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diff --git a/37984.txt b/37984.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8b526de --- /dev/null +++ b/37984.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18633 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 12, Slice 3, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 3 + "Gordon, Lord George" to "Grasses" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: November 11, 2011 [EBook #37984] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE: "... musical composer of the 16th + century, was born about 1510." 'musical' amended from 'muscial'. + + ARTICLE GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO: "Finding it convenient to + retire for a time from Madrid, he decided to visit Rome at his own + cost ..." 'it' amended from 'in'. + + ARTICLE GRAMMAR: "...Fritz Mauthner, Beitrage zu einer Kritik der + Sprache vol. iii. (1902) ..." 'zu' amended from 'zur'. + + ARTICLE GRAMONT, ANTOINE AGENOR ALFRED: "So far, then, as this + declaration is concerned, it is clear that Gramont's responsibility + must be shared with his sovereign and his colleagues ..." + 'responsibility' amended from 'responsiblity'. + + ARTICLE GRAND ISLAND: "The most important industry of the county is + the raising and feeding of sheep and meat cattle." 'meat' amended + from 'neat'. + + ARTICLE GRANTH: "There are thirty-one such measures in the Adi + Granth, and the hymns are arranged according to the measures to + which they are composed." 'measures' amended from 'neasures'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XII, SLICE III + + Gordon, Lord George to Grasses + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + GORDON, LORD GEORGE GOZZOLI, BENOZZO + GORDON, SIR JOHN WATSON GRAAFF REINET + GORDON, LEON GRABBE, CHRISTIAN DIETRICH + GORDON, PATRICK GRABE, JOHN ERNEST + GORDON-CUMMING, ROUALEYN GEORGE GRACCHUS + GORE, CATHERINE GRACE FRANCES GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT + GORE, CHARLES GRACE + GORE GRACES, THE + GOREE GRACIAN Y MORALES, BALTASAR + GORGE GRACKLE + GORGEI, ARTHUR GRADISCA + GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO GRADO + GORGET GRADUAL + GORGIAS GRADUATE + GORGON, GORGONS GRADUATION + GORGONZOLA GRADUS + GORI GRAETZ, HEINRICH + GORILLA GRAEVIUS, JOHANN GEORG + GORINCHEM GRAF, ARTURO + GORING, GEORGE GORING GRAF, KARL HEINRICH + GORKI, MAXIM GRAFE, ALBRECHT VON + GORLITZ GRAFE, HEINRICH + GORRES, JOHANN JOSEPH VON GRAFE, KARL FERDINAND VON + GORSAS, ANTOINE JOSEPH GRAFFITO + GORST, SIR JOHN ELDON GRAFLY, CHARLES + GORTON, SAMUEL GRAFRATH + GORTON GRAFT + GORTYNA GRAFTON, DUKES OF + GORTZ, GEORG HEINRICH VON GRAFTON, RICHARD + GORZ GRAFTON (New South Wales) + GORZ AND GRADISCA GRAFTON (Massachusetts, U.S.A.) + GOSCHEN, GEORGE JOACHIM GOSCHEN GRAFTON (West Virginia, U.S.A.) + GOS-HAWK GRAHAM, SIR GERALD + GOSHEN (Egypt) GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT GEORGE + GOSHEN (Indiana, U.S.A.) GRAHAM, SYLVESTER + GOSLAR GRAHAM, THOMAS + GOSLICKI, WAWRZYNIEC GRAHAME, JAMES + GOSLIN GRAHAM'S DYKE + GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW GRAHAM'S TOWN + GOSPATRIC GRAIL, THE HOLY + GOSPEL GRAIN + GOSPORT GRAINS OF PARADISE + GOSS, SIR JOHN GRAIN TRADE + GOSSAMER GRAM + GOSSE, EDMUND GRAMMAR + GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY GRAMMICHELE + GOSSEC, FRANCOIS JOSEPH GRAMMONT + GOSSIP GRAMONT, ANTOINE AGENOR ALFRED + GOSSNER, JOHANNES EVANGELISTA GRAMONT, PHILIBERT + GOSSON, STEPHEN GRAMOPHONE + GOT, FRANCOIS JULES EDMOND GRAMPIANS, THE + GOTA GRAMPOUND + GOTARZES GRAMPUS + GOTHA GRANADA, LUIS DE + GOTHAM, WISE MEN OF GRANADA (Nicaragua) + GOTHENBURG GRANADA (province of Spain) + GOTHIC GRANADA (town of Spain) + GOTHITE GRANADILLA + GOTHS GRANARIES + GOTLAND GRANBY, JOHN MANNERS + GOTO ISLANDS GRAN CHACO + GOTTER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE + GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG GRAND CANARY + GOTTINGEN GRAND CANYON + GOTTLING, CARL WILHELM GRAND-DUKE + GOTTSCHALK GRANDEE + GOTTSCHALL, RUDOLF VON GRAND FORKS (Canada) + GOTTSCHED, JOHANN CHRISTOPH GRAND FORKS (North Dakota, U.S.A.) + GOTZ, JOHANN NIKOLAUS GRAND HAVEN + GOUACHE GRANDIER, URBAN + GOUDA GRAND ISLAND + GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE GRANDMONTINES + GOUFFIER GRAND RAPIDS + GOUGE, MARTIN GRAND RAPIDS + GOUGE GRANDSON + GOUGH, HUGH GOUGH GRANET, FRANCOIS MARIUS + GOUGH, JOHN BARTHOLOMEW GRANGE + GOUGH, RICHARD GRANGEMOUTH + GOUJET, CLAUDE PIERRE GRANGER, JAMES + GOUJON, JEAN GRANITE + GOUJON, JEAN MARIE ALEXANDRE GRAN SASSO D'ITALIA + GOULBURN, EDWARD MEYRICK GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER + GOULBURN, HENRY GRANT, ANNE + GOULBURN GRANT, CHARLES + GOULD, AUGUSTUS ADDISON GRANT, SIR FRANCIS + GOULD, BENJAMIN APTHORP GRANT, GEORGE MONRO + GOULD, SIR FRANCIS CARRUTHERS GRANT, JAMES + GOULD, JAY GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS + GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANCOIS GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE + GOURD GRANT, SIR PATRICK + GOURGAUD, GASPAR GRANT, ROBERT + GOURKO, JOSEPH VLADIMIROVICH GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON + GOURMET GRANT + GOUROCK GRANTH + GOURVILLE, JEAN HERAULD GRANTHAM, THOMAS ROBINSON + GOUT GRANTHAM + GOUTHIERE, PIERRE GRANTLEY, FLETCHER NORTON + GOUVION SAINT-CYR, LAURENT GRANTOWN + GOVAN GRANULITE + GOVERNMENT GRANVELLA, ANTOINE PERRENOT + GOVERNOR GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE LEVESON-GOWER + GOW, NIEL GRANVILLE, JOHN CARTERET + GOWER, JOHN GRANVILLE (Australia) + GOWER GRANVILLE (France) + GOWN GRANVILLE (Ohio, U.S.A.) + GOWRIE, JOHN RUTHVEN GRAPE + GOWRIE GRAPHICAL METHODS + GOYA GRAPHITE + GOYANNA GRAPTOLITES + GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO GRASLITZ + GOYAZ GRASMERE + GOYEN, JAN JOSEPHSZOON VAN GRASS AND GRASSLAND + GOZLAN, LEON GRASSE, FRANCOIS JOSEPH PAUL + GOZO GRASSE + GOZZI, CARLO GRASSES + GOZZI, GASPARO + + + + +GORDON, LORD GEORGE (1751-1793), third and youngest son of Cosmo George, +duke of Gordon, was born in London on the 26th of December 1751. After +completing his education at Eton, he entered the navy, where he rose to +the rank of lieutenant in 1772, but Lord Sandwich, then at the head of +the admiralty, would not promise him the command of a ship, and he +resigned his commission shortly before the beginning of the American +War. In 1774 the pocket borough of Ludgershall was bought for him by +General Fraser, whom he was opposing in Inverness-shire, in order to +bribe him not to contest the county. He was considered flighty, and was +not looked upon as being of any importance. In 1779 he organized, and +made himself head of the Protestant associations, formed to secure the +repeal of the Catholic Relief Act of 1778. On the 2nd of June 1780 he +headed the mob which marched in procession from St George's Fields to +the Houses of Parliament in order to present the monster petition +against the acts. After the mob reached Westminster a terrific riot +ensued, which continued several days, during which the city was +virtually at their mercy. At first indeed they dispersed after +threatening to make a forcible entry into the House of Commons, but +reassembled soon afterwards and destroyed several Roman Catholic +chapels, pillaged the private dwellings of many Roman Catholics, set +fire to Newgate and broke open all the other prisons, attacked the Bank +of England and several other public buildings, and continued the work of +violence and conflagration until the interference of the military, by +whom no fewer than 450 persons were killed and wounded before the riots +were quelled. For his share in instigating the riots Lord Gordon was +apprehended on a charge of high treason; but, mainly through the skilful +and eloquent defence of Erskine, he was acquitted on the ground that he +had no treasonable intentions. His life was henceforth full of +crack-brained schemes, political and financial. In 1786 he was +excommunicated by the archbishop of Canterbury for refusing to bear +witness in an ecclesiastical suit; and in 1787 he was convicted of +libelling the queen of France, the French ambassador and the +administration of justice in England. He was, however, permitted to +withdraw from the court without bail, and made his escape to Holland; +but on account of representations from the court of Versailles he was +commanded to quit that country, and, returning to England, was +apprehended, and in January 1788 was sentenced to five years' +imprisonment in Newgate, where he lived at his ease, giving dinners and +dances. As he could not obtain securities for his good behaviour on the +termination of his term of imprisonment, he was not allowed to leave +Newgate, and there he died of delirious fever on the 1st of November +1793. Some time before his apprehension he had become a convert to +Judaism, and had undergone the initiatory rite. + + A serious defence of most of his eccentricities is undertaken in _The + Life of Lord George Gordon, with a Philosophical Review of his + Political Conduct_, by Robert Watson, M.D. (London, 1795). The best + accounts of Lord George Gordon are to be found in the _Annual + Registers_ from 1780 to the year of his death. + + + + +GORDON, SIR JOHN WATSON (1788-1864), Scottish painter, was the eldest +son of Captain Watson, R.N., a cadet of the family of Watson of +Overmains, in the county of Berwick. He was born in Edinburgh in 1788, +and was educated specially with a view to his joining the Royal +Engineers. He entered as a student in the government school of design, +under the management of the Board of Manufactures. His natural taste for +art quickly developed itself, and his father was persuaded to allow him +to adopt it as his profession. Captain Watson was himself a skilful +draughtsman, and his brother George Watson, afterwards president of the +Scottish Academy, stood high as a portrait painter, second only to Sir +Henry Raeburn, who also was a friend of the family. In the year 1808 +John sent to the exhibition of the Lyceum in Nicolson Street a subject +from the _Lay of the Last Minstrel_, and continued for some years to +exhibit fancy subjects; but, although freely and sweetly painted, they +were altogether without the force and character which stamped his +portrait pictures as the works of a master. After the death of Sir Henry +Raeburn in 1823, he succeeded to much of his practice. He assumed in +1826 the name of Gordon. One of the earliest of his famous sitters was +Sir Walter Scott, who sat for a first portrait in 1820. Then came J. G. +Lockhart in 1821; Professor Wilson, 1822 and 1850, two portraits; Sir +Archibald Alison, 1839; Dr Chalmers, 1844; a little later De Quincey, +and Sir David Brewster, 1864. Among his most important works may be +mentioned the earl of Dalhousie (1833), in the Archers' Hall, Edinburgh; +Sir Alexander Hope (1835), in the county buildings, Linlithgow; Lord +President Hope, in the Parliament House; and Dr Chalmers. These, unlike +his later works, are generally rich in colour. The full length of Dr +Brunton (1844), and Dr Lee, the principal of the university (1846), both +on the staircase of the college library, mark a modification of his +style, which ultimately resolved itself into extreme simplicity, both of +colour and treatment. + +During the last twenty years of his life he painted many distinguished +Englishmen who came to Edinburgh to sit to him. And it is significant +that David Cox, the landscape painter, on being presented with his +portrait, subscribed for by many friends, chose to go to Edinburgh to +have it executed by Watson Gordon, although he neither knew the painter +personally nor had ever before visited the country. Among the portraits +painted during this period, in what may be termed his third style, are +De Quincey, in the National Portrait Gallery, London; General Sir Thomas +Macdougall Brisbane, in the Royal Society; the prince of Wales, Lord +Macaulay, Sir M. Packington, Lord Murray, Lord Cockburn, Lord Rutherford +and Sir John Shaw Lefevre, in the Scottish National Gallery. These +latter pictures are mostly clear and grey, sometimes showing little or +no positive colour, the flesh itself being very grey, and the handling +extremely masterly, though never obtruding its cleverness. He was very +successful in rendering acute observant character. A good example of his +last style, showing pearly flesh-painting freely handled, yet highly +finished, is his head of Sir John Shaw Lefevre. + +John Watson Gordon was one of the earlier members of the Royal Scottish +Academy, and was elected its president in 1850; he was at the same time +appointed limner for Scotland to the queen, and received the honour of +knighthood. Since 1841 he had been an associate of the Royal Academy, +and in 1851 he was elected a royal academician. He died on the 1st of +June 1864. + + + + +GORDON, LEON, originally JUDAH LOEB BEN ASHER (1831-1892), +Russian-Jewish poet and novelist (Hebrew), was born at Wilna in 1831 and +died at St Petersburg in 1892. He took a leading part in the modern +revival of the Hebrew language and culture. His satires did much to +rouse the Russian Jews to a new sense of the reality of life, and Gordon +was the apostle of enlightenment in the Ghettos. His Hebrew style is +classical and pure. His poems were collected in four volumes, _Kol Shire +Yehudah_ (St Petersburg, 1883-1884); his novels in _Kol Kithbe Yehuda_ +(Odessa, 1889). + + For his works see _Jewish Quarterly Review_, xviii. 437 seq. + + + + +GORDON, PATRICK (1635-1699), Russian general, was descended from a +Scottish family of Aberdeenshire, who possessed the small estate of +Auchleuchries, and were connected with the house of Haddo. He was born +in 1635, and after completing his education at the parish schools of +Cruden and Ellon, entered, in his fifteenth year, the Jesuit college at +Braunsberg, Prussia; but, as "his humour could not endure such a still +and strict way of living," he soon resolved to return home. He changed +his mind, however, before re-embarking, and after journeying on foot in +several parts of Germany, ultimately, in 1655, enlisted at Hamburg in +the Swedish service. In the course of the next five years he served +alternately with the Poles and Swedes as he was taken prisoner by +either. In 1661, after further experience as a soldier of fortune, he +took service in the Russian army under Alexis I., and in 1665 he was +sent on a special mission to England. After his return he distinguished +himself in several wars against the Turks and Tatars in southern Russia, +and in recognition of his services he in 1678 was made major-general, in +1679 was appointed to the chief command at Kiev, and in 1683 was made +lieutenant-general. He visited England in 1686, and in 1687 and 1689 +took part as quartermaster-general in expeditions against the Crim +Tatars in the Crimea, being made full general for his services, in spite +of the denunciations of the Greek Church to which, as a heretic, he was +exposed. On the breaking out of the revolution in Moscow in 1689, Gordon +with the troops he commanded virtually decided events in favour of the +tsar Peter I., and against the tsaritsa Sophia. He was therefore during +the remainder of his life in high favour with the tsar, who confided to +him the command of his capital during his absence from Russia, employed +him in organizing his army according to the European system, and +latterly raised him to the rank of general-in-chief. He died on the 29th +of November 1699. The tsar, who had visited him frequently during his +illness, was with him when he died, and with his own hands closed his +eyes. + + General Gordon left behind him a diary of his life, written in + English. This is preserved in MS. in the archives of the Russian + foreign office. A complete German translation, edited by Dr Maurice + Possalt (_Tagebuch des Generals Patrick Gordon_) was published, the + first volume at Moscow in 1849, the second at St Petersburg in 1851, + and the third at St Petersburg in 1853; and _Passages from the Diary + of General Patrick Gordon of Auchleuchries_ (1635-1699), was printed, + under the editorship of Joseph Robertson, for the Spalding Club, + Aberdeen, 1859. + + + + +GORDON-CUMMING, ROUALEYN GEORGE (1820-1866), Scottish traveller and +sportsman, known as the "lion hunter," was born on the 15th of March +1820. He was the second son of Sir William G. Gordon-Cumming, 2nd +baronet of Altyre and Gordonstown, Elginshire. From his early years he +was distinguished by his passion for sport. He was educated at Eton, and +at eighteen joined the East India Co.'s service as a cornet in the +Madras Light Cavalry. The climate of India not suiting him, after two +years' experience he retired from the service and returned to Scotland. +During his stay in the East he had laid the foundation of his collection +of hunting trophies and specimens of natural history. In 1843 he joined +the Cape Mounted Rifles, but for the sake of absolute freedom sold out +at the end of the year and with an ox wagon and a few native followers +set out for the interior. He hunted chiefly in Bechuanaland and the +Limpopo valley, regions then swarming with big game. In 1848 he returned +to England. The story of his remarkable exploits is vividly told in his +book, _Five Years of a Hunter's Life in the Far Interior of South +Africa_ (London, 1850, 3rd ed. 1851). Of this volume, received at first +with incredulity by stay-at-home critics, David Livingstone, who +furnished Gordon-Cumming with most of his native guides, wrote: "I have +no hesitation in saying that Mr Cumming's book conveys a truthful idea +of South African hunting" (_Missionary Travels_, chap. vii.). His +collection of hunting trophies was exhibited in London in 1851 at the +Great Exhibition, and was illustrated by a lecture delivered by +Gordon-Cumming. The collection, known as "The South Africa Museum," was +afterwards exhibited in various parts of the country. In 1858 +Gordon-Cumming went to live at Fort Augustus on the Caledonian Canal, +where the exhibition of his trophies attracted many visitors. He died +there on the 24th of March 1866. + + An abridgment of his book was published in 1856 under the title of + _The Lion Hunter of South Africa_, and in this form was frequently + reprinted, a new edition appearing in 1904. + + + + +GORE, CATHERINE GRACE FRANCES (1799-1861), English novelist and +dramatist, the daughter of Charles Moody, a wine-merchant, was born in +1799 at East Retford, Nottinghamshire. In 1823 she was married to +Captain Charles Gore; and, in the next year, she published her first +work, _Theresa Marchmont, or the Maid of Honour_. Then followed, among +others, the _Lettre de Cachet_ (1827), _The Reign of Terror_ (1827), +_Hungarian Tales_ (1829), _Manners of the Day_ (1830), _Mothers and +Daughters_ (1831), and _The Fair of May Fair_ (1832), _Mrs Armytage_ +(1836). Every succeeding year saw several volumes from her pen: The +_Cabinet Minister_ and _The Courtier of the Days of Charles II._, in +1839; _Preferment_ in 1840. In 1841 _Cecil, or the Adventures of a +Coxcomb_, attracted considerable attention. _Greville, or a Season in +Paris_ appeared in the same year; then _Ormington, or Cecil a Peer, +Fascination, The Ambassador's Wife_; and in 1843 _The Banker's Wife_. +Mrs Gore continued to write, with unfailing fertility of invention, till +her death on the 29th of January 1861. She also wrote some dramas of +which the most successful was the _School for Coquettes_, produced at +the Haymarket (1831). She was a woman of versatile talent, and set to +music Burns's "And ye shall walk in silk attire," one of the most +popular songs of her day. Her extraordinary literary industry is proved +by the existence of more than seventy distinct works. Her best novels +are _Cecil, or the Adventures of a Coxcomb_, and _The Banker's Wife_. +_Cecil_ gives extremely vivid sketches of London fashionable life, and +is full of happy epigrammatic touches. For the knowledge of London clubs +displayed in it Mrs Gore was indebted to William Beckford, the author of +_Vathek_. _The Banker's Wife_ is distinguished by some clever studies of +character, especially in the persons of Mr Hamlyn, the cold calculating +money-maker, and his warm-hearted country neighbour, Colonel Hamilton. + +Mrs Gore's novels had an immense temporary popularity; they were +parodied by Thackeray in _Punch_, in his "Lords and Liveries by the +author of _Dukes and Dejeuners_"; but, tedious as they are to +present-day readers, they presented on the whole faithful pictures of +the contemporary life and pursuits of the English upper classes. + + + + +GORE, CHARLES (1853- ), English divine, was born in 1853, the 3rd son +of the Hon. Charles Alexander Gore, brother of the 4th earl of Arran. +His mother was a daughter of the 4th earl of Bessborough. He was +educated at Harrow and at Balliol College, Oxford, and was elected +fellow of Trinity College in 1875. From 1880 to 1883 he was +vice-principal of the theological college at Cuddesdon, and, when in +1884 Pusey House was founded at Oxford as a home for Dr Pusey's library +and a centre for the propagation of his principles, he was appointed +principal, a position which he held until 1893. As principal of Pusey +House Mr Gore exercised a wide influence over undergraduates and the +younger clergy, and it was largely, if not mainly, under this influence +that the "Oxford Movement" underwent a change which to the survivors of +the old school of Tractarians seemed to involve a break with its basic +principles. "Puseyism" had been in the highest degree conservative, +basing itself on authority and tradition, and repudiating any compromise +with the modern critical and liberalizing spirit. Mr Gore, starting from +the same basis of faith and authority, soon found from his practical +experience in dealing with the "doubts and difficulties" of the younger +generation that this uncompromising attitude was untenable, and set +himself the task of reconciling the principle of authority in religion +with that of scientific authority by attempting to define the boundaries +of their respective spheres of influence. To him the divine authority of +the Catholic Church was an axiom, and in 1889 he published two works, +the larger of which, _The Church and the Ministry_, is a learned +vindication of the principle of Apostolic Succession in the episcopate +against the Presbyterians and other Protestant bodies, while the second, +_Roman Catholic Claims_, is a defence, couched in a more popular form, +of the Anglican Church and Anglican orders against the attacks of the +Romanists. + +So far his published views had been in complete consonance with those of +the older Tractarians. But in 1890 a great stir was created by the +publication, under his editorship, of _Lux Mundi_, a series of essays by +different writers, being an attempt "to succour a distressed faith by +endeavouring to bring the Christian Creed into its right relation to the +modern growth of knowledge, scientific, historic, critical; and to +modern problems of politics and ethics." Mr Gore himself contributed an +essay on "The Holy Spirit and Inspiration." The book, which ran through +twelve editions in a little over a year, met with a somewhat mixed +reception. Orthodox churchmen, Evangelical and Tractarian alike, were +alarmed by views on the incarnate nature of Christ that seemed to them +to impugn his Divinity, and by concessions to the Higher Criticism in +the matter of the inspiration of Holy Scriptures which appeared to them +to convert the "impregnable rock," as Gladstone had called it, into a +foundation of sand; sceptics, on the other hand, were not greatly +impressed by a system of defence which seemed to draw an artificial line +beyond which criticism was not to advance. None the less the book +produced a profound effect, and that far beyond the borders of the +English Church, and it is largely due to its influence, and to that of +the school it represents, that the High Church movement developed +thenceforth on "Modernist" rather than Tractarian lines. + +In 1891 Mr Gore was chosen to deliver the Bampton lectures before the +university, and chose for his subject the Incarnation. In these lectures +he developed the doctrine, the enunciation of which in _Lux Mundi_ had +caused so much heart-searching. This is an attempt to explain how it +came that Christ, though incarnate God, could be in error, e.g. in his +citations from the Old Testament. The orthodox explanation was based on +the principle of accommodation (q.v.). This, however, ignored the +difficulty that if Christ during his sojourn on earth was not subject to +human limitations, especially of knowledge, he was not a man as other +men, and therefore not subject to their trials and temptations. This +difficulty Gore sought to meet through the doctrine of the [Greek: +kenosis]. Ever since the Pauline epistles had been received into the +canon theologians had, from various points of view, attempted to explain +what St Paul meant when he wrote of Christ (2 Phil. ii. 7) that "he +emptied himself and took upon him the form of a servant" ([Greek: +heauton ekenosen morphen doulou labon]). According to Mr Gore this means +that Christ, on his incarnation, became subject to all human +limitations, and had, so far as his life on earth was concerned, +stripped himself of all the attributes of the Godhead, including the +Divine omniscience, the Divine nature being, as it were, hidden under +the human.[1] + +_Lux Mundi_ and the Bampton lectures led to a situation of some tension +which was relieved when in 1893 Dr Gore resigned his principalship and +became vicar of Radley, a small parish near Oxford. In 1894 he became +canon of Westminster. Here he gained commanding influence as a preacher +and in 1898 was appointed one of the court chaplains. In 1902 he +succeeded J. J. S. Perowne as bishop of Worcester and in 1905 was +installed bishop of Birmingham, a new see the creation of which had been +mainly due to his efforts. While adhering rigidly to his views on the +divine institution of episcopacy as essential to the Christian Church, +Dr Gore from the first cultivated friendly relations with the ministers +of other denominations, and advocated co-operation with them in all +matters when agreement was possible. In social questions he became one +of the leaders of the considerable group of High Churchmen known, +somewhat loosely, as Christian Socialists. He worked actively against +the sweating system, pleaded for European intervention in Macedonia, and +was a keen supporter of the Licensing Bill of 1908. In 1892 he founded +the clerical fraternity known as the Community of the Resurrection. Its +members are priests, who are bound by the obligation of celibacy, live +under a common rule and with a common purse. Their work is pastoral, +evangelistic, literary and educational. In 1898 the House of the +Resurrection at Mirfield, near Huddersfield, became the centre of the +community; in 1903 a college for training candidates for orders was +established there, and in the same year a branch house, for missionary +work, was set up in Johannesburg in South Africa. + + Dr Gore's works include _The Incarnation_ (Bampton Lectures, 1891), + _The Creed of the Christian_ (1895), _The Body of Christ_ (1901), _The + New Theology and the Old Religion_ (1908), and expositions of _The + Sermon on the Mount_ (1896), _Ephesians_ (1898), and _Romans_ (1899), + while in 1910 he published _Orders and Unity_. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Cf. the Lutheran theologian Ernst Sartorius in his _Lehre von der + heiligen Liebe_ (1844), _Lehre_ ii. pp. 21 et seq.: "the Son of God + veils his all-seeing eye and descends into human darkness and as + child of man opens his eye as the gradually growing light of the + world of humanity, until at the right hand of the Father he allows it + to shine forth in all its glory." See Loofs, Art. "Kenosis" in + Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 1901), x. 247. + + + + +GORE. (1) (O. Eng. _gor_, dung or filth), a word formerly used in the +sense of dirt, but now confined to blood that has thickened after being +shed. (2) (O. Eng. _gara_, probably connected with _gare_, an old word +for "spear"), something of triangular shape, resembling therefore a +spear-head. The word is used for a tapering strip of land, in the +"common or open field" system of agriculture, where from the shape of +the land the acre or half-acre strips could not be portioned out in +straight divisions. Similarly "gore" is used in the United States, +especially in Maine and Vermont, for a strip of land left out in +surveying when divisions are made and boundaries marked. The triangular +sections of material used in forming the covering of a balloon or an +umbrella are also called "gores," and in dressmaking the term is used +for a triangular piece of material inserted in a dress to adjust the +difference in widths. To gore, i.e. to stab or pierce with any sharp +instrument, but more particularly used of piercing with the horns of a +bull, is probably directly connected with _gare_, a spear. + + + + +GOREE, an island off the west coast of Africa, forming part of the +French colony of Senegal. It lies at the entrance of the large natural +harbour formed by the peninsula of Cape Verde. The island, some 900 yds. +long by 330 broad, and 3 m. distant from the nearest point of the +mainland, is mostly barren rock. The greater part of its surface is +occupied by a town, formerly a thriving commercial entrepot and a strong +military post. Until 1906 it was a free port. With the rise of Dakar +(q.v.), c. 1860, on the adjacent coast, Goree lost its trade and its +inhabitants, mostly Jolofs, had dwindled in 1905 to about 1500. Its +healthy climate, however, makes it useful as a sanatorium. The streets +are narrow, and the houses, mainly built of dark-red stone, are +flat-roofed. The castle of St Michael, the governor's residence, the +hospital and barracks, testify to the former importance of the town. +Within the castle is an artesian well, the only water-supply, save that +collected in rain tanks, on the island. Goree was first occupied by the +Dutch, who took possession of it early in the 17th century and called it +Goeree or Goedereede, in memory of the island on their own coast now +united with Overflakkee. Its native name is Bir, i.e. a belly, in +allusion to its shape. It was captured by the English under Commodore +(afterwards Admiral Sir Robert) Holmes in 1663, but retaken in the +following year by de Ruyter. The Dutch were finally expelled in 1677 by +the French under Admiral d'Estrees. Goree subsequently fell again into +the hands of the English, but was definitely occupied by France in 1817 +(see SENEGAL: _History_). + + + + +GORGE, strictly the French word for the throat considered externally. +Hence it is applied in falconry to a hawk's crop, and thus, with the +sense of something greedy or ravenous, to food given to a hawk and to +the contents of a hawk's crop or stomach. It is from this sense that the +expression of a person's "gorge rising at" anything in the sense of +loathing or disgust is derived. "Gorge," from analogy with "throat," is +used with the meaning of a narrow opening as of a ravine or valley +between hills; in fortification, of the neck of an outwork or bastion; +and in architecture, of the narrow part of a Roman Doric column, between +the echinus and the astragal. From "gorge" also comes a diminutive +"gorget," a portion of a woman's costume in the middle ages, being a +close form of wimple covering the neck and upper part of the breast, and +also that part of the body armour covering the neck and collarbone (see +GORGET). The word "gorgeous," of splendid or magnificent appearance, +comes from the O. Fr. _gorgias_, with the same meaning, and has very +doubtfully been connected with gorge, a ruffle or neck-covering, of a +supposed elaborate kind. + + + + +GORGEI, ARTHUR (1818- ), Hungarian soldier, was born at Toporcz, in +Upper Hungary, on the 30th of January 1818. He came of a Saxon noble +family who were converts to Protestantism. In 1837 he entered the +Bodyguard of Hungarian Nobles at Vienna, where he combined military +service with a course of study at the university. In 1845, on the death +of his father, he retired from the army and devoted himself to the study +of chemistry at Prague, after which he retired to the family estates in +Hungary. On the outbreak of the revolutionary War of 1848, Gorgei +offered his sword to the Hungarian government. Entering the Honved army +with the rank of captain, he was employed in the purchase of arms, and +soon became major and commandant of the national guards north of the +Theiss. Whilst he was engaged in preventing the Croatian army from +crossing the Danube, at the island of Csepel, below Pest, the wealthy +Hungarian magnate Count Eugene Zichy fell into his hands, and Gorgei +caused him to be arraigned before a court-martial on a charge of treason +and immediately hanged. After various successes over the Croatian +forces, of which the most remarkable was that at Ozora, where 10,000 +prisoners fell into his hands, Gorgei was appointed commander of the +army of the Upper Danube, but, on the advance of Prince Windischgratz +across the Leitha, he resolved to fall back, and in spite of the +remonstrances of Kossuth he held to his resolution and retreated upon +Waitzen. Here, irritated by what he considered undue interference with +his plans, he issued (January 5th, 1849) a proclamation throwing the +blame for the recent want of success upon the government, thus virtually +revolting against their authority. Gorgei retired to the Hungarian +Erzgebirge and conducted operations on his own initiative. Meanwhile the +supreme command had been conferred upon the Pole Dembinski, but the +latter fought without success the battle of Kapolna, at which action +Gorgei's corps arrived too late to take an effective part, and some time +after this the command was again conferred upon Gorgei. The campaign in +the spring of 1849 was brilliantly conducted by him, and in a series of +engagements, he defeated Windischgratz. In April he won the victories of +Godollo Izaszeg and Nagy Sarlo, relieved Komorn, and again won a battle +at Acs or Waitzen. Had he followed up his successes by taking the +offensive against the Austrian frontier, he might perhaps have dictated +terms in the Austrian capital itself. As it was, he contented himself +with reducing Ofen, the Hungarian capital, in which he desired to +re-establish the diet, and after effecting this capture he remained +inactive for some weeks. Meanwhile, at a diet held at Debreczin, Kossuth +had formally proposed the dethronement of the Habsburg dynasty and +Hungary had been proclaimed a republic. Gorgei had refused the +field-marshal's baton offered him by Kossuth and was by no means in +sympathy with the new regime. However, he accepted the portfolio of +minister of war, while retaining the command of the troops in the field. +The Russians had now intervened in the struggle and made common cause +with the Austrians; the allies were advancing into Hungary on all sides, +and Gorgei was defeated by Haynau at Pered (20th-21st of June). Kossuth, +perceiving the impossibility of continuing the struggle and being +unwilling himself to make terms, resigned his position as dictator, and +was succeeded by Gorgei, who meanwhile had been fighting hard against +the various columns of the enemy. Gorgei, convinced that he could not +break through the enemy's lines, surrendered, with his army of 20,000 +infantry and 2000 cavalry, to the Russian general Rudiger at Vilagos. +Gorgei was not court-marshaled, as were his generals, but kept in +confinement at Klagenfurt, where he lived, chiefly employed in chemical +work, until 1867, when he was pardoned and returned to Hungary. The +surrender, and particularly the fact that his life was spared while his +generals and many of his officers and men were hanged or shot, led, +perhaps naturally, to his being accused of treason by public opinion of +his countrymen. After his release he played no further part in public +life. Even in 1885 an attempt which was made by a large number of his +old comrades to rehabilitate him was not favourably received in Hungary. +After some years' work as a railway engineer he retired to Visegrad, +where he lived thenceforward in retreat. (See also HUNGARY: _History_.) + +General Gorgei wrote a justification of his operations (_Mein Leben und +Wirken in Ungarn_ 1848-1859, Leipzig, 1852), an anonymous paper under +the title _Was verdanken wir der Revolution?_ (1875), and a reply to +Kossuth's charges (signed "Joh. Demar") in _Budapesti Szemle_, 1881, +25-26. Amongst those who wrote in his favour were Captain Stephan Gorgei +(_1848 es 1849 bol_, Budapest, 1885), and Colonel Aschermann (_Ein +offenes Wort in der Sache des Honved-Generals Arthur Gorgei_, +Klausenburg, 1867). + + See also A. G. Horn, _Gorgei, Oberkommandant d. ung. Armee_ (Leipzig, + 1850); Kinety, _Gorgei's Life and Work in Hungary_ (London, 1853); + Szinyei, in _Magyar Irok_ (iii. 1378), Hentaller, _Gorgei as a + Statesman_ (Hungarian); Elemar, _Gorgei in 1848-1849_ (Hungarian, + Budapest, 1886). + + + + +GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO (c. 1566-1647), English colonial pioneer in +America and the founder of Maine, was born in Somersetshire, England, +probably in 1566. From youth both a soldier and a sailor, he was a +prisoner in Spain at the age of twenty-one, having been captured by a +ship of the Spanish Armada. In 1589 he was in command of a small body of +troops fighting for Henry IV. of France, and after distinguishing +himself at the siege of Rouen was knighted there in 1591. In 1596 he was +commissioned captain and keeper of the castle and fort at Plymouth and +captain of St Nicholas Isle; in 1597 he accompanied Essex on the +expedition to the Azores; in 1599 assisted him in the attempt to +suppress the Tyrone rebellion in Ireland, and in 1600 was implicated in +Essex's own attempt at rebellion in London. In 1603, on the accession of +James I., he was suspended from his post at Plymouth, but was restored +in the same year and continued to serve as "governor of the forts and +island of Plymouth" until 1629, when, his garrison having been without +pay for three and a half years, his fort a ruin, and all his +applications for aid having been ignored, he resigned. About 1605 he +began to be greatly interested in the New World; in 1606 he became a +member of the Plymouth Company, and he laboured zealously for the +founding of the Popham colony at the mouth of the Sagadahoc (now the +Kennebec) river in 1607. For several years following the failure of that +enterprise in 1608 he continued to fit out ships for fishing, trading +and exploring, with colonization as the chief end in view. He was +largely instrumental in procuring the new charter of 1620 for the +Plymouth Company, and was at all times of its existence perhaps the most +influential member of that body. He was the recipient, either solely or +jointly, of several grants of territory from it, for one of which he +received in 1639 the royal charter of Maine (see MAINE). In 1635 he +sought to be appointed governor-general of all New England, but the +English Civil War--in which he espoused the royal cause--prevented him +from ever actually holding that office. A short time before his death at +Long Ashton in 1647 he wrote his _Briefe Narration of the Originall +Undertakings of the Advancement of Plantations into the Parts of +America_. He was an advocate, especially late in life, of the feudal +type of colony. + + See J. P. Baxter (ed.), _Sir Ferdinando Gorges and his Province of + Maine_ (3 vols., Boston, 1890; in the Prince Society Publications), + the first volume of which is a memoir of Gorges, and the other volumes + contain a reprint of the _Briefe Narration_, Gorges's letters, and + other documentary material. + + + + +GORGET (O. Fr. _gorgete_, dim. of _gorge_, throat), the name applied +after about 1480 to the collar-piece of a suit of armour. It was +generally formed of small overlapping rings of plate, and attached +either to the body armour or to the armet. It was worn in the 16th and +17th centuries with the half-armour, with the plain cuirass, and even +occasionally without any body armour at all. During these times it +gradually became a distinctive badge for officers, and as such it +survived in several armies--in the form of a small metal plate affixed +to the front of the collar of the uniform coat--until after the +Napoleonic wars. In the German army to-day a gorget-plate of this sort +is the distinctive mark of military police, while the former officer's +gorget is represented in British uniforms by the red patches or tabs +worn on the collar by staff officers and by the white patches of the +midshipmen in the Royal Navy. + + + + +GORGIAS (c. 483-375 B.C.), Greek sophist and rhetorician, was a native +of Leontini in Sicily. In 427 he was sent by his fellow-citizens at the +head of an embassy to ask Athenian protection against the aggression of +the Syracusans. He subsequently settled in Athens, and supported himself +by the practice of oratory and by teaching rhetoric. He died at Larissa +in Thessaly. His chief claim to recognition consists in the fact that he +transplanted rhetoric to Greece, and contributed to the diffusion of the +Attic dialect as the language of literary prose. He was the author of a +lost work _On Nature or the Non-existent_ ([Greek: Peri tou me ontos e +peri physeos], fragments edited by M. C. Valeton, 1876), the substance +of which may be gathered from the writings of Sextus Empiricus, and also +from the treatise (ascribed to Theophrastus) _De Melisso, Xenophane, +Gorgia_. Gorgias is the central figure in the Platonic dialogue +_Gorgias_. The genuineness of two rhetorical exercises (_The Encomium of +Helen_ and _The Defence of Palamedes_, edited with Antiphon by F. Blass +in the Teubner series, 1881), which have come down under his name, is +disputed. + + For his philosophical opinions see SOPHISTS and SCEPTICISM. See also + Gomperz, _Greek Thinkers_, Eng. trans. vol. i. bk. iii. chap. vii.; + Jebb's _Attic Orators_, introd. to vol. i. (1893); F. Blass, _Die + attische Beredsamkeit_, i. (1887); and article RHETORIC. + + + + +GORGON, GORGONS (Gr. [Greek: Gorgo], [Greek: Gorgones], the "terrible," +or, according to some, the "loud-roaring"), a figure or figures in Greek +mythology. Homer speaks of only one Gorgon, whose head is represented in +the _Iliad_ (v. 741) as fixed in the centre of the aegis of Zeus. In the +_Odyssey_ (xi. 633) she is a monster of the under-world. Hesiod +increases the number of Gorgons to three--Stheno (the mighty), Euryale +(the far-springer) and Medusa (the queen), and makes them the daughters +of the sea-god Phorcys and of Keto. Their home is on the farthest side +of the western ocean; according to later authorities, in Libya (Hesiod, +_Theog._ 274; Herodotus ii. 91; Pausanias ii. 21). The Attic tradition, +reproduced in Euripides (_Ion_ 1002), regarded the Gorgon as a monster, +produced by Gaea to aid her sons the giants against the gods and slain +by Athena (the passage is a _locus classicus_ on the aegis of Athena). + +The Gorgons are represented as winged creatures, having the form of +young women; their hair consists of snakes; they are round-faced, +flat-nosed, with tongues lolling out and large projecting teeth. +Sometimes they have wings of gold, brazen claws and the tusks of boars. +Medusa was the only one of the three who was mortal; hence Perseus was +able to kill her by cutting off her head. From the blood that spurted +from her neck sprang Chrysaor and Pegasus, her two sons by Poseidon. The +head, which had the power of turning into stone all who looked upon it, +was given to Athena, who placed it in her shield; according to another +account, Perseus buried it in the market-place of Argos. The hideously +grotesque original type of the Gorgoneion, as the Gorgon's head was +called, was placed on the walls of cities, and on shields and +breastplates to terrify an enemy (cf. the hideous faces on Chinese +soldiers' shields), and used generally as an amulet, a protection +against the evil eye. Heracles is said to have obtained a lock of +Medusa's hair (which possessed the same powers as the head) from Athena +and given it to Sterope, the daughter of Cepheus, as a protection for +the town of Tegea against attack (Apollodorus ii. 7. 