bottom of the crucible,<a name="FNanchor_9_343" id="FNanchor_9_343"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_343" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> are carried into the first part of the
+building. They are there heated in a furnace, which is twenty-eight feet
+distant from the second long wall and twelve feet from the second
+transverse wall. The three sides of this furnace are built of
+rectangular rocks, upon which bricks are laid; the back furnace wall is
+three feet and a palm high, and the rear of the side walls is the same;
+the side walls are sloping, and where the furnace is open in front they
+are only two feet and three palms high; all the walls are a foot and a
+palm thick. Upon these walls stand upright posts not less thick, in
+order that they may bear the heavy weight placed upon them, and they are
+covered with lute; these posts support the sloping chimney and penetrate
+through the roof. Moreover, not only the ribs of the chimney, but also
+the rafters, are covered thickly with lute. The hearth of the furnace is
+six feet long on each side, is sloping, and is paved with bricks. The
+cakes of copper are placed in the furnace and heated in the following
+way. They are first of all placed in the furnace in rows, with as many
+small stones the size of an egg between, so that the heat of the fire
+can penetrate through the spaces between them; indeed, those cakes which
+are placed at the bottom of the crucible are each raised upon half a
+brick for the same reason. But lest the last row, which lies against the
+mouth of the furnace, should fall out, against the mouth are placed iron
+plates, or the copper cakes which are the first taken from the crucible
+when copper is made, and against them are laid exhausted liquation cakes
+or rocks. Then charcoal is thrown on the cakes, and then live coals; at
+first the cakes are heated by a gentle fire, and afterward more charcoal
+is added to them until it is at times three-quarters of a foot deep. A
+fiercer fire is certainly required to heat the hard cakes of copper than
+the fragile ones. When the cakes have been sufficiently heated, which
+usually occurs within the space of about two hours, the exhausted
+liquation cakes or the rocks and the iron plate are removed from the
+mouth of the furnace. Then the hot cakes are taken out row after row
+with a two-pronged rabble, such as the one which is used by those who
+"dry" the exhausted liquation cakes. Then the first cake is laid upon
+the exhausted liquation cakes, and beaten by two workmen with hammers
+until it breaks; the hotter the cakes are, the <span class="pagenum">[Pg 504]</span>sooner they are broken
+up; the less hot, the longer it takes, for now and then they bend into
+the shape of copper basins. When the first cake has been broken, the
+second is put on to the other fragments and beaten until it breaks into
+pieces, and the rest of the cakes are broken up in the same manner in
+due order. The head of the hammer is three palms long and one wide, and
+sharpened at both ends, and its handle is of wood three feet long. When
+they have been broken by the stamp, if cold, or with hammers if hot, the
+fragments of copper or the cakes are carried into the store-room for
+copper.</p>
+
+<p>The foreman of the works, according to the different proportions of
+silver in each <i>centumpondium</i> of copper, alloys it with lead, without
+which he could not separate the silver from the copper.<a name="FNanchor_10_344" id="FNanchor_10_344"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_344" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> If there be
+a moderate <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505"></a>[Pg 505]</span>amount of silver in the copper, he alloys it fourfold; for
+instance, if in three-quarters of a <i>centumpondium</i> of copper there is
+less than the following proportions, <i>i.e.</i>: half a <i>libra</i> of silver,
+or half a <i>libra</i> and a <i>sicilicus</i>, or half a <i>libra</i> and a
+<i>semi-uncia</i>, or half a <i>libra</i> and <i>semi-uncia</i> and a <i>sicilicus</i>, then
+rich lead&mdash;that is, that from which the silver has not yet been
+separated&mdash;is added, to the amount of half a <i>centumpondium</i> or a whole
+<i>centumpondium</i>, or a whole and a half, in such a way that there may be
+in the copper-lead alloy some one of the proportions of silver which I
+have just mentioned, which is the first alloy. To this "first" alloy is
+added such a weight of de-silverized lead or litharge as is required to
+make out of all of these a single liquation cake that will contain
+approximately two <i>centumpondia</i> of lead; but as usually from one
+hundred and thirty <i>librae</i> of litharge only one hundred <i>librae</i> of
+lead are made, a greater proportion of litharge than of de-silverized
+lead is added as a supplement. Since four cakes of this kind are placed
+at the same time into the furnace in which the silver and lead is
+liquated from copper, there will be in all the cakes three
+<i>centumpondia</i> of copper and eight <i>centumpondia</i> of lead. When the lead
+has been liquated from the copper, it weighs six <i>centumpondia</i>, in each
+<i>centumpondium</i> of which there is a quarter of a <i>libra</i> and almost a
+<i>sicilicus</i> of silver. Only seven <i>unciae</i> of the silver remain in the
+exhausted liquation cakes and in that copper-lead alloy which we call
+"liquation thorns"; they are not called by this name so much because
+they have sharp points as because they are base. If in three-quarters of
+a <i>centumpondium</i> of copper there are less than seven <i>uncia</i> and a
+<i>semi-uncia</i> or a <i>bes</i> of silver, then so much rich lead must be added
+as to make in the copper and lead alloy one of the proportions of silver
+which I have already mentioned. This is the "second" alloy. To this is
+again to be added as great a weight <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506"></a>[Pg 506]</span>of de-silverized lead, or of
+litharge, as will make it possible to obtain from that alloy a liquation
+cake containing two and a quarter <i>centumpondia</i> of lead, in which
+manner in four of these cakes there will be three <i>centumpondia</i> of
+copper and nine <i>centumpondia</i> of lead. The lead which liquates from
+these cakes weighs seven <i>centumpondia</i>, in each <i>centumpondium</i> of
+which there is a quarter of a <i>libra</i> of silver and a little more than a
+<i>sicilicus</i>. About seven <i>unciae</i> of silver remain in the exhausted
+liquation cakes and in the liquation thorns, if we may be allowed to
+make common the old name (<i>spinae</i> = thorns) and bestow it upon a new
+substance. If in three-quarters of a <i>centumpondium</i> of copper there is
+less than three-quarters of a <i>libra</i> of silver, or three-quarters and a
+<i>semi-uncia</i>, then as much rich lead must be added as will produce one
+of the proportions of silver in the copper-lead alloy above mentioned;
+this is the "third" alloy. To this is added such an amount of
+de-silverized lead or of litharge, that a liquation cake made from it
+contains in all two and three-quarters <i>centumpondia</i> of lead. In this
+manner four such cakes will contain three <i>centumpondia</i> of copper and
+eleven <i>centumpondia</i> of lead. The lead which these cakes liquate, when
+they are melted in the furnace, weighs about nine <i>centumpondia</i>, in
+each <i>centumpondium</i> of which there is a quarter of a <i>libra</i> and more
+than a <i>sicilicus</i> of silver; and seven <i>unciae</i> of silver remain in the
+exhausted liquation cakes and in the liquation thorns. If, however, in
+three-quarters of a <i>centumpondium</i> of copper there is less than
+ten-twelfths of a <i>libra</i> or ten-twelfths of a <i>libra</i> and a
+<i>semi-uncia</i> of silver, then such a proportion of rich lead is added as
+will produce in the copper-lead alloy one of the proportions of silver
+which I mentioned above; this is the "fourth" alloy. To this is added
+such a weight of de-silverized lead or of litharge, that a liquation
+cake made from it contains three <i>centumpondia</i> of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507"></a>[Pg 507]</span>lead, and in four
+cakes of this kind there are three <i>centumpondia</i> of copper and twelve
+<i>centumpondia</i> of lead. The lead which is liquated therefrom weighs
+about ten <i>centumpondia</i>, in each <i>centumpondium</i> of which there is a
+quarter of a <i>libra</i> and more than a <i>semi-uncia</i> of silver, or seven
+<i>unciae</i>; a <i>bes</i>, or seven <i>unciae</i> and a <i>semi-uncia</i>, of silver
+remain in the exhausted liquation cakes and in the liquation thorns.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508"></a><a href="images/fig508.jpg"><img src="images/fig508thumb.jpg" alt="Blast Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnace in which "slags" are
+re-smelted. B&mdash;Furnace in which copper is alloyed with lead. C&mdash;Door.
+D&mdash;Forehearths on the ground. E&mdash;Copper moulds. F&mdash;Rabble. G&mdash;Hook.
+H&mdash;Cleft stick. I&mdash;Arm of the crane. K&mdash;The hook of its chain.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 508]</span></span>
+Against the second long wall in the second part of the building, whose
+area is eighty feet long by thirty-nine feet wide, are four furnaces in
+which the copper is alloyed with lead, and six furnaces in which "slags"
+are re-smelted. The interior of the first kind of furnace is a foot and
+three palms wide, two feet three digits long; and of the second is a
+foot and a palm wide and a foot three palms and a digit long. The side
+walls of these furnaces are the same height as the furnaces in which
+gold or silver ores are smelted. As the whole room is divided into two
+parts by upright posts, the front part must have, first, two furnaces in
+which "slags" are re-melted; second, two furnaces in which copper is
+alloyed with lead; and third, one furnace in which "slags" are
+re-melted. The back part of the room has first, one furnace in which
+"slags" are re-melted; next, two furnaces in which copper is alloyed
+with lead; and third, two furnaces in which "slags" are re-melted. Each
+of these is six feet distant from the next; on the right side of the
+first is a space of three feet and two palms, and on the left side of
+the last one of seven feet. Each pair of furnaces has a common door, six
+feet high and a cubit wide, but the first and the tenth furnace each has
+one of its own. Each of the furnaces is set in an arch of its own in the
+back wall, and in front has a forehearth pit; this is filled with a
+powder compound rammed down and compressed in order to make a crucible.
+Under each furnace is a hidden receptacle for the moisture,<a name="FNanchor_11_345" id="FNanchor_11_345"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_345" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> from
+which a vent is made through the back wall toward the right, which
+allows the vapour to escape. Finally, to the right, in front, is the
+copper mould into which the copper-lead alloy is poured from the
+forehearth, in order that liquation cakes of equal weight may be made.
+This copper mould is a digit thick, its interior is two feet in diameter
+and six digits deep. Behind the second long wall are ten pairs of
+bellows, two machines for compressing them, and twenty instruments for
+inflating them. The way in which these should be made may be understood
+from <a href="#BOOK_IX">Book IX</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The smelter, when he alloys copper with lead, with his hand throws into
+the heated furnace, first the large fragments of copper, then a
+basketful of charcoal, then the smaller fragments of copper. When the
+copper is melted and begins to run out of the tap-hole into the
+forehearth, he throws litharge into the furnace, and, lest part of it
+should fly away, he first throws charcoal over it, and lastly lead. As
+soon as he has thrown into the furnace the copper and the lead, from
+which alloy the first liquation cake is made, he again throws in a
+basket of charcoal, and then fragments of copper are thrown over them,
+from which the second cake may be made. Afterward with a rabble he skims
+the "slag" from the copper and lead as they flow into the forehearth.
+Such a rabble is a board into which an iron bar is fixed; the <span class="pagenum">[Pg 508]</span>board is
+made of elder-wood or willow, and is ten digits long, six wide, and one
+and a half digits thick; the iron bar is three feet long, and the wooden
+handle inserted into it is two and a half feet long. While he purges the
+alloy and pours it out with a ladle into the copper mould, the fragments
+of copper from which he is to make the second cake are melting. As soon
+as this begins to run down he again throws in litharge, and when he has
+put on more charcoal he adds the lead. This operation he repeats until
+thirty liquation cakes have been made, on which work he expends nine
+hours, or at most ten; if more than thirty cakes must be made, then he
+is paid for another shift when he has made an extra thirty.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time that he pours the copper-lead alloy into the copper
+mould, he also pours water slowly into the top of the mould. Then, with
+a cleft stick, he takes a hook and puts its straight stem into the
+molten cake. The hook itself is a digit and a half thick; its straight
+stem is two palms long and two digits wide and thick. Afterward he pours
+more water over the cakes. When they are cold he places an iron ring in
+the hook of the chain <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509"></a>[Pg 509]</span>let down from the pulley of the crane arm; the
+inside diameter of this ring is six digits, and it is about a digit and
+a half thick; the ring is then engaged in the hook whose straight stem
+is in the cake, and thus the cake is raised from the mould and put into
+its place.</p>
+
+<p>The copper and lead, when thus melted, yield a small amount of
+"slag"<a name="FNanchor_12_346" id="FNanchor_12_346"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_346" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> and much litharge. The litharge does not cohere, but falls to
+pieces like the residues from malt from which beer is made. <i>Pompholyx</i>
+adheres to the walls in white ashes, and to the sides of the furnace
+adheres <i>spodos</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In this practical manner lead is alloyed with copper in which there is
+but a moderate portion of silver. If, however, there is much silver in
+it, as, for instance, two <i>librae</i>, or two <i>librae</i> and a <i>bes</i>, to the
+<i>centumpondium</i>,&mdash;which weighs one hundred and thirty-three and a third
+<i>librae</i>, or one hundred and forty-six <i>librae</i> and a <i>bes</i>,<a name="FNanchor_13_347" id="FNanchor_13_347"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_347" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>&mdash;then
+the foreman of the works adds to a <i>centumpondium</i> of such copper three
+<i>centumpondia</i> of lead, in each <i>centumpondium</i> of which there is a
+third of a <i>libra</i> of silver, or a third of a <i>libra</i> and a
+<i>semi-uncia</i>. In this manner three liquation cakes are made, which
+contain altogether three <i>centumpondia</i> of copper and nine
+<i>centumpondia</i> of lead.<a name="FNanchor_14_348" id="FNanchor_14_348"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_348" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> The lead, when it has been liquated from the
+copper, weighs seven <i>centumpondia</i>; and in each <i>centumpondium</i>&mdash;if the
+<i>centumpondium</i> of copper contain two <i>librae</i> of silver, and the lead
+contain a third of a <i>libra</i>&mdash;there will be a <i>libra</i> and a sixth and
+more than a <i>semi-uncia</i> of silver; while in the exhausted liquation
+cakes, and in the liquation thorns, there remains a third of a <i>libra</i>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_510" id="Page_510"></a>[Pg 510]</span>If a <i>centumpondium</i> of copper contains two <i>librae</i> and a <i>bes</i> of
+silver, and the lead a third of a <i>libra</i> and a <i>semi-uncia</i>, there will
+be in each liquation cake one and a half <i>librae</i> and a <i>semi-uncia</i>,
+and a little more than a <i>sicilicus</i> of silver. In the exhausted
+liquation cakes there remain a third of a <i>libra</i> and a <i>semi-uncia</i> of
+silver.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig510.jpg"><img src="images/fig510thumb.jpg" alt="Furnaces enriching copper bottoms" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnace.
+B&mdash;Forehearth. C&mdash;Dipping-Pot. D&mdash;Cakes.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 510]</span></span>
+If there be in the copper only a minute proportion of silver, it cannot
+be separated easily until it has been re-melted in other furnaces, so
+that in the "bottoms" there remains more silver and in the "tops"
+less.<a name="FNanchor_15_349" id="FNanchor_15_349"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_349" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> This furnace, vaulted with unbaked bricks, is similar to an
+oven, and also to the cupellation furnace, in which the lead is
+separated from silver, which I described in the last book. The crucible
+is made of ashes, in the same manner as <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511"></a>[Pg 511]</span>in the latter, and in the front
+of the furnace, three feet above the floor of the building, is the mouth
+out of which the re-melted copper flows into a forehearth and a
+dipping-pot. On the left side of the mouth is an aperture, through which
+beech-wood may be put into the furnace to feed the fire. If in a
+<i>centumpondium</i> of copper there were a sixth of a <i>libra</i> and a
+<i>semi-uncia</i> of silver, or a quarter of a <i>libra</i>, or a quarter of a
+<i>libra</i> and a <i>semi-uncia</i>&mdash;there is re-melted at the same time
+thirty-eight <i>centumpondia</i> of it in this furnace, until there remain in
+each <i>centumpondium</i> of the copper "bottoms" a third of a <i>libra</i> and a
+<i>semi-uncia</i> of silver. For example, if in each <i>centumpondium</i> of
+copper not yet re-melted, there is a quarter of a <i>libra</i> and a
+<i>semi-uncia</i> of silver, then the thirty-eight <i>centumpondia</i> that are
+smelted together must contain a total of eleven <i>librae</i> and an <i>uncia</i>
+of silver. Since from fifteen <i>centumpondia</i> of re-melted copper there
+was a total of four and a third <i>librae</i> and a <i>semi-uncia</i> of silver,
+there remain only two and a third <i>librae</i>. Thus there is left in the
+"bottoms," weighing twenty-three <i>centumpondia</i>, a total of eight and
+three-quarter <i>librae</i> of silver. Therefore, each <i>centumpondium</i> of
+this contains a third of a <i>libra</i> and a <i>semi-uncia</i>, a <i>drachma</i>, and
+the twenty-third part of a <i>drachma</i> of silver; from such copper it is
+profitable to separate the silver. In order that the master may be more
+certain of the number of <i>centumpondia</i> of copper in the "bottoms," he
+weighs the "tops" that have been drawn off from it; the "tops" were
+first drawn off into the dipping-pot, and cakes were made from them.
+Fourteen hours are expended on the work of thus dividing the copper. The
+"bottoms," when a certain weight of lead has been added to them, of
+which alloy I shall soon speak, are melted in the blast furnace;
+liquation cakes are then made, and the silver is afterward separated
+from the copper. The "tops" are subsequently melted in the blast
+furnace, and re-melted in the refining furnace, in order that red copper
+shall be made<a name="FNanchor_16_350" id="FNanchor_16_350"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_350" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>; and the "tops" from this are again smelted in the
+blast furnace, and then again in the refining furnace, that therefrom
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512"></a>[Pg 512]</span>shall be made <i>caldarium</i> copper. But when the copper, yellow or red or
+<i>caldarium</i> is re-smelted in the refining furnace, forty <i>centumpondia</i>
+are placed in it, and from it they make at least twenty, and at most
+thirty-five, <i>centumpondia</i>. About twenty-two <i>centumpondia</i> of
+exhausted liquation cakes and ten of yellow copper and eight of red, are
+simultaneously placed in this latter furnace and smelted, in order that
+they may be made into refined copper.</p>
+
+<p>The copper "bottoms" are alloyed in three different ways with lead.<a name="FNanchor_17_351" id="FNanchor_17_351"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_351" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>
+First, five-eighths of a <i>centumpondium</i> of copper and two and
+three-quarters <i>centumpondia</i> of lead are taken; and since one liquation
+cake is made from this, therefore two and a half <i>centumpondia</i> of
+copper and eleven <i>centumpondia</i> of lead make four liquation cakes.
+Inasmuch as in each <i>centumpondium</i> of copper there is a third of a
+<i>libra</i> of silver, there would be in the whole of the copper
+ten-twelfths of a <i>libra</i> of silver; to these are added four
+<i>centumpondia</i> of lead re-melted from "slags," each <i>centumpondium</i> of
+which contains a <i>sicilicus</i> and a <i>drachma</i> of silver, which weights
+make up a total of an <i>uncia</i> and a half of silver. There is also added
+seven <i>centumpondia</i> of de-silverized lead, in each <i>centumpondium</i> of
+which there is a <i>drachma</i> of silver; therefore in the four cakes of
+copper-lead alloy there is a total of a <i>libra</i>, a <i>sicilicus</i> and a
+<i>drachma</i> of silver. In each single <i>centumpondium</i> of lead, after it
+has been liquated from the copper, there is an <i>uncia</i> and a <i>drachma</i>
+of silver, which alloy we call "poor" argentiferous lead, because it
+contains but little silver. But as five cakes of that kind are placed
+together in the furnace, they liquate from them usually as much as nine
+and three-quarters <i>centumpondia</i> of poor <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_513" id="Page_513"></a>[Pg 513]</span>argentiferous lead, in each
+<i>centumpondium</i> of which there is an <i>uncia</i> and a <i>drachma</i> of silver,
+or a total of ten <i>unciae</i> less four <i>drachmae</i>. Of the liquation thorns
+there remain three <i>centumpondia</i>, in each <i>centumpondium</i> of which
+there are three <i>sicilici</i> of silver; and there remain four
+<i>centumpondia</i> of exhausted liquation cakes, each <i>centumpondium</i> of
+which contains a <i>semi-uncia</i> or four and a half <i>drachmae</i>. Inasmuch as
+in a <i>centumpondium</i> of copper "bottoms" there is a third of a <i>libra</i>
+and a <i>semi-uncia</i> of silver, in five of those cakes there must be more
+than one and a half <i>unciae</i> and half a <i>drachma</i> of silver.</p>
+
+<p>Then, again, from another two and a half <i>centumpondia</i> of copper
+"bottoms," together with eleven <i>centumpondia</i> of lead, four liquation
+cakes are made. If in each <i>centumpondium</i> of copper there was a third
+of a <i>libra</i> of silver, there would be in the whole of the
+<i>centumpondia</i> of base metal five-sixths of a <i>libra</i> of the precious
+metal. To this copper is added eight <i>centumpondia</i> of poor
+argentiferous lead, each <i>centumpondium</i> of which contains an <i>uncia</i>
+and a <i>drachma</i> of silver, or a total of three-quarters of a <i>libra</i> of
+silver. There is also added three <i>centumpondia</i> of de-silverized lead,
+in each <i>centumpondium</i> of which there is a <i>drachma</i> of silver.
+Therefore, four liquation cakes contain a total of a <i>libra</i>, seven
+<i>unciae</i>, a <i>sicilicus</i> and a <i>drachma</i> of silver; thus each
+<i>centumpondium</i> of lead, when it has been liquated from the copper,
+contains an <i>uncia</i> and a half and a <i>sicilicus</i> of silver, which alloy
+we call "medium" silver-lead.</p>
+
+<p>Then, again, from another two and a half <i>centumpondia</i> of copper
+"bottoms," together with eleven <i>centumpondia</i> of lead, they make four
+liquation cakes. If in each <i>centumpondium</i> of copper there were
+likewise a third of a <i>libra</i> of silver, there will be in all the weight
+of the base metal five-sixths of a <i>libra</i> of the precious metal. To
+this is added nine <i>centumpondia</i> of medium silver-lead, each
+<i>centumpondium</i> of which contains an <i>uncia</i> and a half and a
+<i>sicilicus</i> of silver; or a total of a <i>libra</i> and a quarter and a
+<i>semi-uncia</i> and a <i>sicilicus</i> of silver. And likewise they add two
+<i>centumpondia</i> of poor silver-lead, in each of which there is an <i>uncia</i>
+and a <i>drachma</i> of silver. Therefore the four liquation cakes contain
+two and a third <i>librae</i> of silver. Each <i>centumpondium</i> of lead, when
+it has been liquated from the copper, contains a sixth of a <i>libra</i> and
+a <i>semi-uncia</i> and a <i>drachma</i> of silver. This alloy we call "rich"
+silver-lead; it is carried to the cupellation furnace, in which lead is
+separated from silver. I have now mentioned in how many ways copper
+containing various proportions of silver is alloyed with lead, and how
+they are melted together in the furnace and run into the casting pan.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_514" id="Page_514"></a><a href="images/fig514.jpg"><img src="images/fig514thumb.jpg" alt="Crane for liquation cakes" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Crane. B&mdash;Drum
+consisting of rundles. C&mdash;Toothed drum. D&mdash;Trolley and its wheels.
+E&mdash;Triangular board. F&mdash;Cakes. G&mdash;Chain of the crane. H&mdash;Its hook.
+I&mdash;Ring. K&mdash;The tongs.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 514]</span></span>
+Now I will speak of the method by which lead is liquated from copper
+simultaneously with the silver. The liquation cakes are raised from the
+ground with the crane, and placed on the copper plates of the furnaces.
+The hook of the chain let down from the arm of the crane, is inserted in
+a ring of the tongs, one jaw of which has a tooth; a ring is engaged in
+each of the handles of the tongs, and these two rings are engaged in a
+third, in which the hook of the chain is inserted. The tooth on the one
+jaw of the tongs is struck by a hammer, and driven into the hole in the
+cake, at the point <span class="pagenum">[Pg 514]</span>where the straight end of the hook was driven into
+it when it was lifted out of the copper mould; the other jaw of the
+tongs, which has no tooth, squeezes the cake, lest the tooth should fall
+out of it; the tongs are one and a half feet long, each ring is a digit
+and a half thick, and the inside is a palm and two digits in diameter.
+Those cranes by which the cakes are lifted out of the copper pans and
+placed on the ground, and lifted up again from there and placed in the
+furnaces, are two in number&mdash;one in the middle space between the third
+transverse wall and the two upright posts, and the other in the middle
+space between the same posts and the seventh transverse wall. The
+rectangular crane-post of both of these is two feet wide and thick, and
+is eighteen feet from the third long wall, and nineteen from the second
+long wall. There are two drums in the framework of each&mdash;one drum
+consisting of rundles, the other being toothed. The crane-arm of each
+extends seventeen feet, three palms and as many digits from the post.
+The trolley of each crane is two feet and as many palms long, a foot and
+two digits wide, and a palm and two digits thick; but where it runs
+between the beams of the crane-arm it is three digits wide and a palm
+thick; it has five notches, in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_515" id="Page_515"></a>[Pg 515]</span>which turn five brass wheels, four of
+which are small, and the fifth much larger than the rest. The notches in
+which the small wheels turn are two palms long and as much as a palm
+wide; those wheels are a palm wide and a palm and two digits in
+diameter; four of the notches are near the four corners of the trolley;
+the fifth notch is between the two front ones, and it is two palms back
+from the front. Its pulley is larger than the rest, and turns in its own
+notch; it is three palms in diameter and one palm wide, and grooved on
+the circumference, so that the iron chain may run in the groove. The
+trolley has two small axles, to the one in front are fastened three, and
+to the one at the back, the two wheels; two wheels run on the one beam
+of the crane-arm, and two on the other; the fifth wheel, which is larger
+than the others, runs between those two beams. Those people who have no
+cranes place the cakes on a triangular board, to which iron cleats are
+affixed, so that it will last longer; the board has three iron chains,
+which are fixed in an iron ring at the top; two workmen pass a pole
+through the ring and carry it on their shoulders, and thus take the cake
+to the furnace in which silver is separated from copper.</p>
+
+<p>From the vicinity of the furnaces in which copper is mixed with lead and
+the "slags" are re-melted, to the third long wall, are likewise ten
+furnaces, in which silver mixed with lead is separated from copper. If
+this space is eighty feet and two palms long, and the third long wall
+has in the centre a door three feet and two palms wide, then the spaces
+remaining at either side of the door will be thirty-eight feet and two
+palms; and if each of the furnaces occupies four feet and a palm, then
+the interval between each furnace and the next one must be a foot and
+three palms; thus the width of the five furnaces and four interspaces
+will be twenty-eight feet and a palm. Therefore, there remain ten feet
+and a palm, which measurement is so divided that there are five feet and
+two digits between the first furnace and the transverse wall, and as
+many feet and digits between the fifth furnace and the door; similarly
+in the other part of the space from the door to the sixth furnace, there
+must be five feet and two digits, and from the tenth furnace to the
+seventh transverse wall, likewise, five feet and two digits. The door is
+six feet and two palms high; through it the foreman of the <i>officina</i>
+and the workmen enter the store-room in which the silver-lead alloy is
+kept.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_517" id="Page_517"></a><a href="images/fig517.jpg"><img src="images/fig517thumb.jpg" alt="Liquation Furnace" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Sole-stones. B&mdash;Rectangular
+stones. C&mdash;Copper plates. D&mdash;Front panel. E&mdash;Side panels. F&mdash;Bar.
+G&mdash;Front end of the long iron rods. H&mdash;Short chain. I&mdash;Hooked rod.
+K&mdash;Wall which protects the third long wall from injury by fire. L&mdash;Third
+long wall. M&mdash;Feet of the panels. N&mdash;Iron blocks. O&mdash;Cakes. P&mdash;Hearth.
+Q&mdash;Receiving-pit.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 517]</span></span>
+Each furnace has a bed, a hearth, a rear wall, two sides and a front,
+and a receiving-pit. The bed consists of two sole-stones, four
+rectangular stones, and two copper plates; the sole-stones are five feet
+and a palm long, a cubit wide, a foot and a palm thick, and they are
+sunk into the ground, so that they emerge a palm and two digits; they
+are distant from each other about three palms, yet the distance is
+narrower at the back than the front. Each of the rectangular stones is
+two feet and as many palms long, a cubit wide, and a cubit thick at the
+outer edge, and a foot and a palm thick on the inner edge which faces
+the hearth, thus they form an incline, so that there is a slope to the
+copper plates which are laid upon them. Two of these rectangular stones
+are placed on one sole-stone; a hole is cut in the upper edge of each,
+and into the holes are placed iron clamps, and lead is poured in; they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_516" id="Page_516"></a>[Pg 516]</span>are so placed on the sole-stones that they project a palm at the sides,
+and at the front the sole-stones project to the same extent; if
+rectangular stones are not available, bricks are laid in their place.
+The copper plates are four feet two palms and as many digits long, a
+cubit wide, and a palm thick; each edge has a protuberance, one at the
+front end, the other at the back; these are a palm and three digits
+long, and a palm wide and thick. The plates are so laid upon the
+rectangular stones that their rear ends are three digits from the third
+long wall; the stones project beyond the plate the same number of digits
+in front, and a palm and three digits at the sides. When the plates have
+been joined, the groove which is between the protuberances is a palm and
+three digits wide, and four feet long, and through it flows the
+silver-lead which liquates from the cakes. When the plates are corroded
+either by the fire or by the silver-lead, which often adheres to them in
+the form of stalactites, and is chipped off, they are exchanged, the
+right one being placed to the left, and the left one, on the contrary,
+to the right; but the left side of the plates, which, when the fusion of
+the copper took place, came into contact with the copper, must lie flat;
+so that when the exchange of the plates has been carried out, the
+protuberances, which are thus on the underside, raise the plate from the
+stones, and they have to be partially chipped off, lest they should
+prove an impediment to the work; and in each of their places is laid a
+piece of iron, three palms long, a digit thick at both ends, and a palm
+thick in the centre for the length of a palm and three digits.</p>
+
+<p>The passage under the plates between the rectangular stones is a foot
+wide at the back, and a foot and a palm wide at the front, for it
+gradually widens out. The hearth, which is between the sole-stones, is
+covered with a bed of hearth-lead, taken from the crucible in which lead
+is separated from silver. The rear end is the highest, and should be so
+high that it reaches to within six digits of the plates, from which
+point it slopes down evenly to the front end, so that the argentiferous
+lead alloy which liquates from the cakes can flow into the
+receiving-pit. The wall built against the third long wall in order to
+protect it from injury by fire, is constructed of bricks joined together
+with lute, and stands on the copper plates; this wall is two feet, a
+palm and two digits high, two palms thick, and three feet, a palm and
+three digits wide at the bottom, for it reaches across both of them; at
+the top it is three feet wide, for it rises up obliquely on each side.
+At each side of this wall, at a height of a palm and two digits above
+the top of it, there is inserted in a hole in the third long wall a
+hooked iron rod, fastened in with molten lead; the rod projects two
+palms from the wall, and is two digits wide and one digit thick; it has
+two hooks, the one at the side, the other at the end. Both of these
+hooks open toward the wall, and both are a digit thick, and both are
+inserted in the last, or the adjacent, links of a short iron chain. This
+chain consists of four links, each of which is a palm and a digit long
+and half a digit thick; the first link is engaged in the first hole in a
+long iron rod, and one or other of the remaining three links engages the
+hook of the hooked rod. The two long rods are three feet and as many
+palms and digits long, two digits wide, and one digit thick; both ends
+of both of these rods have holes, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_518" id="Page_518"></a>[Pg 518]</span>the back one of which is round and a
+digit in diameter, and in this is engaged the first link of the chain as
+I have stated; the hole at the front end is two digits and a half long
+and a digit and a half wide. This end of each rod is made three digits
+wide, while for the rest of its length it is only two digits, and at the
+back it is two and a half digits. Into the front hole of each rod is
+driven an iron bar, which is three feet and two palms long, two digits
+wide and one thick; in the end of this bar are five small square holes,
+two-thirds of a digit square; each hole is distant from the other half a
+digit, the first being at a distance of about a digit from the end. Into
+one of these holes the refiner drives an iron pin; if he should desire
+to make the furnace narrower, then he drives it into the last hole; if
+he should desire to widen it, then into the first hole; if he should
+desire to contract it moderately, then into one of the middle holes. For
+the same reason, therefore, the hook is sometimes inserted into the last
+link of the chain, and sometimes into the third or the second. The
+furnace is widened when many cakes are put into it, and contracted when
+there are but few, but to put in more than five is neither usual nor
+possible; indeed, it is because of thin cakes that the walls are
+contracted. The bar has a hump, which projects a digit on each side at
+the back, of the same width and thickness as itself. These humps
+project, lest the bar should slip through the hole of the right-hand
+rod, in which it remains fixed when it, together with the rods, is not
+pressing upon the furnace walls.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_519" id="Page_519"></a><a href="images/fig519.jpg"><img src="images/fig519thumb.jpg" alt="Liquation Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnace in which the
+operation of liquation is being performed. B&mdash;Furnace in which it is not
+being performed. C&mdash;Receiving-pit. D&mdash;Moulds. E&mdash;Cakes. F&mdash;Liquation
+thorns.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 519]</span></span>
+There are three panels to the furnace&mdash;two at the sides, one in front
+and another at the back. Those which are at the sides are three feet and
+as many palms and two digits long, and two feet high; the front one is
+two feet and a palm and three digits long, and, like the side ones, two
+feet high. Each consists of iron bars, of feet, and of iron plates.
+Those which are at the side have seven bars, the lower and upper of
+which are of the same length as the panels; the former holds up the
+upright bars; the latter is placed upon them; the uprights are five in
+number, and have the same height as the panels; the middle ones are
+inserted into holes in the upper and lower bars; the outer ones are made
+of one and the same bar as the lower and upper ones. They are two digits
+wide and one thick. The front panel has five bars; the lower one holds
+similar uprights, but there are three of them only; the upper bar is
+placed on them. Each of these panels has two feet fixed at each end of
+the lower bar, and these are two palms long, one wide, and a digit
+thick. The iron plates are fastened to the inner side of the bars with
+iron wire, and they are covered with lute, so that they may last longer
+and may be uninjured by the fire. There are, besides, iron blocks three
+palms long, one wide, and a digit and a half thick; the upper surface of
+these is somewhat hollowed out, so that the cakes may stand in them;
+these iron blocks are dipped into a vessel in which there is clay mixed
+with water, and they are used only for placing under the cakes of copper
+and lead alloy made in the furnaces. There is more silver in these than
+in those which are made of liquation thorns, or furnace accretions, or
+re-melted "slags." Two iron blocks are placed under each cake, in order
+that, by raising it up, the fire may bring more force to bear upon it;
+the one is put on the right bed-plate, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_520" id="Page_520"></a>[Pg 520]</span>the other on the left. Finally,
+outside the hearth is the receiving-pit, which is a foot wide and three
+palms deep; when this is worn away it is restored with lute alone, which
+easily retains the lead alloy.</p>
+
+<p>If four liquation cakes are placed on the plates of each furnace, then
+the iron blocks are laid under them; but if the cakes are made from
+copper "bottoms," or from liquation thorns, or from the accretions or
+"slags," of which I have partly written above and will further describe
+a little later, there are five of them, and because they are not so
+large and heavy, no blocks are placed under them. Pieces of charcoal six
+digits long are laid between the cakes, lest they should fall one
+against the other, or lest the last one should fall against the wall
+which protects the third long wall from injury by fire. In the middle
+empty spaces, long and large pieces of charcoal are likewise laid. Then
+when the panels have been set up, and the bar has been closed, the
+furnace is filled with small charcoal, and a wicker basket full of
+charcoal is thrown into the receiving-pit, and over that are thrown live
+coals; soon afterward the burning coal, lifted up in a shovel, is spread
+over all parts of the furnace, so that the charcoal in it may be
+kindled; any charcoal which remains in the receiving-pit is thrown into
+the passage, so that it may likewise be heated. If this has not been
+done, the silver-lead alloy liquated from the cakes is frozen by the
+coldness of the passage, and does not run down into the receiving-pit.</p>
+
+<p>After a quarter of an hour the cakes begin to drip silver-lead
+alloy,<a name="FNanchor_18_352" id="FNanchor_18_352"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_352" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> which runs down through the openings between the copper
+plates into the passage. When the long pieces of charcoal have burned
+up, if the cakes lean toward the wall, they are placed upright again
+with a hooked bar, but if they lean toward the front bar they are
+propped up by charcoal; moreover, if some cakes shrink more than the
+rest, charcoal is added to the former and not to the others. The silver
+drips together with the lead, for both melt more rapidly than copper.
+The liquation thorns do not flow away, but remain in the passage, and
+should be turned over frequently with a hooked bar, in order that the
+silver-lead may liquate away from them and flow down into the receiving
+pit; that which remains is again melted in the blast furnace, while that
+which flows into the receiving pit is at once carried with the remaining
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_521" id="Page_521"></a>[Pg 521]</span>products to the cupellation furnace, where the lead is separated from
+the silver. The hooked bar has an iron handle two feet long, in which is
+set a wooden one four feet long. The silver-lead which runs out into the
+receiving-pit is poured out by the refiner with a bronze ladle into
+eight copper moulds, which are two palms and three digits in diameter;
+these are first smeared with a lute wash so that the cakes of
+silver-lead may more easily fall out when they are turned over. If the
+supply of moulds fails because the silver-lead flows down too rapidly
+into the receiving-pit, then water is poured on them, in order that the
+cakes may cool and be taken out of them more rapidly; thus the same
+moulds may be used again immediately; if no such necessity urges the
+refiner, he washes over the empty moulds with a lute wash. The ladle is
+exactly similar to that which is used in pouring out the metals that are
+melted in the blast furnace. When all the silver-lead has run down from
+the passage into the receiving-pit, and has been poured out into copper
+moulds, the thorns are drawn out of the passage into the receiving-pit
+with a rabble; afterward they are raked on to the ground from the
+receiving-pit, thrown with a shovel into a wheelbarrow, and, having been
+conveyed away to a heap, are melted once again. The blade of the rabble
+is two palms and as many digits long, two palms and a digit wide, and
+joined to its back is an iron handle three feet long; into the iron
+handle is inserted a wooden one as many feet in length.</p>
+
+<p>The residue cakes, after the silver-lead has been liquated from the
+copper, are called "exhausted liquation cakes" (<i>fathiscentes</i>), because
+when thus smelted they appear to be dried up. By placing a crowbar under
+the cakes they are raised up, seized with tongs, and placed in the
+wheelbarrow; they are then conveyed away to the furnace in which they
+are "dried." The crowbar is somewhat similar to those generally used to
+chip off the accretions that adhere to the walls of the blast furnace.
+The tongs are two and a half feet long. With the same crowbar the
+stalactites are chipped off from the copper plates from which they hang,
+and with the same instrument the iron blocks are struck off the
+exhausted liquation cakes to which they adhere. The refiner has
+performed his day's task when he has liquated the silver-lead from
+sixteen of the large cakes and twenty of the smaller ones; if he
+liquates more than this, he is paid separately for it at the price for
+extraordinary work.</p>
+
+<p>Silver, or lead mixed with silver, which we call <i>stannum</i>, is separated
+by the above method from copper. This silver-lead is carried to the
+cupellation furnace, in which lead is separated from silver; of these
+methods I will mention only one, because in the previous book I have
+explained them in detail. Amongst us some years ago only forty-four
+<i>centumpondia</i> of silver-lead and one of copper were melted together in
+the cupellation furnaces, but now they melt forty-six <i>centumpondia</i> of
+silver-lead and one and a half <i>centumpondia</i> of copper; in other
+places, usually a hundred and twenty <i>centumpondia</i> of silver-lead alloy
+and six of copper are melted, in which manner they make about one
+hundred and ten <i>centumpondia</i> more or less of litharge and thirty of
+hearth-lead. But in all these methods the silver which <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_522" id="Page_522"></a>[Pg 522]</span>is in the copper
+is mixed with the remainder of silver; the copper itself, equally with
+the lead, will be changed partly into litharge and partly into
+hearth-lead.<a name="FNanchor_19_353" id="FNanchor_19_353"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_353" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> The silver-lead alloy which does not melt is taken from
+the margin of the crucible with a hooked bar.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig522.jpg"><img src="images/fig522thumb.jpg" alt="Exhausted Liquation Cakes" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Cakes. B&mdash;Hammer.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 522]</span></span>
+The work of "drying" is distributed into four operations, which are
+performed in four days. On the first&mdash;as likewise on the other three
+days&mdash;the master begins at the fourth hour of the morning, and with his
+assistant chips off the stalactites from the exhausted liquation cakes.
+They then carry the cakes to the furnace, and put the stalactites upon
+the heap of liquation thorns. The head of the chipping hammer is three
+palms and as many digits <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_523" id="Page_523"></a>[Pg 523]</span>long; its sharp edge is a palm wide; the round
+end is three digits thick; the wooden handle is four feet long.</p>
+
+<p>The master throws pulverised earth into a small vessel, sprinkles water
+over it, and mixes it; this he pours over the whole hearth, and
+sprinkles charcoal dust over it to the thickness of a digit. If he
+should neglect this, the copper, settling in the passages, would adhere
+to the copper bed-plates, from which it can be chipped off only with
+difficulty; or else it would adhere to the bricks, if the hearth was
+covered with them, and when the copper is chipped off these they are
+easily broken. On the second day, at the same time, the master arranges
+bricks in ten rows; in this manner twelve passages are made. The first
+two rows of bricks are between the first and the second openings on the
+right of the furnace; the next three rows are between the second and
+third openings, the following three rows are between the third and the
+fourth openings, and the last two rows between the fourth and fifth
+openings. These bricks are a foot and a palm long, two palms and a digit
+wide, and a palm and two digits thick; there are seven of these thick
+bricks in a row, so there are seventy all together. Then on the first
+three rows of bricks they lay exhausted liquation cakes and a layer five
+digits thick of large charcoal; then in a similar way more exhausted
+liquation cakes are laid upon the other bricks, and charcoal is thrown
+upon them; in this manner seventy <i>centumpondia</i> of cakes are put on the
+hearth of the furnace. But if half of this weight, or a little more, is
+to be "dried," then four rows of bricks will suffice. Those who dry
+exhausted liquation cakes<a name="FNanchor_20_354" id="FNanchor_20_354"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_354" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> made from copper "bottoms" place ninety or
+a hundred <i>centumpondia</i><a name="FNanchor_21_355" id="FNanchor_21_355"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_355" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> into the furnace at the same time. A place
+is left in the front part of the furnace for the topmost cakes removed
+from the forehearth in which copper is made, these being more suitable
+for supporting the exhausted liquation cakes than are iron plates;
+indeed, if the former cakes drip copper from the heat, this can be taken
+back with the liquation thorns to the first furnace, but melted iron is
+of no use to us in these matters. When the cakes of this kind have been
+placed in front of the exhausted liquation cakes, the workman inserts
+the iron bar into the holes on the inside of the wall, which are at a
+height of three palms and two digits above the hearth; the hole to the
+left penetrates through into the wall, so that the bar may be pushed
+back <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_524" id="Page_524"></a>[Pg 524]</span>and forth. This bar is round, eight feet long and two digits in
+diameter; on the right side it has a haft made of iron, which is about a
+foot from the right end; the aperture in this haft is a palm wide, two
+digits high, and a digit thick. The bar holds the exhausted liquation
+cakes opposite, lest they should fall down. When the operation of
+"drying" is completed, a workman draws out this bar with a crook which
+he inserts into the haft, as I will explain hereafter.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_525" id="Page_525"></a><a href="images/fig525.jpg"><img src="images/fig525thumb.jpg" alt="Drying Furnace for Liquation" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Side walls.
+B&mdash;Front arch. C&mdash;Rear arch. D&mdash;Wall in the rear arch. E&mdash;Inner wall.
+F&mdash;Vent holes. G&mdash;Chimney. H&mdash;Hearth. I&mdash;Tank. K&mdash;Pipe. L&mdash;Plug. M&mdash;Iron
+door. N&mdash;Transverse bars. O&mdash;Upright bars. P&mdash;Plates. Q&mdash;Rings of the
+bars. R&mdash;Chains. S&mdash;Rows of bricks. T&mdash;Bar. V&mdash;Its haft. X&mdash;Copper
+bed-plates.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 525]</span></span>
+In order that one should understand those things of which I have spoken,
+and concerning which I am about to speak, it is necessary for me to give
+some information beforehand about the furnace and how it is to be made.
+It stands nine feet from the fourth long wall, and as far from the wall
+which is between the second and fourth transverse walls. It consists of
+walls, an arch, a chimney, an interior wall, and a hearth; the two walls
+are at the sides; and they are eleven feet three palms and two digits
+long, and where they support the chimney they are eight feet and a palm
+high. At the front of the arch they are only seven feet high; they are
+two feet three palms and two digits thick, and are made either of rock
+or of bricks; the distance between them is eight feet, a palm and two
+digits. There are two of the arches, for the space at the rear between
+the walls is also arched from the ground, in order that it may be able
+to support the chimney; the foundations of these arches are the walls of
+the furnace; the span of the arch has the same length as the space
+between the walls; the top of the arch is five feet, a palm and two
+digits high. In the rear arch there is a wall made of bricks joined with
+lime; this wall at a height of a foot and three palms from the ground
+has five vent-holes, which are two palms and a digit high, a palm and a
+digit wide, of which the first is near the right interior wall, and the
+last near the left interior wall, the remaining three in the intervening
+space; these vent-holes penetrate through the interior of the wall which
+is in the arch. Half-bricks can be placed over the vent-holes, lest too
+much air should be drawn into the furnace, and they can be taken out at
+times, in order that he who is "drying" the exhausted liquation cakes
+may inspect the passages, as they are called, to see whether the cakes
+are being properly "dried." The front arch is three feet two palms
+distant from the rear one; this arch is the same thickness as that of
+the rear arch, but the span is six feet wide; <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_526" id="Page_526"></a>[Pg 526]</span>the interior of the arch
+itself is of the same height as the walls. A chimney is built upon the
+arches and the walls, and is made of bricks joined together with lime;
+it is thirty-six feet high and penetrates through the roof. The interior
+wall is built against the rear arch and both the side walls, from which
+it juts out a foot; it is three feet and the same number of palms high,
+three palms thick, and is made of bricks joined together with lute and
+smeared thickly with lute, sloping up to the height of a foot above it.
+This wall is a kind of shield, for it protects the exterior walls from
+the heat of the fire, which is apt to injure them; the latter cannot be
+easily re-made, while the former can be repaired with little work.</p>
+
+<p>The hearth is made of lute, and is covered either with copper plates,
+such as those of the furnaces in which silver is liquated from copper,
+although they have no protuberances, or it may be covered with bricks,
+if the owners are unwilling to incur the expense of copper plates. The
+wider part of the hearth is made sloping in such a manner that the rear
+end reaches as high as the five vent-holes, and the front end of the
+hearth is so low that the back of the front arch is four feet, three
+palms and as many digits above it, and the front five feet, three palms
+and as many digits. The hearth beyond the furnaces is paved with bricks
+for a distance of six feet. Near the furnace, against the fourth long
+wall, is a tank thirteen feet and a palm long, four feet wide, and a
+foot and three palms deep. It is lined on all sides with planks, lest
+the earth should fall into it; on one side the water flows in through
+pipes, and on the other, if the plug be pulled out, it soaks into the
+earth; into this tank of water are thrown the cakes of copper from which
+the silver and lead have been separated. The fore part of the front
+furnace arch should be partly closed with an iron door; the bottom of
+this door is six feet and two digits wide; the upper part is somewhat
+rounded, and at the highest point, which is in the middle, it is three
+feet and two palms high. It is made of iron bars, with plates fastened
+to them with iron wire, there being seven bars&mdash;three transverse and
+four upright&mdash;each of which is two digits wide and half a digit thick.
+The lowest transverse bar is six feet and two palms long; the middle one
+has the same length; the upper one is curved and higher at the centre,
+and thus longer than the other two. The upright bars are two feet
+distant from one another; both the outer ones are two feet and as many
+palms high; but the centre ones are three feet and two palms. They
+project from the upper curved transverse bar and have holes, in which
+are inserted the hooks of small chains two feet long; the topmost links
+of these chains are engaged in the ring of a third chain, which, when
+extended, reaches to one end of a beam which is somewhat cut out. The
+chain then turns around the beam, and again hanging down, the hook in
+the other end is fastened in one of the links. This beam is eleven feet
+long, a palm and two digits wide, a palm thick, and turns on an iron
+axle fixed in a nearby timber; the rear end of the beam has an iron pin,
+which is three palms and a digit long, and which penetrates through it
+where it lies under a timber, and projects from it a palm and two digits
+on one side, and three digits on the other side. At this point the pin
+is perforated, in order that a ring may be fixed in it <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_527" id="Page_527"></a>[Pg 527]</span>and hold it,
+lest it should fall out of the beam; that end is hardly a digit thick,
+while the other round end is thicker than a digit. When the door is to
+be shut, this pin lies under the timber and holds the door so that it
+cannot fall; the pin likewise prevents the rectangular iron band which
+encircles the end of the beam, and into which is inserted the ring of a
+long hook, from falling from the end. The lowest link of an iron chain,
+which is six feet long, is inserted in the ring of a staple driven into
+the right wall of the furnace, and fixed firmly by filling in with
+molten lead. The hook suspended at the top from the ring should be
+inserted in one of these lower links, when the door is to be raised;
+when the door is to be let down, the hook is taken out of that link and
+put into one of the upper links.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig527.jpg"><img src="images/fig527thumb.jpg" alt="Drying Furnace for Liquation" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;The door let down.
+B&mdash;Bar. C&mdash;Exhausted liquation cakes. D&mdash;Bricks. E&mdash;Tongs.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 527]</span></span>
+On the third day the master sets about the principal operation. First he
+throws a basketful of charcoals on to the ground in front of the hearth,
+and kindles them by adding live coals, and having thrown live coals on
+to the cakes placed within, he spreads them equally all over with an
+iron shovel. The blade of the shovel is three palms and a digit long,
+and three palms wide; its iron handle is two palms long, and the wooden
+one ten feet long, so that it can reach to the rear wall of the furnace.
+The exhausted liquation cakes become incandescent in an hour and a half,
+if the copper was good and hard, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_528" id="Page_528"></a>[Pg 528]</span>or after two hours, if it was soft and
+fragile. The workman adds charcoal to them where he sees it is needed,
+throwing it into the furnace through the openings on both sides between
+the side walls and the closed door. This opening is a foot and a palm
+wide. He lets down the door, and when the "slags" begin to flow he opens
+the passages with a bar; this should take place after five hours; the
+door is let down over the upper open part of the arch for two feet and
+as many digits, so that the master can bear the violence of the heat.
+When the cakes shrink, charcoal should not be added to them lest they
+should melt. If the cakes made from poor and fragile copper are "dried"
+with cakes made from good hard copper, very often the copper so settles
+into the passages that a bar thrust into them cannot penetrate them.
+This bar is of iron, six feet and two palms long, into which a wooden
+handle five feet long is inserted. The refiner draws off the "slags"
+with a rabble from the right side of the hearth. The blade of the rabble
+is made of an iron plate a foot and a palm wide, gradually narrowing
+toward the handle; the blade is two palms high, its iron handle is two
+feet long, and the wooden handle set into it is ten feet long.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig528.jpg"><img src="images/fig528thumb.jpg" alt="Drying Furnace for Liquation" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;The door raised.
+B&mdash;Hooked bar. C&mdash;Two-pronged rake. D&mdash;Tongs. E&mdash;Tank.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 528]</span></span>
+When the exhausted liquation cakes have been "dried," the master <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_529" id="Page_529"></a>[Pg 529]</span>raises
+the door in the manner I have described, and with a long iron hook
+inserted into the haft of the bar he draws it through the hole in the
+left wall from the hole in the right wall; afterward he pushes it back
+and replaces it. The master then takes out the exhausted liquation cakes
+nearest to him with the iron hook; then he pulls out the cakes from the
+bricks. This hook is two palms high, as many digits wide, and one thick;
+its iron handle is two feet long, and the wooden handle eleven feet
+long. There is also a two-pronged rake with which the "dried" cakes are
+drawn over to the left side so that they may be seized with tongs; the
+prongs of the rake are pointed, and are two palms long, as many digits
+wide, and one digit thick; the iron part of the handle is a foot long,
+the wooden part nine feet long. The "dried" cakes, taken out of the
+hearth by the master and his assistants, are seized with other tongs and
+thrown into the rectangular tank, which is almost filled with water.
+These tongs are two feet and three palms long, both the handles are
+round and more than a digit thick, and the ends are bent for a palm and
+two digits; both the jaws are a digit and a half wide in front and
+sharpened; at the back they are a digit thick, and then gradually taper,
+and when closed, the interior is two palms and as many digits wide.</p>
+
+<p>The "dried" cakes which are dripping copper are not immediately dipped
+into the tank, because, if so, they burst in fragments and give out a
+sound like thunder. The cakes are afterward taken out of the tank with
+the tongs, and laid upon the two transverse planks on which the workmen
+stand; the sooner they are taken out the easier it is to chip off the
+copper that has become ash-coloured. Finally, the master, with a spade,
+raises up the bricks a little from the hearth, while they are still
+warm. The blade of the spade is a palm and two digits long, the lower
+edge is sharp, and is a palm and a digit wide, the upper end a palm
+wide; its handle is round, the iron part being two feet long, and the
+wooden part seven and a half feet long.</p>
+
+<p>On the fourth day the master draws out the liquation thorns which have
+settled in the passages; they are much richer in silver than those that
+are made when the silver-lead is liquated from copper in the liquation
+furnace. The "dried" cakes drip but little copper, but nearly all their
+remaining silver-lead and the thorns consist of it, for, indeed, in one
+<i>centumpondium</i> of "dried" copper there should remain only half an
+<i>uncia</i> of silver, and there sometimes remain only three <i>drachmae</i>.<a name="FNanchor_22_356" id="FNanchor_22_356"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_356" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>
+Some smelters chip off the metal adhering to the bricks with a hammer,
+in order that it may be melted again; others, however, crush the bricks
+under the stamps and wash them, and the copper and lead thus collected
+is melted again. The master, when he has taken these things away and put
+them in their places, has finished his day's work.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_530" id="Page_530"></a><a href="images/fig530.jpg"><img src="images/fig530thumb.jpg" alt="Dried Liquation Cakes" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Tank. B&mdash;Board. C&mdash;Tongs.
+D&mdash;"Dried" cakes taken out of the tanks. E&mdash;Block. F&mdash;Rounded hammer.
+G&mdash;Pointed hammer.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 530]</span></span>
+The assistants take the "dried" cakes out of the tank on the next day,
+place them on an oak block, and first pound them with rounded hammers in
+order that the ash-coloured copper may fall away from them, <span class="pagenum">[Pg 530]</span>and then
+they dig out with pointed picks the holes in the cakes, which contain
+the same kind of copper. The head of the round hammer is three palms and
+a digit long; one end of the head is round and two digits long and
+thick; the other end is chisel-shaped, and is two digits and a half
+long. The sharp pointed hammer is the same length as the round hammer,
+but one end is pointed, the other end is square, and gradually tapers to
+a point.</p>
+
+<p>The nature of copper is such that when it is "dried" it becomes ash
+coloured, and since this copper contains silver, it is smelted again in
+the blast furnaces.<a name="FNanchor_23_357" id="FNanchor_23_357"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_357" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_532" id="Page_532"></a><a href="images/fig532.jpg"><img src="images/fig532thumb.jpg" alt="Copper Refining Furnace" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Hearth of the furnace.
+B&mdash;Chimney. C&mdash;Common pillar. D&mdash;Other pillars. The partition wall is
+behind the common pillar and not to be seen. E&mdash;Arches. F&mdash;Little walls
+which protect the partition wall from injury by the fire. G&mdash;Crucibles.
+H&mdash;Second long wall. I&mdash;Door. K&mdash;Spatula. L&mdash;The other spatula. M&mdash;The
+broom in which is inserted a stick. N&mdash;Pestles. O&mdash;Wooden mallet.
+P&mdash;Plate. Q&mdash;Stones. R&mdash;Iron rod.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 532]</span></span>
+I have described sufficiently the method by which exhausted liquation
+cakes are "dried"; now I will speak of the method by which they are made
+into copper after they have been "dried." These cakes, in order that
+they may recover the appearance of copper which they have to some extent
+lost, are melted in four furnaces, which are placed against the second
+long wall in the part of the building between the second and third
+transverse walls. This space is sixty-three feet and two palms long, and
+since each of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_531" id="Page_531"></a>[Pg 531]</span>these furnaces occupies thirteen feet, the space which is
+on the right side of the first furnace, and on the left of the fourth,
+are each three feet and three palms wide, and the distance between the
+second and third furnace is six feet. In the middle of each of these
+three spaces is a door, a foot and a half wide and six feet high, and
+the middle one is common to the master of each of the furnaces. Each
+furnace has its own chimney, which rises between the two long walls
+mentioned above, and is supported by two arches and a partition wall.
+The partition wall is between the two furnaces, and is five feet long,
+ten feet high, and two feet thick; in front of it is a pillar belonging
+in common to the front arches of the furnace on either side, which is
+two feet and as many palms thick, three feet and a half wide. The front
+arch reaches from this common pillar to another pillar that is common to
+the side arch of the same furnace; this arch on the right spans from the
+second long wall to the same pillar, which is two feet and as many palms
+wide and thick at the bottom. The interior of the front arch is nine
+feet and a palm wide, and eight feet high at its highest point; the
+interior of the arch which is on the right side, is five feet and a palm
+wide, and of equal height to the other, and both the arches are built of
+the same height as the partition wall. Imposed upon these arches and the
+partition wall are the walls of the chimney; these slope upward, and
+thus contract, so that at the upper part, where the fumes are emitted,
+the opening is eight feet in length, one foot and three palms in width.
+The fourth wall of the chimney is built vertically upon the second long
+wall. As the partition wall is common to the two furnaces, so its
+superstructure is common to the two chimneys. In this sensible manner
+the chimney is built. At the front each furnace is six feet two palms
+long, and three feet two palms wide, and a cubit high; the back of each
+furnace is against the second long wall, the front being open. The first
+furnace is open and sloping at the right side, so that the slags may be
+drawn out; the left side is against the partition wall, and has a little
+wall built of bricks cemented together with lute; this little wall
+protects the partition wall from injury by the fire. On the contrary,
+the second furnace has the left side open and the right side is against
+the partition wall, where also it has its own little wall which protects
+the partition wall from the fire. The front of each furnace is built of
+rectangular rocks; the interior of it is filled up with earth. Then in
+each of the furnaces at the rear, against the second long wall, is an
+aperture through an arch at the back, and in these are fixed the copper
+pipes. Each furnace has a round pit, two feet and as many palms wide,
+built three feet away from the partition wall. Finally, under the pit of
+the furnace, at a depth of a cubit, is the hidden receptacle for
+moisture, similar to the others, whose vent penetrates through the
+second long wall and slopes upward to the right from the first furnace,
+and to the left from the second. If copper is to be made the next day,
+then the master cuts out the crucible with a spatula, the blade of which
+is three digits wide and as many palms long, the iron handle being two
+feet long and one and a half digits in diameter; the wooden handle
+inserted into it is round, five feet long and two digits in diameter.
+Then, with another cutting spatula, he makes the crucible <span class="pagenum">[Pg 532]</span>smooth; the
+blade of this spatula is a palm wide and two palms long; its handle,
+partly of iron, partly of wood, is similar in every respect to the first
+one. Afterward he throws pulverised clay and charcoal into the crucible,
+pours water over it, and sweeps it over with a broom into which a stick
+is fixed. Then immediately he throws into the crucible a powder, made of
+two wheelbarrowsful of sifted charcoal dust, as many wheelbarrowsful of
+pulverised clay likewise sifted, and six basketsful of river sand which
+has passed through a very fine sieve. This powder, like that used by
+smelters, is sprinkled with water and moistened before it is put into
+the crucible, so that it may be fashioned by the hands into shapes
+similar to snowballs. When it has been put in, the master first kneads
+it and makes it smooth with his hands, and then pounds it with two
+wooden pestles, each of which is a cubit long; each pestle has a round
+head at each end, but one of these is a palm in diameter, the other
+three digits; both are thinner in the middle, so that they may be held
+in the hand. Then he again throws moistened <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_533" id="Page_533"></a>[Pg 533]</span>powder into the crucible,
+and again makes it smooth with his hands, and kneads it with his fists
+and with the pestles; then, pushing upward and pressing with his
+fingers, he makes the edge of the crucible smooth. After the crucible
+has been made smooth, he sprinkles in dry charcoal dust, and again
+pounds it with the same pestles, at first with the narrow heads, and
+afterward with the wider ones. Then he pounds the crucible with a wooden
+mallet two feet long, both heads of which are round and three digits in
+diameter; its wooden handle is two palms long, and one and a half digits
+in diameter. Finally, he throws into the crucible as much pure sifted
+ashes as both hands can hold, and pours water into it, and, taking an
+old linen rag, he smears the crucible over with the wet ashes. The
+crucible is round and sloping. If copper is to be made from the best
+quality of "dried" cakes, it is made two feet wide and one deep, but if
+from other cakes, it is made a cubit wide and two palms deep. The master
+also has an iron band curved at both ends, two palms long and as many
+digits wide, and with this he cuts off the edges of the crucible if they
+are higher than is necessary. The copper pipe is inclined, and projects
+three digits from the wall, and has its upper end and both sides smeared
+thick with lute, that it may not be burned; but the underside of the
+pipe is smeared thinly with lute, for this side reaches almost to the
+edge of the crucible, and when the crucible is full the molten copper
+touches it. The wall above the pipe is smeared over with lute, lest that
+should be damaged. He does the same to the other side of an iron plate,
+which is a foot and three palms long and a foot high; this stands on
+stones near the crucible at the side where the hearth slopes, in order
+that the slag may run out under it. Others do not place the plates upon
+stones, but cut out of the plate underneath a small piece, three digits
+long and three digits wide; lest the plate should fall, it is supported
+by an iron rod fixed in the wall at a height of two palms and the same
+number of digits, and it projects from the wall three palms.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p>Then with an iron shovel, whose wooden handle is six feet long, he
+throws live charcoal into the crucible; or else charcoal, kindled by
+means of a few live coals, is added to them. Over the live charcoal he
+lays "dried" cakes, which, if they were of copper of the first quality,
+weigh all together three <i>centumpondia</i>, or three and a half
+<i>centumpondia</i>; but if they were of copper of the second quality, then
+two and a half <i>centumpondia</i>; if they were of the third quality, then
+two <i>centumpondia</i> only; but if they were of copper of very superior
+quality, then they place upon it six <i>centumpondia</i>, and in this case
+they make the crucible wider and deeper.<a name="FNanchor_24_358" id="FNanchor_24_358"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_358" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> The lowest "dried" cake is
+placed at a distance of two palms from the pipe, the rest at a greater
+distance, and when the lower ones are melted the upper ones fall down
+and get nearer to the pipe; if they do not fall down they must be pushed
+with a shovel. The blade of the shovel is a foot long, three palms and
+two digits wide, the iron part of the handle is two palms long, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_534" id="Page_534"></a>[Pg 534]</span>wooden part nine feet. Round about the "dried" cakes are placed large
+long pieces of charcoal, and in the pipe are placed medium-sized pieces.
+When all these things have been arranged in this manner, the fire must
+be more violently excited by the blast from the bellows.
+When the copper
+is melting and the coals blaze, the master pushes an iron bar into the
+middle of them in order that they may receive the air, and that the
+flame can force its way out. This pointed bar is two and a half feet
+long, and its wooden handle four feet long. When the cakes are partly
+melted, the master, passing out through the door, inspects the crucible
+through the bronze pipe, and if he should find that too much of the
+"slag" is adhering to the mouth of the pipe, and thus impeding the blast
+of the bellows, he inserts the hooked iron bar into the pipe through the
+nozzle of the bellows, and, turning this about the mouth of the pipe, he
+removes the "slags" from it. The hook on this bar is two digits high;
+the iron part of the handle is three feet long; the wooden part is the
+same number of palms long. Now it is time to insert the bar under the
+iron plate, in order that the "slags" may flow out.
+<span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig534.jpg"><img src="images/fig534thumb.jpg" alt="Copper Refining" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Pointed bar. B&mdash;Thin copper
+layer. C&mdash;Anvil. D&mdash;Hammer.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 534]</span></span>
+When the cakes,
+being all melted, have run into the crucible, he takes out a sample of
+copper with the third round bar, which is made wholly of iron, and is
+three feet long, a digit thick, and has a steel point lest its pores
+should absorb the copper. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_535" id="Page_535"></a>[Pg 535]</span>When he has compressed the bellows, he
+introduces this bar as quickly as possible into the crucible through the
+pipe between the two nozzles, and takes out samples two, three, or four
+times, until he finds that the copper is perfectly refined. If the
+copper is good it adheres easily to the bar, and two samples suffice; if
+it is not good, then many are required. It is necessary to smelt it in
+the crucible until the copper adhering to the bar is seen to be of a
+brassy colour, and if the upper as well as the lower part of the thin
+layer of copper may be easily broken, it signifies that the copper is
+perfectly melted; he places the point of the bar on a small iron anvil,
+and chips off the thin layer of copper from it with a hammer.<a name="FNanchor_25_359" id="FNanchor_25_359"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_359" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p>If the copper is not good, the master draws off the "slags" twice, or
+three times if necessary&mdash;the first time when some of the cakes have
+been melted, the second when all have melted, the third time when the
+copper has been heated for some time. If the copper was of good quality,
+the "slags" are not drawn off before the operation is finished, but at
+the time they are to be drawn off, he depresses the bar over both
+bellows, and places over both a stick, a cubit long and a palm wide,
+half cut away at the upper part, so that it may pass under the iron pin
+fixed at the back in the perforated wood. This he does likewise when the
+copper has been completely melted. Then the assistant removes the iron
+plate with the tongs; these tongs are four feet three palms long, their
+jaws are about a foot in length, and their straight part measures two
+palms and three digits, and the curved a palm and a digit. The same
+assistant, with the iron shovel, throws and heaps up the larger pieces
+of charcoal into that part of the hearth which is against the little
+wall which protects the other wall from injury by fire, and partly
+extinguishes them by pouring water over them. The master, with a hazel
+stick inserted <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_536" id="Page_536"></a>[Pg 536]</span>into the crucible, stirs it twice. Afterward he draws
+off the slags with a rabble, which consists of an iron blade, wide and
+sharp, and of alder-wood; the blade is a digit and a half in width and
+three feet long; the wooden handle inserted in its hollow part is the
+same number of feet long, and the alder-wood in which the blade is fixed
+must have the figure of a rhombus; it must be three palms and a digit
+long, a palm and two digits wide, and a palm thick. Subsequently he
+takes a broom and sweeps the charcoal dust and small coal over the whole
+of the crucible, lest the copper should cool before it flows together;
+then, with a third rabble, he cuts off the slags which may adhere to the
+edge of the crucible. The blade of this rabble is two palms long and a
+palm and one digit wide, the iron part of the handle is a foot and three
+palms long, the wooden part six feet. Afterward he again draws off the
+slags from the crucible, which the assistant does not quench by pouring
+water upon them, as the other slags are usually quenched, but he
+sprinkles over them a little water and allows them to cool. If the
+copper should bubble, he presses down the bubbles with the rabble. Then
+he pours water on the wall and the pipes, that it may flow down warm
+into the crucible, for, the copper, if cold water were to be poured over
+it while still hot, would spatter about. If a stone, or a piece of lute
+or wood, or a damp coal should then fall into it, the crucible would
+vomit out all the copper with a loud noise like thunder, and whatever it
+touches it injures and sets on fire.
+<span class="figleft"><a name="Page_537" id="Page_537"></a><a href="images/fig537.jpg"><img src="images/fig537thumb.jpg" alt="Copper Refining" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Crucible. B&mdash;Board.
+C&mdash;Wedge-shaped bar. D&mdash;Cakes of copper made by separating them with the
+wedge-shaped bar. E&mdash;Tongs. F&mdash;Tub.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 537]</span></span>
+Subsequently he lays a curved board
+with a notch in it over the front part of the crucible; it is two feet
+long, a palm and two digits wide, and a digit thick. Then the copper in
+the crucible should be divided into cakes with an iron wedge-shaped bar;
+this is three feet long, two digits wide, and steeled on the end for the
+distance of two digits, and its wooden handle is three feet long. He
+places this bar on the notched board, and, driving it into the copper,
+moves <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_538" id="Page_538"></a>[Pg 538]</span>it forward and back, and by this means the water flows into the
+vacant space in the copper, and he separates the cake from the rest of
+the mass. If the copper is not perfectly smelted the cakes will be too
+thick, and cannot be taken out of the crucible easily. Each cake is
+afterward seized by the assistant with the tongs and plunged into the
+water in the tub; the first one is placed aside so that the master may
+re-melt it again immediately, for, since some "slags" adhere to it, it
+is not as perfect as the subsequent ones; indeed, if the copper is not
+of good quality, he places the first two cakes aside. Then, again
+pouring water over the wall and the pipes, he separates out the second
+cake, which the assistant likewise immerses in water and places on the
+ground together with the others separated out in the same way, which he
+piles upon them. These, if the copper was of good quality, should be
+thirteen or more in number; if it was not of good quality, then fewer.
+If the copper was of good quality, this part of the operation, which
+indeed is distributed into four parts, is accomplished by the master in
+two hours; if of mediocre quality, in two and a half hours; if of bad
+quality, in three. The "dried" cakes are re-melted, first in the first
+crucible and then in the second. The assistant must, as quickly as
+possible, quench all the cakes with water, after they have been cut out
+of the second crucible. Afterward with the tongs he replaces in its
+proper place the iron plate which was in front of the furnace, and
+throws the charcoal back into the crucible with a shovel. Meanwhile the
+master, continuing his work, removes the wooden stick from the bars of
+the bellows, so that in re-melting the other cakes he may accomplish the
+third part of his process; this must be carefully done, for if a
+particle from any iron implement should by chance fall into the
+crucible, or should be thrown in by any malevolent person, the copper
+could not be made until the iron had been consumed, and therefore double
+labour would have to be expended upon it. Finally, the assistant
+extinguishes all the glowing coals, and chips off the dry lute from the
+mouth of the copper pipe with a hammer; one end of this hammer is
+pointed, the other round, and it has a wooden handle five feet long.
+Because there is danger that the copper would be scattered if the
+<i>pompholyx</i> and <i>spodos</i>, which adhere to the walls and the hood erected
+upon them, should fall into the crucible, he cleans them off in the
+meantime. Every week he takes the copper flowers out of the tub, after
+having poured off the water, for these fall into it from the cakes when
+they are quenched.<a name="FNanchor_26_360" id="FNanchor_26_360"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_360" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_539" id="Page_539"></a>[Pg 539]</span></p><p>The bellows which this master uses differ in size from the others, for
+the boards are seven and a half feet long; the back part is three feet
+wide; the front, where the head is joined on is a foot, two palms and as
+many digits. The head is a cubit and a digit long; the back part of it
+is a cubit and a palm wide, and then becomes gradually narrower. The
+nozzles of the bellows are bound together by means of an iron chain,
+controlled by a thick bar, one end of which penetrates into the ground
+against the back of the long wall, and the other end passes under the
+beam which is laid upon the foremost perforated beams. These nozzles are
+so placed in a copper pipe that they are at a distance of a palm from
+the mouth; the mouth should be made three digits in diameter, that the
+air may be violently expelled through this narrow aperture.</p>
+
+<p>There now remain the liquation thorns, the ash-coloured copper, the
+"slags," and the <i>cadmia</i>.<a name="FNanchor_27_361" id="FNanchor_27_361"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_361" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> Liquation cakes are made from thorns in
+the following manner.<a name="FNanchor_28_362" id="FNanchor_28_362"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_362" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> There are taken three-quarters of a
+<i>centumpondium</i> of thorns, which have their origin from the cakes of
+copper-lead alloy when lead-silver is liquated, and as many parts of a
+<i>centumpondium</i> of the thorns derived from cakes made from once
+re-melted thorns by the same method, and to them are added a
+<i>centumpondium</i> of de-silverized lead and half a <i>centumpondium</i> of
+hearth-lead. If there is in the works plenty of litharge, it is
+substituted for the de-silverized lead. One and a half <i>centumpondia</i> of
+litharge and hearth-lead is added to the same weight of primary thorns,
+and half a <i>centumpondium</i> of thorns which have their origin from
+liquation cakes composed of thorns twice re-melted by the same method
+(tertiary thorns), and a fourth part of a <i>centumpondium</i> of thorns
+which are produced <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_540" id="Page_540"></a>[Pg 540]</span>when the exhausted liquation cakes are "dried." By
+both methods one single liquation cake is made from three
+<i>centumpondia</i>. In this manner the smelter makes every day fifteen
+liquation cakes, more or less; he takes great care that the metallic
+substances, from which the first liquation cake is made, flow down
+properly and in due order into the forehearth, before the material of
+which the subsequent cake is to be made. Five of these liquation cakes
+are put simultaneously into the furnace in which silver-lead is liquated
+from copper, they weigh almost fourteen <i>centumpondia</i>, and the "slags"
+made therefrom usually weigh quite a <i>centumpondium</i>. In all the
+liquation cakes together there is usually one <i>libra</i> and nearly two
+<i>unciae</i> of silver, and in the silver-lead which drips from those cakes,
+and weighs seven and a half <i>centumpondia</i>, there is in each an <i>uncia</i>
+and a half of silver. In each of the three <i>centumpondia</i> of liquation
+thorns there is almost an <i>uncia</i> of silver, and in the two
+<i>centumpondia</i> and a quarter of exhausted liquation cakes there is
+altogether one and a half <i>unciae</i>; yet this varies greatly for each
+variety of thorns, for in the thorns produced from primary liquation
+cakes made of copper and lead when silver-lead is liquated from the
+copper, and those produced in "drying" the exhausted liquation cakes,
+there are almost two <i>unciae</i> of silver; in the others not quite an
+<i>uncia</i>. There are other thorns besides, of which I will speak a little
+further on.</p>
+
+<p>Those in the Carpathian Mountains who make liquation cakes from the
+copper "bottoms" which remain after the upper part of the copper is
+divided from the lower, in the furnace similar to an oven, produce
+thorns when the poor or mediocre silver-lead is liquated from the
+copper. These, together with those made of cakes of re-melted thorns, or
+made with re-melted litharge, are placed in a heap by themselves; but
+those that are made from cakes melted from hearth-lead are placed in a
+heap separate from the first, and likewise those produced from "drying"
+the exhausted liquation cakes are placed separately; from these thorns
+liquation cakes are made. From the first heap they take the fourth part
+of a <i>centumpondium</i>, from the second the same amount, from the third a
+<i>centumpondium</i>,&mdash;to which thorns are added one and a half
+<i>centumpondia</i> of litharge and half a <i>centumpondium</i> of hearth-lead,
+and from these, melted in the blast furnace, a liquation cake is made;
+each workman makes twenty such cakes every day. But of theirs enough has
+been said for the present; I will return to ours.</p>
+
+<p>The ash-coloured copper<a name="FNanchor_29_363" id="FNanchor_29_363"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_363" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> which is chipped off, as I have stated, from
+the "dried" cakes, used some years ago to be mixed with the thorns
+produced from liquation of the copper-lead alloy, and contained in
+themselves, equally with the first, two <i>unciae</i> of silver; but now it
+is mixed with the concentrates washed from the accretions and the other
+material. The inhabitants of the Carpathian Mountains melt this kind of
+copper in furnaces in which are re-melted the "slags" which flow out
+when the copper is refined; but as this soon melts and flows down out of
+the furnace, two workmen are required for <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_541" id="Page_541"></a>[Pg 541]</span>the work of smelting, one of
+whom smelts, while the other takes out the thick cakes from the
+forehearth. These cakes are only "dried," and from the "dried" cakes
+copper is again made.</p>
+
+<p>The "slags"<a name="FNanchor_30_364" id="FNanchor_30_364"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_364" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> are melted continually day and night, whether they have
+been drawn off from the alloyed metals with a rabble, or whether they
+adhered to the forehearth to the thickness of a digit and made it
+smaller and were taken off with spatulas. In this manner two or three
+liquation cakes are made, and afterward much or little of the "slag,"
+skimmed from the molten alloy of copper and lead, is re-melted. Such
+liquation cakes should weigh up to three <i>centumpondia</i>, in each of
+which there is half an <i>uncia</i> of silver. Five cakes are placed at the
+same time in the furnace in which argentiferous lead is liquated from
+copper, and from these are made lead which contains half an <i>uncia</i> of
+silver to the <i>centumpondium</i>. The exhausted liquation cakes are laid
+upon the other baser exhausted liquation cakes, from both of which
+yellow copper is made. The base thorns thus obtained are re-melted with
+a few baser "slags," after having been sprinkled with concentrates from
+furnace accretions and other material, and in this manner six or seven
+liquation cakes are made, each of which weighs some two <i>centumpondia</i>.
+Five of these are placed at the same time in the furnace in which
+silver-lead is liquated from copper; these drip three <i>centumpondia</i> of
+lead, each of which contains half an <i>uncia</i> of silver. The basest
+thorns thus produced should be re-melted with only a little "slag." The
+copper alloyed with lead, which flows down from the furnace into the
+forehearth, is poured out with a ladle into oblong copper moulds; these
+cakes are "dried" with base exhausted liquation cakes. The thorns they
+produce are added to the base thorns, and they are made into cakes
+according to the method I have described. From the "dried" cakes they
+make copper, of which some add a small portion to the best "dried" cakes
+when copper is made from them, in order that by mixing the base copper
+with the good it may be sold without loss. The "slags," if they are
+utilisable, are re-melted a second and a third time, the cakes made from
+them are "dried," and from the "dried" cakes is made copper, which is
+mixed with the good copper. The "slags," drawn off by the master who
+makes copper out of "dried" cakes, are sifted, and those which fall
+through the sieve into a vessel placed underneath are washed; those
+which remain in it are emptied into a wheelbarrow and wheeled away to
+the blast furnaces, and they are re-melted together with other "slags,"
+over which are sprinkled the concentrates from washing the slags or
+furnace accretions made at this time. The copper which flows out <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_542" id="Page_542"></a>[Pg 542]</span>of the
+furnace into the forehearth, is likewise dipped out with a ladle into
+oblong copper moulds; in this way nine or ten cakes are made, which are
+"dried," together with bad exhausted liquation cakes, and from these
+"dried" cakes yellow<a name="FNanchor_31_365" id="FNanchor_31_365"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_365" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> copper is made.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_543" id="Page_543"></a><a href="images/fig543.jpg"><img src="images/fig543thumb.jpg" alt="Copper Refining" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnace. B&mdash;Forehearth.
+C&mdash;Oblong moulds.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 543]</span></span>
+The <i>cadmia</i>,<a name="FNanchor_32_366" id="FNanchor_32_366"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_366" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> as it is called by us, is made from the "slags" which
+the master, who makes copper from "dried" cakes, draws off together with
+other re-melted base "slags"; for, indeed, if the copper cakes made from
+such "slags" are broken, the fragments are called <i>cadmia</i>; from this
+and yellow copper is made <i>caldarium</i> copper in two ways. For either two
+parts of <i>cadmia</i> are mixed with one of yellow copper in the blast
+furnaces, and melted; or, on the contrary, two parts of yellow copper
+with one of <i>cadmia</i>, so that the <i>cadmia</i> and yellow copper may be well
+mixed; and the copper which flows down from the furnace into the
+forehearth is poured out with a ladle into oblong copper moulds heated
+beforehand. These moulds are sprinkled over with charcoal dust before
+the <i>caldarium</i> copper is to be poured into them, and the same dust is
+sprinkled over the copper when it is poured in, lest the <i>cadmia</i> and
+yellow copper should freeze before they have become well mixed. With a
+piece of wood the assistant cleanses each cake from the dust, when it is
+turned out of the mould. Then he throws it into the tub containing hot
+water, for the <i>caldarium</i> copper is finer if quenched in hot water. But
+as I have so often made mention of the oblong copper moulds, I must now
+speak of them a little; they are a foot and a palm long, the inside is
+three palms and a digit wide at the top, and they are rounded at the
+bottom.</p>
+
+<p>The concentrates are of two kinds&mdash;precious and base.<a name="FNanchor_33_367" id="FNanchor_33_367"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_367" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> The first are
+obtained from the accretions of the blast furnace, when liquation cakes
+are made from copper and lead, or from precious liquation thorns, or
+from the better quality "slags," or from the best grade of concentrates,
+or from the sweepings and bricks of the furnaces in which exhausted
+liquation cakes are "dried"; all of these things are crushed and washed,
+as I explained in <a href="#BOOK_VIII">Book VIII</a>. The base concentrates are made from
+accretions formed when cakes are cast from base thorns or from the worst
+quality of slags. The smelter who makes liquation cakes from the
+precious concentrates, adds to them three wheelbarrowsful of litharge
+and four barrowsful of hearth-lead and one of ash-coloured copper, from
+all of which nine or ten liquation cakes are melted out, of which five
+at a time are placed in the furnace in which silver-lead is liquated
+from copper; a <i>centumpondium</i> of the lead which drips from these cakes
+contains one <i>uncia</i> of silver. The liquation thorns are <span class="pagenum">[Pg 543]</span>placed apart
+by themselves, of which one basketful is mixed with the precious thorns
+to be re-melted. The exhausted liquation cakes are "dried" at the same
+time as other good exhausted liquation cakes.</p>
+
+<p>The thorns which are drawn off from the lead, when it is separated from
+silver in the cupellation furnace<a name="FNanchor_34_368" id="FNanchor_34_368"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_368" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>, and the hearth-lead which remains
+in the crucible in the middle part of the furnaces, together with the
+hearth material which has become defective and has absorbed silver-lead,
+are all melted together with a little slag in the blast furnaces. The
+lead, or rather the silver-lead, which flows from the furnace into the
+forehearth, is poured out into copper moulds such as are used by the
+refiners; a <i>centumpondium</i> of such lead contains four <i>unciae</i> of
+silver, or, if the hearth was defective, it contains more. A small
+portion of this material is added to the copper and lead when liquation
+cakes are made from them, if more were to be added the alloy would be
+much richer than it should be, for which reason the wise <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_544" id="Page_544"></a>[Pg 544]</span>foreman of the
+works mixes these thorns with other precious thorns. The hearth-lead
+which remains in the middle of the crucible, and the hearth material
+which absorbs silver-lead, is mixed with other hearth-lead which remains
+in the cupellation furnace crucible; and yet some cakes, made rich in
+this manner, may be placed again in the cupellation furnaces, together
+with the rest of the silver-lead cakes which the refiner has made.</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants of the Carpathian Mountains, if they have an abundance
+of finely crushed copper<a name="FNanchor_35_369" id="FNanchor_35_369"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_369" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> or lead either made from "slags," or
+collected from the furnace in which the exhausted liquation cakes are
+dried, or litharge, alloy them in various ways. The "first" alloy
+consists of two <i>centumpondia</i> of lead melted out of thorns, litharge,
+and thorns made from hearth-lead, and of half a <i>centumpondium</i> each of
+lead collected in the furnace in which exhausted liquation cakes are
+"dried," and of copper <i>minutum</i>, and from these are made liquation
+cakes; the task of the smelter is finished when he has made forty
+liquation cakes of this kind. The "second" alloy consists of two
+<i>centumpondia</i> of litharge, of one and a quarter <i>centumpondia</i> of
+de-silverized lead or lead from "slags," and of half a <i>centumpondium</i>
+of lead made from thorns, and of as much copper <i>minutum</i>. The "third"
+alloy consists of three <i>centumpondia</i> of litharge and of half a
+<i>centumpondium</i> each of de-silverized lead, of lead made from thorns,
+and of copper <i>minutum contusum</i>. Liquation cakes are made from all
+these alloys; the task of the smelters is finished when they have made
+thirty cakes.</p>
+
+<p>The process by which cakes are made among the Tyrolese, from which they
+separate the silver-lead, I have explained in <a href="#BOOK_IX">Book IX</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Silver is separated from iron in the following manner. Equal portions of
+iron scales and filings and of <i>stibium</i> are thrown into an earthenware
+crucible which, when covered with a lid and sealed, is placed in a
+furnace, into which air is blown. When this has melted and again cooled,
+the crucible is broken; the button that settles in the bottom of it,
+when taken out, is pounded to powder, and the same weight of lead being
+added, is mixed and melted in a second crucible; at last this button is
+placed in a cupel and the lead is separated from the silver.<a name="FNanchor_36_370" id="FNanchor_36_370"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_370" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p>
+
+<p>There are a great variety of methods by which one metal is separated
+from other metals, and the manner in which the same are alloyed I have
+explained partly in the eighth book of <i>De Natura Fossilium</i>, and partly
+I will explain elsewhere. Now I will proceed to the remainder of my
+subject.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p class="center">END OF BOOK XI.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_491" id="Notes_491">[Pg 491]</a></span><a name="Footnote_1_336" id="Footnote_1_336"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_336"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The whole of this Book is devoted to the subject of the
+separation of silver from copper by liquation, except pages <a href="#Page_530">530</a>-<a href="#Page_539">9</a> on
+copper refining, and page <a href="#Page_544">544</a> on the separation of silver from iron. We
+believe a brief outline of the liquation process here will refresh the
+mind of the reader, and enable him to peruse the Book with more
+satisfaction. The fundamental principle of the process is that if a
+copper-lead alloy, containing a large excess of lead, be heated in a
+reducing atmosphere, above the melting point of lead but below that of
+copper, the lead will liquate out and carry with it a large proportion
+of the silver. As the results are imperfect, the process cannot be
+carried through in one operation, and a large amount of bye-products is
+created which must be worked up subsequently. The process, as here
+described, falls into six stages. 1st, Melting the copper and lead in a
+blast furnace to form "liquation cakes"&mdash;that is, the "leading." If the
+copper contain too little silver to warrant liquation directly, then the
+copper is previously enriched by melting and drawing off from a settling
+pot the less argentiferous "tops" from the metal, liquation cakes being
+made from the enriched "bottoms." 2nd, Liquation of the argentiferous
+lead from the copper. This work was carried out in a special furnace, to
+which the admission of air was prevented as much as possible in order to
+prevent oxidation. 3rd, "Drying" the residual copper, which retained
+some lead, in a furnace with a free admission of air. The temperature
+was raised to a higher degree than in the liquation furnace, and the
+expelled lead was oxidized. 4th, Cupellation of the argentiferous lead.
+5th, Refining of the residual copper from the "drying" furnace by
+oxidation of impurities and poling in a "refining furnace." 6th,
+Re-alloy and re-liquation of the bye-products. These consist of: <i>a</i>,
+"slags" from "leading"; <i>b</i>, "slags" from "drying"; <i>c</i>, "slags" from
+refining of the copper. All of these "slags" were mainly lead oxides,
+containing some cuprous oxides and silica from the furnace linings; <i>d</i>,
+"thorns" from liquation; <i>e</i>, "thorns" from "drying"; <i>f</i>, "thorns" from
+skimmings during cupellation; these were again largely lead oxides, but
+contained rather more copper and less silica than the "slags"; <i>g</i>,
+"ash-coloured copper," being scales from the "dried" copper, were
+cuprous oxides, containing considerable lead oxides; <i>h</i>, concentrates
+from furnace accretions, crushed bricks, &amp;c.
+</p><p>
+The discussion of detailed features of the process has been reserved to
+notes attached to the actual text, to which the reader is referred. As
+to the general result of liquation, Karsten (see <a href="#KARSTEN">below</a>) estimates the
+losses in the liquation of the equivalent of 100 lbs. of argentiferous
+copper to amount to 32-35 lbs. of lead and 5 to 6 lbs. of copper. Percy
+(see <a href="#PERCY">below</a>) quotes results at Lautenthal in the Upper Harz for the years
+1857-60, showing losses of 25% of the silver, 9.1% of the copper, and
+36.37 lbs. of lead to the 100 lbs. of copper, or say, 16% of the lead;
+and a cost of �8 6s. per ton of copper. The theoretical considerations
+involved in liquation have not been satisfactorily determined. Those who
+may wish to pursue the subject will find repeated descriptions and much
+discussion in the following works, which have been freely consulted in
+the notes which follow upon particular features of the process. It may
+be mentioned that Agricola's treatment of the subject is more able than
+any down to the 18th century. Ercker (<i>Beschreibung Allerf�rnemsten
+Mineralischen</i>, etc., Prague, 1574). Lohneys (<i>Bericht vom Bergwercken</i>,
+etc., Zellerfeldt, 1617). Schl�ter (<i>Gr�ndlicher Unterricht <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_492" id="Notes_492">[Pg 492]</a></span>von
+H�tte-Werken</i>, Braunschweig, 1738). <a name="KARSTEN" id="KARSTEN"></a><i>Karsten</i> (<i>System der Metallurgie
+V.</i> and <i>Archiv f�r Bergbau und H�ttenwesen</i>, 1st series, 1825).
+Berthier (<i>Annales des Mines</i>, 1825, II.). <a name="PERCY" id="PERCY"></a>Percy (Metallurgy of Silver
+and Gold, London, 1880).
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Nomenclature.</span>&mdash;This process held a very prominent position in German
+metallurgy for over four centuries, and came to have a well-defined
+nomenclature of its own, which has never found complete equivalents in
+English, our metallurgical writers to the present day adopting more or
+less of the German terms. Agricola apparently found no little difficulty
+in adapting Latin words to his purpose, but stubbornly adhered to his
+practice of using no German at the expense of long explanatory clauses.
+The following table, prepared for convenience in translation, is
+reproduced. The German terms are spelled after the manner used in most
+English metallurgies, some of them appear in Agricola's Glossary to <i>De
+Re Metallica</i>.
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">English.</td><td align="center">Latin.</td><td align="center">German.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Blast furnace</td><td align="left"><i>Prima fornax</i></td><td align="left"><i>Schmeltzofen</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Liquation furnace</td><td align="left"><i>Fornax in qua argentum et plumbum ab aere secernuntur</i></td><td align="left"><i>Saigernofen</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Drying furnace</td><td align="left"><i>Fornax in qua aerei panes fathiscentes torrentur</i></td><td align="left"><i>Darrofen</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Refining hearth</td><td align="left"><i>Fornax in qua panes aerei torrefacti coquuntur</i></td><td align="left"><i>Gaarherd</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cupellation furnace</td><td align="left"><i>Secunda fornax</i>, or <i>fornax in qua plumbum ab argento separatur</i></td><td align="left"><i>Treibherd</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Leading</td><td align="left"><i>Mistura</i></td><td align="left"><i>Frischen</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Liquating</td><td align="left"><i>Stillare</i>, or <i>distillare</i></td><td align="left"><i>Saigern</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">"Drying"</td><td align="left"><i>Torrere</i></td><td align="left"><i>Darren</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Refining</td><td align="left"><i>Aes ex panibus torrefactis conficere</i></td><td align="left"><i>Gaarmachen</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Liquation cakes</td><td align="left"><i>Panes ex aere ac plumbo misti</i></td><td align="left"><i>Saigerstock</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Exhausted liquation cakes</td><td align="left"><i>Panes fathiscentes</i></td><td align="left"><i>Kiehnstock</i>, or <i>Kinstocke</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">"Dried" cakes</td><td align="left"><i>Panes torrefacti</i></td><td align="left"><i>Darrlinge</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Slags:</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;from leading</td><td align="left"><i>Recrementa</i> (with explanatory phrases)</td><td align="left"><i>Frischschlacke</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;drying</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td align="left"><i>Darrost</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;refining</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td align="left"><i>Gaarschlacke</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Liquation thorns</td><td align="left"><i>Spinae</i> (with explanatory phrases)</td><td align="left"><i>Saigerd�rner</i>, or <i>R�std�rner</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Thorns from "drying"</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td align="left"><i>Darrs�hle</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;cupellation</td><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;" &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td align="left"><i>Abstrich</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Silver-lead or liquated silver-lead</td><td align="left"><i>Stannum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Saigerwerk</i> or <i>saigerblei</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ash-coloured copper</td><td align="left"><i>Aes cinereum</i></td><td align="left"><i>Pickschiefer</i> or <i>schifer</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Furnace accretions or "accretions"</td><td align="left"><i>Cadmiae</i></td><td align="left"><i>Offenbr�che</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_494" id="Notes_494">[Pg 494]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Historical Note.</span>&mdash;So far as we are aware, this is the first complete
+discussion of this process, although it is briefly mentioned by one
+writer before Agricola&mdash;that is, by Biringuccio (<span class="smcaplower">III</span>, 5, 8), who wrote
+ten years before this work was sent to the printer. His account is very
+incomplete, for he describes only the bare liquation, and states that
+the copper is re-melted with lead and re-liquated until the silver is
+sufficiently abstracted. He neither mentions "drying" nor any of the
+bye-products. In his directions the silver-lead alloy was cupelled and
+the copper ultimately refined, obviously by oxidation and poling,
+although he omits the pole. In <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span> 1150 Theophilus (p. 305, Hendrie's
+Trans.) describes melting lead out of copper ore, which would be a form
+of liquation so far as separation of these two metals is concerned, but
+obviously not a process for separating silver from copper. This passage
+is quoted in the note on copper smelting (Note on p. <a href="#Notes_405">405</a>). A process of
+such well-developed and complicated a character must have come from a
+period long before Agricola; but further than such a surmise, there
+appears little to be recorded. Liquation has been during the last fifty
+years displaced by other methods, because it was not only tedious and
+expensive, but the losses of metal were considerable.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_337" id="Footnote_2_337"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_337"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> <i>Paries</i>,&mdash;"Partition" or "wall." The author uses this term
+throughout in distinction to <i>murus</i>, usually applying the latter to the
+walls of the building and the former to furnace walls, chimney walls,
+etc. In order to gain clarity, we have introduced the term "hood" in
+distinction to "chimney," and so far as possible refer to the <i>paries</i>
+of these constructions and furnaces as "side of the furnace," "side of
+the hood," etc.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_495" id="Notes_495">[Pg 495]</a></span><a name="Footnote_4_338" id="Footnote_4_338"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_338"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> From this point on, the construction of the roofs, in the
+absence of illustration, is hopeless of intelligent translation. The
+constant repetition of "<i>tignum</i>," "<i>tigillum</i>," "<i>trabs</i>," for at least
+fifteen different construction members becomes most hopelessly involved,
+especially as the author attempts to distinguish between them in a sort
+of "House-that-Jack-built" arrangement of explanatory clauses.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_496" id="Notes_496">[Pg 496]</a></span><a name="Footnote_5_339" id="Footnote_5_339"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_339"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> In the original text this is given as the "fifth," a
+manifest impossibility.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_500" id="Notes_500">[Pg 500]</a></span><a name="Footnote_6_340" id="Footnote_6_340"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_340"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <i>Chelae</i>,&mdash;"claws."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_341" id="Footnote_7_341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_341"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> If Roman weights, this would be 5.6 short tons, and 7.5
+tons if German <i>centner</i> is meant.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_501" id="Notes_501">[Pg 501]</a></span><a name="Footnote_8_342" id="Footnote_8_342"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_342"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> This is, no doubt, a reference to Pliny's statement
+(<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII</span>, 35) regarding litharge at Puteoli. This passage from Pliny is
+given in the footnote on p. <a href="#Notes_466">466</a>. Puteoli was situated on the Bay of
+Naples.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_503" id="Notes_503">[Pg 503]</a></span><a name="Footnote_9_343" id="Footnote_9_343"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_343"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> By this expression is apparently meant the "bottoms"
+produced in enriching copper, as described on p. <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_504" id="Notes_504">[Pg 504]</a></span><a name="Footnote_10_344" id="Footnote_10_344"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_344"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> The details of the preparation of liquation
+cakes&mdash;"leading"&mdash;were matters of great concern to the old
+metallurgists. The size of the cakes, the proportion of silver in the
+original copper and in the liquated lead, the proportion of lead and
+silver left in the residual cakes, all had to be reached by a series of
+compromises among militant forces. The cakes were generally two and
+one-half to three and one-half inches thick and about two feet in
+diameter, and <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_505" id="Notes_505">[Pg 505]</a></span>weighed 225 to 375 lbs. This size was wonderfully
+persistent from Agricola down to modern times; and was, no doubt, based
+on sound experience. If the cakes were too small, they required
+proportionately more fuel and labour; whilst if too large, the copper
+began to melt before the maximum lead was liquated. The ratio of the
+copper and lead was regulated by the necessity of enough copper to leave
+a substantial sponge mass the shape of the original cake, and not so
+large a proportion as to imprison the lead. That is, if the copper be in
+too small proportion the cakes break down; and if in too large, then
+insufficient lead liquates out, and the extraction of silver decreases.
+Ercker (p. 106-9) insists on the equivalent of about 3 copper to 9.5
+lead; Lohneys (p. 99), 3 copper to 9 or 10 lead. Schl�ter (p. 479, etc.)
+insists on a ration of 3 copper to about 11 lead. Kerl (<i>Handbuch Der
+Metallurgischen H�ttenkunde</i>, 1855; Vol. III., p. 116) gives 3 copper to
+6 to 7 parts lead. Agricola gives variable amounts of 3 parts copper to
+from 8 to 12 parts lead. As to the ratio of silver in the copper, or to
+the cakes, there does not, except the limit of payability, seem to have
+been any difficulty on the minimum side. On the other hand, Ercker,
+Lohneys, Schl�ter, and Karsten all contend that if the silver ran above
+a certain proportion, the copper would retain considerable silver. These
+authors give the outside ratio of silver permissible for good results in
+one liquation at what would be equivalent to 45 to 65 ozs. per ton of
+cakes, or about 190 to 250 ozs. per ton on the original copper. It will
+be seen, however, that Agricola's cakes greatly exceed these values. A
+difficulty did arise when the copper ran low in silver, in that the
+liquated lead was too poor to cupel, and in such case the lead was used
+over again, until it became rich enough for this purpose. According to
+Karsten, copper containing less than an equivalent of 80 to 90 ozs. per
+ton could not be liquated profitably, although the Upper Harz copper,
+according to Kerl, containing the equivalent of about 50 ozs. per ton,
+was liquated at a profit. In such a case the cakes would run only 12 to
+14 ozs. per ton. It will be noticed that in the eight cases given by
+Agricola the copper ran from 97 to over 580 ozs. per ton, and in the
+description of enrichment of copper "bottoms" the original copper runs
+85 ozs., and "it cannot be separated easily"; as a result, it is raised
+to 110 ozs. per ton before treatment. In addition to the following
+tabulation of the proportions here given by Agricola, the reader should
+refer to footnotes <a href="#Footnote_15_349">15</a> and <a href="#Footnote_17_351">17</a>, where four more combinations are
+tabulated. It will be observed from <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_506" id="Notes_506">[Pg 506]</a></span>this table that with the increasing
+richness of copper an increased proportion of lead was added, so that
+the products were of similar value. It has been assumed (see <a href="#Footnote_13_347">footnote 13
+p. 509</a>), that Roman weights are intended. It is not to be expected that
+metallurgical results of this period will "tie up" with the exactness of
+the modern operator's, and it has not been considered necessary to
+calculate beyond the nearest pennyweight. Where two or more values are
+given by the author the average has been taken.
+</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><span class="smcap">1st Charge.</span></td><td align="center"><span class="smcap">2nd Charge.</span></td><td align="center"><span class="smcap">3rd Charge.</span></td><td align="center"><span class="smcap">4th Charge.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Amount of argentiferous copper</td><td align="center">211.8 lbs.</td><td align="center">211.8 lbs.</td><td align="center">211.8 lbs.</td><td align="center">211.8 lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Amount of lead</td><td align="center">564.8 &nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td align="center">635.4 &nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td align="center">776.6 &nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td align="center">847.2 &nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Weight of each cake</td><td align="center">193.5 &nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td align="center">211.5 &nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td align="center">247.1 &nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td align="center">264.75 &nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Average value of charge</td><td align="center">56&nbsp;ozs. 3&nbsp;dwts.</td><td align="center">62&nbsp;ozs. 4&nbsp;dwts.</td><td align="center">64&nbsp;ozs. 4&nbsp;dwts.</td><td align="center">66&nbsp;ozs. 7&nbsp;dwts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Per cent. of copper</td><td align="center">27.2%</td><td align="center">25%</td><td align="center">21.4%</td><td align="center">20%</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Average value of original copper per ton</td><td align="center">207&nbsp;ozs. 4&nbsp;dwts.</td><td align="center">251&nbsp;ozs. 3&nbsp;dwts.</td><td align="center">299&nbsp;ozs. 15&nbsp;dwts.</td><td align="center">332&nbsp;ozs. 3&nbsp;dwts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Weight of argentiferous lead liquated out</td><td align="center">423.6 lbs.</td><td align="center">494.2 lbs.</td><td align="center">635.4 lbs.</td><td align="center">706 lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Average value of liquated lead per ton</td><td align="center">79 ozs.</td><td align="center">79 ozs.</td><td align="center">79 ozs.</td><td align="center">85 ozs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Weight of residues (residual copper and thorns)</td><td align="center">353 lbs.</td><td align="center">353 lbs.</td><td align="center">353 lbs.</td><td align="center">353 lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Average value of residues per ton</td><td align="center">34 ozs.</td><td align="center">34 ozs.</td><td align="center">34 ozs.</td><td align="center">34&nbsp;ozs. to 38&nbsp;ozs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Extraction of silver into the argentiferous lead</td><td align="center">76.5%</td><td align="center">73.4%</td><td align="center">79%</td><td align="center">85.3%</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_507" id="Notes_507">[Pg 507]</a></span><a name="Footnote_11_345" id="Footnote_11_345"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_345"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> See p. <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_509" id="Notes_509">[Pg 509]</a></span><a name="Footnote_12_346" id="Footnote_12_346"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_346"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> An analysis of this "slag" by Karsten (<i>Archiv</i>. 1st
+Series IX, p. 24) showed 63.2% lead oxide, 5.1% cuprous oxide, 20.1%
+silica (from the fuel and furnace linings), together with some iron
+alumina, etc. The <i>pompholyx</i> and <i>spodos</i> were largely zinc oxide (see
+note, p. <a href="#Notes_394">394</a>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_347" id="Footnote_13_347"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_347"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> This description of a <i>centumpondium</i> which weighed either
+133<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>3</sub></span> <i>librae</i>, or 146<span class="frac"><sup>3</sup>/<sub>4</sub></span> <i>librae</i>, adds confusion to an already much
+mixed subject (see <a href="#APPENDIX_C">Appendix C</a>.). Assuming the German <i>pfundt</i> to weigh
+7,219 troy grains, and the Roman <i>libra</i> 4,946 grains, then a <i>centner</i>
+would weigh 145.95 <i>librae</i>, which checks up fairly well with the second
+case; but under what circumstances a <i>centner</i> can weigh 133<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>3</sub></span>
+<i>librae</i> we are unable to record. At first sight it might appear from
+this statement that where Agricola uses the word <i>centumpondium</i> he
+means the German <i>centner</i>. On the other hand, in the previous five or
+six pages the expressions one-third, five-sixths, ten-twelfths of a
+<i>libra</i> are used, which are even divisions of the Roman 12 <i>unciae</i> to
+one <i>libra</i>, and are used where they manifestly mean divisions of 12
+units. If Agricola had in mind the German scale, and were using the
+<i>libra</i> for a <i>pfundt</i> of 16 <i>untzen</i>, these divisions would amount to
+fractions, and would not total the <i>sicilicus</i> and <i>drachma</i> quantities
+given, nor would they total any of the possibly synonymous divisions of
+the German <i>untzen</i> (see also page <a href="#Notes_254">254</a>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_348" id="Footnote_14_348"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_348"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> If we assume Roman weights, the charge in the first case
+can be tabulated as follows, and for convenience will be called the
+fifth charge:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><span class="smcap">5th Charge</span> (3 cakes).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Amount of copper</td><td align="center">211.8 lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Amount of lead</td><td align="center">635.4 lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Weight of each cake</td><td align="center">282.4 lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Average value of charge</td><td align="center">218&nbsp;ozs. 18&nbsp;dwts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Per cent. of copper</td><td align="center">25%</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Average value of original copper per ton</td><td align="center">583&nbsp;ozs. 6&nbsp;dwts. 16&nbsp;grs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Weight of argentiferous lead liquated out</td><td align="center">494.2 lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Average value of liquated lead per ton</td><td align="center">352&nbsp;ozs. 8&nbsp;dwts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Weight of residues</td><td align="center">353 lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Average value of residues per ton</td><td align="center">20&nbsp;ozs. (about).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Extraction of silver into the argentiferous lead</td><td align="center">94%</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+The results given in the second case where the copper contains 2
+<i>librae</i> and a <i>bes</i> per <i>centumpondium</i> do not tie together at all, for
+each liquation cake should contain 3 <i>librae</i> 9<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> <i>unciae</i>, instead of
+1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> <i>librae</i> and <span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> <i>uncia</i> of silver.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_510" id="Notes_510">[Pg 510]</a></span><a name="Footnote_15_349" id="Footnote_15_349"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_349"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> In this enrichment of copper by the "settling" of the
+silver in the molten mass the original copper ran, in the two cases
+given, 60 ozs. 15 dwts. and 85 ozs. 1 dwt. per ton. The whole charge
+weighed 2,685 lbs., and contained in the second case 114 ozs. Troy,
+omitting fractions. On melting, 1,060 lbs. were drawn off as "tops,"
+containing 24 ozs. of silver, or running 45 ozs. per ton, and there
+remained 1,625 lbs. of "bottoms," containing 90 ozs. of silver, or
+averaging 110 ozs. per ton. It will be noticed later on in the
+description of making liquation cakes from these copper bottoms, that
+the author alters the value from one-third <i>librae</i>, a <i>semi-uncia</i> and
+a <i>drachma</i> per <i>centumpondium</i> to one-third of a <i>libra</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, from
+110 ozs. to 97 ozs. 4 dwts. per ton. In the Glossary this furnace is
+described as a <i>spleisofen</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, a refining hearth.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_511" id="Notes_511">[Pg 511]</a></span><a name="Footnote_16_350" id="Footnote_16_350"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_350"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> The latter part of this paragraph presents great
+difficulties. The term "refining furnace" is given in the Latin as the
+"second furnace," an expression usually applied to the cupellation
+furnace. The whole question of refining is exhaustively discussed on
+pages <a href="#Page_530">530</a> to <a href="#Page_539">539</a>. Exactly what material is meant by the term red
+(<i>rubrum</i>), yellow (<i>fulvum</i>) and <i>caldarium</i> copper is somewhat
+uncertain. They are given in the German text simply as <i>rot</i>, <i>geel</i>,
+and <i>lebeter kupfer</i>, and apparently all were "coarse" copper of
+different characters destined for the refinery. The author states in <i>De
+Natura Fossilium</i> (p. 334): "Copper has a red colour peculiar to itself;
+this colour in smelted copper is considered the most excellent. It,
+however, varies. In some it is red, as in the copper smelted at
+Neusohl.... Other copper is prepared in the smelters where silver is
+separated from copper, which is called yellow copper (<i>luteum</i>), and is
+<i>regulare</i>. In the same place a dark yellow copper is made which is
+called <i>caldarium</i>, taking its name among the Germans from a caldron....
+<i>Regulare</i> differs from <i>caldarium</i> in that the former is not only
+fusible, but also malleable; while the latter is, indeed, fusible, but
+is not ductile, for it breaks when struck with the hammer." Later on in
+<i>De Re Metallica</i> (p. <a href="#Page_542">542</a>) he describes yellow copper as made from
+"baser" liquation thorns and from exhausted liquation cakes made from
+thorns. These products were necessarily impure, as they contained, among
+other things, the concentrates from furnace accretions. Therefore, there
+was ample source for zinc, arsenic or other metallics which would
+lighten the colour. <i>Caldarium</i> copper is described by Pliny (see note,
+p. <a href="#Notes_404">404</a>), and was, no doubt, "coarse" copper, and apparently Agricola
+adopted this term from that source, as we have found it used nowhere
+else. On page <a href="#Page_542">542</a> the author describes making <i>caldarium</i> copper from a
+mixture of yellow copper and a peculiar <i>cadmia</i>, which he describes as
+the "slags" from refining copper. These "slags," which are the result of
+oxidation and poling, would contain almost any of the metallic
+impurities of the original ore, antimony, lead, arsenic, zinc, cobalt,
+etc. Coming from these two sources the <i>caldarium</i> must have been,
+indeed, impure.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_512" id="Notes_512">[Pg 512]</a></span><a name="Footnote_17_351" id="Footnote_17_351"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_351"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> The liquation of these low-grade copper "bottoms" required
+that the liquated lead should be re-used again to make up fresh
+liquation cakes, in order that it might eventually become rich enough to
+warrant cupellation. In the following table the "poor" silver-lead is
+designated (A) the "medium" (B) and the "rich" (C). The three charges
+here given are designated sixth, seventh, and eighth for purposes of
+reference. It will be seen that the data is insufficient to complete the
+ninth and tenth. Moreover, while the author gives directions for making
+four cakes, he says the charge consists of five, and it has, therefore,
+been necessary to reduce the volume of products given to this basis.
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><span class="smcap">6th Charge.</span></td><td align="center"><span class="smcap">7th Charge.</span></td><td align="center"><span class="smcap">8th Charge.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Amount of copper bottoms</td><td align="center">176.5 lbs.</td><td align="center">176.5 lbs.</td><td align="center">176.5 lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Amount of lead</td><td align="center">282.4 lbs. (slags)</td><td align="center">564.8 lbs. of (A)</td><td align="center">635.4 lbs. of (B)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Amount of de-silverized lead</td><td align="center">494.2 lbs.</td><td align="center">211.8 lbs.</td><td align="center">141.2 lbs. (A)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Weight of each cake</td><td align="center">238.3 lbs.</td><td align="center">238.3 lbs.</td><td align="center">238.3 lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Average value of charge per ton</td><td align="center">22&nbsp;ozs. 5&nbsp;dwts.</td><td align="center">35&nbsp;ozs. 15&nbsp;dwts.</td><td align="center">50&nbsp;ozs. 5&nbsp;dwts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Per cent. of copper</td><td align="center">18.5%</td><td align="center">18.5%</td><td align="center">18.5%</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Average value per ton original copper</td><td align="center">97&nbsp;ozs. 4&nbsp;dwts.</td><td align="center">97&nbsp;ozs. 4&nbsp;dwts.</td><td align="center">97&nbsp;ozs. 4&nbsp;dwts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Average value per ton of</td><td align="center">90&nbsp;ozs. 2&nbsp;dwts. (slags)</td><td align="center">28&nbsp;ozs. 5&nbsp;dwts. (A)</td><td align="center">28&nbsp;ozs. 5&nbsp;dwts. (A)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Average value per ton of</td><td align="center">3&nbsp;ozs. 1&nbsp;dwt. (lead)</td><td align="center">3&nbsp;ozs. 1&nbsp;dwt. (lead)</td><td align="center">42&nbsp;ozs. 10&nbsp;dwts. (B)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Weight of liquated lead</td><td align="center">550.6 lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Average value of the liquated lead per ton</td><td align="center">28&nbsp;ozs. 5&nbsp;dwts. (A)</td><td align="center">42&nbsp;ozs. 10&nbsp;dwts. (B)</td><td align="center">63&nbsp;ozs. 16&nbsp;dwts. (C)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Weight of exhausted liquation cakes</td><td align="center">225.9 lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Average value of the exhausted liquation cakes per ton</td><td align="center">12&nbsp;ozs. 3&nbsp;dwts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Weight of liquation thorns</td><td align="center">169.4 lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Average value of the liquation thorns per ton</td><td align="center">18&nbsp;ozs. 4&nbsp;dwts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Extraction of silver into the liquated lead</td><td align="center">71%</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_520" id="Notes_520">[Pg 520]</a></span><a name="Footnote_18_352" id="Footnote_18_352"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_352"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> For the liquation it was necessary to maintain a reducing
+atmosphere, otherwise the lead would oxidize; this was secured by
+keeping the cakes well covered with charcoal and by preventing the
+entrance of air as much as possible. Moreover, it was necessary to
+preserve a fairly even temperature. The proportions of copper and lead
+in the three liquation products vary considerably, depending upon the
+method of conducting the process and the original proportions. From the
+authors consulted (see note p. <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>) an average would be about as
+follows:&mdash;The residual copper&mdash;exhausted liquation cakes&mdash;ran from 25 to
+33% lead; the liquated lead from 2 to 3% copper; and the liquation
+thorns, which were largely oxidized, contained about 15% copper oxides,
+80% lead oxides, together with impurities, such as antimony, arsenic,
+etc. The proportions of the various products would obviously depend upon
+the care in conducting the operation; too high temperature and the
+admission of air would increase the copper melted and oxidize more lead,
+and thus increase the liquation thorns. There are insufficient data in
+Agricola to adduce conclusions as to the actual ratios produced. The
+results given for the 6th charge (<a href="#Footnote_17_351">note 17, p. 512</a>) would indicate about
+30% lead in the residual copper, and would indicate that the original
+charge was divided into about 24% of residual copper, 18% of liquation
+thorns, and 57% of liquated lead. This, however, was an unusually large
+proportion of liquation thorns, some of the authors giving instances of
+as low as 5%.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_522" id="Notes_522">[Pg 522]</a></span><a name="Footnote_19_353" id="Footnote_19_353"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_353"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> The first instance given, of 44 <i>centumpondia</i> (3,109
+lbs.) lead and one <i>centumpondium</i> (70.6 lbs.) copper, would indicate
+that the liquated lead contained 2.2% copper. The second, of 46
+<i>centumpondia</i> (3,250 lbs.) lead and 1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> <i>centumpondia</i> copper (106
+lbs.), would indicate 3% copper; and in the third, 120 <i>centumpondia</i>
+(8,478 lbs.) lead and six copper (424 lbs.) would show 4.76% copper.
+This charge of 120 <i>centumpondia</i> in the cupellation furnace would
+normally make more than 110 <i>centumpondia</i> of litharge and 30 of
+hearth-lead, <i>i.e.</i>, saturated furnace bottoms. The copper would be
+largely found in the silver-lead "which does not melt," at the margin of
+the crucible. These skimmings are afterward referred to as "thorns." It
+is difficult to understand what is meant by the expression that the
+silver which is in the copper is mixed with the remaining (<i>reliquo</i>)
+silver. The coppery skimmings from the cupellation furnace are referred
+to again in <a href="#Footnote_28_362">Note 28, p. 539</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_523" id="Notes_523">[Pg 523]</a></span><a name="Footnote_20_354" id="Footnote_20_354"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_354"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> A further amount of lead could be obtained in the first
+liquation, but a higher temperature is necessary, which was more
+economical to secure in the "drying" furnace. Therefore, the "drying"
+was really an extension of liquation; but as air was admitted the lead
+and copper melted out were oxidized. The products were the final
+residual copper, called by Agricola the "dried" copper, together with
+lead and copper oxides, called by him the "slags," and the scale of
+copper and lead oxides termed by him the "ash-coloured copper." The
+German metallurgists distinguished two kinds of slag: the first and
+principal one, the <i>darrost</i>, and the second the <i>darrs�hle</i>, this
+latter differing only in that it contained more impurities from the
+floor of the furnace, and remained behind until the furnace cooled.
+Agricola possibly refers to these as "more liquation thorns," because in
+describing the treatment of the bye-products he refers to thorns from
+the process, whereas in the description of "drying" he usually refers to
+"slags." A number of analyses of these products, given by Karsten, show
+the "dried" copper to contain from 82.7 to 90.6% copper, and from 9.4 to
+17.3% lead; the "slag" to contain 76.5 to 85.1% lead oxide, and from 4.1
+to 7.8% cuprous oxide, with 9 to 13% silica from the furnace bottoms,
+together with some other <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_524" id="Notes_524">[Pg 524]</a></span>impurities; the "ash-coloured copper" to
+contain about 60% cuprous oxide and 30% lead oxide, with some metallic
+copper and minor impurities. An average of proportions given by various
+authors shows, roughly, that out of 100 <i>centners</i> of "exhausted"
+liquation cakes, containing about 70% copper and 30% lead, there were
+about 63 <i>centners</i> of "dried" copper, 38 <i>centners</i> of "slag," and
+6<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span> <i>centners</i> of "ash-coloured copper." According to Karsten, the
+process fell into stages; first, at low temperature some metallic lead
+appeared; second, during an increasing temperature for over 14 to 15
+hours the slags ran out; third, there was a period of four hours of
+lower temperature to allow time for the lead to diffuse from the
+interior of the cakes; and fourth, during a period of eight hours the
+temperature was again increased. In fact, the latter portion of the
+process ended with the economic limit between leaving some lead in the
+copper and driving too much copper into the "slags." Agricola gives the
+silver contents of the "dried" copper as 3 <i>drachmae</i> to 1
+<i>centumpondium</i>, or equal to about 9 ozs. per ton; and assuming that the
+copper finally recovered from the bye-products ran no higher, then the
+first four charges (see note on p. <a href="#Notes_506">506</a>) would show a reduction in the
+silver values of from 95 to 97%; the 7th and 8th charges (note on p.
+<a href="#Notes_512">512</a>) of about 90%.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_355" id="Footnote_21_355"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_355"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> If Roman weights, this would equal from 6,360 lbs. to
+7,066 lbs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_529" id="Notes_529">[Pg 529]</a></span><a name="Footnote_22_356" id="Footnote_22_356"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_356"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> One half <i>uncia</i>, or three <i>drachmae</i> of silver would
+equal either 12 ozs. or 9 ozs. per ton. If we assume the values given
+for residual copper in the first four charges (note p. <a href="#Notes_506">506</a>) of 34 ozs.,
+this would mean an extraction of, roughly, 65% of the silver from the
+exhausted liquation cakes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_530" id="Notes_530">[Pg 530]</a></span><a name="Footnote_23_357" id="Footnote_23_357"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_357"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> See <a href="#Footnote_29_363">note 29, p. 540</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_533" id="Notes_533">[Pg 533]</a></span><a name="Footnote_24_358" id="Footnote_24_358"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_358"><span class="label">[24]</span></a>
+Assuming Roman weights:</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center">2</td><td align="center"><i>centumpondia</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">141.3</td><td align="center">lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">2<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">176.6</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">211.9</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">3<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">248.2</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">423.9</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_535" id="Notes_535">[Pg 535]</a></span><a name="Footnote_25_359" id="Footnote_25_359"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_359"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> This description of refining copper in an open hearth by
+oxidation with a blast and "poling"&mdash;the <i>gaarmachen</i> of the Germans&mdash;is
+so accurate, and the process is so little changed in some parts of
+Saxony, that it might have been written in the 20th century instead of
+the 16th. The best account of the old practice in Saxony after Agricola
+is to be found in Schl�ter's <i>H�tte Werken</i> (Braunschweig, 1738, Chap.
+<span class="smcaplower">CXVIII.</span>). The process has largely been displaced by electrolytic
+methods, but is still in use in most refineries as a step in
+electrolytic work. It may be unnecessary to repeat that the process is
+one of subjecting the molten mass of impure metal to a strong and
+continuous blast, and as a result, not only are the impurities to a
+considerable extent directly oxidized and taken off as a slag, but also
+a considerable amount of copper is turned into cuprous oxide. This
+cuprous oxide mostly melts and diffuses through the metallic copper, and
+readily parting with its oxygen to the impurities further facilitates
+their complete oxidation. The blast is continued until the impurities
+are practically eliminated, and at this stage the molten metal contains
+a great deal of dissolved cuprous oxide, which must be reduced. This is
+done by introducing a billet of green wood ("poling"), the dry
+distillation of which generates large quantities of gases, which reduce
+the oxide. The state of the metal is even to-day in some localities
+tested by dipping into it the point of an iron rod; if it be at the
+proper state the adhering copper has a net-like appearance, should be
+easily loosened from the rod by dipping in water, is of a reddish-copper
+colour and should be quite pliable; if the metal is not yet refined, the
+sample is thick, smooth, and detachable with difficulty; if
+over-refined, it is thick and brittle. By allowing water to run on to
+the surface of the molten metal, thin cakes are successively formed and
+taken off. These cakes were the article known to commerce over several
+centuries as "rosetta copper." The first few cakes are discarded as
+containing impurities or slag, and if the metal be of good quality the
+cakes are thin and of a red colour. Their colour and thinness,
+therefore, become a criterion of purity. The cover of charcoal or
+charcoal dust maintained upon the surface of the metal tended to retard
+oxidation, but prevented volatilization and helped to secure the
+impurities as a slag instead. Karsten (<i>Archiv.</i>, 1st series, p. 46)
+gives several analyses of the <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_536" id="Notes_536">[Pg 536]</a></span>slag from refining "dried" copper, showing
+it to contain from 51.7 to 67.4% lead oxide, 6.2 to 19.2% cuprous oxide,
+and 21.4 to 23.9 silica (from the furnace bottoms), with minor
+quantities of iron, antimony, etc. The "bubbles" referred to by Agricola
+were apparently the shower of copper globules which takes place upon the
+evolution of sulphur dioxide, due to the reaction of the cuprous oxide
+upon any remaining sulphide of copper when the mass begins to cool.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Historical Note.</span>&mdash;It is impossible to say how the Ancients refined
+copper, beyond the fact that they often re-smelted it. Such notes as we
+can find are set out in the note on copper smelting (<a href="#Footnote_42_275">note 42, p. 402</a>).
+The first authentic reference to poling is in Theophilus (1150 to 1200
+<span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>, Hendrie's translation, p. 313), which shows a very good
+understanding of this method of refining copper:&mdash;"Of the Purification
+of Copper. Take an iron dish of the size you wish, and line it inside
+and out with clay strongly beaten and mixed, and it is carefully dried.
+Then place it before a forge upon the coals, so that when the bellows
+act upon it the wind may issue partly within and partly above it, and
+not below it. And very small coals being placed round it, place the
+copper in it equally, and add over it a heap of coals. When by blowing a
+long time this has become melted, uncover it and cast immediately fine
+ashes of coals over it, and stir it with a thin and dry piece of wood as
+if mixing it, and you will directly see the burnt lead adhere to these
+ashes like a glue, which being cast out again superpose coals, and
+blowing for a long time, as at first, again uncover it, and then do as
+you did before. You do this until at length by cooking it you can
+withdraw the lead entirely. Then pour it over the mould which you have
+prepared for this, and you will thus prove if it be pure. Hold it with
+the pincers, glowing as it is, before it has become cold, and strike it
+with a large hammer strongly over the anvil, and if it be broken or
+split you must liquefy it anew as before. If, however, it should remain
+sound, you will cool it in water, and you cook other (copper) in the
+same manner." Biringuccio (<span class="smcaplower">III</span>, 8) in 1540 describes the process
+briefly, but omits the poling, an essential in the production of
+malleable copper.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_538" id="Notes_538">[Pg 538]</a></span><a name="Footnote_26_360" id="Footnote_26_360"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_360"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> <i>Pompholyx</i> and <i>spodos</i> were impure zinc oxides (see <a href="#Footnote_26_259">note
+26, p. 394</a>).
+</p><p>
+The copper flowers were no doubt cupric oxide. They were used by the
+Ancients for medicinal purposes. Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">V</span>, 48) says: "Of flowers
+of copper, which some call the scrapings of old nails, the best is
+friable; it is gold-coloured when rubbed, is like millet in shape and
+size, is moderately bright, and somewhat astringent. It should not be
+mixed with copper filings, with which it is often adulterated. But this
+deception is easily detected, for when bitten in the teeth the filings
+are malleable. It (the flowers) is made when the copper fused in a
+furnace has run into the receptacle through the spout pertaining to it,
+for then the workmen engaged in this trade cleanse it from dirt and pour
+clear water over it in order to cool it; from this sudden condensation
+the copper spits and throws out the aforesaid flowers." Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV</span>,
+24) says: "The flower, too, of copper (<i>�ris flos</i>) is used in medicine.
+This is made by fusing copper, and then removing it to another furnace,
+where the repeated blast makes the metal separate into small scales like
+millet, known as flowers. These scales also fall off when the cakes of
+metal are cooled in water; they become red, too, like the scales of
+copper known as '<i>lepis</i>,' by use of which the flowers of copper are
+adulterated, it being also sold for it. These are made when hammering
+the nails that are <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_539" id="Notes_539">[Pg 539]</a></span>made from the cakes of copper. All these methods are
+carried on in the works of Cyprus; the difference between these
+substances is that the <i>squamae</i> (copper scales) are detached from
+hammering the cakes, while the flower falls off spontaneously." Agricola
+(<i>De Nat. Fos.</i>, p. 352) notes that "flowers of copper (<i>flos �ris</i>)
+have the same properties as 'roasted copper.'"</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_361" id="Footnote_27_361"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_361"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> It seems scarcely necessary to discuss in detail the
+complicated "flow scheme" of the various minor bye-products. They are
+all re-introduced into the liquation circuit, and thereby are created
+other bye-products of the same kind <i>ad infinitum</i>. Further notes are
+given on:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Liquation thorns</td><td align="center">Note</td><td align="center"><a href="#Footnote_28_362">28</a>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Slags</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center"><a href="#Footnote_30_364">30</a>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ash-coloured copper</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center"><a href="#Footnote_29_363">29</a>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Concentrates</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center"><a href="#Footnote_33_367">33</a>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Cadmia</i></td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center"><a href="#Footnote_32_366">32</a>.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+There are no data given, either by Agricola or the later authors, which
+allow satisfactory calculation of the relative quantities of these
+products. A rough estimate from the data given in previous notes would
+indicate that in one liquation only about 70% of the original copper
+came out as refined copper, and that about 70% of the original lead
+would go to the cupellation furnace, <i>i.e.</i>, about 30% of the original
+metal sent to the blast furnace would go into the "thorns," "slags," and
+"ash-coloured copper." The ultimate losses were very great, as given
+before (p. <a href="#Notes_491">491</a>), they probably amounted to 25% of the silver, 9% copper,
+and 16% of the lead.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_362" id="Footnote_28_362"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_362"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> There were the following classes of thorns:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">1st.</td><td align="left">From liquation.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">2nd.</td><td align="left">From drying.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">3rd.</td><td align="left">From cupellation.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+In a general way, according to the later authors, they were largely lead
+oxide, and contained from 5% to 20% cuprous oxide. If a calculation be
+made backward from the products given as the result of the charge
+described, it would appear that in this case they must have contained at
+least one-fifth copper. The silver in these liquation cakes would run
+about 24 ozs. per ton, in the liquated lead about 36 ozs. per ton, and
+in the liquation thorns 24 ozs. per ton. The extraction into the
+liquated lead would be about 80% of the silver.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_540" id="Notes_540">[Pg 540]</a></span><a name="Footnote_29_363" id="Footnote_29_363"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_363"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> The "ash-coloured copper" is a cuprous oxide, containing
+some 3% lead oxide; and if Agricola means they contained two <i>unciae</i> of
+silver to the <i>centumpondium</i>, then they ran about 48 ozs. per ton, and
+would contain much more silver than the mass.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_541" id="Notes_541">[Pg 541]</a></span><a name="Footnote_30_364" id="Footnote_30_364"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_364"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> There are three principal "slags" mentioned&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">1st.</td><td align="left">Slag from "leading."</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">2nd.</td><td align="left">Slag from "drying."</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">3rd.</td><td align="left">Slag from refining the copper.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+From the analyses quoted by various authors these ran from 52% to 85%
+lead oxide, 5% to 30% cuprous oxide, and considerable silica from the
+furnace bottoms. They were reduced in the main into liquation cakes,
+although Agricola mentions instances of the metal reduced from "slags"
+being taken directly to the "drying" furnace. Such liquation cakes would
+run very low in silver, and at the values given only averaged 12 ozs.
+per ton; therefore the liquated lead running the same value as the
+cakes, or less than half that of the "poor" lead mentioned in <a href="#Footnote_17_351">Note 17,
+p. 512</a>, could not have been cupelled directly.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_542" id="Notes_542">[Pg 542]</a></span><a name="Footnote_31_365" id="Footnote_31_365"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_365"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> See <a href="#Footnote_16_350">Note 16, p. 511</a>, for discussion of yellow and
+<i>caldarium</i> copper.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_366" id="Footnote_32_366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_366"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> This <i>cadmia</i> is given in the Glossary and the German
+translation as <i>kobelt</i>. A discussion of this substance is given in the
+note on p. <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>; and it is sufficient to state here that in Agricola's
+time the metal cobalt was unknown, and the substances designated
+<i>cadmia</i> and <i>cobaltum</i> were arsenical-cobalt-zinc minerals. A metal
+made from "slag" from refining, together with "base" thorns, would be
+very impure; for the latter, according to the paragraph on concentrates
+a little later on, would contain the furnace accretions, and would thus
+be undoubtedly zincky. It is just possible that the term <i>kobelt</i> was
+used by the German smelters at this time in the sense of an
+epithet&mdash;"black devil" (see <a href="#Footnote_21_166">Note 21, p. 214</a>).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_367" id="Footnote_33_367"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_367"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> It is somewhat difficult to see exactly the meaning of
+base (<i>vile</i>) and precious (<i>preciosum</i>) in this connection. While
+"base" could mean impure, "precious" could hardly mean pure, and while
+"precious" could mean high value in silver, the reverse does not seem
+entirely <i>apropos</i>. It is possible that "bad" and "good" would be more
+appropriate terms.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_543" id="Notes_543">[Pg 543]</a></span><a name="Footnote_34_368" id="Footnote_34_368"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_368"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> The skimmings from the molten lead in the early stages of
+cupellation have been discussed in <a href="#Footnote_28_362">Note 28, p. 539</a>. They are probably
+called thorns here because of the large amount of copper in them. The
+lead from liquation would contain 2% to 3% of copper, and this would be
+largely recovered in these skimmings, although there would be some
+copper in the furnace bottoms&mdash;hearth-lead&mdash;and the litharge. These
+"thorns" are apparently fairly rich, four <i>unciae</i> to the
+<i>centumpondium</i> being equivalent to about 97 ozs. per ton, and they are
+only added to low-grade liquation material.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_544" id="Notes_544">[Pg 544]</a></span><a name="Footnote_35_369" id="Footnote_35_369"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_369"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <i>Particulis aeris tusi</i>. Unless this be the fine
+concentrates from crushing the material mentioned, we are unable to
+explain the expression.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_370" id="Footnote_36_370"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_370"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> This operation would bring down a button of antimony under
+an iron matte, by de-sulphurizing the antimony. It would seem scarcely
+necessary to add lead before cupellation. This process is given in an
+assay method, in the <i>Probierb�chlein</i> (folio 31) 50 years before <i>De Re
+Metallica</i>: "How to separate silver from iron: Take that silver which is
+in iron <i>plechen</i> (<i>plachmal</i>), pulverize it finely, take the same iron
+or <i>plec</i> one part, <i>spiesglasz</i> (antimony sulphide) one part, leave
+them to melt in a crucible placed in a closed <i>windtofen</i>. When it is
+melted, let it cool, break the crucible, chip off the button that is in
+the bottom, and melt it in a crucible with as much lead. Then break the
+crucible, and seek from the button in the cupel, and you will find what
+silver it contains."</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_545" id="Page_545"></a>[Pg 545]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="BOOK_XII" id="BOOK_XII"></a>BOOK XII.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="dropcap"><img src="images/capp.png" alt="P" /></div>
+<p style="text-indent:-1em;">
+reviously I have dealt with the methods of separating silver from
+copper. There now remains the portion which treats of solidified juices;
+and whereas they might be considered as alien to things metallic,
+nevertheless, the reasons why they should not be separated from it I
+have explained in the <a href="#BOOK_II">second book</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Solidified juices are either prepared from waters in which nature or art
+has infused them, or they are produced from the liquid juices
+themselves, or from stony minerals. Sagacious people, at first observing
+the waters of some lakes to be naturally full of juices which thickened
+on being dried up by the heat of the sun and thus became solidified
+juices, drew such waters into other places, or diverted them into
+low-lying places adjoining hills, so that the heat of the sun should
+likewise cause them to condense. Subsequently, because they observed
+that in this wise the solidified juices could be made only in summer,
+and then not in all countries, but only in hot and temperate regions in
+which it seldom rains in summer, they boiled them in vessels over a fire
+until they began to thicken. In this manner, at all times of the year,
+in all regions, even the coldest, solidified juices could be obtained
+from solutions of such juices, whether made by nature or by art.
+Afterward, when they saw juices drip from some roasted stones, they
+cooked these in pots in order to obtain solidified juices in this wise
+also. It is worth the trouble to learn the proportions and the methods
+by which these are made.</p>
+
+<p>I will therefore begin with salt, which is made from water either salty
+by nature, or by the labour of man, or else from a solution of salt, or
+from lye, likewise salty. Water which is salty by nature, is condensed
+and converted into salt in salt-pits by the heat of the sun, or else by
+the heat of a fire in pans or pots or trenches. That which is made salty
+by art, is also condensed by fire and changed into salt. There should be
+as many salt-pits dug as the circumstance of the place permits, but
+there should not be more made than can be used, although we ought to
+make as much salt as we can sell. The depth of salt-pits should be
+moderate, and the bottom should be level, so that all the water is
+evaporated from the salt by the heat of the sun. The salt-pits should
+first be encrusted with salt, so that they may not suck up the water.
+The method of pouring or leading sea-water into salt-pits is very old,
+and is still in use in many places. The method is not less old, but less
+common, to pour well-water into salt-pits, as was done in Babylon, for
+which Pliny is the authority, and in Cappadocia, where they used not
+only well-water, but also spring-water. In all hot countries salt-water
+and lake-water are conducted, poured or carried into salt-pits, and,
+being dried by the heat of the sun, are converted into <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_546" id="Page_546"></a>[Pg 546]</span>salt.<a name="FNanchor_1_371" id="FNanchor_1_371"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_371" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> While
+the salt-water contained in the salt-pits is being heated by the sun, if
+they be flooded with great and frequent showers of rain the evaporation
+is hindered. If this happens rarely, the salt acquires a disagreeable<a name="FNanchor_2_372" id="FNanchor_2_372"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_372" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
+flavour, and in this case the salt-pits have to be filled with other
+sweet water.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_547" id="Page_547"></a><a href="images/fig547.jpg"><img src="images/fig547thumb.jpg" alt="Salt Pans" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Sea. B&mdash;Pool. C&mdash;Gate. D&mdash;Trenches.
+E&mdash;Salt basins. F&mdash;Rake. G&mdash;Shovel.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 547]</span></span>
+Salt from sea-water is made in the following manner. Near that part of
+the seashore where there is a quiet pool, and there are wide, level
+plains which the inundations of the sea do not overflow, three, four,
+five, or six trenches are dug six feet wide, twelve feet deep, and six
+hundred feet long, or longer if the level place extends for a longer
+distance; they are two hundred feet distant from one another; between
+these are three transverse trenches. Then are dug the principal pits, so
+that when the water has been raised from the pool it can flow into the
+trenches, and from thence into the salt-pits, of which there are numbers
+on the level ground between the trenches. The salt-pits are basins dug
+to a moderate depth; these are banked round with the earth which was dug
+in sinking them or in cleansing them, so that between the basins, earth
+walls are made a foot high, which retain the water let into them. The
+trenches have openings, through which the first basins receive the
+water; these basins also have openings, through which the water flows
+again from one into the other. There should be a slight fall, so that
+the water may flow from one basin into the other, and can thus be
+replenished. All these things having been done rightly and in order, the
+gate is raised that opens the mouth of the pool which contains sea-water
+mixed with rain-water or river-water; and thus all of the trenches are
+filled. Then the gates of the first basins are opened, and thus the
+remaining basins are filled with the water from the first; when this
+salt-water condenses, all these basins are incrusted, and thus made
+clean from earthy matter. Then again the first basins are filled up from
+the nearest trench with the same kind of water, and left until much of
+the thin liquid is converted into vapour by the heat of the sun and
+dissipated, and the remainder is considerably thickened. Then their
+gates being opened, the water passes into the second basins; and when it
+has remained there for a certain space of time the gates are opened, so
+that it flows into the third basins, where it is all condensed into
+salt. After the salt has been taken out, the basins are filled again and
+again with sea-water. The salt is raked up with wooden rakes and thrown
+out with shovels.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_549" id="Page_549"></a><a href="images/fig549.jpg"><img src="images/fig549thumb.jpg" alt="Salt Wells" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Shed. B&mdash;Painted signs. C&mdash;First
+room. D&mdash;Middle room. E&mdash;Third room. F&mdash;Two little windows in the end
+wall. G&mdash;Third little window in the roof. H&mdash;Well. I&mdash;Well of another
+kind. K&mdash;Cask. L&mdash;Pole. M&mdash;Forked sticks in which the porters rest the
+pole when they are tired.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 549]</span></span>
+Salt-water is also boiled in pans, placed in sheds near the wells from
+which it is drawn. Each shed is usually named from some animal or other
+thing which is pictured on a tablet nailed to it. The walls of these
+sheds are made either from baked earth or from wicker work covered with
+thick <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_548" id="Page_548"></a>[Pg 548]</span>mud, although some may be made of stones or bricks. When of
+brick they are often sixteen feet high, and if the roof rises
+twenty-four feet high, then the walls which are at the ends must be made
+forty feet high, as likewise the interior partition walls. The roof
+consists of large shingles four feet long, one foot wide, and two digits
+thick; these are fixed on long narrow planks placed on the rafters,
+which are joined at the upper end and slope in opposite directions. The
+whole of the under side is plastered one digit thick with straw mixed
+with lute; likewise the roof on the outside is plastered one and a half
+feet thick with straw mixed with lute, in order that the shed should not
+run any risk of fire, and that it should be proof against rain, and be
+able to retain the heat necessary for drying the lumps of salt. Each
+shed is divided into three parts, in the first of which the firewood and
+straw are placed; in the middle room, separated from the first room by a
+partition, is the fireplace on which is placed the caldron. To the right
+of the caldron is a tub, into which is emptied the brine brought into
+the shed by the porters; to the left is a bench, on which there is room
+to lay thirty pieces of salt. In the third room, which is in the back
+part of the house, there is made a pile of clay or ashes eight feet
+higher than the floor, being the same height as the bench. The master
+and his assistants, when they carry away the lumps of salt from the
+caldrons, go from the former to the latter. They ascend from the right
+side of the caldron, not by steps, but by a slope of earth. At the top
+of the end wall are two small windows, and a third is in the roof,
+through which the smoke escapes. This smoke, emitted from both the back
+and the front of the furnace, finds outlet through a hood through which
+it makes its way up to the windows; this hood consists of boards
+projecting one beyond the other, which are supported by two small beams
+of the roof. Opposite the fireplace the middle partition has an open
+door eight feet high and four feet wide, through which there is a gentle
+draught which drives the smoke into the last room; the front wall also
+has a door of the same height and width. Both of these doors are large
+enough to permit the firewood or straw or the brine to be carried in,
+and the lumps of salt to be carried out; these doors must be closed when
+the wind blows, so that the boiling will not be hindered. Indeed, glass
+panes which exclude the wind but transmit the light, should be inserted
+in the windows in the walls.</p>
+
+<p>They construct the greater part of the fireplace of rock-salt and of
+clay mixed with salt and moistened with brine, for such walls are
+greatly hardened by the fire. These fireplaces are made eight and a half
+feet long, seven and three quarters feet wide, and, if wood is burned in
+them, nearly four feet high; but if straw is burned in them, they are
+six feet high. An iron rod, about four feet long, is engaged in a hole
+in an iron foot, which stands on the base of the middle of the furnace
+mouth. This mouth is three feet in width, and has a door which opens
+inward; through it they throw in the straw.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_551" id="Page_551"></a><a href="images/fig551.jpg"><img src="images/fig551thumb.jpg" alt="Salt Caldron" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Fireplace. B&mdash;Mouth of fireplace.
+C&mdash;Caldron. D&mdash;Posts sunk into the ground. E&mdash;Cross-beams. F&mdash;Shorter
+bars. G&mdash;Iron hooks. H&mdash;Staples. I&mdash;Longer bars. K&mdash;Iron rod bent to
+support the caldron.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 551]</span></span>
+The caldrons are rectangular, eight feet long, seven feet wide, and half
+a foot high, and are made of sheets of iron or lead, three feet long and
+of the same width, all but two digits. These plates are not very thick,
+so that the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_550" id="Page_550"></a>[Pg 550]</span>water is heated more quickly by the fire, and is boiled
+away rapidly. The more salty the water is, the sooner it is condensed
+into salt. To prevent the brine from leaking out at the points where the
+metal plates are fastened with rivets, the caldrons are smeared over
+with a cement made of ox-liver and ox-blood mixed with ashes. On each
+side of the middle of the furnace two rectangular posts, three feet
+long, and half a foot thick and wide are set into the ground, so that
+they are distant from each other only one and a half feet. Each of them
+rises one and a half feet above the caldron. After the caldron has been
+placed on the walls of the furnace, two beams of the same width and
+thickness as the posts, but four feet long, are laid on these posts, and
+are mortised in so that they shall not fall. There rest transversely
+upon these beams three bars, three feet long, three digits wide, and two
+digits thick, distant from one another one foot. On each of these hang
+three iron hooks, two beyond the beams and one in the middle; these are
+a foot long, and are hooked at both ends, one hook turning to the right,
+the other to the left. The bottom hook catches in the eye of a staple,
+whose ends are fixed in the bottom of the caldron, and the eye projects
+from it. There are besides, two longer bars six feet long, one palm
+wide, and three digits thick, which pass under the front beam and rest
+upon the rear beam. At the rear end of each of the bars there is an iron
+hook two feet and three digits long, the lower end of which is bent so
+as to support the caldron. The rear end of the caldron does not rest on
+the two rear corners of the fireplace, but is distant from the fireplace
+two thirds of a foot, so that the flame and smoke can escape; this rear
+end of the fireplace is half a foot thick and half a foot higher than
+the caldron. This is also the thickness and height of the wall between
+the caldron and the third room of the shed, to which it is adjacent.
+This back wall is made of clay and ashes, unlike the others which are
+made of rock-salt. The caldron rests on the two front corners and sides
+of the fireplace, and is cemented with ashes, so that the flames shall
+not escape. If a dipperful of brine poured into the caldron should flow
+into all the corners, the caldron is rightly set upon the fireplace.</p>
+
+<p>The wooden dipper holds ten Roman <i>sextarii</i>, and the cask holds eight
+dippers full<a name="FNanchor_3_373" id="FNanchor_3_373"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_373" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>. The brine drawn up from the well is poured into such
+casks and carried by porters, as I have said before, into the shed and
+poured into a tub, and in those places where the brine is very strong it
+is at once transferred with the dippers into the caldron. That brine
+which is less strong is thrown into a small tub with a deep ladle, the
+spoon and handle of which are hewn out of one piece of wood. In this tub
+rock-salt is placed in order <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_552" id="Page_552"></a>[Pg 552]</span>that the water should be made more salty,
+and it is then run off through a launder which leads into the caldron.
+From thirty-seven dippersful of brine the master or his deputy, at Halle
+in Saxony,<a name="FNanchor_4_374" id="FNanchor_4_374"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_374" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> makes two cone-shaped pieces of salt. Each master has a
+helper, or in the place of a helper his wife assists him in his work,
+and, in addition, a youth who throws wood or straw under the caldron.
+He, on account of the great heat of the workshop, wears a straw cap on
+his head and a breech cloth, being otherwise quite naked. As soon as the
+master has poured the first dipperful of brine into the caldron the
+youth sets fire to the wood and straw laid under it. If the firewood is
+bundles of faggots or brushwood, the salt will be white, but if straw is
+burned, then it is not infrequently blackish, for the sparks, which are
+drawn up with the smoke into the hood, fall down again into the water
+and colour it black.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_553" id="Page_553"></a><a href="images/fig553.jpg"><img src="images/fig553thumb.jpg" alt="Salt Caldron" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Wooden dipper. B&mdash;Cask. C&mdash;Tub.
+D&mdash;Master. E&mdash;Youth. F&mdash;Wife. G&mdash;Wooden spade. H&mdash;Boards. I&mdash;Baskets.
+K&mdash;Hoe. L&mdash;Rake. M&mdash;Straw. N&mdash;Bowl. O&mdash;Bucket containing the blood.
+P&mdash;Tankard which contains beer.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 553]</span></span>
+In order to accelerate the condensation of the brine, when the master
+has poured in two casks and as many dippersful of brine, he adds about a
+Roman <i>cyathus</i> and a half of bullock's blood, or of calf's blood, or
+buck's blood, or else he mixes it into the nineteenth dipperful of
+brine, in order that it may be dissolved and distributed into all the
+corners of the caldron; in other places the blood is dissolved in beer.
+When the boiling water seems to be mixed with scum, he skims it with a
+ladle; this scum, if he be working with rock-salt, he throws into the
+opening in the furnace through which the smoke escapes, and it is dried
+into rock-salt; if it be not from rock-salt, he pours it on to the floor
+of the workshop. From the beginning to the boiling and skimming is the
+work of half-an-hour; after this it boils down for another
+quarter-of-an-hour, after which time it begins to condense into salt.
+When it begins to thicken with the heat, he and his helper stir it
+assiduously with a wooden spatula, and then he allows it to boil for an
+hour. After this he pours in a <i>cyathus</i> and a half of beer. In order
+that the wind should not blow into the caldron, the helper covers the
+front with a board seven and a half feet long and one foot high, and
+covers each of the sides with boards three and three quarters feet long.
+In order that the front board may hold more firmly, it is fitted into
+the caldron itself, and the side-boards are fixed on the front board and
+upon the transverse beam. Afterward, when the boards have been lifted
+off, the helper places two baskets, two feet high and as many wide at
+the top, and a palm wide at the bottom, on the transverse beams, and
+into them the master throws the salt with a shovel, taking half-an-hour
+to fill them. Then, replacing the boards on the caldron, he allows the
+brine to boil for three quarters of an hour. Afterward the salt has
+again to be removed with a shovel, and when the baskets are full, they
+pile up the salt in heaps.</p>
+
+<p>In different localities the salt is moulded into different shapes. In
+the baskets the salt assumes the form of a cone; it is not moulded in
+baskets alone, but also in moulds into which they throw the salt, which
+are made in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_554" id="Page_554"></a>[Pg 554]</span>the likeness of many objects, as for instance tablets.
+These tablets and cones are kept in the higher part of the third room of
+the house, or else on the flat bench of the same height, in order that
+they may dry better in the warm air. In the manner I have described, a
+master and his helper continue one after the other, alternately boiling
+the brine and moulding the salt, day and night, with the exception only
+of the annual feast days. No caldron is able to stand the fire for more
+than half a year. The master pours in water and washes it out every
+week; when it is washed out he puts straw under it and pounds it; new
+caldrons he washes three times in the first two weeks, and afterward
+twice. In this manner the incrustations fall from the bottom; if they
+are not cleared off, the salt would have to be made more slowly over a
+fiercer fire, which requires more brine and burns the plates of the
+caldron. If any cracks make their appearance in the caldron they are
+filled up with cement. The salt made during the first two weeks is not
+so good, being usually stained by the rust at the bottom where
+incrustations have not yet adhered.</p>
+
+<p>Although salt made in this manner is prepared only from the brine of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_555" id="Page_555"></a>[Pg 555]</span>springs and wells, yet it is also possible to use this method in the
+case of river-, lake-, and sea-water, and also of those waters which are
+artificially salted. For in places where rock-salt is dug, the impure
+and the broken pieces are thrown into fresh water, which, when boiled,
+condenses into salt. Some, indeed, boil sea-salt in fresh water again,
+and mould the salt into the little cones and other shapes.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig554.jpg"><img src="images/fig554thumb.jpg" alt="Salt Boiling" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Pool. B&mdash;Pots. C&mdash;Ladle. D&mdash;Pans.
+E&mdash;Tongs.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 554]</span></span>
+Some people make salt by another method, from salt water which flows
+from hot springs that issue boiling from the earth. They set earthenware
+pots in a pool of the spring-water, and into them they pour water
+scooped up with ladles from the hot spring until they are half full. The
+perpetual heat of the waters of the pool evaporates the salt water just
+as the heat of the fire does in the caldrons. As soon as it begins to
+thicken, which happens when it has been reduced by boiling to a third or
+more, they seize the pots with tongs and pour the contents into small
+rectangular iron pans, which have also been placed in the pool. The
+interior of these pans is usually three feet long, two feet wide, and
+three digits deep, and they stand on four heavy legs, so that the water
+flows freely all round, but not into them. Since the water flows
+continuously from the pool through the little canals, and the spring
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_556" id="Page_556"></a>[Pg 556]</span>always provides a new and copious supply, always boiling hot, it
+condenses the thickened water poured into the pans into salt; this is at
+once taken out with shovels, and then the work begins all over again. If
+the salty water contains other juices, as is usually the case with hot
+springs, no salt should be made from them.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig555.jpg"><img src="images/fig555thumb.jpg" alt="Salt Boiling" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Pots. B&mdash;Tripod. C&mdash;Deep ladle.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 555]</span></span>
+Others boil salt water, and especially sea-water, in large iron pots;
+this salt is blackish, for in most cases they burn straw under them.
+Some people boil in these pots the brine in which fish is pickled. The
+salt which they make tastes and smells of fish.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a href="images/fig556.jpg"><img src="images/fig556thumb.jpg" alt="Salt evaporated on faggots" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Trench. B&mdash;Vat into
+which the salt water flows. C&mdash;Ladle. D&mdash;Small bucket with pole fastened
+into it.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 556]</span></span>
+Those who make salt by pouring brine over firewood, lay the wood in
+trenches which are twelve feet long, seven feet wide, and two and one
+half feet deep, so that the water poured in should not flow out. These
+trenches are constructed of rock-salt wherever it is to be had, in order
+that they should not soak up the water, and so that the earth should not
+fall in on the front, back and sides. As the charcoal is turned into
+salt at the same time as the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_558" id="Page_558"></a>[Pg 558]</span>salt liquor, the Spaniards think, as
+Pliny writes<a name="FNanchor_5_375" id="FNanchor_5_375"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_375" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>, that the wood itself turns into salt. Oak is the best
+wood, as its pure ash yields salt; elsewhere hazel-wood is lauded. But
+with whatever wood it be made, this salt is not greatly appreciated,
+being black and not quite pure; on that account this method of
+salt-making is disdained by the Germans and Spaniards.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_557" id="Page_557"></a><a href="images/fig557.jpg"><img src="images/fig557thumb.jpg" alt="Lye Making" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Large vat. B&mdash;Plug. C&mdash;Small tub.
+D&mdash;Deep ladle. E&mdash;Small vat. F&mdash;Caldron.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 557]</span></span>
+The solutions from which salt is made are prepared from salty earth or
+from earth rich in salt and saltpetre. Lye is made from the ashes of
+reeds and rushes. The solution obtained from salty earth by boiling,
+makes salt only; from the other, of which I will speak more a little
+later, salt and saltpetre are made; and from ashes is derived lye, from
+which its own salt is obtained. The ashes, as well as the earth, should
+first be put into a large vat; then fresh water should be poured over
+the ashes or earth, and it should be stirred for about twelve hours with
+a stick, so that it may dissolve the salt. Then the plug is pulled out
+of the large vat; the solution of salt or the lye is drained into a
+small tub and emptied with ladles into small vats; finally, such a
+solution is transferred into iron or lead caldrons and boiled, until the
+water having evaporated, the juices are condensed into salt. The above
+are the various methods for making salt. (Illustration p. <a href="#Page_557">557</a>.)</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_559" id="Page_559"></a><a href="images/fig559.jpg"><img src="images/fig559thumb.jpg" alt="Nitrum-pits" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Nile. B&mdash;Nitrum-pits, such as I
+conjecture them to be.</span><a name="FNanchor_7_377" id="FNanchor_7_377"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_377" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> <span class="inum">[Pg 559]</span></span>
+<i>Nitrum</i><a name="FNanchor_6_376" id="FNanchor_6_376"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_376" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> is usually made from <i>nitrous</i> waters, or from solutions or
+from lye. In the same manner as sea-water or salt-water is poured into
+salt-pits and evaporated by the heat of the sun and changed into salt,
+so the <i>nitrous</i> Nile is led into <i>nitrum</i> pits and evaporated by the
+heat of the sun and converted <span class="pagenum">[Pg 559]</span>into <i>nitrum</i>. Just as the sea, in
+flowing of its own will over the soil of this same Egypt, is changed
+into salt, so also the Nile, when it overflows in the dog days, is
+converted into <i>nitrum</i> when it flows into the <i>nitrum</i> pits. The
+solution from which <i>nitrum</i> is produced is obtained from fresh water
+percolating through <i>nitrous</i> earth, in the same manner as lye is made
+from fresh water percolating through ashes of oak or hard oak. Both
+solutions are taken out of vats and poured into rectangular copper
+caldrons, and are boiled until at last they condense into <i>nitrum</i>.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_560" id="Page_560"></a>[Pg 560]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_561" id="Page_561"></a><a href="images/fig561.jpg"><img src="images/fig561thumb.jpg" alt="Soda Making" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Vat in which the soda is mixed.
+B&mdash;Caldron. C&mdash;Tub in which <i>chrysocolla</i> is condensed. D&mdash;Copper wires.
+E&mdash;Mortar.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 561]</span></span>
+Native as well as manufactured <i>nitrum</i> is mixed in vats with urine and
+boiled in the same caldrons; the decoction is poured into vats in which
+are copper wires, and, adhering to them, it hardens and becomes
+<i>chrysocolla</i>, which the Moors call <i>borax</i>. Formerly <i>nitrum</i> was
+compounded with Cyprian verdigris, and ground with Cyprian copper in
+Cyprian mortars, as Pliny writes. Some <i>chrysocolla</i> is made of
+rock-alum and sal-ammoniac.<a name="FNanchor_8_378" id="FNanchor_8_378"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_378" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 561]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_563" id="Page_563"></a><a href="images/fig563.jpg"><img src="images/fig563thumb.jpg" alt="Saltpetre Making" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Caldron. B&mdash;Large vat into
+which sand is thrown. C&mdash;Plug. D&mdash;Tub. E&mdash;Vat containing the rods.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 563]</span></span>
+Saltpetre<a name="FNanchor_9_379" id="FNanchor_9_379"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_379" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> is made from a dry, slightly fatty earth, which, if it be
+retained for a while in the mouth, has an acrid and salty taste. This
+earth, together with a powder, are alternately put into a vat in layers
+a palm deep. The powder consists of two parts of unslaked lime and three
+parts of ashes of oak, or holmoak, or Italian oak, or Turkey oak, or of
+some similar kind. Each vat is filled with alternate layers of these to
+within three-quarters of a foot of the top, and then water is poured in
+until it is full. As the water percolates through the material it
+dissolves the saltpetre; then, the plug being pulled out from the vat,
+the solution is drained into a tub and ladled out into small <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_562" id="Page_562"></a>[Pg 562]</span>vats. If
+when tested it tastes very salty, and at the same time acrid, it is
+good; but, if not, then it is condemned, and it must be made to
+percolate again through the same material or through a fresh lot. Even
+two or three waters may be made to percolate through the same earth and
+become full of saltpetre, but the solutions thus obtained must not be
+mixed together unless all have the same taste, which rarely or never
+happens. The first of these solutions is poured into the first vat, the
+next into the second, the third into the third vat; the second and third
+solutions are used instead of plain water to percolate through fresh
+material; the first solution is made in this manner from both the second
+and third. As soon as there is an abundance of this solution it is
+poured into the rectangular copper caldron and evaporated to one half by
+boiling; then it is transferred into a vat covered with a lid, in which
+the earthy matter settles to the bottom. When the solution is clear it
+is poured back into the same pan, or into another, and re-boiled. When
+it bubbles and forms a scum, in order that it should not run over and
+that it may be greatly purified, there is poured into it three or four
+pounds of lye, made from three parts of oak or similar ash and one of
+unslaked lime. But in the water, prior to its being poured in, is
+dissolved rock-alum, in the proportion of one hundred and twenty
+<i>librae</i> of the former to five <span class="pagenum">[Pg 563]</span><i>librae</i> of the latter. Shortly
+afterward the solution will be found to be clear and blue. It is boiled
+until the waters, which are easily volatile (<i>subtiles</i>), are
+evaporated, and then the greater part of the salt, after it has settled
+at the bottom of the pan, is taken out with iron ladles. Then the
+concentrated solution is transferred to the vat in which rods are placed
+horizontally and vertically, to which it adheres when cold, and if there
+be much, it is condensed in three or four days into saltpetre. Then the
+solution which has not congealed, is poured out and put on one side or
+re-boiled. The saltpetre being cut out and washed with its own solution,
+is thrown on to boards that it may drain and dry. The yield of saltpetre
+will be much or little in proportion to whether the solution has
+absorbed much or little; when the saltpetre has been obtained from lye,
+which purifies itself, it is somewhat clear and pure.</p>
+
+<p>The purest and most transparent, because free from salt, is made if it
+is drawn off at the thickening stage, according to the following method.