3). According to +Roscher, it was supposed, when exposed to view, to bring on a storm, +which put the enemy to flight. Frazer (_Golden Bough_, i. 378) gives +examples of the superstition that cut hair caused storms. According to +the later idea of Medusa as a beautiful maiden, whose hair had been +changed into snakes by Athena, the head was represented in works of art +with a wonderfully handsome face, wrapped in the calm repose of death. +The Rondanini Medusa at Munich is a famous specimen of this conception. +Various accounts of the Gorgons were given by later ancient writers. +According to Diod. Sic. (iii. 54. 55) they were female warriors living +near Lake Tritonis in Libya, whose queen was Medusa; according to +Alexander of Myndus, quoted in Athenaeus (v. p. 221), they were terrible +wild animals whose mere look turned men to stone. Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ +vi. 36 [31]) describes them as savage women, whose persons were covered +with hair, which gave rise to the story of their snaky hair and girdle. +Modern authorities have explained them as the personification of the +waves of the sea or of the barren, unproductive coast of Libya; or as +the awful darkness of the storm-cloud, which comes from the west and is +scattered by the sun-god Perseus. More recent is the explanation of +anthropologists that Medusa, whose virtue is really in her head, is +derived from the ritual mask common to primitive cults. + + See Jane E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_ + (1903); W. H. Roscher, _Die Gorgonen und Verwandtes_ (1879); J. Six, + _De Gorgone_ (1885), on the types of the Gorgon's head; articles by + Roscher and Furtwangler in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_, by G. + Glotz in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_, and by + R. Gadechens in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyclopadie_; N. G. + Polites ([Greek: Ho peri ton Gorgonon mythos para to Helleniko lao], + 1878) gives an account of the Gorgons, and of the various + superstitions connected with them, from the modern Greek point of + view, which regards them as malevolent spirits of the sea. + + + + +GORGONZOLA, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Milan, from +which it is 11 m. E.N.E. by steam tramway. Pop. (1901) 5134. It is the +centre of the district in which is produced the well-known Gorgonzola +cheese. + + + + +GORI, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of Tiflis and +49 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Tiflis, on the river Kura; altitude, +2010 ft. Pop. (1897) 10,457. The surrounding country is very +picturesque. Gori has a high school for girls, and a school for Russian +and Tatar teachers. At one time celebrated for its silk and cotton +stuffs, it is now famous for corn, reputed the best in Georgia, and the +wine is also esteemed. The climate is excellent, delightfully cool in +summer, owing to the refreshing breezes from the mountains, though these +are, however, at times disagreeable in winter. Gori was founded (1123) +by the Georgian king David II., the Renovater, for the Armenians who +fled their country on the Persian invasion. The earliest remains of the +fortress are Byzantine; it was thoroughly restored in 1634-1658, but +destroyed by Nadir Shah of Persia in the 18th century. There is a church +constructed in the 17th century by Capuchin missionaries from Rome. Five +miles east of Gori is the remarkable rock-cut town of Uplis-tsykhe, +which was a fortress in the time of Alexander the Great of Macedon, and +an inhabited city in the reign of the Georgian king Bagrat III. +(980-1014). + + + + +GORILLA (or PONGO), the largest of the man-like apes, and a native of +West Africa from the Congo to Cameroon, whence it extends eastwards +across the continent to German East Africa. Many naturalists regard the +gorilla as best included in the same genus as the chimpanzee, in which +case it should be known as _Anthropopithecus gorilla_, but by others it +is regarded as the representative of a genus by itself, when its title +will be _Gorilla savagei_, or _G. gorilla_. That there are local forms +of gorilla is quite certain: but whether any of these are entitled to +rank as distinct species may be a matter of opinion. It was long +supposed that the apes encountered on an island off the west coast of +Africa by Hanno, the Carthaginian, were gorillas, but in the opinion of +some of those best qualified to judge, it is probable that the creatures +in question were really baboons. The first real account of the gorilla +appears to be the one given by an English sailor, Andrew Battel, who +spent some time in the wilds of West Africa during and about the year +1590; his account being presented in Purchas's _Pilgrimage_, published +in the year 1613. From this it appears that Battel was familiar with +both the chimpanzee and the gorilla, the former of which he terms engeco +and the latter pongo--names which ought apparently to be adopted for +these two species in place of those now in use. Between Battel's time +and 1846 nothing appears to have been heard of the gorilla or pongo, but +in that year a missionary at the Gabun accidentally discovered a skull +of the huge ape; and in 1847 a sketch of that specimen, together with +two others, came into the hands of Sir R. Owen, by whom the name +_Gorilla savagei_ was proposed for the new ape in 1848. Dr Thomas +Savage, a missionary at the Gabun, who sent Owen information with regard +to the original skull, had, however, himself proposed the name +_Troglodytes gorilla_ in 1847. The first complete skeleton of a gorilla +sent to Europe was received at the museum of the Royal College of +Surgeons in 1851, and the first complete skin appears to have reached +the British Museum in 1858. Paul B. du Chaillu's account (1861) of his +journeys in the Gabun region popularized the knowledge of the existence +of the gorilla. Male gorillas largely exceed the females in size, and +attain a height of from 5-1/2 ft. to 6-1/2 ft., or perhaps even more. +Some of the features distinguishing the gorilla from the mere +gorilla-like chimpanzees will be found mentioned in the article +PRIMATES. Among them are the small ears, elongated head, the presence of +a deep groove alongside the nostrils, the small size of the thumb, and +the great length of the arm, which reaches half-way down the shin-bone +(tibia) in the erect posture. In old males the eyes are overhung by a +beetling penthouse of bone, the hinder half of the middle line of the +skull bears a wall-like bony ridge for the attachment of the powerful +jaw-muscles, and the tusks, or canines, are of monstrous size, recalling +those of a carnivorous animal. The general colour is blackish, with a +more or less marked grey or brownish tinge on the hair of the shoulders, +and sometimes of chestnut on the head. Mr G. L. Bates (in _Proc. Zool. +Soc._, 1905, vol. i.) states that gorillas only leave the depths of the +forest to enter the outlying clearings in the neighbourhood of human +settlements when they are attracted by some special fruit or succulent +plant; the favourite being the fruit of the "mejom," a tall cane-like +plant (perhaps a kind of _Amomum_) which grows abundantly on deserted +clearings. At one isolated village the natives, who were unarmed, +reported that they not unfrequently saw and heard the gorillas, which +broke down the stalks of the plantains in the rear of the habitations to +tear out and eat the tender heart. On the old clearings of another +village Mr Bates himself, although he did not see a gorilla, saw the +fresh tracks of these great apes and the torn stems and discarded fruit +rinds of the "mejoms," as well as the broken stalks of the latter, which +had been used for beds. On another occasion he came across the bed of an +old gorilla which had been used only the night before, as was proved by +a negro woman, who on the previous evening had heard the animal breaking +and treading down the stalks to form its couch. According to native +report, the gorillas sleep on these beds, which are of sufficient +thickness to raise them a foot or two above the ground, in a sitting +posture, with the head inclined forwards on the breast. In the first +case Mr Bates states that the tracks and beds indicated the presence of +three or four gorillas, some of which were small. This account does not +by any means accord with one given by von Koppenfels, in which it is +stated that while the old male gorilla sleeps in a sitting posture at +the base of a tree-trunk (no mention being made of a bed), the female +and young ones pass the night in a nest in the tree several yards above +the ground, made by bending the boughs together and covering them with +twigs and moss. Mr Bates's account, as being based on actual inspection +of the beds, is probably the more trustworthy. Even when asleep and +snoring, gorillas are difficult to approach, since they awake at the +slightest rustle, and an attempt to surround the one heard making his +bed by the woman resulted in failure. Most gorillas killed by natives +are believed by Mr Bates to have been encountered suddenly in the +daytime on the ground or in low trees in the outlying clearings. Many +natives, even if armed, refuse, however, to molest an adult male +gorilla, on account of its ferocity when wounded. Mr Bates, like Mr +Winwood Reade, refused to credit du Chaillu's account of his having +killed gorillas, and stated that the only instance he knew of one of +these animals being slain by a European was an old male (now in Mr +Walter Rothschild's museum at Tring) shot by the German trader Paschen +in the Yaunde district, of which an illustrated account was published in +1901. Mr E. J. Corns states, however, that two European traders, +apparently in the "'eighties" of the 19th century, were in the habit of +surrounding and capturing these animals as occasion offered.[1] Fully +adult gorillas have never been seen alive in captivity--and perhaps +never will be, as the creature is ferocious and morose to a degree. So +long ago as the year 1855, when the species was known to zoologists only +by its skeleton, a gorilla was actually living in England. This animal, +a young female, came from the Gabun, and was kept for some months in +Wombwell's travelling menagerie, where it was treated as a pet. On its +death, the body was sent to Mr Charles Waterton, of Walton Hall, by whom +the skin was mounted in a grotesque manner, and the skeleton given to +the Leeds museum. Apparently, however, it was not till several years +later that the skin was recognized by Mr A. D. Bartlett as that of a +gorilla; the animal having probably been regarded by its owner as a +chimpanzee. A young male was purchased by the Zoological Society in +October 1887, from Mr Cross, the Liverpool dealer in animals. At the +time of arrival it was supposed to be about three years old, and stood +2-1/2 ft. high. A second, a male, supposed to be rather older, was +acquired in March 1896, having been brought to Liverpool from the French +Congo. It is described as having been thoroughly healthy at the date of +its arrival, and of an amiable and tractable disposition. Neither +survived long. Two others were received in the Zoological Society's +menagerie in 1904, and another was housed there for a short time in the +following year, while a fifth was received in 1906. Falkenstein's +gorilla, exhibited at the Westminster aquarium under the name of pongo, +and afterwards at the Berlin aquarium, survived for eighteen months. +"Pussi," the gorilla of the Breslau Zoological Gardens, holds a record +for longevity, with over seven years of menagerie life. Writing in 1903 +Mr W. T. Hornaday stated that but one live gorilla, and that a tiny +infant, had ever landed in the United States; and it lived only five +days after arrival. (R. L.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In 1905 the Rev. Geo. Grenfell reported that he had that summer + shot a gorilla in the Bwela country, east of the Mongala affluent of + the Congo. + + + + +GORINCHEM, or GORCUM, a fortified town of Holland in the province of +south Holland, on the right bank of the Merwede at the confluence of the +Linge, 16 m. by rail W. of Dordrecht. It is connected by the Zederik and +Merwede canals with Amsterdam, and steamers ply hence in every +direction. Pop. (1900) 11,987. Gorinchem possesses several interesting +old houses, and overlooking the river are some fortified gateways of the +17th century. The principal buildings are the old church of St Vincent, +containing the monuments of the lords of Arkel; the town hall, a prison, +custom-house, barracks and a military hospital. The charitable and +benevolent institutions are numerous, and there are also a library and +several learned associations. Gorinchem possesses a good harbour, and +besides working in gold and silver, carries on a considerable trade in +grain, hemp, cheese, potatoes, cattle and fish, the salmon fishery being +noted. Woerkum, or Woudrichem, a little below the town on the left bank +of the Merwede, is famous for its quaint old buildings, which are +decorated with mosaics. + + + + +GORING, GEORGE GORING, LORD (1608-1657), English Royalist soldier, son +of George Goring, earl of Norwich, was born on the 14th of July 1608. He +soon became famous at court for his prodigality and dissolute manners. +His father-in-law, Richard Boyle, earl of Cork, procured for him a post +in the Dutch army with the rank of colonel. He was permanently lamed by +a wound received at Breda in 1637, and returned to England early in +1639, when he was made governor of Portsmouth. He served in the Scottish +war, and already had a considerable reputation when he was concerned in +the "Army Plot." Officers of the army stationed at York proposed to +petition the king and parliament for the maintenance of the royal +authority. A second party was in favour of more violent measures, and +Goring, in the hope of being appointed lieutenant-general, proposed to +march the army on London and overawe the parliament during Strafford's +trial. This proposition being rejected by his fellow officers, he +betrayed the proceedings to Mountjoy Blount, earl of Newport, who passed +on the information indirectly to Pym in April. Colonel Goring was +thereupon called on to give evidence before the Commons, who commended +him for his services to the Commonwealth. This betrayal of his comrades +induced confidence in the minds of the parliamentary leaders, who sent +him back to his Portsmouth command. Nevertheless he declared for the +king in August. He surrendered Portsmouth to the parliament in September +1642 and went to Holland to recruit for the Royalist army, returning to +England in December. Appointed to a cavalry command by the earl of +Newcastle, he defeated Fairfax at Seacroft Moor near Leeds in March +1643, but in May he was taken prisoner at Wakefield on the capture of +the town by Fairfax. In April 1644 he effected an exchange. At Marston +Moor he commanded the Royalist left, and charged with great success, +but, allowing his troopers to disperse in search of plunder, was routed +by Cromwell at the close of the battle. In November 1644, on his +father's elevation to the earldom of Norwich, he became Lord Goring. The +parliamentary authorities, however, refused to recognize the creation of +the earldom, and continued to speak of the father as Lord Goring and the +son as General Goring. In August he had been dispatched by Prince +Rupert, who recognized his ability, to join Charles in the south, and in +spite of his dissolute and insubordinate character he was appointed to +supersede Henry, Lord Wilmot, as lieut.-general of the Royalist horse +(see GREAT REBELLION). He secured some successes in the west, and in +January 1645 advanced through Hampshire and occupied Farnham; but want +of money compelled him to retreat to Salisbury and thence to Exeter. The +excesses committed by his troops seriously injured the Royalist cause, +and his exactions made his name hated throughout the west. He had +himself prepared to besiege Taunton in March, yet when in the next month +he was desired by Prince Charles, who was at Bristol, to send +reinforcements to Sir Richard Grenville for the siege of Taunton, he +obeyed the order only with ill-humour. Later in the month he was +summoned with his troops to the relief of the king at Oxford. Lord +Goring had long been intriguing for an independent command, and he now +secured from the king what was practically supreme authority in the +west. It was alleged by the earl of Newport that he was willing to +transfer his allegiance once more to the parliament. It is not likely +that he meditated open treason, but he was culpably negligent and +occupied with private ambitions and jealousies. He was still engaged in +desultory operations against Taunton when the main campaign of 1645 +opened. For the part taken by Goring's army in the operations of the +Naseby campaign see GREAT REBELLION. After the decisive defeat of the +king, the army of Fairfax marched into the west and defeated Goring in a +disastrous fight at Langport on the 10th of July. He made no further +serious resistance to the parliamentary general, but wasted his time in +frivolous amusements, and in November he obtained leave to quit his +disorganized forces and retire to France on the ground of health. His +father's services secured him the command of some English regiments in +the Spanish service. He died at Madrid in July or August 1657. Clarendon +gives him a very unpleasing character, declaring that "Goring ... would, +without hesitation, have broken any trust, or done any act of treachery +to have satisfied an ordinary passion or appetite; and in truth wanted +nothing but industry (for he had wit, and courage, and understanding and +ambition, uncontrolled by any fear of God or man) to have been as +eminent and successful in the highest attempt of wickedness as any man +in the age he lived in or before. Of all his qualifications +dissimulation was his masterpiece; in which he so much excelled, that +men were not ordinarily ashamed, or out of countenance, with being +deceived but twice by him." + + See the life by C. H. Firth in the _Dictionary of National Biography_; + Dugdale's _Baronage_, where there are some doubtful stories of his + life in Spain; the _Clarendon State Papers_; Clarendon's _History of + the Great Rebellion_; and S. R. Gardiner's _History of the Great Civil + War_. + + + + +GORKI, MAXIM (1868- ), the pen-name of the Russian novelist Alexei +Maximovich Pyeshkov, who was born at Nizhni-Novgorod on the 26th of +March 1868. His father was a dyer, but he lost both his parents in +childhood, and in his ninth year was sent to assist in a boot-shop. We +find him afterwards in a variety of callings, but devouring books of all +sorts greedily, whenever they fell into his hands. He ran away from the +boot-shop and went to help a land-surveyor. He was then a cook on board +a steamer and afterwards a gardener. In his fifteenth year he tried to +enter a school at Kazan, but was obliged to betake himself again to his +drudgery. He became a baker, than hawked about _kvas_, and helped the +barefooted tramps and labourers at the docks. From these he drew some of +his most striking pictures, and learned to give sketches of humble life +generally with the fidelity of a Defoe. After a long course of drudgery +he had the good fortune to obtain the place of secretary to a barrister +at Nizhni-Novgorod. This was the turning-point of his fortunes, as he +found a sympathetic master who helped him. He also became acquainted +with the novelist Korolenko, who assisted him in his literary efforts. +His first story was _Makar Chudra_, which was published in the journal +_Kavkaz_. He contributed to many periodicals and finally attracted +attention by his tale called _Chelkash_, which appeared in _Russkoe +Bogatsvo_ ("Russian wealth"). This was followed by a series of tales in +which he drew with extraordinary vigour the life of the _bosniaki_, or +tramps. He has sometimes described other classes of society, tradesmen +and the educated classes, but not with equal success. There are some +vigorous pictures, however, of the trading class in his _Foma Gordeyev_. +But his favourite type is the rebel, the man in revolt against society, +and him he describes from personal knowledge, and enlists our sympathies +with him. We get such a type completely in _Konovalov_. Gorki is always +preaching that we must have ideals--something better than everyday life, +and this view is brought out in his play _At the Lowest Depths_, which +had great success at Moscow, but was coldly received at St Petersburg. + + For a good criticism of Gorki see _Ideas and Realities in Russian + Literature_, by Prince Kropotkin. Many of his works have been + translated into English. + + + + +GORLITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, on the +left bank of the Neisse, 62 m. E. from Dresden on the railway to +Breslau, and at the junction of lines to Berlin, Zittau and Halle. Pop. +(1885) 55,702, (1905) 80,931. The Neisse at this point is crossed by a +railway bridge 1650 ft. long and 120 ft. high, with 32 arches. Gorlitz +is one of the handsomest, and, owing to the extensive forests of 70,000 +acres, which are the property of the municipality, one of the wealthiest +towns in Germany. It is surrounded by beautiful walks and fine gardens, +and although its old walls and towers have now been demolished, many of +its ancient buildings remain to form a picturesque contrast with the +signs of modern industry. From the hill called Landskrone, about 1500 +ft. high, an extensive prospect is obtained of the surrounding country. +The principal buildings are the fine Gothic church of St Peter and St +Paul, dating from the 15th century, with two stately towers, a famous +organ and a very heavy bell; the Frauen Kirche, erected about the end of +the 15th century, and possessing a fine portal and choir in pierced +work; the Kloster Kirche, restored in 1868, with handsome choir stalls +and a carved altar dating from 1383; and the Roman Catholic church, +founded in 1853, in the Roman style of architecture, with beautiful +glass windows and oil-paintings. The old town hall (Rathaus) contains a +very valuable library, having at its entrance a fine flight of steps. +There is also a new town hall which was erected in 1904-1906. Other +buildings are: the old bastion, named Kaisertrutz, now used as a +guardhouse and armoury; the gymnasium buildings in the Gothic style +erected in 1851; the Ruhmeshalle with the Kaiser Friedrich museum, the +house of the estates of the province (Standehaus), two theatres and the +barracks. Near the town is the chapel of the Holy Cross, where there is +a model of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem made during the 15th century. +In the public park there is a bust of Schiller, a monument to Alexander +von Humboldt, and a statue of the mystic Jakob Bohme (1575-1624); a +monument has been erected in the town in commemoration of the war of +1870-71, and also one to the emperor William I. and a statue of Prince +Frederick Charles. In connexion with the natural history society there +is a valuable museum, and the scientific institute possesses a large +library and a rich collection of antiquities, coins and articles of +_virtu_. Gorlitz, next to Breslau, is the largest and most flourishing +commercial town of Silesia, and is also regarded as classic ground for +the study of German Renaissance architecture. Besides cloth, which forms +its staple article of commerce, it has manufactories of various linen +and woollen wares, machines, railway wagons, glass, sago, tobacco, +leather, chemicals and tiles. + +Gorlitz existed as a village from a very early period, and at the +beginning of the 12th century received civic rights. It was then known +as Drebenau, but on being rebuilt after its destruction by fire in 1131 +it received the name of Zgorzelice. About the end of the 12th century it +was strongly fortified, and for a short time it was the capital of a +duchy of Gorlitz. It was several times besieged and taken during the +Thirty Years' War, and it also suffered considerably in the Seven Years' +War. In the battle which took place near it between the Austrians and +Prussians on the 7th of September 1757, Hans Karl von Winterfeldt, the +general of Frederick the Great, was slain. In 1815 the town, with the +greater part of Upper Lusatia, came into the possession of Prussia. + + See Neumann, _Geschichte von Gorlitz_ (1850). + + + + +GORRES, JOHANN JOSEPH VON (1776-1848), German writer, was born on the +25th of January 1776, at Coblenz. His father was a man of moderate +means, who sent his son to a Latin college under the direction of the +Roman Catholic clergy. The sympathies of the young Gorres were from the +first strongly with the French Revolution, and the dissoluteness and +irreligion of the French exiles in the Rhineland confirmed him in his +hatred of princes. He harangued the revolutionary clubs, and insisted on +the unity of interests which should ally all civilized states to one +another. He then commenced a republican journal called _Das rote Blatt_, +and afterwards _Rubezahl_, in which he strongly condemned the +administration of the Rhenish provinces by France. + +After the peace of Campo Formio (1797) there was some hope that the +Rhenish provinces would be constituted into an independent republic. In +1799 the provinces sent an embassy, of which Gorres was a member, to +Paris to put their case before the directory. The embassy reached Paris +on the 20th of November 1799; two days before this Napoleon had assumed +the supreme direction of affairs. After much delay the embassy was +received by him; but the only answer they obtained was "that they might +rely on perfect justice, and that the French government would never lose +sight of their wants." Gorres on his return published a tract called +_Resultate meiner Sendung nach Paris_, in which he reviewed the history +of the French Revolution. During the thirteen years of Napoleon's +dominion Gorres lived a retired life, devoting himself chiefly to art or +science. In 1801 he married Catherine de Lasaulx, and was for some years +teacher at a secondary school in Coblenz; in 1806 he moved to +Heidelberg, where he lectured at the university. As a leading member of +the Heidelberg Romantic group, he edited together with K. Brentano and +L. von Arnim the famous _Zeitung fur Einsiedler_ (subsequently re-named +_Trost-Einsamkeit_), and in 1807 he published _Die teutschen +Volksbucher_. He returned to Coblenz in 1808, and again found occupation +as a teacher in a secondary school, supported by civic funds. He now +studied Persian, and in two years published a _Mythengeschichte der +asiatischen Welt_, which was followed ten years later by _Das +Heldenbuch von Iran_, a translation of part of the _Shahnama_, the epic +of Firdousi. In 1813 he actively took up the cause of national +independence, and in the following year founded _Der rheinische Merkur_. +The intense earnestness of the paper, the bold outspokenness of its +hostility to Napoleon, and its fiery eloquence secured for it almost +instantly a position and influence unique in the history of German +newspapers. Napoleon himself called it _la cinquieme puissance_. The +ideal it insisted on was a united Germany, with a representative +government, but under an emperor after the fashion of other days,--for +Gorres now abandoned his early advocacy of republicanism. When Napoleon +was at Elba, Gorres wrote an imaginary proclamation issued by him to the +people, the intense irony of which was so well veiled that many +Frenchmen mistook it for an original utterance of the emperor. He +inveighed bitterly against the second peace of Paris (1815), declaring +that Alsace and Lorraine should have been demanded back from France. + +Stein was glad enough to use the _Merkur_ at the time of the meeting of +the congress of Vienna as a vehicle for giving expression to his hopes. +But Hardenberg, in May 1815, warned Gorres to remember that he was not +to arouse hostility against France, but only against Bonaparte. There +was also in the _Merkur_ an antipathy to Prussia, a continual expression +of the desire that an Austrian prince should assume the imperial title, +and also a tendency to pronounced liberalism--all of which made it most +distasteful to Hardenberg, and to his master King Frederick William III. +Gorres disregarded warnings sent to him by the censorship and continued +the paper in all its fierceness. Accordingly it was suppressed early in +1816, at the instance of the Prussian government; and soon after Gorres +was dismissed from his post as teacher at Coblenz. From this time his +writings were his sole means of support, and he became a most diligent +political pamphleteer. In the wild excitement which followed Kotzebue's +assassination, the reactionary decrees of Carlsbad were framed, and +these were the subject of Gorres's celebrated pamphlet _Teutschland und +die Revolution_ (1820). In this work he reviewed the circumstances which +had led to the murder of Kotzebue, and, while expressing all possible +horror at the deed itself, he urged that it was impossible and +undesirable to repress the free utterance of public opinion by +reactionary measures. The success of the work was very marked, despite +its ponderous style. It was suppressed by the Prussian government, and +orders were issued for the arrest of Gorres and the seizure of his +papers. He escaped to Strassburg, and thence went to Switzerland. Two +more political tracts, _Europa und die Revolution_ (1821) and _In Sachen +der Rheinprovinzen und in eigener Angelegenheit_ (1822), also deserve +mention. + +In Gorres's pamphlet _Die heilige Allianz und die Volker auf dem +Kongress zu Verona_ he asserted that the princes had met together to +crush the liberties of the people, and that the people must look +elsewhere for help. The "elsewhere" was to Rome; and from this time +Gorres became a vehement Ultramontane writer. He was summoned to Munich +by King Ludwig of Bavaria as Professor of History in the university, and +there his writing enjoyed very great popularity. His _Christliche +Mystik_ (1836-1842) gave a series of biographies of the saints, together +with an exposition of Roman Catholic mysticism. But his most celebrated +ultramontane work was a polemical one. Its occasion was the deposition +and imprisonment by the Prussian government of the archbishop Clement +Wenceslaus, in consequence of the refusal of that prelate to sanction in +certain instances the marriages of Protestants and Roman Catholics. +Gorres in his _Athanasius_ (1837) fiercely upheld the power of the +church, although the liberals of later date who have claimed Gorres as +one of their own school deny that he ever insisted on the absolute +supremacy of Rome. _Athanasius_ went through several editions, and +originated a long and bitter controversy. In the _Historisch-politische +Blatter_, a Munich journal, Gorres and his son Guido (1805-1852) +continually upheld the claims of the church. Gorres received from the +king the order of merit for his services. He died on the 29th of January +1848. + + Gorres's _Gesammelte Schriften_ (only his political writings) appeared + in six volumes (1854-1860), to which three volumes of _Gesammelte + Briefe_ were subsequently added (1858-1874). Cp. J. Galland, _Joseph + von Gorres_ (1876, 2nd ed. 1877); J. N. Sepp, _Gorres und seine + Zeitgenossen_ (1877), and by the same author, _Gorres_, in the series + _Geisteshelden_ (1896). A _Gorres-Gesellschaft_ was founded in 1876. + + + + +GORSAS, ANTOINE JOSEPH (1752-1793), French publicist and politician, was +born at Limoges (Haute-Vienne) on the 24th of March 1752, the son of a +shoemaker. He established himself as a private tutor in Paris, and +presently set up a school for the army at Versailles, which was attended +by commoners as well as nobles. In 1781 he was imprisoned for a short +time in the Bicetre on an accusation of corrupting the morals of his +pupils, his real offence being the writing of satirical verse. These +circumstances explain the violence of his anti-monarchical sentiment. At +the opening of the states-general he began to publish the _Courrier de +Versailles a Paris et de Paris a Versailles_, in which appeared on the +4th of October 1789 the account of the banquet of the royal bodyguard. +Gorsas is said to have himself read it in public at the Palais Royal, +and to have headed one of the columns that marched on Versailles. He +then changed the name of his paper to the _Courrier des +quatre-vingt-trois departements_, continuing his incendiary propaganda, +which had no small share in provoking the popular insurrections of June +and August 1792. During the September massacres he wrote in his paper +that the prisons were the centre of an anti-national conspiracy and that +the people exercised a just vengeance on the guilty. On the 10th of +September 1792 he was elected to the Convention for the department of +Seine-et-Oise, and on the 10th of January 1793 was elected one of its +secretaries. He sat at first with the Mountain, but having been long +associated with Roland and Brissot, his agreement with the Girondists +became gradually more pronounced; during the trial of Louis XVI. he +dissociated himself more and more from the principles of the Mountain, +and he voted for the king's detention during the war and subsequent +banishment. A violent attack on Marat in the _Courrier_ led to an armed +raid on his printing establishment on the 9th of March 1793. The place +was sacked, but Gorsas escaped the popular fury by flight. The facts +being reported to the Convention, little sympathy was shown to Gorsas, +and a resolution (which was evaded) was passed forbidding +representatives to occupy themselves with journalism. On the 2nd of June +he was ordered by the Convention to hold himself under arrest with other +members of his party. He escaped to Normandy to join Buzot, and after +the defeat of the Girondists at Pacy-sur-Eure he found shelter in +Brittany. He was imprudent enough to return to Paris in the autumn, +where he was arrested on the 6th of October and guillotined the next +day. + + See the _Moniteur_, No. 268 (1792), Nos. 20, 70 new series 18 (1793); + M. Tourneux, _Bibl. de l'hist. de Paris_, 10,291 seq. (1894). + + + + +GORST, SIR JOHN ELDON (1835- ). English statesman, was born at Preston +in 1835, the son of Edward Chaddock Gorst, who took the name of Lowndes +on succeeding to the family estate in 1853. He graduated third wrangler +from St John's College, Cambridge, in 1857, and was admitted to a +fellowship. After beginning to read for the bar in London, his father's +illness and death led to his sailing to New Zealand, where he married in +1860 Mary Elizabeth Moore. The Maoris had at that time set up a king of +their own in the Waikato district and Gorst, who had made friends with +the chief Tamihana (William Thomson), acted as an intermediary between +the Maoris and the government. Sir George Grey made him inspector of +schools, then resident magistrate, and eventually civil commissioner in +Upper Waikato. Tamihana's influence secured his safety in the Maori +outbreak of 1863. In 1908 he published a volume of recollections, under +the title of _New Zealand Revisited: Recollections of the Days of my +Youth_. He then returned to England and was called to the bar at the +Inner Temple in 1865, becoming Q.C. in 1875. He stood unsuccessfully for +Hastings in the Conservative interest in 1865, and next year entered +parliament as member for the borough of Cambridge, but failed to secure +re-election at the dissolution of 1868. After the Conservative defeat of +that year he was entrusted by Disraeli with the reorganization of the +party machinery, and in five years of hard work he paved the way for the +Conservative success at the general election of 1874. At a bye-election +in 1875 he re-entered parliament as member for Chatham, which he +continued to represent until 1892. He joined Sir Henry Drummond-Wolff, +Lord Randolph Churchill and Mr Arthur Balfour in the "Fourth Party," and +he became solicitor-general in the administration of 1885-1886 and was +knighted. On the formation of the second Salisbury administration (1886) +he became under-secretary for India and in 1891 financial secretary to +the Treasury. At the general election of 1892 he became member for +Cambridge University. He was deputy chairman of committees in the House +of Commons from 1888 to 1891, and on the formation of the third +Salisbury administration in 1895 he became vice-president of the +committee of the council on education (until 1902). Sir John Gorst +adhered to the principles of Tory democracy which he had advocated in +the days of the fourth party, and continued to exhibit an active +interest in the housing of the poor, the education and care of their +children, and in social questions generally, both in parliament and in +the press. But he was always exceedingly "independent" in his political +action. He objected to Mr Chamberlain's proposals for tariff reform, and +lost his seat at Cambridge at the general election of 1906 to a tariff +reformer. He then withdrew from the vice-chancellorship of the Primrose +League, of which he had been one of the founders, on the ground that it +no longer represented the policy of Lord Beaconsfield. In 1910 he +contested Preston as a Liberal, but failed to secure election. + +His elder son, SIR J. ELDON GORST (b. 1861), was financial adviser to +the Egyptian government from 1898 to 1904, when he became assistant +under-secretary of state for foreign affairs. In 1907 he succeeded Lord +Cromer as British agent and consul-general in Egypt. + + An account of Sir John Gorst's connexion with Lord Randolph Churchill + will be found in the _Fourth Party_ (1906), by his younger son, Harold + E. Gorst. + + + + +GORTON, SAMUEL (c. 1600-1677), English sectary and founder of the +American sect of Gortonites, was born about 1600 at Gorton, Lancashire. +He was first apprenticed to a clothier in London, but, fearing +persecution for his religious convictions, he sailed for Boston, +Massachusetts, in 1636. Constantly involved in religious disputes, he +fled in turn to Plymouth, and (in 1637-1638) to Aquidneck (Newport), +where he was publicly whipped for insulting the clergy and magistrates. +In 1643 he bought land from the Narraganset Indians at Shawomet--now +Warwick--where he was joined by a number of his followers; but he +quarrelled with the Indians and the authorities at Boston sent soldiers +to arrest Gorton and six of his companions. He served a term of +imprisonment for heresy at Charlestown, after which he was ejected from +the colony. In England in 1646 he published the curious tract +"Simplicities Defence against Seven Headed Policy" (reprinted in 1835), +giving an account of his grievances against the Massachusetts +government. In 1648 he returned to New England with a letter of +protection from the earl of Warwick, and joining his former companions +at Shawomet, which he named Warwick, in honour of the earl, he remained +there till his death at the end of 1677. He is chiefly remembered as the +founder of a small sect called the Gortonites, which survived till the +end of the 18th century. They had a great contempt for the regular +clergy and for all outward forms of religion, holding that the true +believers partook of the perfection of God. + + Among his quaint writings are: _An Incorruptible Key composed of the + CX. Psalms wherewith you may open the rest of the Scriptures_ (1647), + and _Saltmarsh returned from the Dead_, with its sequel, _An Antidote + against the Common Plague of the World_ (1657). See L. G. Jones, + _Samuel Gorton: a forgotten Founder of our Liberties_ (Providence, + 1896). + + + + +GORTON, an urban district in the Gorton parliamentary division of +Lancashire, England, forming an eastern suburb of Manchester. Pop. +(1901) 26,564. It is largely a manufacturing district, having cotton +mills and iron, engineering and chemical works. + + + + +GORTYNA, or GORTYN, an important ancient city on the southern side of +the island of Crete. It stood on the banks of the small river Lethaeus +(Mitropolipotamo), about three hours distant from the sea, with which it +communicated by means of its two harbours, Metallum and Lebena. It had +temples of Apollo Pythius, Artemis and Zeus. Near the town was the +famous fountain of Sauros, inclosed by fruit-bearing poplars; and not +far from this was another spring, overhung by an evergreen plane tree +which in popular belief marked the scene of the amours of Zeus and +Europa. Gortyna was, next to Cnossus, the largest and most powerful city +of Crete. The two cities combined to subdue the rest of the island; but +when they had gained their object they quarrelled with each other, and +the history of both towns is from this time little more than a record of +their feuds. Neither plays a conspicuous part in the history of Greece. +Under the Romans Gortyna became the metropolis of the island. Extensive +ruins may still be seen at the modern village of Hagii Deka, and here +was discovered the great inscription containing chapters of its ancient +laws. Though partly ruinous, the church of St Titus is a very +interesting monument of early Christian architecture, dating from about +the 4th century. + + See also CRETE, and for a full account of the laws see GREEK LAW. + + + + +GORTZ, GEORG HEINRICH VON, BARON VON SCHLITZ (1668-1719), Holstein +statesman, was educated at Jena. He entered the Holstein-Gottorp +service, and after the death of the duchess Hedwig Sophia, Charles +XII.'s sister, became very influential during the minority of her son +Duke Charles Frederick. His earlier policy aimed at strengthening +Holstein-Gottorp at the expense of Denmark. With this object, during +Charles XII.'s stay at Altranstadt (1706-1707), he tried to divert the +king's attention to the Holstein question, and six years later, when the +Swedish commander, Magnus Stenbock, crossed the Elbe, Gortz rendered him +as much assistance as was compatible with not openly breaking with +Denmark, even going so far as to surrender the fortress of Tonning to +the Swedes. Gortz next attempted to undermine the grand alliance against +Sweden by negotiating with Russia, Prussia and Saxony for the purpose of +isolating Denmark, or even of turning the arms of the allies against +her, a task by no means impossible in view of the strained relations +between Denmark and the tsar. The plan foundered, however, on the +refusal of Charles XII. to save the rest of his German domains by ceding +Stettin to Prussia. Another simultaneous plan of procuring the Swedish +crown for Duke Charles Frederick also came to nought. Gortz first +suggested the marriage between the duke of Holstein and the tsarevna +Anne of Russia, and negotiations were begun in St Petersburg with that +object. On the arrival of Charles XII. from Turkey at Stralsund, Gortz +was the first to visit him, and emerged from his presence chief minister +or "grand-vizier" as the Swedes preferred to call the bold and crafty +satrap, whose absolute devotion to the Swedish king took no account of +the intense wretchedness of the Swedish nation. Gortz, himself a man of +uncommon audacity, seems to have been fascinated by the heroic element +in Charles's nature and was determined, if possible, to save him from +his difficulties. He owed his extraordinary influence to the fact that +he was the only one of Charles's advisers who believed, or pretended to +believe, that Sweden was still far from exhaustion, or at any rate had a +sufficient reserve of power to give support to an energetic +diplomacy--Charles's own opinion, in fact. Gortz's position, however, +was highly peculiar. Ostensibly, he was only the Holstein minister at +Charles's court, in reality he was everything in Sweden except a Swedish +subject--finance minister, plenipotentiary to foreign powers, factotum, +and responsible to the king alone, though he had not a line of +instructions. But he was just the man for a hero in extremities, and his +whole course of procedure was, of necessity, revolutionary. His chief +financial expedient was to debase, or rather ruin, the currency by +issuing copper tokens redeemable in better times; but it was no fault of +his that Charles XII., during his absence, flung upon the market too +enormous an amount of this copper money for Gortz to deal with. By the +end of 1718 it seemed as if Gortz's system could not go on much longer, +and the hatred of the Swedes towards him was so intense and universal +that they blamed him for Charles XII.'s tyranny as well as for his own. +Gortz hoped, however, to conclude peace with at least some of Sweden's +numerous enemies before the crash came and then, by means of fresh +combinations, to restore Sweden to her rank as a great power. It must be +admitted that, in pursuance of his "system," Gortz displayed a genius +for diplomacy which would have done honour to a Metternich or a +Talleyrand. He desired peace with Russia first of all, and at the +congress of Aland even obtained relatively favourable terms, only to +have them rejected by his obstinately optimistic master. Simultaneously, +Gortz was negotiating with Cardinal Alberoni and with the whigs in +England; but all his ingenious combinations collapsed like a house of +cards on the sudden death of Charles XII. The whole fury of the Swedish +nation instantly fell upon Gortz. After a trial before a special +commission which was a parody of justice--the accused was not permitted +to have any legal assistance or the use of writing materials--he was +condemned to decapitation and promptly executed. Perhaps Gortz deserved +his fate for "unnecessarily making himself the tool of an unheard-of +despotism," but his death was certainly a judicial murder, and some +historians even regard him as a political martyr. + + See R. N. Bain, _Charles XII._ (London, 1895), and _Scandinavia_, + chap. 12 (Cambridge, 1905); B. von Beskow, _Freherre Georg Heinrich + von Gortz_ (Stockholm, 1868). (R. N. B.) + + + + +GORZ (Ital. _Gorizia_; Slovene, _Gorica_), the capital of the Austrian +crownland of Gorz and Gradisca, about 390 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop +(1900) 25,432, two-thirds Italians, the remainder mostly Slovenes and +Germans. It is picturesquely situated on the left bank of the Isonzo in +a fertile valley, 35 m. N.N.W. of Trieste by rail. It is the seat of an +archbishop and possesses an interesting cathedral, built in the 14th +century and the richly decorated church of St Ignatius, built in the +17th century by the Jesuits. On an eminence, which dominates the town, +is situated the old castle, formerly the seat of the counts of Gorz, now +partly used as barracks. Owing to the mildness of its climate Gorz has +become a favourite winter-resort, and has received the name of the Nice +of Austria. Its mean annual temperature is 55 deg. F.; while the mean +winter temperature is 38.7 deg. F. It is adorned with several pretty +gardens with a luxuriant southern vegetation. On a height to the N. of +the town is situated the Franciscan convent of Castagnavizza, in whose +chapel lie the remains of Charles X. of France (d. 1836), the last +Bourbon king, of the duke of Angouleme (d. 1844), his son, and of the +duke of Chambord (d. 1883). Seven miles to the north of Gorz is the +Monte Santo (2275 ft.), a much-frequented place on which stands a +pilgrimage church. The industries include cotton and silk weaving, sugar +refining, brewing, the manufacture of leather and the making of +rosoglio. There is also a considerable trade in wooden work, vegetables, +early fruit and wine. Gorz is mentioned for the first time at the +beginning of the 11th century, and received its charter as a town in +1307. During the middle ages the greater part of its population was +German. + + + + +GORZ AND GRADISCA, a county and crownland of Austria, bounded E. by +Carniola, S. by Istria, the Triestine territory and the Adriatic, W. by +Italy and N. by Carinthia. It has an area of 1140 sq. m. The coast line, +though extending for 25 m., does not present any harbour of importance. +It is fringed by alluvial deposits and lagoons, which are for the most +part of very modern formation, for as late as the 4th or 5th centuries +Aquileia was a great seaport. The harbour of Grado is the only one +accessible to the larger kind of coasting craft. On all sides, except +towards the south-west where it unites with the Friulian lowland, it is +surrounded by mountains, and about four-sixths of its area is occupied +by mountains and hills. From the Julian Alps, which traverse the +province in the north, the country descends in successive terraces +towards the sea, and may roughly be divided into the upper highlands, +the lower highlands, the hilly district and the lowlands. The principal +peaks in the Julian Alps are the Monte Canin (8469 ft.), the Manhart +(8784 ft.), the Jalouc (8708 ft.), the Krn (7367 ft.), the Matajur (5386 +ft.), and the highest peak in the whole range, the Triglav or Terglou +(9394 ft.). The Julian Alps are crossed by the Predil Pass (3811 ft.), +through which passes the principal road from Carinthia to the Coastland. +The southern part of the province belongs to the Karst region, and here +are situated the famous cascades and grottoes of Sankt Kanzian, where +the river Reka begins its subterranean course. The principal river of +the province is the Isonzo, which rises in the Triglav, and pursues a +strange zigzag course for a distance of 78 m. before it reaches the +Adriatic. At Gorz the Isonzo is still 138 ft. above the sea, and it is +navigable only in its lowest section, where it takes the name of the +Sdobba. Its principal affluents are the Idria, the Wippach and the Torre +with its tributary the Judrio, which forms for a short distance the +boundary between Austria and Italy. Of special interest not only in +itself but for the frequent allusions to it in classical literature is +the Timavus or Timavo, which appears near Duino, and after a very short +course flows into the Gulf of Trieste. In ancient times it appears, +according to the well-known description of Virgil (_Aen._ i. 244) to +have rushed from the mountain by nine separate mouths and with much +noise and commotion, but at present it usually issues from only three +mouths and flows quiet and still. It is strange enough, however, to see +the river coming out full formed from the rock, and capable at its very +source of bearing vessels on its bosom. According to a probable +hypothesis it is a continuation of the above-mentioned river Reka, which +is lost near Sankt Kanzian. + +Agriculture, and specially viticulture, is the principal occupation of +the population, and the vine is here planted not only in regular +vineyards, but is introduced in long lines through the ordinary fields +and carried up the hills in terraces locally called _ronchi_. The +rearing of the silk-worm, especially in the lowlands, constitutes +another great source of revenue, and furnishes the material for the only +extensive industry of the country. The manufacture of silk is carried on +at Gorz, and in and around the village of Haidenschaft. Gorz and +Gradisca had in 1900 a population of 232,338, which is equivalent to 203 +inhabitants per square mile. According to nationality about two-thirds +were Slovenes, and the remainder Italians, with only about 2200 Germans. +Almost the whole of the population (99.6%) belongs to the Roman Catholic +Church. The local diet, of which the archbishop of Gorz is a member +_ex-officio_, is composed of 22 members, and the crownland sends 5 +deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes the +province is divided into 4 districts and an autonomous municipality, +Gorz (pop. 25,432), the capital. Other principal places are Cormons +(5824), Monfalcone (5536), Kirchheim (5699), Gradisca (3843) and +Aquileia (2319). + +Gorz first appears distinctly in history about the close of the 10th +century, as part of a district bestowed by the emperor Otto III. on +John, patriarch of Aquileia. In the 11th century it became the seat of +the Eppenstein family, who frequently bore the title of counts of +Gorizia; and in the beginning of the 12th century the countship passed +from them to the Lurngau family which continued to exist till the year +1500, and acquired possessions in Tirol, Carinthia, Friuli and Styria. +On the death of Count Leonhard (12th April 1500) the fief reverted to +the house of Habsburg. The countship of Gradisca was united with it in +1754. The province was occupied by the French in 1809, but reverted +again to Austria in 1815. It formed a district of the administrative +province of Trieste until 1861, when it became a separate crownland +under its actual name. + + + + +GOSCHEN, GEORGE JOACHIM GOSCHEN, 1st VISCOUNT (1831-1907), British +statesman, son of William Henry Goschen, a London merchant of German +extraction, was born in London on the 10th of August 1831. He was +educated at Rugby under Dr Tait, and at Oriel College, Oxford, where he +took a first-class in classics. He entered his father's firm of Fruhling +& Goschen, of Austin Friars, in 1853, and three years later became a +director of the Bank of England. His entry into public life took place +in 1863, when he was returned without opposition as member for the city +of London in the Liberal interest, and this was followed by his +re-election, at the head of the poll, in the general election of 1865. +In November of the same year he was appointed vice-president of the +Board of Trade and paymaster-general, and in January 1866 he was made +chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, with a seat in the cabinet. When +Mr Gladstone became prime minister in December 1868, Mr Goschen joined +the cabinet as president of the Poor Law Board, and continued to hold +that office until March 1871, when he succeeded Mr Childers as first +lord of the admiralty. In 1874 he was elected lord rector of the +university of Aberdeen. Being sent to Cairo in 1876 as delegate for the +British holders of Egyptian bonds, in order to arrange for the +conversion of the debt, he succeeded in effecting an agreement with the +Khedive. + +In 1878 his views upon the county franchise question prevented him from +voting uniformly with his party, and he informed his constituents in the +city that he would not stand again at the forthcoming general election. +In 1880 he was elected for Ripon, and continued to represent that +constituency until the general election of 1885, when he was returned +for the Eastern Division of Edinburgh. Being opposed to the extension of +the franchise, he was unable to join Mr Gladstone's government in 1880; +declining the post of viceroy of India, he accepted that of special +ambassador to the Porte, and was successful in settling the Montenegrin +and Greek frontier questions in 1880 and 1881. He was made an +ecclesiastical commissioner in 1882, and when Sir Henry Brand was raised +to the peerage in 1884, the speakership of the House of Commons was +offered to him, but declined. During the parliament of 1880-1885 he +frequently found himself unable to concur with his party, especially as +regards the extension of the franchise and questions of foreign policy; +and when Mr Gladstone adopted the policy of Home Rule for Ireland, Mr +Goschen followed Lord Hartington (afterwards duke of Devonshire) and +became one of the most active of the Liberal Unionists. His vigorous and +eloquent opposition to Mr Gladstone's Home Rule Bill of 1886 brought him +into greater public prominence than ever, but he failed to retain his +seat for Edinburgh at the election in July of that year. On the +resignation of Lord Randolph Churchill in December 1886, Mr Goschen, +though a Liberal Unionist, accepted Lord Salisbury's invitation to join +his ministry, and became chancellor of the exchequer. Being defeated at +Liverpool, 26th of January 1887, by seven votes, he was elected for St +George's, Hanover Square, on the 9th of February. His chancellorship of +the exchequer during the ministry of 1886 to 1892 was rendered memorable +by his successful conversion of the National Debt in 1888 (see National +Debt). With that financial operation, under which the new 2-3/4% Consols +became known as "Goschens," his name will long be connected. Aberdeen +University again conferred upon him the honour of the lord rectorship in +1888, and he received a similar honour from the University of Edinburgh +in 1890. In the Unionist opposition of 1893 to 1895 Mr Goschen again +took a vigorous part, his speeches both in and out of the House of +Commons being remarkable for their eloquence and debating power. From +1895 to 1900 Mr Goschen was first lord of the admiralty, and in that +office he earned the highest reputation for his business-like grasp of +detail and his statesmanlike outlook on the naval policy of the country. +He retired in 1900, and was raised to the peerage by the title of +Viscount Goschen of Hawkhurst, Kent. Though retired from active politics +he continued to take a great interest in public affairs; and when Mr +Chamberlain started his tariff reform movement in 1903, Lord Goschen was +one of the weightiest champions of free trade on the Unionist side. He +died on the 7th of February 1907, being succeeded in the title by his +son George Joachim (b. 1866), who was Conservative M.P. for East +Grinstead from 1895 to 1900, and married a daughter of the 1st earl of +Cranbrook. + +In educational subjects Goschen had always taken the greatest interest, +his best known, but by no means his only, contribution to popular +culture being his participation in the University Extension Movement; +and his first efforts in parliament were devoted to advocating the +abolition of religious tests and the admission of Dissenters to the +universities. His published works indicate how ably he combined the wise +study of economics with a practical instinct for business-like progress, +without neglecting the more ideal aspects of human life. In addition to +his well-known work on _The Theory of the Foreign Exchanges_, he +published several financial and political pamphlets and addresses on +educational and social subjects, among them being that on _Cultivation +of the Imagination_, Liverpool, 1877, and that on _Intellectual +Interest_, Aberdeen, 1888. He also wrote _The Life and Times of Georg +Joachim Goschen, publisher and printer of Leipzig_ (1903). (H. Ch.) + + + + +GOS-HAWK, i.e. goose-hawk, the _Astur palumbarius_ of ornithologists, +and the largest of the short-winged hawks used in falconry. Its English +name, however, has possibly been transferred to this species from one of +the long-winged hawks or true falcons, since there is no tradition of +the gos-hawk, now so called, having ever been used in Europe to take +geese or other large and powerful birds. The genus _Astur_ may be +readily distinguished from _Falco_ by the smooth edges of its beak, its +short wings (not reaching beyond about the middle of the tail), and its +long legs and toes--though these last are stout and comparatively +shorter than in the sparrow-hawks (_Accipiter_). In plumage the gos-hawk +has a general resemblance to the peregrine falcon, and it undergoes a +corresponding change as it advances from youth to maturity--the young +being longitudinally streaked beneath, while the adults are transversely +barred. The irides, however, are always yellow, or in old birds orange, +while those of the falcons are dark brown. The sexes differ greatly in +size. There can be little doubt that the gos-hawk, nowadays very rare in +Britain, was once common in England, and even towards the end of the +18th century Thornton obtained a nestling in Scotland, while Irish +gos-hawks were of old highly celebrated. Being strictly a woodland-bird, +its disappearance may be safely connected with the disappearance of the +ancient forests in Great Britain, though its destructiveness to poultry +and pigeons has doubtless contributed to its present scarcity. In many +parts of the continent of Europe it still abounds. It ranges eastward to +China and is much valued in India. In North America it is represented by +a very nearly allied species, _A. atricapillus_, chiefly distinguished +by the closer barring of the breast. Three or four examples +corresponding with this form have been obtained in Britain. A good many +other species of _Astur_ (some of them passing into _Accipiter_) are +found in various parts of the world, but the only one that need here be +mentioned is the _A. novae-hollandiae_ of Australia, which is remarkable +for its dimorphism--one form possessing the normal dark-coloured plumage +of the genus and the other being perfectly white, with crimson irides. +Some writers hold these two forms to be distinct species and call the +dark-coloured one _A. cinereus_ or _A. raii_. (A. N.) + + + + +GOSHEN, a division of Egypt settled by the Israelites between Jacob's +immigration and the Exodus. Its exact delimitation is a difficult +problem. The name may possibly be of Semitic, or at least non-Egyptian +origin, as in Palestine we meet with a district (Josh. x. 41) and a city +(_ib._ xv. 51) of the same name. The Septuagint reads [Greek: Gesem +Arabias] in Gen. xlv. 10, and xlvi. 34, elsewhere simply [Greek: Gesem]. +In xlvi. 28 "Goshen ... the land of Goshen" are translated respectively +"Heroopolis ... the land of Rameses." This represents a late Jewish +identification. Ptolemy defines "Arabia" as an Egyptian nome on the +eastern border of the delta, with capital Phacussa, corresponding to the +Egyptian nome Sopt and town Kesem. It is doubtful whether Phacussa be +situated at the mounds of Fakus, or at another place, Saft-el-Henneh, +which suits Strabo's description of its locality rather better. The +extent of Goshen, according to the apocryphal book of Judith (i. 9, 10), +included Tanis and Memphis; this is probably an overstatement. It is +indeed impossible to say more than that it was a place of good pasture, +on the frontier of Palestine, and fruitful in edible vegetables and in +fish (Numbers xi. 5). (R. A. S. M.) + + + + +GOSHEN, a city and the county-seat of Elkhart county, Indiana, U.S.A., +on the Elkhart river, about 95 m. E. by S. of Chicago, at an altitude of +about 800 ft. Pop. (1890) 6033; (1900) 7810 (462 foreign-born); (1910) +8514. Goshen is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, +and the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railways, and is connected by +electric railway with Warsaw and South Bend. The city has a Carnegie +library, and is the seat of Goshen College (under Mennonite control), +chartered as Elkhart Institute, at Elkhart, Ind., in 1895, and removed +to Goshen and opened under its present name in 1903. The college +includes a collegiate department, an academy, a Bible school, a normal +school, a summer school and correspondence courses, and schools of +business, of music and of oratory, and in 1908-1909 had 331 students, 73 +of whom were in the Academy. Goshen is situated in a good farming region +and is an important lumber market. There is a good water-power. Among +the city's manufactures are wagons and carriages, furniture, +wooden-ware, veneering, sash and doors, ladders, lawn swings, rubber +goods, flour, foundry products and agricultural machinery. The +municipality owns its water works and its electric-lighting system. +Goshen was first settled in 1828 and was first chartered as a city in +1868. + + + + +GOSLAR, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, +romantically situated on the Gose, an affluent of the Oker, at the north +foot of the Harz, 24 m. S.E. of Hildesheim and 31 m. S.W. from +Brunswick, by rail. Pop. (1905) 17,817. It is surrounded by walls and is +of antique appearance. Among the noteworthy buildings are the "Zwinger," +a tower with walls 23 ft. thick; the market church, in the Romanesque +style, restored since its partial destruction by fire in 1844, and +containing the town archives and a library in which are some of Luther's +manuscripts; the old town hall (Rathaus), possessing many interesting +antiquities; the Kaiserworth (formerly the hall of the tailors' gild and +now an inn) with the statues of eight of the German emperors; and the +Kaiserhaus, the oldest secular building in Germany, built by the emperor +Henry III. before 1050 and often the residence of his successors. This +was restored in 1867-1878 at the cost of the Prussian government, and +was adorned with frescoes portraying events in German history. Other +buildings of interest are:--the small chapel which is all that remains +since 1820 of the old and famous cathedral of St Simon and St Jude +founded by Henry III. about 1040, containing among other relics of the +cathedral an old altar supposed to be that of the idol Krodo which +formerly stood on the Burgberg near Neustadt-Harzburg; the church of the +former Benedictine monastery of St Mary, or Neuwerk, of the 12th +century, in the Romanesque style, with wall-paintings of considerable +merit; and the house of the bakers' gild now an hotel, the birthplace of +Marshal Saxe. There are four Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic +church, a synagogue, several schools, a natural science museum, +containing a collection of Harz minerals, the Fenkner museum of +antiquities and a number of small foundations. The town has equestrian +statues of the emperor Frederick I. and of the German emperor William I. +The population is chiefly occupied in connexion with the sulphur, +copper, silver and other mines in the neighbourhood. The town has also +been long noted for its beer, and possesses some small manufactures and +a considerable trade in fruit. + +Goslar is believed to have been founded by Henry the Fowler about 920, +and when in the time of Otto the Great the mineral treasures in the +neighbourhood were discovered it increased rapidly in prosperity. It was +often the meeting-place of German diets, twenty-three of which are said +to have been held here, and was frequently the residence of the +emperors. About 1350 it joined the Hanseatic League. In the middle of +the 14th century the famous _Goslar statutes_, a code of laws, which was +adopted by many other towns, was published. The town was unsuccessfully +besieged in 1625, during the Thirty Years' War, but was taken by the +Swedes in 1632 and nearly destroyed by fire. Further conflagrations in +1728 and 1780 gave a severe blow to its prosperity. It was a free town +till 1802, when it came into the possession of Prussia. In 1807 it was +joined to Westphalia, in 1816 to Hanover and in 1866 it was, along with +Hanover, re-united to Prussia. + + See T. Erdmann, _Die alte Kaiserstadt Goslar und ihre Umgebung in + Geschichte, Sage und Bild_ (Goslar, 1892); Crusius, _Geschichte der + vormals kaiserlichen freien Reichstadt Goslar_ (1842-1843); A. + Wolfstieg, _Verfassungsgeschichte von Goslar_ (Berlin, 1885); T. + Asche, _Die Kaiserpfalz zu Goslar_ (1892); Neuburg, _Goslars Bergbau + bis 1552_ (Hanover, 1892); and the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Goslar_, + edited by G. Bode (Halle, 1893-1900). For the _Goslarische Statuten_ + see the edition published by Goschen (Berlin, 1840). + + + + +GOSLICKI, WAWRZYNIEC (? 1533-1607), Polish bishop, better known under +his Latinized name of Laurentius Grimalius Goslicius, was born about +1533. After having studied at Cracow and Padua, he entered the church, +and was successively appointed bishop of Kaminietz and of Posen. +Goslicki was an active man of business, was held in high estimation by +his contemporaries and was frequently engaged in political affairs. It +was chiefly through his influence, and through the letter he wrote to +the pope against the Jesuits, that they were prevented from establishing +their schools at Cracow. He was also a strenuous advocate of religious +toleration in Poland. He died on the 31st of October 1607. + + His principal work is _De Optimo senatore_, &c. (Venice, 1568). There + are two English translations published respectively under the titles + _A commonwealth of good counsaile_, &c. (1607), and _The Accomplished + Senator, done into English by Mr Oldisworth_ (1733). + + + + +GOSLIN, or GAUZLINUS (d. c. 886), bishop of Paris and defender of the +city against the Northmen (885), was, according to some authorities, the +son of Roricon II., count of Maine, according to others the natural son +of the emperor Louis I. In 848 he became a monk, and entered a monastery +at Reims, later he became abbot of St Denis. Like most of the prelates +of his time he took a prominent part in the struggle against the +Northmen, by whom he and his brother Louis were taken prisoners (858), +and he was released only after paying a heavy ransom (_Prudentii +Trecensis episcopi Annales_, ann. 858). From 855 to 867 he held +intermittently, and from 867 to 881 regularly, the office of chancellor +to Charles the Bald and his successors. In 883 or 884 he was elected +bishop of Paris, and foreseeing the dangers to which the city was to be +exposed from the attacks of the Northmen, he planned and directed the +strengthening of the defences, though he also relied for security on the +merits of the relics of St Germain and St Genevieve. When the attack +finally came (885), the defence of the city was entrusted to him and to +Odo, count of Paris, and Hugh, abbot of St Germain l'Auxerrois. The city +was attacked on the 26th of November, and the struggle for the +possession of the bridge (now the Pont-au-Change) lasted for two days; +but Goslin repaired the destruction of the wooden tower overnight, and +the Normans were obliged to give up the attempt to take the city by +storm. The siege lasted for about a year longer, while the emperor +Charles the Fat was in Italy. Goslin died soon after the preliminaries +of the peace had been agreed on, worn out by his exertions, or killed by +a pestilence which raged in the city. + + See Amaury Duval, _L'Eveque Gozlin ou le siege de Paris par les + Normands, chronique du IX^e siecle_ (2 vols., Paris, 1832, 3rd ed. + _ib._ 1835). + + + + +GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW (d. 1607), English navigator. Nothing is known of +his birth, parentage or early life. In 1602, in command of the +"Concord," chartered by Sir Walter Raleigh and others, he crossed the +Atlantic; coasted from what is now Maine to Martha's Vineyard, landing +at and naming Cape Cod and Elizabeth Island (now Cuttyhunk) and giving +the name Martha's Vineyard to the island now called No Man's Land; and +returned to England with a cargo of furs, sassafras and other +commodities obtained in trade with the Indians about Buzzard's Bay. In +London he actively promoted the colonization of the regions he had +visited and, by arousing the interest of Sir Ferdinando Gorges and other +influential persons, contributed toward securing the grants of the +charters to the London and Plymouth Companies in 1606. In 1606-1607 he +was associated with Christopher Newport in command of the three vessels +by which the first Jamestown colonists were carried to Virginia. As a +member of the council he took an active share in the affairs of the +colony, ably seconding the efforts of John Smith to introduce order, +industry and system among the motley array of adventurers and idle +"gentlemen" of which the little band was composed. He died from swamp +fever on the 22nd of August 1607. + + See _The Works of John Smith_ (Arber's Edition, London, 1884); and J. + M. Brereton, _Brief and True Relation of the North Part of Virginia_ + (reprinted by B. F. Stevens, London, 1901), an account of Gosnold's + voyage of 1602. + + + + +GOSPATRIC (fl. 1067), earl of Northumberland, belonged to a family which +had connexions with the royal houses both of Wessex and Scotland. Before +the Conquest he accompanied Tostig on a pilgrimage to Rome (1061); and +at that time was a landholder in Cumberland. About 1067 he bought the +earldom of Northumberland from William the Conqueror; but, repenting of +his submission, fled with other Englishmen to the court of Scotland +(1068). He joined the Danish army of invasion in the next year; but was +afterwards able, from his possession of Bamburgh castle, to make terms +with the conqueror, who left him undisturbed till 1072. The peace +concluded in that year with Scotland left him at William's mercy. He +lost his earldom and took refuge in Scotland, where Malcolm seems to +have provided for him. + + See E. A. Freeman, _Norman Conquest_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1877), and the + _English Hist. Review_, vol. xix. (London, 1904). + + + + +GOSPEL (O. Eng. _godspel_, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. _bona +annuntiatio_, or _evangelium_, Gr. [Greek: euangelion]; cf. Goth. _iu +spillon_, "to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek, +from _iu_, that which is good, and _spellon_ to announce), primarily the +"glad tidings" announced to the world by Jesus Christ. The word thus +came to be applied to the whole body of doctrine taught by Christ and +his disciples, and so to the Christian revelation generally (see +CHRISTIANITY); by analogy the term "gospel" is also used in other +connexions as equivalent to "authoritative teaching." In a narrower +sense each of the records of the life and teaching of Christ preserved +in the writings of the four "evangelists" is described as a Gospel. The +many more or less imaginative lives of Christ which are not accepted by +the Christian Church as canonical are known as "apocryphal gospels" (see +APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE). The present article is concerned solely with +general considerations affecting the four canonical Gospels; see for +details of each, the articles under MATTHEW, MARK, LUKE and JOHN. + +_The Four Gospels._--The disciples of Jesus proclaimed the Gospel that +He was the Christ. Those to whom this message was first delivered in +Jerusalem and Palestine had seen and heard Jesus, or had heard much +about Him. They did not require to be told who He was. But more and more +as the work of preaching and teaching extended to such as had not this +knowledge, it became necessary to include in the Gospel delivered some +account of the ministry of Jesus. Moreover, alike those who had followed +Him during His life on earth, and all who joined themselves to them, +must have felt the need of dwelling on His precepts, so that these must +have been often repeated, and also in all probability from an early time +grouped together according to their subjects, and so taught. For some +time, probably for upwards of thirty years, both the facts of the life +of Jesus and His words were only related orally. This would be in +accordance with the habits of mind of the early preachers of the Gospel. +Moreover, they were so absorbed in the expectation of the speedy return +of Christ that they did not feel called to make provision for the +instruction of subsequent generations. The Epistles of the New Testament +contain no indications of the existence of any written record of the +life and teaching of Christ. Tradition indicates A.D. 60-70 as the +period when written accounts of the life and teaching of Jesus began to +be made (see MARK, GOSPEL OF, and MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF). This may be +accepted as highly probable. We cannot but suppose that at a time when +the number of the original band of disciples of Jesus who survived must +have been becoming noticeably smaller, and all these were advanced in +life, the importance of writing down that which had been orally +delivered concerning the Gospel-history must have been realized. We also +gather from Luke's preface (i. 1-4) that the work of writing was +undertaken in these circumstances and under the influence of this +feeling, and that various records had already in consequence been made. + +But do our Gospels, or any of them, in the form in which we actually +have them, belong to the number of those earliest records? Or, if not, +what are the relations in which they severally stand to them? These are +questions which in modern criticism have been greatly debated. With a +view to obtaining answers to them, it is necessary to consider the +reception of the Gospels in the early Church, and also to examine and +compare the Gospels themselves. Some account of the evidence supplied in +these two ways must be given in the present article, so far as it is +common to all four Gospels, or to three or two of them, and in the +articles on the several Gospels so far as it is especial to each. + +1. _The Reception of the Gospels in the Early Church._--The question of +the use of the Gospels and of the manner in which they were regarded +during the period extending from the latter years of the 1st century to +the beginning of the last quarter of the 2nd is a difficult one. There +is a lack of explicit references to the Gospels;[1] and many of the +quotations which may be taken from them are not exact. At the same time +these facts can be more or less satisfactorily accounted for by various +circumstances. In the first place, it would be natural that the habits +of thought of the period when the Gospel was delivered orally should +have continued to exert influence even after the tradition had been +committed to writing. Although documents might be known and used, they +would not be regarded as the authorities for that which was +independently remembered, and would not, therefore, necessarily be +mentioned. Consequently, it is not strange that citations of sayings of +Christ--and these are the only express citations in writings of the +Subapostolic Age--should be made without the source whence they were +derived being named, and (with a single exception) without any clear +indication that the source was a document. The exception is in the +little treatise commonly called the Epistle of Barnabas, probably +composed about A.D. 130, where (c. iv. 14) the words "many are called +but few chosen" are introduced by the formula "as it is written." + +For the identification, therefore, of the source or sources used we have +to rely upon the amount of correspondence with our Gospels in the +quotations made, and in respect to other parallelisms of statement and +of expression, in these early Christian writers. The correspondence is +in the main full and true as regards spirit and substance, but it is +rarely complete in form. The existence of some differences of language +may, however, be too readily taken to disprove derivation. Various forms +of the same saying occurring in different documents, or remembered from +oral tradition and through catechetical instruction, would sometimes be +purposely combined. Or, again, the memory might be confused by this +variety, and the verification of quotations, especially of brief ones, +was difficult, not only from the comparative scarcity of the copies of +books, but also because ancient books were not provided with ready means +of reference to particular passages. On the whole there is clearly a +presumption that where we have striking expressions which are known to +us besides only in one of our Gospel-records, that particular record has +been the source of it. And where there are several such coincidences the +ground for the supposition that the writing in question has been used +may become very strong. There is evidence of this kind, more or less +clear in the several cases, that all the four Gospels were known in the +first two or three decades of the 2nd century. It is fullest as to our +first Gospel and, next to this one, as to our third. + +After this time it becomes manifest that, as we should expect, documents +were the recognized authorities for the Gospel history; but there is +still some uncertainty as to the documents upon which reliance was +placed, and the precise estimation in which they were severally held. +This is in part at least due to the circumstance that nearly all the +writings which have remained of the Christian literature belonging to +the period _circa_ A.D. 130-180 are addressed to non-Christians, and +that for the most part they give only summaries of the teaching of +Christ and of the facts of the Gospel, while terms that would not be +understood by, and names that would not carry weight with, others than +Christians are to a large extent avoided. The most important of the +writings now in question are two by Justin Martyr (_circa_ A.D. +145-160), viz. his _Apology_ and his _Dialogue with Trypho_. In the +former of these works he shows plainly his intention of adapting his +language and reasoning to Gentile, and in the latter to Jewish, readers. +In both his name for the Gospel-records is "Memoirs of the Apostles." +After a great deal of controversy there has come to be very wide +agreement that he reckoned the first three Gospels among these Memoirs. +In the case of the second and third there are indications, though slight +ones, that he held the view of their composition and authorship which +was common from the last quarter of the century onwards (see MARK, +GOSPEL OF, and LUKE, GOSPEL OF), but he has made the largest use of our +first Gospel. It is also generally allowed that he was acquainted with +the fourth Gospel, though some think that he used it with a certain +reserve. Evidence may, however, be adduced which goes far to show that +he regarded it, also, as of apostolic authority. There is a good deal of +difference of opinion still as to whether Justin reckoned other sources +for the Gospel-history besides our Gospels among the Apostolic Memoirs. +In this connexion, however, as well as on other grounds, it is a +significant fact that within twenty years or so after the death of +Justin, which probably occurred _circa_ A.D. 160, Tatian, who had been a +hearer of Justin, produced a continuous narrative of the Gospel-history +which received the name _Diatessaron_ ("through four"), in the main a +compilation from our four Gospels.[2] + +Before the close of the 2nd century the four Gospels had attained a +position of unique authority throughout the greater part of the Church, +not different from that which they have held since, as is evident from +the treatise of Irenaeus _Against Heresies_ (c. A.D. 180; see esp. iii. +i. 1 f. and x., xi.) and from other evidence only a few years later. The +struggle against Gnosticism, which had been going on during the middle +part of the century, had compelled the Church both to define her creed +and to draw a sharper line of demarcation than heretofore between those +writings whose authority she regarded as absolute and all others. The +effect of this was no doubt to enhance the sense generally entertained +of the value of the four Gospels. At the same time in the formal +statements now made it is plainly implied that the belief expressed is +no new one. And it is, indeed, difficult to suppose that agreement on +this subject between different portions of the Church could have +manifested itself at this time in the spontaneous manner that it does, +except as the consequence of traditional feelings and convictions, which +went back to the early part of the century, and which could hardly have +arisen without good foundation, with respect to the special value of +these works as embodiments of apostolic testimony, although all that +came to be supposed in regard to their actual authorship cannot be +considered proved. + +2. _The Internal Criticism of the Gospels._--In the middle of the 19th +century an able school of critics, known as the Tubingen school, sought +to show from indications in the several Gospels that they were composed +well on in the 2nd century in the interests of various strongly marked +parties into which the Church was supposed to have been divided by +differences in regard to the Judaic and Pauline forms of Christianity. +These theories are now discredited. It may on the contrary be +confidently asserted with regard to the first three Gospels that the +local colouring in them is predominantly Palestinian, and that they +show no signs of acquaintance with the questions and the circumstances +of the 2nd century; and that the character even of the Fourth Gospel is +not such as to justify its being placed, at furthest, much after the +beginning of that century. + +We turn to the literary criticism of the Gospels, where solid results +have been obtained. The first three Gospels have in consequence of the +large amount of similarity between them in contents, arrangement, and +even in words and the forms of sentences and paragraphs, been called +Synoptic Gospels. It has long been seen that, to account for this +similarity, relations of interdependence between them, or of common +derivation, must be supposed. And the question as to the true theory of +these relations is known as the _Synoptic Problem_. Reference has +already been made to the fact that during the greater part of the +Apostolic age the Gospel history was taught orally. Now some have held +that the form of this oral teaching was to a great extent a fixed one, +and that it was the common source of our first three Gospels. This oral +theory was for a long time the favourite one in England; it was never +widely held in Germany, and in recent years the majority of English +students of the Synoptic Problem have come to feel that it does not +satisfactorily explain the phenomena. Not only are the resemblances too +close, and their character in part not of a kind, to be thus accounted +for, but even many of the differences between parallel contexts are +rather such as would arise through the revision of a document than +through the freedom of oral delivery. + +It is now and has for many years been widely held that a document which +is most nearly represented by the Gospel of Mark, or which (as some +would say) was virtually identical with it, has been used in the +composition of our first and third Gospels. This source has supplied the +Synoptic Outline, and in the main also the narratives common to all +three. Questions connected with the history of this document are treated +in the article on MARK, GOSPEL OF. + +There is also a considerable amount of matter common to Matthew and +Luke, but not found in Mark. It is introduced into the Synoptic Outline +very differently in those two Gospels, which clearly suggests that it +existed in a separate form, and was independently combined by the first +and third evangelists with their other document. This common matter has +also a character of its own; it consists mainly of pieces of discourse. +The form in which it is given in the two Gospels is in several passages +so nearly identical that we must suppose these pieces at least to have +been derived immediately or ultimately from the same Greek document. In +other cases there is more divergence, but in some of them this is +accounted for by the consideration that in Matthew passages from the +source now in question have been interwoven with parallels in the other +chief common source before mentioned. There are, however, instances in +which no such explanation will serve, and it is possible that our first +and third evangelists may have used two documents which were not in all +respects identical, but which corresponded very closely on the whole. +The ultimate source of the subject matter in question, or of the most +distinctive and larger part of it, was in all probability an Aramaic +one, and in some parts different translations may have been used. + +This second source used in the composition of Matthew and Luke has +frequently been called "The Logia" in order to signify that it was a +collection of the sayings and discourses of Jesus. This name has been +suggested by Schleiermacher's interpretation of Papias' fragment on +Matthew (see MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF). But some have maintained that the +source in question also contained a good many narratives, and in order +to avoid any premature assumption as to its contents and character +several recent critics have named it "Q." It may, however, fairly be +called "the Logian document," as a convenient way of indicating the +character of the greater part of the matter which our first and third +evangelists have taken from it, and this designation is used in the +articles on the Gospels of Luke and Matthew. The reconstruction of this +document has been attempted by several critics. The arrangement of its +contents can, it seems, best be learned from Luke. + +3. One or two remarks may here be added as to the bearing of the results +of literary criticism upon the use of the Gospels. Their effect is to +lead us, especially when engaged in historical inquiries, to look beyond +our Gospels to their sources, instead of treating the testimony of the +Gospels severally as independent and ultimate. Nevertheless it will +still appear that each Gospel has its distinct value, both historically +and in regard to the moral and spiritual instruction afforded. And the +fruits of much of that older study of the Gospels, which was largely +employed in pointing out the special characteristics of each, will still +prove serviceable. + + AUTHORITIES.