+There <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_564" id="Page_564"></a>[Pg 564]</span>are poured into the caldron the same number of <i>amphorae</i> of the
+solution as of <i>congii</i> of the lye of which I have already spoken, and
+into the same caldron is thrown as much of the already made saltpetre as
+the solution and lye will dissolve. As soon as the mixture effervesces
+and forms scum, it is transferred to a vat, into which on a cloth has
+been thrown washed sand obtained from a river. Soon afterward the plug
+is drawn out of the hole at the bottom, and the mixture, having
+percolated through the sand, escapes into a tub. It is then reduced by
+boiling in one or another of the caldrons, until the greater part of the
+solution has evaporated; but as soon as it is well boiled and forms
+scum, a little lye is poured into it. Then it is transferred to another
+vat in which there are small rods, to which it adheres and congeals in
+two days if there is but little of it, or if there is much in three
+days, or at the most in four days; if it does not condense, it is poured
+back into the caldron and re-boiled down to half; then it is transferred
+to the vat to cool. The process must be repeated as often as is
+necessary.</p>
+
+<p>Others refine saltpetre by another method, for with it they fill a pot
+made of copper, and, covering it with a copper lid, set it over live
+coals, where it is heated until it melts. They do not cement down the
+lid, but it has a handle, and can be lifted for them to see whether or
+not the melting has taken place. When it has melted, powdered sulphur is
+sprinkled in, and if the pot set on the fire does not light it, the
+sulphur kindles, whereby the thick, greasy matter floating on the
+saltpetre burns up, and when it is consumed the saltpetre is pure. Soon
+afterward the pot is removed from the fire, and later, when cold, the
+purest saltpetre is taken out, which has the appearance of white marble,
+the earthy residue then remains at the bottom. The earths from which the
+solution was made, together with branches of oak or similar trees, are
+exposed under the open sky and sprinkled with water containing
+saltpetre. After remaining thus for five or six years, they are again
+ready to be made into a solution.</p>
+
+<p>Pure saltpetre which has rested many years in the earth, and that which
+exudes from the stone walls of wine cellars and dark places, is mixed
+with the first solution and evaporated by boiling.</p>
+
+<p>Thus far I have described the methods of making <i>nitrum</i>, which are not
+less varied or multifarious than those for making salt. Now I propose to
+describe the methods of making alum,<a name="FNanchor_10_380" id="FNanchor_10_380"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_380" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> which are likewise neither all
+alike, nor simple, because it is made from boiling aluminous water until
+it condenses to alum, or else from boiling a solution of alum which is
+obtained from a kind of earth, or from rocks, or from pyrites, or other
+minerals.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_565" id="Page_565"></a>[Pg 565]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_567" id="Page_567"></a><a href="images/fig567.jpg"><img src="images/fig567thumb.jpg" alt="Vitriol Making" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Tanks. B&mdash;Stirring poles.
+C&mdash;Plug. D&mdash;Trough. E&mdash;Reservoir. F&mdash;Launder. G&mdash;lead caldron. H&mdash;Wooden
+tubs sunk into the earth. I&mdash;Vats in which twigs are fixed.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 567]</span></span>
+This kind of earth having first been dug up in such quantity as would
+make three hundred wheelbarrow loads, is thrown into two tanks; then the
+water is turned into them, and if it (the earth) contains vitriol it
+must be diluted with urine. The workmen must many times a day stir the
+ore with long, thick sticks in order that the water and urine may be
+mixed with it; then the plugs having been taken out of both tanks, the
+solution is drawn off into a trough, which is carved out of one or two
+trees. If the locality is supplied with an abundance of such ore, it
+should not immediately be thrown into the tanks, but first conveyed into
+open spaces and heaped up, for the longer it is exposed to the air and
+the rain, the better it is; after some months, during which the ore has
+been heaped up in open spaces into mounds, there are generated veinlets
+of far better quality than the ore. Then it is conveyed into six or more
+tanks, nine feet in length and breadth and five in depth, and afterward
+water is drawn into them of similar solution. After this, when the water
+has absorbed the alum, the plugs are pulled out, and the solution
+escapes into a round reservoir forty feet wide and three feet deep. Then
+the ore is thrown out of the tanks into other tanks, and water again
+being run into the latter and the urine added and stirred by means of
+poles, the plugs are withdrawn and the solution is run off into the same
+reservoir. A few days afterward, the reservoirs containing the solution
+are emptied through a small launder, and run into rectangular lead
+caldrons; it is boiled in them until the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_566" id="Page_566"></a>[Pg 566]</span>greater part of the water has
+evaporated. The earthy sediment deposited at the bottom of the caldron
+is composed of fatty and aluminous matter, which usually consists of
+small incrustations, in which there is not infrequently found a very
+white and very light powder of asbestos or gypsum. The solution now
+seems to be full of meal. Some people instead pour the partly evaporated
+solution into a vat, so that it may become pure and clear; then pouring
+it back into the caldron, they boil it again until it becomes mealy. By
+whichever process it has been condensed, it is then poured into a wooden
+tub sunk into the earth in order to cool it. When it becomes cold it is
+poured into vats, in which are arranged horizontal and vertical twigs,
+to which the alum clings when it condenses; and thus are made the small
+white transparent cubes, which are laid to dry in hot rooms.</p>
+
+<p>If vitriol forms part of the aluminous ore, the material is dissolved in
+water without being mixed with urine, but it is necessary to pour that
+into the clear and pure solution when it is to be re-boiled. This
+separates the vitriol from the alum, for by this method the latter sinks
+to the bottom of the caldron, while the former floats on the top; both
+must be poured separately into smaller vessels, and from these into vats
+to condense. If, however, when the solution was re-boiled they did not
+separate, then they must be poured from the smaller vessels into larger
+vessels and covered over; then the vitriol separating from the alum, it
+condenses. Both are cut out and put to dry in the hot room, and are
+ready to be sold; the solution which did not congeal in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_568" id="Page_568"></a>[Pg 568]</span>the vessels
+and vats is again poured back into the caldron to be re-boiled. The
+earth which settled at the bottom of the caldron is carried back to the
+tanks, and, together with the ore, is again dissolved with water and
+urine. The earth which remains in the tanks after the solution has been
+drawn off is emptied in a heap, and daily becomes more and more
+aluminous in the same way as the earth from which saltpetre was made,
+but fuller of its juices, wherefore it is again thrown into the tanks
+and percolated by water.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_571" id="Page_571"></a><a href="images/fig571.jpg"><img src="images/fig571thumb.jpg" alt="Alum Making" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Furnace. B&mdash;Enclosed space.
+C&mdash;Aluminous rock. D&mdash;Deep ladle. E&mdash;Caldron. F&mdash;Launder. G&mdash;Troughs.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 571]</span></span>
+Aluminous rock is first roasted in a furnace similar to a lime kiln. At
+the bottom of the kiln a vaulted fireplace is made of the same kind of
+rock; the remainder of the empty part of the kiln is then entirely
+filled with the same aluminous rocks. Then they are heated with fire
+until they are red hot and have exhaled their sulphurous fumes, which
+occurs, according to their divers nature, within the space of ten,
+eleven, twelve, or more hours. One thing the master must guard against
+most of all is not to roast the rock either too much or too little, for
+on the one hand they would not soften when sprinkled with water, and on
+the other they either would be too hard or would crumble into ashes;
+from neither would much alum be obtained, for the strength which they
+have would be decreased. When the rocks are cooled they are drawn out
+and conveyed into an open space, where they are piled one upon the other
+in heaps fifty feet long, eight feet wide, and four feet high, which are
+sprinkled for forty days with water carried in deep ladles. In spring
+the sprinkling is done both morning and evening, and in summer at <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_569" id="Page_569"></a>[Pg 569]</span>noon
+besides. After being moistened for this length of time the rocks begin
+to fall to pieces like slaked lime, and there originates a certain new
+material of the future alum, which is soft and similar to the <i>liquidae
+medullae</i> found in the rocks. It is white if the stone was white before
+it was roasted, and rose-coloured if red was mixed with the white; from
+the former, white alum is obtained, and from the latter, rose-coloured.
+A round furnace is made, the lower part of which, in order to be able to
+endure the force of the heat, is made of rock that neither melts nor
+crumbles to powder by the fire. It is constructed in the form of a
+basket, the walls of which are two feet high, made of the same rock. On
+these walls rests a large round caldron made of copper plates, which is
+concave at the bottom, where it is eight feet in diameter. In the empty
+space under the bottom they place the wood to be kindled with fire.
+Around the edge of the bottom of the caldron, rock is built in
+cone-shaped, and the diameter of the bottom of the rock structure is
+seven feet, and of the top ten feet; it is eight feet deep. The inside,
+after being rubbed over with oil, is covered with cement, so that it may
+be able to hold boiling water; the cement is composed of fresh lime, of
+which the lumps are slaked with wine, of iron-scales, and of sea-snails,
+ground and mixed with the white of eggs and oil. The edges of the
+caldron are surmounted with a circle of wood a foot thick and half a
+foot high, on which the workmen rest the wooden shovels with which they
+cleanse the water of earth and of the undissolved lumps of rock that
+remain at <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_570" id="Page_570"></a>[Pg 570]</span>the bottom of the caldron. The caldron, being thus prepared,
+is entirely filled through a launder with water, and this is boiled with
+a fierce fire until it bubbles. Then little by little eight wheelbarrow
+loads of the material, composed of roasted rock moistened with water,
+are gradually emptied into the caldron by four workmen, who, with their
+shovels which reach to the bottom, keep the material stirred and mixed
+with water, and by the same means they lift the lumps of undissolved
+rock out of the caldron. In this manner the material is thrown in, in
+three or four lots, at intervals of two or three hours more or less;
+during these intervals, the water, which has been cooled by the rock and
+material, again begins to boil. The water, when sufficiently purified
+and ready to congeal, is ladled out and run off with launders into
+thirty troughs. These troughs are made of oak, holm oak, or Turkey oak;
+their interior is six feet long, five feet deep, and four feet wide. In
+these the water congeals and condenses into alum, in the spring in the
+space of four days, and in summer in six days. Afterward the holes at
+the bottom of the oak troughs being opened, the water which has not
+congealed is drawn off into buckets and poured back into the caldron; or
+it may be preserved in empty troughs, so that the master of the workmen,
+having seen it, may order his helpers to pour it into the caldron, for
+the water which is not altogether wanting in alum, is considered better
+than that which has none at all. Then the alum is hewn out with a knife
+or a chisel. It is thick and excellent according to the strength of the
+rock, either white or pink according to the colour of the rock. The
+earthy powder, which remains three to four digits thick as the residue
+of the alum at the bottom of the trough is again thrown into the caldron
+and boiled with fresh aluminous material. Lastly, the alum cut out is
+washed, and dried, and sold.</p>
+
+<p>Alum is also made from crude pyrites and other aluminous mixtures. It is
+first roasted in an enclosed area; then, after being exposed for some
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_572" id="Page_572"></a>[Pg 572]</span>months to the air in order to soften it, it is thrown into vats and
+dissolved. After this the solution is poured into the leaden rectangular
+pans and boiled until it condenses into alum. The pyrites and other
+stones which are not mixed with alum alone, but which also contain
+vitriol, as is most usually the case, are both treated in the manner
+which I have already described. Finally, if metal is contained in the
+pyrites and other rock, this material must be dried, and from it either
+gold, silver, or copper is made in a furnace.</p>
+
+<p>Vitriol<a name="FNanchor_11_381" id="FNanchor_11_381"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_381" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> can be made by four different methods; by two of these
+methods <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_573" id="Page_573"></a>[Pg 573]</span>from water containing vitriol; by one method from a solution of
+<i>melanteria</i>, <i>sory</i> and <i>chalcitis</i>; and by another method from earth
+or stones mixed with vitriol.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_574" id="Page_574"></a><a href="images/fig574.jpg"><img src="images/fig574thumb.jpg" alt="Vitriol Making" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Tunnel. B&mdash;Bucket. C&mdash;Pit.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 574]</span></span>
+<span class="figleft"><a name="Page_575" id="Page_575"></a><a href="images/fig575.jpg"><img src="images/fig575thumb.jpg" alt="Vitriol Making" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Caldron. B&mdash;Tank. C&mdash;Cross-bars.
+D&mdash;Ropes. E&mdash;Little stones.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 575]</span></span>
+The vitriol water is collected into pools, and if it cannot be drained
+into them, it must be drawn up and carried to them in buckets by a
+workman. <span class="pagenum">[Pg 574]</span>In hot regions or in summer, it is poured into out-of-door
+pits which have been dug to a certain depth, or else it is extracted
+from shafts by pumps and poured into launders, through which it flows
+into the pits, where it is condensed by the heat of the sun. In cold
+regions and in winter these vitriol waters are boiled down with equal
+parts of fresh water in rectangular leaden caldrons; then, when cold,
+the mixture is poured into vats or into tanks, which Pliny calls wooden
+fish-tanks. In these tanks light cross-beams are fixed to the upper
+part, so that they may be stationary, and from them hang ropes stretched
+with little stones; to these the contents of the thickened solutions
+congeal and adhere in transparent cubes or seeds of vitriol, like
+bunches of grapes.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[Pg 575]</span></p>
+<p>By the third method vitriol is made out of <i>melanteria</i> and <i>sory</i>. If
+the mines give an abundant supply of <i>melanteria</i> and <i>sory</i>, it is
+better to reject the <i>chalcitis</i>, and especially the <i>misy</i>, for from
+these the vitriol is impure, particularly from the <i>misy</i>. These
+materials having been dug and thrown into the tanks, they are first
+dissolved with water; then, in order to recover the pyrites from which
+copper is not rarely smelted and which forms a sediment at the bottom of
+the tanks, the solution is transferred to other vats, which are nine
+feet wide and three feet deep. Twigs and wood which float on the surface
+are lifted out with a broom made of twigs, and afterward all the
+sediment settles at the bottom of this vat. The solution is poured into
+a rectangular leaden caldron eight feet long, three feet wide, and the
+same in depth. In this caldron it is boiled until it becomes thick and
+viscous, when it is poured into a launder, through which it runs into
+another leaden caldron of the same size as the one described before.
+<span class="figleft"><a name="Page_576" id="Page_576"></a><a href="images/fig576.jpg"><img src="images/fig576thumb.jpg" alt="Vitriol Making" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Wooden tub. B&mdash;Cross-bars.
+C&mdash;Laths. D&mdash;Sloping floor of the chamber. E&mdash;Tub placed under it.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 576]</span></span>
+When cold, the solution is drawn off through twelve little launders, out
+of which it flows into as many wooden tubs four and a half feet deep and
+three feet wide. Upon these tubs are placed perforated crossbars distant
+from each other from four to six digits, and from the holes hang thin
+laths, which reach to the bottom, with <span class="pagenum">[Pg 576]</span>pegs or wedges driven into them.
+The vitriol adheres to these laths, and within the space of a few days
+congeals into cubes, which are taken away and put into a chamber having
+a sloping board floor, so that the moisture which drips from the vitriol
+may flow into a tub beneath. This solution is re-boiled, as is also that
+solution which was left in the twelve tubs, for, by reason of its having
+become too thin and liquid, it did not congeal, and was thus not
+converted into vitriol.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_577" id="Page_577"></a><a href="images/fig577.jpg"><img src="images/fig577thumb.jpg" alt="Vitriol Making" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Caldron. B&mdash;Moulds. C&mdash;Cakes.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 577]</span></span>
+The fourth method of making vitriol is from vitriolous earth or stones.
+Such ore is at first carried and heaped up, and is then left for five or
+six months exposed to the rain of spring and autumn, to the heat of
+summer, and to the rime and frost of winter. It must be turned over
+several times with shovels, so that the part at the bottom may be
+brought to the top, and it is thus ventilated and cooled; by this means
+the earth crumbles up and loosens, and the stone changes from hard to
+soft. Then the ore is covered with a roof, or else it is taken away and
+placed under a roof, and remains in that place six, seven, or eight
+months. Afterward as large a portion as is required is thrown into a
+vat, which is half-filled with water; this vat is one hundred <span class="pagenum">[Pg 577]</span>feet
+long, twenty-four feet wide, eight feet deep. It has an opening at the
+bottom, so that when it is opened the dregs of the ore from which the
+vitriol comes may be drawn off, and it has, at the height of one foot
+from the bottom, three or four little holes, so that, when closed, the
+water may be retained, and when opened the solution flows out. Thus the
+ore is mixed with water, stirred with poles and left in the tank until
+the earthy portions sink to the bottom and the water absorbs the juices.
+Then the little holes are opened, the solution flows out of the vat, and
+is caught in a vat below it; this vat is of the same length as the
+other, but twelve feet wide and four feet deep. If the solution is not
+sufficiently vitriolous it is mixed with fresh ore; but if it contains
+enough vitriol, and yet has not exhausted all of the ore rich in
+vitriol, it is well to dissolve the ore again with fresh water. As soon
+as the solution becomes clear, it is poured into the rectangular leaden
+caldron through launders, and is boiled until the water is evaporated.
+Afterward as many thin strips of iron as the nature of the solution
+requires, are thrown in, and then it is boiled again until it is thick
+enough, when cold, to congeal into vitriol. Then it is poured into tanks
+or vats, or any other receptacle, in which all of it that is apt to
+congeal does so within two or three days. The solution which does not
+congeal is either poured back into the caldron to be boiled again, or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_578" id="Page_578"></a>[Pg 578]</span>it is put aside for dissolving the new ore, for it is far preferable to
+fresh water. The solidified vitriol is hewn out, and having once more
+been thrown into the caldron, is re-heated until it liquefies; when
+liquid, it is poured into moulds that it may be made into cakes. If the
+solution first poured out is not satisfactorily thickened, it is
+condensed two or three times, and each time liquefied in the caldron and
+re-poured into the moulds, in which manner pure cakes, beautiful to look
+at, are made from it.</p>
+
+<p>The vitriolous pyrites, which are to be numbered among the mixtures
+(<i>mistura</i>), are roasted as in the case of alum, and dissolved with
+water, and the solution is boiled in leaden caldrons until it condenses
+into vitriol. Both alum and vitriol are often made out of these, and it
+is no wonder, for these juices are cognate, and only differ in the one
+point,&mdash;that the former is less, the latter more, earthy. That pyrites
+which contains metal must be smelted in the furnace. In the same manner,
+from other mixtures of vitriolic and metalliferous material are made
+vitriol and metal. Indeed, if ores of vitriolous pyrites abound, the
+miners split small logs down the centre and cut them off in lengths as
+long as the drifts and tunnels are wide, in which they lay them down
+transversely; but, that they may be stable, they are laid on the ground
+with the wide side down and the round side up, and they touch each other
+at the bottom, but not at the top. The intermediate space is filled with
+pyrites, and the same crushed are scattered over the wood, so that,
+coming in or going out, the road is flat and even. Since the drifts or
+tunnels drip with water, these pyrites are soaked, and from them are
+freed the vitriol and cognate things. If the water ceases to drip, these
+dry and harden, and then they are raised from the shafts, together with
+the pyrites not yet dissolved in the water, or they are carried out from
+the tunnels; then they are thrown into vats or tanks, and boiling water
+having been poured over them, the vitriol is freed and the pyrites are
+dissolved. This green solution is transferred to other vats or tanks,
+that it may be made clear and pure; it is then boiled in the lead
+caldrons until it thickens; afterward it is poured into wooden tubs,
+where it condenses on rods, or reeds, or twigs, into green vitriol.</p>
+
+<p>Sulphur is made from sulphurous waters, from sulphurous ores, and from
+sulphurous mixtures. These waters are poured into the leaden caldrons
+and boiled until they condense into sulphur. From this latter, heated
+together with iron-scales, and transferred into pots, which are
+afterward covered with lute and refined sulphur, another sulphur is
+made, which we call <i>caballinum</i>.<a name="FNanchor_12_382" id="FNanchor_12_382"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_382" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_579" id="Page_579"></a><a href="images/fig579.jpg"><img src="images/fig579thumb.jpg" alt="Sulphur Making" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Pots having spouts. B&mdash;Pots
+without spouts. C&mdash;Lids.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 579]</span></span>
+The ores<a name="FNanchor_13_383" id="FNanchor_13_383"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_383" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> which consist mostly of sulphur and of earth, and rarely of
+other minerals, are melted in big-bellied earthenware pots. The
+furnaces, <span class="pagenum">[Pg 579]</span>which hold two of these pots, are divided into three parts;
+the lowest part is a foot high, and has an opening at the front for the
+draught; the top of this is covered with iron plates, which are
+perforated near the edges, and these support iron rods, upon which the
+firewood is placed. The middle part of the furnace is one and a half
+feet high, and has a mouth in front, so that the wood may be inserted;
+the top of this has rods, upon which the bottom of the pots stand. The
+upper part is about two feet high, and the pots are also two feet high
+and one digit thick; these have below their mouths a long, slender
+spout. In order that the mouth of the pot may be covered, an earthenware
+lid is made which fits into it. For every two of these pots there must
+be one pot <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_580" id="Page_580"></a>[Pg 580]</span>of the same size and shape, and without a spout, but having
+three holes, two of which are below the mouth and receive the spouts of
+the two first pots; the third hole is on the opposite side at the
+bottom, and through it the sulphur flows out. In each furnace are placed
+two pots with spouts, and the furnace must be covered by plates of iron
+smeared over with lute two digits thick; it is thus entirely closed in,
+but for two or three vent-holes through which the mouths of the pots
+project. Outside of the furnace, against one side, is placed the pot
+without a spout, into the two holes of which the two spouts of the other
+pots penetrate, and this pot should be built in at both sides to keep it
+steady. When the sulphur ore has been placed in the pots, and these
+placed in the furnace, they are closely covered, and it is desirable to
+smear the joint over with lute, so that the sulphur will not exhale, and
+for the same reason the pot below is covered with a lid, which is also
+smeared with lute. The wood having been kindled, the ores are heated
+until the sulphur is exhaled, and the vapour, arising through the spout,
+penetrates into the lower pot and thickens into sulphur, which falls to
+the bottom like melted wax. It then flows out through the hole, which,
+as I said, is at the bottom of this pot; and the workman makes it into
+cakes, or thin sticks or thin pieces of wood are dipped in it. Then he
+takes the burning wood and glowing charcoal from the furnace, and when
+it has cooled, he opens the two pots, empties the residues, which, if
+the ores were composed of sulphur and earth, resemble naturally
+extinguished ashes; but if the ores consisted of sulphur and earth and
+stone, or sulphur and stone only, they resemble earth completely dried
+or stones well roasted. Afterward the pots are re-filled with ore, and
+the whole work is repeated.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_581" id="Page_581"></a><a href="images/fig581.jpg"><img src="images/fig581thumb.jpg" alt="Sulphur Making" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Long wall. B&mdash;High walls. C&mdash;Low
+walls. D&mdash;Plates. E&mdash;Upper pots. F&mdash;Lower pots.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 581]</span></span>
+The sulphurous mixture, whether it consists of stone and sulphur only,
+or of stone and sulphur and metal, may be heated in similar pots, but
+with perforated bottoms. Before the furnace is constructed, against the
+"second" wall of the works two lateral partitions are built seven feet
+high, three feet long, one and a half feet thick, and these are distant
+from each other twenty-seven feet. Between them are seven low brick
+walls, that measure but two feet and the same number of digits in
+height, and, like the other walls, are three feet long and one foot
+thick; these little walls are at equal distances from one another,
+consequently they will be two and one half feet apart. At the top, iron
+bars are fixed into them, which sustain iron plates three feet long and
+wide and one digit thick, so that they can bear not only the weight of
+the pots, but also the fierceness of the fire. These plates have in the
+middle a round hole one and a half digits wide; there must not be more
+than eight of these, and upon them as many pots are placed. These pots
+are perforated at the bottom, and the same number of whole pots are
+placed underneath them; the former contain the mixture, and are covered
+with lids; the latter contain water, and their mouths are under the
+holes in the plates. After wood has been arranged round the upper pots
+and ignited, the mixture being heated, red, yellow, or green sulphur
+drips from it and flows down through the hole, and is caught by the pots
+placed underneath the plates, and is at once cooled by the water. If the
+mixture contains metal, it is reserved for smelting, and, if not, it is
+thrown away. <span class="pagenum">[Pg 581]</span>The sulphur from such a mixture can best be extracted if
+the upper pots are placed in a vaulted furnace, like those which I
+described among other metallurgical subjects in <a href="#BOOK_VIII">Book VIII.</a>, which has no
+floor, but a grate inside; under this the lower pots are placed in the
+same manner, but the plates must have larger holes.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_582" id="Page_582"></a><a href="images/fig582.jpg"><img src="images/fig582thumb.jpg" alt="Bitumen Making" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Lower pot. B&mdash;Upper pot. C&mdash;Lid.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 582]</span></span>
+Others bury a pot in the ground, and place over it another pot with a
+hole at the bottom, in which pyrites or <i>cadmia</i>, or other sulphurous
+stones are so enclosed that the sulphur cannot exhale. A fierce fire
+heats the sulphur, and it drips away and flows down into the lower pot,
+which contains water. (Illustration p. <a href="#Page_582">582</a>).</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_583" id="Page_583"></a><a href="images/fig583.jpg"><img src="images/fig583thumb.jpg" alt="Bitumen Making" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Bituminous spring. B&mdash;Bucket.
+C&mdash;Pot. D&mdash;Lid.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 583]</span></span>
+Bitumen<a name="FNanchor_14_384" id="FNanchor_14_384"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_384" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> is made from bituminous waters, from liquid bitumen, and
+from mixtures of bituminous substances. The water, bituminous as well as
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg 582]</span>salty, at Babylon, as Pliny writes, was taken from the wells to the
+salt works and heated by the great heat of the sun, and condensed partly
+into liquid bitumen and partly into salt. The bitumen being lighter,
+floats on the top, while the salt being heavier, sinks to the bottom.
+Liquid bitumen, if there is much floating on springs, streams and
+rivers, is drawn up in buckets or other vessels; but, if there is
+little, it is collected with goose wings, pieces <span class="pagenum">[Pg 583]</span>of linen, <i>ralla</i>,
+shreds of reeds, and other things to which it easily adheres, and it is
+boiled in large brass or iron pots by fire and condensed. As this
+bitumen is put to divers uses, some mix pitch with the liquid, others
+old cart-grease, in order to temper its viscosity; these, however long
+they are <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_584" id="Page_584"></a>[Pg 584]</span>boiled in the pots, cannot be made hard. The mixtures
+containing bitumen are also treated in the same manner as those
+containing sulphur, in pots having a hole in the bottom, and it is rare
+that such bitumen is not highly esteemed.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_585" id="Page_585"></a><a href="images/fig585.jpg"><img src="images/fig585thumb.jpg" alt="Chrysocolla Making" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Mouth of the tunnel.
+B&mdash;Trough. C&mdash;Tanks. D&mdash;Little trough.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 585]</span></span>
+Since all solidified juices and earths, if abundantly and copiously
+mixed with the water, are deposited in the beds of springs, streams or
+rivers, and the stones therein are coated by them, they do not require
+the heat of the sun or fire to harden them. This having been pondered
+over by wise men, they discovered methods by which the remainder of
+these solidified juices and unusual earths can be collected. Such
+waters, whether flowing from springs or tunnels, are collected in many
+wooden tubs or tanks arranged in consecutive order, and deposit in them
+such juices or earths; these being scraped off every year, are
+collected, as <i>chrysocolla</i><a name="FNanchor_15_385" id="FNanchor_15_385"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_385" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> in the Carpathians and as ochre in the
+Harz.</p>
+
+<p>There remains glass, the preparation of which belongs here, for the
+reason that it is obtained by the power of fire and subtle art from
+certain solidified juices and from coarse or fine sand. It is
+transparent, as are certain solidified juices, gems, and stones; and can
+be melted like fusible stones and metals. First I must speak of the
+materials from which glass is made; then of the furnaces in which it is
+melted; then of the methods by which it is produced.</p>
+
+<p>It is made from fusible stones and from solidified juices, or from other
+juicy substances which are connected by a natural relationship. Stones
+which are fusible, if they are white and translucent, are more excellent
+than <span class="pagenum">[Pg 585]</span>the others, for which reason crystals take the first place. From
+these, when pounded, the most excellent transparent glass was made in
+India, with which no other could be compared, as Pliny relates. The
+second place is accorded to stones which, although not so hard as
+crystal, are yet just as white and transparent. The third is given to
+white stones, which are not transparent. It is necessary, however, first
+of all to heat all these, and afterward they are subjected to the pestle
+in order to break and crush them into coarse sand, and then they are
+passed through a sieve. If this kind of coarse or fine sand is found by
+the glass-makers near the mouth of a river, it saves them much labour in
+burning and crushing. As regards the solidified juices, the first place
+is given to soda; the second to white and translucent rock-salt; the
+third to salts which are made from lye, from the ashes of the musk ivy,
+or from other salty herbs. Yet there are some who give to this latter,
+and not to the former, the second place. One part of coarse or fine sand
+made from fusible stones should be mixed with two parts of soda or of
+rock-salt or of herb salts, to which are added minute particles of
+<i>magnes</i>.<a name="FNanchor_16_386" id="FNanchor_16_386"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_386" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> It is true that in our <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_586" id="Page_586"></a>[Pg 586]</span>day, as much as in ancient times,
+there exists the belief in the singular power of the latter to attract
+to itself the vitreous liquid just as it does iron, and by attracting it
+to purify and transform green or yellow into white; and afterward fire
+consumes the <i>magnes</i>. When the said juices are not to be had, two parts
+of the ashes of oak or holmoak, or of hard oak or Turkey oak, or if
+these be not available, of beech or pine, are mixed with one part of
+coarse or fine sand, and a small quantity of salt is added, made from
+salt water or sea-water, and a small particle of <i>magnes</i>; but these
+make a less white and translucent glass. The ashes should be made from
+old trees, of which the trunk at a height of six feet is hollowed out
+and fire is put in, and thus the whole tree is consumed and converted
+into ashes. This is done in winter when the snow lies long, or in summer
+when it does not rain, for the showers at other times of the year, by
+mixing the ashes with earth, render them impure; for this reason, at
+such times, these same trees are cut up into many pieces and burned
+under cover, and are thus converted into ashes.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_587" id="Page_587"></a><a href="images/fig587.jpg"><img src="images/fig587thumb.jpg" alt="Glass-making Furnace" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Lower chamber of the first
+furnace. B&mdash;Upper chamber. C&mdash;Vitreous mass.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 587]</span></span>
+Some glass-makers use three furnaces, others two, others only one. Those
+who use three, melt the material in the first, re-melt it in the second,
+<span class="pagenum">[Pg 587]</span>and in the third they cool the glowing glass vessels and other
+articles. Of these the first furnace must be vaulted and similar to an
+oven. In the upper chamber, which is six feet long, four feet wide, and
+two feet high, the mixed materials are heated by a fierce fire of dry
+wood until they melt and are converted into a vitreous mass. And if they
+are not satisfactorily purified from dross, they are taken out and
+cooled and broken into pieces; and the vitreous pieces are heated in
+pots in the same furnace.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_588" id="Page_588"></a><a href="images/fig588.jpg"><img src="images/fig588thumb.jpg" alt="Glass-making Furnace" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Arches of the second
+furnace. B&mdash;Mouth of the lower chamber. C&mdash;Windows of the upper chamber.
+D&mdash;Big-bellied pots. E&mdash;Mouth of the third furnace. F&mdash;Recesses for the
+receptacles. G&mdash;Openings in the upper chamber. H&mdash;Oblong receptacles.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 588]</span></span>
+The second furnace is round, ten feet in diameter and eight feet high,
+and on the outside, so that it may be stronger, it is encompassed by
+five arches, one and one half feet thick; it consists in like manner of
+two chambers, of which the lower one is vaulted and is one and one half
+feet thick. In front this chamber has a narrow mouth, through which the
+wood can be put into the hearth, which is on the ground. At the top and
+in the middle of its vault, there is a large round hole which opens to
+the upper chamber, so that the flames can penetrate into it. Between the
+arches in the walls of the upper chamber are eight windows, so large
+that the big-bellied pots may be placed through them on to the floor of
+the chamber, around the large hole. The thickness of these pots is about
+two digits, their height the same number of feet, and the diameter of
+the belly one and a half <span class="pagenum">[Pg 588]</span>feet, and of the mouth and bottom one foot. In
+the back part of the furnace is a rectangular hole, measuring in height
+and width a palm, through which the heat penetrates into a third furnace
+which adjoins it.</p>
+
+<p>This third furnace is rectangular, eight feet long and six feet wide; it
+also consists of two chambers, of which the lower has a mouth in front,
+so that firewood may be placed on the hearth which is on the ground. On
+each side of this opening in the wall of the lower chamber is a recess
+for oblong earthenware receptacles, which are about four feet long, two
+feet high, and one and a half feet wide. The upper chamber has two
+holes, one on the right side, the other on the left, of such height and
+width that earthenware receptacles may be conveniently placed in them.
+These latter receptacles are three feet long, one and a half feet high,
+the lower part one foot wide, and the upper part rounded. In these
+receptacles the glass articles, which have been blown, are placed so
+that they may cool in a milder temperature; if they were not cooled
+slowly they would burst asunder. When the vessels are taken from the
+upper chamber, they are immediately placed in the receptacles to cool.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_590" id="Page_590"></a>[Pg 590]</span></p>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_589" id="Page_589"></a><a href="images/fig589.jpg"><img src="images/fig589thumb.jpg" alt="Glass-making Furnaces" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Lower chamber of the
+other second furnace. B&mdash;Middle one. C&mdash;Upper one. D&mdash;Its opening.
+E&mdash;Round opening. F&mdash;Rectangular opening.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 589]</span></span>
+Some who use two furnaces partly melt the mixture in the first, and not
+only re-melt it in the second, but also replace the glass articles
+there. Others partly melt and re-melt the material in different chambers
+of the second furnace. Thus the former lack the third furnace, and the
+latter, the first. But this kind of second furnace differs from the
+other second furnace, for it is, indeed, round, but the interior is
+eight feet in diameter and twelve feet high, and it consists of three
+chambers, of which the lowest is not unlike the lowest of the other
+second furnace. In the middle chamber wall there are six arched
+openings, in which are placed the pots to be heated, and the remainder
+of the small windows are blocked up with lute. In the middle top of the
+middle chamber is a square opening a palm in length and width. Through
+this the heat penetrates into the upper chamber, of which the rear part
+has an opening to receive the oblong earthenware receptacles, in which
+are placed the glass articles to be slowly cooled. On this side, the
+ground of the workshop is higher, or else a bench is placed there, so
+that the glass-makers may stand upon it to stow away their products more
+conveniently.</p>
+
+<p>Those who lack the first furnace in the evening, when they have
+accomplished their day's work, place the material in the pots, so that
+the heat during the night may melt it and turn it into glass. Two boys
+alternately, during night and day, keep up the fire by throwing dry wood
+on to the hearth. Those who have but one furnace use the second sort,
+made with three chambers. Then in the evening they pour the material
+into the pots, and in the morning, having extracted the fused material,
+they make the glass objects, which they place in the upper chamber, as
+do the others.</p>
+
+<p>The second furnace consists either of two or three chambers, the first
+of which is made of unburnt bricks dried in the sun. These bricks are
+made of a kind of clay that cannot be easily melted by fire nor resolved
+into powder; this clay is cleaned of small stones and beaten with rods.
+The bricks are laid with the same kind of clay instead of lime. From the
+same clay the potters also make their vessels and pots, which they dry
+in the shade. These two parts having been completed, there remains the
+third.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p><span class="figleft"><a name="Page_591" id="Page_591"></a><a href="images/fig591.jpg"><img src="images/fig591thumb.jpg" alt="Glass Making" /></a><br /><span class="smcap">A&mdash;Blow-pipe. B&mdash;Little window.
+C&mdash;Marble. D&mdash;Forceps. E&mdash;Moulds by means of which the shapes are
+produced.</span> <span class="inum">[Pg 591]</span></span>
+The vitreous mass having been made in the first furnace in the manner I
+described, is broken up, and the assistant heats the second furnace, in
+order that the fragments may be re-melted. In the meantime, while they
+are doing this, the pots are first warmed by a slow fire in the first
+furnace, so that the vapours may evaporate, and then by a fiercer fire,
+so that they become red in drying. Afterward the glass-makers open the
+mouth of the furnace, and, seizing the pots with tongs, if they have not
+cracked and fallen to pieces, quickly place them in the second furnace,
+and they fill them up with the fragments of the heated vitreous mass or
+with glass. Afterward they close up all the windows with lute and
+bricks, with the exception that in each there are two little windows
+left free; through one of these they inspect the glass contained in the
+pot, and take it up by means of a blow-pipe; in the other they rest
+another blow-pipe, so that it may get warm. Whether it is made of brass,
+bronze, or iron, the blow-pipe must be three feet long. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_592" id="Page_592"></a>[Pg 592]</span>In front of
+the window is inserted a lip of marble, on which rests the heaped-up
+clay and the iron shield. The clay holds the blow-pipe when it is put
+into the furnace, whereas the shield preserves the eyes of the
+glass-maker from the fire. All this having been carried out in order,
+the glass-makers bring the work to completion. The broken pieces they
+re-melt with dry wood, which emits no smoke, but only a flame. The
+longer they re-melt it, the purer and more transparent it becomes, the
+fewer spots and blisters there are, and therefore the glass-makers can
+carry out their work more easily. For this reason those who only melt
+the material from which glass is made for one night, and then
+immediately make it up into glass articles, make them less pure and
+transparent than those who first produce a vitreous mass and then
+re-melt the broken pieces again for a day and a night. And, again, these
+make a less pure and transparent glass than do those who melt it again
+for two days and two nights, for the excellence of the glass does not
+consist solely in the material from which it is made, but also in the
+melting. The glass-makers often test the glass by drawing it up with the
+blowpipes; as soon as they observe that the fragments have been
+re-melted and purified satisfactorily, each of them with another
+blow-pipe which is in the pot, slowly stirs and takes up the glass which
+sticks to it in the shape of a ball like a glutinous, coagulated gum. He
+takes up just as much as he needs to complete the article he wishes to
+make; then he presses it against the lip of marble and kneads it round
+and round until it consolidates. When he blows through the pipe he blows
+as he would if inflating a bubble; he blows into the blow-pipe as often
+as it is necessary, removing it from his mouth to re-fill his cheeks, so
+that his breath does not draw the flames into his mouth. Then, twisting
+the lifted blow-pipe round his head in a circle, he makes a long glass,
+or moulds the same in a hollow copper mould, turning it round and round,
+then warming it again, blowing it and pressing it, he widens it into the
+shape of a cup or vessel, or of any other object he has in mind. Then he
+again presses this against the marble to flatten the bottom, which he
+moulds in the interior with his other blow-pipe. Afterward he cuts out
+the lip with shears, and, if necessary, adds feet and handles. If it so
+please him, he gilds it and paints it with various colours. Finally, he
+lays it in the oblong earthenware receptacle, which is placed in the
+third furnace, or in the upper chamber of the second furnace, that it
+may cool. When this receptacle is full of other slowly-cooled articles,
+he passes a wide iron bar under it, and, carrying it on the left arm,
+places it in another recess.</p>
+
+<p>The glass-makers make divers things, such as goblets, cups, ewers,
+flasks, dishes, plates, panes of glass, animals, trees, and ships, all
+of which excellent and wonderful works I have seen when I spent two
+whole years in Venice some time ago. Especially at the time of the Feast
+of the Ascension they were on sale at Morano, where are located the most
+celebrated glass-works. These I saw on other occasions, and when, for a
+certain reason, I visited Andrea Naugerio in his house which he had
+there, and conversed with him and Francisco Asulano.</p>
+
+<div style="clear:both;"></div>
+<p class="center">END OF BOOK XII.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_546" id="Notes_546">[Pg 546]</a></span><a name="Footnote_1_371" id="Footnote_1_371"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_371"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The history of salt-making in salt-pans, from sea-water or
+salt springs, goes further back than human records. From an historical
+point of view the real interest attached to salt lies in the bearing
+which localities rich in either natural salt or salt springs, have had
+upon the movements of the human race. Many ancient trade routes have
+been due to them, and innumerable battles have been fought for their
+possession. Salt has at times served for currency, and during many
+centuries in nearly every country has served as a basis of taxation.
+These subjects do not, however, come within the scope of this text. For
+the quotation from Pliny referred to, see <a href="#Footnote_14_384">Note 14 below</a>, on bitumen.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_372" id="Footnote_2_372"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_372"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The first edition gives <i>graviorem</i>, the latter editions
+<i>gratiorem</i>, which latter would have quite the reverse meaning from the
+above.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_550" id="Notes_550">[Pg 550]</a></span><a name="Footnote_3_373" id="Footnote_3_373"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_373"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The following are approximately the English equivalents:&mdash;
+</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">Pints.</td><td align="right">Quarts.</td><td align="right">Gallons.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Cyathus</i></td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">.08</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3</td><td align="left"><i>Cyathi</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>Quartarius</i></td><td align="right">.24</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td align="left"><i>Quartarii</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>Sextarius</i></td><td align="right">.99</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6</td><td align="left"><i>Sextarii</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>Congius</i></td><td align="right">5.94</td><td align="right">2.97</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">16</td><td align="left"><i>Sextarii</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>Modius</i></td><td align="right">15.85</td><td align="right">7.93</td><td align="right">1.98</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8</td><td align="left"><i>Congii</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>Amphora</i></td><td align="right">47.57</td><td align="right">23.78</td><td align="right">5.94</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>
+The dipper mentioned would thus hold about one and one quarter gallons,
+and the cask ten gallons.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_552" id="Notes_552">[Pg 552]</a></span><a name="Footnote_4_374" id="Footnote_4_374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_374"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The salt industry, founded upon salt springs, is still of
+importance to this city. It was a salt centre of importance to the
+Germanic tribes before Charles, the son of Charlemagne, erected a
+fortress here in 806. Mention of the salt works is made in the charter
+by Otto I., conveying the place to the Diocese of Magdeburg, in 968.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_558" id="Notes_558">[Pg 558]</a></span><a name="Footnote_5_375" id="Footnote_5_375"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_375"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Pliny <span class="smcaplower">XXXI.</span>, 39-40. "In the Gallic provinces in Germany
+they pour salt water upon burning wood. The Spaniards in a certain place
+draw the brine from wells, which they call <i>Muria</i>. They indeed think
+that the wood turns to salt, and that the oak is the best, being the
+kind which is itself salty. Elsewhere the hazel is praised. Thus the
+charcoal even is turned into salt when it is steeped in brine. Whenever
+salt is made with wood it is black."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_376" id="Footnote_6_376"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_376"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> We have elsewhere in this book used the word "soda" for the
+Latin term <i>nitrum</i>, because we believe as used by Agricola it was
+always soda, and because some confusion of this term with its modern
+adaptation for saltpetre (nitre) might arise in the mind of the reader.
+Fortunately, Agricola usually carefully mentions other alkalis, such as
+the product from lixiviation of ashes, separately from his <i>nitrum</i>. In
+these paragraphs, however, he has soda and potash hopelessly mixed,
+wherefore we have here introduced the Latin term. The actual difference
+between potash and soda&mdash;the <i>nitrum</i> of the Ancients, and the <i>alkali</i>
+of Geber (and the glossary of Agricola), was not understood for two
+hundred years after Agricola, when Duhamel made his well-known
+determinations; and the isolation of sodium and potassium was, of
+course, still later by fifty years. If the reeds and rushes described in
+this paragraph grew near the sea, the salt from lixiviation would be
+soda, and likewise the Egyptian product was soda, but the lixiviation of
+wood-ash produces only potash; as seen above, all are termed <i>nitrum</i>
+except the first.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Historical Notes.</span>&mdash;The word <i>nitrum</i>, <i>nitron</i>, <i>nitri</i>, <i>neter</i>,
+<i>nether</i>, or similar forms, occurs in innumerable ancient writings.
+Among such references are Jeremiah (<span class="smcaplower">II.</span>, 22) Proverbs (<span class="smcaplower">XXV.</span>, 20),
+Herodotus (<span class="smcaplower">II.</span>, 86, 87), Aristotle (<i>Prob.</i> <span class="smcaplower">I.</span>, 39, <i>De Mirab.</i> 54),
+Theophrastus (<i>De Igne</i> 435 ed. Heinsii, Hist. Plants <span class="smcaplower">III.</span>, 9),
+Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">V.</span>, 89), Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XIV.</span>, 26, and <span class="smcaplower">XXXI.</span>, 46). A review of
+disputations on what salts this term comprised among the Ancients would
+itself fill a volume, but from the properties named it was no doubt
+mostly soda, more rarely potash, and sometimes both mixed with common
+salt. There is every reason to believe from the properties and uses
+mentioned, that it did not generally comprise nitre (saltpetre)&mdash;into
+which superficial error the nomenclature has led many translators. The
+preparation by way of burning, and the use of <i>nitrum</i> for purposes for
+which we now use soap, for making glass, for medicines, cosmetics,
+salves, painting, in baking powder, for preserving food, embalming,
+etc., and the descriptions of its taste in "nitrous" waters,&mdash;all answer
+for soda and potash, but not for saltpetre. It is possible that the
+common occurrence of saltpetre as an efflorescence on walls might
+naturally lead to its use, but in any event its distinguishing
+characteristics are nowhere mentioned. As sal-ammoniac occurred <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_559" id="Notes_559">[Pg 559]</a></span>in the
+volcanoes in Italy, it also may have been included in the <i>nitrum</i>
+mentioned. <i>Nitrum</i> was in the main exported from Egypt, but
+Theophrastus mentions its production from wood-ash, and Pliny very
+rightly states that burned lees of wine (argol) had the nature of
+<i>nitrum</i>. Many of the ancient writers understood that it was rendered
+more caustic by burning, and still more so by treatment with lime.
+According to Beckmann (Hist. of Inventions <span class="smcaplower">II.</span>, p. 488), the form of the
+word <i>natron</i> was first introduced into Europe by two travellers in
+Egypt, Peter Ballon and Prosper Alpinus, about 1550. The word was
+introduced into mineralogy by Linnaeus in 1736. In the first instance
+<i>natron</i> was applied to <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_560" id="Notes_560">[Pg 560]</a></span>soda and potash in distinction to <i>nitre</i> for
+saltpetre, and later <i>natron</i> was applied solely to soda.
+</p><p>
+It is desirable to mention here two other forms of soda and potash which
+are frequently mentioned by Agricola. "Ashes which wool dyers use"
+(<i>cineres quo infectores lanarum utuntur</i>).&mdash;There is no indication in
+any of Agricola's works as to whether this was some special wood-ash or
+whether it was the calcined residues from wool washing. The "yolk" or
+"suint" of wool, originating from the perspiration of the animal, has
+long been a source of crude potash. The water, after washing the wool,
+is evaporated, and the residue calcined. It contains about 85%
+K<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>, the remainder being sodium and potassium sulphates. Another
+reason for assuming that it was not a wood-ash product, is that these
+products are separately mentioned. In either event, whether obtained
+from wool residues or from lixiviation of wood-ash, it would be an
+impure potash. In some methods of wool dyeing, a wash of soda was first
+given, so that it is barely possible that this substance was sodium
+carbonate.
+</p><p>
+"Salt made from the ashes of musk ivy" (<i>sal ex anthyllidis cinere
+factus</i>,&mdash;Glossary, <i>salalkali</i>). This would be largely potash.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_377" id="Footnote_7_377"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_377"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> This wondrous illustration of soda-making from Nile water
+is no doubt founded upon Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXI.</span>, 46). "It is made in almost the
+same manner as salt, except that sea-water is put into salt pans,
+whereas in the nitrous pans it is water of the Nile; these, with the
+subsidence of the Nile during the forty days, are impregnated with
+<i>nitrum</i>."</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_378" id="Footnote_8_378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_378"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> This paragraph displays hopeless ignorance. Borax was known
+to Agricola and greatly used in his time; it certainly was not made from
+these compounds, but was imported from Central Asia. Sal-ammoniac was
+also known in his time, and was used like borax as a soldering agent.
+The reaction given by Agricola would yield free ammonia. The following
+historical notes on borax and sal-ammoniac may be of service.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Borax.</span>&mdash;The uncertainties of the ancient distinctions in salts involve
+borax deeply. The word <i>Baurach</i> occurs in Geber and the other early
+Alchemistic writings, but there is nothing to prove that it was modern
+borax. There cannot be the slightest doubt, however, that the material
+referred to by Agricola as <i>borax</i> was our borax, because of the
+characteristic qualities incidentally mentioned in <a href="#BOOK_VII">Book VII</a>. That he
+believed it was an artificial product from <i>nitrum</i> is evident enough
+from his usual expression "<i>chrysocolla</i> made from <i>nitrum</i>, which the
+Moors call <i>borax</i>." Agricola, in <i>De Natura Fossilium</i> (p. 206-7),
+makes the following statements, which could leave no doubt on the
+subject:&mdash;"Native <i>nitrum</i> is found in the earth or on the surface....
+It is from this variety that the Venetians make <i>chrysocolla</i>, which I
+call <i>borax</i>.... The second variety of artificial <i>nitrum</i> is made at
+the present day from the native <i>nitrum</i>, called by the Arabs <i>tincar</i>,
+but I call it usually by the Greek name <i>chrysocolla</i>; it is really the
+Arabic <i>borax</i>.... This <i>nitrum</i> does not decrepitate nor fly out of the
+fire; however, the native variety swells up from within." The
+application of the word <i>chrysocolla</i> (<i>chrysos</i>, gold; <i>colla</i>, solder)
+to soldering materials, and at the same time to the copper mineral, is
+of Greek origin. If any further proof were needed as to the substance
+meant by Agricola, it lies in the word <i>tincar</i>. For a long time the
+borax of Europe was imported from Central Asia, through Constantinople
+and Venice, under the name of <i>tincal</i> or <i>tincar</i>. When this trade
+began, we do not know; evidently before Agricola's time. The statement
+here of making borax from alum and sal-ammoniac is identical with the
+assertion of Biringuccio (<span class="smcaplower">II.</span>, 9).
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Sal-ammoniac.</span>&mdash;The early history of this&mdash;ammonium chloride&mdash;is also
+under a cloud. Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXI.</span>, 39) speaks of a <i>sal-hammoniacum</i>, and
+Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">V.</span>, 85) uses much the same word. Pliny describes it as from
+near the temple of Ammon in Egypt. None of the distinctive
+characteristics of sal-ammoniac are mentioned, and there is every reason
+to believe it was either common salt or soda. Herodotus, Strabo, and
+others mention common salt sent from about the same locality. The first
+authentic mention is in Geber, who calls it <i>sal-ammoniacum</i>, and
+describes a method of making, and several characteristic reactions. It
+was known in the Middle Ages under various names, among them
+<i>sal-aremonicum</i>. Agricola (<i>De Nat. Fos.</i>, <span class="smcaplower">III.</span>, p. 206) notes its
+characteristic quality of volatilization. "Sal-ammoniac ... in the fire
+neither crackles nor flies out, but is totally consumed." He also says
+(p. 208): "Borax is used by goldsmiths to solder gold, likewise silver.
+The artificers who make iron needles (tacks?) similarly use sal-ammoniac
+when they cover the heads with tin." The statement from Pliny mentioned
+in this paragraph is from <span class="smcaplower">XXXIII.</span>, 29, where he describes the
+<i>chrysocolla</i> used as gold solder as made from verdigris, <i>nitrum</i>, and
+urine in the way quoted. It is quite possible that this solder was
+sal-ammoniac, though not made in quite this manner. Pliny refers in
+several places (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIII.</span>, 26, 27, 28, and 29, <span class="smcaplower">XXXV.</span>, 28, etc.) to
+<i>chrysocolla</i>, about which he is greatly confused as between
+gold-solder, the copper mineral, and a green pigment, the latter being
+of either mineral origin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_561" id="Notes_561">[Pg 561]</a></span><a name="Footnote_9_379" id="Footnote_9_379"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_379"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Saltpetre was secured in the Middle Ages in two ways, but
+mostly from the treatment of calcium nitrate efflorescence on cellar and
+similar walls, and from so-called saltpetre plantations. In this
+description of the latter, one of the most essential factors is omitted
+until the last sentence, <i>i.e.</i>, that the nitrous earth was the result
+of the decay of organic or animal matter over a long period. Such
+decomposition, in the presence of potassium and calcium carbonates&mdash;the
+lye and lime&mdash;form potassium and calcium nitrates, together with some
+magnesium and sodium nitrates. After lixiviation, the addition of lye
+converts the calcium and magnesium nitrates into saltpetre, <i>i.e.</i>,
+Ca(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + K<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> = CaCO<sub>3</sub> + 2KNO<sub>3</sub>. The carbonates
+precipitate out, leaving the saltpetre in solution, from which it was
+evaporated and crystallized out. The addition of alum as mentioned would
+scarcely improve the situation.
+</p><p>
+The purification by repeated re-solution and addition of lye, and
+filtration, would eliminate the remaining other salts. The purification
+with sulphur, however, is more difficult <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_562" id="Notes_562">[Pg 562]</a></span>to understand. In this case the
+saltpetre is melted and the sulphur added and set alight. Such an
+addition to saltpetre would no doubt burn brilliantly. The potassium
+sulphate formed would possibly settle to the bottom, and if the "greasy
+matter" were simply organic impurities, they might be burned off. This
+method of refining appears to have been copied from Biringuccio (<span class="smcaplower">X.</span>, 1),
+who states it in almost identical terms.
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Historical Note.</span>&mdash;As mentioned in <a href="#Footnote_6_376">Note 6 above</a>, it is quite possible
+that the Ancients did include efflorescence of walls under <i>nitrum</i>;
+but, so far as we are aware, no specific mention of such an occurrence
+of <i>nitrum</i> is given, and, as stated before, there is every reason to
+believe that all the substances under that term were soda and potash.
+Especially the frequent mention of the preparation of <i>nitrum</i> by way of
+burning, argues strongly against saltpetre being included, as they would
+hardly have failed to notice the decrepitation. Argument has been put
+forward that Greek fire contained saltpetre, but it amounts to nothing
+more than argument, for in those receipts preserved, no salt of any kind
+is mentioned. It is most likely that the leprosy of house-walls of the
+Mosaic code (Leviticus <span class="smcaplower">XIV.</span>, 34 to 53) was saltpetre efflorescence. The
+drastic treatment by way of destruction of such "unclean" walls and
+houses, however, is sufficient evidence that this salt was not used. The
+first certain mention of saltpetre (<i>sal petrae</i>) is in Geber. As stated
+before, the date of this work is uncertain; in any event it was probably
+as early as the 13th Century. He describes the making of "solvative
+water" with alum and saltpetre, so there can be no doubt as to the
+substance (see Note on p. <a href="#Notes_460">460</a>, on nitric acid). There is also a work by
+a nebulous Marcus Graecus, where the word <i>sal petrosum</i> is used. And it
+appears that Roger Bacon (died 1294) and Albertus Magnus (died 1280)
+both had access to that work. Bacon uses the term <i>sal petrae</i>
+frequently enough, and was the first to describe gunpowder (<i>De Mirabili
+Potestate Artis et Naturae</i> 1242). He gives no mention of the method of
+making his <i>sal petrae</i>. Agricola uses throughout the Latin text the
+term <i>halinitrum</i>, a word he appears to have coined himself. However, he
+gives its German equivalent in the <i>Interpretatio</i> as <i>salpeter</i>. The
+only previous description of the method of making saltpetre, of which we
+are aware, is that of Biringuccio (1540), who mentions the boiling of
+the excrescences from walls, and also says a good deal about boiling
+solutions from "nitrous" earth, which may or may not be of "plantation"
+origin. He also gives this same method of refining with sulphur. In any
+event, this statement by Agricola is the first clear and complete
+description of the saltpetre "plantations." Saltpetre was in great
+demand in the Middle Ages for the manufacture of gunpowder, and the
+first record of that substance and of explosive weapons necessarily
+involves the knowledge of saltpetre. However, authentic mention of such
+weapons only begins early in the 14th Century. Among the earliest is an
+authority to the Council of Twelve at Florence to appoint persons to
+make cannon, etc., (1326), references to cannon in the stores of the
+Tower of London, 1388, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_564" id="Notes_564">[Pg 564]</a></span><a name="Footnote_10_380" id="Footnote_10_380"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_380"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> There are three methods of manufacturing alum described by
+Agricola, the first and third apparently from shales, and the second
+from alum rock or "alunite." The reasons for assuming that the first
+process was from shales, are the reference to the "aluminous earth" as
+ore (<i>venae</i>) coming from "veins," and also the mixture of vitriol. In
+this process the free sulphuric acid formed by the oxidation of pyrites
+reacts upon the argillaceous material to form aluminium sulphate. The
+decomposed ore is then placed in tanks and lixiviated. The solution
+would contain aluminium sulphate, vitriol, and other impurities. By the
+addition of urine, the aluminium sulphate would be converted into
+ammonia alum. Agricola is, of course, mistaken as to the effect of the
+addition, being under the belief that it separated the vitriol from the
+alum; in fact, this belief was general until the latter part of the 18th
+Century, when Lavoisier determined that alum must have an alkali base.
+Nor is it clear <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_565" id="Notes_565">[Pg 565]</a></span>from this description exactly how they were separated.
+In a condensed solution allowed to cool, the alum would precipitate out
+as "alum meal," and the vitriol would "float on top"&mdash;in solution. The
+reference to "meal" may represent this phenomenon, and the re-boiling
+referred to would be the normal method of purification by
+crystallization. The "asbestos" and gypsum deposited in the caldrons
+were no doubt feathery and mealy calcium sulphate. The alum produced
+would, in any event, be mostly ammonia alum.
+</p><p>
+The second process is certainly the manufacture from "alum rock" or
+"alunite" (the hydrous sulphate of aluminium and potassium), such as that
+mined at La Tolfa in the Papal States, where the process has been for
+centuries identical with that here described. The alum there produced is
+the double basic potassium alum, and crystallizes into cubes instead of
+octahedra, <i>i.e.</i>, the Roman alum of commerce. The presence of much
+ferric oxide gives the rose colour referred to by Agricola. This account
+is almost identical with that of Biringuccio (<span class="smcaplower">II.</span>, 4), and it appears
+from similarity of details that Agricola, as stated in his <a href="#PREFACE">preface</a>, must
+have "refreshed his mind" from this description; it would also appear
+from the <a href="#PREFACE">preface</a> that he had himself visited the locality.
+</p><p>
+The third process is essentially the same as the first, except that the
+decomposition of the pyrites was hastened by roasting. The following
+obscure statement of some interest occurs in Agricola's <i>De Natura
+Fossilium</i>, p. 209:&mdash;"... alum is made from vitriol, for when oil is
+made from the latter, alum is distilled out (<i>expirat</i>). This absorbs
+the clay which is used in cementing glass, and when the operation is
+complete the clay is macerated with pure water, and the alum is soon
+afterward deposited in the shape of small cubes." Assuming the oil of
+vitriol to be sulphuric acid and the clay "used in cementing glass" to
+be kaolin, we have here the first suggestion of a method for producing
+alum which came into use long after.
+</p><p>
+"Burnt alum" (<i>alumen coctum</i>).&mdash;Agricola frequently uses this
+expression, and on p. <a href="#Page_568">568</a>, describes the operation, and the substance is
+apparently the same as modern dehydrated alum, often referred to as
+"burnt alum."
+</p><p>
+<span class="smcap">Historical Notes.</span>&mdash;Whether the Ancients knew of alum in the modern sense
+is a most vexed question. The Greeks refer to a certain substance as
+<i>stypteria</i>, and the Romans refer to this same substance as <i>alumen</i>.
+There can be no question as to their knowledge and common use of
+vitriol, nor that substances which they believed were entirely different
+from vitriol were comprised under the above names. Beckmann (Hist. of
+Inventions, Vol. <span class="smcaplower">I.</span>, p. 181) seems to have been the founder of the
+doctrine that the ancient <i>alumen</i> was vitriol, and scores of
+authorities seem to have adopted his arguments without inquiry, until
+that belief <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_566" id="Notes_566">[Pg 566]</a></span>is now general. One of the strongest reasons put forward was
+that alum does not occur native in appreciable quantities. Apart from
+the fact that the weight of this argument has been lost by the discovery
+that alum does occur in nature to some extent as an aftermath of
+volcanic action, and as an efflorescence from argillaceous rocks, we see
+no reason why the Ancients may not have prepared it artificially. One of
+the earliest mentions of such a substance is by Herodotus (<span class="smcaplower">II.</span>, 180) of
+a thousand talents of <i>stypteria</i>, sent by Amasis from Egypt as a
+contribution to the rebuilding of the temple of Delphi. Diodorus (<span class="smcaplower">V.</span>, 1)
+mentions the abundance which was secured from the Lipari Islands
+(Stromboli, etc.), and a small quantity from the Isle of Melos.
+Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">V.</span>, 82) mentions Egypt, Lipari Islands, Melos, Sardinia,
+Armenia, etc., "and generally in any other places where one finds red
+ochre (<i>rubrica</i>)." Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXV.</span>, 52) gives these same localities, and
+is more explicit as to how it originates&mdash;"from an earthy water which
+exudes from the earth." Of these localities, the Lipari Islands
+(Stromboli, etc.), and Melos are volcanic enough, and both Lipari and
+Melos are now known to produce natural alum (Dana. Syst. Min., p. 95;
+and Tournefort, "<i>Relation d'un voyage du Levant</i>." London, 1717,
+<i>Lettre</i> <span class="smcaplower">IV.</span>, Vol. 1.). Further, the hair-like alum of Dioscorides,
+repeated by Pliny below, was quite conceivably fibrous <i>kalinite</i>,
+native potash alum, which occurs commonly as an efflorescence. Be the
+question of native alum as it may&mdash;and vitriol is not much more
+common&mdash;our own view that the ancient <i>alumen</i> was alum, is equally
+based upon the artificial product. Before entering upon the subject, we
+consider it desirable to set out the properties of the ancient
+substance, a complete review of which is given by Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXV.</span>, 52), he
+obviously quoting also from Dioscorides, which, therefore, we do not
+need to reproduce. Pliny says:&mdash;
+</p><p>
+"Not less important, or indeed dissimilar, are the uses made of
+<i>alumen</i>; by which name is understood a sort of salty earth. Of this,
+there are several kinds. In Cyprus there is a white <i>alumen</i>, and a
+darker kind. There is not a great difference in their colour, though the
+uses made of them are very dissimilar,&mdash;the white <i>alumen</i> being
+employed in a liquid state for dyeing wool bright colours, and the
+dark-coloured <i>alumen</i>, on the other hand, for giving wool a sombre
+tint. Gold is purified with black <i>alumen</i>. Every kind of <i>alumen</i> is
+from a <i>limus</i> water which exudes from the earth. The collection of it
+commences in winter, and it is dried by the summer sun. That portion of
+it which first matures is the whitest. It is obtained in Spain, Egypt,
+Armenia, Macedonia, Pontus, Africa, and the islands of Sardinia, Melos,
+Lipari, and Strongyle; the most esteemed, however, is that of Egypt, the
+next best from Melos. Of this last there are two kinds, the liquid
+<i>alumen</i>, and the solid. Liquid <i>alumen</i>, to be good, should be of a
+limpid and milky appearance; when <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_568" id="Notes_568">[Pg 568]</a></span>rubbed, it should be without
+roughness, and should give a little heat. This is called <i>phorimon</i>. The
+mode of detecting whether it has been adulterated is by pomegranate
+juice, for, if genuine, the mixture turns black. The other, or solid, is
+pale and rough and turns dark with nut-galls; for which reason it is
+called <i>paraphoron</i>. Liquid <i>alumen</i> is naturally astringent,
+indurative, and corrosive; used in combination with honey, it heals
+ulcerations.... There is one kind of solid <i>alumen</i>, called by the
+Greeks <i>schistos</i>, which splits into filaments of a whitish colour; for
+which reason some prefer calling it <i>trichitis</i> (hair like). <i>Alumen</i> is
+produced from the stone <i>chalcitis</i>, from which copper is also made,
+being a sort of coagulated scum from that stone. This kind of <i>alumen</i>
+is less astringent than the others, and is less useful as a check upon
+bad humours of the body.... The mode of preparing it is to cook it in a
+pan until it has ceased being a liquid. There is another variety of
+<i>alumen</i> also, of a less active nature, called <i>strongyle</i>. It is of two
+kinds. The fungous, which easily dissolves, is utterly condemned. The
+better kind is the pumice-like kind, full of small holes like a sponge,
+and is in round pieces, more nearly white in colour, somewhat greasy,
+free from grit, friable, and does not stain black. This last kind is
+cooked by itself upon charcoal until it is reduced to pure ashes. The
+best kind of all is that called <i>melinum</i>, from the Isle of Melos, as I
+have said, none being more effectual as an astringent, for staining
+black, and for indurating, and none becomes more dry.... Above all other
+properties of <i>alumen</i> is its remarkable astringency, whence its Greek
+name.... It is injected for dysentry and employed as a gargle." The
+lines omitted refer entirely to medical matters which have no bearing
+here. The following paragraph (often overlooked) from Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXV.</span>, 42)
+also has an important bearing upon the subject:&mdash;"In Egypt they employ a
+wonderful method of dyeing. The white cloth, after it is pressed, is
+stained in various places, not with dye stuffs, but with substances
+which absorb colours. These applications are not apparent on the cloth,
+but when it is immersed in a caldron of hot dye it is removed the next
+moment brightly coloured. The remarkable circumstance is that although
+there be only one dye in the caldron yet different colours appear in the
+cloth."
+</p><p>
+It is obvious from Pliny's description above, and also from the making
+of vitriol (see <a href="#Footnote_11_381">Note 11, p. 572</a>), that this substance was obtained from
+liquor resulting from natural or artificial lixiviation of rocks&mdash;in the
+case of vitriols undoubtedly the result of decomposition of pyritiferous
+rocks (such as <i>chalcitis</i>). Such liquors are bound to contain aluminum
+sulphate if there is any earth or clay about, and whether they contained
+alum would be a question of an alkali being present. If no alkali were
+present in this liquor, vitriol would <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_569" id="Notes_569">[Pg 569]</a></span>crystallize out first, and
+subsequent condensation would yield aluminum sulphate. If alkali were
+present, the alum would crystallize out either before or with the
+vitriol. Pliny's remark, "that portion of it which first matures is
+whitest", agrees well enough with this hypothesis. No one will doubt
+that some of the properties mentioned above belong peculiarly to
+vitriol, but equally convincing are properties and uses that belong to
+alum alone. The strongly astringent taste, white colour, and injection
+for dysentry, are more peculiar to alum than to vitriol. But above all
+other properties is that displayed in dyeing, for certainly if we read
+this last quotation from Pliny in conjunction with the statement that
+white <i>alumen</i> produces bright colours and the dark kind, sombre
+colours, we have the exact reactions of alum and vitriol when used as
+mordants. Therefore, our view is that the ancient salt of this character
+was a more or less impure mixture ranging from alum to vitriol&mdash;"the
+whiter the better." Further, considering the ancient knowledge of soda
+(<i>nitrum</i>), and the habit of mixing it into almost everything, it does
+not require much flight of imagination to conceive its admixture to the
+"water," and the absolute production of alum.
+</p><p>
+Whatever may have been the confusion between alum and vitriol among the
+Ancients, it appears that by the time of the works attributed to Geber
+(12th or 13th Century), the difference was well known. His work
+(<i>Investigationes perfectiones</i>, <span class="smcaplower">IV.</span>) refers to <i>alumen glaciale</i> and
+<i>alumen jameni</i> as distinguished from vitriol, and gives characteristic
+reactions which can leave no doubt as to the distinction. We may remark
+here that the repeated statement apparently arising from Meyer (History
+of Chemistry, p. 51) that Geber used the term <i>alum de rocca</i> is untrue,
+this term not appearing in the early Latin translations. During the 15th
+Century alum did come to be known in Europe as <i>alum de rocca</i>. Various
+attempts have been made to explain the origin of this term, ranging from
+the Italian root, a "rock," to the town of Rocca in Syria, where alum
+was supposed to have been produced. In any event, the supply for a long
+period prior to the middle of the 15th Century came from Turkey, and the
+origin of the methods of manufacture described by Agricola, and used
+down to the present day, must have come from the Orient.
+</p><p>
+In the early part of the 15th Century, a large trade in alum was done
+between Italy and Asia Minor, and eventually various Italians
+established themselves near Constantinople and Smyrna for its
+manufacture (Dudae, <i>Historia Byzantina Venetia</i>, 1729, p. 71). The alum
+was secured by burning the rock, and lixiviation. With the capture of
+Constantinople by the Turks (1453), great feeling grew up in Italy over
+the necessity of buying this requisite for their dyeing establishments
+from the infidel, and considerable exertion was made to find other
+sources of supply. Some minor works were attempted, but nothing much
+<span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_570" id="Notes_570">[Pg 570]</a></span>eventuated until the appearance of one John de Castro. From the
+Commentaries of Pope Pius <span class="smcaplower">II.</span> (1614, p. 185), it appears that this
+Italian had been engaged in dyeing cloth in Constantinople, and thus
+became aware of the methods of making alum. Driven out of that city
+through its capture by the Turks, he returned to Italy and obtained an
+office under the Apostolic Chamber. While in this occupation he
+discovered a rock at Tolfa which appeared to him identical with that
+used at Constantinople in alum manufacture. After experimental work, he
+sought the aid of the Pope, which he obtained after much vicissitude.
+Experts were sent, who after examination "shed tears of joy, they
+kneeling down three times, worshipped God and praised His kindness in
+conferring such a gift on their age." Castro was rewarded, and the great
+papal monopoly was gradually built upon this discovery. The industry
+firmly established at Tolfa exists to the present day, and is the source
+of the Roman alum of commerce. The Pope maintained this monopoly
+strenuously, by fair means and by excommunication, gradually advancing
+the price until the consumers had greater complaint than against the
+Turks. The history of the disputes arising over the papal alum monopoly
+would alone fill a volume.
+</p><p>
+By the middle of the 15th Century alum was being made in Spain, Holland,
+and Germany, and later in England. In her efforts to encourage home
+industries and escape the tribute to the Pope, Elizabeth (see Note on p.
+<a href="#Notes_283">283</a>) invited over "certain foreign chymistes and mineral masters" and
+gave them special grants to induce them to "settle in these realmes."
+Among them was Cornelius Devoz, to whom was granted the privilege of
+"mining and digging in our Realm of England for allom and copperas."
+What Devoz accomplished is not recorded, but the first alum manufacture
+on a considerable scale seems to have been in Yorkshire, by one Thomas
+Chaloner (about 1608), who was supposed to have seduced workmen from the
+Pope's alum works at Tolfa, for which he was duly cursed with all the
+weight of the Pope and Church. (Pennant, Tour of Scotland, 1786).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_572" id="Notes_572">[Pg 572]</a></span><a name="Footnote_11_381" id="Footnote_11_381"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_381"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> The term for vitriol used by the Roman authors, followed
+by Agricola, is <i>atramentum sutorium</i>, literally shoemaker's blacking,
+the term no doubt arising from its ancient (and modern) use for
+blackening leather. The Greek term was <i>chalcanthon</i>. The term "vitriol"
+seems first to appear in Albertus Magnus (<i>De Mineralibus</i>, <i>Liber</i> <span class="smcaplower">V.</span>),
+who died in 1280, where he uses the expression "<i>atramentum viride a
+quibusdam vitreolum vocatur</i>." Agricola (<i>De Nat. Foss.</i>, p. 213)
+states, "In recent years the name <i>vitriolum</i> has been given to it." The
+first adequate description of vitriol is by Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">V.</span>, 76), as
+follows:&mdash;"Vitriol (<i>chalcanthon</i>) is of one genus, and is a solidified
+liquid, but it has three different species. One is formed from the
+liquids which trickle down drop by drop and congeal in certain mines;
+therefore those who work in the Cyprian mines call it <i>stalactis</i>.
+Petesius calls this kind <i>pinarion</i>. The second kind is that which
+collects in certain caverns; afterward it is poured into trenches, where
+it congeals, whence it derives its name <i>p&#275;ctos</i>. The third kind is
+called <i>hephthon</i> and is mostly made in Spain; it has a beautiful colour
+but is weak. The manner of preparing it is as follows: dissolving it in
+water, they boil it, and then they transfer it to cisterns and leave it
+to settle. After a certain number of days it congeals and separates into
+many small pieces, having the form of dice, which stick together like
+grapes. The most valued is blue, heavy, dense, and translucent." Pliny
+(<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV.</span>, 32) says:&mdash;"By the name which they have given to it, the Greeks
+indicate the similar nature of copper and <i>atramentum sutorium</i>, for
+they call it <i>chalcanthon</i>. There is no substance of an equally
+miraculous nature. It is made in Spain from wells of this kind of water.
+This water is boiled with an equal quantity of pure water, and is then
+poured into wooden tanks (fish ponds). Across these tanks there are
+fixed beams, to which hang cords stretched by little stones. Upon these
+cords adheres the <i>limus</i> (Agricola's 'juice') in drops of a vitreous
+appearance, somewhat resembling a bunch of grapes. After removal, it is
+dried for thirty days. It is of a blue colour, and of a brilliant
+lustre, and is very like glass. Its solution is the blacking used for
+colouring leather. <i>Chalcanthon</i> is made in many other ways: its kind of
+earth is sometimes dug from ditches, from the sides of which exude
+drops, which solidify by the winter frosts into icicles, called
+<i>stalagmia</i>, and there is none more pure. When its colour is nearly
+white, with a slight tinge of violet, it is called <i>leuko�on</i>. It is
+also made in rock basins, the rain water collecting the <i>limus</i> into
+them, where it becomes hardened. It is also made in the same way as salt
+by the intense heat of the sun. Hence it is that some distinguish two
+kinds, the mineral and the artificial; the latter being paler than the
+former and as much inferior to it in quality as it is in colour."
+</p><p>
+While Pliny gives prominence to blue vitriol, his solution for colouring
+leather must have been the iron sulphate. There can be no doubt from the
+above, however, that both iron and copper sulphates were known to the
+Ancients. From the methods for making vitriol given here in <i>De Re
+Metallica</i>, it is evident that only the iron sulphate would be produced,
+for the introduction of iron strips into the vats would effectually
+precipitate any copper. It is our belief that generally throughout this
+work, the iron sulphate is meant by the term <i>atramentum sutorium</i>. In
+<i>De Natura Fossilium</i> (p. 213-15) Agricola gives three varieties of
+<i>atramentum sutorium</i>,&mdash;<i>viride</i>, <i>caeruleum</i>, and <i>candidum</i>, <i>i.e.</i>,
+green, blue, and white. Thus the first mention of white vitriol (zinc
+sulphate) appears to be due to him, and he states further (p. 213): "A
+white sort is found, especially at Goslar, in the shape of icicles,
+transparent like crystals." And on p. 215: "Since I have explained the
+nature of vitriol and its relatives, which are obtained from cupriferous
+pyrites, I will next speak of an acrid solidified juice which commonly
+comes from <i>cadmia</i>. It is found at Annaberg in the tunnel driven to the
+Saint Otto mine; it is hard and white, and so acrid that it kills mice,
+crickets, and every kind of animal. However, that feathery substance
+which oozes out from the mountain rocks and the thick substance found
+hanging in tunnels and caves from which saltpetre is made, while
+frequently acrid, does not come from <i>cadmia</i>." Dana (Syst. of Min., p.
+939) identifies this as <i>Goslarite</i>&mdash;native zinc sulphate. It does not
+appear, however, that artificial zinc vitriol was made in Agricola's
+time. Schl�ter (<i>Huette-Werken</i>, Braunschweig 1738, p. 597) states it to
+have been made for the first time at Rammelsberg about 1570.
+</p>
+<p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_573" id="Notes_573">[Pg 573]</a></span>
+It is desirable here to enquire into the nature of the substances given
+by all of the old mineralogists under the Latinized Greek terms
+<i>chalcitis</i>, <i>misy</i>, <i>sory</i>, and <i>melanteria</i>. The first mention of
+these minerals is in Dioscorides, who (<span class="smcaplower">V.</span>, 75-77) says: "The best
+<i>chalcitis</i> is like copper. It is friable, not stony, and is intersected
+by long brilliant veins.... <i>Misy</i> is obtained from Cyprus; it should
+have the appearance of gold, be hard, and when pulverised it should have
+the colour of gold and sparkle like stars. It has the same properties as
+<i>chalcitis</i>.... The best is from Egypt.... One kind of <i>melanteria</i>
+congeals like salt in the entries to copper mines. The other kind is
+earthy and appears on the surface of the aforesaid mines. It is found in
+the mines of Cilicia and other regions. The best has the colour of
+sulphur, is smooth, pure, homogenous, and upon contact with water
+immediately becomes black.... Those who consider <i>sory</i> to be the same
+as <i>melanteria</i>, err greatly. <i>Sory</i> is a species of its own, though it
+is not dissimilar. The smell of <i>sory</i> is oppressive and provokes
+nausea. It is found in Egypt and in other regions, as Libya, Spain, and
+Cyprus. The best is from Egypt, and when broken is black, porous,
+greasy, and astringent." Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXIV.</span>, 29-31) says:&mdash;"That is called
+<i>chalcitis</i> from which, as well as itself copper (?) is extracted by
+heat. It differs from <i>cadmia</i> in that this is obtained from rocks near
+the surface, while that is taken from rocks below the surface. Also
+<i>chalcitis</i> is immediately friable, being naturally so soft as to appear
+like compressed wool. There is also this other distinction; <i>chalcitis</i>
+contains three other substances, copper, <i>misy</i>, and <i>sory</i>. Of each of
+these we shall speak in their appropriate places. It contains elongated
+copper veins. The most approved kind is of the colour of honey; it is
+streaked with fine sinuous veins and is friable and not stony. It is
+considered most valuable when fresh.... The <i>sory</i> of Egypt is the most
+esteemed, being much superior to that of Cyprus, Spain, and Africa;
+although some prefer the <i>sory</i> from Cyprus for affections of the eyes.
+But from whatever nation it comes, the best is that which has the
+strongest odour, and which, when ground up, becomes greasy, black, and
+spongy. It is a substance so unpleasant to the stomach that some persons
+are nauseated by its smell. Some say that <i>misy</i> is made by the burning
+of stones in trenches, its fine yellow powder being mixed with the ashes
+of pine-wood. The truth is, as I said above, that though obtained from
+the stone, it is already made and in solid masses, which require force
+to detach them. The best comes from the works of Cyprus, its
+characteristics being that when broken it sparkles like gold, and when
+ground it presents a sandy appearance, but on the contrary, if heated,
+it is similar to <i>chalcitis</i>. <i>Misy</i> is used in refining gold...."
+</p><p>
+Agricola's views on the subject appear in <i>De Natura Fossilium</i>. He says
+(p. 212):&mdash;"The cupriferous pyrites (<i>pyrites aerosus</i>) called
+<i>chalcitis</i> is the mother and cause of <i>sory</i>&mdash;which is likewise known
+as mine <i>vitriol</i> (<i>atramentum metallicum</i>)&mdash;and <i>melanteria</i>. These in
+turn yield vitriol and such related things. This may be seen especially
+at Goslar, where the nodular lumps of dark grey colour are called
+vitriol stone (<i>lapis atramenti</i>). In the centre of them is found
+greyish pyrites, almost dissolved, the size of a walnut. It is enclosed
+on all sides, sometimes by <i>sory</i>, sometimes by <i>melanteria</i>. From them
+start little veinlets of greenish vitriol which spread all over it,
+presenting somewhat the appearance of hairs extending in all directions
+and cohering together.... There are five species of this solidified
+juice, <i>melanteria</i>, <i>sory</i>, <i>chalcitis</i>, <i>misy</i>, and vitriol. Sometimes
+many are found in one place, sometimes all of them, for one originates
+from the other. From pyrites, which is, as one might say, the root of
+all these juices, originates the above-mentioned <i>sory</i> and
+<i>melanteria</i>. From <i>sory</i>, <i>chalcitis</i>, and <i>melanteria</i> originate the
+various kinds of vitriol.... <i>Sory</i>, <i>melanteria</i>, <i>chalcitis</i>, and
+<i>misy</i> are always native; vitriol alone is either native or artificial.
+From them vitriol effloresces white, and sometimes green or blue. <i>Misy</i>
+effloresces not only from <i>sory</i>, <i>melanteria</i>, and <i>chalcitis</i>, but
+also from all the vitriols, artificial as well as natural.... <i>Sory</i> and
+<i>melanteria</i> differ somewhat from the others, but they are of the same
+colours, grey and black; but <i>chalcitis</i> is red and copper-coloured;
+<i>misy</i> is yellow or gold-coloured. All these native varieties have the
+odour of lightning (brimstone), but <i>sory</i> is the most powerful. The
+feathery vitriol is soft and fine and hair-like, and <i>melanteria</i> has
+the appearance of wool and it has a similarity to salt; all these are
+rare and light; <i>sory</i>, <i>chalcitis</i>, and <i>misy</i> have the following
+relations. <i>Sory</i> because of its density has the hardness of stone,
+although its texture is very coarse. <i>Misy</i> has a very fine texture.
+<i>Chalcitis</i> is between the two; because of its roughness and strong
+odour it differs from <i>melanteria</i>, although they do not differ in
+colour. The vitriols, whether natural or artificial, are hard and dense
+... as regarding shape, <i>sory</i>, <i>chalcitis</i>, <i>misy</i>, and <i>melanteria</i>
+are nodular, but <i>sory</i> is occasionally porous, which is peculiar to it.
+<span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_574" id="Notes_574">[Pg 574]</a></span><i>Misy</i> when it effloresces in no great quantity from the others is like
+a kind of pollen, otherwise it is nodular. <i>Melanteria</i> sometimes
+resembles wool, sometimes salt."
+</p><p>
+The sum and substance, therefore, appears to be that <i>misy</i> is a
+yellowish material, possibly ochre, and <i>sory</i> a blackish stone, both
+impregnated with vitriol. <i>Chalcitis</i> is a partially decomposed pyrites;
+and <i>melanteria</i> is no doubt native vitriol. From this last term comes
+the modern <i>melanterite</i>, native hydrous ferrous sulphate. Dana (System
+of Mineralogy, p. 964) considers <i>misy</i> to be in part <i>copiapite</i>&mdash;basic
+ferric sulphate&mdash;but any such part would not come under Agricola's
+objection to it as a source of vitriol. The disabilities of this and
+<i>chalcitis</i> may, however, be due to their copper content.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_578" id="Notes_578">[Pg 578]</a></span><a name="Footnote_12_382" id="Footnote_12_382"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_382"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Agricola (<i>De Nat. Fos.</i>, 221) says:&mdash;"There is a species
+of artificial sulphur made from sulphur and iron hammer-scales, melted
+together and poured into moulds. This, because it heals scabs of horses,
+is generally called <i>caballinum</i>." It is difficult to believe such a
+combination was other than iron sulphide, but it is equally difficult to
+understand how it was serviceable for this purpose.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_383" id="Footnote_13_383"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_383"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Inasmuch as pyrites is discussed in the next paragraph,
+the material of the first distillation appears to be native sulphur.
+Until the receiving pots became heated above the melting point of the
+sulphur, the product would be "flowers of sulphur," and not the wax-like
+<span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_579" id="Notes_579">[Pg 579]</a></span>product. The equipment described for pyrites in the next paragraph would
+be obviously useful only for coarse material.
+</p><p>
+But little can be said on the history of sulphur; it is mentioned often
+enough in the Bible and also by Homer (Od. <span class="smcaplower">XXII.</span>, 481). The Greeks
+apparently knew how to refine it, although neither Dioscorides nor Pliny
+specifically describes such an operation. Agricola says (<i>De Nat. Fos.</i>,
+220): "Sulphur is of two kinds; the mineral, which the Latins call
+<i>vivum</i>, and the Greeks <i>apyron</i>, which means 'not exposed to the fire'
+(<i>ignem non expertum</i>) as rightly interpreted by Celsius; and the
+artificial, called by the Greeks <i>pepyromenon</i>, that is, 'exposed to the
+fire.'" In <a href="#BOOK_X">Book X.</a>, the expression <i>sulfur ignem non expertum</i>
+frequently appears, no doubt in Agricola's mind for native sulphur,
+although it is quite possible that the Greek distinction was between
+"flowers" of sulphur and the "wax-like" variety.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_581" id="Notes_581">[Pg 581]</a></span><a name="Footnote_14_384" id="Footnote_14_384"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_384"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> The substances referred to under the names <i>bitumen</i>,
+<i>asphalt</i>, <i>maltha</i>, <i>naphtha</i>, <i>petroleum</i>, <i>rock-oil</i>, etc., have been
+known and used from most ancient times, and much of our modern
+nomenclature is of actual Greek and Roman ancestry. These peoples
+distinguished three related substances,&mdash;the Greek <i>asphaltos</i> and Roman
+<i>bitumen</i> for the hard material,&mdash;Greek <i>pissasphaltos</i> and Roman
+<i>maltha</i> for the viscous, pitchy variety&mdash;and occasionally the Greek
+<i>naphtha</i> and Roman <i>naphtha</i> for petroleum proper, although it is often
+enough referred to as liquid <i>bitumen</i> or liquid <i>asphaltos</i>. The term
+<i>petroleum</i> apparently first appears in Agricola's <i>De Natura Fossilium</i>
+(p. 222), where he says the "oil of bitumen ... now <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_582" id="Notes_582">[Pg 582]</a></span>called <i>petroleum</i>."
+Bitumen was used by the Egyptians for embalming from pre-historic times,
+<i>i.e.</i>, prior to 5000 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, the term "mummy" arising from the Persian
+word for bitumen, <i>mumiai</i>. It is mentioned in the tribute from
+Babylonia to Thotmes <span class="smcaplower">III.</span>, who lived about 1500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> (Wilkinson, Ancient
+Egyptians <span class="smcaplower">I.</span>, p. 397). The Egyptians, however, did not need to go
+further afield than the Sinai Peninsula for abundant supplies. Bitumen
+is often cited as the real meaning of the "slime" mentioned in Genesis
+(<span class="smcaplower">XI.</span>, 3; <span class="smcaplower">XIV.</span>, 10), and used in building the Tower of Babel. There is no
+particular reason for this assumption, except the general association of
+Babel, Babylon, and Bitumen. However, the Hebrew word <i>sift</i> for pitch
+or bitumen does occur as the cement used for Moses's bulrush cradle
+(Exodus <span class="smcaplower">II.</span>, 3), and Moses is generally accounted about 1300 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> Other
+attempts to connect Biblical reference to petroleum and bitumen revolve
+around Job <span class="smcaplower">XXIX.</span>, 6, Deut. <span class="smcaplower">XXXII.</span>, 13, Maccabees <span class="smcaplower">II.</span>, <span class="smcaplower">I</span>, 18, Matthew <span class="smcaplower">V.</span>,
+13, but all require an unnecessary strain on the imagination.
+</p><p>
+The plentiful occurrence of bitumen throughout Asia Minor, and
+particularly in the Valley of the Euphrates and in Persia, is the
+subject of innumerable references by writers from Herodotus (484-424
+<span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>) down to the author of the company prospectus of recent months.
+Herodotus (<span class="smcaplower">I.</span>, 179) and Diodorus Siculus (<span class="smcaplower">I</span>) state that the walls of
+Babylon were mortared with bitumen&mdash;a fact partially corroborated by
+modern investigation. The following <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_583" id="Notes_583">[Pg 583]</a></span>statement by Herodotus (<span class="smcaplower">VI.</span>, 119) is
+probably the source from which Pliny drew the information which Agricola
+quotes above. In referring to a well at Ardericca, a place about 40
+miles from ancient Susa, in Persia, Herodotus says:&mdash;"For from the well
+they get bitumen, salt, and oil, procuring it in the way that I will now
+describe: they draw with a swipe, and instead of a bucket they make use
+of the half of a wine-skin; with this the man dips and, after drawing,
+pours the liquid into a reservoir, wherefrom it passes into another, and
+there takes three different shapes. The salt and bitumen forthwith
+collect and harden, while the oil is drawn off into casks. It is called
+by the Persians <i>rhadinace</i>, is black, and has an unpleasant smell."
+(Rawlinson's Trans. <span class="smcaplower">III.</span>, p. 409). The statement from Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXI.</span>, 39)
+here referred to by Agricola, reads:&mdash;"It (salt) is made from water of
+wells poured into salt-pans. At Babylon the first condensed is a
+bituminous liquid like oil which is burned in lamps. When this is taken
+off, salt is found beneath. In Cappadocia also the water from both wells
+and springs is poured into salt-pans." When petroleum began to be used
+as an illuminant it is impossible to say. A passage in Aristotle's <i>De
+Mirabilibus</i> (127) is often quoted, but in reality it refers only to a
+burning spring, a phenomenon noted by many writers, but from which to
+its practical use is not a great step. The first really definite
+statement as to the use of petroleum as an <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_584" id="Notes_584">[Pg 584]</a></span>illuminant is Strabo's
+quotation (<span class="smcaplower">XVI.</span>, 1, 15) from Posidonius: "Asphaltus is found in great
+abundance in Babylonia. Eratosthenes describes it as follows:&mdash;The
+liquid <i>asphaltus</i>, which is called <i>naphtha</i>, is found in Susa; the dry
+kind, which can be made solid, in Babylonia. There is a spring of it
+near the Euphrates.... Others say that the liquid kind is also found in
+Babylonia.... The liquid kind, called <i>naphtha</i>, is of a singular
+nature. When it is brought near the fire, the fire catches it....
+Posidonius says that there are springs of <i>naphtha</i> in Babylonia, some
+of which produce white, others black <i>naphtha</i>; the first of these, I
+mean white <i>naphtha</i>, which attracts flame, is liquid sulphur; the
+second or black <i>naphtha</i> is liquid <i>asphaltus</i>, and is burnt in lamps
+instead of oil." (Hamilton's Translation, Vol. <span class="smcaplower">III.</span>, p. 151).
+Eratosthenes lived about 200 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>, and Posidonius about 100 years later.
+Dioscorides (<span class="smcaplower">I.</span>, 83), after discussing the usual sources of bitumen
+says: "It is found in a liquid state in Agrigentum in Sicily, flowing on
+streams; they use it for lights in lanterns in place of oil. Those who
+call the Sicilian kind oil are under a delusion, for it is agreed that
+it is a kind of liquid bitumen." Pliny adds nothing much new to the
+above quotations, except in regard to these same springs (<span class="smcaplower">XXXV.</span>, 51)
+that "The inhabitants collect it on the panicles of reeds, to which it
+quickly adheres and they use it for burning in lamps instead of oil."
+Agricola (<i>De Natura Fossilium</i>, Book <span class="smcaplower">IV.</span>) classifies petroleum, coal,
+jet, and obsidian, camphor, and amber as varieties of bitumen, and
+devotes much space to the refutation of the claims that the last two are
+of vegetable origin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_385" id="Footnote_15_385"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_385"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Agricola (<i>De Natura Fossilium</i>, p. 215) in discussing
+substances which originate from copper, gives among them green
+<i>chrysocolla</i> (as distinguished from borax, etc., see <a href="#Footnote_8_378">Note 8 above</a>), and
+says: "Native <i>chrysocolla</i> originates in veins and veinlets, and is
+found mostly by itself like sand, or adhering to metallic substances,
+and when scraped off from this appears similar to its own sand.
+Occasionally it is so thin that very little can be scraped off. Or else
+it occurs in waters which, as I have said, wash these minerals, and
+afterward it settles as a powder. At Neusohl in the Carpathians, green
+water flowing from an ancient tunnel wears away this <i>chrysocolla</i> with
+it. The water is collected in thirty large reservoirs, where it deposits
+the <i>chrysocolla</i> as a sediment, which they collect every year and
+sell,"&mdash;as a pigment. This description of its occurrence would apply
+equally well to modern <i>chrysocolla</i> or to malachite. The solution from
+copper ores would deposit some sort of green incrustation, of carbonates
+mostly.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_585" id="Notes_585">[Pg 585]</a></span><a name="Footnote_16_386" id="Footnote_16_386"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_386"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> The statement in Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXVI.</span>, 66) to which Agricola
+refers is as follows: "Then as ingenuity was not content with the mixing
+of <i>nitrum</i>, they began the addition of <i>lapis <span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_586" id="Notes_586">[Pg 586]</a></span>magnes</i>, because of the
+belief that it attracts liquefied glass as well as iron. In a similar
+manner many kinds of brilliant stones began to be added to the melting,
+and then shells and fossil sand. Authors tell us that the glass of India
+is made of broken crystal, and in consequence nothing can compare with
+it. Light and dry wood is used for fusing, <i>cyprium</i> (copper?) and
+<i>nitrum</i> being added, particularly <i>nitrum</i> from Ophir etc."
+</p><p>
+A great deal of discussion has arisen over this passage, in connection
+with what this <i>lapis magnes</i> really was. Pliny (<span class="smcaplower">XXXVI.</span>, 25) describes
+the lodestone under this term, but also says: "There (in Ethiopia) also
+is <i>haematites magnes</i>, a stone of blood colour, which shows a red
+colour if crushed, or of saffron. The <i>haematites</i> has not the same
+property of attracting iron as <i>magnes</i>." Relying upon this sentence for
+an exception to the ordinary sort of <i>magnes</i>, and upon the impossible
+chemical reaction involved, most commentators have endeavoured to show
+that lodestone was not the substance meant by Pliny, but manganese, and
+thus they find here the first knowledge of this mineral. There can be
+little doubt that Pliny assumed it to be the lodestone, and Agricola
+also. Whether the latter had any independent knowledge on this point in
+glass-making or was merely quoting Pliny&mdash;which seems probable&mdash;we do
+not know. In any event, Biringuccio, whose work preceded <i>De Re
+Metallica</i> by fifteen years, does definitely mention manganese in this
+connection. He dismisses this statement of Pliny with the remark (p.
+37-38): "The Ancients wrote about lodestones, as Pliny states, and they
+mixed it together with <i>nitrum</i> in their first efforts to make glass."
+The following passage from this author (p. 36-37), however, is not only
+of interest in this connection, but also as possibly being the first
+specific mention of manganese under its own name. Moreover, it has been
+generally overlooked in the many discussions of the subject. "Of a
+similar nature (to <i>zaffir</i>) is also another mineral called <i>manganese</i>,
+which is found, besides in Germany, at the mountain of Viterbo in
+Tuscany ... it is the colour of <i>ferrigno scuro</i> (iron slag?). In
+melting it one cannot obtain any metal ... but it gives a very fine
+colour to glass, so that the glass workers use it in their pigments to
+secure an azure colour.... It also has such a property that when put
+into melted glass it cleanses it and makes it white, even if it were
+green or yellow. In a hot fire it goes off in a vapour like lead, and
+turns into ashes."
+</p><p>
+To enter competently into the discussion of the early history of
+glass-making would employ more space than can be given, and would lead
+but to a sterile end. It is certain that the art was pre-Grecian, and
+that the Egyptians were possessed of some knowledge of making and
+blowing it in the XI Dynasty (according to Petrie 3,500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>), the wall
+painting at Beni Hassen, which represents glass-blowing, being
+attributed to that period. The remains of a glass factory at Tel el
+Amarna are believed to be of the XVIII Dynasty. (Petrie, 1,500 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>).
+The art reached a very high state of development among the Greeks and
+Romans. No discussion of this subject omits Pliny's well-known story
+(<span class="smcaplower">XXXVI</span>, 65), which we also add: "The tradition is that a merchant ship
+laden with <i>nitrum</i> being moored at this place, the merchants were
+preparing their meal on the beach, and not having stones to prop up
+their pots, they used lumps of <i>nitrum</i> from the ship, which fused and
+mixed with the sands of the shore, and there flowed streams of a new
+translucent liquid, and thus was the origin of glass."</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_593" id="Page_593"></a>[Pg 593]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="APPENDIX_A" id="APPENDIX_A"></a>APPENDIX A.</h2>
+
+
+<h3>AGRICOLA'S WORKS.</h3>
+
+<div class="dropcap"><img src="images/capg.png" alt="G" /></div>
+<p style="text-indent:-1em;">
+eorgius Agricola was not only the author of works on Mining and allied
+subjects, usually associated with his name, but he also interested
+himself to some extent in political and religious subjects. For
+convenience in discussion we may, therefore, divide his writings on the
+broad lines of (1) works on mining, geology, mineralogy, and allied
+subjects; (2) works on other subjects, medical, religious, critical,
+political, and historical. In respect especially to the first division,
+and partially with regard to the others, we find three principal cases:
+(<i>a</i>) Works which can be authenticated in European libraries to-day;
+(<i>b</i>) references to editions of these in bibliographies, catalogues,
+etc., which we have been unable to authenticate; and (<i>c</i>) references to
+works either unpublished or lost. The following are the short titles of
+all of the published works which we have been able to find on the
+subjects allied to mining, arranged according to their present
+importance:&mdash;<i>De Re Metallica</i>, first edition, 1556; <i>De Natura
+Fossilium</i>, first edition, 1546; <i>De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum</i>,
+first edition, 1546; <i>Bermannus</i>, first edition, 1530; <i>Rerum
+Metallicarum Interpretatio</i>, first edition, 1546; <i>De Mensuris et
+Ponderibus</i>, first edition, 1533; <i>De Precio Metallorum et Monetis</i>,
+first edition, 1550; <i>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis</i>, first edition,
+1546; <i>De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra</i>, first edition, 1546; <i>De
+Animantibus Subterraneis</i>, first edition, 1549.</p>
+
+<p>Of the "lost" or unpublished works, on which there is some evidence, the
+following are the most important:&mdash;<i>De Metallicis et Machinis</i>, <i>De Ortu
+Metallorum Defensio ad Jacobum Scheckium</i>, <i>De Jure et Legibus
+Metallicis</i>, <i>De Varia Temperie sive Constitutione Aeris</i>, <i>De Terrae
+Motu</i>, and <i>Commentariorum, Libri VI</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The known published works upon other subjects are as follows:&mdash;Latin
+Grammar, first edition, 1520; Two Religious Tracts, first edition, 1522;
+<i>Galen</i> (Joint Revision of Greek Text), first edition, 1525; <i>De Bello
+adversus Turcam</i>, first edition, 1528; <i>De Peste</i>, first edition, 1554.</p>
+
+<p>The lost or partially completed works on subjects unrelated to mining,
+of which some trace has been found, are:&mdash;<i>De Medicatis Fontibus</i>, <i>De
+Putredine solidas partes</i>, etc., <i>Castigationes in Hippocratem</i>,
+<i>Typographia Mysnae et Toringiae</i>, <i>De Traditionibus Apostolicis</i>,
+<i>Oratio de rebus gestis Ernesti et Alberti</i>, <i>Ducum Saxoniae</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h3>REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL WORKS.</h3>
+
+<p>Before proceeding with the bibliographical detail, we consider it
+desirable to review briefly the most important of the author's works on
+subjects related to mining.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_594" id="Page_594"></a>[Pg 594]</span></p><p><i>De Natura Fossilium.</i> This is the most important work of Agricola,
+excepting <i>De Re Metallica</i>. It has always been printed in combination
+with other works, and first appeared at Basel, 1546. This edition was
+considerably revised by the author, the amended edition being that of
+1558, which we have used in giving references. The work comprises ten
+"books" of a total of 217 folio pages. It is the first attempt at
+systematic mineralogy, the minerals<a name="FNanchor_1_387" id="FNanchor_1_387"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_387" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> being classified into (1)
+"earths" (clay, ochre, etc.), (2) "stones properly so-called" (gems,
+semi-precious and unusual stones, as distinguished from rocks), (3)
+"solidified juices" (salt, vitriol, alum, etc.), (4) metals, and (5)
+"compounds" (homogeneous "mixtures" of simple substances, thus forming
+such minerals as galena, pyrite, etc.). In this classification Agricola
+endeavoured to find some fundamental basis, and therefore adopted
+solubility, fusibility, odour, taste, etc., but any true classification
+without the atomic theory was, of course, impossible. However, he makes
+a very creditable performance out of their properties and obvious
+characteristics. All of the external characteristics which we use to-day
+in discrimination, such as colour, hardness, lustre, etc., are
+enumerated, the origin of these being attributed to the proportions of
+the Peripatetic elements and their binary properties. Dana, in his great
+work<a name="FNanchor_2_388" id="FNanchor_2_388"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_388" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>, among some fourscore minerals which he identifies as having
+been described by Agricola and his predecessors, accredits a score to
+Agricola himself. It is our belief, however, that although in a few
+cases Agricola has been wrongly credited, there are still more of which
+priority in description might be assigned to him. While a greater number
+than fourscore of so-called species are given by Agricola and his
+predecessors, many of these are, in our modern system, but varieties;
+for instance, some eight or ten of the ancient species consist of one
+form or another of silica.</p>
+
+<p>Book I. is devoted to mineral characteristics&mdash;colour, brilliance,
+taste, shape, hardness, etc., and to the classification of minerals;
+Book II., "earths"&mdash;clay, Lemnian earth, chalk, ochre, etc.; Book III.,
+"solidified juices"&mdash;salt, <i>nitrum</i> (soda and potash), saltpetre, alum,
+vitriol, chrysocolla, <i>caeruleum</i> (part azurite), orpiment, realgar, and
+sulphur; Book IV., camphor, bitumen, coal, bituminous shales, amber;
+Book V., lodestone, bloodstone, gypsum, talc, asbestos, mica, calamine,
+various fossils, geodes, emery, touchstones, pumice, fluorspar, and
+quartz; Book VI., gems and precious stones; Book VII., "rocks"&mdash;marble,
+serpentine, onyx, alabaster, limestone, etc.; Book VIII., metals&mdash;gold,
+silver, quicksilver, copper, lead, tin, antimony, bismuth, iron, and
+alloys, such as electrum, brass, etc.; Book IX., various furnace
+operations, such as making brass, gilding, tinning, and products such as
+slags, furnace accretions, <i>pompholyx</i> (zinc oxide), copper flowers,
+litharge, hearth-lead, verdigris, white-lead, red-lead, etc.; Book X.,
+"compounds," embracing the description of a number of recognisable
+silver, copper, lead, quicksilver, iron, tin, antimony, and zinc
+minerals, many of which we set out more fully in <a href="#Footnote_8_134">Note 8, page 108</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum.</i> This work also has always been
+published in company with others. The first edition was printed at
+Basel, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_595" id="Page_595"></a>[Pg 595]</span>1546; the second at Basel, 1558, which, being the edition
+revised and added to by the author, has been used by us for reference.
+There are five "books," and in the main they contain Agricola's
+philosophical views on geologic phenomena. The largest portion of the
+actual text is occupied with refutations of the ancient philosophers,
+the alchemists, and the astrologers; and these portions, while they
+exhibit his ability in observation and in dialectics, make but dull
+reading. Those sections of the book which contain his own views,
+however, are of the utmost importance in the history of science, and we
+reproduce extensively the material relating to ore deposits in the
+footnotes on pages <a href="#Notes_43">43</a> to <a href="#Notes_52">52</a>. Briefly, Book I. is devoted to discussion
+of the origin and distribution of ground waters and juices. The latter
+part of this book and a portion of Book II. are devoted to the origin of
+subterranean heat, which he assumes is in the main due to burning
+bitumen&mdash;a genus which with him embraced coal&mdash;and also, in a minor
+degree, to friction of internal winds and to burning sulphur. The
+remainder of Book II. is mainly devoted to the discussion of
+subterranean "air", "vapour", and "exhalations", and he conceives that
+volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are due to their agency, and in these
+hypotheses he comes fairly close to the modern theory of eruptions from
+explosions of steam. "Vapour arises when the internal heat of the earth
+or some hidden fire burns earth which is moistened with vapour. When
+heat or subterranean fire meets with a great force of vapour which cold
+has contracted and encompassed in every direction, then the vapour,
+finding no outlet, tries to break through whatever is nearest to it, in
+order to give place to the insistent and urgent cold. Heat and cold
+cannot abide together in one place, but expel and drive each other out
+of it by turns".</p>
+
+<p>As he was, we believe, the first to recognise the fundamental agencies
+of mountain sculpture, we consider it is of sufficient interest to
+warrant a reproduction of his views on this subject: "Hills and
+mountains are produced by two forces, one of which is the power of
+water, and the other the strength of the wind. There are three forces
+which loosen and demolish the mountains, for in this case, to the power
+of the water and the strength of the wind we must add the fire in the
+interior of the earth. Now we can plainly see that a great abundance of
+water produces mountains, for the torrents first of all wash out the
+soft earth, next carry away the harder earth, and then roll down the
+rocks, and thus in a few years they excavate the plains or slopes to a
+considerable depth; this may be noticed in mountainous regions even by
+unskilled observers. By such excavation to a great depth through many
+ages, there rises an immense eminence on each side. When an eminence has
+thus arisen, the earth rolls down, loosened by constant rain and split
+away by frost, and the rocks, unless they are exceedingly firm, since
+their seams are similarly softened by the damp, roll down into the
+excavations below. This continues until the steep eminence is changed
+into a slope. Each side of the excavation is said to be a mountain, just
+as the bottom is called a valley. Moreover, streams, and to a far
+greater extent rivers, effect the same results by their rushing and
+washing; for this reason they are frequently seen flowing either between
+very high mountains <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_596" id="Page_596"></a>[Pg 596]</span>which they have created, or close by the shore
+which borders them.... Nor did the hollow places which now contain the
+seas all formerly exist, nor yet the mountains which check and break
+their advance, but in many parts there was a level plain, until the
+force of winds let loose upon it a tumultuous sea and a scathing tide.
+By a similar process the impact of water entirely overthrows and
+flattens out hills and mountains. But these changes of local conditions,
+numerous and important as they are, are not noticed by the common people
+to be taking place at the very moment when they are happening, because,
+through their antiquity, the time, place, and manner in which they began
+is far prior to human memory. The wind produces hills and mountains in
+two ways: either when set loose and free from bonds, it violently moves
+and agitates the sand; or else when, after having been driven into the
+hidden recesses of the earth by cold, as into a prison, it struggles
+with a great effort to burst out. For hills and mountains are created in
+hot countries, whether they are situated by the sea coasts or in
+districts remote from the sea, by the force of winds; these no longer
+held in check by the valleys, but set free, heap up the sand and dust,
+which they gather from all sides, to one spot, and a mass arises and
+grows together. If time and space allow, it grows together and hardens,
+but if it be not allowed (and in truth this is more often the case), the
+same force again scatters the sand far and wide.... Then, on the other
+hand, an earthquake either rends and tears away part of a mountain, or
+engulfs and devours the whole mountain in some fearful chasm. In this
+way it is recorded the Cybotus was destroyed, and it is believed that
+within the memory of man an island under the rule of Denmark
+disappeared. Historians tell us that Taygetus suffered a loss in this
+way, and that Therasia was swallowed up with the island of Thera. Thus
+it is clear that water and the powerful winds produce mountains, and
+also scatter and destroy them. Fire only consumes them, and does not
+produce at all, for part of the mountains&mdash;usually the inner part&mdash;takes
+fire."</p>
+
+<p>The major portion of Book III. is devoted to the origin of ore channels,
+which we reproduce at some length on page <a href="#Notes_47">47</a>. In the latter part of Book
+III., and in Books IV. and V., he discusses the principal divisions of
+the mineral kingdom given in <i>De Natura Fossilium</i>, and the origin of
+their characteristics. It involves a large amount of what now appears
+fruitless tilting at the Peripatetics and the alchemists; but
+nevertheless, embracing, as Agricola did, the fundamental Aristotelian
+elements, he must needs find in these same elements and their
+subordinate binary combinations cause for every variation in external
+character.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bermannus.</i> This, Agricola's first work in relation to mining, was
+apparently first published at Basel, 1530. The work is in the form of a
+dialogue between "Bermannus," who is described as a miner, mineralogist,
+and "a student of mathematics and poetry," and "Nicolaus Ancon" and
+"Johannes Naevius," both scholars and physicians. Ancon is supposed to
+be of philosophical turn of mind and a student of Moorish literature,
+Naevius to be particularly learned in the writings of Dioscorides,
+Pliny, Galen, etc. "Bermannus" <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_597" id="Page_597"></a>[Pg 597]</span>was probably an adaptation by Agricola
+of the name of his friend Lorenz Berman, a prominent miner. The book is
+in the main devoted to a correlation of the minerals mentioned by the
+Ancients with those found in the Saxon mines. This phase is interesting
+as indicating the natural trend of Agricola's scholastic mind when he
+first comes into contact with the sciences to which he devoted himself.
+The book opens with a letter of commendation from Erasmus, of Rotterdam,
+and with the usual dedication and preface by the author. The three
+conversationalists are supposed to take walks among the mines and to
+discuss, incidentally, matters which come to their attention; therefore
+the book has no systematic or logical arrangement. There are occasional
+statements bearing on the history, management, titles, and methods used
+in the mines, and on mining lore generally. The mineralogical part,
+while of importance from the point of view of giving the first
+description of several minerals, is immensely improved upon in <i>De
+Natura Fossilium</i>, published 15 years later. It is of interest to find
+here the first appearance of the names of many minerals which we have
+since adopted from the German into our own nomenclature. Of importance
+is the first description of bismuth, although, as pointed out on page
+<a href="#Notes_433">433</a>, the metal had been mentioned before. In the revised collection of
+collateral works published in 1558, the author makes many important
+changes and adds some new material, but some of the later editions were
+made from the unrevised older texts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rerum Metallicarum Interpretatio.</i> This list of German equivalents for
+Latin mineralogical terms was prepared by Agricola himself, and first
+appears in the 1546 collection of <i>De Ortu et Causis</i>, <i>De Natura
+Fossilium</i>, etc., being repeated in all subsequent publications of these
+works. It consists of some 500 Latin mineralogical and metallurgical
+terms, many of which are of Agricola's own coinage. It is of great help
+in translation and of great value in the study of mineralogic
+nomenclature.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Mensuris et Ponderibus.</i> This work is devoted to a discussion of the
+Greek and Roman weights and measures, with some correlation to those
+used in Saxony. It is a careful work still much referred to by students
+of these subjects. The first edition was published at Paris in 1533, and
+in the 1550 edition at Basel appears, for the first time, <i>De Precio
+Metallorum et Monetis</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis.</i> This short work comprises 31 folio
+pages, and first appears in the 1546 collection of collateral works. It
+consists mainly of historical and geographical references to the
+occurrence of metals and mines, culled from the Greek and Latin
+classics, together with some information as to the history of the mines
+in Central Europe. The latter is the only original material, and
+unfortunately is not very extensive. We have incorporated some of this
+information in the footnotes.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Animantibus Subterraneis.</i> This short work was first printed in
+Basel, 1549, and consists of one chapter of 23 folio pages. Practically
+the whole is devoted to the discussion of various animals who at least a
+portion of their time live underground, such as hibernating,
+cave-dwelling, and burrowing animals, together with cave-dwelling birds,
+lizards, crocodiles, serpents, etc. There are only a few lines of remote
+geological interest as to migration <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_598" id="Page_598"></a>[Pg 598]</span>of animals imposed by geologic
+phenomena, such as earthquakes, floods, etc. This book also discloses an
+occasional vein of credulity not to be expected from the author's other
+works, in that he apparently believes Aristotle's story of the flies
+which were born and lived only in the smelting furnace; and further, the
+last paragraph in the book is devoted to underground gnomes. This we
+reproduce in the footnote on page <a href="#Notes_217">217</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra.</i> This work of four books,
+comprising 83 folio pages, first appears in the 1546 collection. As the
+title indicates, the discussion is upon the substances which flow from
+the earth, such as water, bitumen, gases, etc. Altogether it is of
+microscopic value and wholly uninteresting. The major part refers to
+colour, taste, temperature, medicinal uses of water, descriptions of
+rivers, lakes, swamps, and aqueducts.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_599" id="Page_599"></a>[Pg 599]</span></p>
+<h3>BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES.</h3>
+
+<p>For the following we have mainly to thank Miss Kathleen Schlesinger, who
+has been employed many months in following up every clue, and although
+the results display very considerable literary activity on the part of
+the author, they do not by any means indicate Miss Schlesinger's
+labours. Agricola's works were many of them published at various times
+in combination, and therefore to set out the title and the publication
+of each work separately would involve much repetition of titles, and we
+consequently give the titles of the various volumes arranged according
+to dates. For instance, <i>De Natura Fossilium</i>, <i>De Ortu et Causis</i>, <i>De
+Veteribus et Novis Metallis</i>, <i>De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra</i>,
+and <i>Interpretatio</i> have always been published together, and the Latin
+and Italian editions of these works always include <i>Bermannus</i> as well.
+Moreover, the Latin <i>De Re Metallica</i> of 1657 includes all of these
+works.</p>
+
+<p>We mark with an asterisk the titles to editions which we have been able
+to authenticate by various means from actual books. Those unmarked are
+editions which we are satisfied do exist, but the titles of which are
+possibly incomplete, as they are taken from library catalogues, etc.
+Other editions to which we find reference and of which we are not
+certain are noted separately in the discussion later on.<a name="FNanchor_3_389" id="FNanchor_3_389"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_389" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p class="center">*1530 (8vo):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Georgii Agricolae Medici, Bermannus sive de re Metallica.</i></p>
+
+<p>(Froben's mark).</p>
+
+<p><i>Basileae in aedibus Frobenianis Anno. <span class="smcaplower">MDXXX</span>.</i></p>
+
+<p>Bound with this edition is (p. 131-135), at least occasionally,
+<i>Rerum metallicarum appellationes juxta vernaculam Germanorum
+linguam, autori Plateano</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Basileae in officina Frobeniana</i>, Anno. <span class="smcaplower">MDXXX.</span> </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1533 (8vo):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Georgii Agricolae Medici libri quinque de Mensuris et
+Ponderibus: in quibus plaeraque � Budaeo et Portio parum
+animadversa diligenter excutiuntur. Opus nunc primum in lucem
+aeditum.</i></p>
+
+<p>(Wechelus's Mark).</p>
+
+<p><i>Parisiis. Excudebat Christianus Wechelus, in vico Iacobaeo,
+sub scuto Basileiensi, Anno <span class="smcaplower">MDXXXIII</span>.</i></p>
+
+<p>261 pages and index of 5 pages. </p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_600" id="Page_600"></a>[Pg 600]</span></p>
+<p class="center">*1533 (4to):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Georgii Agricolae Medici Libri quinque. De Mensuris et
+Ponderibus: In quibus pleraque � Budaeo et Portio parum
+animadversa diligenter excutiuntur.</i></p>
+
+<p>(Froben's Mark).</p>
+
+<p><i>Basileae ex Officina Frobeniana Anno <span class="smcaplower">MDXXXIII</span>. Cum gratia et
+privilegio Caesareo ad sex annos.</i> </p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p class="center">1534 (4to):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Georgii Agricolae. Epistola ad Plateanum, cui sunt adiecta
+aliquot loca castigata in libris de mensuris et ponderibus
+nuper editis.</i></p>
+
+<p>Froben, Basel, 1534. </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1535 (8vo):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Georgii Agricolae Medici libri V. de Mensuris et Ponderibus:
+in quibus pleraque � Budaeo et Portio parum animadversa
+diligenter excutiuntur.</i></p>
+
+<p>(Printer's Mark).</p>
+
+<p>At the end of Index: <i>Venit�s per Juan Anto. de Nicolinis de
+Sabio, sumptu vero et requisitione D�i Melchionis Sessae. Anno.
+D�i <span class="smcaplower">MDXXXV</span>. Mense Julii.</i> 116 folios.</p>
+
+<p>On back of title page is given: <i>Liber primus de mensuris
+Romanis, Secundus de mensuris Graecis, Tertius de rerum quas
+metimur pondere, Quartus de ponderibus Romanis, Quintus de
+ponderibus Graecis.</i> </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1541 (8vo):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Georgii Agricolae Medici Bermannus sive de re metallica.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Parisiis. Apud Hieronymum Gormonti�. In Vico Jacobeo sub
+signotrium coronarum.</i> 1541. </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1546 (8vo):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Georgii Agricolae medici Bermannus, sive de metallica ab
+accurata autoris recognitione et emendatione nunc primum editus
+cum nomenclatura rerum metallicarum. Eorum Lipsiae In officina
+Valentini Papae Anno. <span class="smcaplower">MDXLVI</span>.</i> </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1546 (folio):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Georgii Agricolae De ortu et causis subterraneorum Lib. V. De
+natura eorum quae effluunt ex terra Lib. IIII. De natura
+fossilium Lib. X. De veteribus et novis metallis, Lib. II.
+Bermannus sive De re Metallica dialogus. Interpretatio
+Germanica vocum rei metallicae addito Indice faecundissimo.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Apud Hieron Frobenium et Nicolaum Episcopium Basileae, <span class="smcaplower">MDXLVI</span>.
+Cum privilegio Imp. Maiestatis ad quinquennium.</i> </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1549 (8vo):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Georgii Agricolae de animantibus subterraneis Liber.</i></p>
+
+<p>Froben, Basel, <span class="smcaplower">MDXLIX</span>. </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1550 (8vo):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Di Georgio Agricola De la generatione de le cose, che sotto la
+terra sono, e de le cause de' loro effetti e natura, Lib. V. De
+La Natura di quelle cose, che de la terra scorrono Lib. IIII.
+De La Natura de le cose Fossili, e che sotto la terra si Cavano
+Lib. X. De Le Minere antiche e moderne Lib. II. Il Bermanno, �
+de le cose Metallice Dialogo, Recato tutto hora dal Latino in
+Buona Lingua volgare.</i></p>
+
+<p>(Vignette of Sybilla surrounded by the words)&mdash;<i>Qv Al Piv Fermo
+E Il Mio Foglio � Il Mio Presaggio.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Col Privilegio del Sommo Pontefice Papa Giulio III. Et del
+Illustriss. Senato Veneto per anni. <span class="smcaplower">XX</span>.</i></p>
+
+<p>(Colophon). <i>In Vinegia per Michele Tramezzino, <span class="smcaplower">MDL</span>.</i> </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1550 (folio):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Georgii Agricolae. De Mensuris et ponderibus Rom. atque Graec.
+lib. V. De externis mensuris et ponderibus Lib. II. Ad ea quae
+Andreas Alciatus denuo disputavit De Mensuris et Ponderibus
+brevis defensio Lib. I. De Mensuris quibus intervalla metimur
+Lib. I. De restituendis ponderibus atque mensuris. Lib. I. De
+precio metallorum et monetis. Lib. III.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Basileae.</i> Froben. <span class="smcaplower">MDL</span>. <i>Cum privilegio Imp. Maiestatis ad
+quinquennium.</i><a name="FNanchor_4_390" id="FNanchor_4_390"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_390" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1556 (folio):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Georgii Agricolae De Re Metallica Libri XII. quibus Officia,
+Instrumenta, Machinae, ac omnia denique ad Metallicam
+spectantia, non modo luculentissime describuntur, sed et per
+effigies, suis locis insertas, adjunctis Latinis, Germanicisque
+appellationibus ita ob oculos ponuntur, ut clarius tradi non
+possint Eiusdem De Animantibus Subterraneis Liber, ab Autore
+recognitus: cum Indicibus diversis, quicquid in opere tractatum
+est, pulchre demonstrantibus.</i></p>
+
+<p>(Froben's Mark).</p>
+
+<p><i>Basileae MDLVI. Cum Privilegio Imperatoris in annos V. et
+Galliarum Regis ad Sexennium.</i></p>
+
+<p>Folio 538 pages and preface, glossary and index amounting to 86
+pages. This is the first edition of <i>De Re Metallica</i>. We
+reproduce this title-page on page <a href="#Page_xix"><span class="smcaplower">XIX</span></a>. </p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_601" id="Page_601"></a>[Pg 601]</span></p>
+<p class="center">*1557 (folio):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Vom Bergkwerck xii B�cher darinn alle Empter, Instrument,
+Gezeuge, unnd Alles zu disem Handel geh�rig, mitt sch�nen
+figuren vorbildet, und Kl�rlich beschriben seindt erstlich in
+Lateinischer Sprach durch den Hochgelerten und weittber�mpten
+Herrn Georgium Agricolam, Doctorn und. B�rgermeistern der
+Churf�rstlichen statt Kempnitz, jezundt aber verte�scht durch
+den Achtparen. unnd Hochgelerten Herrn Philippum Bechium,
+Philosophen, Artzer und in der Loblichen Universitet zu Basel
+Professorn.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Gedruckt zu Basel durch Jeronymus Froben Und Niclausen
+Bischoff im 1557 Jar mitt Keiserlicher Freyheit.</i> </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1558 (folio):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Georgii Agricolae De ortu et causis subterraneorum Lib. V. De
+natura eorum quae effluunt ex terra Lib. IV. De natura
+fossilium Lib. X. De veteribus et novis metallis Lib. II.
+Bermannus, sive De Re Metallica Dialogus Liber. Interpretatio
+Germanica vocum rei metallicae, addito duplici Indice, altero
+rerum, altero locorum Omnia ab ipso authore, cum haud
+poenitenda accessione, recens recognita.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Froben, et Episcop. Basileae <span class="smcaplower">MDLVIII</span>. Cum Imp. Maiestatis
+renovato privilegio ad quinquennium.</i></p>
+
+<p>270 pages and index. As the title states, this is a revised
+edition by the author, and as the changes are very considerable
+it should be the one used. The Italian translation and the 1612
+Wittenberg edition, mentioned below, are taken from the 1546
+edition, and are, therefore, very imperfect. </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1561 (folio):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Second edition of <i>De Re Metallica</i> including <i>De Animantibus
+Subterraneis</i>, with same title as the first edition except the
+addition, after the body of the title, of the words <i>Atque
+omnibus nunc iterum ad archetypum diligenter restitutis et
+castigatis</i> and the year <span class="smcaplower">MDLXI</span>. 502 pages and 72 pages of
+glossary and index. </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1563 (folio):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Opera di Giorgio Agricola de L'arte de Metalli Partita in XII.
+libri, ne quali si descrivano tutte le sorti, e qualit� de gli
+uffizii, de gli strumenti, delle macchine, e di tutte l'altre
+cose attenenti a cotal arte, non pure con parole chiare ma
+eziandio si mettano a luoghi loro le figure di dette cose,
+ritratte al naturale, con l'aggiunta de nomi di quelle, cotanto
+chiari, e spediti, che meglio non si puo desiderare, o havere.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Aggiugnesi il libro del medesimo autore, che tratta de gl'
+Animali di sottoterra da lui stesso corretto et riveduto.
+Tradotti in lingua Toscana da M. Michelangelo Florio
+Fiorentino.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Con l'Indice di tutte le cose piu notabili alla fine</i>
+(Froben's mark) <i>in Basilea per Hieronimo Frobenio et Nicolao
+Episcopio, <span class="smcaplower">MDLXIII</span>.</i></p>
+
+<p>542 pages with 6 pages of index. </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1580 (folio):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Bergwerck Buch: Darinn nicht Allain alle Empte Instrument
+Gezeug und alles so zu diesem Handel geh�rig mit figuren
+vorgebildet und kl�rlich beschriben, etc. Durch den
+Hochgelehrten ... Herrn Georgium Agricolam der Artzney Doctorn
+und Burgermeister der Churf�rstlichen Statt Kemnitz erstlich
+mit grossem fleyss m�he und arbeit in Latein beschriben und in
+zw�lff B�cher abgetheilt: Nachmals aber durch den Achtbarn und
+auch Hochgelehrten Philippum Bechium Philosophen Artzt und in
+der L�blichen Universitet zu Basel Professorn mit sonderm
+fleyss Teutscher Nation zu gut verteutscht und an Tag geben.
+Allen Berckherrn Gewercken Berckmeistern Geschwornen
+Schichtmeistern Steigern Berckheuwern W�schern und Schmeltzern
+nicht allein n�tzlich und dienstlich sondern auch zu wissem
+hochnotwendig.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Mit R�mischer Keys. May Freyheit nicht nachzutrucken.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Getruckt in der Keyserlichen Reichsstatt, Franckfort am Mayn,
+etc. Im Jahr <span class="smcaplower">MDLXXX</span>.</i> </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1612 (12mo):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Georgii Agricolae De ortu et causis subterraneorum Lib. V. De
+natura eorum quae effluunt ex terra, Lib. IV. De natura
+fossilium Lib. X. De veteribus et novis metallis Lib. II.
+Bermannus, sive de re metallica Dialogus. Interpretatio
+Germanica vocum rei metallicae.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Addito Indice faecundissimo, Plurimos jam annos � Germanis, et
+externarum quoque nationum doctissimis viris, valde desiderati
+et expetiti.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Nunc vero in rei metallicae studiosorum gratiam recensiti, in
+certa capita distributi, capitum argumentis, et nonnullis
+scholiis marginalibus illustrati � Johanne Sigfrido Philos: et
+Medicinae Doctore et in illustri Julia Professore ordinario.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Accesserunt De metallicis rebus et nominibus observationes
+variae et eruditae, ex schedis Georgii Fabricii, quibus ea
+potissimum explicantur, quae Georgius Agricola praeteriit</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wittebergae Sumptibus Zachariae Sch�reri Bibliopolae Typis
+Andreae R�dingeri, 1612.</i></p>
+
+<p>There are 970 pages in the work of Agricola proper, the notes
+of Fabricius comprising a further 44 pages, and the index 112
+pages. </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1614 (8vo):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Georgii Agricolae De Animantibus Subterraneis Liber Hactenus �
+multis desideratus, nunc vero in gratiam studiosorum seorsim
+editus, in certa capita divisus, capitum argumentis et
+nonnullis marginalibus exornatus � Johanne Sigfrido, Phil. &amp;
+Med. Doctore</i>, etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wittebergae. Typis Meisnerianis: Impensis Zachariae. Schureri
+Bibliop. Anno. <span class="smcaplower">MDCXIV</span>.</i> </p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_602" id="Page_602"></a>[Pg 602]</span></p>
+<p class="center">*1621 (folio):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Georgii Agricolae Kempnicensis Medici ac Philosophi Clariss.
+De Re Metallica Libri XII Quibus Officia, Instrumenta,
+Machinae, ac omnia denique ad metallicam spectantia, non modo
+Luculentissim� describuntur; sed et per effigies, suis locis
+insertas adjunctis Latinis, Germanicisque; appellationibus, ita
+ob oculos ponuntur, ut clarius tradi non possint.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Ejusdem De Animantibus Subterraneis Liber, ab Autore
+recognitus cum Indicibus diversis quicquid in Opere tractatum
+est, pulchr� demonstrantibus.</i></p>
+
+<p>(Vignette of man at assay furnace).</p>
+
+<p><i>Basileae Helvet. Sumptibus itemque typis chalcographicis
+Ludovici Regis Anno <span class="smcaplower">MDCXXI</span>.</i></p>
+
+<p>502 pages and 58 pages glossary and indices. </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1621 (folio):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Bergwerck Buch Darinnen nicht allein alle Empter Instrument
+Gezeug und alles so zu disem Handel geh�rig mit Figuren
+vorgebildet und kl�rlich beschrieben:.... Durch den
+Hochgelehrten und weitber�hmten Herrn Georgium Agricolam, der
+Artzney Doctorn und Burgermeister der Churf�rstlichen Statt
+Kemnitz Erstlich mit grossem fleiss m�he und arbeit in Latein
+beschrieben und in zw�lff B�cher abgetheilt: Nachmals aber
+durch den Achtbarn und auch Hochgelehrten Philippum Bechium.
+Philosophen, Artzt, und in der loblichen Universitet zu Basel
+Professorn mit sonderm fleiss Teutscher Nation zu gut
+verteutscht und an Tag geben und nun zum andern mal getruckt.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Allen Bergherrn Gewercken Bergmeistern Geschwornen
+Schichtmeistern Steigern Bergh�wern W�schern unnd Schmeltzern
+nicht allein nutzlich und dienstlich sondern auch zu wissen
+hochnohtwendig.</i></p>
+
+<p>(Vignette of man at assay furnace).</p>
+
+<p><i>Getruckt zu Basel inverlegung Ludwig K�nigs Im Jahr, <span class="smcaplower">MDCXXI</span>.</i></p>
+
+<p>491 pages 5 pages glossary&mdash;no index. </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1657 (folio):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Georgii Agricolae Kempnicensis Medici ac Philosophi Clariss.
+De Re Metallica Libri XII. Quibus Officia, instrumenta,
+machinae, ac omnia denique ad metallicam spectantia, non modo
+luculentissim� describuntur: sed et per effigies, suis locis
+insertas, adjunctis Latinis, Germanicisque appellationibus, ita
+ob oculos ponuntur, ut clarius tradi non possint. Quibus
+accesserunt hac ultima editione, Tractatus ejusdem argumenti,
+ab eodem conscripti, sequentes.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>De Animantibus Subterraneis Lib. I., De Ortu et Causis
+Subterraneorum Lib. V., De Natura eorum quae effluunt ex Terra
+Lib. IV., De Natura Fossilium Lib. X., De Veteribus et Novis
+Metallis Lib. II., Bermannus sive de Re Metallica, Dialogus
+Lib. I.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Cum Indicibus diversis, quicquid in Opere tractatum est,
+pulchr� demonstrantibus.</i></p>
+
+<p>(Vignette of assayer and furnace).</p>
+
+<p><i>Basileae Sumptibus et Typis Emanuelis K�nig. Anno <span class="smcaplower">MDCLVII</span>.</i></p>
+
+<p>Folio, 708 pages and 90 pages of glossary and indices. This is
+a very serviceable edition of all of Agricola's important
+works, and so far as we have noticed there are but few
+typographical errors. </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1778 (8vo):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Gespr�ch vom Bergwesen, wegen seiner F�rtrefflich keit aus dem
+Lateinischen in das Deutsche �bersetzet, mit n�tzl. Anmerkungen
+erl�utert. u. mit einem ganz neuen Zusatze von Zl�glicher
+Anstellung des Bergbaues u. von der Zugutemachung der Erze auf
+den H�ttenwerken versehen von Johann Gottlieb St�r.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Rotenburg a. d. Fulda, Hermst�dt 1778.</i> 180 pages. </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1806 (8vo):</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Georg Agricola's Bermannus eine Einleitung in die
+metallurgischen Schriften desselben, �bersetzt und mit
+Exkursionen herausgegeben von Friedrich August Schmid.
+Haushalts- und Befahrungs-Protokollist im Churf. vereinigten
+Bergamte zu St. Annaberg.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Freyberg 1806. Bey Craz und Gerlach.</i> </p></blockquote>
+
+<p class="center">*1807-12 (8vo).</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Georg Agrikola's Mineralogische Schriften �bersetzt und mit
+erl�uternden Anmerkungen. Begleitet von Ernst Lehmann
+Bergamts-Assessor, Berg- Gegen- und Receszschreiber in Dem
+K�nigl. S�chs. Bergamte Voigtsberg der jenaischen Societ�t f�r
+die gesammte Mineralogie Ehrenmitgliede.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Freyberg, 1807-12. Bey Craz und Gerlach.</i></p>
+
+<p>This German translation consists of four parts: the first being
+<i>De Ortu et Causis</i>, the second <i>De Natura eorum quae effluunt
+ex terra</i>, and the third in two volumes <i>De Natura Fossilium</i>,
+the fourth <i>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis</i>; with glossary and
+index to the four parts. </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>We give the following notes on other possible prints, as a great many
+references to the above works occur in various quarters, of date other
+than the above. Unless otherwise convinced it is our belief that most of
+these refer to the prints given above, and are due to error in giving
+titles or dates. It is always possible that such prints do exist and
+have escaped our search.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_603" id="Page_603"></a>[Pg 603]</span></p><p><i>De Re Metallica.</i> Leupold, Richter, Schmid, van der Linden, Mercklinus
+and Eloy give an 8vo edition of <i>De Re Metallica</i> without illustrations,
+Schweinfurt, 1607. We have found no trace of this print. Leupold, van
+der Linden, Richter, Schmid and Eloy mention an 8vo edition, Wittenberg,
+1614. It is our belief that this refers to the 1612 Wittenberg edition
+of the selected works, which contains a somewhat similar title referring
+in reality to <i>Bermannus</i>, which was and is still continually confused
+with <i>De Re Metallica</i>. Ferguson mentions a German edition, Schweinfurt,
+8vo, 1687. We can find no trace of this; it may refer to the 1607
+Schweinfurt edition mentioned above.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Natura Fossilium.</i> Leupold and Gatter refer to a folio edition of
+1550. This was probably an error for either the 1546 or the 1558
+editions. Watt refers to an edition of 1561 combined with <i>De Medicatis
+Fontibus</i>. We find no trace of such edition, nor even that the latter
+work was ever actually printed. He also refers to an edition of 1614 and
+one of 1621, this probably being an error for the 1612 edition of the
+subsidiary works and the <i>De Re Metallica</i> of 1621. Leupold also refers
+to an edition of 1622, this probably being an error for 1612.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Ortu et Causis.</i> Albinus, Hofmann, Jacobi, Schmid, Richter, and
+Reuss mention an edition of 1544. This we believe to be an error in
+giving the date of the dedication instead of that of the publication
+(1546). Albinus and Ferguson give an edition of 1555, which date is, we
+believe, an error for 1558. Ferguson gives an edition of the Italian
+translation as 1559; we believe this should be 1550. Draud gives an
+edition of 1621; probably this should be 1612.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bermannus.</i> Albinus, Schmid, Reuss, Richter, and Weinart give the first
+edition as 1528. We have been unable to learn of any actual copy of that
+date, and it is our belief that the date is taken from the dedication
+instead of from the publication, and should be 1530. Leupold, Schmid,
+and Reuss give an edition by Froben in 1549; we have been unable to
+confirm this. Leupold also gives an edition of 1550 (folio), and J�cher
+gives an edition of Geneva 1561 (folio); we have also been unable to
+find this, and believe the latter to be a confusion with the <i>De Re
+Metallica</i> of 1561, as it is unlikely that <i>Bermannus</i> would be
+published by itself in folio. The catalogue of the library at Siena
+(Vol. III., p. 78) gives <i>Il Bermanno, Vinegia</i>, 1550, 8vo. We have
+found no trace of this edition elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Mensuris et Ponderibus.</i> Albinus and Schmid mention an edition of
+1539, and one of 1550. The Biographie Universelle, Paris, gives one of
+1553, and Leupold one of 1714, all of which we have been unable to find.
+An epitome of this work was published at various times, sometimes in
+connection with editions of Vitruvius; so far as we are aware on the
+following dates, 1552, 1585, 1586, 1829. There also appear extracts in
+relation to liquid measures in works entitled <i>Vocabula rei numariae
+ponderum et mensurarum</i>, etc. Paul Eber and Caspar Peucer, <i>Lipsiae</i>,
+1549, and in same Wittenberg, 1552.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis.</i> Watt gives an edition, Basel, 1530,
+and Paris, 1541; we believe this is incorrect and refers to <i>Bermannus</i>.
+Reuss mentions a folio print of Basel, 1550. We consider this very
+unlikely.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra.</i> Albinus, Hofmann, Schmid,
+Jacobi, Richter, Reuss, and Weinart give an edition of 1545. We believe
+this is again the dedication instead of the publication date (1546).</p>
+
+<p><i>De Animantibus Subterraneis.</i> Van der Linden gives an edition at
+Schweinfurt, 8vo, 1607. Although we have been unable to find a copy,
+this slightly confirms the possibility of an octavo edition of <i>De Re
+Metallica</i> of this date, as they were usually published together.
+Leupold gives assurance that he handled an octavo edition of Wittenberg,
+1612, <i>cum notis Johann Sigfridi</i>. We think he confused this with
+<i>Bermannus sive de re metallica</i> of that date and place. Schmid,
+Richter, and Draud all refer to an edition similarly annotated, Leipzig,
+1613, 8vo. We have no trace of it otherwise.</p>
+
+
+<h3>UNPUBLISHED WORKS ON SUBJECTS RELATED TO MINING.</h3>
+
+<p>Agricola apparently projected a complete series of works covering the
+whole range of subjects relating to minerals: geology, mineralogy,
+mining, metallurgy, history of metals, their uses, laws, etc. In a
+letter<a name="FNanchor_5_391" id="FNanchor_5_391"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_391" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> from Fabricius to Meurer (March, 1553), the former states that
+Agricola intended writing about 30 books (chapters) in addition to those
+already published, and to the twelve books <i>De Re Metallica</i> which he
+was about to publish. Apparently a number of these works were either
+unfinished or unpublished at Agricola's death, for his friend George
+Fabricius seems to have made some effort to secure their publication,
+but did not succeed, through lack of sympathy on the part of Agricola's
+family. Hofmann<a name="FNanchor_6_392" id="FNanchor_6_392"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_392" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> states on this matter: "His intentions were
+frustrated mainly through the lack of support with which he was met by
+the heirs of the Mineralogist. These, as he complains to a Councillor of
+the Electorate, Christopher von Carlovitz, in 1556, and to Paul Eber in
+another letter, adopted a grudging and ungracious tone with regard to
+his proposal to collect all Agricola's works left behind, and they only
+consented to communicate to him as much as they were obliged <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_604" id="Page_604"></a>[Pg 604]</span>by express
+command of the Prince. At the Prince's command they showed him a little,
+but he supposed that there was much more that they had suppressed or not
+preserved. The attempt to purchase some of the works&mdash;the Elector had
+given Fabricius money for the purpose (30 nummos unciales)&mdash;proved
+unavailing, owing to the disagreeableness of Agricola's heirs. It is no
+doubt due to these regrettable circumstances that all the works of the
+industrious scholar did not come down to us." The "disagreeableness" was
+probably due to the refusal of the Protestant townsfolk to allow the
+burial of Agricola in the Cathedral at Chemnitz. So far as we know the
+following are the unpublished or lost works.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Jure et Legibus Metallicis.</i> This work on mining law is mentioned at
+the end of <a href="#BOOK_IV">Book IV.</a> of <i>De Re Metallica</i>, and it is referred to by
+others apparently from that source. We have been unable to find any
+evidence that it was ever published.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Varia temperie sive Constitutione Aeris.</i> In a letter<a name="FNanchor_7_393" id="FNanchor_7_393"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_393" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> to Johann
+Naevius, Agricola refers to having a work in hand of this title.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Metallis et Machinis.</i> Hofmann<a name="FNanchor_8_394" id="FNanchor_8_394"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_394" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> states that a work of this title
+by Agricola, dated Basel 1543, was sold to someone in America by a
+Frankfort-on-Main bookseller in 1896. This is apparently the only
+reference to it that we know of, and it is possibly a confusion of
+titles or a "separate" of some chapters from <i>De Re Metallica</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Ortu Metallorum Defensio ad Jacobum Scheckium.</i> Referred to by
+Fabricius in a letter<a name="FNanchor_9_395" id="FNanchor_9_395"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_395" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> to Meurer. If published was probably only a
+tract.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Terrae Motu.</i> In a letter<a name="FNanchor_10_396" id="FNanchor_10_396"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_396" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> from Agricola to Meurer (Jan. 1, 1544)
+is some reference which might indicate that he was formulating a work on
+earthquakes under this title, or perhaps may be only incidental to the
+portions of <i>De Ortu et Causis</i> dealing with this subject.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commentariorum in quibus utriusque linguae scriptorum locos difficiles
+de rebus subterraneis explicat, Libri VI.</i> Agricola apparently partially
+completed a work under some such title as this, which was to embrace
+chapters entitled <i>De Methodis</i> and <i>De Demonstratione</i>. The main object
+seems to have been a commentary on the terms and passages in the
+classics relating to mining, mineralogy, etc. It is mentioned in the
+Preface of <i>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis</i>, and in a letter<a name="FNanchor_11_397" id="FNanchor_11_397"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_397" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> from
+one of Froben's firm to Agricola in 1548, where it is suggested that
+Agricola should defer sending his new commentaries until the following
+spring. The work is mentioned by Albinus<a name="FNanchor_12_398" id="FNanchor_12_398"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_398" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>, and in a letter from Georg
+Fabricius to Meurer on the 2nd Jan. 1548,<a name="FNanchor_13_399" id="FNanchor_13_399"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_399" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> in another from G.
+Fabricius, to his brother Andreas on Oct. 28, 1555,<a name="FNanchor_14_400" id="FNanchor_14_400"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_400" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> and in a third
+from Fabricius to Melanchthon on December 8th, 1555<a name="FNanchor_15_401" id="FNanchor_15_401"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_401" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>, in which regret
+is expressed that the work was not completed by Agricola.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_605" id="Page_605"></a>[Pg 605]</span></p>
+<h3>WRITINGS NOT RELATED TO MINING, INCLUDING LOST OR UNPUBLISHED WORKS.</h3>
+
+<p><i>Latin Grammar.</i> This was probably the first of Agricola's publications,
+the full title to which is <i>Georgii Agricolae Glaucii Libellus de prima
+ac simplici institutione grammatica. Excusum Lipsiae in Officina
+Melchioris Lottheri. Anno <span class="smcaplower">MDXX</span>.</i> (4to), 24 folios.<a name="FNanchor_16_402" id="FNanchor_16_402"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_402" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> There is some
+reason to believe that Agricola also published a Greek grammar, for
+there is a letter<a name="FNanchor_17_403" id="FNanchor_17_403"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_403" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> from Agricola dated March 18th, 1522, in which
+Henicus Camitianus is requested to send a copy to Stephan Roth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Theological Tracts.</i> There are preserved in the Zwickau Rathsschul
+Library<a name="FNanchor_18_404" id="FNanchor_18_404"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_404" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> copies by Stephan Roth of two tracts, the one entitled,
+<i>Deum non esse auctorem Peccati</i>, the other, <i>Religioso patri Petri
+Fontano, sacre theologie Doctori eximio Georgius Agricola salutem dicit
+in Christo</i>. The former was written from Leipzig in 1522, and the
+latter, although not dated, is assigned to the same period. Both are
+printed in <i>Zwei theologische Abhandlungen des Georg Agricola</i>, an
+article by Otto Clemen, <i>Neuen Archiv fur S�chsische Geschichte</i>, etc.,
+Dresden, 1900. There is some reason (from a letter of Fabricius to
+Melanchthon, Dec. 8th, 1555) to believe that Agricola had completed a
+work on the unwritten traditions concerning the Church. There is no
+further trace of it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Galen.</i> Agricola appears to have been joint author with Andreas
+Asulanus and J. B. Opizo of a revision of this well-known Greek work. It
+was published at Venice in 1525, under the title of <i>Galeni Librorum</i>,
+etc., etc. Agricola's name is mentioned in a prefatory letter to Opizo
+by Asulanus.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Bello adversus Turcam.</i> This political tract, directed against the
+Turks, was written in Latin and first printed by Froben, Basel, 1528. It
+was translated into German apparently by Agricola's friend Laurenz
+Berman, and published under the title <i>Oration Anrede Und Vormanunge ...
+widder den T�rcken</i> by Frederich Peypus, Nuremberg, in 1531 (8vo), and
+either in 1530 or 1531 by Wolfgang St�ckel, Dresden, 4to. It was again
+printed in Latin by Froben, Basel, 1538, 4to; by H. Grosius, Leipzig,
+1594, 8vo; it was included among other works published on the same
+subject by Nicholas Reusnerus, Leipzig, 1595; by Michael Lantzenberger,
+Frankfurt-am-Main, 1597, 4to. Further, there is reference by Watt to an
+edition at Eisleben, 1603, of which we have no confirmation. There is
+another work on the subject, or a revision by the author mentioned by
+Albinus<a name="FNanchor_19_405" id="FNanchor_19_405"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_405" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> as having been, after Agricola's death, sent to Froben by
+George Fabricius to be printed; nothing further appears in this matter
+however.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Peste.</i> This work on the Plague appears to have been first printed
+by Froben, Basel, 1554, 8vo. The work was republished at Schweinfurt,
+1607, and at Augsburg in 1614, under various editors. It would appear
+from Albinus<a name="FNanchor_20_406" id="FNanchor_20_406"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_406" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> that the work was revised by Agricola and in Froben's
+hands for publication after the author's death.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Medicatis Fontibus.</i> This work is referred to by Agricola himself in
+<i>De Natura Eorum</i>,<a name="FNanchor_21_407" id="FNanchor_21_407"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_407" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> in the prefatory letter in <i>De Veteribus et Novis
+Metallis</i>; and Albinus<a name="FNanchor_22_408" id="FNanchor_22_408"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_408" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> quotes a letter of Agricola to Sebastian
+Munster on the subject. Albinus states (<i>Bergchronik</i>, p. 193) that to
+his knowledge it had not yet been published. Conrad Gesner, in his work
+<i>Excerptorum et observationum de Thermis</i>, which is reprinted in <i>De
+Balneis</i>, Venice, 1553, after Agricola's <i>De Natura Eorum</i>, states<a name="FNanchor_23_409" id="FNanchor_23_409"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_409" class="fnanchor">[23]</a>
+concerning Agricola <i>in libris quos de medicatis fontibus instituerit
+copiosus se dicturum pollicetur</i>. Watt mentions it as having been
+published in 1549, 1561, 1614, and 1621. He, however, apparently
+confuses it with <i>De Natura Eorum</i>. We are unable to state whether it
+was ever printed or not. A note of inquiry to the principal libraries in
+Germany gave a negative result.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Putredine solidas partes humani corporis corrumpente.</i> This work,
+according to Albinus was received by Fabricius a year after Agricola's
+death, but whether it was published or not is uncertain.<a name="FNanchor_24_410" id="FNanchor_24_410"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_410" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Castigationes in Hippocratem et Galenum.</i> This work is referred to by
+Agricola in the preface of <i>Bermannus</i>, and Albinus<a name="FNanchor_25_411" id="FNanchor_25_411"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_411" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> mentions several
+letters referring to the preparation of the work. There is no evidence
+of publication.</p>
+
+<p><i>Typographia Mysnae et Toringiae.</i> It seems from Agricola's letter<a name="FNanchor_26_412" id="FNanchor_26_412"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_412" class="fnanchor">[26]</a>
+to Munster that Agricola prepared some sort of a work on the history of
+Saxony and of the Royal Family <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_606" id="Page_606"></a>[Pg 606]</span>thereof at the command of the Elector
+and sent it to him when finished, but it was never published as written
+by Agricola. Albinus, Hofmann, and Struve give some details of letters
+in reference to it. Fabricius in a letter<a name="FNanchor_27_413" id="FNanchor_27_413"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_413" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> dated Nov. 11, 1536 asks
+Meurer to send Agricola some material for it; in a letter from Fabricius
+to Meurer dated Oct. 30, 1554, it appears that the Elector had granted
+Agricola 200 thalers to assist in the work. After Agricola's death the
+material seems to have been handed over to Fabricius, who made use of it
+(as he states in the preface) in preparing the work he was commissioned
+by the Elector to write, the title of which was, <i>Originum
+illustrissimae stirpis Saxonicae Libri</i>, and was published in Leipzig,
+1597. It includes on page 880 a fragment of a work entitled <i>Oratio de
+rebus Gestis Ernesti et Alberti Ducum Saxoniae</i>, by Agricola.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WORKS WRONGLY ATTRIBUTED TO GEORGIUS AGRICOLA.</h3>
+
+<p>The following works have been at one time or another wrongly attributed
+to Georgius Agricola:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Galerazeya sive Revelator Secretorum De Lapide Philosophorum</i>, Cologne,
+1531 and 1534, by one Daniel Agricola, which is merely a controversial
+book with a catch-title, used by Catholics for converting heretics.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rechter Gebrauch der Alchimey</i>, a book of miscellaneous receipts which
+treats very slightly of transmutation.<a name="FNanchor_28_414" id="FNanchor_28_414"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_414" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Chronik der Stadt Freiberg</i> by a Georg Agricola (died 1630), a preacher
+at Freiberg.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dominatores Saxonici</i>, by the same author.</p>
+
+<p><i>Breviarum de Asse</i> by Guillaume Bude.</p>
+
+<p><i>De Inventione Dialectica</i> by Rudolph Agricola.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_594" id="Notes_594">[Pg 594]</a></span><a name="Footnote_1_387" id="Footnote_1_387"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_387"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> See <a href="#Footnote_4_45">footnote 4, page 1</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_388" id="Footnote_2_388"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_388"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> System of Mineralogy.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_599" id="Notes_599">[Pg 599]</a></span><a name="Footnote_3_389" id="Footnote_3_389"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_389"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The following are the titles of the works referred to in
+this discussion:&mdash;
+</p><p>
+Petrus Albinus: <i>Meissnische Land und Berg Chronica In welcher ein
+wollnstendige description des Landes</i>, etc., Dresden, 1590 (contains
+part I, <i>Commentatorium de Mysnia</i>). <i>Newe Chronica und Beschreibung des
+Landes zu Meissen</i>, pp. 1 to 449, besides preface and index, and Part
+II. <i>Meissnische Bergk Chronica</i>, Dresden, 1590, pp. 1 to 205, besides
+preface and index.
+</p><p>
+Adam Daniel Richter: <i>Umst�ndliche ... Chronica der ... Stadt Chemnitz
+nebst beygef�gten Urkunden</i>, 2 pts. 4to, Zittau &amp; Leipzig, 1767.
+</p><p>
+Ben. G. Weinart: <i>Versuch einer Litteratur d. S�chsischen Geschichte und
+Staats kunde</i>, Leipzig, 1885.
+</p><p>
+Friedrich August Schmid: <i>Georg Agrikola's Bermannus: Einleitung in die
+metallurgischen Schriften desselben</i>, Freyberg, Craz &amp; Gerlach. 1806,
+pp. <span class="smcaplower">VIII.</span>, 1-260.
+</p><p>
+Franz Ambros Reuss: <i>Mineralogische Geographie van B�hmen</i>. 2 vols. 4to,
+Dresden, 1793-97. (Agricola Vol. <span class="smcaplower">I</span>, p. 2).
+</p><p>
+Jacob Leupold: <i>Prodromus Bibliothecae Metallicae</i>, corrected,
+continued, and augmented by F. E. Br�ckmann. Wolfenb�ttel, 1732, s.v.
+Agricola.
+</p><p>
+Christian Gottlieb G�cher: <i>Allgemeines Gelehrten-Lexicon</i>, with
+continuation and supplements by Adelung, Leipzig, 1750, s.v. Agricola.
+</p><p>
+John Anton Van der Linden: <i>De Scriptis medicis, Libri duo</i>, Amsterdam,
+1662, s.v. Georgius Agricola.
+</p><p>
+Nicolas Fran�ois Joseph Eloy: <i>Dictionnaire Historique de la M�decine</i>,
+Li�ge &amp; Francfort (chez J. F. Bassompierre), 1755, 8vo (Agricola p. 28,
+vol. <span class="smcaplower">I</span>).
+</p><p>
+Georg Abraham Mercklinus: <i>Lindenius Renovatus de scriptis medicis
+continuati ... amplificati</i>, etc., Amsterdam, 1686, s.v. Georgius
+Agricola.
+</p><p>
+John Ferguson: <i>Bibliotheca Chemica</i>: A catalogue of the Alchemical,
+Chemical, and Pharmaceutical books in the collection of the late James
+Young of Kelly &amp; Durris, Esq., L.L.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Glasgow, 1906,
+4to, 2 vols., s.v. Agricola.
+</p><p>
+Christoph Wilhelm Gatterer: <i>Allgemeines Repertorium der
+mineralogischen, bergwerks und Salz werkswissenschaftlichen Literatur</i>,
+G�ttingen, 1798, vol. <span class="smcaplower">I</span>.
+</p><p>
+Dr. Reinhold Hofmann: <i>Dr. Georg Agricola, Ein Gelehrtenleben aus dem
+Zeitalter der Reformation</i>, 8vo, Gotha, 1905.
+</p><p>
+Georg Heinrich Jacobi: <i>Der Mineralog Georgius Agricola und sein
+Verh�ltnis zur wissenschaft seiner Zeit</i>, etc., 8vo. Zwickau (1889),
+(<i>Dissertation</i>&mdash;Leipzig).
+</p><p>
+Georg Draud: <i>Bibliotheca Classica</i>, Frankfurt-am-Main, 1611.
+</p><p>
+B. G. Struve: <i>Bibliotheca Saxonica</i>, 8vo, Halle, 1736.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_600" id="Notes_600">[Pg 600]</a></span><a name="Footnote_4_390" id="Footnote_4_390"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_390"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Albinus states (p. 354): <i>Omnes simul editi Anno. 1549,
+iterum 1550, Basileae</i>, as though two separate editions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_603" id="Notes_603">[Pg 603]</a></span><a name="Footnote_5_391" id="Footnote_5_391"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_391"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>G. Fabricii epistolae ad W. Meurerum et alios aequales</i>,
+by Baumgarten-Crusius, Leipzig, 1845, p. 83.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_392" id="Footnote_6_392"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_392"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> <i>Dr. Georg Agricola</i>, Gotha, 1905, pp. 60-61.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_604" id="Notes_604">[Pg 604]</a></span><a name="Footnote_7_393" id="Footnote_7_393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_393"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Albinus, <i>Landchronik</i>, pp. 354-5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_394" id="Footnote_8_394"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_394"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> <i>Dr. Georg Agricola</i>, p. 63.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_395" id="Footnote_9_395"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_395"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> <i>Baumgarten-Crusius</i>, p. 115.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_396" id="Footnote_10_396"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_396"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> <i>Virorum Clarorum Saec. <span class="smcaplower">XVI.</span> et <span class="smcaplower">XVII.</span></i> <i>Epistolae
+Selectae</i> by Ernst Weber, Leipzig, 1894, p. 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_397" id="Footnote_11_397"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_397"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Nicholas Episcopius to Georg Agricola, Sept. 17, 1548,
+published in Schmid's <i>Bermannus</i> p. 38. See also Hofmann, op. cit. pp.