--1. German Books: _Introductions to the New + Testament_--H. J. Holtzmann (3rd ed., 1892), B. Weiss (Eng. trans., + 1887), Th. Zahn (2nd ed., 1900), G. A. Julicher (6th ed., 1906; Eng. + trans., 1904); H. v. Soden, _Urchristliche Literaturgeschichte_, vol. + i. (1905; Eng. trans., 1906). Books on the Synoptic Gospels, + especially the Synoptic Problem: H. J. Holtzmann, _Die synoptischen + Evangelien_ (1863); Weizsacker, _Untersuchungen uber die evangelische + Geschichte_ (1864); B. Weiss, _Das Marcus-Evangelium und seine + synoptischen Parallelen_ (1872); _Das Matthaus-Evangelium und seine + Lucas-Parallelen_ (1876); H. H. Wendt, _Die Lehre Jesu_ (1886); A. + Resch, _Agrapha_ (1889); &c.; P. Wernle, _Die synoptische Frage_ + (1899); W. Soltau, _Unsere Evangelien, ihre Quellen und ihr + Quellenwert_ (1901); H. J. Holtzmann, _Hand-Commentar zum N.T._, vol. + i. (1889); J. Wellhausen, _Das Evangelium Marci_, _Das Evangelium + Matthai_, _Das Evangelium Lucas_ (1904), _Einleitung in die drei + ersten Evangelien_ (1905); A. Harnack, _Spruche und Reden Jesu, die + zweite Quelle des Matthaus und Lukas_ (1907). + + 2. French Books: A. Loisy, _Les Evangiles synoptiques_ (1907-1908). + + 3. English Books: G. Salmon, _Introduction to the New Testament_ (1st + ed., 1885; 9th ed., 1904); W. Sanday, _Inspiration_ (Lect. vi., 3rd + ed., 1903); B. F. Westcott, _An Introduction to the Study of the + Gospels_ (1st ed., 1851; 8th ed., 1895); A. Wright, _The Composition + of the Four Gospels_ (1890); J. E. Carpenter, _The First Three + Gospels, their Origin and Relations_ (1890); A. J. Jolley, _The + Synoptic Problem_ (1893); J. C. Hawkins, _Horae synopticae_ (1899); W. + Alexander, _Leading Ideas of the Gospels_ (new ed., 1892); E. A. + Abbott, _Clue_ (1900); J. A. Robinson, _The Study of the Gospels_ + (1902); F. C. Burkitt, _The Gospel History and its Transmission_ + (1906); G. Salmon, _The Human Element in the Gospels_ (1907); V. H. + Stanton, _The Gospels as Historical Documents_: Pt. I., _The Early Use + of the Gospels_ (1903); Pt. II., _The Synoptic Gospels_ (1908). + + 4. Synopses.--W. G. Rushbrooke, _Synopticon, An Exposition of the + Common Matter of the Synoptic Gospels_ (1880); A. Wright, _The + Synopsis of the Gospels in Greek_ (2nd ed., 1903). + + See also the articles on each Gospel, and the article BIBLE, section + _New Testament_. (V. H. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For the only two that can be held to be such in the first half of + the 2nd century, and the doubts whether they refer to our present + Gospels, see MARK, GOSPEL OF, and MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF. + + [2] The character of Tatian's _Diatessaron_ has been much disputed in + the past, but there can no longer be any reasonable doubt on the + subject after recent discoveries and investigations. (An account of + these may be seen most conveniently in _The Diatessaron of Tatian_, + by S. Hemphill; see under TATIAN.) + + + + +GOSPORT, a seaport in the Fareham parliamentary division of Hampshire, +England, facing Portsmouth across Portsmouth harbour, 81 m. S.W. from +London by the London & Southwestern railway. Pop. of urban district of +Gosport and Alverstoke (1901), 28,884. A ferry and a floating bridge +connect it with Portsmouth. It is enclosed within a double line of +fortifications, consisting of the old Gosport lines, and, about 3000 +yds. to the east, a series of forts connected by strong lines with +occasional batteries, forming part of the defence works of Portsmouth +harbour. The principal buildings are the town hall and market hall, and +the church of Holy Trinity, erected in the time of William III. To the +south at Haslar there is a magnificent naval hospital, capable of +containing 2000 patients, and adjoining it a gunboat slipway and large +barracks. To the north is the Royal Clarence victualling yard, with +brewery, cooperage, powder magazines, biscuit-making establishment, and +storehouses for various kinds of provisions for the royal navy. + +Gosport (Goseporte, Gozeport, Gosberg, Godsport) was originally included +in Alverstoke manor, held in 1086 by the bishop and monks of Winchester +under whom villeins farmed the land. In 1284 the monks agreed to give up +Alverstoke with Gosport to the bishop, whose successors continued to +hold them until the lands were taken over by the ecclesiastical +commissioners. After the confiscation of the bishop's lands in 1641, +however, the manor of Alverstoke with Gosport was granted to George +Withers, but reverted to the bishop at the Restoration. In the 16th +century Gosport was "a little village of fishermen." It was called a +borough in 1461, when there are also traces of burgage tenure. From 1462 +one bailiff was elected annually in the borough court, and government by +a bailiff continued until 1682, when Gosport was included in Portsmouth +borough under the charter of Charles II. to that town. This was +annulled in 1688, since which time there is no evidence of the election +of bailiffs. With this exception no charter of incorporation is known, +although by the 16th century the inhabitants held common property in the +shape of tolls of the ferry. The importance of Gosport increased during +the 16th and 17th centuries owing to its position at the mouth of +Portsmouth harbour, and its convenience as a victualling station. For +this reason also the town was particularly prosperous during the +American and Peninsular Wars. About 1540 fortifications were built there +for the defence of the harbour, and in the 17th century it was a +garrison town under a lord-lieutenant. + + + + +GOSS, SIR JOHN (1800-1880), English composer, was born at Fareham, +Hampshire, on the 27th of December 1800. He was elected a chorister of +the Chapel Royal in 1811, and in 1816, on the breaking of his voice, +became a pupil of Attwood. A few early compositions, some for the +theatre, exist, and some glees were published before 1825. He was +appointed organist of St Luke's, Chelsea, in 1824, and in 1838 became +organist of St Paul's in succession to Attwood; he kept the post until +1872, when he resigned and was knighted. His position in the London +musical world of the time was an influential one, and he did much by his +teaching and criticism to encourage the study and appreciation of good +music. In 1876 he was given the degree of Mus.D. at Cambridge. Though +his few orchestral works have very small importance, his church music +includes some fine compositions, such as the anthems "O taste and see," +"O Saviour of the world" and others. He was the last of the great +English school of church composers who devoted themselves almost +exclusively to church music; and in the history of the glee his is an +honoured name, if only on account of his finest work in that form, the +five-part glee, Ossian's "Hymn to the sun." He died at Brixton, London, +on the 10th of May 1880. + + + + +GOSSAMER, a fine, thread like and filmy substance spun by small spiders, +which is seen covering stubble fields and gorse bushes, and floating in +the air in clear weather; especially in the autumn. By transference +anything light, unsubstantial or flimsy is known as "gossamer." A thin +gauzy material used for trimming and millinery, resembling the "chiffon" +of to-day, was formerly known as gossamer; and in the early Victorian +period it was a term used in the hat trade, for silk hats of very light +weight. + +The word is obscure in origin, it is found in numerous forms in English, +and is apparently taken from _gose_, goose and _somere_, summer. The +Germans have _Madchensommer_, maidens' summer, and _Altweibersommer_, +old women's summer, as well as _Sommerfaden_, summer-threads, as +equivalent to the English gossamer, the connexion apparently being that +gossamer is seen most frequently in the warm days of late autumn (St +Martin's summer) when geese are also in season. Another suggestion is +that the word is a corruption of _gaze a Marie_ (gauze of Mary) through +the legend that gossamer was originally the threads which fell away from +the Virgin's shroud on her assumption. + + + + +GOSSE, EDMUND (1849- ), English poet and critic, was born in London on +the 21st of September 1849, son of the zoologist P. H. Gosse. In 1867 he +became an assistant in the department of printed books in the British +Museum, where he remained until he became in 1875 translator to the +Board of Trade. In 1904 he was appointed librarian to the House of +Lords. In 1884-1890 he was Clark Lecturer in English literature at +Trinity College, Cambridge. Himself a writer of literary verse of much +grace, and master of a prose style admirably expressive of a wide and +appreciative culture, he was conspicuous for his valuable work in +bringing foreign literature home to English readers. _Northern Studies_ +(1879), a collection of essays on the literature of Holland and +Scandinavia, was the outcome of a prolonged visit to those countries, +and was followed by later work in the same direction. He translated +Ibsen's _Hedda Gabler_ (1891), and, with W. Archer, _The Master-Builder_ +(1893), and in 1907 he wrote a life of Ibsen for the "Literary Lives" +series. He also edited the English translation of the works of Bjornson. +His services to Scandinavian letters were acknowledged in 1901, when he +was made a knight of the Norwegian order of St Olaf of the first class. +Mr Gosse's published volumes of verse include _On Viol and Flute_ +(1873), _King Erik_ (1876), _New Poems_ (1879), _Firdausi in Exile_ +(1885), _In Russet and Silver_ (1894), _Collected Poems_ (1896). +_Hypolympia, or the Gods on the Island_ (1901), an "ironic phantasy," +the scene of which is laid in the 20th century, though the personages +are Greek gods, is written in prose, with some blank verse. His +_Seventeenth Century Studies_ (1883), _Life of William Congreve_ (1888), +_The Jacobean Poets_ (1894), _Life and Letters of Dr John Donne, Dean of +St Paul's_ (1899), _Jeremy Taylor_ (1904, "English Men of Letters"), and +_Life of Sir Thomas Browne_ (1905) form a very considerable body of +critical work on the English 17th-century writers. He also wrote a life +of Thomas Gray, whose works he edited (4 vols., 1884); _A History of +Eighteenth Century Literature_ (1889); a _History of Modern English +Literature_ (1897), and vols. iii. and iv. of an _Illustrated Record of +English Literature_ (1903-1904) undertaken in connexion with Dr Richard +Garnett. Mr Gosse was always a sympathetic student of the younger school +of French and Belgian writers, some of his papers on the subject being +collected as _French Profiles_ (1905). _Critical Kit-Kats_ (1896) +contains an admirable criticism of J. M. de Heredia, reminiscences of +Lord de Tabley and others. He edited Heinemann's series of "Literature +of the World" and the same publisher's "International Library." To the +9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ he contributed numerous +articles, and his services as chief literary adviser in the preparation +of the 10th and 11th editions incidentally testify to the high position +held by him in the contemporary world of letters. In 1905 he was +entertained in Paris by the leading _litterateurs_ as a representative +of English literary culture. In 1907 Mr Gosse published anonymously +_Father and Son_, an intimate study of his own early family life. He +married Ellen, daughter of Dr G. W. Epps, and had a son and two +daughters. + + + + +GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY (1810-1888), English naturalist, was born at +Worcester on the 6th of April 1810, his father, Thomas Gosse (1765-1844) +being a miniature painter. In his youth the family settled at Poole, +where Gosse's turn for natural history was noticed and encouraged by his +aunt, Mrs Bell, the mother of the zoologist, Thomas Bell (1792-1880). He +had, however, little opportunity for developing it until, in 1827, he +found himself clerk in a whaler's office at Carbonear, in Newfoundland, +where he beguiled the tedium of his life by observations, chiefly with +the microscope. After a brief and unsuccessful interlude of farming in +Canada, during which he wrote an unpublished work on the entomology of +Newfoundland, he travelled in the United States, was received and +noticed by men of science, was employed as a teacher for some time in +Alabama, and returned to England in 1839. His _Canadian Naturalist_ +(1840), written on the voyage home, was followed in 1843 by his +_Introduction to Zoology_. His first widely popular book was _The Ocean_ +(1844). In 1844 Gosse, who had meanwhile been teaching in London, was +sent by the British Museum to collect specimens of natural history in +Jamaica. He spent nearly two years on that island, and after his return +published his _Birds of Jamaica_ (1847) and his _Naturalist's Sojourn in +Jamaica_ (1851). He also wrote about this time several zoological works +for the S.P.C.K., and laboured to such an extent as to impair his +health. While recovering at Ilfracombe, he was attracted by the forms of +marine life so abundant on that shore, and in 1853 published _A +Naturalist's Rambles on the Devonshire Coast_, accompanied by a +description of the marine aquarium invented by him, by means of which he +succeeded in preserving zoophytes and other marine animals of the +humbler grades alive and in good condition away from the sea. This +arrangement was more fully set forth and illustrated in his _Aquarium_ +(1854), succeeded in 1855-1856 by _A Manual of Marine Zoology_, in two +volumes, illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings after the author's +drawings. A volume on the marine fauna of Tenby succeeded in 1856. In +June of the same year he was elected F.R.S. Gosse, who was a most +careful observer, but who lacked the philosophical spirit, was now +tempted to essay work of a more ambitious order, publishing in 1857 two +books, _Life_ and _Omphalos_, embodying his speculations on the +appearance of life on the earth, which he considered to have been +instantaneous, at least as regarded its higher forms. His views met with +no favour from scientific men, and he returned to the field of +observation, which he was better qualified to cultivate. Taking up his +residence at St Marychurch, in South Devon, he produced from 1858 to +1860 his standard work on sea-anemones, the _Actinologia Britannica_. +_The Romance of Natural History_ and other popular works followed. In +1865 he abandoned authorship, and chiefly devoted himself to the +cultivation of orchids. Study of the Rotifera, however, also engaged his +attention, and his results were embodied in a monograph by Dr C. T. +Hudson (1886). He died at St Marychurch on the 23rd of August 1888. + + _His life was written by his son, Edmund Gosse._ + + + + +GOSSEC, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1734-1829), French musical composer, son of a +small farmer, was born at the village of Vergnies, in Belgian Hainaut, +and showing early a taste for music became a choir-boy at Antwerp. He +went to Paris in 1751 and was taken up by Rameau. He became conductor of +a private band kept by La Popeliniere, a wealthy amateur, and gradually +determined to do something to revive the study of instrumental music in +France. He had his own first symphony performed in 1754, and as +conductor to the Prince de Conde's orchestra he produced several operas +and other compositions of his own. He imposed his influence upon French +music with remarkable success, founded the Concert des Amateurs in 1770, +organized the Ecole de Chant in 1784, was conductor of the band of the +Garde Nationale at the Revolution, and was appointed (with Mehul and +Cherubini) inspector of the Conservatoire de Musique when this +institution was created in 1795. He was an original member of the +Institute and a chevalier of the legion of honour. Outside France he was +but little known, and his own numerous compositions, sacred and secular, +were thrown into the shade by those of men of greater genius; but he has +a place in history as the inspirer of others, and as having powerfully +stimulated the revival of instrumental music. He died at Passy on the +16th of February 1829. + + See the _Lives_ by P. Hedouin (1852) and E. G. J. Gregoir (1878). + + + + +GOSSIP (from the O.E. _godsibb_, i.e. God, and _sib_, akin, standing in +relation to), originally a god-parent, i.e. one who by taking a +sponsor's vows at a baptism stands in a spiritual relationship to the +child baptized. The common modern meaning is of light personal or social +conversation, or, with an invidious sense, of idle tale-bearing. +"Gossip" was early used with the sense of a friend or acquaintance, +either of the parent of the child baptized or of the other god-parents, +and thus came to be used, with little reference to the position of +sponsor, for women friends of the mother present at a birth; the +transition of meaning to an idle chatterer or talker for talking's sake +is easy. The application to the idle talk of such persons does not +appear to be an early one. + + + + +GOSSNER, JOHANNES EVANGELISTA (1773-1858), German divine and +philanthropist, was born at Hausen near Augsburg on the 14th of December +1773, and educated at the university of Dillingen. Here like Martin Boos +and others he came under the spell of the Evangelical movement promoted +by Johann Michael Sailer, the professor of pastoral theology. After +taking priest's orders, Gossner held livings at Dirlewang (1804-1811) +and Munich (1811-1817), but his evangelical tendencies brought about his +dismissal and in 1826 he formally left the Roman Catholic for the +Protestant communion. As minister of the Bethlehem church in Berlin +(1829-1846) he was conspicuous not only for practical and effective +preaching, but for the founding of schools, asylums and missionary +agencies. He died on the 20th of March 1858. + + _Lives_ by Bethmann-Hollweg (Berlin, 1858) and H. Dalton (Berlin, + 1878). + + + + +GOSSON, STEPHEN (1554-1624), English satirist, was baptized at St +George's, Canterbury, on the 17th of April 1554. He entered Corpus +Christi College, Oxford, 1572, and on leaving the university in 1576 he +went to London. In 1598 Francis Meres in his _Palladis Tamia_ mentions +him with Sidney, Spenser, Abraham Fraunce and others among the "best for +pastorall," but no pastorals of his are extant. He is said to have been +an actor, and by his own confession he wrote plays, for he speaks of +_Catilines Conspiracies_ as a "Pig of mine own Sowe." To this play and +some others, on account of their moral intention, he extends indulgence +in the general condemnation of stage plays contained in his _Schoole of +Abuse, containing a pleasant invective against Poets, Pipers, Plaiers, +Jesters and such like Caterpillars of the Commonwealth_ (1579). The +euphuistic style of this pamphlet and its ostentatious display of +learning were in the taste of the time, and do not necessarily imply +insincerity. Gosson justified his attack by considerations of the +disorder which the love of melodrama and of vulgar comedy was +introducing into the social life of London. It was not only by +extremists like Gosson that these abuses were recognized. Spenser, in +his _Teares of the Muses_ (1591), laments the same evils, although only +in general terms. The tract was dedicated to Sir Philip Sidney, who +seems not unnaturally to have resented being connected with a pamphlet +which opened with a comprehensive denunciation of poets, for Spenser, +writing to Gabriel Harvey (Oct. 16, 1579) of the dedication, says the +author "was for hys labor scorned." He dedicated, however, a second +tract, _The Ephemerides of Phialo ... and A Short Apologie of the +Schoole of Abuse_, to Sidney on Oct. 28th, 1579. Gosson's abuse of poets +seems to have had a large share in inducing Sidney to write his +_Apologie for Poetrie_, which probably dates from 1581. After the +publication of the _Schoole of Abuse_ Gosson retired into the country, +where he acted as tutor to the sons of a gentleman (_Plays Confuted_. +"To the Reader," 1582). Anthony a Wood places this earlier and assigns +the termination of his tutorship indirectly to his animosity against the +stage, which apparently wearied his patron of his company. The +publication of his polemic provoked many retorts, the most formidable of +which was Thomas Lodge's _Defence of Playes_ (1580). The players +themselves retaliated by reviving Gosson's own plays. Gosson replied to +his various opponents in 1582 by his _Playes Confuted in Five Actions_, +dedicated to Sir Francis Walsingham. Meanwhile he had taken orders, was +made lecturer of the parish church at Stepney (1585), and was presented +by the queen to the rectory of Great Wigborough, Essex, which he +exchanged in 1600 for St Botolph's, Bishopsgate. He died on the 13th of +February 1624. _Pleasant Quippes for Upstart New-fangled Gentlewomen_ +(1595), a coarse satiric poem, is also ascribed to Gosson. + + The _Schoole of Abuse and Apologie_ were edited (1868) by Prof. E. + Arber in his _English Reprints_. Two poems of Gosson's are included. + + + + +GOT, FRANCOIS JULES EDMOND (1822-1901), French actor, was born at +Lignerolles on the 1st of October 1822, and entered the Conservatoire in +1841, winning the second prize for comedy that year and the first in +1842. After a year of military service he made his debut at the Comedie +Francaise on the 17th of July 1844, as Alexis in _Les Heritiers_ and +Mascarelles in _Les Precieuses ridicules_. He was immediately admitted +_pensionnaire_, and became _societaire_ in 1850. By special permission +of the emperor in 1866 he played at the Odeon in Emile Augier's +_Contagion_. His golden jubilee at the Theatre Francais was celebrated +in 1894, and he made his final appearance the year after. Got was a fine +representative of the grand style of French acting, and was much admired +in England as well as in Paris. He wrote the libretto of the opera +_Francois Villon_ (1857) and also of _L'Esclave_ (1874). In 1881 he was +decorated with the cross of the Legion of Honour. + + + + +GOTA, a river of Sweden, draining the great Lake Vener. The name, +however, is more familiar in its application to the canal which affords +communication between Gothenburg and Stockholm. The river flows out of +the southern extremity of the lake almost due south to the Cattegat, +which it enters by two arms enclosing the island of Hisingen, the +eastern forming the harbour and bearing the heavy sea-traffic of the +port of Gothenburg. The Gota river is 50 m. in length, and is navigable +for large vessels, a series of locks surmounting the famous falls of +Trollhattan (q.v.). Passing the abrupt wooded Halleberg and Hunneberg +(royal shooting preserves) Lake Vener is reached at Venersborg. Several +important ports lie on the north, east and south shores (see VENER). +From Sjotorp, midway on the eastern shore, the western Gota canal leads +S.E. to Karlsborg. Its course necessitates over twenty locks to raise it +from the Vener level (144 ft.) to its extreme height of 300 ft., and +lower it over the subsequent fall through the small lakes Viken and +Botten to Lake Vetter (q.v.; 289 ft.), which the route crosses to +Motala. The eastern canal continues eastward from this point, and a +descent is followed through five locks to Lake Boren, after which the +canal, carried still at a considerable elevation, overlooks a rich and +beautiful plain. The picturesque Lake Roxen with its ruined castle of +Stjernarp is next traversed. At Norsholm a branch canal connects Lake +Glan to the north, giving access to the important manufacturing centre +of Norrkoping. Passing Lake Asplangen, the canal follows a cut through +steep rocks, and then resumes an elevated course to the old town of +Soderkoping, after which the Baltic is reached at Mem. Vessels plying to +Stockholm run N.E. among the coastal island-fringe (_skargard_), and +then follow the Sodertelge canal into Lake Malar. The whole distance +from Gothenburg to Stockholm is about 360 m., and the voyage takes about +2-1/2 days. The length of artificial work on the Gota canal proper is 54 +m., and there are 58 locks. The scenery is not such as will bear adverse +weather conditions; that of the western canal is without any interest +save in the remarkable engineering work. The idea of a canal dates from +1516, but the construction was organized by Baron von Platten and +engineered by Thomas Telford in 1810-1832. The falls of Trollhattan had +already been locked successfully in 1800. + + + + +GOTARZES, or GOTERZES, king of Parthia (c. A.D. 42-51). In an +inscription at the foot of the rock of Behistun[1] he is called [Greek: +Gotarzes Geopothros], i.e. "son of Gew," and seems to be designated as +"satrap of satrap." This inscription therefore probably dates from the +reign of Artabanus II. (A.D. 10-40), to whose family Gotarzes must have +belonged. From a very barbarous coin of Gotarzes with the inscription +[Greek: Basileos basileon Arsanoz uos kekaloumenos Artabavou Gotepzes] +(Wroth, _Catalogue of the Coins of Parthia_, p. 165; _Numism_. _Chron._, +1900, p. 95; the earlier readings of this inscription are wrong), which +must be translated "king of kings Arsakes, named son of Artabanos, +Gotarzes," it appears that he was adopted by Artabanus. When the +troublesome reign of Artabanus II. ended in A.D. 39 or 40, he was +succeeded by Vardanes, probably his son; but against him in 41 rose +Gotarzes (the dates are fixed by the coins). He soon made himself +detested by his cruelty--among many other murders he even slew his +brother Artabanus and his whole family (Tac. _Ann._ xi. 8)--and Vardanes +regained the throne in 42; Gotarzes fled to Hyrcania and gathered an +army from the Dahan nomads. The war between the two kings was at last +ended by a treaty, as both were afraid of the conspiracies of their +nobles. Gotarzes returned to Hyrcania. But when Vardanes was +assassinated in 45, Gotarzes was acknowledged in the whole empire (Tac. +_Ann._ xi. 9 ff.; Joseph. _Antiq._ xx. 3, 4, where Gotarzes is called +Kotardes). He now takes on his coins the usual Parthian titles, "king of +kings Arsaces the benefactor, the just, the illustrious (_Epiphanes_), +the friend of the Greeks (_Philhellen_)," without mentioning his proper +name. The discontent excited by his cruelty and luxury induced the +hostile party to apply to the emperor Claudius and fetch from Rome an +Arsacid prince Meherdates (i.e. Mithradates), who lived there as +hostage. He crossed the Euphrates in 49, but was beaten and taken +prisoner by Gotarzes, who cut off his ears (Tac. _Ann._ xii. 10 ff.). +Soon after Gotarzes died, according to Tacitus, of an illness; Josephus +says that he was murdered. His last coin is dated from June 51. + + An earlier "Arsakes with the name Gotarzes," mentioned on some + astronomical tablets from Babylon (Strassmaier in _Zeitschr. fur + Assyriologie_, vi. 216; Mahler in _Wiener Zeitschr. fur Kunde des + Morgenlands_, xv. 63 ff.), appears to have reigned for some time in + Babylonia about 87 B.C. (Ed. M.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Rawlinson, _Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc._ ix. 114; Flandin and Coste, + _La Perse ancienne_, i. tab. 19; Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci + inscr._ 431. + + + + +GOTHA, a town of Germany, alternately with Coburg the residence of the +dukes of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in a pleasant situation on the Leine canal, +6 m. N. of the slope of the Thuringian forest, 17 m. W. from Erfurt, on +the railway to Bebra-Cassel. Pop. (1905) 36,906. It consists of an old +inner town and encircling suburbs, and is dominated by the castle of +Friedenstein, lying on the Schlossberg at an elevation of 1100 ft. With +the exception of those in the older portion of the town, the streets are +handsome and spacious, and the beautiful gardens and promenades between +the suburbs and the castle add greatly to the town's attractiveness. To +the south of the castle there is an extensive and finely adorned park. +To the north-west of the town the Galberg--on which there is a public +pleasure garden--and to the south-west the Seeberg rise to a height of +over 1300 ft. and afford extensive views. The castle of Friedenstein, +begun by Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in 1643 and +completed in 1654, occupies the site of the old fortress of +Grimmenstein. It is a huge square building flanked with two wings, +having towers rising to the height of about 140 ft. It contains the +ducal cabinet of coins and the ducal library of nearly 200,000 volumes, +among which are several rare editions and about 6900 manuscripts. The +picture gallery, the cabinet of engravings, the natural history museum, +the Chinese museum, and the cabinet of art, which includes a collection +of Egyptian, Etruscan, Roman and German antiquities, are now included in +the new museum, completed in 1878, which stands on a terrace to the +south of the castle. The principal other public buildings are the church +of St Margaret with a beautiful portal and a lofty tower, founded in the +12th century, twice burnt down, and rebuilt in its present form in 1652; +the church of the Augustinian convent, with an altar-piece by the +painter Simon Jacobs; the theatre; the fire insurance bank and the life +insurance bank; the ducal palace, in the Italian villa style, with a +winter garden and picture gallery; the buildings of the ducal +legislature; the hospital; the old town-hall, dating from the 11th +century; the old residence of the painter Lucas Cranach, now used as a +girls' school; the ducal stable; and the Friedrichsthal palace, now used +as public offices. The educational establishments include a gymnasium +(founded in 1524, one of the most famous in Germany), two training +schools for teachers, conservatoires of music and several scientific +institutions. Gotha is remarkable for its insurance societies and for +the support it has given to cremation. The crematorium was long regarded +as a model for such establishments. + +Gotha is one of the most active commercial towns of Thuringia, its +manufactures including sausages, for which it has a great reputation, +porcelain, tobacco, sugar, machinery, mechanical and surgical +instruments, musical instruments, shoes, lamps and toys. There are also +a number of nurseries and market gardens. The book trade is represented +by about a dozen firms, including that of the great geographical house +of Justus Perthes, founded in 1785. + +Gotha (in old chronicles called _Gotegewe_ and later _Gotaha_) existed +as a village in the time of Charlemagne. In 930 its lord Gothard abbot +of Hersfeld surrounded it with walls. It was known as a town as early as +1200, about which time it came into the possession of the landgraves of +Thuringia. On the extinction of that line Gotha came into the possession +of the electors of Saxony, and it fell later to the Ernestine line of +dukes. After the battle of Muhlberg in 1547 the castle of Grimmenstein +was partly destroyed, but it was again restored in 1554. In 1567 the +town was taken from Duke John Frederick by the elector Augustus of +Saxony. After the death of John Frederick's sons, it came into the +possession of Duke Ernest the Pious, the founder of the line of the +dukes of Gotha; and on the extinction of this family it was united in +1825 along with the dukedom to Coburg. + + See _Gotha und seine Umgebung_ (Gotha, 1851); Kuhne, _Beitrage zur + Geschichte der Entwicklung der socialen Zustande der Stadt und des + Herzogtums Gotha_ (Gotha, 1862); Humbert, _Les Villes de la Thuringe_ + (Paris, 1869), and Beck, _Geschichte der Stadt Gotha_ (Gotha, 1870). + + + + +GOTHAM, WISE MEN OF, the early name given to the people of the village +of Gotham, Nottingham, in allusion to their reputed simplicity. But if +tradition is to be believed the Gothamites were not so very simple. The +story is that King John intended to live in the neighbourhood, but that +the villagers, foreseeing ruin as the cost of supporting the court, +feigned imbecility when the royal messengers arrived. Wherever the +latter went they saw the rustics engaged in some absurd task. John, on +this report, determined to have his hunting lodge elsewhere, and the +"wise men" boasted, "we ween there are more fools pass through Gotham +than remain in it." The "foles of Gotham" are mentioned as early as the +15th century in the _Towneley Mysteries_; and a collection of their +"jests" was published in the 16th century under the title _Merrie Tales +of the Mad Men of Gotham, gathered together by A.B., of Phisicke +Doctour_. The "A.B." was supposed to represent Andrew Borde or Boorde +(1490?-1549), famous among other things for his wit, but he probably had +nothing to do with the compilation. As typical of the Gothamite folly is +usually quoted the story of the villagers joining hands round a +thornbush to shut in a cuckoo so that it would sing all the year. The +localizing of fools is common to most countries, and there are many +other reputed "imbecile" centres in England besides Gotham. Thus there +are the people of Coggeshall, Essex, the "carles of Austwick," +Yorkshire, "the gowks of Gordon," Berwickshire, and for many centuries +the charge of folly has been made against "silly" Suffolk and Norfolk +(_Descriptio Norfolciensium_ about 12th century, printed in Wright's +_Early Mysteries and other Latin Poems_). In Germany there are the +_Schildburgers_, in Holland the people of Kampen. Among the ancient +Greeks Boeotia was the home of fools; among the Thracians, Abdera; among +the ancient Jews, Nazareth. + + See W. A. Clouston, _Book of Noodles_ (London, 1888); R. H. + Cunningham, _Amusing Prose Chap-books_ (1889). + + + + +GOTHENBURG (Swed. _Goteborg_), a city and seaport of Sweden, on the +river Gota, 5 m. above its mouth in the Cattegat, 285 m. S.W. of +Stockholm by rail, and 360 by the Gota canal-route. Pop. (1900) 130,619. +It is the chief town of the district (_lan_) of Goteborg och Bohus, and +the seat of a bishop. It lies on the east or left bank of the river, +which is here lined with quays on both sides, those on the west +belonging to the large island of Hisingen, contained between arms of the +Gota. On this island are situated the considerable suburbs of Lindholmen +and Lundby. + +The city itself stretches east and south from the river, with extensive +and pleasant residential suburbs, over a wooded plain enclosed by low +hills. The inner city, including the business quarter, is contained +almost entirely between the river and the Rosenlunds canal, continued in +the Vallgraf, the moat of the old fortifications; and is crossed by the +Storahamn, Ostrahamn and Vestrahamn canals. The Storahamn is flanked by +the handsome tree-planted quays, Norra and Sodra Hamngatan. The first of +these, starting from the Stora Bommenshamn, where the sea-going +passenger-steamers lie, leads past the museum to the Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg. +The museum, in the old East India Company's house, has fine collections +in natural history, entomology, botany, anatomy, archaeology and +ethnography, a picture and sculpture gallery, and exhibits of coins and +industrial art. Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg is the business centre, and contains +the town-hail (1670) and exchange (1849). Here are statues by B. E. +Fogelberg of Gustavus Adolphus and of Odin, and of Oscar I. by J. P. +Molin. Among several churches in this quarter of the city is the +cathedral (_Gustavii Domkyrka_), a cruciform church founded in 1633 and +rebuilt after fires in 1742 and 1815. Here are also the customs-house +and residence of the governor of the _lan_. On the north side, closely +adjacent, are the Lilla Bommenshamn, where the Gota canal steamers lie, +and the two principal railway stations, Statens and Bergslafs Bangard. +Above the Rosenlunds canal rises a low, rocky eminence, Lilla +Otterhalleberg. The inner city is girdled on the south and east by the +Kungspark, which contains Molin's famous group of statuary, the +Belt-bucklers (_Baltespannare_), and by the beautiful gardens of the +Horticultural Society (_Tradgardsforeningen_). These grounds are +traversed by the broad Nya Alle, a favourite promenade, and beyond them +lies the best residential quarter, the first houses facing Vasa Street, +Vasa Park and Kungsport Avenue. At the north end of the last are the +university and the New theatre. At the west end of Vasa Street is the +city library, the most important in the country except the royal library +at Stockholm and the university libraries at Upsala and Lund. The +suburbs are extensive. To the south-west are Majorna and Masthugget, +with numerous factories. Beyond these lie the fine Slottskog Park, +planted with oaks, and picturesquely broken by rocky hills commanding +views of the busy river and the city. The suburb of Annedal is the +workmen's quarter; others are Landala, Garda and Stampen. All are +connected with the city by electric tramways. Six railways leave the +city from four stations. The principal lines, from the Statens and +Bergslafs stations, run N. to Trollhattan, and into Norway +(Christiania); N.E. between Lakes Vener and Vetter to Stockholm, Falun +and the north; E. to Boras and beyond, and S. by the coast to +Helsingborg, &c. From the Vestgota station a narrow-gauge line runs N.E. +to Skara and the southern shores of Vener, and from Saro station near +Slottskog Park a line serves Saro, a seaside watering-place on an island +20 m. S. of Gothenburg. + +The city has numerous important educational establishments. The +university (_Hogskola_) was a private foundation (1891), but is governed +by a board, the members of which are nominated by the state, the town +council, Royal Society of Science and Literature, directors of the +museum, and the staffs of the various local colleges. There are several +boys' schools, a college for girls, a scientific college, a commercial +college (1826), a school of navigation, and Chalmers' Polytechnical +College, founded by William Chalmers (1748-1811), a native of Gothenburg +of English parentage. He bequeathed half his fortune to this +institution, and the remainder to the Sahlgrenska hospital. A people's +library was founded by members of the family of Dickson, several of whom +have taken a prominent part in philanthropical works in the city. The +connexion of the family with Gothenburg dates from 1802, when Robert +Dickson, a native of Montrose in Scotland, founded the business in which +he was joined in 1807 by his brother James. + +In respect of industry and commerce as a whole Gothenburg ranks as +second to Stockholm in the kingdom; but it is actually the principal +centre of export trade and port of register; and as a manufacturing town +it is slightly inferior to Malmo. Its principal industrial +establishments are mechanical works (both in the city and at Lundby), +saw-mills, dealing with the timber which is brought down the Gota, +flour-mills, margarine factories, breweries and distilleries, tobacco +works, cotton mills, dyeing and bleaching works (at Levanten in the +vicinity), furniture factories, paper and leather works, and +shipbuilding yards. The vessels registered at the port in 1901 were 247 +of 120,488 tons. There are about 3 m. of quays approachable by vessels +drawing 20 ft., and slips for the accommodation of large vessels. +Gothenburg is the principal port of embarkation of Swedish emigrants for +America. + +The city is governed by a council including two mayors, and returns nine +members to the second chamber of the Riksdag (parliament). + +Founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1619, Gothenburg was from the first +designed to be fortified, a town of the same name founded on Hisingen in +1603 having been destroyed by the Danes during the Calmar war. From +1621, when it was first chartered, it steadily increased, though it +suffered greatly in the Danish wars of the last half of the 17th and the +beginning of the 18th centuries, and from several extensive +conflagrations (the last in 1813), which have destroyed important +records of its history. The great development of its herring fishery in +the latter part of the 18th century gave a new impulse to the city's +trade, which was kept up by the influence of the "Continental System," +under which Gothenburg became a depot for the colonial merchandise of +England. After the fall of Napoleon it began to decline, but after its +closer connexion with the interior of the country by the Gota canal +(opened 1832) and Western railway it rapidly advanced both in population +and trade. Since the demolition of its fortifications in 1807, it has +been defended only by some small forts. Gothenburg was the birthplace of +the poet Bengt Lidner (1757-1793) and two of Sweden's greatest +sculptors, Bengt Erland Fogelberg (1786-1854) and Johann Peter Molin +(1814-1873). After the French Revolution Gothenburg was for a time the +residence of the Bourbon family. The name of this city is associated +with the municipal licensing system known as the Gothenburg System (see +LIQUOR LAWS). + + See W. Berg, _Samlingar till Goteborgs historia_ (Gothenburg, 1893); + Lagerberg, _Goteborg i aldre och nyare tid_ (Gothenburg, 1902); + Froding, _Det forna Goteborg_ (Stockholm, 1903). + + + + +GOTHIC, the term generally applied to medieval architecture, and more +especially to that in which the pointed arch appears. The style was at +one time supposed to have originated with the warlike people known as +the Goths, some of whom (the East Goths, or Ostrogoths) settled in the +eastern portion of Europe, and others (the West Goths, or Visigoths) in +the Asturias of Spain; but as no buildings or remains of any description +have ever been found, in which there are any traces of an independent +construction in either brick or stone, the title is misleading; since, +however, it is now so generally accepted it would be difficult to change +it. The term when first employed was one of reproach, as Evelyn (1702) +when speaking of the faultless building (i.e. classic) says, "they were +demolished by the Goths or Vandals, who introduced their own licentious +style now called modern or Gothic." The employment of the pointed arch +in Syria, Egypt and Sicily from the 8th century onwards by the +Mahommedans for their mosques and gateways, some four centuries before +it made its appearance in Europe, also makes it advisable to adhere to +the old term Gothic in preference to Pointed Architecture. (See +ARCHITECTURE) + + + + +GOTHITE, or GOETHITE, a mineral composed of an iron hydrate, Fe2O3.H2O, +crystallizing in the orthorhombic system and isomorphous with diaspore +and manganite (q.v.). It was first noticed in 1789, and in 1806 was +named after the poet Goethe. Crystals are prismatic, acicular or scaly +in habit; they have a perfect cleavage parallel to the brachypinacoid (M +in the figure). Reniform and stalactitic masses with a radiated fibrous +structure also occur. The colour varies from yellowish or reddish to +blackish-brown, and by transmitted light it is often blood-red; the +streak is brownish-yellow; hardness, 5; specific gravity, 4.3. The best +crystals are the brilliant, blackish-brown prisms with terminal +pyramidal planes (fig.) from the Restormel iron mines at Lostwithiel, +and the Botallack mine at St Just in Cornwall. A variety occurring as +thin red scales at Siegen in Westphalia is known as Rubinglimmer or +pyrrhosiderite (from Gr. [Greek: pyrros], flame-coloured, and [Greek: +sideros], iron): a scaly-fibrous variety from the same locality is +called lepidocrocite (from [Greek: lepis], scale, and [Greek: krokis], +fibre). Sammetblende or przibramite is a variety, from Przibram in +Bohemia, consisting of delicate acicular or capillary crystals arranged +in radiating groups with a velvety surface and yellow colour. + +[Illustration] + +Gothite occurs with other iron oxides, especially limonite and hematite, +and when found in sufficient quantity is mined with these as an ore of +iron. It often occurs also as an enclosure in other minerals. Acicular +crystals, resembling rutile in appearance, sometimes penetrate crystals +of pale-coloured amethyst, for instance, at Wolf's Island in Lake Onega +in Russia: this form of the mineral has long been known as onegite, and +the crystals enclosing it are cut for ornamental purposes under the name +of "Cupid's darts" (_fleches d'amour_). The metallic glitter of +avanturine or sun-stone (q.v.) is due to the enclosed scales of gothite +and certain other minerals. (L. J. S.) + + + + +GOTHS + + Early history. + +(_Gotones_, later _Gothis_), a Teutonic people who in the 1st century of +the Christian era appear to have inhabited the middle part of the basin +of the Vistula. They were probably the easternmost of the Teutonic +peoples. According to their own traditions as recorded by Jordanes, they +had come originally from the island Scandza, i.e. Skane or Sweden, under +the leadership of a king named Berig, and landed first in a region +called Gothiscandza. Thence they invaded the territories of the Ulmerugi +(the Holmryge of Anglo-Saxon tradition), probably in the neighbourhood +of Rugenwalde in eastern Pomerania, and conquered both them and the +neighbouring Vandals. Under their sixth king Filimer they migrated into +Scythia and settled in a district which they called Oium. The rest of +their early history, as it is given by Jordanes following Cassiodorus, +is due to an erroneous identification of the Goths with the Getae, and +ancient Thracian people. + +The credibility of the story of the migration from Sweden has been much +discussed by modern authors. The legend was not peculiar to the Goths, +similar traditions being current among the Langobardi, the Burgundians, +and apparently several other Teutonic nations. It has been observed with +truth that so many populous nations can hardly have sprung from the +Scandinavian peninsula; on the other hand, the existence of these +traditions certainly requires some explanation. Possibly, however, many +of the royal families may have contained an element of Scandinavian +blood, a hypothesis which would well accord with the social conditions +of the migration period, as illustrated, e.g., in _Volsunga Saga_ and in +_Hervarar Saga ok Heiethreks Konungs_. In the case of the Goths a +connexion with Gotland is not unlikely, since it is clear from +archaeological evidence that this island had an extensive trade with the +coasts about the mouth of the Vistula in early times. If, however, there +was any migration at all, one would rather have expected it to have +taken place in the reverse direction. For the origin of the Goths can +hardly be separated from that of the Vandals, whom according to +Procopius they resembled in language and in all other respects. Moreover +the Gepidae, another Teutonic people, who are said to have formerly +inhabited the delta of the Vistula, also appear to have been closely +connected with the Goths. According to Jordanes they participated in the +migration from Scandza. + +Apart from a doubtful reference by Pliny to a statement of the early +traveller Pytheas, the first notices we have of the Goths go back to the +first years of the Christian era, at which time they seem to have been +subject to the Marcomannic king Maroboduus. They do not enter into Roman +history, however, until after the beginning of the 3rd century, at which +time they appear to have come in conflict with the emperor Caracalla. +During this century their frontier seems to have been advanced +considerably farther south, and the whole country as far as the lower +Danube was frequently ravaged by them. The emperor Gordianus is called +"victor Gothorum" by Capitolinus, though we have no record of the ground +for the claim, and further conflicts are recorded with his successors, +one of whom, Decius, was slain by the Goths in Moesia. According to +Jordanes the kings of the Goths during these campaigns were Ostrogotha +and afterwards Cniva, the former of whom is praised also in the +Anglo-Saxon poem _Widsith_. The emperor Gallus was forced to pay tribute +to the Goths. By this time they had reached the coasts of the Black Sea, +and during the next twenty years they frequently ravaged the maritime +regions of Asia Minor and Greece. Aurelian is said to have won a victory +over them, but the province of Dacia had to be given up. In the time of +Constantine the Great Thrace and Moesia were again plundered by the +Goths, A.D. 321. Constantine drove them back and concluded peace with +their king Ariaric in 336. From the end of the 3rd century we hear of +subdivisions of the nation called Greutungi, Teruingi, Austrogothi +(Ostrogothi), Visigothi, Taifali, though it is not clear whether these +were all distinct. + +Though by this time the Goths had extended their territories far to the +south and east, it must not be assumed that they had evacuated their old +lands on the Vistula. Jordanes records several traditions of their +conflicts with other Teutonic tribes, in particular a victory won by +Ostrogotha over Fastida, king of the Gepidae, and another by Geberic +over Visimar, king of the Vandals, about the end of Constantine's reign, +in consequence of which the Vandals sought and obtained permission to +settle in Pannonia. Geberic was succeeded by the most famous of the +Gothic kings, Hermanaric (Eormenric, Iormunrekr), whose deeds are +recorded in the traditions of all Teutonic nations. According to +Jordanes he conquered the Heruli, the Aestii, the Venedi, and a number +of other tribes who seem to have been settled in the southern part of +Russia. From Anglo-Saxon sources it seems probable that his supremacy +reached westwards as far as Holstein. He was of a cruel disposition, and +is said to have killed his nephews Embrica (Emerca) and Fritla (Fridla) +in order to obtain the great treasure which they possessed. Still more +famous is the story of Suanihilda (Svanhildr), who according to Northern +tradition was his wife and was cruelly put to death on a false charge of +unfaithfulness. An attempt to avenge her death was made by her brothers +Ammius (Hamethir) and Sarus (Sorli) by whom Hermanaric was severely +wounded. To his time belong a number of other heroes whose exploits are +recorded in English and Northern tradition, amongst whom we may mention +Wudga (Vidigoia), Hama and several others, who in _Widsith_ are +represented as defending their country against the Huns in the forest of +the Vistula. Hermanaric committed suicide in his distress at an invasion +of the Huns about A.D. 370, and the portion of the nation called +Ostrogoths then came under Hunnish supremacy. The Visigoths obtained +permission to cross the Danube and settle in Moesia. A large part of the +nation became Christian about this time (see BELOW). The exactions of +the Roman governors, however, soon led to a quarrel, which ended in the +total defeat and death of Valens at Adrianople in the year 378. + (F. G. M. B.) + + + Later history. + +From about 370 the history of the East and West Goths parts asunder, to +be joined together again only incidentally and for a season. The great +mass of the East Goths stayed north of the Danube, and passed under the +overlordship of the Hun. They do not for the present play any important +part in the affairs of the Empire. The great mass of the West Goths +crossed the Danube into the Roman provinces, and there played a most +important part in various characters of alliance and enmity. The great +migration was in 376, when they were allowed to pass as peaceful +settlers under their chief Frithigern. His rival Athanaric seems to have +tried to maintain his party for a while north of the Danube in defiance +of the Huns; but he had presently to follow the example of the great +mass of the nation. The peaceful designs of Frithigern were meanwhile +thwarted by the ill-treatment which the Goths suffered from the Roman +officials, which led first to disputes and then to open war. In 378 the +Goths won the great battle of Adrianople, and after this Theodosius the +Great, the successor of Valens, made terms with them in 381, and the +mass of the Gothic warriors entered the Roman service as _foederati_. +Many of their chiefs were in high favour; but it seems that the orthodox +Theodosius showed more favour to the still remaining heathen party among +the Goths than to the larger part of them who had embraced Arian +Christianity. Athanaric himself came to Constantinople in 381; he was +received with high honours, and had a solemn funeral when he died. His +saying is worth recording, as an example of the effect which Roman +civilization had on the Teutonic mind. "The emperor," he said, "was a +god upon earth, and he who resisted him would have his blood on his own +head." + +The death of Theodosius in 395 broke up the union between the West Goths +and the Empire. Dissensions arose between them and the ministers of +Arcadius; the Goths threw off their allegiance, and chose Alaric as +their king. This was a restoration alike of national unity and of +national independence. The royal title had not been borne by their +leaders in the Roman service. Alaric's position is quite different from +that of several Goths in the Roman service, who appear as simple +rebels. He was of the great West Gothic house of the Balthi, or +Bold-men, a house second in nobility only to that of the Amali. His +whole career was taken up with marchings to and fro within the lands, +first of the Eastern, then of the Western empire. The Goths are under +him an independent people under a national king; their independence is +in no way interfered with if the Gothic king, in a moment of peace, +accepts the office and titles of a Roman general. But under Alaric the +Goths make no lasting settlement. In the long tale of intrigue and +warfare between the Goths and the two imperial courts which fills up +this whole time, cessions of territory are offered to the Goths, +provinces are occupied by them, but as yet they do not take root +anywhere; no Western land as yet becomes _Gothia_. Alaric's designs of +settlement seem in his first stage to have still kept east of the +Adriatic, in Illyricum, possibly in Greece. Towards the end of his +career his eyes seem fixed on Africa. + +Greece was the scene of his great campaign in 395-96, the second Gothic +invasion of that country. In this campaign the religious position of the +Goths is strongly marked. The Arian appeared as an enemy alike to the +pagan majority and the Catholic minority; but he came surrounded by +monks, and his chief wrath was directed against the heathen temples +(_vide_ G. F. Hertzberg, _Geschichte Griechenlands_, iii. 391). His +Italian campaigns fall into two great divisions, that of 402-3, when he +was driven back by Stilicho, and that of 408-10, after Stilicho's death. +In this second war he thrice besieged Rome (408, 409, 410). The second +time it suited a momentary policy to set up a puppet emperor of his own, +and even to accept a military commission from him. The third time he +sacked the city, the first time since Brennus that Rome had been taken +by an army of utter foreigners. The intricate political and military +details of these campaigns are of less importance in the history of the +Gothic nation than the stage which Alaric's reign marks in the history +of that nation. It stands between two periods of settlement within the +Empire and of service under the Empire. Under Alaric there is no +settlement, and service is quite secondary and precarious; after his +death in 410 the two begin again in new shapes. + +Contemporary with the campaigns of Alaric was a barbarian invasion of +Italy, which, according to one view, again brings the East and West +Goths together. The great mass of the East Goths, as has been already +said, became one of the many nations which were under vassalage to the +Huns; but their relation was one merely of vassalage. They remained a +distinct people under kings of their own, kings of the house of the +Amali and of the kindred of Ermanaric (Jordanes, 48). They had to follow +the lead of the Huns in war, but they were also able to carry on wars of +their own; and it has been held that among these separate East Gothic +enterprises we are to place the invasion of Italy in 405 by Radagaisus +(whom R. Pallmann[1] writes Ratiger, and takes him for the chief of the +heathen part of the East Goths). One chronicler, Prosper, makes this +invasion preceded by another in 400, in which Alaric and Radagaisus +appear as partners. The paganism of Radagaisus is certain. The presence +of Goths in his army is certain, but it seems dangerous to infer that +his invasion was a national Gothic enterprise. + +Under Ataulphus, the brother-in-law and successor of Alaric, another era +opens, the beginning of enterprises which did in the end lead to the +establishment of a settled Gothic monarchy in the West. The position of +Ataulphus is well marked by the speech put into his mouth by Orosius. He +had at one time dreamed of destroying the Roman power, of turning +_Romania_ into _Gothia_, and putting Ataulphus in the stead of Augustus; +but he had learned that the world could be governed only by the laws of +Rome and he had determined to use the Gothic arms for the support of the +Roman power. And in the confused and contradictory accounts of his +actions (for the story in Jordanes cannot be reconciled with the +accounts in Olympiodorus and the chroniclers), we can see something of +this principle at work throughout. Gaul and Spain were overrun both by +barbarian invaders and by rival emperors. The sword of the Goth was to +win back the last lands for Rome. And, amid many shiftings of +allegiance, Ataulphus seems never to have wholly given up the position +of an ally of the Empire. His marriage with Placidia, the daughter of +the great Theodosius, was taken as the seal of the union between Goth +and Roman, and, had their son Theodosius lived, a dynasty might have +arisen uniting both claims. But the career of Ataulphus was cut short at +Barcelona in 415, by his murder at the hands of another faction of the +Goths. The reign of Sigeric was momentary. Under Wallia in 418 a more +settled state of things was established. The Empire received again, as +the prize of Gothic victories, the Tarraconensis in Spain, and +Novempopulana and the Narbonensis in Gaul. The "second Aquitaine," with +the sea-coast from the mouth of the Garonne to the mouth of the Loire, +became the West Gothic kingdom of Toulouse. The dominion of the Goths +was now strictly Gaulish; their lasting Spanish dominion does not yet +begin. + +The reign of the first West Gothic Theodoric (419-451) shows a shifting +state of relations between the Roman and Gothic powers; but, after +defeats and successes both ways, the older relation of alliance against +common enemies was again established. At last Goth and Roman had to join +together against the common enemy of Europe and Christendom, Attila the +Hun. But they met Gothic warriors in his army. By the terms of their +subjection to the Huns, the East Goths came to fight for Attila against +Christendom at Chalons, just as the Servians came to fight for Bajazet +against Christendom at Nicopolis. Theodoric fell in the battle (451). +After this momentary meeting, the history of the East and West Goths +again separates for a while. The kingdom of Toulouse grew within Gaul at +the expense of the Empire, and in Spain at the expense of the Suevi. +Under Euric (466-485) the West Gothic power again became largely a +Spanish power. The kingdom of Toulouse took in nearly all Gaul south of +the Loire and west of the Rhone, with all Spain, except the north-west +corner, which was still held by the Suevi. Provence alone remained to +the Empire. The West Gothic kings largely adopted Roman manners and +culture; but, as they still kept to their original Arian creed, their +rule never became thoroughly acceptable to their Catholic subjects. They +stood, therefore, at a great disadvantage when a new and aggressive +Catholic power appeared in Gaul through the conversion of the Frank +Clovis or Chlodwig. Toulouse was, as in days long after, the seat of an +heretical power, against which the forces of northern Gaul marched as on +a crusade. In 507 the West Gothic king Alaric II. fell before the +Frankish arms at Campus Vogladensis, near Poitiers, and his kingdom, as +a great power north of the Alps, fell with him. That Spain and a +fragment of Gaul still remained to form a West Gothic kingdom was owing +to the intervention of the East Goths under the rule of the greatest man +in Gothic history. + +When the Hunnish power broke in pieces on the death of Attila, the East +Goths recovered their full independence. They now entered into relations +with the Empire, and were settled on lands in Pannonia. During the +greater part of the latter half of the 5th century, the East Goths play +in south-eastern Europe nearly the same part which the West Goths played +in the century before. They are seen going to and fro, in every +conceivable relation of friendship and enmity with the Eastern Roman +power, till, just as the West Goths had done before them, they pass from +the East to the West. They are still ruled by kings of the house of the +Amali, and from that house there now steps forward a great figure, +famous alike in history and in romance, in the person of Theodoric, son +of Theodemir. Born about 454, his childhood was spent at Constantinople +as a hostage, where he was carefully educated. The early part of his +life is taken up with various disputes, intrigues and wars within the +Eastern empire, in which he has as his rival another Theodoric, son of +Triarius, and surnamed Strabo. This older but lesser Theodoric seems to +have been the chief, not the king, of that branch of the East Goths +which had settled within the Empire at an earlier time. Theodoric the +Great, as he is sometimes distinguished, is sometimes the friend, +sometimes the enemy, of the Empire. In the former case he is clothed +with various Roman titles and offices, as patrician and consul; but in +all cases alike he remains the national East Gothic king. It was in both +characters together that he set out in 488, by commission from the +emperor Zeno, to recover Italy from Odoacer. By 493 Ravenna was taken; +Odoacer was killed by Theodoric's own hand; and the East Gothic power +was fully established over Italy, Sicily, Dalmatia and the lands to the +north of Italy. In this war the history of the East and West Goths +begins again to unite, if we may accept the witness of one writer that +Theodoric was helped by West Gothic auxiliaries. The two branches of the +nation were soon brought much more closely together, when, through the +overthrow of the West Gothic kingdom of Toulouse, the power of Theodoric +was practically extended over a large part of Gaul and over nearly the +whole of Spain. A time of confusion followed the fall of Alaric II., +and, as that prince was the son-in-law of Theodoric, the East Gothic +king stepped in as the guardian of his grandson Amalaric, and preserved +for him all his Spanish and a fragment of his Gaulish dominion. Toulouse +passed away to the Frank; but the Goth kept Narbonne and its district, +the land of Septimania--the land which, as the last part of Gaul held by +the Goths, kept the name of _Gothia_ for many ages. While Theodoric +lived, the West Gothic kingdom was practically united to his own +dominion. He seems also to have claimed a kind of protectorate over the +Teutonic powers generally, and indeed to have practically exercised it, +except in the case of the Franks. + +The East Gothic dominion was now again as great in extent and far more +splendid than it could have been in the time of Ermanaric. But it was +now of a wholly different character. The dominion of Theodoric was not a +barbarian but a civilized power. His twofold position ran through +everything. He was at once national king of the Goths, and successor, +though without any imperial titles, of the Roman emperors of the West. +The two nations, differing in manners, language and religion, lived side +by side on the soil of Italy; each was ruled according to its own law, +by the prince who was, in his two separate characters, the common +sovereign of both. The picture of Theodoric's rule is drawn for us in +the state papers drawn up in his name and in the names of his successors +by his Roman minister Cassiodorus. The Goths seem to have been thick on +the ground in northern Italy; in the south they formed little more than +garrisons. In Theodoric's theory the Goth was the armed protector of the +peaceful Roman; the Gothic king had the toil of government, while the +Roman consul had the honour. All the forms of the Roman administration +went on, and the Roman polity and Roman culture had great influence on +the Goths themselves. The rule of the prince over two distinct nations +in the same land was necessarily despotic; the old Teutonic freedom was +necessarily lost. Such a system as that which Theodoric established +needed a Theodoric to carry it on. It broke in pieces after his death. + +On the death of Theodoric (526) the East and West Goths were again +separated. The few instances in which they are found acting together +after this time are as scattered and incidental as they were before. +Amalaric succeeded to the West Gothic kingdom in Spain and Septimania. +Provence was added to the dominion of the new East Gothic king +Athalaric, the grandson of Theodoric through his daughter Amalasuntha. +The weakness of the East Gothic position in Italy now showed itself. The +long wars of Justinian's reign (535-555) recovered Italy for the Empire, +and the Gothic name died out on Italian soil. The chance of forming a +national state in Italy by the union of Roman and Teutonic elements, +such as those which arose in Gaul, in Spain, and in parts of Italy under +Lombard rule, was thus lost. The East Gothic kingdom was destroyed +before Goths and Italians had at all mingled together. The war of course +made the distinction stronger; under the kings who were chosen for the +purposes of the war national Gothic feeling had revived. The Goths were +now again, if not a wandering people, yet an armed host, no longer the +protectors but the enemies of the Roman people of Italy. The East +Gothic dominion and the East Gothic name wholly passed away. The nation +had followed Theodoric. It is only once or twice after his expedition +that we hear of Goths, or even of Gothic leaders, m the eastern +provinces. From the soil of Italy the nation passed away almost without +a trace, while the next Teutonic conquerors stamped their name on the +two ends of the land, one of which keeps it to this day. + +The West Gothic kingdom lasted much longer, and came much nearer to +establishing itself as a national power in the lands which it took in. +But the difference of race and faith between the Arian Goths and the +Catholic Romans of Gaul and Spain influenced the history of the West +Gothic kingdom for a long time. The Arian Goths ruled over Catholic +subjects, and were surrounded by Catholic neighbours. The Franks were +Catholics from their first conversion; the Suevi became Catholics much +earlier than the Goths. The African conquests of Belisarius gave the +Goths of Spain, instead of the Arian Vandals, another Catholic neighbour +in the form of the restored Roman power. The Catholics everywhere +preferred either Roman, Suevian or Frankish rule to that of the +heretical Goths; even the unconquerable mountaineers of Cantabria seem +for a while to have received a Frankish governor. In some other mountain +districts the Roman inhabitants long maintained their independence, and +in 534 a large part of the south of Spain, including the great cities of +Cadiz, Cordova, Seville and New Carthage, was, with the good will of its +Roman inhabitants, reunited to the Empire, which kept some points on the +coast as late as 624. That is to say, the same work which the Empire was +carrying on in Italy against the East Goths was at the same moment +carried on in Spain against the West Goths. But in Italy the whole land +was for a while won back, and the Gothic power passed away for ever. In +Spain the Gothic power outlived the Roman power, but it outlived it only +by itself becoming in some measure Roman. The greatest period of the +Gothic power as such was in the reign of Leovigild (568-586). He +reunited the Gaulish and Spanish parts of the kingdom which had been +parted for a moment; he united the Suevian dominion to his own; he +overcame some of the independent districts, and won back part of the +recovered Roman province in southern Spain. He further established the +power of the crown over the Gothic nobles, who were beginning to grow +into territorial lords. The next reign, that of his son Recared +(586-601), was marked by a change which took away the great hindrance +which had thus far stood in the way of any national union between Goths +and Romans. The king and the greater part of the Gothic people embraced +the Catholic faith. A vast degree of influence now fell into the hands +of the Catholic bishops; the two nations began to unite; the Goths were +gradually romanized and the Gothic language began to go out of use. In +short, the Romance nation and the Romance speech of Spain began to be +formed. The Goths supplied the Teutonic infusion into the Roman mass. +The kingdom, however, still remained a Gothic kingdom. "Gothic," not +"Roman" or "Spanish," is its formal title; only a single late instance +of the use of the formula "regnum Hispaniae" is known. In the first half +of the 7th century that name became for the first time geographically +applicable by the conquest of the still Roman coast of southern Spain. +The Empire was then engaged in the great struggle with the Avars and +Persians, and, now that the Gothic kings were Catholic, the great +objection to their rule on the part of the Roman inhabitants was taken +away. The Gothic nobility still remained a distinct class, and held, +along with the Catholic prelacy, the right of choosing the king. Union +with the Catholic Church was accompanied by the introduction of the +ecclesiastical ceremony of anointing, a change decidedly favourable to +elective rule. The growth of those later ideas which tended again to +favour the hereditary doctrine had not time to grow up in Spain before +the Mahommedan conquest (711). The West Gothic crown therefore remained +elective till the end. The modern Spanish nation is the growth of the +long struggle with the Mussulmans; but it has a direct connexion with +the West Gothic kingdom. We see at once that the Goths hold altogether +a different place in Spanish memory from that which they hold in Italian +memory. In Italy the Goth was but a momentary invader and ruler; the +Teutonic element in Italy comes from other sources. In Spain the Goth +supplies an important element in the modern nation. And that element has +been neither forgotten nor despised. Part of the unconquered region of +northern Spain, the land of Asturia, kept for a while the name of +Gothia, as did the Gothic possessions in Gaul and in Crim. The name of +the people who played so great a part in all southern Europe, and who +actually ruled over so large a part of it has now wholly passed away; +but it is in Spain that its historical impress is to be looked for. + +Of Gothic literature in the Gothic language we have the Bible of +Ulfilas, and some other religious writings and fragments (see GOTHIC +LANGUAGE below). Of Gothic legislation in Latin we have the edict of +Theodoric of the year 500, edited by F. Bluhme in the _Monumenta +Germaniae historica_; and the books of _Variae_ of Cassiodorus may pass +as a collection of the state papers of Theodoric and his immediate +successors. Among the West Goths written laws had already been put forth +by Euric. The second Alaric (484-507) put forth a _Breviarium_ of Roman +law for his Roman subjects; but the great collection of West Gothic laws +dates from the later days of the monarchy, being put forth by King +Recceswinth about 654. This code gave occasion to some well-known +comments by Montesquieu and Gibbon, and has been discussed by Savigny +(_Geschichte des romischen Rechts_, ii. 65) and various other writers. +They are printed in the _Monumenta Germaniae, leges_, tome i. (1902). Of +special Gothic histories, besides that of Jordanes, already so often +quoted, there is the Gothic history of Isidore, archbishop of Seville, a +special source of the history of the West Gothic kings down to Svinthala +(621-631). But all the Latin and Greek writers contemporary with the +days of Gothic predominance make their constant contributions. Not for +special facts, but for a general estimate, no writer is more instructive +than Salvian of Marseilles in the 5th century, whose work _De +Gubernatione Dei_ is full of passages contrasting the vices of the +Romans with the virtues of the barbarians, especially of the Goths. In +all such pictures we must allow a good deal for exaggeration both ways, +but there must be a ground-work of truth. The chief virtues which the +Catholic presbyter praises in the Arian Goths are their chastity, their +piety according to their own creed, their tolerance towards the +Catholics under their rule, and their general good treatment of their +Roman subjects. He even ventures to hope that such good people may be +saved, notwithstanding their heresy. All this must have had some +groundwork of truth in the 5th century, but it is not very wonderful if +the later West Goths of Spain had a good deal fallen away from the +doubtless somewhat ideal picture of Salvian. (E. A. F.) + + There is now an extensive literature on the Goths, and among the + principal works may be mentioned: T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ + (Oxford, 1880-1899); J. Aschbach, _Geschichte der Westgoten_ + (Frankfort, 1827); F. Dahn, _Die Konige der Germanen_ (1861-1899); E. + von Wietersheim, _Geschichte der Volkerwanderung_ (1880-1881); R. + Pallmann, _Die Geschichte der Volkerwanderung_ (Gotha, 1863-1864); B. + Rappaport, _Die Einfalle der Goten in das romische Reich_ (Leipzig, + 1899), and K. Zeuss, _Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstamme_ (Munich, + 1837). Other works which may be consulted are: E. Gibbon, _Decline and + Fall of the Roman Empire_, edited by J. B. Bury (1896-1900); H. H. + Milman, _History of Latin Christianity_ (1867); J. B. Bury, _History + of the Later Roman Empire_ (1889); P. Villari, _Le Invasioni + barbariche in Italia_ (Milan, 1901); and F. Martroye, _L'Occident a + l'epoque byzantine: Goths et Vandales_ (Paris, 1903). There is a + popular history of the Goths by H. Bradley in the "Story of the + Nations" series (London, 1888). For the laws see the _Leges_ in Band + I. of the _Monumenta Germaniae historica, leges_ (1902). A. + Helfferich, _Entstehung und Geschichte des Westgotenrechts_ (Berlin, + 1858); F. Bluhme, _Zur Textkritik des Westgotenrechts_ (1872); F. + Dahn, _Lex Visigothorum_. _Westgotische Studien_ (Wurzburg, 1874); C. + Rinaudo, _Leggi dei Visigote, studio_ (Turin, 1878); and K. Zeumer, + "Geschichte der westgotischen Gesetzgebung" in the _Neues Archiv der + Gesellschaft fur altere deutsche Geschichtskunde_. See also the + article on THEODORIC. + +_Gothic Language._--Our knowledge of the Gothic language is derived +almost entirely from the fragments of a translation of the Bible which +is believed to have been made by the Arian bishop Wulfila or Ulfilas (d. +383) for the Goths who dwelt on the lower Danube. The MSS. which have +come down to us and which date from the period of Ostrogothic rule in +Italy (489-555) contain the Second Epistle to the Corinthians complete, +together with more or less considerable fragments of the four Gospels +and of all the other Pauline Epistles. The only remains of the Old +Testament are three short fragments of Ezra and Nehemiah. There is also +an incomplete commentary (_skeireins_) on St John's Gospel, a fragment +of a calendar, and two charters (from Naples and Arezzo, the latter now +lost) which contain some Gothic sentences. All these texts are written +in a special character, which is said to have been invented by Wulfila. +It is based chiefly on the uncial Greek alphabet, from which indeed most +of the letters are obviously derived, and several orthographical +peculiarities, e.g. the use of _ai_ for _e_ and _ei_ for _i_ reflect the +Greek pronunciation of the period. Other letters, however, have been +taken over from the Runic and Latin alphabets. Apart from the texts +mentioned above, the only remains of the Gothic language are the proper +names and occasional words which occur in Greek and Latin writings, +together with some notes, including the Gothic alphabet, in a Salzburg +MS. of the 10th century, and two short inscriptions on a torque and a +spear-head, discovered at Buzeo (Walachia) and Kovel (Volhynia) +respectively. The language itself, as might be expected from the date of +Wulfila's translation, is of a much more archaic type than that of any +other Teutonic writings which we possess, except a few of the earliest +Northern inscriptions. This may be seen, e.g. in the better preservation +of final and unaccented syllables and in the retention of the dual and +the middle (passive) voice in verbs. It would be quite erroneous, +however, to regard the Gothic fragments as representing a type of +language common to all Teutonic nations in the 4th century. Indeed the +distinctive characteristics of the language are very marked, and there +is good reason for believing that it differed considerably from the +various northern and western languages, whereas the differences among +the latter at this time were probably comparatively slight (see TEUTONIC +LANGUAGES). On the other hand, it must not be supposed that the language +of the Goths stood quite isolated. Procopius (_Vand._ i. 2) states +distinctly that the Gothic language was spoken not only by the +Ostrogoths and Visigoths but also by the Vandals and the Gepidae; and in +the former case there is sufficient evidence, chiefly from proper names, +to prove that his statement is not far from the truth. With regard to +the Gepidae we have less information; but since the Goths, according to +Jordanes (cap. 17), believed them to have been originally a branch of +their own nation, it is highly probable that the two languages were at +least closely related. Procopius elsewhere (_Vand._ i. 3; _Goth._ i. 1, +iii. 2) speaks of the Rugii, Sciri and Alani as Gothic nations. The fact +that the two former were sprung from the north-east of Germany renders +it probable that they had Gothic affinities, while the Alani, though +non-Teutonic in origin, may have become gothicized in the course of the +migration period. Some modern writers have included in the same class +the Burgundians, a nation which had apparently come from the basin of +the Oder, but the evidence at our disposal on the whole hardly justifies +the supposition that their language retained a close affinity with +Gothic. + +In the 4th and 5th centuries the Gothic language--using the term in its +widest sense--must have spread over the greater part of Europe together +with the north coast of Africa. It disappeared, however, with surprising +rapidity. There is no evidence for its survival in Italy or Africa after +the fall of the Ostrogothic and Vandal kingdoms, while in Spain it is +doubtful whether the Visigoths retained their language until the Arabic +conquest. In central Europe it may have lingered somewhat longer in view +of the evidence of the Salzburg MS. mentioned above. Possibly the +information there given was derived from southern Hungary or +Transylvania where remains of the Gepidae were to be found shortly +before the Magyar invasion (889). According to Walafridus Strabo (_de +Reb. Eccles._ cap. 7) also Gothic was still used in his time (the 9th +century) in some churches in the region of the lower Danube. Thenceforth +the language seems to have survived only among the Goths (_Goti +Tetraxitae_) of the Crimea, who are mentioned for the last time by Ogier +Ghislain de Busbecq, an imperial envoy at Constantinople about the +middle of the 16th century. He collected a number of words and phrases +in use among them which show clearly that their language, though not +unaffected by Iranian influence, was still essentially a form of Gothic. + + See H. C. von der Gabelentz and J. Loebe, _Ulfilas_ (Altenburg and + Leipzig, 1836-1846); E. Bernhardt, _Vulfila oder die gotische Bibel_ + (Halle, 1875). For other works on the Gothic language see J. Wright, + _A Primer of the Gothic Language_ (Oxford, 1892), p. 143 f. To the + references there given should be added: C. C. Uhlenbeck, + _Etymologisches Worterbuch d. got. Sprache_ (Amsterdam, 2nd ed. 1901); + F. Kluge, "Geschichte d. got. Sprache" in H. Paul's _Grundriss d. + germ. Philologie_ (2nd ed., vol. i., Strassburg, 1897); W. Streitberg, + _Gotisches Elementarbuch_ (Heidelberg, 1897); Th. von Grienberger, + _Beitrage zur Geschichte d. deutschen Sprache u. Literatur_, xxi. 185 + ff.; L. F. A. Wimmer, _Die Runenschrift_ (Berlin, 1887), p. 61 ff.; G. + Stephens, _Handbook to the Runic Monuments_ (London, 1884), p. 203; F. + Wrede, _Uber die Sprache der Wandalen_ (Strassburg, 1886). For further + references see K. Zeuss, _Die Deutschen_, p. 432 f. (where earlier + references to the Crimean Goths are also given); F. Kluge, _op. cit._, + p. 515 ff.; and O. Bremer, _ib._ vol. iii., p. 822. (H. M. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Geschichte der Volkerwanderung_ (Gotha, 1863-1864). + + + + +GOTLAND, an island in the Baltic Sea belonging to Sweden, lying between +57 deg. and 58 deg. N., and having a length from S.S.W. to N.N.E. of 75 +m., a breadth not exceeding 30 m., and an area of 1142 sq. m. The +nearest point on the mainland is 50 m. from the westernmost point of the +island. With the island Faro, off the northern extremity, the Karlsoe, +off the west coast, and Gotska Sando, 25 m. N. by E., Gotland forms the +administrative district (_lan_) of Gotland. The island is a level +plateau of Silurian limestone, rising gently eastward, of an average +height of 80 to 100 ft., with steep coasts fringed with tapering, +free-standing columns of limestone (_raukar_). A few low isolated hills +rise inland. The climate is temperate, and the soil, although in parts +dry and sterile, is mostly fertile. Former marshy moors have been +largely drained and cultivated. There are extensive sand-dunes in the +north. As usual in a limestone formation, some of the streams have their +courses partly below the surface, and caverns are not infrequent. Less +than half the total area is under forest, the extent of which was +formerly much greater. Barley, rye, wheat and oats are grown, especially +the first, which is exported to the breweries on the mainland. The +sugar-beet is also produced and exported, and there are beet-sugar works +on the island. Sheep and cattle are kept; there is a government sheep +farm at Roma, and the cattle may be noted as belonging principally to an +old native breed, yellow and horned. Some lime-burning, cement-making +and sea-fishing are carried on. The capital of the island is Visby, on +the west coast. There are over 80 m. of railways. Lines run from Visby +N.E. to Tingstade and S. to Hofdhem, with branches from Roma to +Klintehamn, a small watering-place on the west coast, and to Slitehamn +on the east. Excepting along the coast the island has no scenic +attraction, but it is of the highest archaeological interest. Nearly +every village has its ruined church, and others occur where no villages +remain. The shrunken walled town of Visby was one of the richest +commercial centres of the Baltic from the 11th to the 14th century, and +its prosperity was shared by the whole island. It retains ten churches +besides the cathedral. The massive towers of the village churches are +often detached, and doubtless served purposes of defence. The churches +of Roma, Hemse, with remarkable mural paintings, Othen and Larbo may be +specially noted. Some contain fine stained glass, as at Dalhem near +Visby. The natives of Gotland speak a dialect distinguished from that of +any part of the Swedish mainland. Pop. of _lan_ (1900) 52,781. + +Gotland was subject to Sweden before 890, and in 1030 was christianized +by St Olaf, king of Norway, when returning from his exile at Kiev. He +dedicated the first church in the island to St Peter at Visby. At that +time Visby had long been one of the most important trading towns in the +Baltic, and the chief distributing centre of the oriental commerce which +came to Europe along the rivers of Russia. In the early years of the +Hanseatic League, or about the middle of the 13th century, it became +the chief depot for the produce of the eastern Baltic countries, +including, in a commercial sense, its daughter colony (11th century or +earlier) of Novgorod the Great. Although Visby was an independent member +of the Hanseatic League, the influence of Lubeck was paramount in the +city, and half its governing body were men of German descent. Indeed, +Bjorkander endeavours to prove that the city was a German (Hanseatic) +foundation, dating principally from the middle of the 12th century. +However that may be, the importance of Visby in the sea trade of the +North is conclusively attested by the famous code of maritime law which +bears its name. This _Waterrecht dat de Kooplude en de Schippers gemakt +hebben to Visby_ ("sea-law which the merchants and seamen have made at +Visby") was a compilation based upon the Lubeck code, the Oleron code +and the Amsterdam code, and was first printed in Low German in 1505, but +in all probability had its origin about 1240, or not much later (see SEA +LAWS). By the middle of the the city was so great that, according to an +old ballad, "the Gotlanders weighed out gold with stone weights and +played with the choicest jewels. The swine ate out of silver troughs, +and the women spun with distaffs of gold." This fabled wealth was too +strong a temptation for the energetic Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark. In +1361 he invaded the island, routed the defenders of Visby under the city +walls (a monolithic cross marks the burial-place of the islanders who +fell) and plundered the city. From this blow it never recovered, its +decay being, however, materially helped by the fact that for the greater +part of the next 150 years it was the stronghold of successive +freebooters or sea-rovers--first, of the Hanseatic privateers called +Vitalienbrodre or Viktualienbruder, who made it their stronghold during +the last eight years of the 14th century; then of the Teutonic Knights, +whose Grand Master drove out the "Victuals Brothers," and kept the +island until it was redeemed by Queen Margaret. There too Erik XIII. +(the Pomeranian), after being driven out of Denmark by his own subjects, +established himself in 1437, and for a dozen years waged piracy upon +Danes and Swedes alike. After him came Olaf and Ivar Thott, two Danish +lords, who down to the year 1487 terrorized the seas from their pirates' +stronghold of Visby. Lastly, the Danish admiral Soren Norrby, the last +supporter of Christian I. of Denmark, when his master's cause was lost, +waged a guerrilla war upon the Danish merchant ships and others from the +same convenient base. But this led to an expedition by the men of +Lubeck, who partly destroyed Visby in 1525. By the peace of Stettin +(1570) Gotland was confirmed to the Danish crown, to which it had been +given by Queen Margaret. But at the peace of Bromsebro in 1645 it was at +length restored to Sweden, to which it has since belonged, except for +the three years 1676-1679, when it was forcibly occupied by the Danes, +and a few weeks in 1808, when the Russians landed a force. + +The extreme wealth of the Gotlanders naturally fostered a spirit of +independence, and their relations with Sweden were curious. The island +at one period paid an annual tribute of 60 marks of silver to Sweden, +but it was clearly recognized that it was paid by the desire of the +Gotlanders, and not enforced by Sweden. The pope recognized their +independence, and it was by their own free will that they came under the +spiritual charge of the bishop of Linkoping. Their local government was +republican in form, and a popular assembly is indicated in the written +_Gotland Law_, which dates not later than the middle of the 13th +century. Sweden had no rights of objection to the measures adopted by +this body, and there was no Swedish judge or other official in the +island. Visby had a system of government and rights independent of, and +in some measure opposed to, that of the rest of the island. It seems +clear that there were at one time two separate corporations, for the +native Gotlanders and the foreign traders respectively, and that these +were subsequently fused. The rights and status of native Gotlanders were +not enjoyed by foreigners as a whole--even intermarriage was +illegal--but Germans, on account of their commercial pre-eminence in the +island, were excepted. + + See C. H. Bergman, _Gotland's geografi och historia_ (Stockholm, 1898) + and _Gotlandska skildringar och minnen_ (Visby, 1902); A. T. Snobohm, + _Gotlands land och folk_ (Visby, 1897 et seq.); W. Moler, _Bidrag till + en Gotlandsk bibliografi_ (Stockholm, 1890); Hans Hildebrand, _Visby + och dess Minnesmarken_ (Stockholm, 1892 et seq.); A. Bjorkander, _Till + Visby Stads Aeldsta Historia_ (1898), where most of the literature + dealing with the subject is mentioned; but some of the author's + arguments require criticism. For local government and rights see K. + Hegel, _Stadter und Gilden im Mittelalter_ (book iii. ch. iii., + Leipzig, 1891). + + + + +GOTO ISLANDS [GOTO RETTO, GOTTO], a group