+62 and 140.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_398" id="Footnote_12_398"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_398"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> <i>Meissnische Landchronik</i>, Dresden, 1589, p. 354.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_399" id="Footnote_13_399"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_399"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Printed in Baumgarten-Crusius, pp. 48-49, letter <span class="smcaplower">XLVIII</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_400" id="Footnote_14_400"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_400"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Printed in Hermann Peter's <i>Meissner Jahresbericht der
+F�rstenschule</i>, 1891, p. 24.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_401" id="Footnote_15_401"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_401"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Baumgarten-Crusius. <i>Georgii Fabricii Chemnicensis
+Epistolae</i>, Leipzig, 1845, p. 139.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_605" id="Notes_605">[Pg 605]</a></span><a name="Footnote_16_402" id="Footnote_16_402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_402"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> There is a copy of this work in the Rathsschul Library at
+Zwickau.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_403" id="Footnote_17_403"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_403"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> In the Rathsschul Library at Zwickau.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_404" id="Footnote_18_404"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_404"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Contained in Vols. <span class="smcaplower">XXXVII.</span> and <span class="smcaplower">XL.</span> of Stephan Roth's
+<i>Kollectanenb�nde</i> Volumes of Transcripts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_405" id="Footnote_19_405"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_405"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>Landchronik</i>, p. 354.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_406" id="Footnote_20_406"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_406"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Op. cit., p. 354.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_407" id="Footnote_21_407"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_407"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Book <span class="smcaplower">IV</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_408" id="Footnote_22_408"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_408"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Op. cit., p. 355.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_409" id="Footnote_23_409"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_409"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Page 291.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_410" id="Footnote_24_410"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_410"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> See Baumgarten-Crusius, p. 114, letter from Georg
+Fabricius.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_411" id="Footnote_25_411"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_411"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Op. cit., p. 354.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_412" id="Footnote_26_412"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_412"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Albinus, Op. cit., p. 355.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_606" id="Notes_606">[Pg 606]</a></span><a name="Footnote_27_413" id="Footnote_27_413"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_413"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Baumgarten-Crusius, p. 2.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_414" id="Footnote_28_414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_414"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> See Ferguson, <i>Bibliotheca Chemica</i>, s.v. Daniel
+Agricola.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_607" id="Page_607"></a>[Pg 607]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="APPENDIX_B" id="APPENDIX_B"></a>APPENDIX B.</h2>
+
+<h3>ANCIENT AUTHORS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>We give the following brief notes on early works containing some
+reference to mineralogy, mining, or metallurgy, to indicate the
+literature available to Agricola and for historical notes bearing upon
+the subject. References to these works in the footnotes may be most
+easily consulted through the personal index.</p>
+
+<p>GREEK AUTHORS.&mdash;Only a very limited Greek literature upon subjects
+allied to mining or natural science survives. The whole of the material
+of technical interest could be reproduced on less than twenty of these
+pages. Those of most importance are: Aristotle (384-322 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>),
+Theophrastus (371-288 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>), Diodorus Siculus (1st Century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>), Strabo
+(64 <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span>-25 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>), and Dioscorides (1st Century <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>).</p>
+
+<p>Aristotle, apart from occasional mineralogical or metallurgical
+references in <i>De Mirabilibus</i>, is mostly of interest as the author of
+the Peripatetic theory of the elements and the relation of these to the
+origin of stones and metals. Agricola was, to a considerable measure, a
+follower of this school, and their views colour much of his writings.
+We, however, discuss elsewhere<a name="FNanchor_1_415" id="FNanchor_1_415"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_415" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> at what point he departed from them.
+Especially in <i>De Ortu et Causis</i> does he quote largely from Aristotle's
+<i>Meteorologica</i>, <i>Physica</i>, and <i>De Coelo</i> on these subjects. There is a
+spurious work on stones attributed to Aristotle of some interest to
+mineralogists. It was probably the work of some Arab early in the Middle
+Ages.</p>
+
+<p>Theophrastus, the principal disciple of Aristotle, appears to have
+written at least two works relating to our subject&mdash;one "On Stones", and
+the other on metals, mining or metallurgy, but the latter is not extant.
+The work "On Stones" was first printed in Venice in 1498, and the Greek
+text, together with a fair English translation by Sir John Hill, was
+published in London in 1746 under the title "Theophrastus on Stones";
+the translation is, however, somewhat coloured with Hill's views on
+mineralogy. The work comprises 120 short paragraphs, and would, if
+reproduced, cover but about four of these pages. In the first paragraphs
+are the Peripatetic view of the origin of stones and minerals, and upon
+the foundation of Aristotle he makes some modifications. The principal
+interest in Theophrastus' work is the description of minerals; the
+information given is, however, such as might be possessed by any
+ordinary workman, and betrays no particular abilities for natural
+philosophy. He enumerates various exterior characteristics, such as
+colour, tenacity, hardness, smoothness, density, fusibility, lustre, and
+transparence, and their quality of reproduction, and then proceeds to
+describe various substances, but usually omits his enumerated
+characteristics. Apart from the then known metals and certain "earths"
+(ochre, marls, clay, etc.), it is possible to identify from his
+descriptions the following rocks and minerals:&mdash;marble, pumice, onyx,
+gypsum, pyrites, coal, bitumen, amber, azurite, chrysocolla, realgar,
+orpiment, cinnabar, quartz in various forms, lapis lazuli, emerald,
+sapphire, diamond, and ruby. Altogether there are some sixteen distinct
+mineral species. He also describes the touchstone and its uses, the
+making of white-lead and verdigris, and of quicksilver from cinnabar.</p>
+
+<p>Diodorus Siculus was a Greek native of Sicily. His "historical library"
+consisted of some 40 books, of which parts of 15 are extant. The first
+print was in Latin, 1472, and in Greek in 1539; the first translation
+into English was by Thomas Stocker, London, 1568, and later by G. Booth,
+1700. We have relied upon Booth's translation, but with some amendments
+by friends, to gain more literal statement. Diodorus, so far as relates
+to our subject, gives merely the occasional note of a traveller. The
+most interesting paragraphs are his quotation from Agatharchides on
+Egyptian mining and upon British tin.</p>
+
+<p>Strabo was also a geographer. His work consists of 17 books, and
+practically all survive. We have relied upon the most excellent
+translation of Hamilton and Falconer, London, 1903, the only one in
+English. Mines and minerals did not escape such an acute geographer, and
+the matters of greatest interest are those with relation to Spanish
+mines.</p>
+
+<p>Dioscorides was a Greek physician who wrote entirely from the standpoint
+of materia medica, most of his work being devoted to herbs; but Book V.
+is devoted to minerals and rocks, and their preparation for medicinal
+purposes. The work has never been translated into English, and we have
+relied upon the Latin translation of Matthioli, Venice, 1565, and notes
+upon the Greek text prepared for us by Mr. C. Katopodes. In addition to
+most of the substances known before, he, so far as can be identified,
+adds schist, <i>cadmia</i> (blende or calamine), <i>chalcitis</i> (copper
+sulphide), <i>misy</i>, <i>melanteria</i>, <i>sory</i> (copper or iron sulphide
+oxidation minerals). He describes the making of certain artificial
+products, such as copper oxides, vitriol, litharge, <i>pompholyx</i>, and
+<i>spodos</i> (zinc and/or arsenical oxides). His principal interest for us,
+however, lies in the processes set out for making his medicines.</p>
+
+<p>Occasional scraps of information relating to the metals or mines in some
+connection are to be found in many other Greek writers, and in
+quotations by them from others which are not now extant, such as
+Polybius, Posidonius, etc. The poets occasionally throw a gleam <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_608" id="Page_608"></a>[Pg 608]</span>of
+light on ancient metallurgy, as for instance in Homer's description of
+Vulcan's foundry; while the historians, philosophers, statesmen, and
+physicians, among them Herodotus, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Galen, and many
+others, have left some incidental references to the metals and mining,
+helpful to gleaners from a field, which has been almost exhausted by
+time. Even Archimedes made pumps, and Hero surveying instruments for
+mines.</p>
+
+<p>ROMAN AUTHORS.&mdash;Pre-eminent among all ancient writers on these subjects
+is, of course, Pliny, and in fact, except some few lines by Vitruvius,
+there is practically little else in extant Roman literature of technical
+interest, for the metallurgical metaphors of the poets and orators were
+threadbare by this time, and do not excite so much interest as upon
+their first appearance among the Greeks and Hebrews.</p>
+
+<p>Pliny (Caius Plinius Secundus) was born 23 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span>, and was killed by
+eruption of Vesuvius 79 <span class="smcaplower">A.D.</span> His Natural History should be more properly
+called an encyclop�dia, the whole comprising 37 books; but only portions
+of the last four books relate to our subject, and over one-half of the
+material there is upon precious stones. To give some rough idea of the
+small quantity of even this, the most voluminous of ancient works upon
+our subject, we have made an estimate that the portions of metallurgical
+character would cover, say, three pages of this text, on mining two
+pages, on building and precious stones about ten pages. Pliny and
+Dioscorides were contemporaries, and while Pliny nowhere refers to the
+Greek, internal evidence is most convincing, either that they drew from
+the same source, or that Pliny drew from Dioscorides. We have,
+therefore, throughout the text given precedence in time to the Greek
+author in matters of historical interest. The works of Pliny were first
+printed at Venice in 1469. They have passed dozens of editions in
+various languages, and have been twice translated into English. The
+first translation by Philemon Holland, London, 1601, is quite
+impossible. The second translation, by Bostock and Riley, London, 1855,
+was a great advance, and the notes are most valuable, but in general the
+work has suffered from a freedom justifiable in the translation of
+poetry, but not in science. We have relied upon the Latin edition of
+Janus, Leipzig, 1870. The frequent quotations in our footnotes are
+sufficient indication of the character of Pliny's work. In general it
+should be remembered that he was himself but a compiler of information
+from others, and, so far as our subjects are concerned, of no other
+experience than most travellers. When one considers the reliability of
+such authors to-day on technical subjects, respect for Pliny is much
+enhanced. Further, the text is no doubt much corrupted through the
+generations of transcription before it was set in type. So far as can be
+identified with any assurance, Pliny adds but few distinct minerals to
+those enumerated by Theophrastus and Dioscorides. For his metallurgical
+and mining information we refer to the footnotes, and in general it may
+be said that while those skilled in metallurgy can dimly see in his
+statements many metallurgical operations, there is little that does not
+require much deduction to arrive at a conclusion. On geology he offers
+no new philosophical deductions of consequence; the remote connection of
+building stones is practically all that can be enumerated, lest one
+build some assumption of a knowledge of ore-deposits on the use of the
+word "vein". One point of great interest to this work is that in his
+search for Latin terms for technical purposes Agricola relied almost
+wholly upon Pliny, and by some devotion to the latter we have been able
+to disentangle some very puzzling matters of nomenclature in <i>De Re
+Metallica</i>, of which the term <i>molybdaena</i> may be cited as a case in
+point.</p>
+
+<p>Vitruvius was a Roman architect of note of the 1st Century <span class="smcaplower">B.C.</span> His work
+of ten books contains some very minor references to pumps and machinery,
+building stones, and the preparation of pigments, the latter involving
+operations from which metallurgical deductions can occasionally be
+safely made. His works were apparently first printed in Rome in 1496.
+There are many editions in various languages, the first English
+translation being from the French in 1692. We have relied upon the
+translation of Joseph Gwilt, London, 1875, with such alterations as we
+have considered necessary.</p>
+
+<p>MEDI�VAL AUTHORS.&mdash;For convenience we group under this heading the
+writers of interest from Roman times to the awakening of learning in the
+early 16th Century. Apart from Theophilus, they are mostly alchemists;
+but, nevertheless, some are of great importance in the history of
+metallurgy and chemistry. Omitting a horde of lesser lights upon whom we
+have given some data under the author's preface, the works principally
+concerned are those ascribed to Avicenna, Theophilus, Geber, Albertus
+Magnus, Roger Bacon, and Basil Valentine. Judging from the <a href="#PREFACE">Preface</a> to
+<i>De Re Metallica</i>, and from quotations in his subsidiary works, Agricola
+must have been not only familiar with a wide range of alchemistic
+material, but also with a good deal of the Arabic literature, which had
+been translated into Latin. The Arabs were, of course, the only race
+which kept the light of science burning during the Dark Ages, and their
+works were in considerable vogue at Agricola's time.</p>
+
+<p>Avicenna (980-1037) was an Arabian physician of great note, a translator
+of the Greek classics into Arabic, and a follower of Aristotle to the
+extent of attempting to reconcile the Peripatetic elements with those of
+the alchemists. He is chiefly known to the world through the works which
+he compiled on medicine, mostly from the Greek and Latin authors. These
+works for centuries dominated the medical world, and were used in
+certain European Universities until the 17th century. A great many works
+are attributed to him, and he is copiously quoted by Agricola,
+principally in his <i>De Ortu et Causis</i>, apparently for the purpose of
+exposure.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_609" id="Page_609"></a>[Pg 609]</span></p><p>Theophilus was a Monk and the author of a most illuminating work,
+largely upon working metal and its decoration for ecclesiastical
+purposes. An excellent translation, with the Latin text, was published
+by Robert Hendrie, London, 1847, under the title "An Essay upon various
+Arts, in three books, by Theophilus, called also Rugerus, Priest and
+Monk." Hendrie, for many sufficient reasons, places the period of
+Theophilus as the latter half of the 11th century. The work is mainly
+devoted to preparing pigments, making glass, and working metals, and
+their conversion into ecclesiastical paraphernalia, such as mural
+decoration, pictures, windows, chalices, censers, bells, organs, etc.
+However, he incidentally describes the making of metallurgical furnaces,
+cupellation, parting gold and silver by cementation with salt, and by
+melting with sulphur, the smelting of copper, liquating lead from it,
+and the refining of copper under a blast with poling.</p>
+
+<p>Geber was until recent years considered to be an Arab alchemist of a
+period somewhere between the 7th and 12th centuries. A mere bibliography
+of the very considerable literature which exists in discussion of who,
+where, and at what time the author was, would fill pages. Those who are
+interested may obtain a start upon such references from Hermann Kopp's
+<i>Beitr�ge zur Geschichte der Chemie</i>, Braunschweig, 1875, and in John
+Ferguson's <i>Bibliotheca Chemica</i>, Glasgow, 1906. Berthelot, in his
+<i>Chimie au Moyen Age</i>, Paris, 1893, considers the works under the name
+of Geber were not in the main of Arabic origin, but composed by some
+Latin scholar in the 13th century. In any event, certain works were,
+under this name, printed in Latin as early as 1470-80, and have passed
+innumerable editions since. They were first translated into English by
+Richard Russell, London, 1678, and we have relied upon this and the
+Nuremberg edition in Latin of 1541. This work, even assuming Berthelot's
+view, is one of the most important in the history of chemistry and
+metallurgy, and is characterised by a directness of statement unique
+among alchemists. The making of the mineral acids&mdash;certainly nitric and
+<i>aqua regia</i>, and perhaps hydrochloric and sulphuric&mdash;are here first
+described. The author was familiar with saltpetre, sal-ammoniac, and
+alkali, and with the acids he prepared many salts for the first time. He
+was familiar with amalgamation, cupellation, the separation of gold and
+silver by cementation with salt and by nitric acid. His views on the
+primary composition of bodies dominated the alchemistic world for
+centuries. He contended that all metals were composed of "spiritual"
+sulphur (or arsenic, which he seems to consider a special form of
+sulphur) and quicksilver, varying proportions and qualities yielding
+different metals. The more the quicksilver, the more "perfect" the
+metal.</p>
+
+<p>Albertus Magnus (Albert von Bollstadt) was a Dominican Monk, afterwards
+Bishop, born about 1205, and died about 1280. He was rated the most
+learned man of his time, and evidence of his literary activities lies in
+the complete edition of his works issued by Pierre Jammy, Lyons, 1651,
+which comprises 21 folio volumes. However, there is little doubt that a
+great number of works attributed to him, especially upon alchemy, are
+spurious. He covered a wide range of theology, logic, alchemy, and
+natural science, and of the latter the following works which concern our
+subject are considered genuine:&mdash;<i>De Rebus Metallicis et Mineralibus</i>,
+<i>De Generatione et Corruptione</i>, and <i>De Meteoris</i>. They are little more
+than compilations and expositions of the classics muddled with the
+writings of the Arabs, and in general an attempt to conciliate the
+Peripatetic and Alchemistic schools. His position in the history of
+science has been greatly over-estimated. However, his mineralogy is,
+except for books on gems, the only writing of any consequence at all on
+the subject between Pliny and Agricola, and while there are but two or
+three minerals mentioned which are not to be found in the ancient
+authors, this work, nevertheless, deserves some place in the history of
+science, especially as some attempt at classification is made. Agricola
+devotes some thousands of words to the refutation of his "errors."</p>
+
+<p>Roger Bacon (1214-1294) was a Franciscan Friar, a lecturer at Oxford,
+and a man of considerable scientific attainments for his time. He was
+the author of a large number of mathematical, philosophical, and
+alchemistic treatises. The latter are of some importance in the history
+of chemistry, but have only minute bearing upon metallurgy, and this
+chiefly as being one of the earliest to mention saltpetre.</p>
+
+<p>Basil Valentine is the reputed author of a number of alchemistic works,
+of which none appeared in print until early in the 17th century.
+Internal evidence seems to indicate that the "Triumphant Chariot of
+Antimony" is the only one which may possibly be authentic, and could not
+have been written prior to the end of the 15th or early 16th century,
+although it has been variously placed as early as 1350. To this work has
+been accredited the first mention of sulphuric and hydrochloric acid,
+the separation of gold and silver by the use of antimony (sulphide), the
+reduction of the antimony sulphide to the metal, the extraction of
+copper by the precipitation of the sulphate with iron, and the discovery
+of various antimonial salts. At the time of the publication of works
+ascribed to Valentine practically all these things were well known, and
+had been previously described. We are, therefore, in much doubt as to
+whether this author really deserves any notice in the history of
+metallurgy.</p>
+
+<p>EARLY <span class="smcap">16th</span> CENTURY WORKS.&mdash;During the 16th century, and prior to <i>De Re
+Metallica</i>, there are only three works of importance from the point of
+view of mining technology&mdash;the <i>N�tzlich Bergb�chlin</i>, the
+<i>Probierb�chlein</i>, and Biringuccio's <i>De La Pirotechnia</i>. There are also
+some minor works by the alchemists of some interest for isolated
+statements, particularly those of Paracelsus. The three works mentioned,
+however, represent such a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_610" id="Page_610"></a>[Pg 610]</span>stride of advance over anything previous,
+that they merit careful consideration.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eyn N�tzlich Bergb�chlin.</i> Under this title we frequently refer to a
+little booklet on veins and ores, published at the beginning of the 16th
+century. The title page of our copy is as below:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig610.jpg" alt="Title page" /></div>
+
+<p>This book is small 8vo, comprises 24 folios without pagination, and has
+no typographical indications upon the title page, but the last line in
+the book reads: <i>Gedruckt zu Erffurd durch Johan Loersfelt, 1527</i>.
+Another edition in our possession, that of "Frankfurt am Meyn", 1533, by
+Christian Egenolph, is entitled <i>Bergwerk und Probierb�chlin</i>, etc., and
+contains, besides the above, an extract and plates from the
+<i>Probierb�chlein</i> (referred to later on), and a few recipes for assay
+tests. All of these booklets, of which we find mention, comprise
+instructions from Daniel, a skilled miner, to Knappius, "his mining
+boy". Although the little books of this title are all anonymous, we are
+convinced, largely from the statement in the <a href="#PREFACE">Preface</a> of <i>De Re
+Metallica</i>, that one Calbus of Freiberg was the original author of this
+work. Agricola says: "Two books have been written in our tongue: the one
+on the assaying of mineral substances and metals, somewhat confused,
+whose author is unknown; the other 'On Veins', of which Pandulfus Anglus
+is also said to have written, <i>although the German book was written by
+Calbus of Freiberg, a well-known doctor; but neither of them
+accomplished the task he had begun</i>." He again refers to Calbus at the
+end of Book III.<a name="FNanchor_2_416" id="FNanchor_2_416"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_416" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> of <i>De Re Metallica</i>, and gives an almost verbatim
+quotation from the <i>N�tzlich Bergb�chlin</i>. Jacobi<a name="FNanchor_3_417" id="FNanchor_3_417"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_417" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> says: "Calbus
+Fribergius, so called by Agricola himself, is certainly no other than
+the Freiberg doctor, R�hlein von C(K)albe." There are also certain
+internal evidences that support Agricola's statement, for the work was
+evidently written in Meissen, and the statement of Agricola that the
+book was unfinished is borne out by a short dialogue at the end of the
+earlier editions, designed to introduce further discussion. Calbus (or
+Dr. Ulrich R�hlein von Kalbe) was a very active citizen of Freiberg,
+having been a town councillor in 1509, burgomaster in 1514, a
+mathematician, mining surveyor, founder of a school of liberal arts, and
+in general a physician. He died in 1523.<a name="FNanchor_4_418" id="FNanchor_4_418"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_418" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> The book possesses great
+literary interest, as it is, so far as we are aware, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_611" id="Page_611"></a>[Pg 611]</span>undoubtedly the
+first work on mining geology, and in consequence we have spent some
+effort in endeavour to find the date of its first appearance. Through
+the courtesy of M. Polain, who has carefully examined for us the
+<i>N�tzlich Bergb�chlein</i> described in Marie Pellechet's <i>Catalogue
+G�n�ral des Incunables des Biblioth�ques Publiques de France</i>,<a name="FNanchor_5_419" id="FNanchor_5_419"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_419" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> we
+have ascertained that it is similar as regards text and woodcuts to the
+Erfurt edition, 1527. This copy in the Biblioth�que Nationale is without
+typographical indications, and M. Polain considers it very possible that
+it is the original edition printed at the end of the fifteenth or
+beginning of the sixteenth centuries. Mr. Bennett Brough,<a name="FNanchor_6_420" id="FNanchor_6_420"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_420" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> quoting
+Hans von Dechen,<a name="FNanchor_7_421" id="FNanchor_7_421"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_421" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> states that the first edition was printed at
+Augsburg in 1505, no copy of which seems to be extant. The Librarian at
+the School of Mines at Freiberg has kindly furnished us with the
+following notes as to the titles of the copies in that Institution:&mdash;(1)
+<i>Eyn Wolgeordent und N�tzlich Bergb�chlein</i>, etc., Worms, 1512<a name="FNanchor_8_422" id="FNanchor_8_422"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_422" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> and
+1518<a name="FNanchor_9_423" id="FNanchor_9_423"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_423" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> (the place and date are written in), (2) the same as ours
+(1527); (3) the same, Heinrich Steyner, Augsburg, 1534; (4) the same,
+1539. On comparing these various editions (to which may be added one
+probably published in N�rnberg by Friedrich Peypus in 1532<a name="FNanchor_10_424" id="FNanchor_10_424"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_424" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>) we find
+that they fall into two very distinct groups, characterised by their
+contents and by two entirely different sets of woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Group I.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Eyn N�tzlich Bergb�chlein</i> (in <i>Bibl. Nat.</i>, Paris)
+before 1500 (?).</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Ditto, Erfurt, 1527. </p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Group II.</span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>(<i>c</i>) <i>Wolgeordent N�tzlich Bergb�chlein</i>, Worms, Peter
+Sch�fern, 1512.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) <i>Wolgeordent N�tzlich Bergb�chlein</i>, Worms, Peter
+Sch�fern, 1518.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) <i>Bergb�chlin von Erkantnus der Berckwerck</i>, N�rnberg,
+undated, 1532 (?).</p>
+
+<p>(<i>f</i>) <i>Bergwerckbuch &amp; Probirbuch</i>, Christian Egenolph,
+Frankfurt-am-Meyn, 1533.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>g</i>) <i>Wolgeordent N�tzlich Bergb�chlein</i>, Augsburg, Heinrich
+Steyner, 1534.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>h</i>) <i>Wolgeordent N�tzlich Bergb�chlein</i>, Augsburg, Heinrich
+Steyner, 1539. </p></blockquote>
+
+<p>There are also others of later date toward the end of the sixteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>B�chlein</i> of Group I. terminate after the short dialogue between
+Daniel and Knappius with the words: <i>Mitt welchen das kleinspeissig ertz
+geschmeltzt soil werden</i>; whereas in those of Group II. these words are
+followed by a short explanation of the signs used in the woodcuts, and
+by directions for colouring the woodcuts, and in some cases by several
+pages containing definitions of some 92 mining terms. In the editions of
+Group I. the woodcut on the title page represents a miner hewing ore in
+a vein and two others working a windlass. In those of Group II. the
+woodcut on the title page represents one miner hewing on the surface,
+another to the right carting away ore in a handcart, and two others
+carrying between them a heavy timber. In our opinion Group I. represents
+the older and original work of Calbus; but as we have not seen the copy
+in the <i>Biblioth�que Nationale</i>, and the Augsburg edition of 1505 has
+only so far been traced to Veith's catalogue,<a name="FNanchor_11_425" id="FNanchor_11_425"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_425" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> the question of the
+first edition cannot be considered settled at present. In any event, it
+appears that the material grafted on in the second group was later, and
+by various authors.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest books comprise ten chapters, in which Daniel delivers about
+6,000 words of instruction. The first four chapters are devoted to the
+description of veins and the origin of the metals, of the remaining six
+chapters one each to silver, gold, tin, copper, iron, lead, and
+quicksilver. Among the mining terms are explained the meaning of country
+rock (<i>zechstein</i>), hanging and footwalls (<i>hangends</i> and <i>liegends</i>),
+the strike (<i>streichen</i>), dip (<i>fallen</i>), and outcrop (<i>ausgehen</i>). Of
+the latter two varieties are given, one of the "whole vein," the other
+of the <i>gesteins</i>, which may be the ore-shoot. Various veins are
+illustrated, and also for the first time a mining compass. The account
+of the origin of the metals is a muddle of the Peripatetics, the
+alchemists, and the astrologers, for which acknowledgment to Albertus
+Magnus is given. They are represented to originate from quicksilver and
+sulphur through heat, cold, dampness, and dryness, and are drawn out as
+exhalations through the veins, each metal owing its origin to the
+special influence of some planet; the Moon for silver, Saturn for lead,
+etc. Two types of veins are mentioned, "standing" (<i>stehendergang</i>) and
+flat (<i>flachgang</i>). Stringers are given the same characteristics as
+veins, but divided into hanging, footwall, and other varieties.
+Prominence is also given to the <i>geschick</i> (selvage seams or joints?).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_612" id="Page_612"></a>[Pg 612]</span>The importance of the bearing of the junctions of veins and stringers
+on enrichment is elaborated upon, and veins of east-west strike lying
+upon a south slope are considered the best. From the following notes it
+will be seen that two or three other types of deposits besides veins are
+referred to.</p>
+
+<p>In describing silver veins, of peculiar interest is the mention of the
+association of bismuth (<i>wismuth</i>), this being, we believe, the first
+mention of that metal, galena (<i>glantz</i>), quartz (<i>quertz</i>), spar
+(<i>spar</i>), hornstone (<i>hornstein</i>), ironstone and pyrites (<i>kies</i>), are
+mentioned as gangue materials, "according to the mingling of the various
+vapours." The term <i>glasertz</i> is used, but it is difficult to say if
+silver glance is meant; if so, it is the first mention of this mineral.
+So far as we know, this is the first use of any of the terms in print.
+Gold alluvial is described, part of the gold being assumed as generated
+in the gravel. The best alluvial is in streams running east and west.
+The association of gold with pyrites is mentioned, and the pyrites is
+found "in some places as a complete stratum carried through
+horizontally, and is called a <i>schwebender gang</i>." This sort of
+occurrence is not considered very good "because the work of the heavens
+can be but little completed on account of the unsuitability of the
+position." Gold pyrites that comes in veins is better. Tin is mentioned
+as found in alluvial, and also in veins, the latter being better or
+worse, according to the amount of pyrites, although the latter can be
+burned off. Tin-stone is found in masses, copper ore in schist and in
+veins sometimes with pyrites. The ore from veins is better than schist.
+Iron ore is found in masses, and sometimes in veins; the latter is the
+best. "The iron veins with good hanging- and foot-walls are not to be
+despised, especially if their strike be from east to west, their dip to
+the south, the foot-wall and outcrop to the north, then if the ironstone
+is followed down, the vein usually reveals gold or other valuable ore".
+Lead ore is found in <i>schwebenden gang</i> and <i>stehenden gang</i>.
+Quicksilver, like other ore, is sometimes found in brown earth, and
+sometimes, again, in caves where it has run out like water. The
+classification of veins is the same as in <i>De Re Metallica</i>.<a name="FNanchor_12_426" id="FNanchor_12_426"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_426" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> The
+book generally, however, seems to have raised Agricola's opposition, for
+the quotations are given in order to be demolished.</p>
+
+<p><i>Probierb�chlein.</i> Agricola refers in the <a href="#PREFACE">Preface</a> of <i>De Re Metallica</i>
+to a work in German on assaying and refining metals, and it is our
+belief that it was to some one of the little assay books published early
+in the 16th century. There are several of them, seemingly revised
+editions of each other; in the early ones no author's name appears,
+although among the later editions various names appear on the title
+page. An examination of these little books discloses the fact that their
+main contents are identical, for they are really collections of recipes
+after the order of cookery books, and intended rather to refresh the
+memory of those <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_613" id="Page_613"></a>[Pg 613]</span>already skilled than to instruct the novice. The books
+appear to have grown by accretions from many sources, for a large number
+of methods are given over and over again in the same book with slight
+variations. We reproduce the title page of our earliest copy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig612.jpg" alt="Title page" /></div>
+
+<p>The following is a list of these booklets so far as we have been able to
+discover actual copies:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="center"><i>Date.</i></td><td align="center"><i>Place.</i></td><td align="center"><i>Publisher.</i></td><td align="center"><i>Title (Short).</i></td><td align="left"><i>Author.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Unknown</td><td align="left">Unknown</td><td align="left">Unknown</td><td align="left"><i>Probierb�chlein</i></td><td align="left">Anon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="5" style="padding-top:0;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(Undated; but catalogue of British Museum suggests Augsburg, 1510.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1524</td><td align="left">Magdeburg</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Probirb�chleyn tzu Gotteslob</i></td><td align="left">Anon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1531</td><td align="left">Augsburg</td><td align="left">Unknown</td><td align="left"><i>Probierbuch aller Sachsischer Ertze</i></td><td align="left">Anon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1533</td><td align="left">Frankfurt a. Meyn</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Bergwerck und Probierb�chlein</i></td><td align="left">Anon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1534</td><td align="left">Augsburg</td><td align="left">Heinrich Steyner, 8vo.</td><td align="left"><i>Probirb�chlein</i></td><td align="left">Anon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1546</td><td align="left">Augsburg</td><td align="left">Ditto, ditto</td><td align="left"><i>Probirb�chlein</i></td><td align="left">Anon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1549</td><td align="left">Augsburg</td><td align="left">Ditto, ditto</td><td align="left"><i>Probirb�chlein</i></td><td align="left">Anon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1564</td><td align="left">Augsburg</td><td align="left">Math. Francke, 4to</td><td align="left"><i>Probirb�chlein</i></td><td align="left">Zach. Lochner</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1573</td><td align="left">Augsburg</td><td align="left">8vo.</td><td align="left"><i>Probirbuch</i></td><td align="left">Sam. Zimmermann</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1574</td><td align="left">Franckfurt a. Meyn</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Probierb�chlein</i></td><td align="left">Anon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1578</td><td align="left">Ditto</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Probierb�chlein Fremde und subtile Kunst</i></td><td align="left">Cyriacus Schreittmann</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1580</td><td align="left">Ditto</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Probierb�chlein</i></td><td align="left">Anon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1595</td><td align="left">Ditto</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Probierb�chlein darinn gr�ndlicher Bericht</i></td><td align="left">Modestin Fachs</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1607</td><td align="left">Dresden</td><td align="left">4to</td><td align="left"><i>Metallische Probier Kunst</i> <i>Bericht vom Ursprung und Erkenntniss der Metallischen erze</i></td><td align="left">C. C. Schindler</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1669</td><td align="left">Amsterdam</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Probierb�chlein darinn gr�ndlicher Bericht</i></td><td align="left">Modestin Fachs</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1678</td><td align="left">Leipzig</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Probierb�chlein darinn gr�ndlicher Bericht</i></td><td align="left">Modestin Fachs</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1689</td><td align="left">Leipzig</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Probierb�chlein darinn gr�ndlicher Bericht</i></td><td align="left">Modestin Fachs</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1695</td><td align="left">N�rnberg</td><td align="left">12mo.</td><td align="left"><i>Deutliche Vorstellung der Probier Kunst</i></td><td align="left">Anon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1744</td><td align="left">L�beck</td><td align="left">8vo.</td><td align="left"><i>Neu-er�ffnete Probier Buch</i></td><td align="left">Anon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1755</td><td align="left">Frankfurt and Leipzig</td><td align="left">8vo.</td><td align="left"><i>Scheid-K�nstler ... alle Ertz und Metalle ... probiren</i></td><td align="left">Anon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">1782</td><td align="left">Rotenburg an der Fulde</td><td align="left">8vo.</td><td align="left"><i>Probierbuch aus Erfahrung aufgesetzt</i></td><td align="left">K. A. Scheidt</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>As mentioned under the <i>N�tzlich Bergb�chlein</i>, our copy of that work,
+printed in 1533, contains only a portion of the <i>Probierb�chlein</i>.
+Ferguson<a name="FNanchor_13_427" id="FNanchor_13_427"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_427" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> mentions an edition of 1608, and the Freiberg School of
+Mines Catalogue gives also Frankfort, 1608, and N�rnberg, 1706. The
+British Museum copy of earliest date, like the title page reproduced,
+contains no date. The title page woodcut, however, in the Museum copy is
+referred from that above, possibly indicating an earlier date of the
+Museum copy.</p>
+
+<p>The booklets enumerated above vary a great deal in contents, the
+successive prints representing a sort of growth by accretion. The first
+portion of our earliest edition is devoted to weights, in which the
+system of "lesser weights" (the principle of the "assay ton") is
+explained. Following this are exhaustive lists of touch-needles of
+various composition. Directions are given with regard to assay furnaces,
+cupels, muffles, scorifiers, and crucibles, granulated and leaf metals,
+for washing, roasting, and the preparation of assay charges. Various
+reagents, including glass-gall, litharge, salt, iron filings, lead,
+"alkali", talc, argol, saltpetre, sal-ammoniac, alum, vitriol, lime,
+sulphur, antimony, <i>aqua fortis</i>, or <i>scheidwasser</i>, etc., are made use
+of. Various assays are described and directions given for crucible,
+scorification, and cupellation tests. The latter part of the book is
+devoted to the refining and parting of precious metals. Instructions are
+given for the separation of silver from iron, from lead, and from
+antimony; of gold from silver with antimony (sulphide) and sulphur, or
+with sulphur alone, with "<i>scheidwasser</i>," and by cementation with salt;
+of gold from copper with sulphur and with lead. The amalgamation of gold
+and silver is mentioned.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_614" id="Page_614"></a>[Pg 614]</span></p><p>The book is diffuse and confused, and without arrangement or system,
+yet a little consideration enables one of experience to understand most
+statements. There are over 120 recipes, with, as said before, much
+repetition; for instance, the parting of gold and silver by use of
+sulphur is given eight times in different places. The final line of the
+book is: "Take this in good part, dear reader, after it, please God,
+there will be a better." In truth, however, there are books on assaying
+four centuries younger that are worse. This is, without doubt, the first
+written word on assaying, and it displays that art already full grown,
+so far as concerns gold and silver, and to some extent copper and lead;
+for if we eliminate the words dependent on the atomic theory from modern
+works on dry assaying, there has been but very minor progress. The art
+could not, however, have reached this advanced stage but by slow
+accretion, and no doubt this collection of recipes had been handed from
+father to son long before the 16th century. It is of wider interest that
+these booklets represent the first milestone on the road to quantitative
+analysis, and in this light they have been largely ignored by the
+historians of chemistry. Internal evidence in <a href="#BOOK_VII">Book VII.</a> of <i>De Re
+Metallica</i>, together with the reference in the <a href="#PREFACE">Preface</a>, leave little
+doubt that Agricola was familiar with these booklets. His work, however,
+is arranged more systematically, each operation stated more clearly,
+with more detail and fresh items; and further, he gives methods of
+determining copper and lead which are but minutely touched upon in the
+<i>Probierb�chlein</i>, while the directions as to tin, bismuth, quicksilver,
+and iron are entirely new.</p>
+
+<p>Biringuccio (Vanuccio). We practically know nothing about this author.
+From the preface to the first edition of his work it appears he was
+styled a mathematician, but in the text<a name="FNanchor_14_428" id="FNanchor_14_428"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_428" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> he certainly states that he
+was most of his time engaged in metallurgical operations, and that in
+pursuit of such knowledge he had visited Germany. The work was in
+Italian, published at Venice in 1540, the title page of the first
+edition as below:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig614.jpg" alt="Title page" /></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_615" id="Page_615"></a>[Pg 615]</span></p><p>It comprises ten chapters in 168 folios demi-octavo. Other Italian
+editions of which we find some record are the second at Venice, 1552;
+third, Venice, 1558; fourth, Venice, 1559; fifth, Bologna, 1678. A
+French translation, by Jacques Vincent, was published in Paris, 1556,
+and this translation was again published at Rouen in 1627. Of the ten
+chapters the last six are almost wholly devoted to metal working and
+founding, and it is more largely for this description of the methods of
+making artillery, munitions of war and bells that the book is
+celebrated. In any event, with the exception of a quotation which we
+give on page <a href="#Notes_297">297</a> on silver amalgamation, there is little of interest on
+our subject in the latter chapters. The first four chapters are
+undoubtedly of importance in the history of metallurgical literature,
+and represent the first work on smelting. The descriptions are, however,
+very diffuse, difficult to follow, and lack arrangement and detail. But
+like the <i>Probierb�chlein</i>, the fact that it was written prior to <i>De Re
+Metallica</i> demands attention for it which it would not otherwise
+receive. The ores of gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, and iron are
+described, but much interrupted with denunciations of the alchemists.
+There is little of geological or mineralogical interest, he too holding
+to a muddle of the classic elements astrology and alchemy. He has
+nothing of consequence to say on mining, and dismisses concentration
+with a few words. Upon assaying his work is not so useful as the
+<i>Probierb�chlein</i>. On ore smelting he describes the reduction of iron
+and lead ores and cupriferous silver or gold ores with lead. He gives
+the barest description of a blast furnace, but adds an interesting
+account of a <i>reverbero</i> furnace. He describes liquation as consisting
+of one operation; the subsequent treatment of the copper by refining
+with an oxidizing blast, but does not mention poling; the cupellation of
+argentiferous lead and the reduction of the litharge; the manufacture of
+nitric acid and that method of parting gold and silver. He also gives
+the method of parting with antimony and sulphur, and by cementation with
+common salt. Among the side issues, he describes the method of making
+brass with calamine; of making steel; of distilling quicksilver; of
+melting out sulphur; of making vitriol and alum. He states that
+<i>arsenico</i> and <i>orpimento</i> and <i>etrisagallio</i> (realgar) are the same
+substance, and are used to colour copper white.</p>
+
+<p>In general, Biringuccio should be accredited with the first description
+(as far as we are aware) of silver amalgamation, of a reverberatory
+furnace, and of liquation, although the description is not complete.
+Also he is, so far as we are aware, the first to mention cobalt blue
+(<i>Zaffre</i>) and manganese, although he classed them as "half" metals. His
+descriptions are far inferior to Agricola's; they do not compass
+anything like the same range of metallurgy, and betray the lack of a
+logical mind.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other works.</i> There are several works devoted to mineralogy, dating
+from the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, which were, no doubt,
+available to Agricola in the compilation of his <i>De Natura Fossilium</i>.
+They are, however, practically all compiled from the jeweller's point of
+view rather than from that of the miner. Among them we may mention the
+poem on precious stones by Marbodaeus, an author who lived from 1035 to
+1123, but which was first printed at Vienna in 1511; <i>Speculum Lapidum</i>,
+a work on precious stones, by Camilli Leonardi, first printed in Venice
+in 1502. A work of wider interest to mineralogists is that by Christoph
+Entzelt (or Enzelius, Encelio, Encelius, as it is variously given),
+entitled <i>De Re Metallica</i>, and first printed in 1551. The work is five
+years later than <i>De Natura Fossilium</i>, but contains much new material
+and was available to Agricola prior to his revised editions.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_607" id="Notes_607">[Pg 607]</a></span><a name="Footnote_1_415" id="Footnote_1_415"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_415"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> See pages <a href="#Notes_44">44</a> and <a href="#Notes_46">46</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_610" id="Notes_610">[Pg 610]</a></span><a name="Footnote_2_416" id="Footnote_2_416"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_416"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Page <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_417" id="Footnote_3_417"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_417"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Der Mineralog Georgius Agricola</i>, Zwickau, 1889, p. 46.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_418" id="Footnote_4_418"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_418"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Andreas M�ller, <i>Theatrum Freibergense Chronicum</i>, etc.,
+Freiberg, 1653.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_611" id="Notes_611">[Pg 611]</a></span><a name="Footnote_5_419" id="Footnote_5_419"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_419"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Paris, 1897, Vol. <span class="smcaplower">I</span>. p. 501.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_420" id="Footnote_6_420"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_420"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Cantor Lectures, London, April 1892.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_421" id="Footnote_7_421"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_421"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Hans von Dechen, <i>Das �lteste deutsche Bergwerksbuch</i>,
+reprint from <i>Zts. f�r Bergrecht Bd. <span class="smcaplower">XXVI.</span></i>, Bonn, 1885.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_422" id="Footnote_8_422"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_422"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Panzer's <i>Annalen</i>, N�rnberg, 1782, p. 422, gives an
+edition Worms <i>bei</i> Peter Sch�fern, 1512.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_423" id="Footnote_9_423"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_423"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> The Royal Library at Dresden and the State Library at
+Munich have each a copy, dated 1518, Worms.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_424" id="Footnote_10_424"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_424"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Hans von Decken <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 48-49.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_425" id="Footnote_11_425"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_425"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> <i>Annales typographiae augustanae ab ejus origine,
+<span class="smcaplower">MCCCLXVI.</span> usque ad. an. <span class="smcaplower">M.D.XXX.</span> Accedit dom Franc. Ant. Veith. Diatribe
+de origine ... artis typographicae in urbe augusta vindelica edidit....</i>
+Georgius G. Zapf., Augsburg, 1778, <span class="smcaplower">X.</span> p. 23.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_612" id="Notes_612">[Pg 612]</a></span><a name="Footnote_12_426" id="Footnote_12_426"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_426"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> See p. <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_613" id="Notes_613">[Pg 613]</a></span><a name="Footnote_13_427" id="Footnote_13_427"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_427"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> <i>Bibliotheca Chemica</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><span class="notenum"><a name="Notes_614" id="Notes_614">[Pg 614]</a></span><a name="Footnote_14_428" id="Footnote_14_428"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_428"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Book I., Chap. 2.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_616" id="Page_616"></a>[Pg 616]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="APPENDIX_C" id="APPENDIX_C"></a>APPENDIX C.</h2>
+
+<h3>WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.</h3>
+
+
+<p>As stated in the <a href="#TRANSLATORS_PREFACE">preface</a>, the nomenclature to be adopted for weights and
+measures has presented great difficulty. Agricola uses, throughout, the
+Roman and the Romanized Greek scales, but in many cases he uses these
+terms merely as lingual equivalents for the German quantities of his
+day. Moreover the classic language sometimes failed him, whereupon he
+coined new Latin terms adapted from the Roman scale, and thus added
+further confusion. We can, perhaps, make the matter clearer by an
+illustration of a case in weights. The Roman <i>centumpondium</i>, composed
+of 100 <i>librae</i>, the old German <i>centner</i> of 100 <i>pfundt</i>, and the
+English hundredweight of 112 pounds can be called lingual equivalents.
+The first weighs about 494,600 Troy grains, the second 721,900, and the
+third 784,000. While the divisions of the <i>centumpondium</i> and the
+<i>centner</i> are the same, the <i>libra</i> is divided into 12 <i>unciae</i> and the
+<i>pfundt</i> into 16 <i>untzen</i>, and in most places a summation of the units
+given proves that the author had in mind the Roman ratios. However, on
+p. <a href="#Page_509">509</a> he makes the direct statement that the <i>centumpondium</i> weighs 146
+<i>librae</i>, which would be about the correct weight if the <i>centumpondium</i>
+referred to was a <i>centner</i>. If we take an example such as "each
+<i>centumpondium</i> of lead contains one <i>uncia</i> of silver", and reduce it
+according to purely lingual equivalents, we should find that it runs
+24.3 Troy ounces per short ton, on the basis of Roman values, and 18.25
+ounces per short ton, on the basis of old German. If we were to
+translate these into English lingual equivalents of one ounce per
+hundredweight, then the value would be 17.9 ounces per short ton.</p>
+
+<p>Several possibilities were open in translation: first, to calculate the
+values accurately in the English units; second, to adopt the nearest
+English lingual equivalent; third, to introduce the German scale of the
+period; or, fourth, to leave the original Latin in the text. The first
+would lead to an indefinite number of decimals and to constant doubt as
+to whether the values, upon which calculations were to be based, were
+Roman or German. The second, that is the substitution of lingual
+equivalents, is objectionable, not only because it would indicate values
+not meant by the author, but also because we should have, like Agricola,
+to coin new terms to accommodate the lapses in the scales, or again to
+use decimals. In the third case, that is in the use of the old German
+scale, while it would be easier to adapt than the English, it would be
+more unfamiliar to most readers than the Latin, and not so expressive in
+print, and further, in some cases would present the same difficulties of
+calculation as in using the English scale. Nor does the contemporary
+German translation of <i>De Re Metallica</i> prove of help, for its
+translator adopted only lingual equivalents, and in consequence the
+summation of his weights often gives incorrect results. From all these
+possibilities we have chosen the fourth, that is simply to reproduce the
+Latin terms for both weights and measures. We have introduced into the
+footnotes such reductions to the English scale as we considered would
+interest readers. We have, however, digressed from the rule in two
+cases, in the adoption of "foot" for the Latin <i>pes</i>, and "fathom" for
+<i>passus</i>. Apart from the fact that these were not cases where accuracy
+is involved, Agricola himself explains (p. <a href="#Page_77">77</a>) that he means the German
+values for these particular terms, which, fortunately, fairly closely
+approximate to the English. Further, we have adopted the Anglicized
+words "digit", "palm", and "cubit", instead of their Latin forms.</p>
+
+<p>For purposes of reference, we reproduce the principal Roman and old
+German scales, in so far as they are used by Agricola in this work, with
+their values in English. All students of weights and measures will
+realize that these values are but approximate, and that this is not an
+occasion to enter upon a discussion of the variations in different
+periods or by different authorities. Agricola himself is the author of
+one of the standard works on Ancient Weights and Measures (see <a href="#APPENDIX_A">Appendix
+A</a>), and further gives fairly complete information on contemporary scales
+of weight and fineness for precious metals in Book VII. p. <a href="#Page_262">262</a> etc., to
+which we refer readers.</p>
+
+<p class="center">ROMAN SCALES OF WEIGHTS.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">Troy Grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Siliqua</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">2.87</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6</td><td align="left"><i>Siliquae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>Scripulum</i></td><td align="right">17.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td align="left"><i>Scripula</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>Sextula</i></td><td align="right">68.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6</td><td align="left"><i>Sextulae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>Uncia</i></td><td align="right">412.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">12</td><td align="left"><i>Unciae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>Libra</i></td><td align="right">4946.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">100</td><td align="left"><i>Librae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>Centumpondium</i></td><td align="right">494640.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Also</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Scripulum</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">17.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3</td><td align="left"><i>Scripula</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>Drachma</i></td><td align="right">51.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2</td><td align="left"><i>Drachmae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>Sicilicus</i></td><td align="right">103.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td align="left"><i>Sicilici</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>Uncia</i></td><td align="right">412.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8</td><td align="left"><i>Unciae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">1</td><td align="left"><i>Bes</i></td><td align="right">3297.6</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_617" id="Page_617"></a>[Pg 617]</span></p>
+<p class="center">SCALE OF FINENESS<br />
+(AGRICOLA'S ADAPTATION).</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td align="left"><i>Siliquae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left">Unit of <i>Siliquae</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3</td><td align="left"><i>Units of Siliquae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Semi-sextula</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td align="left"><i>Semi-sextulae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Duella</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">24</td><td align="left"><i>Duellae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Bes</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">OLD GERMAN SCALE OF WEIGHTS.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">Troy Grains.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Pfennig</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">14.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td align="left"><i>Pfennige</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Quintlein</i></td><td align="right">56.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td align="left"><i>Quintlein</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Loth</i></td><td align="right">225.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2</td><td align="left"><i>Loth</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Untzen</i></td><td align="right">451.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8</td><td align="left"><i>Untzen</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Mark</i></td><td align="right">3609.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2</td><td align="left"><i>Mark</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Pfundt</i></td><td align="right">7219.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">100</td><td align="left"><i>Pfundt</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Centner</i></td><td align="right">721920.0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">SCALE OF FINENESS.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="right">3</td><td align="left"><i>Grenlin</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Gran</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td align="left"><i>Gran</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Krat</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">24</td><td align="left"><i>Krat</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Mark</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">ROMAN LONG MEASURE.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">Inches.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Digitus</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">.726</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td align="left"><i>Digiti</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Palmus</i></td><td align="right">2.90</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td align="left"><i>Palmi</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Pes</i></td><td align="right">11.61</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="left"><i>Pedes</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Cubitus</i></td><td align="right">17.41</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">5</td><td align="left"><i>Pedes</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Passus</i></td><td align="right">58.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Also</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td align="left">Roman <i>Uncia</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">.97</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">12</td><td align="left"><i>Unciae</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Pes</td><td align="right">11.61</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">GREEK LONG MEASURE.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">Inches.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Dactylos</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">.758</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td align="left"><i>Dactyloi</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Palaiste</i></td><td align="right">3.03</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td align="left"><i>Palaistai</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Pous</i></td><td align="right">12.135</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1<span class="frac"><sup>1</sup>/<sub>2</sub></span></td><td align="left"><i>Pous</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Pechus</i></td><td align="right">18.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6</td><td align="left"><i>Pous</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Orguia</i></td><td align="right">72.81</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">OLD GERMAN LONG MEASURE.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">Inches.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Querfinger</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">.703</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">16</td><td align="left"><i>Querfinger</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Werckschuh</i></td><td align="right">11.247</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2</td><td align="left"><i>Werckschuh</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Elle</i></td><td align="right">22.494</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3</td><td align="left"><i>Elle</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Lachter</i></td><td align="right">67.518</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Also</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Zoll</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">.85</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">12</td><td align="left"><i>Zoll</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Werkschuh</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">ROMAN LIQUID MEASURE.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">Cubic inches.</td><td align="right">Pints.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Quartarius</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">8.6</td><td align="right">.247</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4</td><td align="left"><i>Quartarii</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Sextarius</i></td><td align="right">31.4</td><td align="right">.991</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6</td><td align="left"><i>Sextarii</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Congius</i></td><td align="right">206.4</td><td align="right">5.947</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">16</td><td align="left"><i>Sextarii</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Modius</i></td><td align="right">550.4</td><td align="right">15.867</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8</td><td align="left"><i>Congii</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left"><i>Amphora</i></td><td align="right">1650.0</td><td align="right">47.577</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">(Agricola nowhere uses the Saxon liquid measures, nor do they
+fall into units comparable with the Roman).</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_619" id="Page_619"></a>[Pg 619]</span></p>
+<h2><a name="GENERAL_INDEX" id="GENERAL_INDEX"></a>GENERAL INDEX.</h2>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;The numbers in heavy type refer to the Text; those in plain type
+to the Footnotes, Appendices, etc.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Abandonment of Mines</span>, <b><a href="#Page_217">217</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Abertham.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mines at, <b><a href="#Page_74">74</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_92">92</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_74">74</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_1" id="I1_1"></a><span class="smcap">Abolite</span>, <a href="#Notes_113">113</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Abstrich</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>; <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Abydos.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Gold mines of, <b><a href="#Page_26">26</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+</li><li>Lead figure from, <a href="#Notes_390">390</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Abzug</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_464">464</a>; <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>; <a href="#Notes_475">475</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Achates</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_2">Agate</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Accidents To Miners</span>, <b><a href="#Page_214">214</a>-<a href="#Page_218">218</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Accounts</span> (Mining), <b><a href="#Page_96">96</a>-<a href="#Page_98">98</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Adit</span>, <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Aeris flos</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_34">Copper Flowers</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Aeris squama</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_39">Copper Scales</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Aes caldarium</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Aes luteum</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Aes nigrum</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Aes purum fossile</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_109">Native Copper</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Aes rude plumbei coloris</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_35">Copper Glance</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Aes ustum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_135">Roasted Copper</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Aetites</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Africa.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Iron, <a href="#Notes_420">420</a>
+</li><li>Tin, <a href="#Notes_412">412</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_2" id="I1_2"></a><span class="smcap">Agate</span>, <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Agriculture.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mining compared with, <b><a href="#Page_5">5</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Ailments of Miners</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_85">Maladies of Miners</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Air Currents in Mines</span>, <b><a href="#Page_121">121</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_200">200</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_3" id="I1_3"></a><span class="smcap">Alabaster</span>, <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Alchemists</span>, <a href="#Notes_xxvii">XXVII</a>-<a href="#Notes_xxx">XXX</a>; <a href="#Notes_44">44</a>; <a href="#Page_608">608</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Agricola's opinion of, <a href="#Page_xii">XII</a>; <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a>.</b>
+</li><li>Amalgamation, <a href="#Notes_297">297</a>
+</li><li>Assaying, <b><a href="#Page_248">248</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_219">219</a>
+</li><li>Discovery of acids, <a href="#Notes_439">439</a>; <a href="#Notes_460">460</a>
+</li><li>Distillation, <a href="#Notes_441">441</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Aljustrel Tablet</span>, <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>-<a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Alkali</span>, <a href="#Notes_558">558</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Alloys, Assaying of</span>, <b><a href="#Page_247">247</a>-<a href="#Page_252">252</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Alluvial Mining</span>, <b><a href="#Page_321">321</a>-<a href="#Page_348">348</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_330">330</a>-<a href="#Notes_332">332</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Alston Moor</span>, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Altenberg</span>, <b><a href="#Page_xxxi">XXXI</a></b>; <a href="#Page_vi">VI</a>.
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Collapse of mine, <b><a href="#Page_216">216</a></b>
+</li><li>Miners poisoned, <b><a href="#Page_214">214</a></b>
+</li><li>Tin working appliances, <b><a href="#Page_290">290</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_304">304</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_318">318</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Alum</span>, <b><a href="#Page_564">564</a>-<a href="#Page_568">568</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_564">564</a>-<a href="#Notes_570">570</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>A solidified juice, <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>
+</li><li>Elizabethan Charter, <a href="#Notes_283">283</a>
+</li><li>In roasted pyrites, <b><a href="#Page_350">350</a></b>
+</li><li>In <i>Sal artificiosus</i>, <b><a href="#Page_463">463</a></b>
+</li><li>Latin and German terms, <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+</li><li>Papal monopoly, <a href="#Notes_570">570</a>
+</li><li>Use in making nitric acid, <b><a href="#Page_439">439</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_460">460</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Amalgam.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Parting the gold from, <b><a href="#Page_298">298</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_297">297</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Amalgamation</span>, <a href="#Notes_297">297</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Of gilt objects, <b><a href="#Page_461">461</a></b>
+</li><li>Mills, <b><a href="#Page_295">295</a>-<a href="#Page_299">299</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Amber</span>, <b><a href="#Page_34">34</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_35">35</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Amethyst</span>, <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Amiantus</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_10">Asbestos</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ampulla</span>, <b><a href="#Page_445">445</a>-<a href="#Page_447">447</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Annaberg</span>, <a href="#Page_vi">VI</a>; <b><a href="#Page_xxxi">XXXI</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_42">42</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_75">75</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_75">75</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Profits, <b><a href="#Page_92">92</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Ant, venomous</span>, <b><a href="#Page_216">216</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_4" id="I1_4"></a><span class="smcap">Antimony</span>, <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>; <a href="#Notes_428">428</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Minerals, <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>
+</li><li>Smelting of, <b><a href="#Page_400">400</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_428">428</a></b>
+</li><li>Use as type-metal, <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>; <a href="#Notes_429">429</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_5" id="I1_5"></a><span class="smcap">Antimony Sulphide</span>, <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>; <a href="#Notes_428">428</a>; <a href="#Notes_451">451</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Parting gold and silver with, <b><a href="#Page_451">451</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_451">451</a>; <a href="#Notes_461">461</a>
+</li><li>Parting gold from copper, <b><a href="#Page_463">463</a></b>
+</li><li>Parting silver and iron, <b><a href="#Page_544">544</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Antwerp, Scale of Weights</span>, <b><a href="#Page_263">263</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Apex Law</span>, <a href="#Notes_81">81</a>; <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>-<a href="#Notes_86">86</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Aqua regia</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_439">439</a>; <a href="#Notes_441">441</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_6" id="I1_6"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Aqua valens</i></span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_112">Nitric Acid</a>), <b><a href="#Page_439">439</a>-<a href="#Page_443">443</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_439">439</a>; <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Clarification with silver, <b><a href="#Page_443">443</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_443">443</a>
+</li><li>Cleansing gold-dust with, <b><a href="#Page_396">396</a></b>
+</li><li>Parting precious metals with, <b><a href="#Page_443">443</a>-<a href="#Page_447">447</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Arbores dissectae</i></span> (Lagging), <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_7" id="I1_7"></a><span class="smcap">Archimedes, Screw of</span>, <a href="#Notes_149">149</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Architecture.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Knowledge necessary for miners, <b><a href="#Page_4">4</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Area fodinarum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_92">Meer</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Argentiferous Copper Ores, Smelting of</span>, <b><a href="#Page_404">404</a>-<a href="#Page_407">407</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Argentite</span>, <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Argentum purum in venis</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_111">Native Silver</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Argentum rude plumbei coloris</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_146">Silver Glance</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Argentum rude rubrum translucidum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_136">Ruby Silver</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_8" id="I1_8"></a><span class="smcap">Argol</span>, <a href="#Notes_234">234</a>; <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>As a flux, <b><a href="#Page_234">234</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_238">238</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_243">243</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in melting silver nitrate, <b><a href="#Page_447">447</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in smelting gold dust, <b><a href="#Page_396">396</a>-<a href="#Page_398">398</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Argonauts</span>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Arithmetical Science.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Knowledge necessary for miners, <b><a href="#Page_4">4</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Armenia, Stone of</span>, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_9" id="I1_9"></a><span class="smcap">Arsenic</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_117">Orpiment</a> <i>and</i> <a href="#I1_131">Realgar</a>), <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>; <a href="#Notes_214">214</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Arsenicum</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Arsenopyrite</span>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_10" id="I1_10"></a><span class="smcap">Asbestos</span>, <b><a href="#Page_440">440</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_440">440</a>; <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_11" id="I1_11"></a><span class="smcap">Ash-coloured Copper</span>, <b><a href="#Page_539">539</a>-<a href="#Page_540">540</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_540">540</a>; <a href="#Notes_523">523</a>-<a href="#Notes_524">524</a>; <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>From liquation, <b><a href="#Page_529">529</a>-<a href="#Page_530">530</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Ashes which Wool Dyers use</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_125">Potash</a>), <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>; <a href="#Notes_559">559</a>; <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Use in assaying, <b><a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_238">238</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Ash of Lead</span>, <b><a href="#Page_237">237</a>-<a href="#Page_238">238</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_237">237</a>; <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ash of Musk Ivy</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_125">Potash</a> and <a href="#I1_114"><i>Nitrum</i></a>), <b><a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_238">238</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Asphalt</span>, <a href="#Notes_581">581</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Asphaltites</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_44">Dead Sea</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Assay Balances</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_17">Balances</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Assay Fluxes</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_52">Fluxes</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_12" id="I1_12"></a><span class="smcap">Assay Furnaces</span>, <b><a href="#Page_224">224</a>-<a href="#Page_228">228</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Crucible, <b><a href="#Page_226">226</a>-<a href="#Page_227">227</a></b>
+</li><li>Muffle, <b><a href="#Page_224">224</a>-<a href="#Page_228">228</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_239">239</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_13" id="I1_13"></a><span class="smcap">Assaying</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I2_1"><i>Probierb�chlein</i></a>), <b><a href="#Page_219">219</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_219">219</a>; <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Amalgamation, <b><a href="#Page_243">243</a></b>
+</li><li>Bismuth, <b><a href="#Page_247">247</a></b>
+</li><li>Copper, <b><a href="#Page_244">244</a></b>
+</li><li>Cupellation, <b><a href="#Page_240">240</a></b>
+</li><li>Gold and silver alloys, <b><a href="#Page_248">248</a></b>
+</li><li>Gold ore, <b><a href="#Page_242">242</a>-<a href="#Page_244">244</a></b>
+</li><li>Iron ore, <b><a href="#Page_247">247</a></b>
+</li><li>Lead, <b><a href="#Page_245">245</a>-<a href="#Page_246">246</a></b>
+</li><li>Silver, <b><a href="#Page_242">242</a>-<a href="#Page_245">245</a></b>
+</li><li>Silver and copper alloys, <b><a href="#Page_249">249</a>-<a href="#Page_250">250</a></b>
+</li><li>Tin, <b><a href="#Page_246">246</a></b>
+</li><li>Tin and silver alloys, <b><a href="#Page_251">251</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Assay Muffles</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_108">Muffles</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Assay Ton</span>, <b><a href="#Notes_261">261</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_242">242</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Assyrian Copper</span>, <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Asthma</span>, <b><a href="#Page_214">214</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Astronomy.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Knowledge necessary for miners, <b><a href="#Page_4">4</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Atarnea.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mines near, <b><a href="#Page_26">26</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Athens.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mining law, <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+</li><li>Sea power and mines, <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+</li><li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_620" id="Page_620"></a>[Pg 620]</span>Silver mines (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_107">Mt. Laurion, Mines of</a>).
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Atramentum Sutorium</i></span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_172">Vitriol</a>), <a href="#Notes_572">572</a>; <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Atramentum Sutorium candidum</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_113">113</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Atramentum Sutorium rubrum</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_274">274</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_274">274</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_14" id="I1_14"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Aurichalcum</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>; <a href="#Notes_404">404</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Auripigmentum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_117">Orpiment</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_15" id="I1_15"></a><span class="smcap">Azure</span>, <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>; <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>; <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>An indication of copper, <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>
+</li><li>An indication of gold, <b><a href="#Page_117">117</a></b>
+</li><li>Colour of flame, <b><a href="#Page_235">235</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_16" id="I1_16"></a><span class="smcap">Azurite</span> <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>; <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>; <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Babel, Tower of</span>, <a href="#Notes_582">582</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Babylonia.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Bitumen in, <a href="#Notes_582">582</a>
+</li><li>Use of lead, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Babytace.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Gold buried by inhabitants, <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_15">15</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Baebelo</span>, <b><a href="#Page_42">42</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_42">42</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_17" id="I1_17"></a><span class="smcap">Balances</span>, <b><a href="#Page_224">224</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_264">264</a>-<a href="#Page_265">265</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Barite</span>, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Barmaster, of High Peak</span>, <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Bars, for Furnace Work</span>, <b><a href="#Page_382">382</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Baskets, for Hoisting</span>, <b><a href="#Page_153">153</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Batea</span>, <b><a href="#Page_156">156</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Beer</span>, <b><a href="#Page_230">230</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Bell, to call Workmen</span>, <b><a href="#Page_100">100</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Bellows</span>, <b><a href="#Page_362">362</a>-<a href="#Page_373">373</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_419">419</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Ancient use of, <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>; <a href="#Notes_355">355</a>; <a href="#Notes_362">362</a>
+</li><li>Assay furnace, <b><a href="#Page_226">226</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_245">245</a></b>
+</li><li>Mine ventilation with, <b><a href="#Page_207">207</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Beni Hassen, Inscriptions at</span>, <a href="#Notes_586">586</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Berg-geel</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_18" id="I1_18"></a><span class="smcap">Bergmeister</span>, <b><a href="#Page_33">33</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_81">81</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_95">95</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_77">77</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Deals with forfeited shares, <b><a href="#Page_92">92</a>-<a href="#Page_93">93</a></b>
+</li><li>Jurors, <b><a href="#Page_96">96</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_19" id="I1_19"></a><span class="smcap">Bergmeister's Clerk</span>, <b><a href="#Page_95">95</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Bergzinober</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_130">Quicksilver</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Bermius (Bermium), Mt.</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_106">Mt. Bermius</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Bismuth</span>, <b><a href="#Page_433">433</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>; <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Assaying ores of, <b><a href="#Page_247">247</a></b>
+</li><li>Indication of silver, <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>
+</li><li>Minerals, <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>; <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+</li><li>Smelting of, <b><a href="#Page_433">433</a>-<a href="#Page_437">437</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_400">400</a></b>
+</li><li>The "roof of silver," <b><a href="#Page_117">117</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_433">433</a>
+</li><li><i>Zaffre</i>, <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Bitumen.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Ancient knowledge of, <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>; <a href="#Notes_581">581</a>-<a href="#Notes_582">582</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>
+</li><li>Colour of fumes, <b><a href="#Page_235">235</a></b>
+</li><li>Dead Sea, <b><a href="#Page_33">33</a></b>
+</li><li>Distillation, <b><a href="#Page_581">581</a></b>
+</li><li>From springs, <b><a href="#Page_582">582</a></b>
+</li><li>Harmful to metals, <b><a href="#Page_273">273</a></b>
+</li><li>Roasting from ore, <b><a href="#Page_273">273</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_276">276</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_351">351</a></b>
+</li><li>Solidified juice, <b><a href="#Page_1">1</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Bituminosa cadmia</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_23"><i>Cadmia bituminosa</i></a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Blast, Regulation of</span>, <b><a href="#Page_380">380</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_386">386</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Blasting</span>, <a href="#Notes_119">119</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_20" id="I1_20"></a><span class="smcap">Blende</span>, <a href="#Notes_113">113</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Bleyberg</span>, <a href="#Notes_239">239</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Bloodstone</span>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>; <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Bloom</span>, <a href="#Notes_420">420</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Bl�tstein</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_69">Ironstone</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Bohemia.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Antimony sulphide, <a href="#Notes_428">428</a>
+</li><li>Pestilential vapours, <b><a href="#Page_216">216</a></b>
+</li><li>Sifting ore in, <b><a href="#Page_293">293</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting, <b><a href="#Page_384">384</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Bone-ash</span>, <b><a href="#Page_230">230</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_466">466</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_21" id="I1_21"></a><span class="smcap">Borax</span>, <a href="#Notes_560">560</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>; <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Method of manufacture, <b><a href="#Page_560">560</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in gold smelting, <b><a href="#Page_444">444</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_457">457</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_464">464</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in assaying, <b><a href="#Page_245">245</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_246">246</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Bornite</span>, <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Boundary Stones</span>, <b><a href="#Page_87">87</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_129">129</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Boundaries</span>, <b><a href="#Page_77">77</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_147">147</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Bowls for Alluvial Washing</span>, <b><a href="#Page_322">322</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_324">324</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_334">334</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_336">336</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Brass</span>, <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>; <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Ancient methods of making, <a href="#Notes_404">404</a>-<a href="#Notes_405">405</a>; <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Breaking Ore</span>, <b><a href="#Page_117">117</a>-<a href="#Page_119">119</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Brick Dust.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Used in cementation, <b><a href="#Page_454">454</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_454">454</a>
+</li><li>Used in making nitric acid, <b><a href="#Page_440">440</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Brine</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_137">Salt</a>).
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Evaporation of, <b><a href="#Page_547">547</a>-<a href="#Page_548">548</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Britain.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Lead-silver smelting, <a href="#Notes_392">392</a>
+</li><li>Miners mentioned by Pliny, <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+</li><li>Tin trade, <a href="#Notes_411">411</a>-<a href="#Notes_413">413</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">British Museum.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Egyptian gold-mining, <a href="#Notes_399">399</a>
+</li><li>Egyptian lead, <a href="#Notes_390">390</a>
+</li><li>Egyptian steel, <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Bromyrite</span>, <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Bronze.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Historical notes, <a href="#Notes_411">411</a>; <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Bronze Age</span>, <a href="#Notes_355">355</a>; <b><a href="#Page_402">402</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_411">411</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Bryle</span> (Outcrop), <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Buckets, for Hoisting Ore</span>, <b><a href="#Page_153">153</a>-<a href="#Page_154">154</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_157">157</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Buddle</span>, <a href="#Notes_281">281</a>; <a href="#Notes_282">282</a>; <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Divided, <b><a href="#Page_302">302</a>-<a href="#Page_303">303</a></b>
+</li><li>Simple, <b><a href="#Page_300">300</a>-<a href="#Page_302">302</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_312">312</a>-<a href="#Page_315">315</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Bullion, Pouring into Bars</span>, <b><a href="#Page_382">382</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Burning Ore</span>, <b><a href="#Page_231">231</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_273">273</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Burnt Alum</span>, <b><a href="#Page_233">233</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_565">565</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><a name="I1_22" id="I1_22"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Cadmia</i></span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_178">Zinc</a>, <a href="#I1_123"><i>Pompholyx</i></a>, <i>and</i> <a href="#I1_30">Cobalt</a>), <b><a href="#Page_542">542</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_542">542</a>; <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>-<a href="#Notes_113">113</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Ancient ore of brass, <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>
+</li><li>From dust chambers, <b><a href="#Page_394">394</a></b>
+</li><li>From liquation, <b><a href="#Page_539">539</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_542">542</a>
+</li><li>From roasting matte, <b><a href="#Page_349">349</a></b>
+</li><li>Poisonous to miners, <b><a href="#Page_214">214</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_214">214</a>
+</li><li>Roasting, <b><a href="#Page_276">276</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting for gold and silver, <b><a href="#Page_410">410</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_23" id="I1_23"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Cadmia bituminosa</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_276">276</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_273">273</a>; <a href="#Notes_113">113</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Cadmia fornacis</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_56">Furnace Accretions</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Cadmia fossilis</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_25">Calamine</a> <i>and</i> <a href="#I1_20">Blende</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Cadmia metallica</i></span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_30">Cobalt</a>), <b><a href="#Page_403">403</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_113">113</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Caeruleum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_15">Azure</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_24" id="I1_24"></a><span class="smcap">Cakes of Melted Pyrites</span>, <a href="#Notes_379">379</a>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>A flux, <b><a href="#Page_234">234</a></b>
+</li><li>Roasting of, <b><a href="#Page_349">349</a>-<a href="#Page_351">351</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in smelting, <b><a href="#Page_379">379</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Cala�m</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_178">Zinc</a>), <b><a href="#Notes_409">409</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_25" id="I1_25"></a><span class="smcap">Calamine</span>, <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>; <a href="#Notes_113">113</a>; <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>; <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Calcite</span>, <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Calcspar</span>, <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Caldarium</i> Copper</span>, <b><a href="#Page_512">512</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_542">542</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_404">404</a>; <a href="#Notes_511">511</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Caldrons, for Evaporating Salts</span>, <b><a href="#Page_548">548</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Calmei</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_25">Calamine</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Cameros.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Zinc found at, <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Camphor</span>, <b><a href="#Page_238">238</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_238">238</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Cam-shaft</span>, <b><a href="#Page_282">282</a>-<a href="#Page_283">283</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_26" id="I1_26"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Canales</i></span> (Ore Channels), <a href="#Notes_43">43</a>; <a href="#Notes_46">46</a>; <a href="#Notes_47">47</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Ore shoots in, <b><a href="#Page_117">117</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Cannon</span>, <b><a href="#Page_11">11</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Cardinal Points</span>, <b><a href="#Page_57">57</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_58">58</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_27" id="I1_27"></a><span class="smcap">Carnelian</span>, <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Carneol</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_27">Carnelian</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Carni</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_390">390</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cupellation, <b><a href="#Page_483">483</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting of lead ores, <b><a href="#Page_390">390</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Carpathian Mountains.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Liquation practice in, <b><a href="#Page_540">540</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_544">544</a></b>
+</li><li>Sieves, <b><a href="#Page_289">289</a></b>
+</li><li>Stamp-milling, <b><a href="#Page_319">319</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Carthage.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mines in Spain, <b><a href="#Page_27">27</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Castulo</span> (Cazlona), <a href="#Notes_42">42</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Cementation</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_119">Parting Gold from Silver</a>), <b><a href="#Page_453">453</a>-<a href="#Page_457">457</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_453">453</a>; <a href="#Notes_458">458</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Centumpondium</i></span>, <a href="#Page_616">616</a>; <a href="#Notes_242">242</a>; <a href="#Notes_509">509</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Scale of weights, <b><a href="#Page_260">260</a>-<a href="#Page_261">261</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Cerargurite</span>, <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Cerussa</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_175">White-lead</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Cerussite</span>, <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Chain Pumps</span>, <b><a href="#Page_171">171</a>-<a href="#Page_175">175</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Chalcanthite</span>, <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Chalcanthum</i></span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_172">Vitriol</a>), <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>; <a href="#Notes_572">572</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_621" id="Page_621"></a>[Pg 621]</span><a name="I1_28" id="I1_28"></a><span class="smcap">Chalcedony</span>, <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Chalcitis</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_573">573</a>; <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Indication of copper, <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Chalcocite</span>, <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>; <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Chalcopyrite</span>, <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Chaldean Antimony</span>, <a href="#Notes_429">429</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Chemistry.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Origin, <a href="#Notes_xxvii">XXVII</a>; <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Chemnitz.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Agricola appointed city physician, <a href="#Page_vii">VII</a>.
+</li><li>Agricola elected burgomaster, <a href="#Page_viii">VIII</a>; <a href="#Page_ix">IX</a>.
+</li><li>Quarrel over Agricola's burial, <a href="#Page_xi">XI</a>.
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">China, Grand Canal of</span>, <a href="#Notes_129">129</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Chinese.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Early copper smelting, <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+</li><li>Early iron, <a href="#Notes_421">421</a>
+</li><li>Early silver metallurgy, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>
+</li><li>Early zinc smelting, <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Chrysocolla</i></span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_21">Borax</a>), <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>; <a href="#Notes_584">584</a>; <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Collection in vats, <b><a href="#Page_584">584</a></b>
+</li><li>Colour of fumes, <b><a href="#Page_235">235</a></b>
+</li><li>Indication of copper, <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>
+</li><li>Indication of gold, <b><a href="#Page_117">117</a></b>
+</li><li>Mineral, <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>
+</li><li>Smelting of, <b><a href="#Page_401">401</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Church, Share in Mines</span>, <b><a href="#Page_91">91</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Cimolite</span>, <a href="#Notes_31">31</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Cinnabar</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_130">Quicksilver</a> <i>and</i> <a href="#I1_103"><i>Minium</i></a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_29" id="I1_29"></a><span class="smcap">Claim, in American Title</span>, <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Cloth.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Lining sluices, <b><a href="#Page_322">322</a></b>
+</li><li>Ventilation by shaking, <b><a href="#Page_210">210</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Coal</span>, <a href="#Notes_34">34</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_30" id="I1_30"></a><span class="smcap">Cobalt</span>, <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>; <a href="#Notes_542">542</a>; <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>-<a href="#Notes_113">113</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cobalt-blue, <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>; <a href="#Notes_433">433</a>
+</li><li>From lead smelting, <a href="#Notes_408">408</a>
+</li><li>King Hiram's experience with, <a href="#Notes_214">214</a>
+</li><li>Poisonous to miners, <a href="#Notes_214">214</a>
+</li><li>Relation to <i>cadmia</i>, <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>
+</li><li>Relation to bismuth, <a href="#Notes_435">435</a>
+</li><li>Smelting ores of, <a href="#Notes_401">401</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Cobalt-Arsenic Minerals</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_9">Arsenic</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_31" id="I1_31"></a><span class="smcap">Cobaltite</span>, <a href="#Notes_113">113</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Cobaltum cineraceum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_150">Smallite</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Cobaltum ferri colore</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_31">Cobaltite</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Cobaltum nigrum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_1">Abolite</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_32" id="I1_32"></a><span class="smcap">Coiners</span>, <b><a href="#Page_95">95</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Coins</span>, <b><a href="#Page_251">251</a>-<a href="#Page_253">253</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_457">457</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Colchis.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alluvial gold washing, <b><a href="#Page_330">330</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Cologne.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Scale of weights, <b><a href="#Page_263">263</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_33" id="I1_33"></a><span class="smcap">Companies, Mining</span>, <b><a href="#Page_89">89</a>-<a href="#Page_93">93</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_90">90</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Fraudulent dealing, <b><a href="#Page_22">22</a></b>
+</li><li>Investment in, <b><a href="#Page_29">29</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Compass</span>, <b><a href="#Page_141">141</a>-<a href="#Page_142">142</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_56">56</a>; <a href="#Notes_129">129</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Divisions of the, <b><a href="#Page_56">56</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_57">57</a></b>
+</li><li>Swiss, <b><a href="#Page_145">145</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_137">137</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Concentrates.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>From washing liquation products, <b><a href="#Page_542">542</a></b>
+</li><li>Sintering of, <b><a href="#Page_401">401</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting of, <b><a href="#Page_394">394</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_396">396</a>-<a href="#Page_399">399</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_401">401</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_116" id="I1_116"></a><span class="smcap">Concentration</span>, <b><a href="#Page_267">267</a>-<a href="#Page_348">348</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_279">279</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Congius</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_153">153</a>; <a href="#Notes_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Constantinople, Alum Trade</span>, <a href="#Notes_569">569</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Consumption.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Miners liable to, <b><a href="#Page_214">214</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Conterfei</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_178">Zinc</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Contracts, Method of Setting</span>, <b><a href="#Page_96">96</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Copiapite</span>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Copper</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_78">Liquation</a>), <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>; <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>; <a href="#Notes_511">511</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Assay of, <b><a href="#Page_244">244</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_249">249</a></b>
+</li><li>Granulation of, <b><a href="#Page_250">250</a></b>
+</li><li>Indications of, <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>
+</li><li>Parting from gold, <b><a href="#Page_462">462</a>-<a href="#Page_464">464</a></b>
+</li><li>Parting gold from silver, <b><a href="#Page_448">448</a>-<a href="#Page_451">451</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_448">448</a>
+</li><li>Ratio in liquation cakes, <a href="#Notes_505">505</a>; <a href="#Notes_506">506</a>
+</li><li>Residues from liquation, <b><a href="#Page_521">521</a></b>
+</li><li>Rosette, <b><a href="#Page_538">538</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Copper-filings</span>, <b><a href="#Page_233">233</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_34" id="I1_34"></a><span class="smcap">Copper flowers</span>, <b><a href="#Page_538">538</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>; <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>; <a href="#Notes_538">538</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Pliny's description, <a href="#Notes_404">404</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_35" id="I1_35"></a><span class="smcap">Copper Glance</span>, <b><a href="#Page_401">401</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Copper Matte.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Roasting, <b><a href="#Page_350">350</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting, <b><a href="#Page_404">404</a>-<a href="#Page_407">407</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_36" id="I1_36"></a><span class="smcap">Copper Ore</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_41">Copper Smelting</a>, <i>etc.</i>), <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Assaying, <b><a href="#Page_244">244</a>-<a href="#Page_245">245</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_37" id="I1_37"></a><span class="smcap">Copper Pyrites</span>, <b><a href="#Page_117">117</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_38" id="I1_38"></a><span class="smcap">Copper Refining</span>, <b><a href="#Page_530">530</a>-<a href="#Page_538">538</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>; <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>; <a href="#Notes_535">535</a>-<a href="#Notes_536">536</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Breaking cakes, <b><a href="#Page_501">501</a>-<a href="#Page_503">503</a></b>
+</li><li>Enrichment of silver by settling, <a href="#Notes_510">510</a>
+</li><li>Roman method, <a href="#Notes_404">404</a>
+</li><li>Rosette copper, <a href="#Notes_535">535</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_39" id="I1_39"></a><span class="smcap">Copper Scales</span>, <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>; <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>; <a href="#Notes_539">539</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Use in assaying, <b><a href="#Page_245">245</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_40" id="I1_40"></a><span class="smcap">Copper Schists</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_87">Mannsfeld Copper Slates</a>), <a href="#Notes_127">127</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Method of smelting, <b><a href="#Page_408">408</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_41" id="I1_41"></a><span class="smcap">Copper Smelting</span>, <b><a href="#Page_388">388</a>-<a href="#Page_390">390</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_401">401</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_404">404</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Invention of appliances, <a href="#Notes_353">353</a>-<a href="#Notes_354">354</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Cornwall.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Ancient tin mining, <a href="#Notes_413">413</a>
+</li><li>Early German miners, <a href="#Notes_282">282</a>
+</li><li>Early mining law, <a href="#Notes_85">85</a>
+</li><li>Early ore dressing, <a href="#Notes_282">282</a>
+</li><li>Influence on German mining, <a href="#Notes_283">283</a>
+</li><li>"Knockers," <a href="#Notes_217">217</a>
+</li><li>Mining terms, <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>; <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>; <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>; <a href="#Notes_282">282</a>
+</li><li>Royal Geol. Soc. Transactions, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Coticula</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_165">Touchstone</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Counterfeht</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_178">Zinc</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Crane.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>For cupellation furnaces, <b><a href="#Page_476">476</a>-<a href="#Page_477">477</a></b>
+</li><li>For lead cakes, <b><a href="#Page_500">500</a></b>
+</li><li>For liquation cakes, <b><a href="#Page_514">514</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Cremnitz.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Age of mines, <b><a href="#Page_5">5</a></b>
+</li><li>Width of veins, <b><a href="#Page_52">52</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Crinoid Stems</span>, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Croppings</span>, <b><a href="#Page_37">37</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_37">37</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_42" id="I1_42"></a><span class="smcap">Crosscuts</span>, <b><a href="#Page_106">106</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Crowbars</span>, <b><a href="#Page_152">152</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Crucible.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Assay, <b><a href="#Page_228">228</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_230">230</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_241">241</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_245">245</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+</li><li>Of blast furnaces, <b><a href="#Page_376">376</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_377">377</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Crudaria</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_65">65</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Crushing Mills</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_157">Stamp-mill</a> <i>and</i> <a href="#I1_95">Mills</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Crushing Ore</span>, <b><a href="#Page_231">231</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_279">279</a>-<a href="#Page_287">287</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_279">279</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Crystal</span> (<i>Crystallum</i>), <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Cumberland.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Early report on ores of, <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+</li><li>Roman lead furnaces, <a href="#Notes_392">392</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Cup-Bearer.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Right to a meer, <b><a href="#Page_81">81</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_43" id="I1_43"></a><span class="smcap">Cupellation</span>, <b><a href="#Page_464">464</a>-<a href="#Page_483">483</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>-<a href="#Notes_466">466</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Buildings and furnaces, <b><a href="#Page_464">464</a>-<a href="#Page_472">472</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>
+</li><li>Brightening of the silver, <b><a href="#Page_241">241</a></b>, <b><a href="#Page_475">475</a></b>
+</li><li>In assaying, <b><a href="#Page_240">240</a></b>
+</li><li>In "tests," <b><a href="#Page_483">483</a></b>
+</li><li>Latin and German terms, <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>; <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>
+</li><li>Litharge, <b><a href="#Page_475">475</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Cupels</span>, <b><a href="#Page_228">228</a>-<a href="#Page_230">230</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>; <a href="#Notes_466">466</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Drying of, <b><a href="#Page_240">240</a></b>
+</li><li>Moulds, <b><a href="#Page_231">231</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Cupric Oxide</span>, <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Cuprite</span>, <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>; <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Cyanus</i></span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_16">Azurite</a>), <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Cyprus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Ancient copper smelting, <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap"><i>Dach</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_127">127</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Dactylos</i></span>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Dangers to Miners</span>, <b><a href="#Page_214">214</a>-<a href="#Page_218">218</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Darrlinge</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Darrofen</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Darrs�hle</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Dawling, of a Vein</span>, <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_44" id="I1_44"></a><span class="smcap">Dead Sea.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Bitumen in, <b><a href="#Page_33">33</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Decemviral College</span>, <b><a href="#Page_96">96</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Decumanus</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_163">Tithe Gatherer</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Demensum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_91">Measure</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Demons</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_59">Gnomes</a>), <b><a href="#Page_217">217</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_217">217</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_622" id="Page_622"></a>[Pg 622]</span><span class="smcap">Derbyshire</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_65">High Peak</a>).