of islands belonging to Japan, +lying west of Kiushiu, in 33 deg. N., 129 deg. E. The southern of the +two principal islands, Fukae-shima, measures 17 m. by 13-1/2; the +northern, Nakaori-shima, measures 23 m. by 7-1/2. These islands lie +almost in the direct route of steamers plying between Nagasaki and +Shanghai, and are distant some 50 m. from Nagasaki. Some dome-shaped +hills command the old castle-town of Fukae. The islands are highly +cultivated; deer and other game abound, and trout are plentiful in the +mountain streams. A majority of the inhabitants are Christians. + + + + +GOTTER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1746-1797), German poet and dramatist, was +born on the 3rd of September 1746, at Gotha. After the completion of his +university career at Gottingen, he was appointed second director of the +Archive of his native town, and subsequently went to Wetzlar, the seat +of the imperial law courts, as secretary to the Saxe-Coburg-Gotha +legation. In 1768 he returned to Gotha as tutor to two young noblemen, +and here, together with H. C. Boie, he founded the famous _Gottinger +Musenalmanach_. In 1770 he was once more in Wetzlar, where he belonged +to Goethe's circle of acquaintances. Four years later he took up his +permanent abode in Gotha, where he died on the 18th of March 1797. +Gotter was the chief representative of French taste in the German +literary life of his time. His own poetry is elegant and polished, and +in great measure free from the trivialities of the Anacreontic lyric of +the earlier generation of imitators of French literature; but he was +lacking in the imaginative depth that characterizes the German poetic +temperament. His plays, of which _Merope_ (1774), an adaptation in +admirable blank verse of the tragedies of Maffei and Voltaire, and +_Medea_ (1775), a _melodrame_, are best known, were mostly based on +French originals and had considerable influence in counteracting the +formlessness and irregularity of the _Sturm und Drang_ drama. + + Gutter's collected _Gedichte_ appeared in 2 vols. in 1787 and 1788; a + third volume (1802) contains his _Literarischer Nachlass_. See B. + Litzmann, _Schroder und Gotter_ (1887), and R. Schlosser, _F. W. + Gotter, sein Leben und seine Werke_ (1894). + + + + +GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG, one of the chief German poets of the middle +ages. The dates of his birth and death are alike unknown, but he was the +contemporary of Hartmann von Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach and Walther von +der Vogelweide, and his epic _Tristan_ was written about the year 1210. +In all probability he did not belong to the nobility, as he is entitled +_Meister_, never _Herr_, by his contemporaries; his poem--the only work +that can with any certainty be attributed to him--bears witness to a +learned education. The story of _Tristan_ had been evolved from its +shadowy Celtic origins by the French _trouveres_ of the early 12th +century, and had already found its way into Germany before the close of +that century, in the crude, unpolished version of Eilhart von Oberge. It +was Gottfried, however, who gave it its final form. His version is based +not on that of Chretien de Troyes, but on that of a _trouvere_ Thomas, +who seems to have been more popular with contemporaries. A comparison of +the German epic with the French original is, however, impossible, as +Chretien's _Tristan_ is entirely lost, and of Thomas's only a few +fragments have come down to us. The story centres in the fatal voyage +which Tristan, a vassal to the court of his uncle King Marke of Kurnewal +(Cornwall), makes to Ireland to bring back Isolde as the king's bride. +On the return voyage Tristan and Isolde drink by mistake a love potion, +which binds them irrevocably to each other. The epic resolves itself +into a series of love intrigues in which the two lovers ingeniously +outwit the trusting king. They are ultimately discovered, and Tristan +flees to Normandy where he marries another Isolde--"Isolde with the +white hands"--without being able to forget the blond Isolde of Ireland. +At this point Gottfried's narrative breaks off and to learn the close of +the story we have to turn to two minor poets of the time, Ulrich von +Turheim and Heinrich von Freiberg--the latter much the superior--who +have supplied the conclusion. After further love adventures Tristan is +fatally wounded by a poisoned spear in Normandy; the "blond Isolde," as +the only person who has power to cure him, is summoned from Cornwall. +The ship that brings her is to bear a white sail if she is on board, a +black one if not. Tristan's wife, however, deceives him, announcing that +the sail is black, and when Isolde arrives, she finds her lover dead. +Marke at last learns the truth concerning the love potion, and has the +two lovers buried side by side in Kurnewal. + +It is difficult to form an estimate of Gottfried's independence of his +French source; but it seems clear that he followed closely the narrative +of events he found in Thomas. He has, however, introduced into the story +an astounding fineness of psychological motive, which, to judge from a +general comparison of the Arthurian epic in both lands, is German rather +than French; he has spiritualized and deepened the narrative; he has, +above all, depicted with a variety and insight, unusual in medieval +literature, the effects of an overpowering passion. Yet, glowing and +seductive as Gottfried's love-scenes are, they are never for a moment +disfigured by frivolous hints or innuendo; the tragedy is unrolled with +an earnestness that admits of no touch of humour, and also, it may be +added, with a freedom from moralizing which was easier to attain in the +13th than in later centuries. The mastery of style is no less +conspicuous. Gottfried had learned his best lessons from Hartmann von +Aue, but he was a more original and daring artificer of rhymes and +rhythms than that master; he delighted in the sheer music of words, and +indulged in antitheses and allegorical conceits to an extent that proved +fatal to his imitators. As far as beauty of expression is concerned, +Gottfried's _Tristan_ is the masterpiece of the German court epic. + + Gottfried's _Tristan_ has been frequently edited: by H. F. Massman + (Leipzig, 1843); by R. Bechstein (2 vols., 3rd ed., + Leipzig,1890-1891); by W. Golther (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1889); by K. + Marold (1906). Translations into modern German have been made by H. + Kurz (Stuttgart, 1844); by K. Simrock (Leipzig, 1855); and, best of + all, by W. Hertz (Stuttgart, 1877). There is also an abbreviated + English translation by Jessie L. Weston (London, 1899). The + continuation of Ulrich von Turheim will be found in Massman's edition; + that by Heinrich von Freiberg has been separately edited by R. + Bechstein (Leipzig, 1877). See also R. Heinzel, "Gottfrieds von + Strassburg Tristan und seine Quelle" in the _Zeit. fur deut. Alt._ + xiv. (1869), pp. 272 ff.; W. Golther, _Die Sage von Tristan und + Isolde_ (Munich, 1887); F. Piquet, _L'Originalite de Gottfried de + Strasbourg dans son poeme de Tristan et Isolde_ (Lille, 1905). K. + Immermann (q.v.) has written an epic of _Tristan und Isolde_ (1840), + R. Wagner (q.v.) a musical drama (1865). Cp. R. Bechstein, _Tristan + und Isolde in der deutschen Dichtung der Neuzeit_ (Leipzig, 1877). + + + + +GOTTINGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, +pleasantly situated at the west foot of the Hainberg (1200 ft.), in the +broad and fertile valley of the Leine, 67 m. S. from Hanover, on the +railway to Cassel. Pop. (1875) 17,057, (1905) 34,030. It is traversed by +the Leine canal, which separates the Altstadt from the Neustadt and from +Masch, and is surrounded by ramparts, which are planted with lime-trees +and form an agreeable promenade. The streets in the older part of the +town are for the most part crooked and narrow, but the newer portions +are spaciously and regularly built. Apart from the Protestant churches +of St John, with twin towers, and of St James, with a high tower (290 +ft.), the medieval town hall, built in the 14th century and restored in +1880, and the numerous university buildings, Gottingen possesses few +structures of any public importance. There are several thriving +industries, including, besides the various branches of the publishing +trade, the manufacture of cloth and woollens and of mathematical and +other scientific instruments. + +The university, the famous Georgia Augusta, founded by George II. in +1734 and opened in 1737, rapidly attained a leading position, and in +1823 its students numbered 1547. Political disturbances, in which both +professors and students were implicated, lowered the attendance to 860 +in 1834. The expulsion in 1837 of the famous seven professors--_Die +Gottinger Sieben_--viz. the Germanist, Wilhelm Eduard Albrecht +(1800-1876); the historian, Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann (1785-1860); +the orientalist, Georg Heinrich August Ewald (1803-1875); the historian, +Georg Gottfried Gervinus (1805-1875); the physicist, Wilhelm Eduard +Weber (1804-1891); and the philologists, the brothers Jacob Ludwig Karl +Grimm (1785-1863), and Wilhelm Karl Grimm (1786-1859),--for protesting +against the revocation by King Ernest Augustus of Hanover of the liberal +constitution of 1833, further reduced the prosperity of the university. +The events of 1848, on the other hand, told somewhat in its favour; and, +since the annexation of Hanover in 1866, it has been carefully fostered +by the Prussian government. In 1903 its teaching staff numbered 121 and +its students 1529. The main university building lies on the +Wilhelmsplatz, and, adjoining, is the famous library of 500,000 vols, +and 5300 MSS., the richest collection of modern literature in Germany. +There is a good chemical laboratory as well as adequate zoological, +ethnographical and mineralogical collections, the most remarkable being +Blumenbach's famous collection of skulls in the anatomical institute. +There are also a celebrated observatory, long under the direction of +Wilhelm Klinkerfues (1827-1884), a botanical garden, an agricultural +institute and various hospitals, all connected with the university. Of +the scientific societies the most noted is the Royal Society of Sciences +(_Konigliche Sozietat der Wissenschaften_) founded by Albrecht von +Haller, which is divided into three classes, the physical, the +mathematical and the historical-philological. It numbers about 80 +members and publishes the well-known _Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen_. +There are monuments in the town to the mathematicians K. F. Gauss and W. +E. Weber, and also to the poet G. A. Burger. + +The earliest mention of a village of Goding or Gutingi occurs in +documents of about 950 A.D. The place received municipal rights from the +German king Otto IV. about 1210, and from 1286 to 1463 it was the seat +of the princely house of Brunswick-Gottingen. During the 14th century it +held a high place among the towns of the Hanseatic League. In 1531 it +joined the Reformation movement, and in the following century it +suffered considerably in the Thirty Years' War, being taken by Tilly in +1626, after a siege of 25 days, and recaptured by the Saxons in 1632. +After a century of decay, it was anew brought into importance by the +establishment of its university; and a marked increase in its industrial +and commercial prosperity has again taken place in recent years. Towards +the end of the 18th century Gottingen was the centre of a society of +young poets of the _Sturm und Drang_ period of German literature, known +as the _Gottingen Dichterbund_ or _Hainbund_ (see GERMANY: +_Literature_). + + See Freusdorff, _Gottingen in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart_ (Gottingen, + 1887); the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Gottingen_, edited by G. Schmidt, + A. Hasselblatt and G. Kastner; Unger, _Gottingen und die Georgia + Augusta_ (1861); and _Gottinger Professoren_ (Gotha, 1872); and O. + Mejer, _Kulturgeschichtliche Bilder aus Gottingen_ (1889). + + + + +GOTTLING, CARL WILHELM (1793-1869), German classical scholar, was born +at Jena on the 19th of January 1793. He studied at the universities of +Jena and Berlin, took part in the war against France in 1814, and +finally settled down in 1822 as professor at the university of his +native town, where he continued to reside till his death on the 20th of +January 1869. In his early years Gottling devoted himself to German +literature, and published two works on the Nibelungen: _Uber das +Geschichtliche im Nibelungenliede_ (1814) and _Nibelungen und Gibelinen_ +(1817). The greater part of his life, however, was devoted to the study +of classical literature, especially the elucidation of Greek authors. +The contents of his _Gesammelte Abhandlungen aus dem klassischen +Altertum_ (1851-1863) and _Opuscula Academica_ (published in 1869 after +his death) sufficiently indicate the varied nature of his studies. He +edited the [Greek: Techne] (grammatical manual) of Theodosius of +Alexandria (1822), Aristotle's _Politics_ (1824), and _Economics_ (1830) +and Hesiod (1831; 3rd ed. by J. Flach, 1878). Mention may also be made +of his _Allgemeine Lehre vom Accent der griechischen Sprache_ (1835), +enlarged from a smaller work, which was translated into English (1831) +as the _Elements of Greek Accentuation_; and of his _Correspondence with +Goethe_ (published 1880). + + See memoirs by C. Nipperdey, his colleague at Jena (1869), G. Lothholz + (Stargard, 1876), K. Fischer (preface to the _Opuscula Academica_), + and C. Bursian in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, ix. + + + + +GOTTSCHALK [GODESCALUS, GOTTESCALE], (c. 808-867?), German theologian, +was born near Mainz, and was devoted (_oblatus_) from infancy by his +parents,--his father was a Saxon, Count Bern,--to the monastic life. He +was trained at the monastery of Fulda, then under the abbot Hrabanus +Maurus, and became the friend of Walafrid Strabo and Loup of Ferrieres. +In June 829, at the synod of Mainz, on the pretext that he had been +unduly constrained by his abbot, he sought and obtained his liberty, +withdrew first to Corbie, where he met Ratramnus, and then to the +monastery of Orbais in the diocese of Soissons. There he studied St +Augustine, with the result that he became an enthusiastic believer in +the doctrine of absolute predestination, in one point going beyond his +master--Gottschalk believing in a predestination to condemnation as well +as in a predestination to salvation, while Augustine had contented +himself with the doctrine of preterition as complementary to the +doctrine of election. Between 835 and 840 Gottschalk was ordained +priest, without the knowledge of his bishop, by Rigbold, _chorepiscopus_ +of Reims. Before 840, deserting his monastery, he went to Italy, +preached there his doctrine of double predestination, and entered into +relations with Notting, bishop of Verona, and Eberhard, count of Friuli. +Driven from Italy through the influence of Hrabanus Maurus, now +archbishop of Mainz, who wrote two violent letters to Notting and +Eberhard, he travelled through Dalmatia, Pannonia and Norica, but +continued preaching and writing. In October 848 he presented to the +synod at Mainz a profession of faith and a refutation of the ideas +expressed by Hrabanus Maurus in his letter to Notting. He was convicted, +however, of heresy, beaten, obliged to swear that he would never again +enter the territory of Louis the German, and handed over to Hincmar, +archbishop of Reims, who sent him back to his monastery at Orbais. The +next year at a provincial council at Quierzy, presided over by Charles +the Bald, he attempted to justify his ideas, but was again condemned as +a heretic and disturber of the public peace, was degraded from the +priesthood, whipped, obliged to burn his declaration of faith, and shut +up in the monastery of Hautvilliers. There Hincmar tried again to induce +him to retract. Gottschalk however continued to defend his doctrine, +writing to his friends and to the most eminent theologians of France and +Germany. A great controversy resulted. Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, +Wenilo of Sens, Ratramnus of Corbie, Loup of Ferrieres and Florus of +Lyons wrote in his favour. Hincmar wrote _De praedestinatione_ and _De +una non trina deitate_ against his views, but gained little aid from +Johannes Scotus Erigena, whom he had called in as an authority. The +question was discussed at the councils of Kiersy (853), of Valence (855) +and of Savonnieres (859). Finally the pope Nicolas I. took up the case, +and summoned Hincmar to the council of Metz (863). Hincmar either could +not or would not appear, but declared that Gottschalk might go to defend +himself before the pope. Nothing came of this, however, and when Hincmar +learned that Gottschalk had fallen ill, he forbade him the sacraments or +burial in consecrated ground unless he would recant. This Gottschalk +refused to do. He died on the 30th of October between 866 and 870. + +Gottschalk was a vigorous and original thinker, but also of a violent +temperament, incapable of discipline or moderation in his ideas as in +his conduct. He was less an innovator than a reactionary. Of his many +works we have only the two professions of faith (cf. Migne, _Patrologia +Latina_, cxxi. c. 347 et seq.), and some poems, edited by L. Traube in +_Monumenta Germaniae historica: Poetae Latini aevi Carolini_ (t. iii. +707-738). Some fragments of his theological treatises have been +preserved in the writings of Hincmar, Erigena, Ratramnus and Loup of +Ferrieres. + + From the 17th century, when the Jansenists exalted Gottschalk, much + has been written on him. Mention may be made of two recent studies, F. + Picavet, "Les Discussions sur la liberte au temps de Gottschalk, de + Raban Maur, d'Hincmar, et de Jean Scot," in _Comptes rendus de l'acad. + des sciences morales et politiques_ (Paris, 1896); and A. Freystedt, + "Studien zu Gottschalks Leben und Lehre," in _Zeitschrift fur + Kirchengeschichte_ (1897), vol. xviii. + + + + +GOTTSCHALL, RUDOLF VON (1823-1909), German man of letters, was born at +Breslau on the 30th of September 1823, the son of a Prussian artillery +officer. He received his early education at the gymnasia in Mainz and +Coburg, and subsequently at Rastenburg in East Prussia. In 1841 he +entered the university of Konigsberg as a student of law, but, in +consequence of his pronounced liberal opinions, was expelled. The +academic authorities at Breslau and Leipzig were not more tolerant +towards the young fire-eater, and it was only in Berlin that he +eventually found himself free to prosecute his studies. During this +period of unrest he issued _Lieder der Gegenwart_ (1842) and +_Zensurfluchtlinge_ (1843)--the poetical fruits of his political +enthusiasm. He completed his studies in Berlin, took the degree of +_doctor juris_ in Konigsberg, and endeavoured to obtain there the _venia +legendi_. His political views again stood in the way, and forsaking the +legal career, Gottschall now devoted himself entirely to literature. He +met with immediate success, and beginning as dramaturge in Konigsberg +with _Der Blinde von Alcala_ (1846) and _Lord Byron in Italien_ (1847) +proceeded to Hamburg where he occupied a similar position. In 1852 he +married Marie, baroness von Seherr-Thoss, and for the next few years +lived in Silesia. In 1862 he took over the editorship of a Posen +newspaper, but in 1864 removed to Leipzig. Gottschall was raised, in +1877, by the king of Prussia to the hereditary nobility with the prefix +"von," having been previously made a _Geheimer Hofrat_ by the grand duke +of Weimar. Down to 1887 Gottschall edited the _Brockhaus'sche Blatter +fur litterarische Unterhaltung_ and the monthly periodical _Unsere +Zeit_. He died at Leipzig on the 21st of March 1909. + +Gottschall's prolific literary productions cover the fields of poetry, +novel-writing and literary criticism. Among his volumes of lyric poetry +are _Sebastopol_ (1856), _Janus_ (1873), _Bunte Bluten_ (1891). Among +his epics, _Carlo Zeno_ (1854), _Maja_ (1864), dealing with an episode +in the Indian Mutiny, and _Merlins Wanderungen_ (1887). The comedy _Pitt +und Fox_ (1854), first produced on the stage in Breslau, was never +surpassed by the other lighter pieces of the author, among which may be +mentioned _Die Welt des Schwindels_ and _Der Spion von Rheinsberg_. The +tragedies, _Mazeppa_, _Catharine Howard_, _Amy Robsart_ and _Der Gotze +von Venedig_, were very successful; and the historical novels, _Im Banne +des schwarzen Adlers_ (1875; 4th ed., 1884), _Die Erbschaft des Blutes_ +(1881), _Die Tochter Rubezahls_ (1889), and _Verkummerte Existenzen_ +(1892), enjoyed a high degree of popularity. As a critic and historian +of literature Gottschall has also done excellent work. His _Die deutsche +Nationalliteratur des 19. Jahrhunderts_ (1855; 7th ed., 1901-1902), and +_Poetik_ (1858; 6th ed., 1903) command the respect of all students of +literature. + + Gottschall's collected _Dramatische Werke_ appeared in 12 vols. in + 1880 (2nd ed., 1884); he has also, in recent years, published many + volumes of collected essays and criticisms. See his autobiography, + _Aus meiner Jugend_ (1898). + + + + +GOTTSCHED, JOHANN CHRISTOPH (1700-1766), German author and critic, was +born on the 2nd of February 1700, at Judithenkirch near Konigsberg, the +son of a Lutheran clergyman. He studied philosophy and history at the +university of his native town, but immediately on taking the degree of +_Magister_ in 1723, fled to Leipzig in order to evade impressment in the +Prussian military service. Here he enjoyed the protection of J. B. +Mencke (1674-1732), who, under the name of "Philander von der Linde," +was a well-known poet and also president of the _Deutschubende poetische +Gesellschaft_ in Leipzig. Of this society Gottsched was elected "Senior" +in 1726, and in the next year reorganized it under the title of the +_Deutsche Gesellschaft_. In 1730 he was appointed extraordinary +professor of poetry, and, in 1734, ordinary professor of logic and +metaphysics in the university. He died at Leipzig on the 12th of +December 1766. + +Gottsched's chief work was his _Versuch einer kritischen Dichtkunst fur +die Deutschen_ (1730), the first systematic treatise in German on the +art of poetry from the standpoint of Boileau. His _Ausfuhrliche +Redekunst_ (1728) and his _Grundlegung einer_ _deutschen Sprachkunst_ +(1748) were of importance for the development of German style and the +purification of the language. He wrote several plays, of which _Der +sterbende Cato_ (1732), an adaptation of Addison's tragedy and a French +play on the same theme, was long popular on the stage. In his _Deutsche +Schaubuhne_ (6 vols., 1740-1745), which contained mainly translations +from the French, he provided the German stage with a classical +repertory, and his bibliography of the German drama, _Notiger Vorrat zur +Geschichte der deutschen dramatischen Dichtkunst_ (1757-1765), is still +valuable. He was also the editor of several journals devoted to literary +criticism. As a critic, Gottsched insisted on German literature being +subordinated to the laws of French classicism; he enunciated rules by +which the playwright must be bound, and abolished bombast and buffoonery +from the serious stage. While such reforms obviously afforded a healthy +corrective to the extravagance and want of taste which were rampant in +the German literature of the time, Gottsched went too far. In 1740 he +came into conflict with the Swiss writers Johann Jakob Bodmer (q.v.) and +Johann Jakob Breitinger (1701-1776), who, under the influence of Addison +and contemporary Italian critics, demanded that the poetic imagination +should not be hampered by artificial rules; they pointed to the great +English poets, and especially to Milton. Gottsched, although not blind +to the beauties of the English writers, clung the more tenaciously to +his principle that poetry must be the product of rules, and, in the +fierce controversy which for a time raged between Leipzig and Zurich, he +was inevitably defeated. His influence speedily declined, and before his +death his name became proverbial for pedantic folly. + +His wife, Luise Adelgunde Victorie, nee Kulmus (1713-1762), in some +respects her husband's intellectual superior, was an author of some +reputation. She wrote several popular comedies, of which _Das Testament_ +is the best, and translated the _Spectator_ (9 vols., 1730-1743), Pope's +_Rape of the Lock_ (1744) and other English and French works. After her +death her husband edited her _Samtliche kleinere Gedichte_ with a memoir +(1763). + + See T. W. Danzel, _Gottsched und seine Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1848); J. + Cruger, Gottsched, _Bodmer, und Breitinger_ (with selections from + their writings) (Stuttgart, 1884); F. Servaes, _Die Poetik Gottscheds + und der Schweizer_ (Strassburg, 1887); E. Wolff, _Gottscheds Stellung + im deutschen Bildungsleben_ (2 vols., Kiel, 1895-1897), and G. Waniek, + _Gottsched und die deutsche Literatur seiner Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1897). On + Frau Gottsched, see P. Schlenther, _Frau Gottsched und die burgerliche + Komodie_ (Berlin, 1886). + + + + +GOTZ, JOHANN NIKOLAUS (1721-1781), German poet, was born at Worms on the +9th of July 1721. He studied theology at Halle (1739-1742), where he +became intimate with the poets Johann W. L. Gleim and Johann Peter Uz, +acted for some years as military chaplain, and afterwards filled various +other ecclesiastical offices. He died at Winterburg on the 4th of +November 1781. The writings of Gotz consist of a number of short lyrics +and several translations, of which the best is a rendering of Anacreon. +His original compositions are light, lively and sparkling, and are +animated rather by French wit than by German depth of sentiment. The +best known of his poems is _Die Madcheninsel_, an elegy which met with +the warm approval of Frederick the Great. + + Gotz's _Vermischte Gedichte_ were published with biography by K. W. + Ramler (Mannheim, 1785; new ed., 1807), and a collection of his poems, + dating from the years 1745-1765, has been edited by C. Schuddekopf in + the _Deutsche Literaturdenkmale des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts_ (1893). + See also _Briefe von und an J. N. Gotz_, edited by C. Schuddekopf + (1893). + + + + +GOUACHE, a French word adapted from the Ital. _guazzo_ (probably in +origin connected with "wash"), meaning literally a "ford," but used also +for a method of painting in opaque water-colour. The colours are mixed +with or painted in a vehicle of gum or honey, and whereas in true +water-colours the high lights are obtained by leaving blank the surface +of the paper or other material used, or by allowing it to show through a +translucent wash in "gouache," these are obtained by white or other +light colour. "Gouache" is frequently used in miniature painting. + + + + +GOUDA (or TER GOUWE), a town of Holland, in the province of South +Holland, on the north side of the Gouwe at its confluence with the Ysel, +and a junction station 12-1/2 m. by rail N.E. of Rotterdam. Pop. (1900) +22,303. Tramways connect it with Bodegraven (5-1/2m. N.) on the old +Rhine and with Oudewater (8 m. E.) on the Ysel; and there is a regular +steamboat service in various directions, Amsterdam being reached by the +canalized Gouwe; Aar, Drecht and Amstel. The town of Gouda is laid out +in a fine open manner and, like other Dutch towns, is intersected by +numerous canals. On its outskirts pleasant walks and fine trees have +replaced the old fortifications. The Groote Markt is the largest +market-square in Holland. Among the numerous churches belonging to +various denominations, the first place must be given to the Groote Kerk +of St John. It was founded in 1485, but rebuilt after a fire in 1552, +and is remarkable for its dimensions (345 ft. long and 150 ft. broad), +for a large and celebrated organ, and a splendid series of over forty +stained-glass windows presented by cities and princes and executed by +various well-known artists, including the brothers Dirk (d. c. 1577) and +Wouter (d. c. 1590) Crabeth, between the years 1555 and 1603 (see +_Explanation of the Famous and Renowned Glass Works, &c._, Gouda, 1876, +reprinted from an older volume, 1718). Other noteworthy buildings are +the Gothic town hall, founded in 1449 and rebuilt in 1690, and the +weigh-house, built by Pieter Post of Haarlem (1608-1669) and adorned +with a fine relief by Barth. Eggers (d. c. 1690). The museum of +antiquities (1874) contains an exquisite chalice of the year 1425 and +some pictures and portraits by Wouter Crabeth the younger, Corn. Ketel +(a native of Gouda, 1548-1616) and Ferdinand Bol (1616-1680). Other +buildings are the orphanage, the hospital, a house of correction for +women and a music hall. + +In the time of the counts the wealth of Gouda was mainly derived from +brewing and cloth-weaving; but at a later date the making of clay +tobacco pipes became the staple trade, and, although this industry has +somewhat declined, the churchwarden pipes of Gouda are still well known +and largely manufactured. In winter-time it is considered a feat to +skate hither from Rotterdam and elsewhere to buy such a pipe and return +with it in one's mouth without its being broken. The mud from the Ysel +furnishes the material for large brick-works and potteries; there are +also a celebrated manufactory of stearine candles, a yarn factory, an +oil refinery and cigar factories. The transit and shipping trade is +considerable, and as one of the principal markets of South Holland, the +round, white Gouda cheeses are known throughout Europe. Boskoop, 5 m. N. +by W. of Gouda on the Gouwe, is famous for its nursery gardens; and the +little old-world town of Oudewater as the birthplace of the famous +theologian Arminius in 1560. The town hall (1588) of Oudewater contains +a picture by Dirk Stoop (d. 1686), commemorating the capture of the town +by the Spaniards in 1575 and the subsequent sack and massacre. + + + + +GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE, musical composer of the 16th century, was born about +1510. The French and the Belgians claim him as their countryman. In all +probability he was born at Besancon, for in his edition of the songs of +Arcadelt, as well as in the mass of 1554, he calls himself "natif de +Besancon" and "Claudius Godimellus Vescontinus." This discountenances +the theory of Ambros that he was born at Vaison near Avignon. As to his +early education we know little or nothing, but the excellent Latin in +which some of his letters were written proves that, in addition to his +musical knowledge, he also acquired a good classical training. It is +supposed that he was in Rome in 1540 at the head of a music-school, and +that besides many other celebrated musicians, Palestrina was amongst his +pupils. About the middle of the century he seems to have left Rome for +Paris, where, in conjunction with Jean Duchemin, he published, in 1555, +a musical setting of Horace's Odes. Infinitely more important is another +collection of vocal pieces, a setting of the celebrated French version +of the Psalms by Marot and Beza published in 1565. It is written in four +parts, the melody being assigned to the tenor. The invention of the +melodies was long ascribed to Goudimel, but they have now definitely +been proved to have originated in popular tunes found in the +collections of this period. Some of these tunes are still used by the +French Protestant Church. Others were adopted by the German Lutherans, a +German imitation of the French versions of the Psalms in the same metres +having been published at an early date. Although the French version of +the Psalms was at first used by Catholics as well as Protestants, there +is little doubt that Goudimel had embraced the new faith. In Michel +Brenet's Biographie (_Annales franc-cuntoises_, Besancon, 1898, P. +Jacquin) it is established that in Metz, where he was living in 1565, +Goudimel moved in Huguenot circles, and even figured as godfather to the +daughter of the president of Senneton. Seven years later he fell a +victim to religious fanaticism during the St Bartholomew massacres at +Lyons from the 27th to the 28th of August 1572, his death, it is stated, +being due to "les ennemis de la gloire de Dieu et quelques mechants +envieux de l'honneur qu'il avait acquis." Masses and motets belonging to +his Roman period are found in the Vatican library, and in the archives +of various churches in Rome; others were published. Thus the work +entitled _Missae tres a Claudio Goudimel praestantissimo musico auctore, +nunc primum in lucem editae_, contains one mass by the learned editor +himself, the other two being by Claudius Sermisy and Jean Maillard +respectively. Another collection, _La Fleur des chansons des deux plus +excellens musiciens de nostre temps_, consists of part songs by Goudimel +and Orlando di Lasso. Burney gives in his history a motet of Goudimel's +_Domine quid multiplicati sunt_. + + + + +GOUFFIER, the name of a great French family, which owned the estate of +Bonnivet in Poitou from the 14th century. _Guillaume Gouffier_, +chamberlain to Charles VII., was an inveterate enemy of Jacques Coeur, +obtaining his condemnation and afterwards receiving his property (1491). +He had a great number of children, several of whom played a part in +history. Artus, seigneur de Boisy (c. 1475-1520) was entrusted with the +education of the young count of Angouleme (Francis I.), and on the +accession of this prince to the throne as Francis I. became grand master +of the royal household, playing an important part in the government; to +him was given the task of negotiating the treaty of Noyon in 1516; and +shortly before his death the king raised the estates of Roanne and Boisy +to the rank of a duchy, that of Roannais, in his favour. ADRIEN GOUFFIER +(d. 1523) was bishop of Coutances and Albi, and grand almoner of France. +GUILLAUME GOUFFIER, seigneur de Bonnivet, became admiral. of France (see +BONNIVET). CLAUDE GOUFFIER, son of Artus, was created comte de +Maulevrier (1542) and marquis de Boisy (1564). + +There were many branches of this family, the chief of them being the +dukes of Roannais, the counts of Caravas, the lords of Crevecoeur and of +Bonnivet, the marquises of Thois, of Brazeux, and of Espagny. The name +of Gouffier was adopted in the 18th century by a branch of the house of +Choiseul. (M. P.*) + + + + +GOUGE, MARTIN (c. 1360-1444), surnamed DE CHARPAIGNE, French chancellor, +was born at Bourges about 1360. A canon of Bourges, in 1402 he became +treasurer to John, duke of Berri, and in 1406 bishop of Chartres. He was +arrested by John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, with the hapless Jean +de Montaigu (1349-1409) in 1409, but was soon released and then +banished. Attaching himself to the dauphin Louis, duke of Guienne, he +became his chancellor, the king's ambassador in Brittany, and a member +of the grand council; and on the 13th of May 1415, he was transferred +from the see of Chartres to that of Clermont-Ferrand. In May 1418, when +the Burgundians re-entered Paris, he only escaped death at their hands +by taking refuge in the Bastille. He then left Paris, but only to fall +into the hands of his enemy, the duke de la Tremoille, who imprisoned +him in the castle of Sully. Rescued by the dauphin Charles, he was +appointed chancellor of France on the 3rd of February 1422. He +endeavoured to reconcile Burgundy and France, was a party to the +selection of Arthur, earl of Richmond, as constable, but had to resign +his chancellorship in favour of Regnault of Chartres; first from March +25th to August 6th 1425, and again when La Tremoille had supplanted +Richmond. After the fall of La Tremoille in 1433 he returned to court, +and exercised a powerful influence over affairs of state almost till his +death, which took place at the castle of Beaulieu (Puy-de-Dome) on the +25th or 26th of November 1444. + + See Hiver's account in the _Memoires de la Societe des Antiquaires du + Centre_, p. 267 (1869); and the _Nouvelle Biographie generale_, vol. + xxi. + + + + +GOUGE (adopted from the Fr. _gouge_, derived from the Late Lat. _gubia_ +or _gulbia_, in Ducange _gulbium_, an implement _ad hortum excolendum_, +and also _instrumentum ferreum in usu fabrorum_; according to the _New +English Dictionary_ the word is probably of Celtic origin, _gylf_, a +beak, appearing in Welsh, and _gilb_, a boring tool, in Cornish), a tool +of the chisel type with a curved blade, used for scooping a groove or +channel in wood, stone, &c. (see Tool). A similar instrument is used in +surgery for operations involving the excision of portions of bone. +"Gouge" is also used as the name of a bookbinder's tool, for impressing +a curved line on the leather, and for the line so impressed. In mining, +a "gouge" is the layer of soft rock or earth sometimes found in each +side of a vein of coal or ore, which the miner can scoop out with his +pick, and thus attack the vein more easily from the side. The verb "to +gouge" is used in the sense of scooping or forcing out. + + + + +GOUGH, HUGH GOUGH, VISCOUNT (1779-1869), British field-marshal, a +descendant of Francis Gough who was made bishop of Limerick in 1626, was +born at Woodstown, Limerick, on the 3rd of November 1779. Having obtained +a commission in the army in August 1794, he served with the 78th +Highlanders at the Cape of Good Hope, taking part in the capture of Cape +Town and of the Dutch fleet in Saldanha Bay in 1796. His next service was +in the West Indies, where, with the 87th (Royal Irish Fusiliers), he +shared in the attack on Porto Rico, the capture of Surinam, and the +brigand war in St Lucia. In 1809 he was called to take part in the +Peninsular War, and, joining the army under Wellington, commanded his +regiment as major in the operations before Oporto, by which the town was +taken from the French. At Talavera he was severely wounded, and had his +horse shot under him. For his conduct on this occasion he was afterwards +promoted lieutenant-colonel, his commission, on the recommendation of +Wellington, being antedated from the day of the duke's despatch. He was +thus the first officer who ever received brevet rank for services +performed in the field at the head of a regiment. He was next engaged at +the battle of Barrosa, at which his regiment captured a French eagle. At +the defence of Tarifa the post of danger was assigned to him, and he +compelled the enemy to raise the siege. At Vitoria, where Gough again +distinguished himself, his regiment captured the baton of Marshal +Jourdan. He was again severely wounded at Nivelle, and was soon after +created a knight of St Charles by the king of Spain. At the close of the +war he returned home and enjoyed a respite of some years from active +service. He next took command of a regiment stationed in the south of +Ireland, discharging at the same time the duties of a magistrate during a +period of agitation. Gough was promoted major-general in 1830. Seven +years later he was sent to India to take command of the Mysore division +of the army. But not long after his arrival in India the difficulties +which led to the first Chinese war made the presence of an energetic +general on the scene indispensable, and Gough was appointed +commander-in-chief of the British forces in China. This post he held +during all the operations of the war; and by his great achievements and +numerous victories in the face of immense difficulties, he at length +enabled the English plenipotentiary, Sir H. Pottinger, to dictate peace +on his own terms. After the conclusion of the treaty of Nanking in August +1842 the British forces were withdrawn; and before the close of the year +Gough, who had been made a G.C.B, in the previous year for his services +in the capture of the Canton forts, was created a baronet. In August 1843 +he was appointed commander-in-chief of the British forces in India, and +in December he took the command in person against the Mahrattas, and +defeated them at Maharajpur, capturing more than fifty guns. In 1845 +occurred the rupture with the Sikhs, who crossed the Sutlej in large +numbers, and Sir Hugh Gough conducted the operations against them, being +well supported by Lord Hardinge, the governor-general, who volunteered to +serve under him. Successes in the hard-fought battles of Mudki and +Ferozeshah were succeeded by the victory of Sobraon, and shortly +afterwards the Sikhs sued for peace at Lahore. The services of Sir Hugh +Gough were rewarded by his elevation to the peerage of the United Kingdom +as Baron Gough (April 1846). The war broke out again in 1848, and again +Lord Gough took the field; but the result of the battle of Chillianwalla +being equivocal, he was superseded by the home authorities in favour of +Sir Charles Napier; before the news of the supersession arrived Lord +Gough had finally crushed the Sikhs in the battle of Gujarat (February +1849). His tactics during the Sikh wars were the subject of an embittered +controversy (see SIKH WARS). Lord Gough now returned to England, was +raised to a viscountcy, and for the third time received the thanks of +both Houses of Parliament. A pension of L2000 per annum was granted to +him by parliament, and an equal pension by the East India Company. He did +not again see active service. In 1854 he was appointed colonel of the +Royal Horse Guards, and two years later he was sent to the Crimea to +invest Marshal Pelissier and other officers with the insignia of the +Bath. Honours were multiplied upon him during his latter years. He was +made a knight of St Patrick, being the first knight of the order who did +not hold an Irish peerage, was sworn a privy councillor, was named a +G.C.S.I., and in November 1862 was made field-marshal. He was twice +married, and left children by both his wives. He died on the 2nd of March +1869. + + See R. S. Rait, _Lord Gough_ (1903); and Sir W. Lee Warner, _Lord + Dalhousie_ (1904). + + + + +GOUGH, JOHN BARTHOLOMEW (1817-1886), American temperance orator, was +born at Sandgate, Kent, England, on the 22nd of August 1817. He was +educated by his mother, a schoolmistress, and at the age of twelve was +sent to the United States to seek his fortune. He lived for two years +with family friends on a farm in western New York, and then entered a +book-bindery in New York City to learn the trade. There in 1833 his +mother joined him, but after her death in 1835 he fell in with dissolute +companions, and became a confirmed drunkard. He lost his position, and +for several years supported himself as a ballad singer and story-teller +in the cheap theatres and concert-halls of New York and other eastern +cities. Even this means of livelihood was being closed to him, when in +Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1842 he was induced to sign a temperance +pledge. After several lapses and a terrific struggle, he determined to +devote his life to lecturing in behalf of temperance reform. Gifted with +remarkable powers of pathos and of description, he was successful from +the start, and was soon known and sought after throughout the entire +country, his appeals, which were directly personal and emotional, being +attended with extraordinary responses. He continued his work until the +end of his life, made several tours of England, where his American +success was repeated, and died at his work, being stricken with apoplexy +on the lecture platform at Frankford, Pennsylvania, where he passed away +two days later, on the 18th of February 1886. He published an +_Autobiography_ (1846); _Orations_ (1854); _Temperance Addresses_ +(1870); _Temperance Lectures_ (1879); and _Sunlight and Shadow, or +Gleanings from My Life Work_ (1880). + + + + +GOUGH, RICHARD (1735-1809), English antiquary, was born in London on the +21st of October 1735. His father was a wealthy M.P. and director of the +East India Company. Gough was a precocious child, and at twelve had +translated from the French a history of the Bible, which his mother +printed for private circulation. When fifteen he translated Abbe +Fleury's work on the Israelites; and at sixteen he published an +elaborate work entitled _Atlas Renovatus, or Geography modernized_. In +1752 he entered Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where he began his +work on British topography, published in 1768. Leaving Cambridge in +1756, he began a series of antiquarian excursions in various parts of +Great Britain. In 1773 he began an edition in English of Camden's +_Britannia_, which appeared in 1789. Meantime he published, in 1786, +the first volume of his splendid work, the _Sepulchral Monuments of +Great Britain, applied to illustrate the history of families, manners, +habits, and arts at the different periods from the Norman Conquest to +the Seventeenth Century_. This volume, which contained the first four +centuries, was followed in 1796 by a second volume containing the 15th +century, and an introduction to the second volume appeared in 1799. +Gough was chosen a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London in +1767, and from 1771 to 1791 he was its director. He was elected F.R.S. +in 1775. He died at Enfield on the 20th of February 1809. His books and +manuscripts relating to Anglo-Saxon and northern literature, all his +collections in the department of British topography, and a large number +of his drawings and engravings of other archaeological remains, were +bequeathed to the university of Oxford. + + Among the minor works of Gough are _An Account of the Bedford Missal_ + (in MS.); _A Catalogue of the Coins of Canute, King of Denmark_ + (1777); _History of Pleshy in Essex_ (1803); _An Account of the Coins + of the Seleucidae, Kings of Syria_ (1804); and "History of the Society + of Antiquaries of London," prefixed to their _Archaeologia_. + + + + +GOUJET, CLAUDE PIERRE (1697-1767), French abbe and litterateur, was born +in Paris on the 19th of October 1697. He studied at the College of the +Jesuits, and at the College Mazarin, but he nevertheless became a strong +Jansenist. In 1705 he assumed the ecclesiastical habit, in 1719 entered +the order of Oratorians, and soon afterwards was named canon of St +Jacques l'Hopital. On account of his extreme Jansenist opinions he +suffered considerable persecution from the Jesuits, and several of his +works were suppressed at their instigation. In his latter years his +health began to fail, and he lost his eyesight. Poverty compelled him to +sell his library, a sacrifice which hastened his death, which took place +at Paris on the 1st of February 1767. + + He is the author of _Supplement au dictionnaire de Moreri_ (1735), and + a _Nouveau Supplement_ to a subsequent edition of the work; he + collaborated in _Bibliotheque francaise, ou histoire litteraire de la + France_ (18 vols., Paris, 1740-1759); and in the _Vies des saints_ (7 + vols., 1730); he also wrote _Memoires historiques et litteraires sur + le college royal de France_ (1758); _Histoire des Inquisitions_ + (Paris, 1752); and supervised an edition of Richelet's _Dictionnaire_, + of which he has also given an abridgment. He helped the abbe Fabre in + his continuation of Fleury's _Histoire ecclesiastique_. + + See _Memoires hist. et litt. de l'abbe Goujet_ (1767). + + + + +GOUJON, JEAN (c. 1520-c. 1566), French sculptor of the 16th century. +Although some evidence has been offered in favour of the date 1520 +(_Archives de l'art francais_, iii. 350), the time and place of his +birth are still uncertain. The first mention of his name occurs in the +accounts of the church of St Maclou at Rouen in the year 1540, and in +the following year he was employed at the cathedral of the same town, +where he added to the tomb of Cardinal d'Amboise a statue of his nephew +Georges, afterwards removed, and possibly carved portions of the tomb of +Louis de Breze, executed some time after 1545. On leaving Rouen, Goujon +was employed by Pierre Lescot, the celebrated architect of the Louvre, +on the restorations of St-Germain l'Auxerrois; the building +accounts--some of which for the years 1542-1544 were discovered by M. de +Laborde on a piece of parchment binding--specify as his work, not only +the carvings of the pulpit (Louvre), but also a Notre Dame de Piete, now +lost. In 1547 appeared Martin's French translation of Vitruvius, the +illustrations of which were due, the translator tells us in his +"Dedication to the King," to Goujon, "nagueres architecte de Monseigneur +le Connetable, et maintenant un des votres." We learn from this +statement not only that Goujon had been taken into the royal service on +the accession of Henry II., but also that he had been previously +employed under Bullant on the chateau of Ecouen. Between 1547 and 1549 +he was employed in the decoration of the Loggia ordered from Lescot for +the entry of Henry II. into Paris, which took place on the 16th of June +1549. Lescot's edifice was reconstructed at the end of the 18th century +by Bernard Poyet into the Fontaine des Innocents, this being a +considerable variation of the original design. At the Louvre, Goujon, +under the direction of Lescot, executed the carvings of the south-west +angle of the court, the reliefs of the Escalier Henri II., and the +Tribune des Cariatides, for which he received 737 livres on the 5th of +September 1550. Between 1548 and 1554 rose the chateau d'Anet, in the +embellishment of which Goujon was associated with Philibert Delorme in +the service of Diana of Poitiers. Unfortunately the building accounts of +Anet have disappeared, but Goujon executed a vast number of other works +of equal importance, destroyed or lost in the great Revolution. In 1555 +his name appears again in the Louvre accounts, and continues to do so +every succeeding year up to 1562, when all trace of him is lost. In the +course of this year an attempt was made to turn out of the royal +employment all those who were suspected of Huguenot tendencies. Goujon +has always been claimed as a Reformer; it is consequently possible that +he was one of the victims of this attack. We should therefore probably +ascribe the work attributed to him in the Hotel Carnavalet (_in situ_), +together with much else executed in various parts of Paris--but now +dispersed or destroyed--to a period intervening between the date of his +dismissal from the Louvre and his death, which is computed to have taken +place between 1564 and 1568, probably at Bologna. The researches of M. +Tomaso Sandonnini (see _Gazette des Beaux Arts_, 2^e periode, vol. +xxxi.) have finally disposed of the supposition, long entertained, that +Goujon died during the St Bartholomew massacre in 1572. + +_List of authentic works of Jean Goujon_: Two marble columns supporting +the organ of the church of St Maclou (Rouen) on right and left of porch +on entering; left-hand gate of the church of St Maclou; bas-reliefs for +decoration of screen of St Germain l'Auxerrois (now in Louvre); +"Victory" over chimney-piece of Salle des Gardes at Ecouen; altar at +Chantilly; illustrations for Jean Martin's translation of Vitruvius; +bas-reliefs and sculptural decoration of Fontaine des Innocents; +bas-reliefs adorning entrance of Hotel Carnavalet, also series of +satyrs' heads on keystones of arcade of courtyard; fountain of Diana +from Anet (now in Louvre); internal decoration of chapel at Anet; +portico of Anet (now in courtyard of Ecole des Beaux Arts); bust of +Diane de Poictiers (now at Versailles); Tribune of Caryatides in the +Louvre; decoration of "Escalier Henri II.," Louvre; oeils de boeuf and +decoration of Henri II. facade, Louvre; groups for pediments of facade +now placed over entrance to Egyptian and Assyrian collections, Louvre. + + See A. A. Pottier, _Oeuvres de Goujon_ (1844); Reginald Lister, _Jean + Goujon_ (London, 1903). + + + + +GOUJON, JEAN MARIE CLAUDE ALEXANDRE (1766-1795), French publicist and +statesman, was born at Bourg on the 13th of April 1766, the son of a +postmaster. The boy went early to sea, and saw fighting when he was +twelve years old; in 1790 he settled at Meudon, and began to make good +his lack of education. As procureur-general-syndic of the department of +Seine-et-Oise, in August, 1792, he had to supply the inhabitants with +food, and fulfilled his difficult functions with energy and tact. In the +Convention, which he entered on the death of Herault de Sechelles, he +took his seat on the benches of the Mountain. He conducted a mission to +the armies of the Rhine and the Moselle with creditable moderation, and +was a consistent advocate of peace within the republic. Nevertheless, he +was a determined opponent of the counter-revolution, which he denounced +in the Jacobin Club and from the Mountain after his recall to Paris, +following on the revolution of the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794). He was +one of those who protested against the readmission of Louvet and other +survivors of the Girondin party to the Convention in March 1795; and, +when the populace invaded the legislature on the 1st Prairial (May 20, +1795) and compelled the deputies to legislate in accordance with their +desires, he proposed the immediate establishment of a special commission +which should assure the execution of the proposed changes and assume the +functions of the various committees. The failure of the insurrection +involved the fall of those deputies who had supported the demands of the +populace. Before the close of the sitting, Goujon, with Romme, Duroi, +Duquesnoy, Bourbotte, Soubrany and others were put under arrest by their +colleagues, and on their way to the chateau of Taureau in Brittany had +a narrow escape from a mob at Avranches. They were brought back to Paris +for trial before a military commission on the 17th of June, and, though +no proof of their complicity in organizing the insurrection could be +found--they were, in fact, with the exception of Goujon and Bourbotte, +strangers to one another--they were condemned. In accordance with a +pre-arranged plan, they attempted suicide on the staircase leading from +the court-room with a knife which Goujon had successfully concealed. +Romme, Goujon and Duquesnoy succeeded, but the other three merely +inflicted wounds which did not prevent their being taken immediately to +the guillotine. With their deaths the Mountain ceased to exist as a +party. + + See J. Claretie, _Les Derniers Montagnards, histoire de l'insurrection + de Prairial an III d'apres les documents_ (1867); _Defense du + representant du peuple Goujon_ (Paris, no date), with the letters and + a hymn written by Goujon during his imprisonment. For other documents + see Maurice Tourneux (Paris, 1890, vol. i., pp. 422-425). + + + + +GOULBURN, EDWARD MEYRICK (1818-1897), English churchman, son of Mr +Serjeant Goulburn, M.P., recorder of Leicester, and nephew of the Right +Hon. Henry Goulburn, chancellor of the exchequer in the ministries of +Sir Robert Peel and the duke of Wellington, was born in London on the +11th of February 1818, and was educated at Eton and at Balliol College, +Oxford. In 1839 he became fellow and tutor of Merton, and in 1841 and +1843 was ordained deacon and priest respectively. For some years he held +the living of Holywell, Oxford, and was chaplain to Samuel Wilberforce, +bishop of the diocese. In 1849 he succeeded Tait as headmaster of Rugby, +but in 1857 he resigned, and accepted the charge of Quebec Chapel, +Marylebone. In 1858 he became a prebendary of St Paul's, and in 1859 +vicar of St John's, Paddington. In 1866 he was made dean of Norwich, and +in that office exercised a long and marked influence on church life. A +strong Conservative and a churchman of traditional orthodoxy, he was a +keen antagonist of "higher criticism" and of all forms of rationalism. +His _Thoughts on Personal Religion_ (1862) and _The Pursuit of Holiness_ +were well received; and he wrote the _Life_ (1892) of his friend Dean +Burgon, with whose doctrinal views he was substantially in agreement. He +resigned the deanery in 1889, and died at Tunbridge Wells on the 3rd of +May 1897. + + See _Life_ by B. Compton (1899). + + + + +GOULBURN, HENRY (1784-1856), English statesman, was born in London on +the 19th of March 1784 and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. +In 1808 he became member of parliament for Horsham; in 1810 he was +appointed under-secretary for home affairs and two and a half years +later he was made under-secretary for war and the colonies. Still +retaining office in the Tory government he became a privy councillor in +1821, and just afterwards was appointed chief secretary to the +lord-lieutenant of Ireland, a position which he held until April 1827. +Here although frequently denounced as an Orangeman, his period of office +was on the whole a successful one, and in 1823 he managed to pass the +Irish Tithe Composition Bill. In January 1828 he was made chancellor of +the exchequer under the duke of Wellington; like his leader he disliked +Roman Catholic emancipation, which he voted against in 1828. In the +domain of finance Goulburn's chief achievements were to reduce the rate +of interest on part of the national debt, and to allow any one to sell +beer upon payment of a small annual fee, a complete change of policy +with regard to the drink traffic. Leaving office with Wellington in +November 1830, Goulburn was home secretary under Sir Robert Peel for +four months in 1835, and when this statesman returned to office in +September 1841 he became chancellor of the exchequer for the second +time. Although Peel himself did some of the chancellor's work, Goulburn +was responsible for a further reduction in the rate of interest on the +national debt, and he aided his chief in the struggle which ended in the +repeal of the corn laws. With his colleagues he left office in June +1846. After representing Horsham in the House of Commons for over four +years Goulburn was successively member for St Germans, for West Looe, +and for the city of Armagh. In May 1831 he was elected for Cambridge +University, and he retained this seat until his death on the 12th of +January 1856 at Betchworth House, Dorking. Goulburn was one of Peel's +firmest supporters and most intimate friends. His eldest son, Henry +(1813-1843), was senior classic and second wrangler at Cambridge in +1835. + + See S. Walpole, _History of England_ (1878-1886). + + + + +GOULBURN, a city of Argyle county, New South Wales, Australia, 134 m. +S.W. of Sydney by the Great Southern railway. Pop. (1901) 10,618. It +lies in a productive agricultural district, at an altitude of 2129 ft., +and is a place of great importance, being the chief depot of the inland +trade of the southern part of the state. There are Anglican and Roman +Catholic cathedrals. Manufactures of boots and shoes, flour and beer, +and tanning are important. The municipality was created in 1859; and +Goulburn became a city in 1864. + + + + +GOULD, AUGUSTUS ADDISON (1805-1866), American conchologist, was born at +New Ipswich, New Hampshire, on the 23rd of April 1805, graduated at +Harvard College in 1825, and took his degree of doctor of medicine in +1830. Thrown from boyhood on his own exertions, it was only by industry, +perseverance and self-denial that he obtained the means to pursue his +studies. Establishing himself in Boston, he devoted himself to the +practice of medicine, and finally rose to high professional rank and +social position. He became president of the Massachusetts Medical +Society, and was employed in editing the vital statistics of the state. +As a conchologist his reputation is world-wide, and he was one of the +pioneers of the science in America. His writings fill many pages of the +publications of the Boston Society of Natural History (see vol. xi. p. +197 for a list) and other periodicals. He published with L. Agassiz the +_Principles of Zoology_ (2nd ed. 1851); he edited the _Terrestrial and +Air-breathing Mollusks_ (1851-1855) of Amos Binney (1803-1847); he +translated Lamarck's _Genera of Shells_. The two most important +monuments to his scientific work, however, are _Mollusca and Shells_ +(vol. xii., 1852) of the United States exploring expedition (1838-1842) +under Lieutenant Charles Wilkes (1833), published by the government, and +the _Report on the Invertebrata_ published by order of the legislature +of Massachusetts in 1841. A second edition of the latter work was +authorized in 1865, and published in 1870 after the author's death, +which took place at Boston on the 15th of September 1866. Gould was a +corresponding member of all the prominent American scientific societies, +and of many of those of Europe, including the London Royal Society. + + + + +GOULD, BENJAMIN APTHORP (1824-1896), American astronomer, a son of +Benjamin Apthorp Gould (1787-1859), principal of the Boston Latin +school, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the 27th of September +1824. Having graduated at Harvard College in 1844, he studied +mathematics and astronomy under C. F. Gauss at Gottingen, and returned +to America in 1848. From 1852 to 1867 he was in charge of the longitude +department of the United States coast survey; he developed and organized +the service, was one of the first to determine longitudes by telegraphic +means, and employed the Atlantic cable in 1866 to establish +longitude-relations between Europe and America. The _Astronomical +Journal_ was founded by Gould in 1849; and its publication, suspended in +1861, was resumed by him in 1885. From 1855 to 1859 he acted as director +of the Dudley observatory at Albany, New York; and published in 1859 a +discussion of the places and proper motions of circumpolar stars to be +used as standards by the United States coast survey. Appointed in 1862 +actuary to the United States sanitary commission, he issued in 1869 an +important volume of _Military and Anthropological Statistics_. He fitted +up in 1864 a private observatory at Cambridge, Mass.; but undertook in +1868, on behalf of the Argentine republic, to organize a national +observatory at Cordoba; began to observe there with four assistants in +1870, and completed in 1874 his _Uranometria Argentina_ (published 1879) +for which he received in 1883 the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical +Society. This was followed by a zone-catalogue of 73,160 stars (1884), +and a general catalogue (1885) compiled from meridian observations of +32,448 stars. Gould's measurements of L. M. Rutherfurd's photographs of +the Pleiades in 1866 entitle him to rank as a pioneer in the use of the +camera as an instrument of precision; and he secured at Cordoba 1400 +negatives of southern star-clusters, the reduction of which occupied the +closing years of his life. He returned in 1885 to his home at Cambridge, +where he died on the 26th of November 1896. + + See _Astronomical Journal_, No. 389; _Observatory_, xx. 70 (same + notice abridged); _Science_ (Dec. 18, 1896, S. C. Chandler); + _Astrophysical Journal_, v. 50; _Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society_, + lvii. 218. + + + + +GOULD, SIR FRANCIS CARRUTHERS (1844- ), English caricaturist and +politician, was born in Barnstaple on the 2nd of December 1844. Although +in early youth he showed great love of drawing, he began life in a bank +and then joined the London Stock Exchange, where he constantly sketched +the members and illustrated important events in the financial world; +many of these drawings were reproduced by lithography and published for +private circulation. In 1879 he began the regular illustration of the +Christmas numbers of _Truth_, and in 1887 he became a contributor to the +_Pall Mall Gazette_, transferring his allegiance to the _Westminster +Gazette_ on its foundation and subsequently acting as assistant editor. +Among his independent publications are _Who killed Cock Robin?_ (1897), +_Tales told in the Zoo_ (1900), two volumes of _Froissart's Modern +Chronicles, told and pictured by F. C. Gould_ (1902 and 1903), and +_Picture Politics_--a periodical reprint of his _Westminster Gazette_ +cartoons, one of the most noteworthy implements of political warfare in +the armoury of the Liberal party. Frequently grafting his ideas on to +subjects taken freely from _Uncle Remus_, _Alice in Wonderland_, and the +works of Dickens and Shakespeare, Sir F. C. Gould used these literary +vehicles with extraordinary dexterity and point, but with a satire that +was not unkind and with a vigour from which bitterness, virulence and +cynicism were notably absent. He was knighted in 1906. + + + + +GOULD, JAY (1836-1892), American financier, was born in Roxbury, +Delaware county, New York, on the 27th of May 1836. He was brought up on +his father's farm, studied at Hobart Academy, and though he left school +in his sixteenth year, devoted himself assiduously thereafter to private +study, chiefly of mathematics and surveying, at the same time keeping +books for a blacksmith for his board. For a short time he worked for his +father in the hardware business; in 1852-1856 he worked as a surveyor in +preparing maps of Ulster, Albany and Delaware counties in New York, of +Lake and Geauga counties in Ohio, and of Oakland county in Michigan, and +of a projected railway line between Newburgh and Syracuse, N.Y. An +ardent anti-renter in his boyhood and youth, he wrote _A History of +Delaware County and the Border Wars of New York, containing a Sketch of +the Early Settlements in the County, and A History of the Late Anti-Rent +Difficulties in Delaware_ (Roxbury, 1856). He then engaged in the lumber +and tanning business in western New York, and in banking at Stroudsburg, +Pennsylvania. In 1863 he married Miss Helen Day Miller, and through her +father, Daniel S. Miller, he was appointed manager of the Rensselaer & +Saratoga railway, which he bought up when it was in a very bad +condition, and skilfully reorganized; in the same way he bought and +reorganized the Rutland & Washington railway, from which he ultimately +realized a large profit. In 1859 he removed to New York City, where he +became a broker in railway stocks, and in 1868 he was elected president +of the Erie railway, of which by shrewd strategy he and James Fisk, Jr. +(q.v.), had gained control in July of that year. The management of the +road under his control, and especially the sale of $5,000,000 of +fraudulent stock in 1868-1870, led to litigation begun by English +bondholders, and Gould was forced out of the company in March 1872 and +compelled to restore securities valued at about $7,500,000. It was +during his control of the Erie that he and Fisk entered into a league +with the Tweed Ring, they admitted Tweed to the directorate of the Erie, +and Tweed in turn arranged favourable legislation for them at Albany. +With Tweed, Gould was cartooned by Nast in 1869. In October 1871 Gould +was the chief bondsman of Tweed when the latter was held in $1,000,000 +bail. With Fisk in August 1869 he began to buy gold in a daring attempt +to "corner" the market, his hope being that, with the advance in price +of gold, wheat would advance to such a price that western farmers would +sell, and there would be a consequent great movement of breadstuffs from +West to East, which would result in increased freight business for the +Erie road. His speculations in gold, during which he attempted through +President Grant's brother-in-law, A. H. Corbin, to influence the +president and his secretary General Horace Porter, culminated in the +panic of "Black Friday," on the 24th of September 1869, when the price +of gold fell from 162 to 135. + +Gould gained control of the Union Pacific, from which in 1883 he +withdrew after realizing a large profit. Buying up the stock of the +Missouri Pacific he built up, by means of consolidations, +reorganizations, and the construction of branch lines, the "Gould +System" of railways in the south-western states. In 1880 he was in +virtual control of 10,000 miles of railway, about one-ninth of the +railway mileage of the United States at that time. Besides, he obtained +a controlling interest in the Western Union Telegraph Company, and after +1881 in the elevated railways in New York City, and was intimately +connected with many of the largest railway financial operations in the +United States for the twenty years following 1868. He died of +consumption and of mental strain on the 2nd of December 1892, his +fortune at that time being estimated at $72,000,000; all of this he left +to his own family. + +His eldest son, GEORGE JAY GOULD (b. 1864), was prominent also as an +owner and manager of railways, and became president of the Little Rock & +Fort Smith railway (1888), the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern +railway (1893), the International & Great Northern railway (1893), the +Missouri Pacific railway (1893), the Texas & Pacific railway (1893), and +the Manhattan Railway Company (1892); he was also vice-president and +director of the Western Union Telegraph Company. It was under his +control that the Wabash system became transcontinental and secured an +Atlantic port at Baltimore; and it was he who brought about a friendly +alliance between the Gould and the Rockefeller interests. + +The eldest daughter, HELEN MILLER GOULD (b. 1868), became widely known +as a philanthropist, and particularly for her generous gifts to American +army hospitals in the war with Spain in 1898 and for her many +contributions to New York University, to which she gave $250,000 for a +library in 1895 and $100,000 for a Hall of Fame in 1900. + + + + +GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANCOIS (1818-1893), French composer, was born in Paris +on the 17th of June 1818, the son of F. L. Gounod, a talented painter. +He entered the Paris Conservatoire in 1836, studied under Reicha, Halevy +and Lesueur, and won the "Grand Prix de Rome" in 1839. While residing in +the Eternal City he devoted much of his time to the study of sacred +music, notably to the works of Palestrina and Bach. In 1843 he went to +Vienna, where a "requiem" of his composition was performed. On his +return to Paris he tried in vain to find a publisher for some songs he +had written in Rome. Having become organist to the chapel of the +"Missions Etrangeres," he turned his thoughts and mind to religious +music. At that time he even contemplated the idea of entering into holy +orders. His thoughts were, however, turned to more mundane matters when, +through the intervention of Madame Viardot, the celebrated singer, he +received a commission to compose an opera on a text by Emile Augier for +the Academie Nationale de Musique. _Sapho_, the work in question, was +produced in 1851, and if its success was not very great, it at least +sufficed to bring the composer's name to the fore. Some critics appeared +to consider this work as evidence of a fresh departure in the style of +dramatic music, and Adolphe Adam, the composer, who was also a musical +critic, attributed to Gounod the wish to revive the system of musical +declamation invented by Gluck. The fact was that _Sapho_ differed in +some respects from the operatic works of the period, and was to a +certain extent in advance of the times. When it was revived at the Paris +Opera in 1884, several additions were made by the composer to the +original score, not altogether to its advantage, and _Sapho_ once more +failed to attract the public. Gounod's second dramatic attempt was again +in connexion with a classical subject, and consisted in some choruses +written for _Ulysse_, a tragedy by Ponsard, played at the Theatre +Francais in 1852, when the orchestra was conducted by Offenbach. The +composer's next opera, _La Nonne sanglante_, given at the Paris Opera in +1854, was a failure. + +Goethe's _Faust_ had for years exercised a strong fascination over +Gounod, and he at last determined to turn it to operatic account. The +performance at a Paris theatre of a drama on the same subject delayed +the production of his opera for a time. In the meanwhile he wrote in a +few months the music for an operatic version of Moliere's comedy, _Le +Medecin malgre lui_, which was produced at the Theatre Lyrique in 1858. +Berlioz well described this charming little work when he wrote of it, +"Everything is pretty, piquant, fluent, in this 'opera comique'; there +is nothing superfluous and nothing wanting." The first performance of +_Faust_ took place at the Theatre Lyrique on the 19th of March 1859. +Goethe's masterpiece had already been utilized for operatic purposes by +various composers, the most celebrated of whom was Spohr. The subject +had also inspired Schumann, Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner, to mention only a +few, and the enormous success of Gounod's opera did not deter Boito from +writing his _Mefistofele_. _Faust_ is without doubt the most popular +French opera of the second half of the 19th century. Its success has +been universal, and nowhere has it achieved greater vogue than in the +land of Goethe. For years it remained the recognized type of modern +French opera. At the time of its production in Paris it was scarcely +appreciated according to its merits. Its style was too novel, and its +luscious harmonies did not altogether suit the palates of those +dilettanti who still looked upon Rossini as the incarnation of music. +Times have indeed changed, and French composers have followed the road +opened by Gounod, and have further developed the form of the lyrical +drama, adopting the theories of Wagner in a manner suitable to their +national temperament. Although in its original version _Faust_ contained +spoken dialogue, and was divided into set pieces according to custom, +yet it differed greatly from the operas of the past. Gounod had not +studied the works of German masters such as Mendelssohn and Schumann in +vain, and although his own style is eminently Gallic, yet it cannot be +denied that much of its charm emanates from a certain poetic +sentimentality which seems to have a Teutonic origin. Certainly no music +such as his had previously been produced by any French composer. Auber +was a gay trifler, scattering his bright effusions with absolute +_insouciance_, teeming with melodious ideas, but lacking depth. Berlioz, +a musical Titan, wrestled against fate with a superhuman energy, and, +Jove-like, subjugated his hearers with his thunderbolts. It was, +however, reserved for Gounod to introduce _la note tendre_, to sing the +tender passion in accents soft and languorous. The musical language +employed in _Faust_ was new and fascinating, and it was soon to be +adopted by many other French composers, certain of its idioms thereby +becoming hackneyed. Gounod's opera was given in London in 1863, when its +success, at first doubtful, became enormous, and it was heard +concurrently at Covent Garden and Her Majesty's theatres. Since then it +has never lost its popularity. + +Although the success of _Faust_ in Paris was at first not so great as +might have been expected, yet it gradually increased and set the seal on +Gounod's fame. The fortunate composer now experienced no difficulty in +finding an outlet for his works, and the succeeding decade is a +specially important one in his career. The opera from his pen which came +after Faust was _Philemon et Baucis_, a setting of the mythological tale +in which the composer followed the traditions of the Opera Comique, +employing spoken dialogue, while not abdicating the individuality of his +own style. This work was produced at the Theatre Lyrique in 1860. It has +repeatedly been heard in London. _La Reine de Saba_, a four-act opera, +produced at the Grand Opera on the 28th of February 1862, was altogether +a far more ambitious work. For some reason it did not meet with +success, although the score contains some of Gounod's choicest +inspirations, notably the well-known air, "Lend me your aid." _La Reine +de Saba_ was adapted for the English stage under the name of _Irene_. +The non-success of this work proved a great disappointment to Gounod, +who, however, set to work again, and this time with better results, +_Mireille_, the fruit of his labours, being given for the first time at +the Theatre Lyrique on the 19th of March 1864. Founded upon the _Mireio_ +of the Provencal poet Mistral, _Mireille_ contains much charming and +characteristic music. The libretto seems to have militated against its +success, and although several revivals have taken place and various +modifications and alterations have been made in the score, yet +_Mireille_ has never enjoyed a very great vogue. Certain portions of +this opera have, however, been popularized in the concert-room. _La +Colombe_, a little opera in two acts without pretension, deserves +mention here. It was originally heard at Baden in 1860, and subsequently +at the Opera Comique. A suavely melodious _entr'acte_ from this little +work has survived and been repeatedly performed. + +Animated with the desire to give a pendant to his _Faust_, Gounod now +sought for inspiration from Shakespeare, and turned his attention to +_Romeo and Juliet_. Here, indeed, was a subject particularly well +calculated to appeal to a composer who had so eminently qualified +himself to be considered the musician of the tender passion. The +operatic version of the Shakespearean tragedy was produced at the +Theatre Lyrique on the 27th of April 1867. It is generally considered as +being the composer's second best opera. Some people have even placed it +on the same level as _Faust_, but this verdict has not found general +acceptance. Gounod himself is stated to have expressed his opinion of +the relative value of the two operas enigmatically by saying, "_Faust_ +is the oldest, but I was younger; _Romeo_ is the youngest, but I was +older." The luscious strains wedded to the love scenes, if at times +somewhat cloying, are generally in accord with the situations, often +irresistibly fascinating, while always absolutely individual. The +success of _Romeo_ in Paris was great from the outset, and eventually +this work was transferred to the Grand Opera, after having for some time +formed part of the repertoire of the Opera Comique. In London it was not +until the part of Romeo was sung by Jean de Reszke that this opera +obtained any real hold upon the English public. + +After having so successfully sought for inspiration from Moliere, Goethe +and Shakespeare, Gounod now turned to another famous dramatist, and +selected Pierre Corneille's _Polyeucte_ as the subject of his next +opera. Some years were, however, to elapse before this work was given to +the public. The Franco-German War had broken out, and Gounod was +compelled to take refuge in London, where he composed the "biblical +elegy" _Gallia_ for the inauguration of the Royal Albert Hall. During +his stay in London Gounod composed a great deal and wrote a number of +songs to English words, many of which have attained an enduring +popularity, such as "Maid of Athens," "There is a green hill far away," +"Oh that we two were maying," "The fountain mingles with the river." His +sojourn in London was not altogether pleasant, as he was embroiled in +lawsuits with publishers. On Gounod's return to Paris he hurriedly set +to music an operatic version of Alfred de Vigny's _Cinq-Mars_, which was +given at the Opera Comique on the 5th of April 1877 (and in London in +1900), without obtaining much success. _Polyeucte_, his much-cherished +work, appeared at the Grand Opera the following year on the 7th of +October, and did not meet with a better fate. Neither was Gounod more +fortunate with _Le Tribut de Zamora_, his last opera, which, given on +the same stage in 1881, speedily vanished, never to reappear. In his +later dramatic works he had, unfortunately, made no attempt to keep up +with the times, preferring to revert to old-fashioned methods. + +The genius of the great composer was, however, destined to assert itself +in another field--that of sacred music. His friend Camille Saint-Saens, +in a volume entitled _Portraits et Souvenirs_, writes: + + Gounod did not cease all his life to write for the church, to + accumulate masses and motetts; but it was at the commencement of his + career, in the _Messe de Sainte Cecile_, and at the end, in the + oratorios _The Redemption and Mors et vita_, that he rose highest. + +Saint-Saens, indeed, has formulated the opinion that the three +above-mentioned works will survive all the master's operas. Among the +many masses composed by Gounod at the outset of his career, the best is +the _Messe de Sainte Cecile_, written in 1855. He also wrote the _Messe +du Sacre Coeur_ (1876) and the _Messe a la memoire de Jeanne d'Arc_ +(1887). This last work offers certain peculiarities, being written for +solos, chorus, organ, eight trumpets, three trombones, and harps. In +style it has a certain affinity with Palestrina. _The Redemption_, which +seems to have acquired a permanent footing in Great Britain, was +produced at the Birmingham Festival of 1882. It was styled a sacred +trilogy, and was dedicated to Queen Victoria. The score is prefixed by a +commentary written by the composer, in which the scope of the oratorio +is explained. It cannot be said that Gounod has altogether risen to the +magnitude of his task. The music of _The Redemption_ bears the +unmistakable imprint of the composer's hand, and contains many beautiful +thoughts, but the work in its entirety is not exempt from monotony. +_Mors et vita_, a sacred trilogy dedicated to Pope Leo XIII., was also +produced for the first time in Birmingham at the Festival of 1885. This +work is divided into three parts, "Mors," "Judicium," "Vita." The first +consists of a Requiem, the second depicts the Judgment, the third +Eternal Life. Although quite equal, if not superior to _The Redemption_, +_Mors et vita_ has not obtained similar success. + +Gounod was a great worker, an indefatigable writer, and it would occupy +too much space to attempt even an incomplete catalogue of his +compositions. Besides the works already mentioned may be named two +symphonies which were played during the 'fifties, but have long since +fallen into neglect. Symphonic music was not Gounod's forte, and the +French master evidently recognized the fact, for he made no further +attempts in this style. The incidental music he wrote to the dramas _Les +Deux Reines_ and _Jeanne d'Arc_ must not be forgotten. He also attempted +to set Moliere's comedy, _Georges Dandin_, to music, keeping to the +original prose. This work has never been brought out. Gounod composed a +large number of songs, many of which are very beautiful. One of the +vocal pieces that have contributed most to his popularity is the +celebrated _Meditation on the First Prelude of Bach_, more widely known +as the _Ave Maria_. The idea of fitting a melody to the Prelude of Bach +was original, and it must be admitted that in this case the experiment +was successful. + +Gounod died at St Cloud on the 18th of October 1893. His influence on +French music was immense, though during the last years of the 19th +century it was rather counterbalanced by that of Wagner. Whatever may be +the verdict of posterity, it is unlikely that the quality of +individuality will be denied to Gounod. To be the composer of _Faust_ is +alone a sufficient title to lasting fame. (A. He.) + + + + +GOURD, a name given to various plants of the order _Cucurbitaceae_, +especially those belonging to the genus _Cucurbita_, monoecious trailing +herbs of annual duration, with long succulent stems furnished with +tendrils, and large, rough, palmately-lobed leaves; the flowers are +generally large and of a bright yellow or orange colour, the barren ones +with the stamens united; the fertile are followed by the large succulent +fruit that gives the gourds their chief economic value. Many varieties +of _Cucurbita_ are under cultivation in tropical and temperate climates, +especially in southern Asia; but it is extremely difficult to refer them +to definite specific groups, on account of the facility with which they +hybridize; while it is very doubtful whether any of the original forms +now exist in the wild state. Charles Naudin, who made a careful and +interesting series of observations upon this genus, came to the +conclusion that all varieties known in European gardens might be +referred to six original species; probably three, or at most four, have +furnished the edible kinds in ordinary cultivation. Adopting the +specific names usually given to the more familiar forms, the most +important of the gourds, from an economic point of view, is perhaps _C. +maxima_, the _Potiron Jaune_ of the French, the red and yellow gourd of +British gardeners (fig. 6), the spheroidal fruit of which is remarkable +for its enormous size: the colour of the somewhat rough rind varies from +white to bright yellow, while in some kinds it remains green; the fleshy +interior is of a deep yellow or orange tint. This valuable gourd is +grown extensively in southern Asia and Europe. In Turkey and Asia Minor +it yields, at some periods of the year, an important article of diet to +the people; immense quantities are sold in the markets of +Constantinople, where in the winter the heaps of one variety with a +white rind are described as resembling mounds of snowballs. The yellow +kind attains occasionally a weight of upwards of 240 lb. It grows well +in Central Europe and the United States, while in the south of England +it will produce its gigantic fruit in perfection in hot summers. The +yellow flesh of this gourd and its numerous varieties yields a +considerable amount of nutriment, and is the more valuable as the fruit +can be kept, even in warm climates, for a long time. In France and in +the East it is much used in soups and ragouts, while simply boiled it +forms a substitute for other table vegetables; the taste has been +compared to that of a young carrot. In some countries the larger kinds +are employed as cattle food. The seeds yield by expression a large +quantity of a bland oil, which is used for the same purposes as that of +the poppy and olive. The "mammoth" gourds of English and American +gardeners (known in America as squashes) belong to this species. The +pumpkin (summer squash of America) is _Cucurbita Pepo_. Some of the +varieties of _C. maxima_ and Pepo contain a considerable quantity of +sugar, amounting in the sweetest kinds to 4 or 5%, and in the hot plains +of Hungary efforts have been made to make use of them as a commercial +source of sugar. The young shoots of both these large gourds may be +given to cattle, and admit of being eaten as a green vegetable when +boiled. The vegetable marrow is a variety (_ovifera_) of _C. Pepo_. Many +smaller gourds are cultivated in India and other hot climates, and some +have been introduced into English gardens, rather for the beauty of +their fruit and foliage than for their esculent qualities. Among these +is _C. Pepo_ var. _aurantia_, the orange gourd, bearing a spheroidal +fruit, like a large orange in form and colour; in Britain it is +generally too bitter to be palatable, though applied to culinary +purposes in Turkey and the Levant. _C. Pepo_ var. _pyriformis_ and var. +_verrucosa_, the warted gourds, are likewise occasionally eaten, +especially in the immature state; and _C. moschata_ (musk melon) is very +extensively cultivated throughout India by the natives, the yellow flesh +being cooked and eaten. + +[Illustration: Photographed from specimens in the British Museum. + +Group of Gourds. + + 1-5. Various forms of bottle gourd, _Lagenaria vulgaris_. + 6. Giant gourd, _Cucurbita maxima_.] + +The bottle-gourds are placed in a separate genus, _Lagenaria_, chiefly +differing from _Cucurbita_ in the anthers being free instead of +adherent. The bottle-gourd properly so-called, _L. vulgaris_, is a +climbing plant with downy, heart-shaped leaves and beautiful white +flowers: the remarkable fruit (figs. 1-5) first begins to grow in the +form of an elongated cylinder, but gradually widens towards the +extremity, until, when ripe, it resembles a flask with a narrow neck and +large rounded bulb; it sometimes attains a length of 7 ft. When ripe, +the pulp is removed from the neck, and the interior cleared by leaving +water standing in it; the woody rind that remains is used as a bottle: +or the lower part is cut off and cleared out, forming a basin-like +vessel applied to the same domestic purposes as the calabash +(_Crescentia_) of the West Indies: the smaller varieties, divided +lengthwise, form spoons. The ripe fruit is apt to be bitter and +cathartic, but while immature it is eaten by the Arabs and Turks. When +about the size of a small cucumber, it is stuffed with rice and minced +meat, flavoured with pepper, onions, &c., and then boiled, forming a +favourite dish with Eastern epicures. The elongated snake-gourds of +India and China (_Trichosanthes_) are used in curries and stews. + +All the true gourds have a tendency to secrete the cathartic principle +_colocynthin_, and in many varieties of _Cucurbita_ and the allied +genera it is often elaborated to such an extent as to render them +unwholesome, or even poisonous. The seeds of several species therefore +possess some anthelmintic properties; those of the common pumpkin are +frequently administered in America as a vermifuge. + +The cultivation of gourds began far beyond the dawn