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Early ore washing, <a href="#Notes_281">281</a>
+</li><li>Introduction jigging sieve, <a href="#Notes_283">283</a>
+</li><li>Mining law, <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>; <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>-<a href="#Notes_85">85</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Descent into Mines</span>, <b><a href="#Page_212">212</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Devon.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mining law, <a href="#Notes_85">85</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Dilleugher</span>, <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Dioptra</span>, <a href="#Notes_129">129</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Diphrygum</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_404">404</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Dip of Veins</span>, <b><a href="#Page_65">65</a>-<a href="#Page_75">75</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Dippas</span>, <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Dippers</span>, <b><a href="#Page_157">157</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Of pumps, <b><a href="#Page_172">172</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Discretores</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_154">Sorters</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Distillation</span>, <a href="#Notes_441">441</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>For making nitric acid, <b><a href="#Page_441">441</a></b>
+</li><li>Of amalgam, <b><a href="#Page_244">244</a></b>
+</li><li>Of quicksilver, <b><a href="#Page_426">426</a>-<a href="#Page_432">432</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Distributor</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_45" id="I1_45"></a><span class="smcap">Divining Rod</span>, <b><a href="#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="#Page_40">40</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_38">38</a>; <a href="#Notes_40">40</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Divisions of the Compass</span>, <b><a href="#Page_56">56</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_57">57</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Drainage of Mines</span>, <b><a href="#Page_121">121</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_171">171</a>-<a href="#Page_198">198</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>With buckets, <b><a href="#Page_171">171</a></b>
+</li><li>With chain pumps, <b><a href="#Page_172">172</a></b>
+</li><li>With rag and chain pumps, <b><a href="#Page_188">188</a></b>
+</li><li>With suction pumps, <b><a href="#Page_172">172</a></b>
+</li><li>With water bags, <b><a href="#Page_198">198</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Drawing.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Knowledge necessary for miners, <b><a href="#Page_4">4</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_46" id="I1_46"></a><span class="smcap">Drifts</span>, <b><a href="#Page_104">104</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_105">105</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Timbering of, <b><a href="#Page_125">125</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Drusy Veins</span>, <b><a href="#Page_107">107</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_107">107</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">"Drying" Liquation Residues</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_78">Liquation</a>), <b><a href="#Page_527">527</a>-<a href="#Page_529">529</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_491">491</a>; <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Furnaces for, <b><a href="#Page_521">521</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_526">526</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>
+</li><li>Silver extracted by, <b><a href="#Page_529">529</a></b>
+</li><li>Slags from, <a href="#Notes_523">523</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Dumps, Working of</span>, <b><a href="#Page_30">30</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Dust Chambers</span>, <b><a href="#Page_394">394</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_416">416</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Dutins</span>, (Timbers), <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Dynamite</span>, <a href="#Notes_119">119</a>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">"Earths."</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Agricola's view of, <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>; <a href="#Notes_46">46</a>; <a href="#Notes_48">48</a>
+</li><li>Extraordinary, <b><a href="#Page_115">115</a></b>
+</li><li>Peripatetic view of, <a href="#Notes_46">46</a>; <a href="#Notes_47">47</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Egyptians.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alluvial mining, <a href="#Notes_330">330</a>
+</li><li>Antimony, <a href="#Notes_428">428</a>
+</li><li>Bronze, <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>; <a href="#Notes_411">411</a>
+</li><li>Copper smelting, <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+</li><li>Crushing and concentration, <a href="#Notes_279">279</a>
+</li><li>Furnaces, <a href="#Notes_355">355</a>
+</li><li>Glass making, <a href="#Notes_586">586</a>
+</li><li>Gold mining, <a href="#Notes_399">399</a>
+</li><li>Iron, <a href="#Notes_421">421</a>
+</li><li>Maps, <a href="#Notes_129">129</a>
+</li><li>Mining law, <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+</li><li>Silver and lead metallurgy, <a href="#Notes_390">390</a>
+</li><li>Tin, <a href="#Notes_411">411</a>; <a href="#Notes_412">412</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Egyptian Screw</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_7">Archimedes, Screw of</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Eifel.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Spalling ore, <b><a href="#Page_272">272</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Eisenertz</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_69">Ironstone</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Eisenglantz</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_69">Ironstone</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Eisleben.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Heap roasting, <b><a href="#Page_279">279</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_274">274</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Electrum</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_458">458</a>; <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>; <a href="#Notes_35">35</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Elements, Peripatetic Theory of</span>, <a href="#Notes_44">44</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_49" id="I1_49"></a><span class="smcap">Emery</span>, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Erbisdorff.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Tin strakes, <b><a href="#Page_304">304</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Excoctores</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_151">Smelters</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Exhalations.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>From veins, <b><a href="#Page_38">38</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_44">44</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Exhausted Liquation Cakes</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_79">Liquation Cakes, Exhausted</a>).
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Fans, Ventilation</span>, <b><a href="#Page_203">203</a>-<a href="#Page_207">207</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_50" id="I1_50"></a><span class="smcap">Fathom</span>, <a href="#Page_616">616</a>; <b><a href="#Page_77">77</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Federwis</i></span>, (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_10">Asbestos</a>), <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>; <a href="#Notes_274">274</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Feldspar</span>, <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Ferrugo</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_67">Iron-rust</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Ferrum purum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_110">Native Iron</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Fibrae</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_162">Stringers</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Fineness, Scales of</span>, <a href="#Notes_253">253</a>; <a href="#Page_617">617</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Fire-setting</span>, <b><a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_120">120</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_118">118</a>-<a href="#Notes_119">119</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Firstum Mines</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_54">F�rst</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Fissure Vein</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_169"><i>Vena profunda</i></a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Flame.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Determination of metal by, <b><a href="#Page_235">235</a></b>
+</li><li>Determination of required flux by, <b><a href="#Page_235">235</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Flint, as a Flux</span>, <a href="#Notes_380">380</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Float, from Veins</span>, <b><a href="#Page_37">37</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Flookan</span>, <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Flue-dust</span>, <b><a href="#Page_394">394</a>-<a href="#Page_396">396</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Fluores</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_51">Fluorspar</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_51" id="I1_51"></a><span class="smcap">Fluorspar</span>, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>; <a href="#Notes_380">380</a>; <a href="#Notes_381">381</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Indication of ore, <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Fl�sse</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_51">Fluorspar</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_52" id="I1_52"></a><span class="smcap">Fluxes</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_8">Argol</a>, <a href="#I1_138">Saltpetre</a>, <a href="#I1_77">Limestone</a>, <a href="#I1_161">Stones which easily melt</a>, <i>etc.</i>), <b><a href="#Page_232">232</a>-<a href="#Page_239">239</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_232">232</a>; <a href="#Notes_237">237</a>; <a href="#Notes_380">380</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Basic, <a href="#Notes_237">237</a>
+</li><li>De-sulphurizing, <b><a href="#Page_236">236</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_237">237</a>
+</li><li>For smelting, <b><a href="#Page_379">379</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_380">380</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_386">386</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_390">390</a></b>
+</li><li>Reducing, <b><a href="#Page_236">236</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_237">237</a>
+</li><li>Stock fluxes for assaying, <b><a href="#Page_236">236</a></b>
+</li><li>Sulphurizing, <b><a href="#Page_236">236</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_237">237</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_53" id="I1_53"></a><span class="smcap">Footwall</span>, <b><a href="#Page_68">68</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_117">117</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Forehearth</span>, <b><a href="#Page_356">356</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_375">375</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_386">386</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_355">355</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>For tin furnaces, <b><a href="#Page_411">411</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_413">413</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Foreman</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_100">Mining Foreman</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Forest-Fires</span>, <b><a href="#Page_36">36</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_36">36</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Forest of Dean</span>, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Forest of Mendip</span>, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Formae</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Fossa latens</i></span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_46">Drifts</a>), <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Fossa latens transversa</i></span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_42">Crosscuts</a>), <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Fossores</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_97">Miners</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Founders' Hoards</span>, <a href="#Notes_355">355</a>; <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Fractional Meers</span>, <b><a href="#Page_80">80</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">France.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Medi�val mining law, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Free Mining Cities</span>, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Freiberg</span>, <b><a href="#Page_xxxi">XXXI</a></b>.
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Age of the mines, <b><a href="#Page_5">5</a></b>
+</li><li>Bergmeister, <b><a href="#Page_95">95</a></b>
+</li><li>Division of shares, <b><a href="#Page_81">81</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_90">90</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_91">91</a></b>
+</li><li>First discovery of veins, <b><a href="#Page_35">35</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_36">36</a>
+</li><li>Flooding of mines, <b><a href="#Page_218">218</a></b>
+</li><li>Method of cupellation, <b><a href="#Page_482">482</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Fullers' Earth</span>, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_55" id="I1_55"></a><span class="smcap">Fumes.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>From heated ore, <b><a href="#Page_235">235</a></b>
+</li><li>Poisonous, <b><a href="#Page_215">215</a>-<a href="#Page_216">216</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Fundamentum</i></span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_53">Footwall</a>), <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Fundgrube</i></span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_92">Meer</a>), <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Furnaces</span>, <b><a href="#Page_374">374</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_386">386</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_388">388</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_355">355</a>; <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Assaying (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_12">Assay Furnaces</a>).
+</li><li>Bismuth smelting, <b><a href="#Page_433">433</a>-<a href="#Page_437">437</a></b>
+</li><li>Burning tin concentrates, <b><a href="#Page_349">349</a></b>
+</li><li>Cementation, <b><a href="#Page_455">455</a></b>
+</li><li>Copper smelting, <b><a href="#Page_401">401</a>-<a href="#Page_408">408</a></b>
+</li><li>Cupellation, <b><a href="#Page_467">467</a>-<a href="#Page_468">468</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_482">482</a>-<a href="#Page_483">483</a></b>
+</li><li>"Drying" liquated copper, <b><a href="#Page_522">522</a>-<a href="#Page_526">526</a></b>
+</li><li>Enriching copper bottoms, <b><a href="#Page_510">510</a></b>
+</li><li>Gold and silver ores, <b><a href="#Page_382">382</a>-<a href="#Page_384">384</a></b>
+</li><li>Heating copper cakes, <b><a href="#Page_503">503</a></b>
+</li><li>Iron smelting, <b><a href="#Page_420">420</a>-<a href="#Page_421">421</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_420">420</a>
+</li><li>Latin and German terms, <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>
+</li><li>Lead ores, <b><a href="#Page_408">408</a>-<a href="#Page_410">410</a></b>
+</li><li>Liquation of silver, <b><a href="#Page_515">515</a></b>
+</li><li>Melting lead cakes, <b><a href="#Page_498">498</a></b>
+</li><li>Nitric acid making, <b><a href="#Page_441">441</a></b>
+</li><li>Parting precious metals with antimony, <b><a href="#Page_452">452</a>-<a href="#Page_453">453</a></b>
+</li><li>Quicksilver distillation, <b><a href="#Page_426">426</a>-<a href="#Page_432">432</a></b>
+</li><li>Refining copper, <b><a href="#Page_531">531</a>-<a href="#Page_533">533</a></b>
+</li><li>Refining silver, <b><a href="#Page_483">483</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_489">489</a></b>
+</li><li>Refining tin, <b><a href="#Page_418">418</a></b>
+</li><li>Roasting, <b><a href="#Page_276">276</a>-<a href="#Page_277">277</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting liquation slags, <b><a href="#Page_507">507</a></b>
+</li><li>Tin smelting, <b><a href="#Page_411">411</a>-<a href="#Page_413">413</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_419">419</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_623" id="Page_623"></a>[Pg 623]</span><a name="I1_56" id="I1_56"></a><span class="smcap">Furnace Accretions</span>, <a href="#Notes_113">113</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>; <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Removal of, <b><a href="#Page_376">376</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Furnace Hoods</span>, <b><a href="#Page_494">494</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_54" id="I1_54"></a><span class="smcap">F�rst.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mines of, <b><a href="#Page_24">24</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_24">24</a>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap"><i>Gaarherd</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_134">Refining-hearth</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Gaarmachen</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_38">Copper Refining</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Gad</span>, <a href="#Notes_150">150</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_57" id="I1_57"></a><span class="smcap">Galena</span>, <a href="#Notes_51">51</a>; <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>; <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Bismuth distinguished from, <a href="#Notes_3">3</a>
+</li><li>Smelting of, <b><a href="#Page_400">400</a>-<a href="#Page_401">401</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Gangue Minerals</span>, <a href="#Notes_48">48</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Garlic.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Magnet weakened by, <b><a href="#Page_39">39</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Garnets</span>, <b><a href="#Page_334">334</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Gases</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_55">Fumes</a>)
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>From fire-setting, <b><a href="#Page_120">120</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Gedigen eisen, silber</i></span>, etc. (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_110">Native Iron</a>, <a href="#I1_111">Silver</a>, etc.).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Gel atrament</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_104"><i>Misy</i></a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Gems</span>, <b><a href="#Page_115">115</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Geology.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Agricola's views, <a href="#Page_595">595</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Germans.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>English mining influenced by, <a href="#Notes_283">283</a>
+</li><li>Mining men imported into England, <a href="#Notes_282">282</a>
+</li><li>Ore-dressing methods, <a href="#Notes_281">281</a>-<a href="#Notes_282">282</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Geschwornen</i></span> (in Saxon mines), <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Geyer</span>, <b><a href="#Page_xxxi">XXXI</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_42">42</a></b>; <a href="#Page_vi">VI</a>.
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Shafts, <a href="#Notes_102">102</a>
+</li><li>Tin-strakes, <b><a href="#Page_304">304</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Gilding</span>, <a href="#Notes_460">460</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Removal from objects, <b><a href="#Page_460">460</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_464">464</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Gips</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_62">Gypsum</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Gittelde.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Smelting of lead ore, <b><a href="#Page_391">391</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Glantz</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_57">Galena</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Glasertz</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_146">Silver Glance</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Glask�pfe</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_69">Ironstone</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Glass</span>, <b><a href="#Page_584">584</a>-<a href="#Page_592">592</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Blowing, <b><a href="#Page_592">592</a></b>
+</li><li>Furnaces, <b><a href="#Page_586">586</a>-<a href="#Page_590">590</a></b>
+</li><li>From sand, <a href="#Notes_380">380</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_58" id="I1_58"></a><span class="smcap">Glass-galls</span>, <a href="#Notes_235">235</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>As a flux, <b><a href="#Page_235">235</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_238">238</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_243">243</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_246">246</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in parting gold from copper, <b><a href="#Page_464">464</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in smelting gold concentrates, <b><a href="#Page_397">397</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_398">398</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Glette</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_82">Litharge</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Glimmer</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_94">Mica</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_59" id="I1_59"></a><span class="smcap">Gnomes.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>In mines, <b><a href="#Page_217">217</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>; <a href="#Notes_214">214</a>; <a href="#Notes_217">217</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Goblins</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_59">Gnomes</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">God's Gift Mine</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_61">Gottsgaab Mine</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Gold</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_60">Gold Ores</a>, <a href="#I1_118">Parting</a>, <a href="#I1_152">Smelting</a>, <a href="#I1_157">Stamp-Mill</a>, <i>etc.</i>).
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alluvial mining, <b><a href="#Page_321">321</a>-<a href="#Page_336">336</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_330">330</a>
+</li><li>Alluvial streams, <b><a href="#Page_75">75</a></b>
+</li><li>Amalgamation, <a href="#Notes_297">297</a>
+</li><li>Gold-dust, <b><a href="#Page_396">396</a></b>
+</li><li>Historical notes, <a href="#Notes_399">399</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>
+</li><li>Indications of, <b><a href="#Page_108">108</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>
+</li><li>Lust for, not the fault of the metal, <b><a href="#Page_16">16</a></b>
+</li><li>Minerals, <a href="#Notes_108">108</a>
+</li><li>Minerals associated with, <b><a href="#Page_108">108</a>-<a href="#Page_109">109</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting of ores, <b><a href="#Page_381">381</a>-<a href="#Page_382">382</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_386">386</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_388">388</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_390">390</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_396">396</a></b>
+</li><li>Wickedness caused by, <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a>-<a href="#Page_10">10</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Gold Concentrates</span>, <b><a href="#Page_396">396</a>-<a href="#Page_399">399</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_398">398</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Golden Fleece</span>, <b><a href="#Page_330">330</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_330">330</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_60" id="I1_60"></a><span class="smcap">Gold Ores</span>, <b><a href="#Page_107">107</a>-<a href="#Page_108">108</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Amalgamation, <b><a href="#Page_295">295</a>-<a href="#Page_299">299</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_297">297</a>
+</li><li>Assay by amalgamation, <b><a href="#Page_243">243</a>-<a href="#Page_244">244</a></b>
+</li><li>Assay by fire, <b><a href="#Page_242">242</a>-<a href="#Page_243">243</a></b>
+</li><li>Flux used in assaying, <b><a href="#Page_235">235</a></b>
+</li><li>Flux used in smelting, <b><a href="#Page_398">398</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting in blast furnace, <b><a href="#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="#Page_400">400</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting cupriferous ores, <b><a href="#Page_404">404</a>-<a href="#Page_407">407</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting in lead bath, <b><a href="#Page_399">399</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting pyritiferous ore, <b><a href="#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="#Page_401">401</a></b>
+</li><li>Stamp-milling, <b><a href="#Page_321">321</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Goldstein</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_165">Touchstone</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Goslar</span>, <b><a href="#Page_5">5</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_37">37</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_37">37</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Lead smelting, <b><a href="#Page_408">408</a></b>
+</li><li>Native zinc vitriol, <a href="#Notes_572">572</a>
+</li><li>Roasting ores, <b><a href="#Page_274">274</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_274">274</a>
+</li><li>Spalling hard ore, <b><a href="#Page_271">271</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Goslarite</span>, <a href="#Notes_113">113</a>; <a href="#Notes_572">572</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_61" id="I1_61"></a><span class="smcap">Gottsgaab Mine</span>, <a href="#Page_vi">VI</a>; <a href="#Page_vii">VII</a>; <b><a href="#Page_74">74</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_74">74</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Gounce</span>, <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Grand Canal of China</span>, <a href="#Notes_129">129</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Granulation Methods for Bullion</span>, <b><a href="#Page_444">444</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Granulation of Copper</span>, <b><a href="#Page_250">250</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Greeks.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Antimony, <a href="#Notes_428">428</a>
+</li><li>Brass making, <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>
+</li><li>Copper smelting, <a href="#Notes_403">403</a>
+</li><li>Iron and steel making, <a href="#Notes_421">421</a>
+</li><li>Metallurgy from Egypt, <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+</li><li>Mining law, <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+</li><li>Ore dressing, <a href="#Notes_281">281</a>
+</li><li>Quicksilver, <a href="#Notes_432">432</a>
+</li><li>Silver-lead smelting, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>
+</li><li>Smelting appliances, <a href="#Notes_355">355</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Grey Antimony</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_160"><i>Stibium</i></a>), <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>; <a href="#Notes_428">428</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Griffins</span>, <a href="#Notes_331">331</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Groom of the Chamber.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Right to a meer, <b><a href="#Page_81">81</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Groove</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_142">Shafts</a>), <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ground Sluices</span>, <b><a href="#Page_336">336</a>-<a href="#Page_337">337</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ground Waters</span>, <a href="#Notes_46">46</a>-<a href="#Notes_48">48</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Gr�nspan</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_171">Verdigris</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Gulden</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_92">92</a>; <a href="#Notes_419">419</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Gunpowder.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>First use for blasting in mines, <a href="#Notes_119">119</a>
+</li><li>Invention of, <a href="#Notes_562">562</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_62" id="I1_62"></a><span class="smcap">Gypsum</span>, <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Hade</span>, <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Haematites</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_69">Ironstone</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Halinitrum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_138">Saltpetre</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Halle, Salt Industry</span>, <b><a href="#Page_552">552</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Hammers</span>, <b><a href="#Page_151">151</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>With water power, <b><a href="#Page_423">423</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Hangingwall</span>, <b><a href="#Page_68">68</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_117">117</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Harz Miners.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Agricola consulted, <a href="#Page_vii">VII</a>.
+</li><li>Antimony sulphide, <a href="#Notes_428">428</a>
+</li><li>First mining charter, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+</li><li>First stamp-mill, <a href="#Notes_282">282</a>
+</li><li>Pumps, <b><a href="#Page_194">194</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_63" id="I1_63"></a><span class="smcap">Hauling Appliances</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_174">Whims</a> <i>and</i> <a href="#I1_176">Windlasses</a>), <b><a href="#Page_160">160</a>-<a href="#Page_168">168</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_149">149</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Heap Roasting</span>, <b><a href="#Page_274">274</a>-<a href="#Page_276">276</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_64" id="I1_64"></a><span class="smcap">Hearth-lead</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_105"><i>Molybdaena</i></a>), <b><a href="#Page_475">475</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_476">476</a>; <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>As a flux, <b><a href="#Page_232">232</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in smelting, <b><a href="#Page_379">379</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_398">398</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_400">400</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Hearths.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>For bismuth smelting, <b><a href="#Page_433">433</a>-<a href="#Page_437">437</a></b>
+</li><li>For melting lead, <b><a href="#Page_390">390</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_498">498</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Heavenly Host Mine</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_66"><i>Himmelisch H�z</i> Mine</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_48" id="I1_48"></a><span class="smcap">Heavy Spar</span>, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Hebrews.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Knowledge of antimony, <a href="#Notes_428">428</a>
+</li><li>Silver-lead smelting, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>
+</li><li>Term for tin, <a href="#Notes_412">412</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Hematite</span>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Hemicycle</span> (<i>Hemicyclium</i>), <b><a href="#Page_137">137</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Heraclion</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_83">Lodestone</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Herdplei</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_64">Hearth-Lead</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Hiero, King</span>, <b><a href="#Page_247">247</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_247">247</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_65" id="I1_65"></a><span class="smcap">High Peak</span> (Derbyshire).
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mining law, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+</li><li>Nomenclature in mines, <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>
+</li><li>Saxon customs, connection with, <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>; <a href="#Notes_85">85</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_66" id="I1_66"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Himmelisch H�z</i> mine</span>, <b><a href="#Page_74">74</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_92">92</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_75">75</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Hoe</span>, <b><a href="#Page_152">152</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Holidays of Miners</span>, <b><a href="#Page_99">99</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Horn Silver</span>, <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Horns of Deer</span>, <b><a href="#Page_230">230</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Hornstone</span>, <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Hungary.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cupellation, <b><a href="#Page_483">483</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_624" id="Page_624"></a>[Pg 624]</span><span class="smcap"><i>H�ttenrauch</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_123"><i>Pompholyx</i></a>).
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Iglau, Charter of</span>, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Incense in Cupellation Furnaces</span>, <b><a href="#Page_472">472</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Indications of Ore</span>, <b><a href="#Page_106">106</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_107">107</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Ingestores</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_144">Shovellers</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">India.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Steel, <a href="#Notes_423">423</a>
+</li><li>Zinc, <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Intervenium</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_51">51</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_50">50</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Investment in Mines</span>, <b><a href="#Page_26">26</a>-<a href="#Page_29">29</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Iron</span>, <a href="#Notes_420">420</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>; <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cast, <a href="#Notes_420">420</a>
+</li><li>Censure of, <b><a href="#Page_11">11</a></b>
+</li><li>Indications of, <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>
+</li><li>Malleable, <a href="#Notes_420">420</a>
+</li><li>Smelting, <b><a href="#Page_420">420</a>-<a href="#Page_426">426</a></b>
+</li><li>Sulphur harmful to, <b><a href="#Page_273">273</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Iron Age</span>, <a href="#Notes_420">420</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Iron Filings</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_68">Iron-Scales</a>), <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Use in assaying, <b><a href="#Page_234">234</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_238">238</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_246">246</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Iron Ore.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Assaying of, <b><a href="#Page_247">247</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting of, <b><a href="#Page_420">420</a>-<a href="#Page_426">426</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_67" id="I1_67"></a><span class="smcap">Iron-rust</span>, <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_474">474</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>; <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_68" id="I1_68"></a><span class="smcap">Iron-scales</span>, <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Flux, <b><a href="#Page_234">234</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in smelting gold, <b><a href="#Page_398">398</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in smelting silver, <b><a href="#Page_400">400</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in making nitric acid, <b><a href="#Page_440">440</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in parting gold from copper, <b><a href="#Page_464">464</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Iron-slag</span>, <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>As a flux, <b><a href="#Page_234">234</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_235">235</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_69" id="I1_69"></a><span class="smcap">Ironstone</span>, <b><a href="#Page_390">390</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Italians.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alluvial mining in Germany, <b><a href="#Page_334">334</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Italy.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mining formerly forbidden, <b><a href="#Page_8">8</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Jade</span>, <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Japan.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Steel, <a href="#Notes_423">423</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Jasper</span>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>; <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Jaspis</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Jet</span>, <a href="#Notes_34">34</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Jigging Sieve</span>, <b><a href="#Page_310">310</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>; <a href="#Notes_283">283</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Joachimsthal</span>, <a href="#Page_vi">VI</a>.
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>First stamp-mill, <a href="#Notes_281">281</a>
+</li><li>Mining shares and profits, <b><a href="#Page_91">91</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_92">92</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>J�denstein</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_72"><i>Lapis Judaicus</i></a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Juices</span>, <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>; <a href="#Notes_47">47</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Agricola's theory, <a href="#Notes_46">46</a>; <a href="#Notes_52">52</a>
+</li><li>From springs and streams, <b><a href="#Page_33">33</a></b>
+</li><li>Stone juice, <a href="#Notes_46">46</a>; <a href="#Notes_49">49</a>
+</li><li>Tastes of, <b><a href="#Page_34">34</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_70" id="I1_70"></a><span class="smcap">Juices, Solidified.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Agricola's view of, <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>; <a href="#Notes_49">49</a>
+</li><li>Extraction of metals from, <b><a href="#Page_350">350</a></b>
+</li><li>Preparation of, <b><a href="#Page_545">545</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Julian Alps.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Stamp-milling in, <b><a href="#Page_319">319</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Junctions</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_167">Veins, Intersections of</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Jurati</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_71">Jurors</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_71" id="I1_71"></a><span class="smcap">Jurors</span>, <b><a href="#Page_22">22</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_92">92</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_96">96</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>In English mining custom, <a href="#Notes_85">85</a>
+</li><li>Relations to Bergmeister, <b><a href="#Page_95">95</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Justinian Code.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mines, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap"><i>Kalchstein</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_77">Limestone</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Kammschale</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_127">127</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Kaolinite</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_124">Porcelain Clay</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Katzensilber</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_94">Mica</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">King.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Deputy, <b><a href="#Page_94">94</a></b>
+</li><li>Right to a meer, <b><a href="#Page_81">81</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Kinstock</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_79">Liquation Cakes, Exhausted</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Kis</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_127">Pyrites</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Knockers</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_59">Gnomes</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Kobelt</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_30">Cobalt</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">K�lergang Vein</span>, <b><a href="#Page_42">42</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">K�nigsberg.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Fire-setting, <a href="#Notes_119">119</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Kupferglas ertz</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_35">Copper Glance</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Kupferschiefer</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_40">Copper Schists</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Kuttenberg.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Depths of shafts, <a href="#Notes_102">102</a>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Labour Condition in Mining Title</span>, <b><a href="#Page_92">92</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>-<a href="#Notes_85">85</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Lacedaemonians</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_156">Spartans</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Lachter</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_50">Fathom</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ladderways in Shafts</span>, <b><a href="#Page_124">124</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_212">212</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ladle for Bullion</span>, <b><a href="#Page_382">382</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Lapis aerarius</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_36">Copper Ore</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Lapis alabandicus</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_380">380</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_72" id="I1_72"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Lapis Judaicus</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_115">115</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Lapis specularis</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_62">Gypsum</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Laths</span> (Lagging), <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_73" id="I1_73"></a><span class="smcap">La Tolfa.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alum manufacture, <a href="#Notes_565">565</a>
+</li><li>Discovery of, <a href="#Notes_570">570</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Laurion (Laurium), Mt.</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_107">Mt. Laurion, Mines of</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Lautental, Liquation at</span>, <a href="#Notes_491">491</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Law</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_101">Mining Law</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Law-suits over Shares in Mines</span>, <b><a href="#Page_94">94</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Lead</span>, <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>; <a href="#Notes_390">390</a>; <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Censure of, <b><a href="#Page_11">11</a></b>
+</li><li>Cupellation, <b><a href="#Page_464">464</a>-<a href="#Page_483">483</a></b>
+</li><li>Melting prior to liquation, <b><a href="#Page_500">500</a></b>
+</li><li>In liquation cakes, <b><a href="#Page_505">505</a>-<a href="#Page_506">506</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_505">505</a>; <a href="#Notes_506">506</a>
+</li><li>Refining silver, <b><a href="#Page_483">483</a>-<a href="#Page_490">490</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting of ores, <b><a href="#Page_388">388</a>-<a href="#Page_392">392</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_400">400</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in assaying, <b><a href="#Page_232">232</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_239">239</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_242">242</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_244">244</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_249">249</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_251">251</a></b>
+</li><li>Washing in sluices, <b><a href="#Page_347">347</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Lead-ash</span>, <b><a href="#Page_237">237</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_237">237</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>As a flux, <b><a href="#Page_234">234</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in parting gold from copper, <b><a href="#Page_463">463</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Lead Bath</span>, <b><a href="#Page_381">381</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Lead-glass</span>, <a href="#Notes_236">236</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Lead Granules</span>, <b><a href="#Page_239">239</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_463">463</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Leading</span> (in liquation), <b><a href="#Page_304">304</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_507">507</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_513">513</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_491">491</a>; <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>; <a href="#Notes_504">504</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Components of the charge, <b><a href="#Page_505">505</a>-<a href="#Page_509">509</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_74" id="I1_74"></a><span class="smcap">Lead Ochre</span>, <a href="#Notes_232">232</a>; <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Lead Ore.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Assay methods, <b><a href="#Page_245">245</a>-<a href="#Page_246">246</a></b>
+</li><li>Roasting, <b><a href="#Page_275">275</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting in blast furnace, <b><a href="#Page_390">390</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_408">408</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_75" id="I1_75"></a><span class="smcap">Lease, in Australian Title</span>, <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Leaves, Preparation of Bullion into</span>, <b><a href="#Page_444">444</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Leberthal</span>, <a href="#Notes_24">24</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Lees of <i>aqua</i> which separates Gold from Silver</span>, <a href="#Notes_234">234</a>; <a href="#Notes_443">443</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>As a flux, <b><a href="#Page_234">234</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_238">238</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Lees of Vinegar</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_8">Argol</a>), <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>As a flux, <b><a href="#Page_234">234</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_236">236</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_243">243</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_234">234</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Lees of Wine</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_8">Argol</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Lemnos, Island of</span>, <b><a href="#Page_31">31</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_76" id="I1_76"></a><span class="smcap">Lemnian Earth</span>, <a href="#Notes_31">31</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Leprosy of House Walls</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_138">Saltpetre</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Level</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_46">Drift</a>), <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Level, Plummet</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_122">Plummet Level</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_77" id="I1_77"></a><span class="smcap">Limestone</span>, <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>As a flux, <b><a href="#Page_236">236</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_390">390</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Limonite</span>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Limp</span>, <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Linares.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Hannibal's mines near, <a href="#Notes_42">42</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Lipari Islands.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alum from, <a href="#Notes_566">566</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Liquated Silver-lead</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_159"><i>Stannum</i></a> <i>and</i> <a href="#I1_147">Silver-lead</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_78" id="I1_78"></a><span class="smcap">Liquation</span>, <b><a href="#Page_519">519</a>-<a href="#Page_521">521</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_491">491</a>; <a href="#Notes_520">519</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Ash-coloured copper from, <b><a href="#Page_529">529</a></b>
+</li><li>Buildings for, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>
+</li><li>Furnace, <b><a href="#Page_515">515</a>-<a href="#Page_518">518</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>
+</li><li>Historical note on, <a href="#Notes_494">494</a>
+</li><li>Losses, <a href="#Notes_491">491</a>; <a href="#Notes_539">539</a>
+</li><li>Nomenclature, <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Liquation Cakes</span>, <b><a href="#Page_505">505</a>-<a href="#Page_509">509</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>; <a href="#Notes_505">505</a>; <a href="#Notes_506">506</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Enrichment of the lead, <b><a href="#Page_512">512</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_512">512</a>
+</li><li>Extraction of silver from, <a href="#Notes_512">512</a>
+</li><li>From bye-products of liquation, <b><a href="#Page_539">539</a>-<a href="#Page_540">540</a></b>
+</li><li>From copper bottoms, <b><a href="#Page_512">512</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_512">512</a>
+</li><li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_625" id="Page_625"></a>[Pg 625]</span>Proportion of lead in rich silver copper, <b><a href="#Page_509">509</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_79" id="I1_79"></a><span class="smcap">Liquation Cakes, Exhausted</span>, <b><a href="#Page_521">521</a>-<a href="#Page_526">526</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_406">406</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>; <a href="#Notes_520">520</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_80" id="I1_80"></a><span class="smcap">Liquation Slags</span>, <a href="#Notes_509">509</a>; <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>; <a href="#Notes_541">541</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Furnaces for, <b><a href="#Page_507">507</a></b>
+</li><li>Treatment of, <b><a href="#Page_541">541</a></b>
+
+</li></ul><a name="I1_81" id="I1_81"></a></li><li><span class="smcap">Liquation Thorns</span>, <b><a href="#Page_522">522</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_539">539</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>; <a href="#Notes_539">539</a>; <a href="#Notes_540">540</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>From cupellation, <b><a href="#Page_543">543</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_543">543</a>
+</li><li>From "drying" copper residues, <b><a href="#Page_529">529</a></b>
+
+</li></ul><a name="I1_82" id="I1_82"></a></li><li><span class="smcap">Litharge</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_43">Cupellation</a>), <b><a href="#Page_475">475</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_232">232</a>-<a href="#Page_238">238</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_466">466</a>; <a href="#Notes_476">476</a>; <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Use in reducing silver nitrate, <b><a href="#Page_447">447</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in smelting, <b><a href="#Page_379">379</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_398">398</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_400">400</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Lithargyrum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_82">Litharge</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_83" id="I1_83"></a><span class="smcap">Lodestone</span>, <b><a href="#Page_115">115</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>; <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>; <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Compass, <a href="#Notes_57">57</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Los Pozos de Anibal</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_42">42</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Lotores</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_173">Washers</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_84" id="I1_84"></a><span class="smcap">Lusitania.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Gold alluvial, <b><a href="#Page_347">347</a></b>
+</li><li>Sluices for gold washing, <b><a href="#Page_325">325</a></b>
+</li><li>Tin smelting, <b><a href="#Page_419">419</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Lute</span>, <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Preparation of for furnace linings, <b><a href="#Page_375">375</a>-<a href="#Page_376">376</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Lydia.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mining law, <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+</li><li>The King's mines, <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Lye</span>, <b><a href="#Page_558">558</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>; <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Use in making fluxes, <b><a href="#Page_236">236</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in parting, <b><a href="#Page_463">463</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap"><i>Magister Metallicorum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_18">Bergmeister</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Magister Monetariorum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_90">Master of the Mint</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Magnes</i></span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_83">Lodestone</a> <i>and</i> <a href="#I1_86">Manganese</a>), <b><a href="#Page_585">585</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>; <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>; <a href="#Notes_585">585</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Magnet</span>, <b><a href="#Page_247">247</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Garlic, <b><a href="#Page_39">39</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Magnetis</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_94">Mica</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Magnetite</span>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Malachite</span>, <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_85" id="I1_85"></a><span class="smcap">Maladies of Miners</span>, <b><a href="#Page_214">214</a>-<a href="#Page_217">217</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Maltha</span>, <a href="#Notes_581">581</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Manager</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_96">Mine Manager</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_86" id="I1_86"></a><span class="smcap">Manganese</span>, <a href="#Notes_586">586</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_87" id="I1_87"></a><span class="smcap">Mannsfeld Copper Slates</span>, <b><a href="#Page_126">126</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_279">279</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_127">127</a>; <a href="#Notes_273">273</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Map-making</span>, <a href="#Notes_129">129</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_88" id="I1_88"></a><span class="smcap">Marble</span>, <b><a href="#Page_115">115</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>; <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Marcasite</span>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>; <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>; <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Marga</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_89">Marl</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Marienberg</span>, <b><a href="#Page_xxxi">XXXI</a></b>; <a href="#Page_vi">VI</a>.
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_89" id="I1_89"></a><span class="smcap">Marl</span>, <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Marmelstein</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_88">Marble</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Marmor</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_88">Marble</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Marmor alabastrites</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_3">Alabaster</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Marmor glarea</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Massicot</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_74">Lead Ochre</a>), <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>; <a href="#Notes_232">232</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Master of the Horse</span>, <b><a href="#Page_81">81</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_90" id="I1_90"></a><span class="smcap">Master of the Mint</span>, <b><a href="#Page_95">95</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Matte</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_24">Cakes of Melted Pyrites</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Matte Smelting</span>, <b><a href="#Page_404">404</a>-<a href="#Page_407">407</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_91" id="I1_91"></a><span class="smcap">Measure</span> (unit of mining area), <b><a href="#Page_78">78</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Measures</span>, <a href="#Page_616">616</a>-<a href="#Page_617">617</a>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>; <a href="#Notes_550">550</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Medicine.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Knowledge necessary for miners, <b><a href="#Page_3">3</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Medulla saxorum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_124">Porcelain Clay</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_92" id="I1_92"></a><span class="smcap">Meer</span>, <b><a href="#Page_77">77</a>-<a href="#Page_89">89</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Boundary stones, <b><a href="#Page_87">87</a></b>
+</li><li>On <i>vena cumulata</i>, <b><a href="#Page_87">87</a></b>
+</li><li>On <i>vena dilatata</i>, <b><a href="#Page_86">86</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Meissen.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Dumps from mines, <b><a href="#Page_312">312</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_93" id="I1_93"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Melanteria</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_117">117</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>; <a href="#Notes_573">573</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Indication of copper, <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Melanterite</span>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Melos, Island of</span>, <a href="#Notes_566">566</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Menning</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_132">Red-lead</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Mergel</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_89">Marl</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Metals</span>, <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>; <a href="#Notes_44">44</a>; <a href="#Notes_51">51</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Advantages and uses, <b><a href="#Page_19">19</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_20">20</a></b>
+</li><li>Necessity to man, <b><a href="#Page_xxv">XXV</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_12">12</a>-<a href="#Page_13">13</a></b>
+</li><li>Not responsible for evil passions, <b><a href="#Page_15">15</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Metreta</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_153">153</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Mexico.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Patio process, <a href="#Notes_297">297</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_94" id="I1_94"></a><span class="smcap">Mica</span>, <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Middle Ages, Mining Law of</span>, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_95" id="I1_95"></a><span class="smcap">Mills for Grinding Ore</span>, <b><a href="#Page_294">294</a>-<a href="#Page_299">299</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_280">280</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Mimes</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_59">Gnomes</a>), <a href="#Notes_217">217</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Mine Captain</span>, <b><a href="#Page_26">26</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_96" id="I1_96"></a><span class="smcap">Mine Manager</span>, <b><a href="#Page_97">97</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_98">98</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Mineral Kingdom, Agricola's Divisions of</span>, <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Minerals</span>, <a href="#Page_594">594</a>; <a href="#Notes_108">108</a>; <a href="#Notes_48">48</a>; <a href="#Notes_51">51</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Compound, <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>; <a href="#Notes_51">51</a>
+</li><li>Mixed, <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>; <a href="#Notes_51">51</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_97" id="I1_97"></a><span class="smcap">Miners</span>, <b><a href="#Page_1">1</a>-<a href="#Page_4">4</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_25">25</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Duties and punishments, <b><a href="#Page_100">100</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_22">22</a></b>
+</li><li>Law (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_101">Mining Law</a>).
+</li><li>Litigation among, <b><a href="#Page_21">21</a></b>
+</li><li>Slaves as, <b><a href="#Page_23">23</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Mines.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Abandonment of, <b><a href="#Page_217">217</a></b>
+</li><li>Conditions desirable, <b><a href="#Page_30">30</a>-<a href="#Page_33">33</a></b>
+</li><li>Investments in, <b><a href="#Page_26">26</a>-<a href="#Page_29">29</a></b>
+</li><li>Management of, <b><a href="#Page_25">25</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_26">26</a></b>
+</li><li>Names of, <b><a href="#Page_42">42</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Mines Royal, Company of</span>, <a href="#Notes_283">283</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_98" id="I1_98"></a><span class="smcap">Mining</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_141">Sett</a>, <a href="#I1_75">Lease</a>, <a href="#I1_29">Claim</a>, <a href="#I1_92">Meer</a>, <i>etc.</i>).
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Criticisms of, <b><a href="#Page_4">4</a>-<a href="#Page_12">12</a></b>
+</li><li>Harmless and honourable, <b><a href="#Page_14">14</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_20">20</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_23">23</a></b>
+</li><li>Methods of breaking ore, <b><a href="#Page_117">117</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a></b>
+</li><li>Stoping, <b><a href="#Page_125">125</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_99" id="I1_99"></a><span class="smcap">Mining Clerk</span>, <b><a href="#Page_93">93</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_95">95</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_96">96</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Mining Companies</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_33">Companies, Mining</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_100" id="I1_100"></a><span class="smcap">Mining Foreman</span>, <b><a href="#Page_98">98</a>-<a href="#Page_99">99</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Frauds by, <b><a href="#Page_21">21</a>-<a href="#Page_22">22</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_101" id="I1_101"></a><span class="smcap">Mining Law</span>, <a href="#Notes_82">82</a>-<a href="#Notes_86">86</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Boundary stones, <b><a href="#Page_87">87</a></b>
+</li><li>Drainage requirements, <b><a href="#Page_92">92</a>-<a href="#Page_93">93</a></b>
+</li><li>England, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>-<a href="#Notes_86">86</a>
+</li><li>Europe, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+</li><li>Forfeiture of title, <b><a href="#Page_92">92</a>-<a href="#Page_93">93</a></b>
+</li><li>France, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+</li><li>Greek and Roman, <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+</li><li>Middle Ages, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>-<a href="#Notes_85">85</a>
+</li><li>Right of Overlord, Landowner, State and Miner, <a href="#Notes_82">82</a>
+</li><li>Tunnels, <b><a href="#Page_88">88</a>-<a href="#Page_89">89</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_102" id="I1_102"></a><span class="smcap">Mining Prefect</span>, <b><a href="#Page_26">26</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_94">94</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Mining Rights</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_101">Mining Law</a> <i>and</i> <a href="#I1_92">Meer</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Mining Terms, Old English</span>, <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>; <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Mining Tools</span>, <b><a href="#Page_149">149</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Buckets for ore, <b><a href="#Page_153">153</a>-<a href="#Page_154">154</a></b>
+</li><li>Buckets for water, <b><a href="#Page_157">157</a></b>
+</li><li>Trucks, <b><a href="#Page_156">156</a></b>
+</li><li>Wheelbarrows, <b><a href="#Page_155">155</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_103" id="I1_103"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Minium</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Quicksilver from, <a href="#Notes_433">433</a>
+</li><li>Red-lead, <a href="#Notes_232">232</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Minium secundarium</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_132">Red-lead</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Mispickel (<i>Mistpuckel</i>)</span>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_104" id="I1_104"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Misy</i></span> (the mineral), <a href="#Notes_573">573</a>; <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>; <a href="#Notes_403">403</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>An indication of copper, <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in parting gold and silver, <a href="#Notes_459">459</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Mitlere und obere offenbr�che</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_56">Furnace Accretions</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Modius</i></span>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a>; <a href="#Notes_405">405</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Moglitz.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Tin working, <b><a href="#Page_318">318</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Moil</span>, <a href="#Notes_150">150</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_105" id="I1_105"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Molybdaena</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>; <a href="#Notes_476">476</a>; <a href="#Notes_400">400</a>; <a href="#Notes_408">408</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Term for lead carbonates, <a href="#Notes_400">400</a>; <a href="#Notes_408">408</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Molybdenite</span>, <a href="#Notes_477">477</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Monetarius</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_32">Coiners</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Money, Assaying of</span>, <b><a href="#Page_251">251</a>-<a href="#Page_252">252</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Morano Glass Factories</span>, <b><a href="#Page_592">592</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Moravia.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cupellation, <b><a href="#Page_483">483</a></b>
+</li><li>Stamp-milling, <b><a href="#Page_321">321</a></b>
+</li><li>Washing gold ore, <b><a href="#Page_324">324</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Mordants</span>, <a href="#Notes_569">569</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Mortar-box</span>, <b><a href="#Page_279">279</a>-<a href="#Page_280">280</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_312">312</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_319">319</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_626" id="Page_626"></a>[Pg 626]</span><span class="smcap">Mountains.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Formation of, <b><a href="#Page_595">595</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_106" id="I1_106"></a><span class="smcap">Mt. Bermius.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Gold Mines of, <b><a href="#Page_26">26</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_107" id="I1_107"></a><span class="smcap">Mt. Laurion, Mines of</span>, <b><a href="#Page_27">27</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>-<a href="#Notes_29">29</a>; <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Crushing and concentration of ores, <a href="#Notes_281">281</a>
+</li><li>Cupellation, <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>
+</li><li>Mining law, <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+</li><li>Smelting appliances, <a href="#Notes_355">355</a>
+</li><li>Xenophon on, <b><a href="#Page_6">6</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Mt. Sinai.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Ancient copper smelting, <a href="#Notes_355">355</a>; <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Muffle Furnaces</span>, <b><a href="#Page_224">224</a>-<a href="#Page_228">228</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_239">239</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_108" id="I1_108"></a><span class="smcap">Muffles</span>, <b><a href="#Page_227">227</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_239">239</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Refining silver, <b><a href="#Page_489">489</a>-<a href="#Page_490">490</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">M�hlberg, Battle of</span>, <a href="#Page_x">X</a>.
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Murrhina</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_28">Chalcedony</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Muskets</span>, <b><a href="#Page_11">11</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Mycenae.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Copper, <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+</li><li>Silver-lead smelting, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Names of Mines</span>, <b><a href="#Page_42">42</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Naphtha</span>, <a href="#Notes_581">581</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_109" id="I1_109"></a><span class="smcap">Native Copper</span>, <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_110" id="I1_110"></a><span class="smcap">Native Iron</span>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Native Minerals</span>, <b><a href="#Page_107">107</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_111" id="I1_111"></a><span class="smcap">Native Silver</span>, <b><a href="#Page_269">269</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Natron</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_114"><i>Nitrum</i></a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Neolithic Furnaces</span>, <a href="#Notes_355">355</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Neusohl, Method of Screening Ore</span>, <b><a href="#Page_290">290</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Newbottle Abbey</span>, <a href="#Notes_35">35</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Nitocris, Bridge of</span>, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_112" id="I1_112"></a><span class="smcap">Nitric Acid</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_6"><i>Aqua valens</i></a>), <b><a href="#Page_439">439</a>-<a href="#Page_443">443</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_460">460</a>; <a href="#Notes_439">439</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Assay parting gold and silver, <b><a href="#Page_248">248</a></b>
+</li><li>Testing silver regulus with, <b><a href="#Page_449">449</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in cleaning gold dust, <b><a href="#Page_396">396</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_114" id="I1_114"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Nitrum</i></span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_153">Soda</a>), <a href="#Notes_558">558</a>; <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Nomenclature</span>, <a href="#Page_i">I</a>; <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mining law, <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+</li><li>Mining officials, <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Norici</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_388">388</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Conveyance of ore, <b><a href="#Page_169">169</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Normans.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mining Law in England, <a href="#Notes_85">85</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_115" id="I1_115"></a><span class="smcap">Notary</span>, <b><a href="#Page_94">94</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Nubia.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Early gold-mining, <a href="#Notes_399">399</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Nuremberg, Scale of Weights</span>, <b><a href="#Page_263">263</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap"><i>Obolus</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_25">25</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Ochra nativa</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ochre Yellow</span>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Offenbr�che</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_56">Furnace Accretions</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Olynthus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Betrayal to Philip of Macedon, <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Operculum</span>, <b><a href="#Page_441">441</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Orbis</span>, <b><a href="#Page_141">141</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_137">137</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ore</span> (<i>see various metals</i>, <a href="#I1_13">Assaying</a>, <a href="#I1_98">Mining</a>, <i>etc.</i>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ore Channels</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_26">Canales</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ore Deposits, Theory of</span>, <a href="#Page_xiii">XIII</a>; <a href="#Notes_43">43</a>-<a href="#Notes_53">53</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ore Dressing</span>, <b><a href="#Page_267">267</a>-<a href="#Page_351">351</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Burning, <b><a href="#Page_273">273</a></b>
+</li><li>Hand spalling, <b><a href="#Page_271">271</a>-<a href="#Page_272">272</a></b>
+</li><li>Sorting, <b><a href="#Page_268">268</a>-<a href="#Page_271">271</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Orguia</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_78">78</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>; <a href="#Page_617">617</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Orichalcum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_14"><i>Aurichalcum</i></a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_117" id="I1_117"></a><span class="smcap">Orpiment</span>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>; <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Colour of fumes, <b><a href="#Page_235">235</a></b>
+</li><li>Harmful to metals, <b><a href="#Page_273">273</a></b>
+</li><li>Indication of gold, etc., <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>
+</li><li>Roasted from ore, <b><a href="#Page_273">273</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in assaying, <b><a href="#Page_237">237</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Outcrops</span>, <a href="#Notes_68">68</a>; <a href="#Notes_43">43</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ox-blood in Salt Making</span>, <b><a href="#Page_552">552</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Pactolus, Gold Sands of</span>, <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Park's Process</span>, <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_118" id="I1_118"></a><span class="smcap">Parting Gold from Copper</span>, <b><a href="#Page_462">462</a>-<a href="#Page_464">464</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_119" id="I1_119"></a><span class="smcap">Parting Gold from Silver</span>, <b><a href="#Page_443">443</a>-<a href="#Page_460">460</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_458">458</a>-<a href="#Notes_463">463</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Antimony sulphide, <b><a href="#Page_451">451</a>-<a href="#Page_452">452</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_451">451</a>-<a href="#Notes_452">452</a>; <a href="#Notes_461">461</a>
+</li><li>Cementation, <b><a href="#Page_453">453</a>-<a href="#Page_457">457</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_453">453</a>-<a href="#Page_454">454</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_458">458</a></b>
+</li><li>Chlorine gas, <a href="#Notes_458">458</a>; <a href="#Notes_462">462</a>
+</li><li>Electrolysis, <a href="#Notes_458">458</a>; <a href="#Notes_462">462</a>
+</li><li>Nitric acid, <b><a href="#Page_443">443</a>-<a href="#Page_447">447</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_443">443</a>; <a href="#Notes_447">447</a>; <a href="#Notes_460">460</a>
+</li><li>Nitric acid (in assaying), <b><a href="#Page_247">247</a>-<a href="#Page_249">249</a></b>
+</li><li>Sulphur and copper, <b><a href="#Page_448">448</a>-<a href="#Page_451">451</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_448">448</a>; <a href="#Notes_461">461</a>
+</li><li>Sulphuric acid, <a href="#Notes_458">458</a>; <a href="#Notes_462">462</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Partitions</span>, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Passau, Peace of</span>, <a href="#Page_ix">IX</a>.
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Passus</i></span>, <a href="#Page_616">616</a>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Patio Process</span>, <a href="#Notes_297">297</a>-<a href="#Notes_298">298</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Pattinson's Process</span>, <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Peak, The</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_65">High Peak</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Pentremites</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Pergamum.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Brazen ox of, <b><a href="#Page_11">11</a></b>
+</li><li>Mines near, <b><a href="#Page_26">26</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Peripatetics</span>, <a href="#Page_xii">XII</a>.
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Theory of ore deposits, <b><a href="#Notes_47">47</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_44">44</a>
+</li><li>View of wealth, <b><a href="#Page_18">18</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Persians.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Ancient mining law, <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Pes</i></span>, <a href="#Page_616">616</a>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Pestles</span>, <b><a href="#Page_231">231</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_483">483</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Petroleum</span>, <a href="#Notes_581">581</a>-<a href="#Notes_582">582</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Phalaris, Brazen Bull of</span>, <b><a href="#Page_11">11</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Philosophy.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Knowledge necessary for miners, <b><a href="#Page_3">3</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Phoenicians.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Copper and bronze, <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+</li><li>In Thasos, <a href="#Notes_24">24</a>
+</li><li>Tin, <a href="#Notes_411">411</a>-<a href="#Notes_412">412</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Picks</span>, <b><a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Pickschiefer</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_11">Ash-coloured Copper</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Placer Mining</span>, <b><a href="#Page_321">321</a>-<a href="#Page_348">348</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Pleigeel</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_74">Lead Ochre</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Pleiweis</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_175">White-lead</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Pleygang Vein</span>, <b><a href="#Page_42">42</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Plumbago</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Plumbum candidum</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>; <a href="#Notes_3">3</a>; <a href="#Notes_473">473</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Plumbum cinereum</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>; <a href="#Notes_3">3</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Plumbum nigrum lutei coloris</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>; <a href="#Notes_3">3</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_122" id="I1_122"></a><span class="smcap">Plummet Level.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Standing, <b><a href="#Page_143">143</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_137">137</a>
+</li><li>Suspended, <b><a href="#Page_145">145</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_146">146</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_137">137</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Pockets in Alluvial Sluices</span>, <b><a href="#Page_322">322</a>-<a href="#Page_330">330</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Poisonous Fumes</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_55">Fumes</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Poland.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cupellation, <b><a href="#Page_483">483</a></b>
+</li><li>Lead ore washing, <b><a href="#Page_347">347</a></b>
+</li><li>Lead smelting, <b><a href="#Page_392">392</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Poletae</i>, Tablets of the</span>, <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Poling Copper</span>, <b><a href="#Page_531">531</a>-<a href="#Page_538">538</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_535">535</a>-<a href="#Notes_536">536</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Pompeiopolis.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Arsenic mine at, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_123" id="I1_123"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Pompholyx</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_394">394</a>; <a href="#Notes_113">113</a>-<a href="#Notes_114">114</a>; <a href="#Notes_403">403</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>From copper refinings, <b><a href="#Page_538">538</a></b>
+</li><li>From cupellation, <b><a href="#Page_476">476</a></b>
+</li><li>From dust-chambers, <b><a href="#Page_394">394</a></b>
+</li><li>From roasting ore, <b><a href="#Page_278">278</a></b>
+</li><li>Poisonous, <b><a href="#Page_214">214</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_215">215</a>
+</li><li>Used for brass making, <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_124" id="I1_124"></a><span class="smcap">Porcelain Clay</span>, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_125" id="I1_125"></a><span class="smcap">Potash</span>, <b><a href="#Page_558">558</a>-<a href="#Page_559">559</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_558">558</a>; <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>; <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>In <i>Sal artificiosus</i>, <b><a href="#Page_463">463</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Pottery, Egyptian</span>, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Potosi</span>, <a href="#Notes_298">298</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Pozos de Anibal, Los</span>, <a href="#Notes_42">42</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Pous</i></span>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Praefectus cuniculi</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Praefectus fodinae</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_96">Mine Manager</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Praefectus metallorum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_102">Mining Prefect</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Praeses cuniculi</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Praeses fodinae</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_100">Mining Foreman</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Precious and Base Metals</span>, <a href="#Notes_439">439</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Primgap</span>, <a href="#Notes_80">80</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Procurator metallorum</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Prospecting</span>, <b><a href="#Page_35">35</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Proustite</span>, <a href="#Notes_108">108</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Pumps</span>, <b><a href="#Page_171">171</a>-<a href="#Page_200">200</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_149">149</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Chain, <b><a href="#Page_171">171</a>-<a href="#Page_175">175</a></b>
+</li><li>Rag and chain, <b><a href="#Page_188">188</a>-<a href="#Page_200">200</a></b>
+</li><li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_627" id="Page_627"></a>[Pg 627]</span>Suction, <b><a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_188">188</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Purgator argenti</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_148">Silver Refiner</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Purser</span>, <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Puteoli</span>, <b><a href="#Page_501">501</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Pyrargyrite</span>, <a href="#Notes_108">108</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Pyriten argentum</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_408">408</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_127" id="I1_127"></a><span class="smcap">Pyrites</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_24">Cakes of Melted Pyrites</a>), <a href="#Notes_51">51</a>; <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>; <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>; <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>As a flux, <b><a href="#Page_234">234</a></b>
+</li><li>Assay for gold, <b><a href="#Page_243">243</a></b>
+</li><li>In tin concentrates, <b><a href="#Page_348">348</a></b>
+</li><li>Latin and German terms, <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+</li><li>Roasting, <b><a href="#Page_273">273</a>-<a href="#Page_274">274</a></b>
+</li><li>Roasting cakes of, <b><a href="#Page_349">349</a>-<a href="#Page_351">351</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting for gold and silver, <b><a href="#Page_399">399</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_401">401</a></b>
+</li><li>Used in making vitriol, <a href="#Notes_578">578</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Pyrites aerosus</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_37">Copper Pyrites</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Pyrites aurei coloris</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_37">Copper Pyrites</a>).
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><a name="I1_129" id="I1_129"></a><span class="smcap">Quartz</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_161">Stones which easily melt</a>), <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>As a flux, <a href="#Notes_380">380</a>
+</li><li>An indication of ore, <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>
+</li><li>Material of glass, <a href="#Notes_380">380</a>
+</li><li>Silver ore, <b><a href="#Page_113">113</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting of, <b><a href="#Page_401">401</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Quarzum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_129">Quartz</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Quertze</span>, <a href="#Notes_380">380</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_130" id="I1_130"></a><span class="smcap">Quicksilver</span>, <a href="#Notes_432">432</a>; <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>; <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Amalgamation of gilt objects, <b><a href="#Page_461">461</a></b>
+</li><li>Amalgamation of gold dust, <b><a href="#Page_396">396</a></b>
+</li><li>Amalgamation of gold ores, <b><a href="#Page_297">297</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_297">297</a>
+</li><li>Assaying methods, <b><a href="#Page_247">247</a></b>
+</li><li>Ore, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>-<a href="#Page_432">432</a>
+</li><li>Use in assaying gold ore, <b><a href="#Page_243">243</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Rag and Chain Pumps</span>, <b><a href="#Page_188">188</a>-<a href="#Page_200">200</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Rake Veins</span>, <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Rammelsberg.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Collapse of mines, <b><a href="#Page_216">216</a></b>
+</li><li>Discovery, <a href="#Notes_37">37</a>
+</li><li>Early vitriol making, <a href="#Notes_572">572</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Rauchstein</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_127">127</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_131" id="I1_131"></a><span class="smcap">Realgar</span>, <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>; <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Colour of fumes, <b><a href="#Page_235">235</a></b>
+</li><li>Harmful to metals, <b><a href="#Page_273">273</a></b>
+</li><li>Indication of ore, <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>
+</li><li>Roasted from ore, <b><a href="#Page_273">273</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Rederstein</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_166"><i>Trochitis</i></a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_132" id="I1_132"></a><span class="smcap">Red-lead</span>, <a href="#Notes_232">232</a>; <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Use in parting gold from copper, <b><a href="#Page_463">463</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in parting gold from silver, <b><a href="#Page_459">459</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Refined Salt</span>, <b><a href="#Page_454">454</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_463">463</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Refinery for Silver and Copper</span>, <b><a href="#Page_491">491</a>-<a href="#Page_498">498</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_133" id="I1_133"></a><span class="smcap">Refining Gold from Copper</span>, <b><a href="#Page_462">462</a>-<a href="#Page_464">464</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Refining Gold from Silver</span>, <b><a href="#Page_443">443</a>-<a href="#Page_458">458</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_134" id="I1_134"></a><span class="smcap">Refining-hearth</span>, <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Refining Silver</span>, <b><a href="#Page_483">483</a>-<a href="#Page_490">490</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>; <a href="#Notes_484">484</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Refining Silver from Lead</span>, <b><a href="#Page_464">464</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Reformation, The</span>, <a href="#Page_v">V</a>; <a href="#Page_viii">VIII</a>.
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Re-opening of Old Mines</span>, <b><a href="#Page_217">217</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Revival of Learning.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Agricola's position in, <a href="#Page_xiii">XIII</a>.
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Reward Lease, in Australian Law</span>, <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Rhaetia</span>, <a href="#Notes_388">388</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Rhaetian Alps.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Stamp milling in, <b><a href="#Page_319">319</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Ring-fire</span>, <b><a href="#Page_448">448</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Rio Tinto Mines.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Roman methods of smelting, <a href="#Notes_405">405</a>
+</li><li>Roman water-wheels, <a href="#Notes_149">149</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Risks of Mining</span>, <b><a href="#Page_28">28</a>-<a href="#Page_29">29</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Rither</span> (a horse), <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_135" id="I1_135"></a><span class="smcap">Roasted Copper</span>, <b><a href="#Page_233">233</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Roasting</span>, <b><a href="#Page_273">273</a>-<a href="#Page_279">279</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Heap roasting, <b><a href="#Page_274">274</a>-<a href="#Page_275">275</a></b>
+</li><li>In furnaces, <b><a href="#Page_276">276</a></b>
+</li><li>Mattes, <b><a href="#Page_349">349</a>-<a href="#Page_351">351</a></b>
+</li><li>Prior to assaying, <b><a href="#Page_231">231</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Rocks</span>, <b><a href="#Page_119">119</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Rock-salt</span>, <b><a href="#Page_548">548</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Use in cementation, <b><a href="#Page_454">454</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Roman Alum</span>, <a href="#Notes_565">565</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Romans.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Amalgamation, <a href="#Notes_297">297</a>
+</li><li>Antimony, <a href="#Notes_428">428</a>
+</li><li>Brass making, <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>
+</li><li>Companies, <a href="#Notes_90">90</a>
+</li><li>Copper smelting, <a href="#Notes_404">404</a>-<a href="#Notes_405">405</a>
+</li><li>Mining law, <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+</li><li>Minium Company, <a href="#Notes_232">232</a>
+</li><li>Quicksilver, <a href="#Notes_433">433</a>
+</li><li>Roasting, <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+</li><li>Silver-lead smelting, <a href="#Notes_392">392</a>
+</li><li>Washing of ore, <a href="#Notes_281">281</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Rosette Copper</span>, <b><a href="#Page_538">538</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_535">535</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Rosgeel</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_131">Realgar</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ruby Copper</span>, <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>; <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_136" id="I1_136"></a><span class="smcap">Ruby Silver</span>, <a href="#Notes_51">51</a>; <a href="#Notes_108">108</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Assaying of, <b><a href="#Page_244">244</a></b>
+</li><li>Cupellation, <b><a href="#Page_473">473</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Rudis</i></span> Ores, <a href="#Notes_108">108</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Rust</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_67">Iron-rust</a>).
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Sabines</span>, <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Saigerd�rner</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_81">Liquation Thorns</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Saigerwerk</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_159"><i>Stannum</i></a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Salamander har</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_10">Asbestos</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Salamis, Battle of</span>, <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Sal-ammoniac</span>, <b><a href="#Page_560">560</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_560">560</a>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>In cements for parting gold and silver, <b><a href="#Page_454">454</a>-<a href="#Page_457">457</a></b>
+</li><li>In making <i>aqua valens</i>, <b><a href="#Page_441">441</a></b>
+</li><li>Uses in cupellation, <b><a href="#Page_474">474</a></b>
+</li><li>Uses in making <i>aqua regia</i>, <a href="#Notes_460">460</a>
+</li><li>Uses in parting gold from copper, <b><a href="#Page_463">463</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Sal artificiosus</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_236">236</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_463">463</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_236">236</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>In assaying, <b><a href="#Page_242">242</a></b>
+</li><li>As a flux, <b><a href="#Page_234">234</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_137" id="I1_137"></a><span class="smcap">Salt</span>, <b><a href="#Page_545">545</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_556">556</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_546">546</a>; <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>As a flux, <b><a href="#Page_234">234</a>-<a href="#Page_238">238</a></b>
+</li><li>Pans, <b><a href="#Page_545">545</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_546">546</a></b>
+</li><li>Solidified juice, <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>
+</li><li>Use in cementation, <b><a href="#Page_454">454</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_454">454</a>
+</li><li>Use in parting gold from copper, <b><a href="#Page_463">463</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_464">464</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in smelting ores, <b><a href="#Page_396">396</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_400">400</a></b>
+</li><li>Wells, <b><a href="#Page_546">546</a>-<a href="#Page_547">547</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Salt made from Ashes of Musk Ivy</span>, <a href="#Notes_560">560</a>; <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Sal torrefactus</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_242">242</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>; <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Sal tostus</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_233">233</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_138" id="I1_138"></a><span class="smcap">Saltpetre</span>, <b><a href="#Page_561">561</a>-<a href="#Page_564">564</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_561">561</a>; <a href="#Notes_562">562</a>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>As a flux, <b><a href="#Page_233">233</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_238">238</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_245">245</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_247">247</a></b>
+</li><li>In smelting gold concentrates, <b><a href="#Page_398">398</a></b>
+</li><li>Uses in cementation, <b><a href="#Page_454">454</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_454">454</a>
+</li><li>Uses in making nitric acid, <b><a href="#Page_439">439</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_440">440</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_447">447</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_454">454</a></b>
+</li><li>Uses in melting silver nitrate, <b><a href="#Page_447">447</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Sampling Copper Bullion</span>, <b><a href="#Page_249">249</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Sand</span>, <b><a href="#Page_117">117</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Sandaraca</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_131">Realgar</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Sandiver</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_58">Glass-galls</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Sarda</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_27">Carnelian</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Saxony.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>High Peak customs from, <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>; <a href="#Notes_85">85</a>
+</li><li>Political state in Agricola's time, <a href="#Page_viii">VIII</a>; <a href="#Page_ix">IX</a>.
+</li><li>Reformation, <a href="#Page_ix">IX</a>.
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Saxum calcis</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_77">Limestone</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Scales of Fineness</span>, <a href="#Notes_253">253</a>; <a href="#Page_617">617</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Scapte-Hyle, Mines of</span>, <a href="#Notes_23">23</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Schemnitz.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Age of mines, <b><a href="#Page_5">5</a></b>
+</li><li>Gunpowder for blasting, <a href="#Notes_119">119</a>
+</li><li>Pumps, <b><a href="#Page_194">194</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Schist</span>, <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Schistos</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_69">Ironstone</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Schlackenwald.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Ore washing, <b><a href="#Page_304">304</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Schmalkalden League</span>, <a href="#Page_ix">IX</a>.
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Schmalkalden War</span>, <a href="#Page_ix">IX</a>; <a href="#Page_x">X</a>.
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Schneeberg</span>, <b><a href="#Page_xxxi">XXXI</a></b>; <a href="#Page_vi">VI</a>.
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cobalt, <b><a href="#Notes_435">435</a></b>
+</li><li>Depth of shafts, <a href="#Notes_102">102</a>
+</li><li>Ore stamping, <a href="#Notes_281">281</a>
+</li><li>Shares, <b><a href="#Page_91">91</a></b>
+</li><li>St. George mine, <b><a href="#Page_91">91</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_74">74</a>; <a href="#Notes_75">75</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Schwartz-atrament</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_93"><i>Melanteria</i></a> <i>and</i> <a href="#I1_155"><i>Sory</i></a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_628" id="Page_628"></a>[Pg 628]</span><span class="smcap">Scorification Assay</span>, <b><a href="#Page_239">239</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Scorifier</span>, <b><a href="#Page_228">228</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_230">230</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Assays in, <b><a href="#Page_238">238</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_239">239</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_139" id="I1_139"></a><span class="smcap">Screening Ore</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_145">Sifting Ore</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Screens</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_139">Screening</a>), <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>In stamp-mill, <b><a href="#Page_315">315</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Scriba fodinarum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_99">Mining Clerk</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Scriba magistri metallicorum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_19">Bergmeister's Clerk</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Scriba partium</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_143">Share Clerk</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Scum of Lead from Cupellation</span>, <b><a href="#Page_475">475</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Scythians.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Wealth condemned, <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_15">15</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Seams in the Rocks</span>, <b><a href="#Page_72">72</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_43">43</a>; <a href="#Notes_47">47</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Indications of ore, <b><a href="#Page_67">67</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_107">107</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Sea-Water, Salt from</span>, <b><a href="#Page_545">545</a>-<a href="#Page_546">546</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Sesterce</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_448">448</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_141" id="I1_141"></a><span class="smcap">Sett</span>, <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Settling Pits</span>, <b><a href="#Page_316">316</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Shaft-houses</span>, <b><a href="#Page_102">102</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_142" id="I1_142"></a><span class="smcap">Shafts</span>, <b><a href="#Page_102">102</a>-<a href="#Page_107">107</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_122">122</a>-<a href="#Page_124">124</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Surveys of, <b><a href="#Page_129">129</a>-<a href="#Page_135">135</a></b>
+</li><li><i>Venae cumulatae</i>, <b><a href="#Page_128">128</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Shakes</span>, <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_143" id="I1_143"></a><span class="smcap">Share Clerk</span>, <b><a href="#Page_97">97</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_93">93</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Share in Mines</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_33">Companies, Mining</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Shears for Cutting Native Silver</span>, <b><a href="#Page_269">269</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Shift</span>, <b><a href="#Page_99">99</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_92">92</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Shoes</span> (stamp), <b><a href="#Page_285">285</a>-<a href="#Page_286">286</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_144" id="I1_144"></a><span class="smcap">Shovellers</span>, <b><a href="#Page_153">153</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_169">169</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Sideritis</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_83">Lodestone</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Siegelstein</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_83">Lodestone</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Sieves.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>For charcoal, <b><a href="#Page_375">375</a></b>
+</li><li>For crushed ore, <b><a href="#Page_287">287</a>-<a href="#Page_293">293</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_341">341</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_145" id="I1_145"></a><span class="smcap">Sifting Ore</span>, <b><a href="#Page_287">287</a>-<a href="#Page_293">293</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Signator publicus</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_115">Notary</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Silberweis</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_94">Mica</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Silex</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>; <a href="#Notes_118">118</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Silver</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_13">Assaying</a>, <a href="#I1_78">Liquation</a>, <a href="#I1_118">Parting</a>, <a href="#I1_133">Refining</a>, <i>etc.</i>), <a href="#Notes_390">390</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>; <a href="#Notes_108">108</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Amalgamation, <a href="#Notes_297">297</a>; <a href="#Notes_300">300</a>
+</li><li>Assaying, <b><a href="#Page_248">248</a>-<a href="#Page_251">251</a></b>
+</li><li>Cupellation, <b><a href="#Page_464">464</a>-<a href="#Page_483">483</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_241">241</a></b>
+</li><li>"Drying" copper residues from liquation, <a href="#Notes_529">529</a>
+</li><li>Enrichment in copper bottoms, <b><a href="#Page_510">510</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_510">510</a>
+</li><li>Exhausted liquation cakes, <a href="#Notes_524">524</a>
+</li><li>Indicated by bismuth, etc., <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>
+</li><li>Liquation, <b><a href="#Page_505">505</a>-<a href="#Page_507">507</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_506">506</a>; <a href="#Notes_509">509</a>; <a href="#Notes_512">512</a>
+</li><li>Parting from gold (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_119">Parting Gold and Silver</a>).
+</li><li>Parting from iron, <b><a href="#Page_544">544</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_544">544</a>
+</li><li>Precipitation from solution in copper bowl, <b><a href="#Page_444">444</a></b>
+</li><li>Refining, <b><a href="#Page_483">483</a>-<a href="#Page_490">490</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>; <a href="#Notes_484">484</a>
+</li><li>Smelting of ores, <b><a href="#Page_381">381</a>-<a href="#Page_382">382</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_386">386</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_388">388</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_390">390</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_400">400</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_402">402</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in clarification of nitric acid, <b><a href="#Page_443">443</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_443">443</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Silver, Ruby</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_136">Ruby Silver</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_146" id="I1_146"></a><span class="smcap">Silver Glance</span>, <a href="#Notes_108">108</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Assaying, <b><a href="#Page_244">244</a></b>
+</li><li>Cupellation, <b><a href="#Page_473">473</a></b>
+</li><li>Dressing, <b><a href="#Page_269">269</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_147" id="I1_147"></a><span class="smcap">Silver-Lead Alloy</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_159"><i>Stannum</i></a>, <i>etc.</i>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Silver Ores</span>, <b><a href="#Page_108">108</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_108">108</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Assaying, <b><a href="#Page_242">242</a>-<a href="#Page_244">244</a></b>
+</li><li>Assaying cupriferous ores, <b><a href="#Page_245">245</a></b>
+</li><li>Fluxes required in assaying, <b><a href="#Page_235">235</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting cupriferous ores, <b><a href="#Page_404">404</a>-<a href="#Page_407">407</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Silver-Plating</span>, <a href="#Notes_460">460</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_148" id="I1_148"></a><span class="smcap">Silver Refiner</span>, <b><a href="#Page_95">95</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Silver Refining</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_133">Refining</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Silver Veins</span>, <b><a href="#Page_117">117</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Singing by Miners</span>, <b><a href="#Page_118">118</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Sintering Concentrates</span>, <b><a href="#Page_401">401</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Slags</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_80">Liquation Slags</a>), <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>From blast furnace, <b><a href="#Page_379">379</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_381">381</a></b>
+</li><li>From liquation, <a href="#Notes_491">491</a>; <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>; <a href="#Notes_523">523</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Slaves as Miners</span>, <b><a href="#Page_23">23</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>In Greek mines, <b><a href="#Page_25">25</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_25">25</a>; <a href="#Notes_28">28</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Slough</span> (tunnel), <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_149" id="I1_149"></a><span class="smcap">Sluices</span>, <b><a href="#Page_319">319</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_322">322</a>-<a href="#Page_348">348</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_150" id="I1_150"></a><span class="smcap">Smallite</span>, <a href="#Notes_113">113</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Smalt</span>, <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Smega</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_404">404</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_151" id="I1_151"></a><span class="smcap">Smelters</span>, <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_152" id="I1_152"></a><span class="smcap">Smelting</span> (<i>see also various metals</i>), <b><a href="#Page_379">379</a>-<a href="#Page_390">390</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_353">353</a>-<a href="#Notes_355">355</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Assaying compared, <b><a href="#Page_220">220</a></b>
+</li><li>Building for, <b><a href="#Page_355">355</a>-<a href="#Page_361">361</a></b>
+</li><li>Objects of, <b><a href="#Page_353">353</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Smirgel</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_49">Emery</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Smiris</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_49">Emery</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Smyrna.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mines near, <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Snake-Bites</span>, <a href="#Notes_31">31</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_153" id="I1_153"></a><span class="smcap">Soda</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_114"><i>Nitrum</i></a>), <b><a href="#Page_558">558</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_559">559</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>As a flux, <b><a href="#Page_233">233</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_234">234</a></b>
+</li><li>Historical notes, <a href="#Notes_558">558</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>
+</li><li>Solidified juice, <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Sole</span>, <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Solidified Juices</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_70">Juices, Solidified</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Solifuga</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_216">216</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_216">216</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_154" id="I1_154"></a><span class="smcap">Sorters</span>, <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Sorting Ore</span>, <b><a href="#Page_268">268</a>-<a href="#Page_271">271</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_155" id="I1_155"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Sory</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>; <a href="#Notes_403">403</a>; <a href="#Notes_573">573</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Sows</span>, <b><a href="#Page_376">376</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_386">386</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_376">376</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Spain</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_84">Lusitania</a>).
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Ancient silver-lead mines, <a href="#Notes_149">149</a>; <a href="#Notes_392">392</a>
+</li><li>Ancient silver mines of Carthage, <b><a href="#Page_27">27</a></b>
+</li><li>Ancient tin mines, <a href="#Notes_411">411</a>-<a href="#Notes_412">412</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Spalling Ore</span>, <b><a href="#Page_271">271</a>-<a href="#Page_272">272</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Spangen</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_166"><i>Trochitis</i></a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Spanschgr�n</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_171">Verdigris</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_156" id="I1_156"></a><span class="smcap">Spartans.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Gold and silver forbidden, <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_15">15</a></b>
+</li><li>Interference with Athenian mines, <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Spat</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_48">Heavy Spar</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Spelter</span>, <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Sphalerite</span>, <a href="#Notes_113">113</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Spiauter</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Spiesglas</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_160"><i>Stibium</i></a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Spines of Fishes for Cupels</span>, <b><a href="#Page_230">230</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Spodos</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_538">538</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_394">394</a>; <a href="#Notes_113">113</a>; <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Spuma argenti</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_82">Litharge</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Staffordshire.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>First pumping engine, <a href="#Notes_149">149</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Stalagmites</span>, <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Stall Roasting</span>, <b><a href="#Page_350">350</a>-<a href="#Page_351">351</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Stamp</span>, <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>For breaking copper cakes, <b><a href="#Page_501">501</a>-<a href="#Page_503">503</a></b>
+</li><li>For crushing crucible lining, <b><a href="#Page_373">373</a>-<a href="#Page_375">375</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Stamping Refined Silver</span>, <b><a href="#Page_489">489</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_157" id="I1_157"></a><span class="smcap">Stamp-mill</span>, <b><a href="#Page_279">279</a>-<a href="#Page_287">287</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_281">281</a>-<a href="#Notes_282">282</a>; <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Wet ore, <b><a href="#Page_312">312</a>-<a href="#Page_314">314</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_319">319</a>-<a href="#Page_321">321</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Standing Plummet Level</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_122">Plummet Level</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Stannaries</span>, <a href="#Notes_85">85</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_159" id="I1_159"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Stannum</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_473">473</a>; <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>; <a href="#Notes_384">384</a>; <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Steel</span>, <b><a href="#Page_423">423</a>-<a href="#Page_426">426</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_421">422</a>-<a href="#Notes_423">423</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Steiger</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Steinmarck</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_124">Porcelain Clay</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Stemple</span> (stull), <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Stephanite</span>, <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Sternen Mine</span>, <b><a href="#Page_92">92</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_75">75</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Steward</span> (of High Peak mines), <a href="#Notes_77">77</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">St. George Mine</span> (Schneeberg), <b><a href="#Page_91">91</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_74">74</a>; <a href="#Notes_75">75</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_160" id="I1_160"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Stibium</i></span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_4">Antimony</a> <i>and</i> <a href="#I1_5">Antimony Sulphide</a>), <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>; <a href="#Notes_428">428</a>; <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>; <a href="#Notes_221">221</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Flux to be added to, <b><a href="#Page_235">235</a></b>
+</li><li>In assaying, <b><a href="#Page_237">237</a>-<a href="#Page_239">239</a></b>
+</li><li>In cementation, <b><a href="#Page_458">458</a>-<a href="#Page_460">460</a></b>
+</li><li>Indication of silver, <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>
+</li><li>In making nitric acid, <b><a href="#Page_440">440</a></b>
+</li><li>In parting gold and silver, <b><a href="#Page_451">451</a>-<a href="#Page_452">452</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_459">459</a></b>
+</li><li>In parting gold from copper, <b><a href="#Page_464">464</a></b>
+</li><li>In treatment of gold concentrates, <b><a href="#Page_396">396</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_397">397</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Stibnite</span>, <a href="#Notes_428">428</a>; <a href="#Notes_451">451</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">St. Lorentz Mine</span>, <b><a href="#Page_74">74</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_92">92</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Stockwerke</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_168"><i>Vena cumulata</i></a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Stoics.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Views on wealth, <b><a href="#Page_18">18</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Stomoma</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_423">423</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Stone Juice</span>, <a href="#Notes_46">46</a>; <a href="#Notes_49">49</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_629" id="Page_629"></a>[Pg 629]</span><span class="smcap">Stones.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Agricola's view of, <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>; <a href="#Notes_46">46</a>; <a href="#Notes_49">49</a>
+</li><li>Various orders of fusibility, <b><a href="#Page_380">380</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_161" id="I1_161"></a><span class="smcap">"Stones which Easily Melt"</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_129">Quartz</a>), <a href="#Notes_380">380</a>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>As a flux, <b><a href="#Page_233">233</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_236">236</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>
+</li><li>In making nitric acid, <b><a href="#Page_440">440</a></b>
+</li><li>In smelting, <b><a href="#Page_379">379</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_380">380</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_390">390</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting of, <b><a href="#Page_401">401</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Stool</span> (of a drift), <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Stope</span>, <b><a href="#Page_126">126</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Stoping</span>, <b><a href="#Page_125">125</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li><i>Venae cumulatae</i>, <b><a href="#Page_128">128</a></b>
+</li><li><i>Venae dilatatae</i>, <b><a href="#Page_126">126</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_127">127</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Strake</span>, <b><a href="#Page_303">303</a>-<a href="#Page_310">310</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>; <a href="#Notes_282">282</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Canvas, <b><a href="#Page_307">307</a>-<a href="#Page_310">310</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_314">314</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_316">316</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+</li><li>Egyptians, <a href="#Notes_280">280</a>
+</li><li>Greeks, <a href="#Notes_281">281</a>
+</li><li>Short, <b><a href="#Page_306">306</a>-<a href="#Page_307">307</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+</li><li>Washing tin concentrates, <b><a href="#Page_341">341</a>-<a href="#Page_343">343</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Strata</span>, <b><a href="#Page_126">126</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Streaming</span>, <b><a href="#Page_316">316</a>-<a href="#Page_318">318</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_162" id="I1_162"></a><span class="smcap">Stringers</span>, <b><a href="#Page_70">70</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_43">43</a>; <a href="#Notes_47">47</a>; <a href="#Notes_70">70</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Indication of ore, <b><a href="#Page_106">106</a></b>
+</li><li>Mining method, <b><a href="#Page_128">128</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Styria</span>, <b><a href="#Page_388">388</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Subterranean Heat</span>, <a href="#Notes_46">46</a>; <a href="#Page_595">595</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Suction Pumps</span>, <b><a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_188">188</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Sulphides</span>, <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>; <a href="#Notes_355">355</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Sulphur</span>, <b><a href="#Page_578">578</a>-<a href="#Page_581">581</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_579">579</a>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Colour of fumes, <b><a href="#Page_235">235</a></b>
+</li><li>Harmful to metals, <b><a href="#Page_273">273</a></b>
+</li><li>In assaying, <b><a href="#Page_235">235</a>-<a href="#Page_238">238</a></b>
+</li><li>In parting gold from copper, <b><a href="#Page_463">463</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_462">462</a>
+</li><li>In parting gold from silver, <b><a href="#Page_448">448</a>-<a href="#Page_451">451</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_448">448</a>; <a href="#Notes_461">461</a>
+</li><li>In smelting gold dust, <b><a href="#Page_396">396</a></b>
+</li><li>Roasted from ores, <b><a href="#Page_273">273</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_276">276</a></b>
+</li><li>Solidified juice, <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Sulphur "not exposed to the fire,"</span> <b><a href="#Page_458">458</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_463">463</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_579">579</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Surveyor's Field</span>, <b><a href="#Page_137">137</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_144">144</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_142">142</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Surveying</span>, <b><a href="#Page_128">128</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_129">129</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Necessary for miners, <b><a href="#Page_4">4</a></b>
+</li><li>Rod, <b><a href="#Page_137">137</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Suspended Plummet Level</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_122">Plummet Level</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Swiss Compass</span>, <b><a href="#Page_145">145</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_137">137</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Swiss Surveyors</span>, <b><a href="#Page_145">145</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Symposium</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_91">91</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Tap-hole</span>, <b><a href="#Page_378">378</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_386">386</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Tappets</span>, <b><a href="#Page_282">282</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_319">319</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Tapping-bar</span>, <b><a href="#Page_381">381</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Tarshish, Tin Trade</span>, <a href="#Notes_412">412</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Tartar</span> (Cream of), <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>; <a href="#Notes_234">234</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Tectum</i></span> (Hangingwall), <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Terra sigillata</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_76">Lemnian Earth</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">"Tests", refining silver in</span>, <b><a href="#Page_483">483</a>-<a href="#Page_490">490</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>; <a href="#Notes_484">484</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Thaler</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_92">92</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Thasos, Mines of</span>, <b><a href="#Page_23">23</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_95">95</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_23">23</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Theamedes</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Theodosian Code.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mines, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Thorns</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_81">Liquation Thorns</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Thuringia.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Roasting pyrites, <b><a href="#Page_276">276</a></b>
+</li><li>Sluices of gold washing, <b><a href="#Page_327">327</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Tigna</span> (Wall plate), <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Timbering.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Of ladderways and shafts, <b><a href="#Page_122">122</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_123">123</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_124">124</a></b>
+</li><li>Of stopes, <b><a href="#Page_126">126</a></b>
+</li><li>Of tunnels and drifts, <b><a href="#Page_124">124</a>-<a href="#Page_125">125</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Tin</span>, <a href="#Notes_411">411</a>-<a href="#Notes_413">413</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>; <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alluvial mining, <b><a href="#Page_336">336</a>-<a href="#Page_340">340</a></b>
+</li><li>Assaying ore, <b><a href="#Page_246">246</a></b>
+</li><li>Assaying for silver, <b><a href="#Page_251">251</a></b>
+</li><li>Colour of fumes, <b><a href="#Page_235">235</a></b>
+</li><li>Concentrates, <b><a href="#Page_340">340</a>-<a href="#Page_342">342</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_348">348</a>-<a href="#Page_349">349</a></b>
+</li><li>Cornish treatment, <a href="#Notes_282">282</a>
+</li><li>Refining, <b><a href="#Page_418">418</a>-<a href="#Page_419">419</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting, <b><a href="#Page_411">411</a>-<a href="#Page_420">420</a></b>
+</li><li>Stamp-milling, <b><a href="#Page_312">312</a>-<a href="#Page_317">317</a></b>
+</li><li>Streaming, <b><a href="#Page_316">316</a>-<a href="#Page_318">318</a></b>
+</li><li>Washing, <b><a href="#Page_298">298</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_302">302</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_304">304</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Tincar</i></span> or <span class="smcap"><i>Tincal</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_21">Borax</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_163" id="I1_163"></a><span class="smcap">Tithe Gatherer</span>, <b><a href="#Page_81">81</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_95">95</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_98">98</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Tithe on Metals</span>, <b><a href="#Page_81">81</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_82">82</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Toden Kopff</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_235">235</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Tofstein</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_164"><i>Tophus</i></a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Tolfa, La</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_73">La Tolfa</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Tools</span>, <b><a href="#Page_149">149</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Topfstein</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_164"><i>Tophus</i></a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_164" id="I1_164"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Tophus</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>; <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>As a flux, <b><a href="#Page_233">233</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_237">237</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_390">390</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Tortures.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>With metals, <b><a href="#Page_11">11</a></b>
+</li><li>Without metals, <b><a href="#Page_17">17</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Touch-needles</span>, <b><a href="#Page_253">253</a>-<a href="#Page_260">260</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_253">253</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_165" id="I1_165"></a><span class="smcap">Touchstone</span>, <b><a href="#Page_252">252</a>-<a href="#Page_253">253</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_252">252</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>; <a href="#Notes_458">458</a>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mineral, <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+</li><li>Uses, <b><a href="#Page_243">243</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_248">248</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_447">447</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Trade-routes.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Salt-deposits influence on, <a href="#Notes_546">546</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Transport of Ore</span>, <b><a href="#Page_168">168</a>-<a href="#Page_169">169</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Trent, Bishop of.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Charter (1185), <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Triangles in Surveying</span>, <b><a href="#Page_129">129</a>-<a href="#Page_137">137</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Tripoli</span>, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_166" id="I1_166"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Trochitis</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_115">115</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Trolley</span>, <b><a href="#Page_480">480</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_500">500</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_514">514</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Troy.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Lead found in, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Troy Weights</span>, <a href="#Page_616">616</a>; <a href="#Page_617">617</a>; <a href="#Notes_242">242</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Trucks</span>, <b><a href="#Page_156">156</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Tunnels</span>, <b><a href="#Page_102">102</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Law, <b><a href="#Page_88">88</a>-<a href="#Page_93">93</a></b>
+</li><li>Surveys of, <b><a href="#Page_130">130</a>-<a href="#Page_141">141</a></b>
+</li><li>Timbering, <b><a href="#Page_124">124</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Turin Papyrus</span>, <a href="#Notes_129">129</a>; <a href="#Notes_399">399</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Turn</span> (winze), <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Tuteneque</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Tuttanego</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Tutty</span>, <a href="#Notes_394">394</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Twitches of the Vein</span>, <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Twyer</span>, <a href="#Notes_376">376</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Tye</span>, <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Type.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li><i>Stibium</i> used for, <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>; <a href="#Notes_429">429</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Tyrants.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Inimical to miners, <b><a href="#Page_32">32</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Tyrolese.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Smelting, <b><a href="#Page_388">388</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_404">404</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Ulcers</span>, <b><a href="#Page_214">214</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_31">31</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Uncia</i></span> (length), <b><a href="#Page_78">78</a></b>; <a href="#Page_616">616</a>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Uncia</i></span> (weight), <a href="#Page_616">616</a>; <a href="#Notes_242">242</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Undercurrents</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_149">Sluices</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">United States.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Apex law, <a href="#Notes_82">82</a>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap"><i>Vectiarii</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_177">Windlass Men</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Veins</span>, <b><a href="#Page_43">43</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_64">64</a>-<a href="#Page_69">69</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_107">107</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_47">47</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Barren, <b><a href="#Page_72">72</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_107">107</a></b>
+</li><li>Direction of, <b><a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_58">58</a></b>
+</li><li>Drusy, <b><a href="#Page_72">72</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_73">73</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_107">107</a></b>
+</li><li>Hardness variable, <b><a href="#Page_117">117</a></b>
+</li><li>Indications, <b><a href="#Page_35">35</a>-<a href="#Page_38">38</a></b>
+</li><li><a name="I1_167" id="I1_167"></a>Intersections of, <b><a href="#Page_65">65</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_66">66</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_67">67</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_106">106</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_107">107</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Vena</i>.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Use of term, <a href="#Notes_43">43</a>; <a href="#Notes_47">47</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_168" id="I1_168"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Vena cumulata</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_46">46</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_49">49</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_70">70</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_43">43</a>; <a href="#Notes_47">47</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mining method, <b><a href="#Page_128">128</a></b>
+</li><li>Mining rights, <b><a href="#Page_87">87</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Vena dilatata</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_41">41</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_45">45</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_53">53</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_60">60</a>-<a href="#Page_61">61</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_43">43</a>; <a href="#Notes_47">47</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Junctions with <i>vena profunda</i>, <b><a href="#Page_67">67</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_68">68</a></b>
+</li><li>Mining method, <b><a href="#Page_126">126</a>-<a href="#Page_127">127</a></b>
+</li><li>Mining rights, <b><a href="#Page_83">83</a>-<a href="#Page_86">86</a></b>
+</li><li>Washing lead ore from, <b><a href="#Page_347">347</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_169" id="I1_169"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Vena profunda</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_44">44</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_51">51</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_60">60</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_62">62</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_63">63</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_68">68</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_69">69</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_43">43</a>; <a href="#Notes_47">47</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cross veins, <b><a href="#Page_65">65</a></b>
+</li><li>Functions, <b><a href="#Page_65">65</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_66">66</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_67">67</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_68">68</a></b>
+</li><li>Mining rights, <b><a href="#Page_79">79</a>-<a href="#Page_83">83</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Venetian Glass</span>, <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Factories, <b><a href="#Page_592">592</a></b>
+</li><li>In assaying, <b><a href="#Page_238">238</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_245">245</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_246">246</a></b>
+</li><li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_630" id="Page_630"></a>[Pg 630]</span>In cupellation, <b><a href="#Page_474">474</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Venice.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Glass-factories, <b><a href="#Page_592">592</a></b>
+</li><li>Parting with nitric acid, <a href="#Notes_461">461</a>
+</li><li>Scale of weights, <b><a href="#Page_263">263</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Ventilation</span>, <b><a href="#Page_200">200</a>-<a href="#Page_212">212</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_121">121</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>With bellows, <b><a href="#Page_207">207</a>-<a href="#Page_210">210</a></b>
+</li><li>With fans, <b><a href="#Page_203">203</a>-<a href="#Page_207">207</a></b>
+</li><li>With linen cloths, <b><a href="#Page_210">210</a></b>
+</li><li>With windsails, <b><a href="#Page_200">200</a>-<a href="#Page_203">203</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I1_171" id="I1_171"></a><span class="smcap">Verdigris</span>, <a href="#Notes_440">440</a>; <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>; <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>In cementation, <b><a href="#Page_454">454</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_457">457</a></b>
+</li><li>Indication of ore, <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>
+</li><li>In making nitric acid, <b><a href="#Page_440">440</a></b>
+</li><li>In parting gold from copper, <b><a href="#Page_464">464</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Vermilion.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Adulteration with red-lead, <a href="#Notes_232">232</a>
+</li><li>Poisonous, <b><a href="#Page_215">215</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Villacense Lead</span>, <b><a href="#Page_239">239</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_239">239</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Vinegar.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Use in breaking rocks, <b><a href="#Page_119">119</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_118">118</a>
+</li><li>Use in cleansing quicksilver, <b><a href="#Page_426">426</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in roasting matte, <b><a href="#Page_349">349</a></b>
+</li><li>Use in softening ore, <b><a href="#Page_231">231</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Virgula divina</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_45">Divining Rod</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_172" id="I1_172"></a><span class="smcap">Vitriol</span>, <b><a href="#Page_571">571</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_572">572</a>; <a href="#Notes_403">403</a>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>; <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>In assaying, <b><a href="#Page_237">237</a>-<a href="#Page_238">238</a></b>
+</li><li>In cementation, <b><a href="#Page_454">454</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_454">454</a>
+</li><li>Indication of copper, <b><a href="#Page_116">116</a></b>
+</li><li>In making nitric acid, <b><a href="#Page_439">439</a>-<a href="#Page_440">440</a></b>
+</li><li>In roasted ores, <b><a href="#Page_350">350</a></b>
+</li><li>In <i>sal artificiosus</i>, <b><a href="#Page_463">463</a></b>
+</li><li>Native, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+</li><li>Native blue, <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>
+</li><li>Native white, <a href="#Notes_113">113</a>
+</li><li>Red, <a href="#Notes_274">274</a>
+</li><li>White, <a href="#Notes_454">454</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Volcanic Eruptions</span>, <a href="#Page_595">595</a>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><a name="I1_173" id="I1_173"></a><span class="smcap">Washers</span>, <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Washing Ore</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_116">Concentration</a>, <a href="#I1_139">Screening Ore</a>, <i>etc.</i>), <b><a href="#Page_300">300</a>-<a href="#Page_310">310</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Water-Bags</span>, <b><a href="#Page_157">157</a>-<a href="#Page_159">159</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_198">198</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Water-Buckets</span>, <b><a href="#Page_157">157</a>-<a href="#Page_158">158</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Water-Wheels</span>, <b><a href="#Page_187">187</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_283">283</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_286">286</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_319">319</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Water-Tank, under Blast Furnaces</span>, <b><a href="#Page_356">356</a>-<a href="#Page_357">357</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Wealth</span>, <b><a href="#Page_7">7</a>-<a href="#Page_20">20</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Wedges</span>, <b><a href="#Page_150">150</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Weights</span>, <b><a href="#Page_260">260</a>-<a href="#Page_264">264</a></b>; <a href="#Page_616">616</a>-<a href="#Page_617">617</a>; <a href="#Notes_242">242</a>; <a href="#Notes_253">253</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Weisser Kis</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Werckschuh</i></span>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Westphalia.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Smelting lead ore, <b><a href="#Page_391">391</a></b>
+</li><li>Spalling ore, <b><a href="#Page_272">272</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Wheelbarrows</span>, <b><a href="#Page_154">154</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_174" id="I1_174"></a><span class="smcap">Whims</span>, <b><a href="#Page_164">164</a>-<a href="#Page_167">167</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_175" id="I1_175"></a><span class="smcap">White-Lead</span>, <a href="#Notes_440">440</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>; <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>; <a href="#Notes_232">232</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">White Schist</span>, <b><a href="#Page_234">234</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_390">390</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_234">234</a>; <a href="#Notes_222">222</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Winding Appliances</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_63">Hauling Appliances</a>).
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_176" id="I1_176"></a><span class="smcap">Windlasses</span>, <b><a href="#Page_160">160</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_171">171</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_149">149</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_177" id="I1_177"></a><span class="smcap">Windlass Men</span>, <b><a href="#Page_160">160</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Winds.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Greek and Roman names, <b><a href="#Page_58">58</a></b>
+</li><li>Sailors' names, <b><a href="#Page_59">59</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_60">60</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Winds</span> (winze), <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Windsails</span>, <b><a href="#Page_200">200</a>-<a href="#Page_203">203</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Winzes</span>, <a href="#Notes_102">102</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Wittenberg, Capitulation of</span>, <a href="#Page_ix">IX</a>.
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Wizards.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Divining rods, <b><a href="#Page_40">40</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Workmen</span>, <b><a href="#Page_98">98</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_100">100</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Woughs</span>, <a href="#Notes_101">101</a>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap"><i>Zaffre</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Zeitz</span>, <a href="#Page_xi">XI</a>.
+
+</li><li><a name="I1_178" id="I1_178"></a><span class="smcap">Zinc</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I1_22"><i>Cadmia</i></a> <i>and</i> <a href="#I1_30">Cobalt</a>).
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Historical notes, <a href="#Notes_408">408</a>-<a href="#Notes_410">410</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>
+</li><li>Minerals, <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>-<a href="#Notes_113">113</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Zinck</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_178">Zinc</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Zinc Oxides</span>, <a href="#Notes_113">113</a>; <a href="#Notes_354">354</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Zinc Sulphate</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_172">Vitriol</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Zincum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I1_178">Zinc</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Zoll</i></span>, <a href="#Page_617">617</a>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Zwickau</span>, <a href="#Page_vi">VI</a>.
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Zwitter</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>
+
+
+</li></ul>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2><a name="INDEX_TO_PERSONS_AND_AUTHORITIES" id="INDEX_TO_PERSONS_AND_AUTHORITIES"></a>INDEX TO PERSONS AND AUTHORITIES.</h2>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Note.</span>&mdash;The numbers in heavy type refer to the Text; those in plain type
+to the Footnotes, Appendices, etc.</p>
+
+
+<ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Acosta, Joseph De</span>, <a href="#Notes_298">298</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Aeschylus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Amber, <a href="#Notes_35">35</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Aesculapius.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Love of gold, <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Africanus</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxviii">XXVIII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Agatharchides.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cupellation, <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>
+</li><li>Egyptian gold mining, <a href="#Notes_279">279</a>; <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>; <a href="#Notes_399">399</a>
+</li><li>Fire-setting, <a href="#Notes_118">118</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Agathocles.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Money, <b><a href="#Page_21">21</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Agathodaemon</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxviii">XXVIII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Agricola, Daniel</span>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Agricola, Georg</span> (a preacher at Freiberg), <a href="#Page_606">606</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Agricola, Georgius.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Assaying, <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>
+</li><li>Biography, <a href="#Page_v">V</a>-<a href="#Page_xvi">XVI</a>
+</li><li>Founder of Science, <a href="#Page_xiv">XIV</a>
+</li><li>Geologist, <a href="#Page_xii">XII</a>; <a href="#Notes_46">46</a>; <a href="#Notes_53">53</a>
+</li><li>Interest in <i>Gottsgaab</i> mine, <a href="#Page_vii">VII</a>; <a href="#Notes_74">74</a>
+</li><li>Mineralogist, <a href="#Page_xii">XII</a>; <a href="#Notes_108">108</a>; <a href="#Page_594">594</a>
+</li><li>Paracelsus compared with, <a href="#Page_xiv">XIV</a>
+</li><li>Real name, <a href="#Page_v">V</a>
+</li><li>Works, <a href="#APPENDIX_A">Appendix A</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>See also:
+<ul class="lsoff"><li><a href="#I2_3"><i>Bermannus.</i></a>
+</li><li><a href="#I2_6"><i>De Animantibus.</i></a>
+</li><li><a href="#I2_7"><i>De Natura eorum</i>, etc.</a>
+</li><li><a href="#I2_8"><i>De Natura Fossilium.</i></a>
+</li><li><a href="#I2_9"><i>De Ortu et Causis.</i></a>
+</li><li><a href="#I2_10"><i>De Peste.</i></a>
+</li><li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_631" id="Page_631"></a>[Pg 631]</span><a href="#I2_11"><i>De Precio Metallorum.</i></a>
+</li><li><a href="#I2_12"><i>De Re Metallica.</i></a>
+</li><li><a href="#I2_13"><i>De Veteribus Metallis.</i></a>
+</li><li>Etc.
+
+</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Agricola, Rudolph</span>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I2_2" id="I2_2"></a><span class="smcap">Albert the Brave, Duke of Meissen</span>, <a href="#Page_viii">VIII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Albertus Magnus</span> (Albert von Bollstadt), <a href="#Notes_xxx">XXX</a>; <a href="#Page_609">609</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alluvial gold, <b><a href="#Page_76">76</a></b>
+</li><li>Cementation, <a href="#Notes_460">460</a>
+</li><li>Metallic arsenic, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+</li><li>Metals, <a href="#Notes_44">44</a>
+</li><li>Saltpetre, <a href="#Notes_562">562</a>
+</li><li>Zinc, <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Albinus, Petrus</span>, <a href="#Page_v">V</a>; <a href="#Notes_599">599</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cuntz von Gl�ck, <a href="#Notes_24">24</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Alpinus, Prosper</span>, <a href="#Notes_559">559</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Alyattes, King of Lydia.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mines owned by, <b><a href="#Page_26">26</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">American Institute of Mining Engineers</span>, <a href="#Notes_38">38</a>; <a href="#Notes_53">53</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Anacharsis.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Invention of bellows, <a href="#Notes_362">362</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Anacreon of Teos.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Money despised by, <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_15">15</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Anaxagoras.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Money despised by, <b><a href="#Page_15">15</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Anna, Daughter of Agricola</span>, <a href="#Page_vii">VII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Anna, Wife of Agricola</span>, <a href="#Page_vii">VII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Antiphanes.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>On wealth, <b><a href="#Page_19">19</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Apollodorus</span>, <a href="#Notes_26">26</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Apulejus</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxix">XXIX</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Archimedes.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>King Hiero's crown, <b><a href="#Page_247">247</a></b>
+</li><li>Machines, <a href="#Notes_149">149</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Ardaillon, Edouard.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mt. Laurion, <a href="#Notes_28">28</a>; <a href="#Notes_281">281</a>; <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Aristippus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Gold, <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_14">14</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Aristodemus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Money, <b><a href="#Page_8">8</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Aristotle</span>, <a href="#Page_xii">XII</a>; <a href="#Page_607">607</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Amber, <a href="#Notes_35">35</a>
+</li><li>Athenian mines, <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>; <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+</li><li>Burning springs, <a href="#Notes_583">583</a>
+</li><li>Coal, <a href="#Notes_34">34</a>
+</li><li>Cupellation, <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>
+</li><li>Distillation, <a href="#Notes_441">441</a>
+</li><li>Lodestone, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+</li><li>Nitrum, <a href="#Notes_558">558</a>
+</li><li>Ores of brass, <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>
+</li><li>Quicksilver, <a href="#Notes_432">432</a>
+</li><li>Silver from forest fires, <a href="#Notes_36">36</a>
+</li><li>Theory of ore deposits, <a href="#Notes_44">44</a>
+</li><li>Wealth of, <b><a href="#Page_15">15</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Arnold de Villa Nova.</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I2_24">Villa Nova, Arnold de</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Athenaeus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Silver from forest fires, <a href="#Notes_36">36</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Augurellus, Johannes Aurelius</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxx">XXX</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Augustinus Pantheus</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Augustus, Elector of Saxony</span>, <b><a href="#Page_ix">IX</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Dedication of <i>De Re Metallica</i>, <b><a href="#Page_xxv">XXV</a></b>
+</li><li>Letter to Agricola, <b><a href="#Page_xv">XV</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Avicenna</span>, <a href="#Notes_xxx">XXX</a>; <a href="#Page_608">608</a>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Bacon, Roger</span>, <a href="#Notes_xxx">XXX</a>; <a href="#Page_609">609</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Saltpetre, <a href="#Notes_460">460</a>; <a href="#Notes_562">562</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Badoarius, Franciscus</span>, <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Balboa, V. N. de</span>, <a href="#Page_v">V</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ballon, Peter</span>, <a href="#Notes_559">559</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Barba, Alonso</span>, <a href="#Notes_300">300</a>; <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Barbarus, Hermolaus</span>, <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Barrett, W. F.</span>, <a href="#Notes_38">38</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Becher, J. J.</span>, <a href="#Notes_53">53</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Bechius, Philip</span>, <a href="#Page_xv">XV</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Beckmann, Johann.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li><i>Alumen</i>, <a href="#Notes_565">565</a>
+</li><li>Amalgamation, <a href="#Notes_297">297</a>
+</li><li><i>Nitrum</i>, <a href="#Notes_559">559</a>
+</li><li>Parting with nitric acid, <a href="#Notes_461">461</a>
+</li><li>Stamp-mills, <a href="#Notes_281">281</a>
+</li><li><i>Stannum</i>, <a href="#Notes_473">473</a>
+</li><li>Tin, <a href="#Notes_412">412</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Bergb�chlein</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I2_21"><i>N�tzlich Bergb�chlin</i></a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Bergwerks lexicon</i></span>, <a href="#Notes_37">37</a>; <a href="#Notes_80">80</a>; <a href="#Notes_81">81</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Berman, Lorenz</span>, <a href="#Page_vi">VI</a>; <a href="#Page_597">597</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I2_3" id="I2_3"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Bermannus</i></span>, <a href="#Page_596">596</a>; <a href="#Page_599">599</a>; <a href="#Page_vi">VI</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Arsenical minerals, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+</li><li>Bismuth, <a href="#Notes_3">3</a>; <a href="#Notes_433">433</a>
+</li><li><i>Cadmia</i>, <a href="#Notes_113">113</a>
+</li><li>Cobalt, <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>
+</li><li>Fluorspar, <a href="#Notes_381">381</a>
+</li><li><i>Molybdaena</i>, <a href="#Notes_477">477</a>
+</li><li>Schist, <a href="#Notes_234">234</a>
+</li><li>Shafts, <a href="#Notes_102">102</a>
+</li><li>Zinc, <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Berthelot, M. P. E.</span>, <a href="#Notes_429">429</a>; <a href="#Page_609">609</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Berthier</span>, <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Bias of Priene.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Wealth, <b><a href="#Page_8">8</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_14">14</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Biringuccio, Vannuccio</span>, <a href="#Page_614">614</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Agricola indebted to, <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>
+</li><li>Amalgamation of silver ores, <a href="#Notes_297">297</a>
+</li><li>Assaying, <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>
+</li><li>Assay ton, <a href="#Notes_242">242</a>
+</li><li>Brass making, <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>
+</li><li>Clarifying nitric acid, <a href="#Notes_443">443</a>
+</li><li>Copper refining, <a href="#Notes_536">536</a>
+</li><li>Copper smelting, <a href="#Notes_405">405</a>
+</li><li>Cupellation, <a href="#Notes_466">466</a>
+</li><li>Liquation, <a href="#Notes_494">494</a>
+</li><li>Manganese, <a href="#Notes_586">586</a>
+</li><li>Parting precious metals, <a href="#Notes_451">451</a>; <a href="#Notes_461">461</a>; <a href="#Notes_462">462</a>
+</li><li>Roasting, <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+</li><li>Steel making, <a href="#Notes_420">420</a>
+</li><li><i>Zaffre</i>, <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Boeckh, August</span>, <a href="#Notes_28">28</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Boerhaave, Hermann</span>, <a href="#Notes_xxix">XXIX</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Borlase, W. C.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Bronze celts, <a href="#Notes_411">411</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Borlase, William.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cornish miners in Germany, <a href="#Notes_283">283</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Born, Ignaz Edler von</span>, <a href="#Notes_300">300</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Boussingault, J. B.</span>, <a href="#Notes_454">454</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Boyle, Robert.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Divining rod, <a href="#Notes_38">38</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Brough, Bennett</span>, <a href="#Notes_129">129</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Bruce, J. C.</span>, <a href="#Notes_392">392</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Brunswick, Duke Henry of</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I2_18">Henry, Duke of Brunswick</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Budaeus, William</span> (Guillaume Bude), <a href="#Notes_461">461</a>; <a href="#Page_606">606</a>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Cadmus</span>, <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I2_4" id="I2_4"></a><span class="smcap">Calbus</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I2_21"><i>N�tzlich Bergb�chlin</i></a>), <a href="#Page_610">610</a>; <b><a href="#Page_xxvi">XXVI</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxvii">XXVII</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alluvial gold, <b><a href="#Page_75">75</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Caligula.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Gold from <i>auripigmentum</i>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Callides</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxviii">XXVIII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Callimachus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>On wealth, <b><a href="#Page_19">19</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Camerarius</span>, <b><a href="#Page_viii">VIII</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Canides</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxviii">XXVIII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Carew, Richard.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cornish mining law, <a href="#Notes_85">85</a>
+</li><li>Cornish ore-dressing, <a href="#Notes_282">282</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Carlyle, W. A.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Ancient Rio Tinto smelting, <a href="#Notes_405">405</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Carne, Joseph.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cornish cardinal points, <a href="#Notes_57">57</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Casibrotius, Leonardus</span>, <a href="#Page_vi">VI</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Castigationes in Hippocratem et Galenum</i></span>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Castro, John de</span>, <a href="#Notes_570">570</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Chabas, F. J.</span>, <a href="#Notes_129">129</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Chaloner, Thomas</span>, <a href="#Notes_570">570</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Chanes</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxviii">XXVIII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Charles V. of Spain</span>, <b><a href="#Page_ix">IX</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Agricola sent on mission to, <b><a href="#Page_x">X</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Chevreul, M. E.</span>, <a href="#Notes_38">38</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Chronik der Stadt Freiberg</i></span>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Cicero.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Divining rod, <a href="#Notes_38">38</a>
+</li><li>Wealth of, <b><a href="#Page_15">15</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Cincinnatus L. Quintius</span>, <b><a href="#Page_23">23</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Circe.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Magic rod, <b><a href="#Page_40">40</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_632" id="Page_632"></a>[Pg 632]</span><span class="smcap">Cleopatra.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>As an alchemist, <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxix">XXIX</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Collins, A. L.</span> <a href="#Notes_119">119</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Columbus, Christopher</span>, <a href="#Page_v">V</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Columella, Moderatus</span>, <b><a href="#Page_xxv">XXV</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_xxvi">XXVI</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Comerius</span>, <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxix">XXIX</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Commentariorum ... Libri VI.</i></span>, <a href="#Page_604">604</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I2_5" id="I2_5"></a><span class="smcap">Conrad</span> (Graf Cuntz von Gl�ck), <b><a href="#Page_23">23</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_24">24</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Corduba, Don Juan De</span>, <a href="#Notes_300">300</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Cortes, Hernando</span>, <b><a href="#Page_v">V</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Cramer, John</span>, <a href="#Notes_236">236</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Crassus, Marcus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Love of gold, <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Crates, the Theban.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Money despised by, <b><a href="#Page_15">15</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Croesus, King of Lydia.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mines owned by, <b><a href="#Page_26">26</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Ctesias.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Divining rod, <a href="#Notes_38">38</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Ctesibius.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Machines, <a href="#Notes_149">149</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Curio, Claudius.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Love of gold, <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Curius, Marcus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Gold of Samnites, <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_15">15</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Dana, J. D.</span>, <a href="#Notes_108">108</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alum, <a href="#Notes_566">566</a>
+</li><li>Copiapite, <a href="#Notes_574">574</a>
+</li><li>Emery, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+</li><li>Lemnian earth, <a href="#Notes_31">31</a>
+</li><li>Minerals of Agricola, <a href="#Page_594">594</a>
+</li><li>Zinc vitriol, <a href="#Notes_572">572</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Danae.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Jove and, <b><a href="#Page_10">10</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">D'Arcet, J.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Parting with sulphuric acid, <a href="#Notes_462">462</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Day, St. John V.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Ancient steel making, <a href="#Notes_423">423</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I2_6" id="I2_6"></a><span class="smcap"><i>De Animantibus Subterraneis</i></span>, <a href="#Page_597">597</a>; <b><a href="#Page_vii">VII</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Editions, <a href="#Page_600">600</a>
+</li><li>Gnomes, <b><a href="#Page_217">217</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_217">217</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>De Bello adversus Turcam</i></span>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>De Inventione Dialectica</i></span>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>De Jure et Legibus Metallicis</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_100">100</a></b>; <a href="#Page_604">604</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>De Medicatis Fontibus</i></span>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>De Mensuris et Ponderibus</i></span>, <a href="#Page_597">597</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Editions, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>
+</li><li>Weights and measures, <b><a href="#Page_263">263</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_78">78</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>De Metallis et Machinis</i></span>, <a href="#Page_604">604</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Democritus</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxviii">XXVIII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Demosthenes.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mt. Laurion mines, <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>; <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I2_7" id="I2_7"></a><span class="smcap"><i>De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra</i></span>, <a href="#Page_598">598</a>; <b><a href="#Page_32">32</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Dedication, <a href="#Page_vii">VII</a>
+</li><li>Editions, <a href="#Page_600">600</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I2_8" id="I2_8"></a><span class="smcap"><i>De Natura Fossilium</i></span>, <a href="#Page_594">594</a>; <a href="#Page_600">600</a>; <a href="#Page_iii">III</a>; <a href="#Page_xii">XII</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alum, <a href="#Notes_565">565</a>
+</li><li>Amber, <a href="#Notes_35">35</a>
+</li><li>Antimony, <a href="#Notes_429">429</a>
+</li><li>Argol, <a href="#Notes_234">234</a>
+</li><li>Arsenical minerals, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+</li><li>Asbestos, <a href="#Notes_440">440</a>
+</li><li>Bismuth, <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>
+</li><li>Bitumen, <a href="#Notes_581">581</a>
+</li><li>Borax, <a href="#Notes_560">560</a>
+</li><li>Brass making, <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>
+</li><li><i>Cadmia</i>, <a href="#Notes_113">113</a>
+</li><li><i>Caldarium</i> copper, <a href="#Notes_511">511</a>
+</li><li>Camphor, <a href="#Notes_238">238</a>
+</li><li><i>Chrysocolla</i>, <a href="#Notes_584">584</a>
+</li><li>Coal, <a href="#Notes_35">35</a>
+</li><li>Cobalt, <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>
+</li><li>Copper flowers, <a href="#Notes_539">539</a>; <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>
+</li><li>Copper scales, <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>
+</li><li>Crinoid stems, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+</li><li>Emery, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+</li><li>Fluorspar, <a href="#Notes_380">380</a>
+</li><li>Goslar ores, <a href="#Notes_273">273</a>
+</li><li>Goslar smelting, <a href="#Notes_408">408</a>
+</li><li>Iron ores, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+</li><li>Iron smelting, <a href="#Notes_420">420</a>
+</li><li>Jet, <a href="#Notes_34">34</a>
+</li><li><i>Lapis judaicus</i>, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+</li><li>Lead minerals, <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>
+</li><li>Mannsfeld ores, <a href="#Notes_273">273</a>
+</li><li><i>Melanteria</i>, <a href="#Notes_573">573</a>
+</li><li>Mineral Kingdom, <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>
+</li><li><i>Misy</i>, <a href="#Notes_573">573</a>
+</li><li><i>Molybdaena</i>, <a href="#Notes_476">476</a>
+</li><li>Native metals, <a href="#Notes_108">108</a>
+</li><li>Petroleum, <a href="#Notes_581">581</a>
+</li><li><i>Pompholyx</i>, <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>; <a href="#Notes_278">278</a>
+</li><li>Pyrites, <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>
+</li><li>Quicksilver, <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>
+</li><li><i>Rudis</i> minerals, <a href="#Notes_108">108</a>
+</li><li>Sal-ammoniac, <a href="#Notes_560">560</a>
+</li><li>Silver glance, <a href="#Notes_109">109</a>
+</li><li><i>Sory</i>, <a href="#Notes_573">573</a>
+</li><li><i>Spodos</i>, <a href="#Notes_114">114</a>
+</li><li><i>Stannum</i>, <a href="#Notes_473">473</a>
+</li><li>Stones which easily melt, <a href="#Notes_380">380</a>
+</li><li>Sulphur, <a href="#Notes_578">578</a>
+</li><li><i>Tophus</i>, <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>
+</li><li>Touchstone, <a href="#Notes_253">253</a>
+</li><li>White schist, <a href="#Notes_234">234</a>
+</li><li>Zinc, <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I2_9" id="I2_9"></a><span class="smcap"><i>De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum</i></span>, <a href="#Page_594">594</a>; <a href="#Page_600">600</a>; <a href="#Page_iii">III</a>; <a href="#Page_vii">VII</a>; <a href="#Page_xii">XII</a>; <a href="#Page_xiii">XIII</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Earths, <a href="#Notes_48">48</a>
+</li><li>Gangue minerals, <a href="#Notes_48">48</a>
+</li><li>Gold in alluvial, <b><a href="#Page_76">76</a></b>
+</li><li>Ground waters, <a href="#Notes_48">48</a>
+</li><li>Juices, <a href="#Notes_52">52</a>
+</li><li>Metals, <a href="#Notes_51">51</a>
+</li><li>Solidified juices, <a href="#Notes_49">49</a>
+</li><li>Stones, <a href="#Notes_49">49</a>
+</li><li>Touchstone, <a href="#Notes_253">253</a>
+</li><li>Veins, <a href="#Notes_47">47</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>De Ortu Metallorum Defensio ad J. Scheckium</i></span>, <a href="#Page_604">604</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I2_10" id="I2_10"></a><span class="smcap"><i>De Peste</i></span>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a>; <a href="#Page_viii">VIII</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I2_11" id="I2_11"></a><span class="smcap"><i>De Precio Metallorum et Monetis</i></span>, <a href="#Page_597">597</a>; <a href="#Page_600">600</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mention by Agricola, <b><a href="#Page_252">252</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_263">263</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>De Putredine solidas partes</i></span>, etc., <a href="#Page_605">605</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I2_12" id="I2_12"></a><span class="smcap"><i>De Re Metallica</i></span>, <a href="#Page_i">I</a>; <a href="#Page_xiii">XIII</a>; <a href="#Page_xiv">XIV</a>-<a href="#Page_xvi">XVI</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Editions, <a href="#Page_600">600</a>; <a href="#Page_xiv">XIV</a>
+</li><li>Title page, <b><a href="#Page_xix">XIX</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">De Soto, Fernandes</span>, <a href="#Page_v">V</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>De Terrae Motu</i></span>, <a href="#Page_604">604</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>De Varia temperie sive Constitutione Aeris</i></span>, <a href="#Page_604">604</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I2_13" id="I2_13"></a><span class="smcap"><i>De Veteribus et Novis Metallis</i></span>, <a href="#Page_597">597</a>; <a href="#Page_600">600</a>; <a href="#Page_vii">VII</a>; <b><a href="#Page_xxvi">XXVI</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_5">5</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Agricola's training, <a href="#Notes_vi">VI</a>
+</li><li>Conrad, <a href="#Notes_24">24</a>
+</li><li>Discovery of mines, <b><a href="#Page_36">36</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_5">5</a>; <a href="#Notes_37">37</a>
+</li><li><i>Gottsgaab</i> mine, <a href="#Notes_74">74</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I2_14" id="I2_14"></a><span class="smcap">Devoz (de Voz), Cornelius</span>, <a href="#Notes_570">570</a>; <a href="#Notes_283">283</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Diodorus Siculus</span>, <a href="#Page_607">607</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alum, <a href="#Notes_566">566</a>
+</li><li>Bitumen, <a href="#Notes_582">582</a>
+</li><li>Cupellation, <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>
+</li><li>Drainage of Spanish mines, <a href="#Notes_149">149</a>
+</li><li>Egyptian gold mining, <a href="#Notes_279">279</a>
+</li><li>Fire-setting, <a href="#Notes_118">118</a>
+</li><li>Lead, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>
+</li><li>Silver from forest fires, <b><a href="#Page_36">36</a></b>
+</li><li>Tin, <a href="#Notes_412">412</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Diogenes Laertius</span>, <a href="#Notes_7">7</a>; <a href="#Notes_9">9</a>; <a href="#Notes_10">10</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Dioscorides</span>, <a href="#Page_607">607</a>; <a href="#Page_608">608</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alum, <a href="#Notes_566">566</a>
+</li><li>Antimony, <a href="#Notes_428">428</a>
+</li><li>Argol, <a href="#Notes_234">234</a>
+</li><li>Arsenic minerals, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+</li><li>Asbestos, <a href="#Notes_440">440</a>
+</li><li>Bitumen, <a href="#Notes_584">584</a>
+</li><li>Brass making, <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>
+</li><li>Burned lead, <a href="#Notes_237">237</a>
+</li><li><i>Cadmia</i>, <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>
+</li><li><i>Chalcitis</i>, <a href="#Notes_573">573</a>
+</li><li>Copper flowers, <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>; <a href="#Notes_538">538</a>
+</li><li>Copper smelting, <a href="#Notes_403">403</a>
+</li><li>Cupellation, <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>
+</li><li>Distillation apparatus, <a href="#Notes_355">355</a>
+</li><li>Dust-chambers, <a href="#Notes_355">355</a>; <a href="#Notes_394">394</a>
+</li><li>Emery, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+</li><li>Lead, <a href="#Notes_392">392</a>
+</li><li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_633" id="Page_633"></a>[Pg 633]</span>Lead minerals, <a href="#Notes_477">477</a>
+</li><li>Lemnian earth, <a href="#Notes_31">31</a>
+</li><li>Litharge, <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>
+</li><li>Lodestone, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+</li><li><i>Melanteria</i>, <a href="#Notes_573">573</a>
+</li><li><i>Misy</i>, <a href="#Notes_573">573</a>
+</li><li>Naphtha, <a href="#Notes_584">584</a>
+</li><li><i>Pompholyx</i>, <a href="#Notes_394">394</a>; <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>
+</li><li>Quicksilver, <a href="#Notes_297">297</a>; <a href="#Notes_432">432</a>
+</li><li>Red-lead, <a href="#Notes_232">232</a>
+</li><li>Sal-ammoniac, <a href="#Notes_560">560</a>
+</li><li><i>Sory</i>, <a href="#Notes_573">573</a>
+</li><li><i>Spodos</i>, <a href="#Notes_394">394</a>
+</li><li>Verdigris, <a href="#Notes_440">440</a>
+</li><li>Vitriol, <a href="#Notes_572">572</a>
+</li><li>White-lead, <a href="#Notes_440">440</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Diphilos</span>, <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>; <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Diphilus</span> (poet).
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Gold, <b><a href="#Page_10">10</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Dominatores Saxonici</i></span>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Draud, G.</span>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Dudae.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alum trade, <a href="#Notes_569">569</a>
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Elizabeth, Queen of England.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Charters to alum makers, <a href="#Notes_283">283</a>; <a href="#Notes_570">570</a>
+</li><li>Dedication of Italian <i>De Re Metallica</i> to, <a href="#Page_xv">XV</a>
+</li><li>Importation of German miners, <a href="#Notes_283">283</a>; <a href="#Notes_570">570</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Eloy, N. F. J.</span>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Entzelt</span> (Enzelius, Encelio), <a href="#Page_615">615</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Erasmus</span>, <a href="#Page_vi">VI</a>; <a href="#Page_viii">VIII</a>; <a href="#Page_xiv">XIV</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ercker, Lazarus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Amalgamation, <a href="#Notes_300">300</a>
+</li><li>Liquation, <a href="#Notes_491">491</a>; <a href="#Notes_505">505</a>
+</li><li>Nitric acid preparation, <a href="#Notes_443">443</a>
+</li><li>Parting gold and silver, <a href="#Notes_444">444</a>; <a href="#Notes_451">451</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Eriphyle.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Love of gold, <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I2_15" id="I2_15"></a><span class="smcap">Ernest, Elector of Saxony</span>, <a href="#Page_viii">VIII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Euripides.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Amber mentioned by, <a href="#Notes_35">35</a>
+</li><li>Plutus, <b><a href="#Page_8">8</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_7">7</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Ezekiel, Prophet.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Antimony, <a href="#Notes_428">428</a>
+</li><li>Cupellation, <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>
+</li><li>Tin, <a href="#Notes_412">412</a>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Fabricius, George.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Agricola's death, <a href="#Page_x">X</a>
+</li><li>Friendship with Agricola, <a href="#Page_viii">VIII</a>
+</li><li>Laudatory poem on Agricola, <b><a href="#Page_xxi">XXI</a></b>
+</li><li>Letters, <a href="#Page_ix">IX</a>; <a href="#Page_x">X</a>; <a href="#Page_xiv">XIV</a>; <a href="#Page_xv">XV</a>
+</li><li>Posthumous editor of Agricola, <a href="#Page_603">603</a>; <a href="#Page_606">606</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Fairclough, H. R.</span>, <a href="#Page_iii">III</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Farinator, Mathias</span>, <a href="#Notes_xxvi">XXVI</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ferdinand, King of Austria.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Agricola sent on mission to, <a href="#Page_x">X</a>
+</li><li>Badoarius sent on mission to, <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Ferguson, John.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Editions of <i>De Re Metallica</i>, <a href="#Page_xvi">XVI</a>; <a href="#Page_599">599</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Feyrabendt, Sigmundi</span>, <a href="#Page_xv">XV</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Figuier, L.</span>, <a href="#Notes_38">38</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Flach, Jacques.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Aljustrel tablet, <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Florio, Michelangelo</span>, <a href="#Page_xv">XV</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">F�rster, Johannes</span>, <a href="#Page_vi">VI</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Francis, Col. Grant</span>, <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>; <a href="#Notes_283">283</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Francis I., King of France</span>, <a href="#Page_ix">IX</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Frederick, Elector of Saxony</span>, <a href="#Page_viii">VIII</a>; <a href="#Page_ix">IX</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Froben</span>, Publisher of <i>De Re Metallica</i>, <a href="#Page_xiv">XIV</a>; <a href="#Page_xv">XV</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Frontinus, Sextus Julius</span>, <a href="#Notes_87">87</a>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Galen.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Agricola's revision of, <a href="#Page_605">605</a>; <a href="#Page_vi">VI</a>
+</li><li>Lemnian earth, <a href="#Notes_31">31</a>
+</li><li>Mention by Agricola, <a href="#Notes_2">2</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Galerazeya sive Revelator Secretorum</i></span>, etc., <a href="#Page_606">606</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I2_16" id="I2_16"></a><span class="smcap">Gama, Vasco da</span>, <a href="#Page_v">V</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ganse (Gaunse), Joachim</span>, <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>; <a href="#Notes_283">283</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Gatterer, C. W.</span>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Geber</span>, <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxx">XXX</a>; <a href="#Page_609">609</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alum, <b><a href="#Notes_569">569</a></b>
+</li><li>Assaying, <a href="#Notes_219">219</a>
+</li><li>Cementation, <a href="#Notes_459">459</a>
+</li><li>Cupels, <a href="#Notes_466">466</a>
+</li><li>Nitric acid, <a href="#Notes_460">460</a>
+</li><li>Origin of metals, <a href="#Notes_44">44</a>
+</li><li>Precipitation of silver nitrate, <a href="#Notes_443">443</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Genesis, Book of</i></span>, <a href="#Page_xii">XII</a>; <a href="#Notes_43">43</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">George, Duke of Saxony</span>, <a href="#Page_ix">IX</a>; <b><a href="#Page_310">310</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_310">310</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Gesner, Conrad</span>, <a href="#Notes_52">52</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Gibbon, Edward</span>, <a href="#Notes_119">119</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Glauber, J. R.</span>, <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Gl�ck, Cuntz von</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I2_5">Conrad</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Gmelin, J. F.</span>, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">G�cher, C. G.</span>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Godolphin, Sir Francis</span>, <a href="#Notes_282">282</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Gowland, William.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Ancient bronze, <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>; <a href="#Notes_411">411</a>; <a href="#Notes_421">421</a>
+</li><li>Early smelting, <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Graecus, Marcus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Saltpetre, <a href="#Notes_562">562</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Grommestetter, Paul</span>, <a href="#Notes_281">281</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Grymaldo, Leodigaris</span>, <a href="#Page_xvi">XVI</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Gyges, King of Lydia.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mines owned by, <b><a href="#Page_26">26</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Hannibal.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alps broken by vinegar, <a href="#Notes_119">119</a>
+</li><li>Spanish mines, <b><a href="#Page_42">42</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_42">42</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Hardy, William</span>, <a href="#Notes_85">85</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Heath, Thomas.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>On Hero, <a href="#Notes_129">129</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Heliodorus</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxix">XXIX</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Henckel, J. F.</span>, <a href="#Notes_53">53</a>; <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>; <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Hendrie, R.</span>, <a href="#Page_609">609</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Hennebert, E.</span>, <a href="#Notes_119">119</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I2_18" id="I2_18"></a><span class="smcap">Henry, Duke of Brunswick</span>, <a href="#Page_vii">VII</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I2_17" id="I2_17"></a><span class="smcap">Henry, Duke of Meissen</span>, <a href="#Page_ix">IX</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Hermes</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvi">XXVI</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxviii">XXVIII</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I2_19" id="I2_19"></a><span class="smcap">Hermes</span> (Mercury).
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Magic rod, <a href="#Notes_40">40</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Hero.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Underground surveying, <a href="#Notes_129">129</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Herodotus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alum, <a href="#Notes_566">566</a>
+</li><li>Bitumen, <a href="#Notes_582">582</a>
+</li><li>Lead, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>
+</li><li>Mines of Thrace, <a href="#Notes_23">23</a>
+</li><li><i>Nitrum</i>, <a href="#Notes_558">558</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Hertel, Valentine</span>, <a href="#Page_xiv">XIV</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Hiero, King of Syracuse.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Crown, <a href="#Notes_247">247</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Hill, John</span>, <a href="#Page_607">607</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li><i>Auripigmentum</i>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Himilce, wife of Hannibal</span>, <a href="#Notes_42">42</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Hippocrates.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cupellation, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>; <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>
+</li><li>Lodestone, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Hiram, King of Tyre.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mines, <a href="#Notes_214">214</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Hofmann, Dr. R.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Biography of Agricola, <a href="#Notes_v">V</a>; <a href="#Page_xi">XI</a>; <a href="#Page_599">599</a>; <a href="#Page_603">603</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Homer.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Amber, <a href="#Notes_35">35</a>
+</li><li>Divining rod, <b><a href="#Page_40">40</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_40">40</a>
+</li><li>Lead, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>
+</li><li>Smelting, <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+</li><li>Steel, <a href="#Notes_421">421</a>
+</li><li>Sulphur, <a href="#Notes_579">579</a>
+</li><li>Tin, <a href="#Notes_412">412</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Hommel, W.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Early zinc smelting, <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Horace.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Metals, <b><a href="#Page_11">11</a></b>
+</li><li>Wealth, <b><a href="#Page_15">15</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_17">17</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Hordeborch, Johannes</span>, <a href="#Page_vii">VII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Houghstetter, Daniel</span>, <a href="#Notes_283">283</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Houghton, Thomas</span>, <a href="#Notes_85">85</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Humphrey, William.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Jigging sieve, <a href="#Notes_283">283</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Hunt, Robert.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Roman lead smelting, <a href="#Notes_392">392</a>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Inama-Sternegg, K. T. von</span>, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Interpretatio Rerum Metallicarum</i></span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I2_22"><i>Rerum Metall. Interpretatio</i></a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Irene, Daughter of Agricola</span>, <a href="#Page_vii">VII</a>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_634" id="Page_634"></a>[Pg 634]</span><span class="smcap">Jacobi</span>, G. H.
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Biography of Agricola, <a href="#Notes_v">V</a>; <a href="#Page_599">599</a>
+</li><li>Calbus, <a href="#Notes_xxvii">XXVII</a>; <a href="#Page_610">610</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Jagnaux, Raoul.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Ancient zinc, <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Jason.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Golden fleece, <a href="#Notes_330">330</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Jeremiah.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Bellows, <a href="#Notes_362">362</a>
+</li><li>Cupellation, <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>
+</li><li>Lead smelting, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>
+</li><li><i>Nitrum</i>, <a href="#Notes_558">558</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Jezebel.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Use of antimony, <a href="#Notes_428">428</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Job.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Refining silver, <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Johannes</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxviii">XXVIII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">John, Elector of Saxony</span>, <a href="#Page_ix">IX</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">John, King of England.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mining claims, <a href="#Notes_85">85</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">John Frederick, Elector of Saxony</span>, <a href="#Page_ix">IX</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Josephus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Dead Sea bitumen, <a href="#Notes_33">33</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Jove.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Danae legend, <b><a href="#Page_10">10</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Justin</span>, <b><a href="#Page_36">36</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Juvenal.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Money, <b><a href="#Page_10">10</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Karsten, K. J. B.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Liquation, <a href="#Notes_491">491</a>; <a href="#Notes_492">492</a>; <a href="#Notes_505">505</a>; <a href="#Notes_509">509</a>; <a href="#Notes_523">523</a>; <a href="#Notes_535">535</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Kerl, Bruno.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Liquation, <a href="#Notes_505">505</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">K�nig, Emanuel</span>, <a href="#Page_xv">XV</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">K�nig, Ludwig</span>, <a href="#Page_xv">XV</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Kopp, Dr. Hermann</span>, <a href="#Page_609">609</a>; <a href="#Notes_441">441</a>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Lampadius, G. A.</span>, <a href="#Notes_462">462</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Lasthenes.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Love of gold, <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Latin Grammar</i></span> (Agricola), <a href="#Page_605">605</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Leonardi, Camilli</span>, <a href="#Page_615">615</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Leupold, Jacob</span>, <a href="#Page_xv">XV</a>; <a href="#Page_599">599</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Leviticus</i>.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Leprosy of walls, <a href="#Notes_562">562</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Lewis</span>, G. R, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Lewis</span>, <a href="#Notes_454">454</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Libavis, Andrew</span>, <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Lieblein, J. D. C.</span>, <a href="#Notes_129">129</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Linnaeus, Charles</span>, <a href="#Notes_559">559</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Livy.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Hannibal's march over the Alps, <a href="#Notes_119">119</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Lohneys, G. E.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Liquation, <a href="#Notes_491">491</a>; <a href="#Notes_505">505</a>
+</li><li>Parting with antimony, <a href="#Notes_451">451</a>
+</li><li>Zinc, <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>; <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Lucretia, daughter of Agricola</span>, <a href="#Page_vii">VII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Lucretius.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Forest fires melting veins, <b><a href="#Page_36">36</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Lully, Raymond</span>, <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxx">XXX</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Luscinus, Fabricius.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Gold, <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_15">15</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Luther, Martin</span>, <a href="#Page_v">V</a>; <a href="#Page_vi">VI</a>; <a href="#Page_viii">VIII</a>; <a href="#Page_ix">IX</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Lycurgus</span> (Athenian orator).
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Prosecution of Diphilos, <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>; <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Lycurgus</span> (Spartan legislator).
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Wealth prohibited by, <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_15">15</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Magellan, F. de</span>, <a href="#Page_v">V</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Maltitz, Sigismund</span>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Manlove, Edward</span>, <a href="#Notes_70">70</a>; <a href="#Notes_85">85</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Marbodaeus</span>, <a href="#Page_615">615</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Marcellinus, Ammianus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>On Thucydides, <a href="#Notes_23">23</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Marcellus, Nonius</span>, <a href="#Notes_xxxi">XXXI</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Maria the Jewess</span>, <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxviii">XXVIII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Mathesius, Johann.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cobalt, <a href="#Notes_214">214</a>
+</li><li>Conrad mentioned by, <a href="#Notes_24">24</a>
+</li><li><i>De Re Metallica</i>, <a href="#Page_xiv">XIV</a>
+</li><li>King Hiram's mines, <a href="#Notes_214">214</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I2_20" id="I2_20"></a><span class="smcap">Matthew Paris.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cornish miners in Germany, <a href="#Notes_283">283</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Maurice, Elector of Saxony</span>, <b><a href="#Page_xxv">XXV</a></b>; <a href="#Page_viii">VIII</a>; <a href="#Page_ix">IX</a>; <a href="#Page_x">X</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Mawe, J.</span>, <a href="#Notes_70">70</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Maximilian, Emperor</span>, <b><a href="#Page_23">23</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_24">24</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Meissen, Dukes of</span> (<i>see under personal names</i>: <a href="#I2_2">Albert</a>, <a href="#I2_17">Henry</a>, <i>etc.</i>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Melanchthon.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Relations with Agricola, <a href="#Page_viii">VIII</a>; <a href="#Page_x">X</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Menander.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Riches, <b><a href="#Page_8">8</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Mercklinus, G. A.</span>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Mercury</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I2_19">Hermes</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Merlin</span> (magician), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxx">XXX</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Meurer, Wolfgang.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Letters, <a href="#Page_ix">IX</a>; <a href="#Page_x">X</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Meyer, Ernst von</span>, <a href="#Notes_248">248</a>; <a href="#Notes_569">569</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Meyner, Matthias</span>, <a href="#Page_vii">VII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Midas, King of Lydia.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mines owned by, <b><a href="#Page_26">26</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Miller, F. B.</span>, <a href="#Notes_462">462</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Minerva.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Magic rod, <b><a href="#Page_40">40</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Morris, W. O'C.</span>, <a href="#Notes_119">119</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Mosellanus, Petrus</span>, <a href="#Page_vi">VI</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Moses.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Bitumen, <a href="#Notes_582">582</a>
+</li><li>Lead, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>
+</li><li>Refining gold, <a href="#Notes_399">399</a>
+</li><li>Rod of Horeb, <a href="#Notes_38">38</a>; <b><a href="#Page_40">40</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">M�ller, Max.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Ancient iron, <a href="#Notes_421">421</a>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Naevius.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Money, <b><a href="#Page_20">20</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Nash, W. G.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Rio Tinto mine, <a href="#Notes_149">149</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Naumachius.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Gold and silver, <b><a href="#Page_8">8</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Neckam, Alexander.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Compass, <a href="#Notes_57">57</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Newcomen, Thomas</span>, <a href="#Notes_149">149</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Nicander.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>On coal, <a href="#Notes_34">34</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Nicias.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Sosias and slaves of, <b><a href="#Page_25">25</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_25">25</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I2_21" id="I2_21"></a><span class="smcap"><i>N�tzlich Bergb�chlin</i></span>, <a href="#Page_610">610</a>; <b><a href="#Page_xxvi">XXVI</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxvii">XXVII</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alluvial gold, <a href="#Notes_75">75</a>
+</li><li>Bismuth, <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>; <a href="#Notes_433">433</a>
+</li><li>Compass, <a href="#Notes_57">57</a>; <a href="#Notes_129">129</a>
+</li><li>Ore-deposits, <a href="#Notes_44">44</a>
+</li><li>Ore-shoots, <a href="#Notes_43">43</a>
+</li><li>Veins, <a href="#Notes_43">43</a>; <a href="#Notes_46">46</a>; <a href="#Notes_73">73</a>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Olympiodorus</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxx">XXX</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Oppel, van</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I2_23">Van Oppel</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Orus Chrysorichites</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxviii">XXVIII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Osthanes</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxix">XXIX</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Otho the Great</span>, <a href="#Notes_6">6</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Otho, Prince</span>, <a href="#Notes_6">6</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ovid.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mining censured by, <b><a href="#Page_7">7</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Pandulfus Anglus</span>, <b><a href="#Page_xxvi">XXVI</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Pantaenetus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Demosthenes' oration against, <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>; <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Pantheus, Augustinus</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Paracelsus</span>, <a href="#Page_xiv">XIV</a>; <a href="#Notes_xxx">XXX</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Divining rod, <a href="#Notes_38">38</a>
+</li><li>Zinc, <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>; <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Paris, Matthew</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I2_20">Matthew Paris</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Pebichius</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxviii">XXVIII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Pelagius</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Pennent, Thomas</span>, <a href="#Notes_570">570</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Percy, John.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cementation, <a href="#Notes_454">454</a>; <a href="#Notes_459">459</a>
+</li><li>Cupellation, <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>
+</li><li>Liquation, <a href="#Notes_491">491</a>
+</li><li>Parting with antimony, <a href="#Notes_451">451</a>; <a href="#Notes_452">452</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Peregrinus, Petrus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Compass, <a href="#Notes_57">57</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Petasius</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxviii">XXVIII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Petrie, W. M. F.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Egyptian iron, <a href="#Notes_421">421</a>
+</li><li>Mt. Sinai copper, <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Pettus, Sir John</span>, <a href="#Page_xvi">XVI</a>; <a href="#Notes_283">283</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_635" id="Page_635"></a>[Pg 635]</span><span class="smcap">Phaenippus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Demosthenes' oration against, <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>; <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Phaeton's sisters</span>, <a href="#Notes_35">35</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Pherecrates</span>, <b><a href="#Page_xxvi">XXVI</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Philemon.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Riches, <a href="#Notes_7">7</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Philip of Macedonia</span>, <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Philip, Peter</span>, <a href="#Notes_282">282</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Phillips, J. A.</span>, <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Philo.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Lost work on mining, <b><a href="#Page_xxvi">XXVI</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Phocion.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Bribe of Alexander, <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_15">15</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Phocylides.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Gold, <b><a href="#Page_7">7</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Photius</span>, <a href="#Notes_279">279</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Fire-setting, <a href="#Notes_118">118</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Pindar.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Wealth, <b><a href="#Page_19">19</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_252">252</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Pius II, Pope.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alum maker, <a href="#Notes_570">570</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Pizarro, F.</span>, <b><a href="#Page_v">V</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Plateanus, Petrus</span>, <a href="#Page_xiv">XIV</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Plautus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Gold, <b><a href="#Page_10">10</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Pliny</span> (Caius Plinius Secundus), <b><a href="#Page_xxvi">XXVI</a></b>; <a href="#Page_608">608</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Alluvial mining, <a href="#Notes_331">331</a>; <a href="#Page_333">333</a>
+</li><li>Alum, <a href="#Notes_566">566</a>
+</li><li>Amalgamation, <a href="#Notes_297">297</a>
+</li><li>Amber, <a href="#Notes_35">35</a>
+</li><li>Antimony, <a href="#Notes_428">428</a>
+</li><li>Argol, <a href="#Notes_234">234</a>
+</li><li><i>Arrhenicum</i>, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+</li><li>Asbestos, <a href="#Notes_440">440</a>
+</li><li>Bitumen, <b><a href="#Notes_33">33</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_583">583</a>
+</li><li>Brass, <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>
+</li><li>British miners, <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+</li><li>Cadmia, <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>
+</li><li>Cementation, <a href="#Notes_459">459</a>
+</li><li>Chrysocolla, <a href="#Notes_560">560</a>
+</li><li>Copper flowers and scales, <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>; <a href="#Notes_538">538</a>
+</li><li>Copper smelting, <a href="#Notes_404">404</a>
+</li><li>Cupellation, <a href="#Notes_466">466</a>
+</li><li>Drainage of Spanish mines, <a href="#Notes_149">149</a>
+</li><li><i>Electrum</i>, <a href="#Notes_458">458</a>
+</li><li>Fire-setting, <a href="#Notes_118">118</a>
+</li><li>Galena, <a href="#Notes_476">476</a>
+</li><li>Glass, <a href="#Notes_585">585</a>; <a href="#Notes_586">586</a>
+</li><li>Hannibal's silver mine, <b><a href="#Page_42">42</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_42">42</a>
+</li><li>Hoisting ore, <b><a href="#Page_157">157</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_157">157</a>
+</li><li>Iron, <a href="#Notes_11">11</a>
+</li><li>Jew-stone, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+</li><li>Lead, <a href="#Notes_392">392</a>
+</li><li>Lemnian earth, <a href="#Notes_31">31</a>
+</li><li>Litharge, <b><a href="#Page_475">475</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_466">466</a>; <a href="#Notes_501">501</a>
+</li><li>Lodestone, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+</li><li>Manganese (?), <a href="#Notes_586">586</a>
+</li><li>Metallurgical appliances, <a href="#Notes_355">355</a>
+</li><li><i>Misy</i>, <a href="#Notes_573">573</a>
+</li><li><i>Molybdaena</i>, <a href="#Notes_466">466</a>; <a href="#Notes_476">476</a>
+</li><li>Naphtha, <a href="#Notes_583">583</a>
+</li><li><i>Nitrum</i>, <a href="#Notes_560">560</a>
+</li><li>Ore-dressing, <a href="#Notes_281">281</a>
+</li><li>Outcrops, <a href="#Notes_65">65</a>
+</li><li><i>Pompholyx</i>, <a href="#Notes_396">396</a>
+</li><li>Protection from poison, <a href="#Notes_215">215</a>
+</li><li>Quicksilver, <a href="#Notes_433">433</a>
+</li><li>Red-lead, <a href="#Notes_232">232</a>
+</li><li>Roasting, <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+</li><li>Sal-ammoniac, <a href="#Notes_560">560</a>
+</li><li>Salt from wood, <a href="#Notes_558">558</a>
+</li><li>Silver-lead smelting, <a href="#Notes_392">392</a>
+</li><li><i>Sory</i>, <a href="#Notes_573">573</a>
+</li><li><i>Spodos</i>, <a href="#Notes_396">396</a>
+</li><li><i>Stannum</i>, <a href="#Notes_473">473</a>
+</li><li>Tin, Spanish, <a href="#Notes_412">412</a>
+</li><li><i>Tophus</i>, <a href="#Notes_233">233</a>
+</li><li>Touchstone, <b><a href="#Page_256">256</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_253">253</a>
+</li><li>Turfs in sluices, <b><a href="#Notes_331">331</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_332">332</a>
+</li><li><i>Vena</i>, <a href="#Notes_43">43</a>
+</li><li>Ventilation with wet cloths, <b><a href="#Page_210">210</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_210">210</a>
+</li><li>Verdigris, <a href="#Notes_440">440</a>
+</li><li>Vitriol, <a href="#Notes_572">572</a>
+</li><li>White-lead, <a href="#Notes_440">440</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Plutarch</span>, <a href="#Notes_25">25</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Pluto</span>, <b><a href="#Notes_216">216</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Polybius.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Ore washing, <a href="#Notes_281">281</a>
+</li><li>Silver-lead smelting, <a href="#Notes_392">392</a>; <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Polymnestor, King of Thrace.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Love of gold, <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_16">16</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">P�rtner, Hans</span>, <a href="#Notes_281">281</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Posepny, Franz</span>, <a href="#Notes_53">53</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Posidonius.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Asphalt and naphtha, <a href="#Notes_584">584</a>
+</li><li>Drainage of Spanish mines, <a href="#Notes_149">149</a>
+</li><li>Silver from forest fires, <a href="#Notes_36">36</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Priam, King of Troy.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Gold mines of, <b><a href="#Page_26">26</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I2_1" id="I2_1"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Probierb�chlein</i></span>, <a href="#Page_612">612</a>; <b><a href="#Page_xxvi">XXVI</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Amalgamation, <a href="#Notes_297">297</a>
+</li><li>Antimony, <a href="#Notes_420">420</a>
+</li><li>Assaying, <a href="#Notes_220">220</a>
+</li><li>Assay ton, <a href="#Notes_242">242</a>
+</li><li>Bismuth, <a href="#Notes_433">433</a>
+</li><li>Cementation, <a href="#Notes_454">454</a>
+</li><li>Nitric acid, <a href="#Notes_439">439</a>
+</li><li>Parting, <a href="#Notes_461">461</a>; <a href="#Notes_462">462</a>; <a href="#Notes_463">463</a>
+</li><li>Precipitation of silver nitrate, <a href="#Notes_443">443</a>
+</li><li>Residues from distillation of nitric acid, <a href="#Notes_235">235</a>; <a href="#Notes_443">443</a>
+</li><li>Roasting, <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+</li><li>Stock fluxes, <a href="#Notes_235">235</a>; <a href="#Notes_236">236</a>
+</li><li>Touchstone, <a href="#Notes_253">253</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Propertius.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Gold, <b><a href="#Page_10">10</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Pryce, William.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Adam's fall, <a href="#Notes_353">353</a>
+</li><li>Divining rod, <a href="#Notes_38">38</a>
+</li><li>Juices, <a href="#Notes_1">1</a>
+</li><li>Ore-deposits, <a href="#Notes_53">53</a>
+</li><li>Stamp-mill, <a href="#Notes_282">282</a>
+</li><li>Stringers, <a href="#Notes_70">70</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Psalms.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Silver refining, <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Pulsifer, Wm. H.</span>, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Pygmalion.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Love of gold, <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_16">16</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Rachaidibus</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Rameses I.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Map of mines, <a href="#Notes_129">129</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Rameses III.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Leaden objects dating from, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Raspe, R. E.</span>, <a href="#Notes_300">300</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Rawlinson, George</span>, <a href="#Notes_583">583</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ray, P. Chandra.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Indian zinc, <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Raymond, Rossiter W.</span>, <a href="#Notes_38">38</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Rechter Gebrauch der Alchimey</i></span>, <a href="#Page_606">606</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I2_22" id="I2_22"></a><span class="smcap"><i>Rerum Metallicarum Interpretatio</i></span>, <a href="#Page_597">597</a>; <a href="#Page_vii">VII</a>; <a href="#Page_600">600</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Reuss, F. A.</span>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Richter, A. D.</span>, <a href="#Page_v">V</a>; <a href="#Page_599">599</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Rodianus</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxviii">XXVIII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">R�ssler, B.</span>, <a href="#Notes_53">53</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Royal Geological Society of Cornwall</span>, <a href="#Notes_84">84</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">R�hlein von Kalbe</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I2_4">Calbus</a>).
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Salmoneus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Lightning, <b><a href="#Page_11">11</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Sandwich, Earl of</span>, trans. Barba's book, <a href="#Notes_300">300</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Sappho.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Wealth, <b><a href="#Page_19">19</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Savery, Thomas</span>, <a href="#Notes_149">149</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Saxony, Dukes and Electors of.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>(<i>See under personal names</i>: <a href="#I2_2">Albert</a>, <a href="#I2_15">Ernest</a>, <i>etc.</i>).
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Schliemann, H.</span>, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Schl�ter, C. A.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Artificial zinc vitriol, <a href="#Notes_572">572</a>
+</li><li>Copper refining, <a href="#Notes_535">535</a>
+</li><li>Cupellation, <a href="#Notes_464">464</a>
+</li><li>Liquation, <a href="#Notes_491">491</a>; <a href="#Notes_505">505</a>
+</li><li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_636" id="Page_636"></a>[Pg 636]</span>Parting with sulphur, <a href="#Notes_462">462</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Schmid, F. A.</span>, <a href="#Notes_v">V</a>; <a href="#Page_xv">XV</a>; <a href="#Page_599">599</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Schnabel and Lewis</span>, <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Scott, Sir Walter.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>"Antiquary," <a href="#Notes_300">300</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Seneca.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Wealth of, <b><a href="#Page_15">15</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Seneferu.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Copper mines, <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Seti I.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Map of mine, <a href="#Notes_129">129</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Shaw, Peter</span>, <a href="#Notes_xxviii">XXVIII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Shoo King.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Copper and lead, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>; <a href="#Notes_402">402</a>
+</li><li>Iron, <a href="#Notes_421">421</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Shutz, Christopher</span>, <a href="#Notes_283">283</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Sigfrido, Joanne.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Ed. Agricola's works, <a href="#Page_xv">XV</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Socrates.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Riches, <b><a href="#Page_7">7</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_9">9</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_14">14</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_18">18</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Solinus, C. Julius.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li><i>Solifuga</i>, <b><a href="#Page_216">216</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_216">216</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Solomon, King.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cobalt in mines, <a href="#Notes_214">214</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Solon.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Scarcity of silver under, <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Sosias, the Thracian.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Slaves employed by, <b><a href="#Page_25">25</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Stahl, G. E.</span>, <a href="#Notes_53">53</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Staunton, Sir George</span>, <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Stephanus</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxx">XXX</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Stephenson, George</span>, <a href="#Notes_149">149</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Strabo</span>, <a href="#Page_607">607</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Arsenical minerals, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+</li><li>Asbestos, <a href="#Notes_440">440</a>
+</li><li>Asphalt, <a href="#Notes_584">584</a>; <a href="#Notes_33">33</a>
+</li><li>Bellows, <a href="#Notes_362">362</a>
+</li><li>Cementation, <a href="#Notes_458">458</a>
+</li><li>Cupellation, <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>
+</li><li>Drainage of Spanish mines, <a href="#Notes_149">149</a>
+</li><li>Forest fires melting veins, <a href="#Notes_36">36</a>
+</li><li>High stacks, <a href="#Notes_355">355</a>
+</li><li>Lydian mines, <a href="#Notes_26">26</a>; <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+</li><li>Mt. Laurion, <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+</li><li>Silver-lead smelting, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>
+</li><li>Spanish ore-washing, <a href="#Notes_281">281</a>
+</li><li>Zinc (?), <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Strato.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Lost work on mines, <b><a href="#Page_xxvi">XXVI</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Page_xii">XII</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Struve, B. G.</span>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Synesius</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxix">XXIX</a>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Tantalus</span>, <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Taphnutia</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxviii">XXVIII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Tapping, Thomas</span>, <a href="#Notes_85">85</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Thales of Miletus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Amber, <a href="#Notes_35">35</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Themistocles.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Athenian mine royalties, <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Theodor, son of Agricola</span>, <a href="#Page_vii">VII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Theognis.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cupellation, <a href="#Notes_465">465</a>
+</li><li>On greed, <b><a href="#Page_18">18</a></b>
+</li><li>Plutus, <b><a href="#Page_8">8</a></b>
+</li><li>Refining gold, <a href="#Notes_399">399</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Theological Tracts</i></span> (Agricola), <a href="#Page_605">605</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Theophilus</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxviii">XXVIII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Theophilus the Monk</span>, <a href="#Page_609">609</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Brass making, <a href="#Notes_410">410</a>
+</li><li>Calamine, <a href="#Notes_112">112</a>
+</li><li>Cementation, <a href="#Notes_459">459</a>
+</li><li>Copper refining, <a href="#Notes_536">536</a>
+</li><li>Copper smelting, <a href="#Notes_405">405</a>
+</li><li>Cupels, <a href="#Notes_466">466</a>
+</li><li>Divining rod, <a href="#Notes_38">38</a>
+</li><li>Liquation, <a href="#Notes_494">494</a>
+</li><li>Metallurgical appliances, <a href="#Notes_355">355</a>
+</li><li>Parting with sulphur, <a href="#Notes_461">461</a>
+</li><li>Roasting, <a href="#Notes_267">267</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Theophrastus</span>, <a href="#Page_xii">XII</a>; <a href="#Page_607">607</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Amber, <a href="#Notes_35">35</a>
+</li><li>Arsenical minerals, <a href="#Notes_111">111</a>
+</li><li>Asbestos, <a href="#Notes_440">440</a>
+</li><li>Assaying, <a href="#Notes_219">219</a>
+</li><li>Coal, <a href="#Notes_34">34</a>
+</li><li>Copper minerals, <a href="#Notes_110">110</a>
+</li><li>Copper ore, <a href="#Notes_403">403</a>
+</li><li>Emery, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+</li><li>Lodestone, <a href="#Notes_115">115</a>
+</li><li>Lost works, <b><a href="#Page_xxvi">XXVI</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_403">403</a>
+</li><li>Origin of minerals, <a href="#Notes_44">44</a>
+</li><li>Parting precious metals, <a href="#Notes_458">458</a>
+</li><li>Quicksilver, <a href="#Notes_297">297</a>; <a href="#Notes_432">432</a>
+</li><li>Touchstone, <a href="#Notes_252">252</a>
+</li><li>Verdigris, <a href="#Notes_440">440</a>
+</li><li>Vermilion, <a href="#Notes_232">232</a>
+</li><li>White-lead, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>; <a href="#Notes_440">440</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Thompson, Lewis</span>, <a href="#Notes_462">462</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Thoth.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Hermes Trismegistos, <a href="#Notes_xxix">XXIX</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Thotmes III.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Lead, <a href="#Notes_391">391</a>; <a href="#Notes_582">582</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Thucydides.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mining prefect, <b><a href="#Page_23">23</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_23">23</a>; <a href="#Notes_95">95</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Tibullus.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Wealth condemned by, <b><a href="#Page_16">16</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Timocles.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Riches, <b><a href="#Page_8">8</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Timocreon of Rhodes.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Plutus, <b><a href="#Page_7">7</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Tournefort, Joseph P. De</span>, <a href="#Notes_566">566</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Tubal Cain.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Instructor in metallurgy, <a href="#Notes_353">353</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Tursius</span>, <b><a href="#Page_24">24</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Twain, Mark.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Merlin, <a href="#Notes_xxx">XXX</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Typographia Mysnae et Toringiae</i></span>, <a href="#Page_605">605</a>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Ulloa, Don Antonio De</span>, <a href="#Notes_298">298</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ulysses.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Magic rod, <b><a href="#Page_40">40</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Valentine, Basil</span>, <a href="#Notes_xxx">XXX</a>; <a href="#Page_609">609</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Antimony, <a href="#Notes_429">429</a>
+</li><li>Divining rod, <a href="#Notes_38">38</a>
+</li><li>Parting with antimony, <a href="#Notes_461">461</a>
+</li><li>Zinc, <a href="#Notes_409">409</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Valerius, son of Agricola</span>, <a href="#Page_vii">VII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Van der Linden, J. A.</span>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I2_23" id="I2_23"></a><span class="smcap">Van Oppel</span>, <a href="#Page_xiii">XIII</a>; <a href="#Notes_52">52</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Varro, Marcus</span>, <b><a href="#Page_xxvi">XXVI</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Vasco da Gama</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I2_16">Gama, Vasco da</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Veiga, Estacia de</span>, <a href="#Notes_83">83</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Velasco, Dom Pedro De</span>, <a href="#Notes_298">298</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Veradianus</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxviii">XXVIII</a>
+
+</li><li><a name="I2_24" id="I2_24"></a><span class="smcap">Villa Nova, Arnold De</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxx">XXX</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Virgil.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Avarice condemned by, <b><a href="#Page_16">16</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Vitruvius</span>, <a href="#Page_608">608</a>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Amalgamation, <a href="#Notes_297">297</a>
+</li><li>Hiero's Crown, <a href="#Notes_248">248</a>
+</li><li>Pumps, <a href="#Notes_174">174</a>; <a href="#Notes_149">149</a>
+</li><li>Red-lead, <a href="#Notes_232">232</a>
+</li><li>Surveying, <a href="#Notes_129">129</a>
+</li><li>Verdigris, <a href="#Notes_440">440</a>
+</li><li>White-lead, <a href="#Notes_440">440</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Vladislaus III., King of Poland</span>, <b><a href="#Page_24">24</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Von Oppel</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I2_23">Van Oppel</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Voz, Cornelius de</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I2_14">Devoz, Cornelius</a>).
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Wallerius, J. G.</span>, <a href="#Notes_234">234</a>; <a href="#Notes_273">273</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Watt, James</span>, <a href="#Notes_149">149</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Watt, Robert</span>, <a href="#Notes_xxvii">XXVII</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Wefring, Basilius</span>, <a href="#Page_xiv">XIV</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Weindle, Caspar</span>, <a href="#Notes_119">119</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Weinart, B. G.</span>, <a href="#Page_599">599</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Weller, J. G.</span>, <a href="#Notes_v">V</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Werner, A. G.</span>, <a href="#Page_xiii">XIII</a>; <a href="#Notes_53">53</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Wilkinson, J. Gardner.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Bitumen, <a href="#Notes_582">582</a>
+</li><li>Egyptian bellows, <a href="#Notes_362">362</a>
+</li><li>Egyptian gold-washing, <a href="#Notes_279">279</a>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Williams, John</span>, <a href="#Notes_53">53</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Winkler, K. A.</span>, <a href="#Notes_464">464</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Wrotham, William de</span>, <a href="#Notes_85">85</a>; <a href="#Notes_413">413</a>; <a href="#Notes_473">473</a>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_637" id="Page_637"></a>[Pg 637]</span><span class="smcap">Xenophon.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Athenian mines, <b><a href="#Page_28">28</a></b>; <b><a href="#Notes_83">83</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_27">27</a>; <a href="#Notes_29">29</a>
+</li><li>Fruitfulness of mines, <b><a href="#Page_6">6</a></b>
+</li><li>Mining companies, <a href="#Notes_90">90</a>
+</li><li>Mine slaves, <a href="#Notes_25">25</a>; <a href="#Page_28">28</a>
+</li><li>Quoted by Agricola, <b><a href="#Page_26">26</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_28">28</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Zimmerman, C. F.</span>, <a href="#Notes_53">53</a>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Zosimus</span> (alchemist), <b><a href="#Page_xxvii">XXVII</a></b>; <a href="#Notes_xxix">XXIX</a>
+
+
+
+</li></ul>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2><a name="INDEX_TO_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="INDEX_TO_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+
+<ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Alum Making</span>, <b><a href="#Page_571">571</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Amalgamation Mill</span>, <b><a href="#Page_299">299</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ampulla</span>, <b><a href="#Page_442">442</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_446">446</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Argonauts</span>, <b><a href="#Page_330">330</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Assay Balances</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I3_2">Balances</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Assay Crucible</span>, <b><a href="#Page_229">229</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I3_1" id="I3_1"></a><span class="smcap">Assay Furnaces.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Crucible, <b><a href="#Page_227">227</a></b>
+</li><li>Muffle, <b><a href="#Page_223">223</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_224">224</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><a name="I3_2" id="I3_2"></a><span class="smcap">Balances</span>, <b><a href="#Page_265">265</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Baling Water</span>, <b><a href="#Page_199">199</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Bars, for Furnace Work</span>, <b><a href="#Page_377">377</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_389">389</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I3_3" id="I3_3"></a><span class="smcap">Batea</span>, <b><a href="#Page_157">157</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I3_4" id="I3_4"></a><span class="smcap">Bellows.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>For blast furnaces, <b><a href="#Page_359">359</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_365">365</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_368">368</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_370">370</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_372">372</a></b>
+</li><li>For mine ventilation, <b><a href="#Page_208">208</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_209">209</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_211">211</a></b>
+</li><li>For tin furnace, <b><a href="#Page_419">419</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Bismuth Smelting</span>, <b><a href="#Page_434">434</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_435">435</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_436">436</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_437">437</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Bitumen Making</span>, <b><a href="#Page_582">582</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Bitumen Spring</span>, <b><a href="#Page_583">583</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Bowls for Alluvial Washing</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I3_3">Batea</a>), <b><a href="#Page_336">336</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Buckets.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>For hoisting ore, <b><a href="#Page_154">154</a></b>
+</li><li>For hoisting water, <b><a href="#Page_158">158</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Buddle</span>, <b><a href="#Page_301">301</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_302">302</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_314">314</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_315">315</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Building Plan for Refinery</span>, <b><a href="#Page_493">493</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Building Plan for Smelter</span>, <b><a href="#Page_361">361</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Chain Pumps</span>, <b><a href="#Page_173">173</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_174">174</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_175">175</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Chrysocolla</i> Making</span>, <b><a href="#Page_585">585</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Circular Fire</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I3_11">Ring-Fire</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Clay Washing</span>, <b><a href="#Page_374">374</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_375">375</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Compass</span>, <b><a href="#Page_57">57</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_59">59</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_142">142</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_147">147</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Copper Mould for Assaying</span>, <b><a href="#Page_250">250</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Copper Refining</span>, <b><a href="#Page_534">534</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_537">537</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Copper Refining Furnace</span>, <b><a href="#Page_532">532</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Crane.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>For cupellation furnace, <b><a href="#Page_479">479</a></b>
+</li><li>For liquation cakes, <b><a href="#Page_514">514</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Crowbars</span>, <b><a href="#Page_152">152</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Cupel</span>, <b><a href="#Page_229">229</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Mould, <b><a href="#Page_231">231</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Cupellation Furnace</span>, <b><a href="#Page_468">468</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_470">470</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_474">474</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>At Freiberg, <b><a href="#Page_481">481</a></b>
+</li><li>In Poland, <b><a href="#Page_482">482</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Cutting Metal</span>, <b><a href="#Page_269">269</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Descent into Mines</span>, <b><a href="#Page_213">213</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Dipping-pots</span>, <b><a href="#Page_385">385</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_387">387</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_389">389</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_393">393</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_415">415</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_417">417</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Distillation</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I3_8">Nitric Acid</a> <i>and</i> <a href="#I3_10">Quicksilver</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Divining Rod</span>, <b><a href="#Page_40">40</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Dogs Packing Ore</span>, <b><a href="#Page_168">168</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Drifts</span>, <b><a href="#Page_105">105</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Drying Furnace for Liquation</span>, <b><a href="#Page_525">525</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_527">527</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_528">528</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Dust Chambers</span>, <b><a href="#Page_395">395</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_417">417</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><a name="I3_5" id="I3_5"></a><span class="smcap">Fans, Ventilation</span>, <b><a href="#Page_204">204</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_205">205</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_206">206</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_207">207</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Fire-Buckets</span>, <b><a href="#Page_377">377</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Fire Pump</span>, <b><a href="#Page_377">377</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Fire-Setting</span>, <b><a href="#Page_120">120</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Forehearth</span>, <b><a href="#Page_357">357</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_358">358</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_383">383</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_385">385</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_387">387</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_389">389</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_417">417</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Frames (or Sluices) for Washing Ore or Alluvial</span>, <b><a href="#Page_322">322</a>-<a href="#Page_324">324</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_326">326</a>-<a href="#Page_329">329</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_331">331</a>-<a href="#Page_333">333</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Furnaces.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Assaying</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I3_1">Assay Furnaces</a>).
+</li><li><a name="I3_6" id="I3_6"></a>Blast, <b><a href="#Page_357">357</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_358">358</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_373">373</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_377">377</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_383">383</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_385">385</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_387">387</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_389">389</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_395">395</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_419">419</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_424">424</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_508">508</a></b>
+</li><li>Copper refining, <b><a href="#Page_537">537</a></b>
+</li><li>Cupellation, <b><a href="#Page_468">468</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_470">470</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_474">474</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_481">481</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_482">482</a></b>
+</li><li>Distilling sulphur, <b><a href="#Page_277">277</a></b>
+</li><li>Enriching copper bottoms, <b><a href="#Page_510">510</a></b>
+</li><li>Glass-making, <b><a href="#Page_587">587</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_588">588</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_589">589</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_591">591</a></b>
+</li><li>Iron smelting, <b><a href="#Page_422">422</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_424">424</a></b>
+</li><li>Lead smelting (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I3_6">Furnaces, blast</a>), <b><a href="#Page_393">393</a></b>
+</li><li>Liquation, <b><a href="#Page_517">517</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_519">519</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_525">525</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_527">527</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_528">528</a></b>
+</li><li>Nitric acid making, <b><a href="#Page_442">442</a></b>
+</li><li>Nitric acid parting, <b><a href="#Page_446">446</a></b>
+</li><li>Parting precious metals with antimony, <b><a href="#Page_453">453</a></b>
+</li><li>Ditto cementation, <b><a href="#Page_455">455</a></b>
+</li><li>Quicksilver distillation, <b><a href="#Page_427">427</a>-<a href="#Page_432">432</a></b>
+</li><li>Refining silver, <b><a href="#Page_485">485</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_486">486</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_489">489</a></b>
+</li><li>Roasting, <b><a href="#Page_276">276</a></b>
+</li><li>Steel making, <b><a href="#Page_425">425</a></b>
+</li><li>Tin burning, <b><a href="#Page_349">349</a></b>
+</li><li>Tin smelting, <b><a href="#Page_415">415</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Gad</span>, <b><a href="#Page_150">150</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Glass Making</span>, <b><a href="#Page_591">591</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Furnaces, <b><a href="#Page_587">587</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_588">588</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_589">589</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Ground Sluicing</span>, <b><a href="#Page_337">337</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_340">340</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_343">343</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_346">346</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_347">347</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Hammers</span>, <b><a href="#Page_151">151</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>With water-power, <b><a href="#Page_422">422</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_425">425</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I3_7" id="I3_7"></a><span class="smcap">Heap Roasting</span>, <b><a href="#Page_275">275</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_278">278</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Hearths.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>For bismuth smelting, <b><a href="#Page_436">436</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_437">437</a></b>
+</li><li>For heating copper cakes, <b><a href="#Page_504">504</a></b>
+</li><li>For melting lead, <b><a href="#Page_393">393</a></b>
+</li><li>For melting lead cakes, <b><a href="#Page_499">499</a></b>
+</li><li>For refining tin, <b><a href="#Page_418">418</a></b>
+</li><li>For roasting, <b><a href="#Page_277">277</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Hemicycle</span>, <b><a href="#Page_138">138</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Hoe</span>, <b><a href="#Page_152">152</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap"><i>Intervenium</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_50">50</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Iron Fork for Metal</span>, <b><a href="#Page_387">387</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Iron Hook for Assaying</span>, <b><a href="#Page_240">240</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Iron Smelting</span>, <b><a href="#Page_422">422</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_424">424</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Iron Tools</span>, <b><a href="#Page_150">150</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Jigging Sieve</span>, <b><a href="#Page_311">311</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Ladders</span>, <b><a href="#Page_213">213</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ladle for Metal</span>, <b><a href="#Page_383">383</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Lead Mould for Assaying</span>, <b><a href="#Page_240">240</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Liquation Cakes.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Dried, <b><a href="#Page_530">530</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Liquation Cakes, Exhausted</span>, <b><a href="#Page_522">522</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Liquation Furnaces</span>, <b><a href="#Page_517">517</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_519">519</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_525">525</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_527">527</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_528">528</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_638" id="Page_638"></a>[Pg 638]</span><span class="smcap">Lye Making</span>, <b><a href="#Page_557">557</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Matte Roasting</span>, <b><a href="#Page_350">350</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_351">351</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Meers, Shape of</span>, <b><a href="#Page_79">79</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_80">80</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_86">86</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_87">87</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_89">89</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Mills for Grinding Ore</span>, <b><a href="#Page_294">294</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_296">296</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Muffle Furnaces</span>, <b><a href="#Page_223">223</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_489">489</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Muffles</span>, <b><a href="#Page_228">228</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><a name="I3_8" id="I3_8"></a><span class="smcap">Nitric Acid Making</span>, <b><a href="#Page_442">442</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Nitrum</i> Pits</span>, <b><a href="#Page_559">559</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap"><i>Operculum</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_446">446</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Orbis</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_142A">142A</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Parting Precious Metals.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>With antimony, <b><a href="#Page_453">453</a></b>
+</li><li>By cementation, <b><a href="#Page_455">455</a></b>
+</li><li>With nitric acid, <b><a href="#Page_446">446</a></b>
+</li><li>With sulphur, <b><a href="#Page_449">449</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Picks</span>, <b><a href="#Page_152">152</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Plummet level.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Standing, <b><a href="#Page_143">143</a></b>
+</li><li>Suspended, <b><a href="#Page_146">146</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><a name="I3_9" id="I3_9"></a><span class="smcap">Pumps.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Chain, <b><a href="#Page_173">173</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_174">174</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_175">175</a></b>
+</li><li>Duplex suction, <b><a href="#Page_180">180</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_185">185</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_189">189</a></b>
+</li><li>Rag and chain, <b><a href="#Page_191">191</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_193">193</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_194">194</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_195">195</a></b>
+</li><li>Suction, <b><a href="#Page_177">177</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_178">178</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_179">179</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_182">182</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_183">183</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_187">187</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><a name="I3_10" id="I3_10"></a><span class="smcap">Quicksilver Distillation</span>, <b><a href="#Page_427">427</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_429">429</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_430">430</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_431">431</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_432">432</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Rag and Chain Pumps</span>, <b><a href="#Page_191">191</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_193">193</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_194">194</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_195">195</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_197">197</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Rammers for Fire-Clay</span>, <b><a href="#Page_377">377</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_383">383</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I3_11" id="I3_11"></a><span class="smcap">Ring-Fire, for Parting with Sulphur</span>, <b><a href="#Page_449">449</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Roasting</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I3_7">Heap</a> <i>and</i> <a href="#I3_14">Stall Roasting</a>), <b><a href="#Page_278">278</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_350">350</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_351">351</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_274">274</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_275">275</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_276">276</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Rosette Copper Making</span>, <b><a href="#Page_537">537</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Salt.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Boiling, <b><a href="#Page_549">549</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_554">554</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_555">555</a></b>
+</li><li>Caldron, <b><a href="#Page_551">551</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_553">553</a></b>
+</li><li>Evaporated on faggots, <b><a href="#Page_556">556</a></b>
+</li><li>Pans, <b><a href="#Page_547">547</a></b>
+</li><li>Wells, <b><a href="#Page_549">549</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Saltpetre Making</span>, <b><a href="#Page_563">563</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Saxon Lead Furnace</span>, <b><a href="#Page_393">393</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Scorifier</span>, <b><a href="#Page_229">229</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Seams in the Rocks</span>, <b><a href="#Page_54">54</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_55">55</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_56">56</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_60">60</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_72">72</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Shafts.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Inclined, <b><a href="#Page_104">104</a></b>
+</li><li>Timbering, <b><a href="#Page_123">123</a></b>
+</li><li>Vertical, <b><a href="#Page_103">103</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_105">105</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Shears for Cutting Metal</span>, <b><a href="#Page_269">269</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Shield for Muffle Furnace</span>, <b><a href="#Page_241">241</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I3_12" id="I3_12"></a><span class="smcap">Sifting Ore</span>, <b><a href="#Page_287">287</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_288">288</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_289">289</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_291">291</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_292">292</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_293">293</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_311">311</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_342">342</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Silver.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Cakes, Cleansing of, <b><a href="#Page_476">476</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_488">488</a></b>
+</li><li>Refining, <b><a href="#Page_484">484</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_485">485</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_486">486</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_489">489</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Sleigh for Ore</span>, <b><a href="#Page_168">168</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Sluicing Tin</span>, <b><a href="#Page_337">337</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_338">338</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_340">340</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_343">343</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Smelter, Plan of Building</span>, <b><a href="#Page_361">361</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Soda Making</span>, <b><a href="#Page_561">561</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Sorting Ore</span>, <b><a href="#Page_268">268</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_270">270</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Spalling Ore</span>, <b><a href="#Page_270">270</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_271">271</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_272">272</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I3_14" id="I3_14"></a><span class="smcap">Stall Roasting.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Matte, <b><a href="#Page_350">350</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_351">351</a></b>
+</li><li>Ore, <b><a href="#Page_274">274</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_276">276</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Stamp-mill</span>, <b><a href="#Page_284">284</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_286">286</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_287">287</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_299">299</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_313">313</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_320">320</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_321">321</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_373">373</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>For breaking copper cakes, <b><a href="#Page_501">501</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Stamps</span>, <b><a href="#Page_285">285</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Steel Furnace</span>, <b><a href="#Page_425">425</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Strake</span>, <b><a href="#Page_302">302</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_303">303</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_305">305</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_306">306</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_307">307</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_341">341</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_342">342</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_345">345</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Canvas, <b><a href="#Page_308">308</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_309">309</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_317">317</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_321">321</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_329">329</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Streaming for Tin</span>, <b><a href="#Page_318">318</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Stringers.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Associated, <b><a href="#Page_71">71</a></b>
+</li><li><i>Fibra dilatata</i>, <b><a href="#Page_71">71</a></b>
+</li><li><i>Fibra incumbens</i>, <b><a href="#Page_71">71</a></b>
+</li><li>Oblique, <b><a href="#Page_71">71</a></b>
+</li><li>Transverse, <b><a href="#Page_71">71</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Surveying.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Rods, <b><a href="#Page_138A">138A</a></b>
+</li><li>Shafts and Tunnels, <b><a href="#Page_131">131</a></b>
+</li><li>Triangles, <b><a href="#Page_133">133</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_134">134</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_135">135</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_136">136</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_137">137</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_139">139</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_140">140</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Suction Pumps</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I3_9">Pumps</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Sulphur Making</span>, <b><a href="#Page_579">579</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_581">581</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Tap-holes in Furnaces</span>, <b><a href="#Page_389">389</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Tapping-bar</span>, <b><a href="#Page_383">383</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_385">385</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">"Tests" for Refining Silver</span>, <b><a href="#Page_484">484</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_485">485</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Timbering.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Shafts, <b><a href="#Page_123">123</a></b>
+</li><li>Tunnels, <b><a href="#Page_125">125</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Tin.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Bars, <b><a href="#Page_415">415</a></b>
+</li><li>Burning, <b><a href="#Page_349">349</a></b>
+</li><li>Refining, <b><a href="#Page_418">418</a></b>
+</li><li>Smelting, <b><a href="#Page_415">415</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_419">419</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Touch-needles</span>, <b><a href="#Page_255">255</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Trays for Washing Alluvial</span>, <b><a href="#Page_334">334</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Tread Whim</span>, <b><a href="#Page_163">163</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Trough</span>, <b><a href="#Page_159">159</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>For washing alluvial, <b><a href="#Page_335">335</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_348">348</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Trucks</span>, <b><a href="#Page_156">156</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Tunnels</span>, <b><a href="#Page_103">103</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_104">104</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_105">105</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_120">120</a></b>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Timbering, <b><a href="#Page_125">125</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul></li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Veins.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Barren, <b><a href="#Page_73">73</a></b>
+</li><li>Beginning of, <b><a href="#Page_69">69</a></b>
+</li><li>Cavernous, <b><a href="#Page_73">73</a></b>
+</li><li>Curved, <b><a href="#Page_61">61</a></b>
+</li><li>End of, <b><a href="#Page_69">69</a></b>
+</li><li>Head of, <b><a href="#Page_69">69</a></b>
+</li><li>Horizontal, <b><a href="#Page_61">61</a></b>
+</li><li>Intersections of, <b><a href="#Page_64">64</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_65">65</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_66">66</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_67">67</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_68">68</a></b>
+</li><li>Solid, <b><a href="#Page_73">73</a></b>
+</li><li>Strike of, <b><a href="#Page_62">62</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_63">63</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Vena cumulata</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_49">49</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_70">70</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Vena dilatata</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_45">45</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_50">50</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_54">54</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_60">60</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_61">61</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_68">68</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_69">69</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap"><i>Vena profunda</i></span>, <b><a href="#Page_45">45</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_50">50</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_53">53</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_61">61</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_62">62</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_63">63</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_64">64</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_68">68</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Ventilating with Damp Cloth</span> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#I3_4">Bellows</a>, <a href="#I3_5">Fans</a>, and <a href="#I3_13">Windsails</a>), <b><a href="#Page_212">212</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Vitriol Making</span>, <b><a href="#Page_567">567</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_574">574</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_575">575</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_576">576</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_577">577</a></b>
+
+
+</li></ul><ul class="lsoff"><li><span class="smcap">Wagons, for Hauling Ore</span>, <b><a href="#Page_170">170</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Washing Ore</span> (<i>see</i> <a href="#I3_12">Sifting Ore</a>).
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Water Tanks, under Furnaces</span>, <b><a href="#Page_358">358</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Wedges</span>, <b><a href="#Page_150">150</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Weights, for Assay Balances</span>, <b><a href="#Page_262">262</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Westphalian Lead Smelting</span>, <b><a href="#Page_393">393</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Wheelbarrows</span>, <b><a href="#Page_155">155</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Whims.</span>
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>Horse, <b><a href="#Page_165">165</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_167">167</a></b>
+</li><li>Tread, <b><a href="#Page_163">163</a></b>
+
+</li></ul></li><li><span class="smcap">Windlasses</span>, <b><a href="#Page_161">161</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_162">162</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_171">171</a></b>
+
+</li><li><span class="smcap">Winds, Direction of</span>, <b><a href="#Page_59">59</a></b>
+
+</li><li><a name="I3_13" id="I3_13"></a><span class="smcap">Windsails for Ventilation</span>, <b><a href="#Page_201">201</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_202">202</a></b>; <b><a href="#Page_203">203</a></b>
+
+</li></ul>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2><a name="Transcribers_Notes" id="Transcribers_Notes"></a>Transcriber's Notes.</h2>
+
+
+<p>This document includes quotes from very early authors. As such, it's no
+surprise that there are many spelling and punctuation irregularities.
+Also the authors were American, but writing for a British journal. In
+addition, whether "ae" and "oe" appear as ligatures or separate
+characters seems to be fairly random. Unless there was a clearly
+preferred spelling choice, variants were kept as is. All changes are
+explicitly documented below. Noted spelling variants that were preserved
+include: "aluminum" and "aluminium;" "ampullas" and "ampullae;"
+"beechwood" and "beech-wood;" "Bl�tstein" and "Bl�t stein;" "brick dust"
+and "brickdust;" "calcspar," "calc spar" and "calc-spar;" derivatives of "crossbar"
+and "cross-bar," and similarly for "crosscut," "crosspiece," etc.; (Hans
+von) "Dechen" and "Decken;" "desulphurizing" and "de-sulphurizing;"
+"dissension" and "dissention" (and their plurals); "distill" and
+"distil" (and derivatives); "encrusted" and "incrusted;" "enquire" and
+"inquire" (and derivatives); "ensure" and "insure;"
+(Lazarus) "Ercker" and "Erckern;"
+"flavor" and
+"flavour;" "fluor-spar" and "fluorspar;" "Flusse" and "Fl�sse;"
+(Rotenburg an der) "Fulda" and "Fulde;"
+"Gatter"
+and "Gatterer" may be the same person; "gold workers," "goldworkers" and
+"gold-workers;" "gray" and "grey" (and derivatives);
+"grove" and "groove" (English mining term for a shaft);
+"halitum" and "halitus;"
+"Henckel" and "Henkel;"
+"holm oak" and
+"holmoak;" "homogenous" and "homogeneous;" Daniel "Houghsetter,"
+"Houghstetter" and "Hochstetter;"
+"Joannes" and "Johannes" (the alchemist); "Johanes" and "Johannes" (Aurelius
+Augurellus), a.k.a. "John Aurelio Augurello;" "J�denstein" and "J�den
+stein;" "Kinstock" and "Kinstocke;" "Lautental" and "Lautenthal;"
+"lawsuit" and "law-suit;" "Leipsic" and "Leipzig;" "Krat" and "Kratt;"
+"Mosaic" and "Mosaick;" "mineralogic" and "mineralogical;" "N�tzlich
+Bergb�chlin," "N�tzliche Bergb�chlin," "N�tzlich Bergb�chlein," and
+"N�tzliche Bergb�chlein;" "organisation" and "organization;" (Thomas)
+"Pennant" and "Pennent;" "Probier B�chlein," "Probierb�chlin,"
+"Probierb�chlein," "Probirb�chlein," and "Probirb�chleyn" (which may be
+different books in some cases); derivatives of "pulverise" and
+"pulverize;" "reagent" and "re-agent" (and their plurals); derivatives
+of "recognise" and "recognize;" "republished" and "re-published;"
+"salamander har" and "salamanderhar;" "seashore" and "sea-shore;"
+"semicircle" and "semi-circle" (and derivatives); "shovelful" and
+"shovel-ful;" "spiesglas," "spiesglass," and "spiesglasz;" "Turkey oak"
+and "turkey-oak;" "Vannucci," "Vannuccio" and "Vanuccio" (Biringuccio);
+"Vectarii" and "Vectiarii;" derivatives of "volatilise" and
+"volatilize."</p>
+
+<p>There appears to be no rule whether punctuation following a quote should
+be inside or outside the quotation marks. The text was simply left as
+is.</p>
+
+<p>There appears to be no rule whether Roman numerals have periods after them or not;
+even references to the same document may differ. The text was simply left as
+is.</p>
+
+<p>Some footnote numbers are skipped. To avoid confusion with references to
+the footnotes, none of the footnotes were re-numbered. In particular,
+Book I does not have footnote 24; Book VI does not have footnote 9; Book
+VIII does not have footnote 9, 10 or 18; Book IX does not have footnote
+24; Book XI does not have footnote 3.</p>
+
+<p>Inserted missing anchor for footnote 1 on page v.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Albertham" to "Abertham" on page vii: "the God's Gift mine at
+Abertham."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "honored" to "honoured" on page xi: "most honoured citizens."</p>
+
+<p>Treated the explanatory text on page xxiv as a footnote (number 1) and
+created its anchor on page xxi.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "license" to "licence" in the note on page xxiv: "only poets
+have licence."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Bibliotheque" to "Biblioth�que" in the footnote on page xxix:
+"the Biblioth�que Nationale."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Theosebeia" to "Theosebia" and inserted closing double
+quotation mark after "written to Theosebia, etc....'" on page xxx.</p>
+
+<p>Left "loadstone" on page 2 although it's spelled "lodestone" everywhere
+else, because it's in a quote.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "silver-mines" to "silver mines" on page 5: "the silver mines at
+Freiberg."</p>
+
+<p>Removed the extra comma after "ll." in footnote 20 on page 11: "Odes,
+I., 35, ll. 17-20;" and in footnote 21 on page 15: "Satires, II., 3, ll.
+99-102."
+</p>
+
+<p>Changed "realised" to "realized" on page 25: "his hopes are not
+realized."</p>
+
+<p>Removed extra double quotation mark from before "probable that the work"
+on page 28.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Hipprocrene" to "Hippocrene" in footnote 19 on page 37: "named
+Hippocrene after that horse."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Joachimstal" to "Joachimsthal" on page 42.</p>
+
+<p>Adjusted the formats of the captions to the illustrations on page 45,
+55, 56 and 60 to be consistent with other captions.</p>
+
+<p>Removed extra double quotation mark after "not a metal" in the footnote
+from page 51.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "foot walls and hanging walls" to "footwalls and hangingwalls"
+on page 65.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "hanging-wall" to "hangingwall" in footnote 5 on page 80: "into
+the hangingwall."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Phaenippis" to "Phaenippus" in the footnote on page 83: "the
+other against Phaenippus."</p>
+
+<p>Inserted double quotation mark after "Droit Francais et Etranger" in the
+footnote on page 84.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Inama-Strenegg" to "Inama-Sternegg" in the footnote on page 84.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Himmelich" to "Himmelisch" on page 92: "Himmelisch H�z."
+"Himmelsch hoz" was retained as a variant elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "shovelers" to "shovellers" on page 100: "miners, shovellers,
+windlass men."</p>
+
+<p><a name="TN109" id="TN109"></a>The table in the note on page 109 refers
+to note 7 on p. 573. It would make more sense to refer to <a href="#Footnote_8_378">note 8</a>, but
+was left as is.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "chrusos" to "chrysos" in the footnote on page 110: "(chrysos,
+gold and kolla, solder)."</p>
+
+<p><a name="TN110" id="TN110"></a>The footnote on page 110 contains the reference "(see note xx., p. x)."
+Rather than Roman numerals, this appears to be a placeholder to a
+reference that was not filled in. Perhaps it should be "(see <a href="#Footnote_8_378">note 8, p.
+560</a>)," but it was left as is.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "tinstone" to "tin-stone" in the footnote on page 110.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "De La Pirotechnica" to "De La Pirotechnia" in the footnote on
+page 112.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Mansfeld" to "Mannsfeld" in the footnote on page 113:
+"Mannsfeld copper schists."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "CoAsA" to "CoAsS" in the footnote on page 113: "Cobaltite
+(CoAsS)."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Phoenecians" to "Phoenicians" on page 119: "Phoenicians must
+have possessed."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "hanging wall" to "hangingwall" on page 124: "the hangingwall
+and the footwall."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "ven� dilatat�" (ae-ligature) to "venae dilatatae" on page 127:
+"mine venae dilatatae lying down."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "ven� cumulat�" (ae-ligature) to "venae cumulatae" on page 128:
+"as to venae cumulatae."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Watts's" to "Watt's" in footnote 1 on page 149: "Watt's
+improvements."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "locks" to "blocks" on page 151: "blocks, and plates."</p>
+
+<p>Something is wrong with the sentence on page 153 that ends with the
+reference to footnote 3. One metreta is larger than one-sixth of a
+congius. Perhaps "metreta" and "congius" should be swapped in this
+sentence, but it was left as is.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "bail" to "bale" on page 153: "iron semi-circular bale."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Fosilium" to "Fossilium" twice in the footnote on page 155: "De
+Natura Fossilium."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "decends" to "descends" on page 166: "descends into an
+underground chamber," and again on page 190: "the plank descends."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Pig-skin" to "Pigskin" in the caption to the illustration on
+page 168: "Pigskin sacks."</p>
+
+<p>Left "vapor" as is in footnote 20 on page 210 although it's spelled
+"vapour" everywhere else, because it's in a quote.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "de hydrated" to "dehydrated" in the footnote on page 221:
+"Probably dehydrated alum."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Na<sub>2</sub>Co<sub>3</sub>" to "Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>" in the footnote on page 222.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "fore-part" to "forepart" on page 226: "the forepart lies."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "four-fold" to "fourfold" on page 226: "with fourfold curves."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "or" to "of" on page 230: "an ore of copper."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "factictius" to "facticius" in the footnote on page 233: "Sal
+facticius."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Interpretaltio" to "Interpretatio" in footnote 13 on page 234:
+"Interpretatio, die heffe."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Loehneys" to "Lohneys" in footnote 21 on page 237.</p>
+
+<p>"Cramner" in footnote 21 on page 237 may be a typo for "Cramer," but it
+was left as is.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "neutralized" to "neutralised" in footnote 21 on page 237:
+"neutralised by the nitre."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "notes" to "note" in footnote 33 on page 248: "note 10."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "liquified" to "liquefied" on page 250: "has become sufficiently
+liquefied."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "touchneedles" to "touch-needles" in footnote 37 on page 253:
+"detailed account of touch-needles."</p>
+
+<p><a name="TN253" id="TN253"></a>The reference to page 259 in footnote 39
+on page 253 does not seem to make sense, but was not changed. Perhaps
+the reference should be to <a href="#Footnote_27_199">footnote 27 on page 242</a>.</p>
+
+<p>In the table on page 257, the entries for the 20th and 21st needles
+do not add up, because the entry for the number of sextulae of copper
+belongs in the 21st needle, not the 20th. This was corrected. However,
+there are other errors in this table, which are not so obvious and were
+not corrected. In particular, the entries for the 22nd, 28th and 31st
+needles do not add correctly.</p>
+
+<p>In the table on page 258, the number for the siliquae of copper was
+sometimes in the sextulae column. These were corrected. The affected
+lines were the ones for needles 13, 22 and 24. There is some other
+error (uncorrected) for the 17th needle; probably it should have
+another sextula of silver.</p>
+
+<p>Filled in the missing "4" in the line for the 8th needle in the table on
+page 260.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "52" to "25" in the line for the 3rd weight in the table for the
+"greater" weights on page 261.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "stele" to "stelae" on page 279: "Certain stelae."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "hanging-wall" to "hangingwall" on page 279: "the hangingwall
+rock;" and on page 292: "from the hangingwall."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "lead" to "led" in the footnote on page 281: "led through a
+series."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Humpfrey" to "Humphrey" in the footnote on page 283: "William
+Humphrey."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Erbisdroff" to "Erbisdorff" on page 304: "tin-stuff of
+Schlackenwald and Erbisdorff."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "colleced" to "collected" on page 328: "concentrates are
+collected."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "civilisation" to "civilization" in footnote 17 on page 330:
+"glimmer of civilization."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Chapter IX" to "Book IX" in footnote 22 from page 350.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Thothmes" to "Thotmes" in footnote 6 on page 362: "the time of
+Thotmes III."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "unseasonable" to "unreasonable" on page 374: "yet it is not
+unreasonable."</p>
+
+<p>Inserted "L&mdash;" in the caption for the illustration on page 385.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TN391" id="TN391"></a>Footnote 23, p. 391, refers to a note on p. 265, but there is no such
+note.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "carni" to "Carni" in the caption to the illustration on page
+393.</p>
+
+<p>Removed extra right parenthesis at end of footnote 28, from page 396,
+and footnote 7, from page 441.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Agatharcides" to "Agatharchides" in the footnote on page 399,
+and again in the footnote on page 465.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "bare" to "bars" on page 418: "the lattice-like bars sells."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "N�tliche" to "N�tzliche" in footnote 59 on page 433: "the
+N�tzliche Bergb�chlein in association."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "threequarters" to "three-quarters" on page 437: "three-quarters
+of a foot."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "the spout from the opercula extends" to "the spouts from the
+opercula extend" in the caption to the illustration on page 446.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "earthern" to "earthen" on page 451: "melted with copper in a
+red hot earthen crucible."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Boussingalt" to "Boussingault" in footnote 18 on page 454:
+"Investigation by Boussingault."</p>
+
+<p><a name="TN465" id="TN465"></a>Footnote 26, on page 465, refers to a discussion on page 389; there is
+no such discussion. Perhaps the note on page <a href="#Notes_390">390</a> was intended, but no
+change was made.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TN466" id="TN466"></a>The reference to p. 480 in the footnote on page 466 doesn't
+seem to make sense.  Perhaps the reference should be to the note on p. <a href="#Notes_475">475</a> or the illustration on
+p. <a href="#Page_481">481</a>, but it was not changed.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Agricolas'" to "Agricola's" in footnote 27 on page 467.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "roman" to "Roman" in the caption to the figure on page 481.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "pinewood" to "pine-wood" on page 496: "shingles of pine-wood."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Fore-hearths" to "Forehearths" in the caption to the
+illustration on page 508.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "or" to "of" in the table in footnote 17 on page 512: "564.8
+lbs. of (A)."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "near-by" to "nearby" on page 526: "in a nearby timber."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "fore-hearth" to "forehearth" on page 540: "into the
+forehearth," and on page 543: "into the forehearth."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "sideboards" to "side-boards" on page 552: "the side-boards are
+fixed."</p>
+
+<p>Changed superscripts to subscripts in footnote 9 on page 561:
+"Ca(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + K<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> = CaCO<sub>3</sub> + 2KNO<sub>3</sub>."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "crystallised" to "crystallized" in footnote 9 on page 561.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "hydros" to "hydrous" in the footnote on page 565:
+"the hydrous sulphate."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "octrahedra" to "octahedra" in the footnote on page 565.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "subtance" to "substance" in footnote 11 on page 572: "that
+feathery substance."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "ventholes" to "vent-holes" on page 580: "two or three
+vent-holes."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "prehistoric" to "pre-historic" on page 582: "from pre-historic
+times."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Rawlinsons, Trans." to "Rawlinson's Trans." in the footnote on
+page 583.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Neavius" to "Naevius" on page 596: "Johannes Naevius."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Unst�ndliche" to "Umst�ndliche" in footnote 3 on page 599:
+"Umst�ndliche ... Chronica."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Watts" to "Watt" on page 605: "Watt mentions it."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "begininng" to "beginning" on page 611: "beginning of the
+sixteenth centuries."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "oxidising" to "oxidizing" on page 615: "an oxidizing blast."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Oryguia" to "Orguia" on page 617.</p>
+
+<p>Changed the reference for Annaberg on page 619 from "XXI" to "XXXI."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Ceragurite" to "Cerargurite" in its index entry on page 620.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Fibr�" to "Fibrae" (ae-ligature) in its index entry on page
+622.</p>
+
+<p>Changed the reference for Glass on page 623 from "534-592" to "584-592."</p>
+
+<p>Changed two references for Magnes on page 625 from "584" to "585."</p>
+
+<p>Changed the reference for Nuremberg, Scale of Weights on page 626 from "264" to "263."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Pickscheifer" to "Pickschiefer" in its index entry on page 626.</p>
+
+<p>Changed the reference for Proustite on page 626,
+and the references for Pyrargyrite, for Ruby Silver, for Silver, for Silver Glance
+and for Silver Ores on page 627, from "109" to "108."</p>
+
+<p>Changed the reference for Quicksilver on page 626 from "111" to "110."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Stuices" to "Sluices" on page 626, in the index entry for
+"Pockets in Alluvial Sluices."</p>
+
+<p>Changed the references for Schneeberg, St. George mine and for St. George Mine on page 627
+from "92" to "91."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Steinmack" to "Steinmarck" in its index entry on page 628.</p>
+
+<p>In the Index to Persons and Authorities (starting page 630), there are a
+number of references to page 599 that appear to make more sense as references
+to 603, but which were not changed.</p>
+
+<p>Changed the reference for Venice, Scale of Weights on page 630 from "264" to "263."</p>
+
+<p>Changed the reference for De Mensuris et Ponderibus, Weights and Measures on page 632 from
+"264" to "263."</p>
+
+<p>Changed the reference for De Natura eorum quae Effluunt ex Terra, Dedication on page 632
+from "VIII" to "VII."</p>
+
+<p>Changed the reference for De Precio Metallorum et Monetis on page 632
+from "264" to "263."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Diphilus" to "Diphilos" in its index entry on page 632.</p>
+
+<p>Changed the references for Forehearth and for Furnaces, Blast on page
+637 from "390" to "389."</p>
+
+<p>Changed the references for Pumps, Suction on page 638 from "188; 137" to
+"183; 187."</p>
+
+<p>Changed the reference for "Tests" for Refining Silver on page 638 from
+"384" to "484."</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of De Re Metallica, by Georgius Agricola
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DE RE METALLICA ***
+
+***** This file should be named 38015-h.htm or 38015-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/0/1/38015/
+
+Produced by Malcolm Farmer, Stephen H. Sentoff and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/38015-h/images/capd.png b/38015-h/images/capd.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2be8836
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/capd.png
diff --git a/38015-h/images/capg.png b/38015-h/images/capg.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..26c4756
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/capg.png
diff --git a/38015-h/images/capi.png b/38015-h/images/capi.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5f0e3c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/capi.png
diff --git a/38015-h/images/capm.png b/38015-h/images/capm.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..712ffcc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/capm.png
diff --git a/38015-h/images/capp.png b/38015-h/images/capp.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a2e764b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/capp.png
diff --git a/38015-h/images/capq.png b/38015-h/images/capq.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..58da113
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/capq.png
diff --git a/38015-h/images/caps.png b/38015-h/images/caps.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..395ed51
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/caps.png
diff --git a/38015-h/images/capt.png b/38015-h/images/capt.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e14a231
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/capt.png
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig103.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig103.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c0c7878
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig103.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig103thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig103thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fe62b7d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig103thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig104.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig104.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a621399
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig104.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig104thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig104thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..03e78be
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig104thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig105.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig105.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..49a95f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig105.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig105thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig105thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..232de0e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig105thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig120.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig120.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f7dce38
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig120.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig120thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig120thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e697699
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig120thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig123.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig123.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8175278
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig123.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig123thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig123thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8ad6ce9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig123thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig125.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig125.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d209c9b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig125.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig125thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig125thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7eba2c5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig125thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig131.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig131.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab9c8a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig131.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig131thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig131thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5c68cb1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig131thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig133.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig133.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..05840ee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig133.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig133thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig133thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ec049db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig133thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig134.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig134.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6f99587
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig134.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig134thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig134thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0145c42
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig134thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig135a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig135a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..49b7ff1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig135a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig135athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig135athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..379c0b7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig135athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig135b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig135b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5c744ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig135b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig135bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig135bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a49452c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig135bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig136a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig136a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b905ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig136a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig136athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig136athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2b07675
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig136athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig136b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig136b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c369341
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig136b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig136bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig136bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c892b49
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig136bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig137.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig137.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9d98df5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig137.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig137thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig137thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f68bd0b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig137thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig138.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig138.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0370027
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig138.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig138a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig138a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c659ff2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig138a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig138athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig138athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ad0b580
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig138athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig138thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig138thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0fa5a86
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig138thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig139.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig139.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1aee012
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig139.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig139thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig139thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0ac7430
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig139thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig140.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig140.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c554cce
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig140.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig140thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig140thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3f53bb1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig140thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig142.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig142.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c7ff30f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig142.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig142a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig142a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..731c081
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig142a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig142athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig142athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d3f8a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig142athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig142thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig142thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c6a3d85
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig142thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig143.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig143.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7e5c741
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig143.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig143thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig143thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bbbe05f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig143thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig146.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig146.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..94de733
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig146.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig146thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig146thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..70e7576
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig146thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig147.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig147.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..31c419b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig147.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig147thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig147thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3d0d76e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig147thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig150.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig150.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1390c42
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig150.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig150thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig150thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..33a1398
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig150thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig151.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig151.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..de2bf08
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig151.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig151thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig151thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..01f87fb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig151thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig152a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig152a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0aa1ef8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig152a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig152athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig152athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bfdd8a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig152athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig152b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig152b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..39da02a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig152b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig152bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig152bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3524ce1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig152bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig154a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig154a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..29a78d7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig154a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig154athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig154athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e5a7c51
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig154athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig154b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig154b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6f416c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig154b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig154bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig154bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8f47c07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig154bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig155.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig155.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..083ace0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig155.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig155thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig155thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e5e544
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig155thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig156.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig156.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2fd107d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig156.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig156thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig156thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ed8374f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig156thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig157.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig157.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..55197fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig157.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig157thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig157thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6175c3c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig157thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig158a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig158a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b75fd07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig158a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig158athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig158athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..42c4c4f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig158athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig158b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig158b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b42ecbf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig158b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig158bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig158bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..60a9937
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig158bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig159.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig159.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d0b0afb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig159.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig159thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig159thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ca8080d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig159thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig161.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig161.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8404784
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig161.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig161thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig161thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..123c386
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig161thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig162.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig162.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4f43b2f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig162.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig162thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig162thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0383ea0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig162thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig163.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig163.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a02170
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig163.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig163thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig163thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4da6814
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig163thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig165.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig165.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..820fe3b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig165.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig165thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig165thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a434040
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig165thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig167.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig167.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e9bef1d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig167.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig167thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig167thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..15a8bee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig167thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig168.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig168.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..69d1821
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig168.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig168thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig168thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c48ecc4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig168thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig170.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig170.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2521e58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig170.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig170thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig170thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e490c2d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig170thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig171.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig171.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..183e3ae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig171.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig171thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig171thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6eb3a0b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig171thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig173.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig173.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..973b12b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig173.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig173thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig173thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3b11a93
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig173thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig174.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig174.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4955ccb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig174.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig174thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig174thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..45df592
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig174thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig175.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig175.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..99ff042
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig175.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig175thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig175thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a8d1682
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig175thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig177.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig177.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..412ce85
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig177.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig177thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig177thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3400a30
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig177thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig178.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig178.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..08d0234
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig178.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig178thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig178thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..143ce30
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig178thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig179.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig179.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..24aa15b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig179.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig179thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig179thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..73a06cf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig179thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig180.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig180.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3e1f7e4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig180.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig180thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig180thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..60adf93
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig180thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig182.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig182.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9450de9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig182.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig182thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig182thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dbb8966
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig182thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig183.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig183.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dde5b75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig183.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig183thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig183thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..39ba49e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig183thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig185.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig185.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7209a96
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig185.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig185thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig185thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8dacc91
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig185thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig187.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig187.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a585363
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig187.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig187thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig187thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..08241e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig187thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig189.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig189.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d8f2911
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig189.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig189thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig189thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3060205
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig189thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig191.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig191.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6b7fc24
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig191.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig191thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig191thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..43877c4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig191thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig193.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig193.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..650d12d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig193.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig193thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig193thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..791b607
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig193thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig194.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig194.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..14a4650
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig194.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig194thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig194thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5d59b45
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig194thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig195.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig195.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e9b1ff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig195.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig195thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig195thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b880bb3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig195thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig197.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig197.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8df0f2d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig197.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig197thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig197thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a3daeab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig197thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig199.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig199.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a0cc161
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig199.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig199thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig199thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d39853b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig199thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig201.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig201.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f3e8ade
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig201.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig201thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig201thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c3fb342
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig201thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig202.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig202.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5ecf96f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig202.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig202thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig202thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dc3592e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig202thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig203.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig203.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8910e73
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig203.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig203thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig203thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7124394
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig203thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig204.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig204.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ababd1f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig204.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig204thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig204thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1c380c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig204thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig205.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig205.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0fd9968
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig205.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig205thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig205thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c64e8b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig205thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig206.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig206.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c42be24
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig206.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig206thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig206thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..36e094d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig206thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig207.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig207.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..696f7f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig207.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig207thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig207thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c2b7719
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig207thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig208.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig208.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c2f9184
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig208.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig208thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig208thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9e2fdd5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig208thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig209.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig209.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b244910
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig209.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig209thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig209thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..da1fdb5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig209thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig211.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig211.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e2bcc1a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig211.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig211thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig211thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d04261a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig211thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig212.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig212.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..995ba2d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig212.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig212thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig212thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c16a556
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig212thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig213.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig213.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2400e7c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig213.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig213thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig213thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..771f88e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig213thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig223a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig223a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bcf502e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig223a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig223athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig223athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..60ee826
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig223athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig223b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig223b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9f16a19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig223b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig223bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig223bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..132bf52
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig223bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig224.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig224.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b4c17b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig224.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig224thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig224thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5842f88
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig224thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig227.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig227.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9ca3ba8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig227.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig227thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig227thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..05cfb06
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig227thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig228.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig228.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dee5d18
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig228.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig228thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig228thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6e12a60
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig228thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig229.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig229.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..44b50b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig229.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig229thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig229thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f9ea123
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig229thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig231.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig231.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b31f3d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig231.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig231thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig231thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..429e1e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig231thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig240a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig240a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..25c7fe9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig240a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig240athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig240athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..60ba962
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig240athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig240b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig240b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..99c9fb4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig240b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig240bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig240bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dfabd6b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig240bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig241.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig241.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a354686
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig241.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig241thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig241thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ef019c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig241thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig250.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig250.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..371da3b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig250.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig250thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig250thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d2cbdd5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig250thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig255.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig255.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1476e8d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig255.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig255thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig255thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e4f3a0b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig255thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig262.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig262.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ae791ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig262.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig262thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig262thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ff037f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig262thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig265.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig265.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5268d6c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig265.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig265thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig265thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f773624
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig265thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig268.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig268.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..03cd707
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig268.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig268thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig268thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eb42269
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig268thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig269.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig269.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b5e0358
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig269.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig269thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig269thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f686385
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig269thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig270.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig270.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1ba2b9c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig270.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig270thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig270thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1322ff1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig270thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig271.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig271.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7395d9c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig271.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig271thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig271thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f7df640
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig271thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig272.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig272.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1edf5e9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig272.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig272thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig272thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aaf7ef8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig272thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig274.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig274.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a704c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig274.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig274thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig274thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f1e977e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig274thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig275.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig275.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f21bc62
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig275.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig275thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig275thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0a4dfbb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig275thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig276.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig276.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e401285
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig276.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig276thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig276thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d5ebb43
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig276thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig277.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig277.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f1e3e96
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig277.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig277thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig277thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d7d7018
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig277thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig278.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig278.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0d11d87
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig278.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig278thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig278thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..26050a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig278thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig284.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig284.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5d1c187
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig284.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig284thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig284thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..726e04e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig284thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig285.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig285.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..857e905
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig285.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig285thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig285thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..02526e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig285thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig286.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig286.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..43cdfc9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig286.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig286thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig286thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a2dc18
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig286thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig287.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig287.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c96234c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig287.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig287thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig287thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88ae7b2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig287thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig288.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig288.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6e32194
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig288.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig288thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig288thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f8766bf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig288thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig289.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig289.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..548ef7a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig289.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig289thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig289thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..469698e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig289thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig291.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig291.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7cc1986
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig291.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig291thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig291thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..72cd103
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig291thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig292.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig292.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e2a192
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig292.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig292thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig292thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3c0856a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig292thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig293.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig293.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e3e40e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig293.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig293thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig293thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..adb6814
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig293thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig294.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig294.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f933bcf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig294.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig294thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig294thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..56870c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig294thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig296.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig296.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6e723de
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig296.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig296thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig296thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2a7a98e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig296thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig299.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig299.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aa616f4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig299.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig299thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig299thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..26a43ba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig299thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig301.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig301.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3d1e788
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig301.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig301thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig301thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..94e7231
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig301thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig302.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig302.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..05ff486
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig302.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig302thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig302thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c2ebcf3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig302thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig303.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig303.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..13dd343
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig303.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig303thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig303thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b48db2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig303thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig305.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig305.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9efaae0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig305.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig305thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig305thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1ab13c3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig305thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig306.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig306.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a696542
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig306.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig306thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig306thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b022ca6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig306thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig307.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig307.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..322ee7c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig307.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig307thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig307thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b0dccb4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig307thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig308.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig308.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..41d9b39
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig308.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig308thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig308thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8a07a77
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig308thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig309.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig309.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..38d9a81
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig309.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig309thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig309thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dd09059
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig309thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig311.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig311.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7fb4e70
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig311.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig311thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig311thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2254542
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig311thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig313.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig313.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..53a42b0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig313.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig313thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig313thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..261243b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig313thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig314.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig314.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b79b316
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig314.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig314thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig314thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8f27e69
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig314thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig315.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig315.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4156f8c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig315.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig315thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig315thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c31501a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig315thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig317.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig317.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..da56653
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig317.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig317thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig317thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..60bce13
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig317thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig318.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig318.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0ff6128
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig318.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig318thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig318thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f2aed0c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig318thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig320.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig320.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d64928c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig320.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig320thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig320thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e9e9946
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig320thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig321.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig321.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f748725
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig321.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig321thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig321thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..13cd687
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig321thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig322.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig322.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a9390a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig322.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig322thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig322thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4099156
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig322thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig323.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig323.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e6c683c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig323.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig323thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig323thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ce567aa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig323thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig324.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig324.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..652419f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig324.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig324thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig324thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b47fe90
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig324thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig326.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig326.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..156c17b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig326.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig326thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig326thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ca2b32a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig326thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig327.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig327.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2b5cd14
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig327.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig327thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig327thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b4f861b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig327thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig328.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig328.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7f2dbd3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig328.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig328thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig328thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7d6a251
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig328thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig329.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig329.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..da353f5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig329.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig329thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig329thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a5d883a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig329thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig330.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig330.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..abe97b2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig330.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig330thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig330thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..10fff3e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig330thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig331.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig331.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ef7c2d3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig331.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig331thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig331thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..da11ab6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig331thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig332.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig332.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1af692e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig332.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig332thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig332thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d8814b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig332thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig333.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig333.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ed65439
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig333.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig333thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig333thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b132733
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig333thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig334.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig334.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..661f258
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig334.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig334thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig334thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d1f757e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig334thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig335.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig335.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..365d3a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig335.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig335thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig335thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..08069d0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig335thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig336.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig336.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ecbfb6a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig336.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig336thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig336thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..27b707b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig336thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig337.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig337.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a0b021c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig337.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig337thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig337thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e658260
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig337thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig338.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig338.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5831438
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig338.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig338thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig338thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ec4963
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig338thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig340.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig340.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..33373f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig340.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig340thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig340thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e815c56
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig340thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig341.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig341.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..014a0e4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig341.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig341thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig341thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..68c6225
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig341thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig342.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig342.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..12d4ab0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig342.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig342thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig342thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a0cdfac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig342thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig343.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig343.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1e9325b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig343.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig343thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig343thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1f9d843
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig343thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig345.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig345.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8fee335
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig345.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig345thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig345thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5bebc37
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig345thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig346.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig346.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..080aaad
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig346.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig346thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig346thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..061cfd8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig346thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig347.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig347.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..65e4a31
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig347.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig347thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig347thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3512b60
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig347thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig348.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig348.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5042efe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig348.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig348thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig348thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f372626
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig348thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig349.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig349.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a3e1a43
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig349.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig349thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig349thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5e534f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig349thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig350.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig350.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f97efcd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig350.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig350thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig350thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..46b3382
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig350thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig351.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig351.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..00785f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig351.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig351thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig351thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7c659e6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig351thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig357.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig357.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..33a5499
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig357.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig357thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig357thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4e55f11
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig357thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig358.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig358.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5e0a0ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig358.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig358thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig358thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2961b5c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig358thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig359.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig359.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ea48032
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig359.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig359thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig359thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a65e7ae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig359thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig361.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig361.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ca60871
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig361.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig361thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig361thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7b8b726
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig361thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig365.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig365.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b7f606
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig365.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig365thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig365thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fc54251
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig365thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig368.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig368.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..24dea07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig368.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig368thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig368thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..12b015b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig368thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig370.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig370.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..692178b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig370.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig370thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig370thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8d19d06
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig370thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig372.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig372.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9d89a25
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig372.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig372thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig372thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bc55501
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig372thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig373.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig373.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..117bedd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig373.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig373thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig373thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..41cf147
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig373thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig374.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig374.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dc8e773
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig374.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig374thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig374thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2ccc524
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig374thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig375.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig375.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5e53aec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig375.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig375thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig375thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..15d3f1e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig375thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig377.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig377.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..51512db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig377.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig377thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig377thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6029296
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig377thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig383.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig383.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3d77659
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig383.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig383thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig383thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..31c4394
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig383thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig385.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig385.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2bdfafc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig385.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig385thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig385thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aed17f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig385thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig387.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig387.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b7c76a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig387.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig387thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig387thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f1b2371
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig387thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig389.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig389.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dcc32e1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig389.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig389thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig389thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6ec2587
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig389thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig393.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig393.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..af0239f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig393.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig393thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig393thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..efc6286
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig393thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig395.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig395.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..10783f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig395.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig395thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig395thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..98ba0e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig395thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig40.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig40.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f9247c9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig40.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig40thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig40thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5e47b72
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig40thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig415.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig415.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..104a514
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig415.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig415thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig415thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1a8a7e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig415thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig417.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig417.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f67acc1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig417.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig417thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig417thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..35855a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig417thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig418.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig418.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d5a2649
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig418.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig418thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig418thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a8a065d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig418thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig419.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig419.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..53ea4b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig419.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig419thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig419thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d3dc415
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig419thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig422.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig422.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f7cada6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig422.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig422thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig422thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fbe77ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig422thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig424.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig424.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..52122ae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig424.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig424thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig424thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b43a790
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig424thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig425.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig425.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..679bba4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig425.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig425thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig425thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..699c222
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig425thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig427.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig427.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..28009ee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig427.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig427thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig427thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9457b1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig427thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig429.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig429.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d57eb4a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig429.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig429thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig429thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..70f8e3c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig429thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig430.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig430.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ccc6d80
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig430.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig430thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig430thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bd9513e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig430thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig431.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig431.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..05b0601
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig431.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig431thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig431thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a0eeb4d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig431thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig432.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig432.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..97e782f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig432.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig432thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig432thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c5a7de7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig432thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig434.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig434.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..796f320
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig434.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig434thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig434thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e253649
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig434thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig435.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig435.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a74b0e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig435.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig435thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig435thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9b8f639
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig435thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig436.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig436.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ebfbc40
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig436.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig436thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig436thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7e5a3df
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig436thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig437.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig437.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..75cb68a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig437.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig437thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig437thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..76c0cc8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig437thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig442.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig442.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c0312f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig442.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig442thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig442thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..adb2362
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig442thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig446.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig446.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3473798
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig446.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig446thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig446thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..96ff39e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig446thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig449.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig449.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..91d670b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig449.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig449thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig449thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7b09b61
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig449thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig453.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig453.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e8c5f4a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig453.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig453thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig453thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f3766c3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig453thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig455.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig455.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..68730ab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig455.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig455thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig455thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ba8c790
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig455thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig45a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig45a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..18d3229
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig45a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig45athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig45athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2fe39c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig45athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig45b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig45b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..95d3f92
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig45b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig45bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig45bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bd98f0d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig45bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig468.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig468.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..da31d7d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig468.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig468thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig468thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1905fa4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig468thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig470.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig470.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3c2b41e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig470.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig470thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig470thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c47815d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig470thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig474.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig474.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d513d86
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig474.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig474thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig474thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c7cebc1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig474thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig476.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig476.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a29da8a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig476.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig476thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig476thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..68b31bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig476thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig479.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig479.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..783e0a0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig479.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig479thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig479thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8372305
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig479thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig481.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig481.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6ba33c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig481.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig481thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig481thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c5bed13
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig481thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig482.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig482.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d347efc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig482.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig482thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig482thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..52a7066
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig482thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig484.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig484.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e35631e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig484.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig484thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig484thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c932bfa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig484thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig485.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig485.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cfc01d7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig485.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig485thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig485thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab308b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig485thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig486.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig486.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..51417e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig486.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig486thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig486thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6db100a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig486thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig488.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig488.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6d87f29
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig488.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig488thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig488thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..51f380f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig488thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig489.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig489.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9b728cf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig489.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig489thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig489thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d0af01a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig489thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig49.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig49.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a4e4ec2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig49.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig493.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig493.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..829b0e6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig493.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig493thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig493thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2034f2a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig493thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig499.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig499.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..58f7ecb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig499.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig499thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig499thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dece934
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig499thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig49thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig49thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8b1d050
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig49thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig501.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig501.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..39502a7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig501.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig501thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig501thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bb882cf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig501thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig504.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig504.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1dd7ea1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig504.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig504thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig504thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..97b12e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig504thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig508.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig508.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..68588e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig508.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig508thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig508thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f246474
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig508thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig50a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig50a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b6bf9c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig50a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig50athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig50athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d6fff0c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig50athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig50b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig50b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0cb5515
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig50b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig50bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig50bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ed0433e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig50bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig510.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig510.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5091d27
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig510.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig510thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig510thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..52d476c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig510thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig514.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig514.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4850a19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig514.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig514thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig514thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d76decb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig514thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig517.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig517.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4f4ac06
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig517.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig517thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig517thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..346ec6e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig517thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig519.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig519.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..90c94aa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig519.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig519thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig519thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e1fc1ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig519thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig522.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig522.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..95b71d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig522.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig522thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig522thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..41ece53
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig522thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig525.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig525.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..522c4cd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig525.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig525thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig525thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..45d40ba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig525thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig527.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig527.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9253939
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig527.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig527thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig527thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2818f00
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig527thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig528.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig528.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a3e718a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig528.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig528thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig528thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..916960e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig528thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig53.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig53.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7372b7b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig53.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig530.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig530.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ae1407
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig530.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig530thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig530thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8189795
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig530thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig532.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig532.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..18445bd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig532.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig532thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig532thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1ecbd41
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig532thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig534.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig534.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0cab09b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig534.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig534thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig534thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fdc6022
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig534thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig537.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig537.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8191d60
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig537.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig537thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig537thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..626d520
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig537thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig53thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig53thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e767e9e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig53thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig543.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig543.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2c316dc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig543.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig543thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig543thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f062b75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig543thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig547.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig547.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b4c12ff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig547.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig547thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig547thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9f36342
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig547thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig549.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig549.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e6b31b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig549.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig549thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig549thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e6e624a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig549thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig54a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig54a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b0ab964
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig54a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig54athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig54athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6e58db5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig54athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig54b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig54b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cbc269c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig54b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig54bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig54bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d867869
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig54bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig551.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig551.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3f96596
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig551.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig551thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig551thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6fd7ddb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig551thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig553.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig553.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5f3aa90
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig553.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig553thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig553thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f2de127
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig553thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig554.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig554.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dc93086
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig554.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig554thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig554thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7056d0c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig554thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig555.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig555.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7e243da
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig555.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig555thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig555thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5699626
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig555thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig556.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig556.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c98ebe9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig556.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig556thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig556thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c8065e9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig556thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig557.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig557.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5d852c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig557.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig557thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig557thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..85589d8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig557thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig559.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig559.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8bc6044
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig559.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig559thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig559thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..11dac88
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig559thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig55a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig55a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9ccf669
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig55a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig55athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig55athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7148a8d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig55athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig55b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig55b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b070eb4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig55b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig55bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig55bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7570784
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig55bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig56.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig56.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9e653cf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig56.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig561.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig561.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7bfb3eb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig561.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig561thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig561thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a33cbbd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig561thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig563.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig563.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8c71935
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig563.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig563thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig563thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a9154f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig563thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig567.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig567.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..28a634f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig567.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig567thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig567thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f75dcc2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig567thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig56thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig56thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..31ad4cb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig56thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig57.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig57.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..840c17c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig57.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig571.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig571.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6a01442
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig571.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig571thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig571thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..882fcb7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig571thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig574.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig574.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a312ad3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig574.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig574thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig574thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..13abea9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig574thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig575.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig575.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c38f11e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig575.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig575thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig575thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..deadcb0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig575thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig576.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig576.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b05a44a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig576.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig576thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig576thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab311d0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig576thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig577.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig577.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..52c7f9c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig577.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig577thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig577thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..178b78a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig577thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig579.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig579.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..abffe26
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig579.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig579thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig579thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..78d4072
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig579thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig57thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig57thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..60edd62
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig57thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig581.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig581.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6a1fef5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig581.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig581thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig581thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7af375d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig581thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig582.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig582.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f434d4f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig582.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig582thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig582thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..59dd992
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig582thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig583.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig583.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a91cb10
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig583.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig583thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig583thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..41e50a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig583thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig585.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig585.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0f153e9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig585.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig585thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig585thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2c2d5ff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig585thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig587.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig587.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..17281a8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig587.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig587thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig587thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..77b6441
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig587thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig588.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig588.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d5197b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig588.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig588thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig588thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7dc3338
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig588thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig589.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig589.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..69a311d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig589.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig589thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig589thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ceb24e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig589thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig59.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig59.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..66c6969
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig59.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig591.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig591.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ab5e58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig591.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig591thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig591thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9d1469c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig591thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig59thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig59thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8473eb9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig59thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig60.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig60.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bf228ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig60.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig60thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig60thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8b843ce
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig60thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig610.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig610.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..94ea318
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig610.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig612.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig612.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4fd8f1f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig612.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig614.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig614.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5ce0c82
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig614.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig61a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig61a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d93130a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig61a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig61athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig61athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3e08bdc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig61athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig61b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig61b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1935dd8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig61b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig61bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig61bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a695cf4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig61bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig62a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig62a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d602421
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig62a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig62athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig62athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..acbaaf4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig62athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig62b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig62b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fb25236
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig62b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig62bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig62bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4216041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig62bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig63a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig63a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0747b8a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig63a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig63athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig63athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3e743ff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig63athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig63b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig63b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f67a55f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig63b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig63bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig63bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..82b5096
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig63bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig64a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig64a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e7096a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig64a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig64athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig64athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..75d220d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig64athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig64b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig64b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88dc238
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig64b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig64bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig64bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ee4a60d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig64bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig65.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig65.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2d67681
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig65.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig65thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig65thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c8c2a0b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig65thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig66a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig66a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4f095e1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig66a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig66athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig66athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cd17cae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig66athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig66b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig66b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8cc68f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig66b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig66bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig66bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..26efe9e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig66bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig67.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig67.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d21dc96
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig67.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig67thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig67thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3410e57
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig67thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig68.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig68.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5a9a7b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig68.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig68thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig68thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c21dd1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig68thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig69a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig69a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bbc4a5d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig69a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig69athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig69athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9b3aeed
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig69athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig69b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig69b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9d4c3a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig69b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig69bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig69bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..80ff307
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig69bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig70.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig70.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e80f704
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig70.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig70thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig70thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cdbc5d3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig70thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig71a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig71a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5ffe0a7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig71a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig71athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig71athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..514438e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig71athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig71b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig71b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9e33e3f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig71b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig71bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig71bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..020a569
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig71bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig72.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig72.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fee0a90
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig72.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig72thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig72thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6d388e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig72thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig73.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig73.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7f52519
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig73.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig73thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig73thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..77e145b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig73thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig79a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig79a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cb8b361
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig79a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig79athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig79athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..31ab1c3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig79athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig79b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig79b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..14933f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig79b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig79bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig79bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5e8f084
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig79bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig79c.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig79c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..915b60e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig79c.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig79cthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig79cthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1190d7a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig79cthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig80a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig80a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4aa5b4f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig80a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig80athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig80athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5cad391
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig80athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig80b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig80b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..739489c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig80b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig80bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig80bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c3def54
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig80bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig86a.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig86a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..802eb28
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig86a.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig86athumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig86athumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4fee3f2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig86athumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig86b.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig86b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fb88ef9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig86b.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig86bthumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig86bthumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1160c96
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig86bthumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig87.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig87.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..90690e6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig87.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig87thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig87thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9956d35
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig87thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig89.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig89.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3b51a9e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig89.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/fig89thumb.jpg b/38015-h/images/fig89thumb.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6add0e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/fig89thumb.jpg
diff --git a/38015-h/images/figxix.jpg b/38015-h/images/figxix.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..36abfab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/38015-h/images/figxix.jpg