of history, and the +esculent species have become so modified by culture that the original +plants from which they have descended can no longer be traced. The +abundance of varieties in India would seem to indicate that part of Asia +as the birthplace of the present edible forms; but some appear to have +been cultivated in all the hotter regions of that continent, and in +North Africa, from the earliest ages, while the Romans were familiar +with at least certain kinds of _Cucurbita_, and with the bottle-gourd. +_Cucurbita Pepo_, the source of many of the American forms, is probably +a native of that continent. + + Most of the annual gourds may be grown successfully in Britain. They + are usually raised in hotbeds or under frames, and planted out in rich + soil in the early summer as soon as the nights become warm. The more + ornamental kinds may be trained over trellis-work, a favourite mode of + displaying them in the East; but the situation must be sheltered and + sunny. Even _Lagenaria_ will sometimes produce fine fruit when so + treated in the southern counties. + + For an account of these cultivations in England see paper by Mr J. W. + Odell, "Gourds and Cucurbits," in _Journ. Royal Hort. Soc._ xxix. 450 + (1904). + + + + +GOURGAUD, GASPAR, BARON (1783-1852), French soldier, was born at +Versailles on the 14th of September 1783; his father was a musician of +the royal chapel. At school he showed talent in mathematical studies and +accordingly entered the artillery. In 1802 he became junior lieutenant, +and thereafter served with credit in the campaigns of 1803-1805, being +wounded at Austerlitz. He was present at the siege of Saragossa in 1808, +but returned to service in Central Europe and took part in nearly all +the battles of the Danubian campaign of 1809. In 1811 he was chosen to +inspect and report on the fortifications of Danzig. Thereafter he became +one of the ordnance officers attached to the emperor, whom he followed +closely through the Russian campaign of 1812; he was one of the first to +enter the Kremlin and discovered there a quantity of gunpowder which +might have been used for the destruction of Napoleon. For his services +in this campaign he received the title of baron, and became first +ordnance officer. In the campaign of 1813 in Saxony he further evinced +his courage and prowess, especially at Leipzig and Hanau; but it was in +the first battle of 1814, near to Brienne, that he rendered the most +signal service by killing the leader of a small band of Cossacks who +were riding furiously towards Napoleon's tent. Wounded at the battle of +Montmirail, he yet recovered in time to share in several of the +conflicts which followed, distinguishing himself especially at Laon and +Reims. Though enrolled among the royal guards of Louis XVIII. in the +summer of 1814, he yet embraced the cause of Napoleon during the Hundred +Days (1815), was named general and aide-de-camp by the emperor, and +fought at Waterloo. + +After the second abdication of the emperor (June 22nd, 1815) Gourgaud +retired with him and a few other companions to Rochefort. It was to him +that Napoleon entrusted the letter of appeal to the prince regent for an +asylum in England. Gourgaud set off in H.M.S. "Slaney," but was not +allowed to land in England. He determined to share Napoleon's exile and +sailed with him on H.M.S. "Northumberland" to St Helena. The ship's +secretary, John R. Glover, has left an entertaining account of some of +Gourgaud's gasconnades at table. His extreme sensitiveness and vanity +soon brought him into collision with Las Cases and Montholon at +Longwood. The former he styles in his journal a "Jesuit" and a scribbler +who went thither in order to become famous. With Montholon, his senior +in rank, the friction became so acute that he challenged him to a duel, +for which he suffered a sharp rebuke from Napoleon. Tiring of the life +at Longwood and the many slights which he suffered from Napoleon, he +desired to depart, but before he could sail he spent two months with +Colonel Basil Jackson, whose account of him throws much light on his +character, as also on the "policy" adopted by the exiles at Longwood. In +England he was gained over by members of the Opposition and thereafter +made common cause with O'Meara and other detractors of Sir Hudson Lowe, +for whose character he had expressed high esteem to Basil Jackson. He +soon published his _Campagne de 1815_, in the preparation of which he +had had some help from Napoleon; but Gourgaud's _Journal de Ste-Helene_ +was not destined to be published till the year 1899. Entering the arena +of letters, he wrote, or collaborated in, two well-known critiques. The +first was a censure of Count P. de Segur's work on the campaign of 1812, +with the result that he fought a duel with that officer and wounded him. +He also sharply criticized Sir Walter Scott's _Life of Napoleon_. He +returned to active service in the army in 1830; and in 1840 proceeded +with others to St Helena to bring back the remains of Napoleon to +France. He became a deputy to the Legislative Assembly in 1849; he died +in 1852. + + Gourgaud's works are _La Campagne de 1815_ (London and Paris, 1818); + _Napoleon et la Grande Armee en Russie; examen critique de l'ouvrage + de M. le comte P. de Segur_ (Paris, 1824); _Refutation de la vie de + Napoleon par Sir Walter Scott_ (Paris, 1827). He collaborated with + Montholon in the work entitled _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de + France sous Napoleon_ (Paris, 1822-1823), and with Belliard and others + in the work entitled _Bourrienne et ses erreurs_ (2 vols., Paris, + 1830); but his most important work is the _Journal inedit de + Ste-Helene_ (2 vols., Paris, 1899), which is a remarkably naif and + life-like record of the life at Longwood. See, too, _Notes and + Reminiscences of a Staff Officer_, by Basil Jackson (London, 1904), + and the bibliography to the article LOWE, SIR HUDSON. (J. Hl. R.) + + + + +GOURKO, JOSEPH VLADIMIROVICH, COUNT (1828-1901), Russian general, was +born, of Lithuanian extraction, on the 15th of November 1828. He was +educated in the imperial corps of pages, entered the hussars of the +imperial bodyguard as sub-lieutenant in 1846, became captain in 1857, +adjutant to the emperor in 1860, colonel in 1861, commander of the 4th +Hussar regiment of Mariupol in 1866, and major-general of the emperor's +suite in 1867. He subsequently commanded the grenadier regiment, and in +1873 the 1st brigade, 2nd division, of the cavalry of the guard. +Although he took part in the Crimean War, being stationed at Belbek, his +claim to distinction is due to his services in the Turkish war of 1877. +He led the van of the Russian invasion, took Trnovo on the 7th July, +crossed the Balkans by the Hain Bogaz pass, debouching near Hainkioi, +and, notwithstanding considerable resistance, captured Uflani, Maglish +and Kazanlyk; on the 18th of July he attacked Shipka, which was +evacuated by the Turks on the following day. Thus within sixteen days of +crossing the Danube Gourko had secured three Balkan passes and created a +panic at Constantinople. He then made a series of successful +reconnaissances of the Tunja valley, cut the railway in two places, +occupied Stara Zagora (Turkish, Eski Zagra) and Nova Zagora (Yeni +Zagra), checked the advance of Suleiman's army, and returned again over +the Balkans. In October he was appointed commander of the allied +cavalry, and attacked the Plevna line of communication to Orkhanie with +a large mixed force, captured Gorni-Dubnik, Telische and Vratza, and, in +the middle of November, Orkhanie itself. Plevna was isolated, and after +its fall in December Gourko led the way amidst snow and ice over the +Balkans to the fertile valley beyond, totally defeated Suleiman, and +occupied Sophia, Philippopolis and Adrianople, the armistice at the end +of January 1878 stopping further operations (see RUSSO-TURKISH WARS). +Gourko was made a count, and decorated with the 2nd class of St George +and other orders. In 1879-1880 he was governor of St Petersburg, and +from 1883 to 1894 governor-general of Poland. He died on the 29th of +January 1901. + + + + +GOURMET, a French term for one who takes a refined and critical, or even +merely theoretical pleasure in good cooking and the delights of the +table. The word has not the disparaging sense attached to the Fr. +_gourmand_, to whom the practical pleasure of good eating is the chief +end. The O. Fr. _groumet_ or _gromet_ meant a servant, or shop-boy, +especially one employed in a wine-seller's shop, hence an expert taster +of wines, from which the modern usage has developed. The etymology of +gourmet is obscure; it may be ultimately connected with the English +"groom" (q.v.). The origin of _gourmand_ is unknown. In English, in the +form "grummet," the word was early applied to a cabin or ship's boy. +Ships of the Cinque Ports were obliged to carry one "grummet"; thus in a +charter of 1229 (quoted in the _New English Dictionary_) it is laid down +_servitia inde debita Domino Regi, xxi. naves, et in qualibet nave xxi. +homines, cum uno gartione qui dicitur gromet_. + + + + +GOUROCK, a police burgh and watering-place of Renfrewshire, Scotland, on +the southern shore of the Firth of Clyde, 3-1/4 m. W. by N. of Greenock +by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 5261. It is partly situated on a +fine bay affording good anchorage, for which it is largely resorted to +by the numerous yacht clubs of the Clyde. The extension of the railway +from Greenock (in 1889) to the commodious pier, with a tunnel 1-1/3 m. +long, the longest in Scotland, affords great facilities for travel to +the ports of the Firth, the sea lochs on the southern Highland coast and +the Crinan Canal. The eminence called Barrhill (480 ft. high) divides +the town into two parts, the eastern known as Kempoch, the western as +Ashton. Near Kempoch point is a monolith of mica-schist, 6 ft. high, +called "Granny Kempoch," which the superstitious of other days regarded +as possessing influence over the winds, and which was the scene, in +1662, of certain rites that led to the celebrants being burned as +witches. Gamble Institute (named after the founder) contains halls, +recreation rooms, a public library and baths. It is said that Gourock +was the first place on the Clyde where herrings were cured. There is +tramway communication with Greenock and Ashton. About 3 m. S.W. there +stands on the shore the familiar beacon of the Cloch. Gourock became a +burgh of barony in 1694. + + + + +GOURVILLE, JEAN HERAULD (1625-1703), French adventurer, was born at La +Rochefoucauld. At the age of eighteen he entered the house of La +Rochefoucauld as a servant, and in 1646 became secretary to Francois de +la Rochefoucauld, author of the _Maximes_. Resourceful and quick-witted, +he rendered services to his master during the Fronde, in his intrigues +with the parliament, the court or the princes. In these negotiations he +made the acquaintance of Conde, whom he wished to help to escape from +the chateau of Vincennes; of Mazarin, for whom he negotiated the +reconciliation with the princes; and of Nicolas Fouquet. After the +Fronde he engaged in financial affairs, thanks to Fouquet. In 1658 he +farmed the _taille_ in Guienne. He bought depreciated _rentes_ and had +them raised to their nominal value by the treasury; he extorted gifts +from the financiers for his protection, being Fouquet's confidant in +many operations of which he shared the profits. In three years he +accumulated an enormous fortune, still further increased by his +unfailing good fortune at cards, playing even with the king. He was +involved in the trial of Fouquet, and in April 1663 was condemned to +death for peculation and embezzlement of public funds; but escaping, was +executed in effigy. He sent a valet one night to take the effigy down +from the gallows in the court of the Palais de Justice, and then fled +the country. He remained five years abroad, being excepted in 1665 from +the amnesty accorded by Louis XIV. to the condemned financiers. Having +returned secretly to France, he entered the service of Conde, who, +unable to meet his creditors, had need of a clever manager to put his +affairs in order. In this way he was able to reappear at court, to +assist at the campaigns of the war with Holland, and to offer himself +for all the delicate negotiations for his master or the king. He +received diplomatic missions in Germany, in Holland, and especially in +Spain, though it was only in 1694, that he was freed from the +condemnation pronounced against him by the chamber of justice. From 1696 +he fell ill and withdrew to his estate, where he dictated to his +secretary, in four months and a half, his _Memoires_, an important +source for the history of his time. In spite of several errors, +introduced purposely, they give a clear idea of the life and morals of a +financier of the age of Fouquet, and throw light on certain points of +the diplomatic history. They were first published in 1724. + + There is a modern edition, with notes, an introduction and appendix, + by Lecestre (Paris, 1894-1895, 2 vols.). + + + + +GOUT, the name rather vaguely given, in medicine, to a constitutional +disorder which manifests itself by inflammation of the joints, with +sometimes deposition of urates of soda, and also by morbid changes in +various important organs. The term gout, which was first used about the +end of the 13th century, is derived through the Fr. _goutte_ from the +Lat. _gutta_, a drop, in allusion to the old pathological doctrine of +the dropping of a morbid material from the blood within the joints. The +disease was known and described by the ancient Greek physicians under +various terms, which, however, appear to have been applied by them alike +to rheumatism and gout. The general term _arthritis_ ([Greek: arthron], +a joint) was employed when many joints were the seat of inflammation; +while in those instances where the disease was limited to one part the +terms used bore reference to such locality; hence _podagra_ ([Greek: +podagra], from [Greek: pous], the foot, and [Greek: hagra], a seizure), +_chiragra_ ([Greek: cheir], the hand), _gonagra_ ([Greek: gonu], the +knee), &c. + +Hippocrates in his _Aphorisms_ speaks of gout as occurring most commonly +in spring and autumn, and mentions the fact that women are less liable +to it than men. He also gives directions as to treatment. Celsus gives a +similar account of the disease. Galen regarded gout as an unnatural +accumulation of humours in a part, and the chalk-stones as the +concretions of these, and he attributed the disease to over-indulgence +and luxury. Gout is alluded to in the works of Ovid and Pliny, and +Seneca, in his 95th epistle, mentions the prevalence of gout among the +Roman ladies of his day as one of the results of their high living and +debauchery. Lucian, in his _Tragopodagra_, gives an amusing account of +the remedies employed for the cure of gout. + +In all times this disease has engaged a large share of the attention of +physicians, from its wide prevalence and from the amount of suffering +which it entails. Sydenham, the famous English physician of the 17th +century, wrote an important treatise on the subject, and his description +of the gouty paroxysm, all the more vivid from his having himself been +afflicted with the disease for thirty-four years, is still quoted by +writers as the most graphic and exhaustive account of the symptomatology +of gout. Subsequently Cullen, recognizing gout as capable of manifesting +itself in various ways, divided the disease into _regular gout_, which +affects the joints only, and _irregular gout_, where the gouty +disposition exhibits itself in other forms; and the latter variety he +subdivided into _atonic gout_, where the most prominent symptoms are +throughout referable to the stomach and alimentary canal; _retrocedent +gout_, where the inflammatory attack suddenly disappears from an +affected joint and serious disturbance takes place in some internal +organ, generally the stomach or heart; and _misplaced gout_, where from +the first the disease does not appear externally, but reveals itself by +an inflammatory attack of some internal part. Dr Garrod, one of the most +eminent authorities on gout, adopted a division somewhat similar to, +though simpler than that of Cullen, namely, _regular gout_, which +affects the joints alone, and is either acute or chronic, and _irregular +gout_, affecting non-articular tissues, or disturbing the functions of +various organs. + +It is often stated that the attack of gout comes on without any previous +warning; but, while this is true in many instances, the reverse is +probably as frequently the case, and the premonitory symptoms, +especially in those who have previously suffered from the disease, may +be sufficiently precise to indicate the impending seizure. Among the +more common of these may be mentioned marked disorders of the digestive +organs, with a feeble and capricious appetite, flatulence and pain after +eating, and uneasiness in the right side in the region of the liver. A +remarkable tendency to gnashing of the teeth is sometimes observed. This +symptom was first noticed by Dr Graves, who connected it with irritation +in the urinary organs, which also is present as one of the premonitory +indications of the gouty attack. Various forms of nervous disturbance +also present themselves in the form of general discomfort, extreme +irritability of temper, and various perverted sensations, such as that +of numbness and coldness in the limbs. These symptoms may persist for +many days and then undergo amelioration immediately before the impending +paroxysm. On the night of the attack the patient retires to rest +apparently well, but about two or three o'clock in the morning awakes +with a painful feeling in the foot, most commonly in the ball of the +great toe, but it may be in the instep or heel, or in the thumb. With +the pain there often occurs a distinct shivering followed by +feverishness. The pain soon becomes of the most agonizing character: in +the words of Sydenham, "now it is a violent stretching and tearing of +the ligaments, now it is a gnawing pain, and now a pressure and +tightening; so exquisite and lively meanwhile is the part affected that +it cannot bear the weight of the bedclothes, nor the jar of a person +walking in the room." + +When the affected part is examined it is found to be swollen and of a +deep red hue. The superjacent skin is tense and glistening, and the +surrounding veins are more or less distended. After a few hours there is +a remission of the pain, slight perspiration takes place, and the +patient may fall asleep. The pain may continue moderate during the day +but returns as night advances, and the patient goes through a similar +experience of suffering to that of the previous night, followed with a +like abatement towards morning. These nocturnal exacerbations occur with +greater or less severity during the continuance of the attack, which +generally lasts for a week or ten days. As the symptoms decline the +swelling and tenderness of the affected joint abate, but the skin over +it pits on pressure for a time, and with this there is often associated +slight desquamation of the cuticle. During the attacks there is much +constitutional disturbance. The patient is restless and extremely +irritable, and suffers from cramp in the limbs and from dyspepsia, +thirst and constipation. The urine is scanty and high-coloured, with a +copious deposit, consisting chiefly of urates. During the continuance of +the symptoms the inflammation may leave the one foot and affect the +other, or both may suffer at the same time. After the attack is over the +patient feels quite well and fancies himself better than he had been for +a long time before; hence the once popular notion that a fit of the gout +was capable of removing all other ailments. Any such idea, however, is +sadly belied in the experience of most sufferers from this disease. It +is rare that the first is the only attack of gout, and another is apt to +occur within a year, although by care and treatment it may be warded +off. The disease, however, undoubtedly tends to take a firmer hold on +the constitution and to return. In the earlier recurrences the same +joints as were formerly the seat of the gouty inflammation suffer again, +but in course of time others become implicated, until in advanced cases +scarcely any articulation escapes, and the disease thus becomes chronic. +It is to be noticed that when gout assumes this form the frequently +recurring attacks are usually attended with less pain than the earlier +ones, but their disastrous effects are evidenced alike by the +disturbance of various important organs, especially the stomach, liver, +kidneys and heart, and by the remarkable changes which take place in the +joints from the formation of the so-called chalk-stones or tophi. These +deposits, which are highly characteristic of gout, appear at first to +take place in the form of a semifluid material, consisting for the most +part of urate of soda, which gradually becomes more dense, and +ultimately quite hard. When any quantity of this is deposited in the +structures of a joint the effect is to produce stiffening, and, as +deposits appear to take place to a greater or less amount in connexion +with every attack, permanent thickening and deformity of the parts is +apt to be the consequence. The extent of this depends, of course, on the +amount of the deposits, which, however, would seem to be in no necessary +relation to the severity of the attack, being in some cases even of +chronic gout so slight as to be barely appreciable externally, but on +the other hand occasionally causing great enlargement of the joints, and +fixing them in a flexed or extended position which renders them entirely +useless. Dr Garrod describes the appearance of a hand in an extreme case +of this kind, and likens its shape to a bundle of French carrots with +their heads forward, the nails corresponding to the stalks. Any of the +joints may be thus affected, but most commonly those of the hands and +feet. The deposits take place in other structures besides those of +joints, such as along the course of tendons, underneath the skin and +periosteum, in the sclerotic coat of the eye, and especially on the +cartilages of the external ear. When largely deposited in joints an +abscess sometimes forms, the skin gives way, and the concretion is +exposed. Sir Thomas Watson quotes a case of this kind where the patient +when playing at cards was accustomed to chalk the score of the game upon +the table with his gouty knuckles. + +The recognition of what is termed irregular gout is less easy than that +form above described, where the disease gives abundant external evidence +of its presence; but that other parts than joints suffer from gouty +attacks is beyond question. The diagnosis may often be made in cases +where in an attack of ordinary gout the disease suddenly leaves the +affected joints and some new series of symptoms arises. It has been +often observed when cold has been applied to an inflamed joint that the +pain and inflammation in the part ceased, but that some sudden and +alarming seizure referable to the stomach, brain, heart or lungs +supervened. Such attacks, which correspond to what is termed by Cullen +retrocedent gout, often terminate favourably, more especially if the +disease again returns to the joints. Further, the gouty nature of some +long-continued internal or cutaneous disorder may be rendered apparent +by its disappearance on the outbreak of the paroxysm in the joints. +Gout, when of long standing, is often found associated with degenerative +changes in the heart and large arteries, the liver, and especially the +kidneys, which are apt to assume the contracted granular condition +characteristic of one of the forms of Bright's disease. A variety of +urinary calculus--the uric acid--formed by concretions of this substance +in the kidneys is a not unfrequent occurrence in connexion with gout; +hence the well-known association of this disease and gravel. + +The pathology of gout is discussed in the article on METABOLIC DISEASES. +Many points, however, still remain unexplained. As remarked by +Trousseau, "the production in excess of uric acid and urates is a +pathological phenomenon inherent like all others in the disease; and +like all the others it is dominated by a specific cause, which we know +only by its effects, and which we term the gouty diathesis." This +subject of diathesis (habit, or organic predisposition of individuals), +which is regarded as an essential element in the pathology of gout, +naturally suggests the question as to whether, besides being inherited, +such a peculiarity may also be acquired, and this leads to a +consideration of the causes which are recognized as influential in +favouring the occurrence of this disease. + +It is beyond dispute that gout is in a marked degree hereditary, fully +more than half the number of cases being, according to Sir C. Scudamore +and Dr Garrod, of this character. But it is no less certain that there +are habits and modes of life the observance of which may induce the +disease even where no hereditary tendencies can be traced, and the +avoidance of which may, on the other hand, go far towards weakening or +neutralizing the influence of inherited liability. Gout is said to +affect the sedentary more readily than the active. If, however, +inadequate exercise be combined with a luxurious manner of living, with +habitual over-indulgence in animal food and rich dishes, and especially +in alcoholic beverages, then undoubtedly the chief factors in the +production of the disease are present. + +Much has been written upon the relative influence of various forms of +alcoholic drinks in promoting the development of gout. It is generally +stated that fermented are more injurious than distilled liquors, and +that, in particular, the stronger wines, such as port, sherry and +madeira, are much more potent in their gout-producing action than the +lighter class of wines, such as hock, moselle, &c., while malt liquors +are fully as hurtful as strong wines. It seems quite as probable, +however, that over-indulgence in any form of alcohol, when associated +with the other conditions already adverted to, will have very much the +same effect in developing gout. The comparative absence of gout in +countries where spirituous liquors are chiefly used, such as Scotland, +is cited as showing their relatively slight effect in encouraging that +disease; but it is to be noticed that in such countries there is on the +whole a less marked tendency to excess in the other pleasures of the +table, which in no degree less than alcohol are chargeable with inducing +the gouty habit. Gout is not a common disease among the poor and +labouring classes, and when it does occur may often be connected even in +them with errors in living. It is not very rare to meet gout in butlers, +coachmen, &c., who are apt to live luxuriously while leading +comparatively easy lives. + +Gout, it must ever be borne in mind, may also affect persons who observe +the strictest temperance in living, and whose only excesses are in the +direction of over-work, either physical or intellectual. Many of the +great names in history in all times have had their existence embittered +by this malady, and have died from its effects. The influence of +hereditary tendency may often be traced in such instances, and is +doubtless called into activity by the depressing consequences of +over-work. It may, notwithstanding, be affirmed as generally true that +those who lead regular lives, and are moderate in the use of animal food +and alcoholic drinks, or still better abstain from the latter +altogether, are less likely to be the victims of gout even where an +undoubted inherited tendency exists. + +Gout is more common in mature age than in the earlier years of life, the +greatest number of cases in one decennial period being between the ages +of thirty and forty, next between twenty and thirty, and thirdly between +forty and fifty. It may occasionally affect very young persons; such +cases are generally regarded as hereditary, but, so far as diet is +concerned, it has to be remembered that their home life has probably +been a predisposing cause. After middle life gout rarely appears for the +first time. Women are much less the subjects of gout than men, +apparently from their less exposure to the influences (excepting, of +course, that of heredity) which tend to develop the disease, and +doubtless also from the differing circumstances of their physical +constitution. It most frequently appears in females after the cessation +of the menses. Persons exposed to the influence of lead poisoning, such +as plumbers, painters, &c., are apt to suffer from gout; and it would +seem that impregnation of the system with this metal markedly interferes +with the uric acid excreting function of the kidneys. + +Attacks of gout are readily excited in those predisposed to the disease. +Exposure to cold, disorders of digestion, fatigue, and irritation or +injuries of particular joints will often precipitate the gouty paroxysm. + +With respect to the treatment of gout the greatest variety of opinion +has prevailed and practice been pursued, from the numerous quaint +nostrums detailed by Lucian to the "expectant" or do-nothing system +recommended by Sydenham. But gout, although, as has been shown, a malady +of a most severe and intractable character, may nevertheless be +successfully dealt with by appropriate medicinal and hygienic measures. +The general plan of treatment can be here only briefly indicated. During +the acute attack the affected part should be kept at perfect rest, and +have applied to it warm opiate fomentations or poultices, or, what +answers quite as well, be enveloped in cotton wool covered in with oil +silk. The diet of the patient should be light, without animal food or +stimulants. The administration of some simple laxative will be of +service, as well as the free use of alkaline diuretics, such as the +bicarbonate or acetate of potash. The medicinal agent most relied on for +the relief of pain is colchicum, which manifestly exercises a powerful +action on the disease. This drug (_Colchicum autumnale_), which is +believed to correspond to the hermodactyl of the ancients, has proved of +such efficacy in modifying the attacks that, as observed by Dr Garrod, +"we may safely assert that colchicum possesses as specific a control +over the gouty inflammation as cinchona barks or their alkaloids over +intermittent fever." It is usually administered in the form of the wine +in doses of 10 to 30 drops every four or six hours, or in pill as the +acetous extract (gr. 1/2-gr. i.). The effect of colchicum in subduing the +pain of gout is generally so prompt and marked that it is unnecessary to +have recourse to opiates; but its action requires to be carefully +watched by the physician from its well-known nauseating and depressing +consequences, which, should they appear, render the suspension of the +drug necessary. Otherwise the remedy may be continued in gradually +diminishing doses for some days after the disappearance of the gouty +inflammation. Should gout give evidence of its presence in an irregular +form by attacking internal organs, besides the medicinal treatment above +mentioned, the use of frictions and mustard applications to the joints +is indicated with the view of exciting its appearance there. When gout +has become chronic, colchicum, although of less service than in acute +gout, is yet valuable, particularly when the inflammatory attacks recur. +More benefit, however, appears to be derived from potassium iodide, +guaiacum, the alkalis potash and lithia, and from the administration of +aspirin and sodium salicylate. Salicylate of menthol is an effective +local application, painted on and covered with a gutta-percha bandage. +Lithia was strongly recommended by Dr Garrod from its solvent action +upon the urates. It is usually administered in the form of the carbonate +(gr. v., freely diluted). + +The treatment and regimen to be employed in the intervals of the gouty +attacks are of the highest importance. These bear reference for the most +part to the habits and mode of life of the patient. Restriction must be +laid upon the amount and quality of the food, and equally, or still +more, upon the alcoholic stimulants. "The instances," says Sir Thomas +Watson, "are not few of men of good sense, and masters of themselves, +who, being warned by one visitation of the gout, have thenceforward +resolutely abstained from rich living and from wine and strong drinks of +all kinds, and who have been rewarded for their prudence and self-denial +by complete immunity from any return of the disease, or upon whom, at +any rate, its future assaults have been few and feeble." The same +eminent authority adds: "I am sure it is worth any _young_ man's while, +who has had the gout, to become a teetotaller." By those more advanced +in life who, from long continued habit, are unable entirely to +relinquish the use of stimulants, the strictest possible temperance must +be observed. Regular but moderate exercise in the form of walking or +riding, in the case of those who lead sedentary lives, is of great +advantage, and all over-work, either physical or mental, should be +avoided. _Fatiguez la bete, et reposez la tete_ is the maxim of an +experienced French doctor (Dr Debout d'Estrees of Contrexeville). +Unfortunately the complete carrying out of such directions, even by +those who feel their importance, is too often rendered difficult or +impossible by circumstances of occupation and otherwise, and at most +only an approximation can be made. Certain mineral waters and baths +(such as those of Vichy, Royat, Contrexeville, &c.) are of undoubted +value in cases of gout and arthritis. The particular place must in each +case be determined by the physician, and special caution must be +observed in recommending this plan of treatment in persons whose gout is +complicated by organic disease of any kind. + + Dr Alexander Haig's "uric acid free diet" has found many adherents. + His view as regards the pathology is that in gouty persons the blood + is less alkaline than in normal, and therefore less able to hold in + solution uric acid or its salts, which are retained in the joints. + Assuming gout to be a poisoning by animal food (meat, fish, eggs), and + by tea, coffee, cocoa and other vegetable alkaloid-containing + substances, he recommends an average daily diet excluding these, and + containing 24 oz. of breadstuffs (toast, bread, biscuits and puddings) + together with 24 oz. of fruit and vegetables (excluding peas, beans, + lentils, mushrooms and asparagus); 8 oz. of the breadstuffs may be + replaced by 21 oz. of milk or 2 oz. of cheese, butter and oil being + taken as required, so that it is not strictly a vegetarian diet. + + Precisely the opposite view as to diet has recently been put forward + by Professor A. Robin of the Hopital Beaujon, who says serious + mistakes are made in ordering patients to abstain from red meats and + take light food, fish, eggs, &c. The common object in view is the + diminished output of uric acid. This output is chiefly obtained from + food rich in nucleins and in collagenous matters, i.e. young white + meats, eggs, &c. Consequently the gouty subject ought to restrict + himself to the consumption of red meat, beef and mutton, and leave out + of his dietary all white meat and internal organs. He should take + little hydrocarbons and sugars, and be moderate in fats. Vegetarian + diet he regards as a mistake, likewise milk diet, as they tend to + weaken the patient. To prevent the formation of uric acid Robin + prescribes quinic acid combined with formine or urotropine. + + + + +GOUTHIERE, PIERRE (1740-1806), French metal worker, was born at Troyes +and went to Paris at an early age as the pupil of Martin Cour. During +his brilliant career he executed a vast quantity of metal work of the +utmost variety, the best of which was unsurpassed by any of his rivals +in that great art period. It was long believed that he received many +commissions for furniture from the court of Louis XVI., and especially +from Marie Antoinette, but recent searches suggest that his work for the +queen was confined to bronzes. Gouthiere can, however, well bear this +loss, nor will his reputation suffer should those critics ultimately be +justified who believe that many of the furniture mounts attributed to +him were from the hand of Thomire. But if he did not work for the court +he unquestionably produced many of the most splendid belongings of the +duc d'Aumont, the duchesse de Mazarin and Mme du Barry. Indeed the +custom of the beautiful mistress of Louis XV. brought about the +financial ruin of the great artist, who accomplished more than any other +man for the fame of her chateau of Louveciennes. When the collection of +the duc d'Aumont was sold by auction in Paris in 1782 so many objects +mounted by Gouthiere were bought for Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette +that it is not difficult to perceive the basis of the belief that they +were actually made for the court. The duc's sale catalogue is, however, +in existence, with the names of the purchasers and the prices realized. +The auction was almost an apotheosis of Gouthiere. The precious lacquer +cabinets, the chandeliers and candelabra, the tables and cabinets in +marquetry, the columns and vases in porphyry, jasper and choice marbles, +the porcelains of China and Japan were nearly all mounted in bronze by +him. More than fifty of these pieces bore Gouthiere's signature. The duc +d'Aumont's cabinet represented the high-water mark of the chaser's art, +and the great prices which were paid for Gouthiere's work at this sale +are the most conclusive criterion of the value set upon his achievement +in his own day. Thus Marie Antoinette paid 12,000 livres for a red +jasper bowl or _brule-parfums_ mounted by him, which was then already +famous. Curiously enough it commanded only one-tenth of that price at +the Fournier sale in 1831; but in 1865, when the marquis of Hertford +bought it at the prince de Beauvais's sale, it fetched 31,900 francs. It +is now in the Wallace Collection, which contains the finest and most +representative gathering of Gouthiere's undoubted work. The mounts of +gilt bronze, cast and elaborately chased, show satyrs' heads, from which +hang festoons of vine leaves, while within the feet a serpent is coiled +to spring. A smaller cup is one of the treasures of the Louvre. There +too is a bronze clock, signed by "Gouthiere, _cizileur et doreur du Roy +a Paris_," dated 1771, with a river god, a water nymph symbolizing the +Rhone and its tributary the Durance, and a female figure typifying the +city of Avignon. Not all of Gouthiere's work is of the highest quality, +and much of what he executed was from the designs of others. At his best +his delicacy, refinement and finish are exceedingly delightful--in his +great moments he ranks with the highest alike as artist and as +craftsman. The tone of soft dead gold which is found on some of his +mounts he is believed to have invented, but indeed the gilding of all +his superlative work possesses a remarkable quality. This charm of tone +is admirably seen in the bronzes and candelabra which he executed for +the chimney-piece of Marie Antoinette's boudoir at Fontainebleau. He +continued to embellish Louveciennes for Madame du Barry until the +Revolution, and then the guillotine came for her and absolute ruin for +him. When her property was seized she owed him 756,000 livres, of which +he never received a sol, despite repeated applications to the +administrators. "_Reduit a solliciter une place a l'hospice, il mourut +dans la misere._" So it was stated in a lawsuit brought by his sons +against du Barry's heirs. + + + + +GOUVION SAINT-CYR, LAURENT, MARQUIS DE (1764-1830), French marshal, was +born at Toul on the 13th of April 1764. At the age of eighteen he went +to Rome with the view of prosecuting the study of painting, but although +he continued his artistic studies after his return to Paris in 1784 he +never definitely adopted the profession of a painter. In 1792 he was +chosen a captain in a volunteer battalion, and served on the staff of +General Custine. Promotion rapidly followed, and in the course of two +years he had become a general of division. In 1796 he commanded the +centre division of Moreau's army in the campaign of the Rhine, and by +coolness and sagacity greatly aided him in the celebrated retreat from +Bavaria to the Rhine. In 1798 he succeeded Massena in the command of the +army of Italy. In the following year he commanded the left wing of +Jourdan's army in Germany; but when Jourdan was succeeded by Massena, he +joined the army of Moreau in Italy, where he distinguished himself in +face of the great difficulties that followed the defeat of Novi. When +Moreau, in 1800, was appointed to the command of the army of the Rhine, +Gouvion St-Cyr was named his principal lieutenant, and on the 9th of May +gained a victory over General Kray at Biberach. He was not, however, on +good terms with his commander and retired to France after the first +operations of the campaign. In 1801 he was sent to Spain to command the +army intended for the invasion of Portugal, and was named grand officer +of the Legion of Honour. When a treaty of peace was shortly afterwards +concluded with Portugal, he succeeded Lucien Bonaparte as ambassador at +Madrid. In 1803 he was appointed to the command of an army corps in +Italy, in 1805 he served with distinction under Massena, and in 1806 was +engaged in the campaign in southern Italy. He took part in the Prussian +and Polish campaigns of 1807, and in 1808, in which year he was made a +count, he commanded an army corps in Catalonia; but, not wishing to +comply with certain orders he received from Paris (for which see Oman, +_Peninsular War_, vol. iii.), he resigned his command and remained in +disgrace till 1811. He was still a general of division, having been +excluded from the first list of marshals owing to his action in refusing +to influence the troops in favour of the establishment of the Empire. On +the opening of the Russian campaign he received command of an army +corps, and on the 18th of August 1812 obtained a victory over the +Russians at Polotsk, in recognition of which he was created a marshal of +France. He received a severe wound in one of the actions during the +general retreat. St-Cyr distinguished himself at the battle of Dresden +(August 26-27, 1813), and in the defence of that place against the +Allies after the battle of Leipzig, capitulating only on the 11th of +November, when Napoleon had retreated to the Rhine. On the restoration +of the Bourbons he was created a peer of France, and in July 1815 was +appointed war minister, but resigned his office in the November +following. In June 1817 he was appointed minister of marine, and in +September following again resumed the duties of war minister, which he +continued to discharge till November 1819. During this time he effected +many reforms, particularly in respect of measures tending to make the +army a national rather than a dynastic force. He exerted himself also to +safeguard the rights of the old soldiers of the Empire, organized the +general staff and revised the code of military law and the pension +regulations. He was made a marquess in 1817. He died at Hyeres (Var) on +the 17th of March 1830. Gouvion St-Cyr would doubtless have obtained +better opportunities of acquiring distinction had he shown himself more +blindly devoted to the interests of Napoleon, but Napoleon paid him the +high compliment of referring to his "military genius," and entrusted him +with independent commands in secondary theatres of war. It is doubtful, +however, if he possessed energy commensurate with his skill, and in +Napoleon's modern conception of war, as three parts moral to one +technical, there was more need for the services of a bold leader of +troops whose "doctrine"--to use the modern phrase--predisposed him to +self-sacrificing and vigorous action, than for a _savant_ in the art of +war of the type of St-Cyr. Contemporary opinion, as reflected by Marbot, +did justice to his "commanding talents," but remarked the indolence +which was the outward sign of the vague complexity of a mind that had +passed beyond the simplicity of mediocrity without attaining the +simplicity of genius. + + He was the author of the following works, all of the highest value: + _Journal des operations de l'armee de Catalogne en 1808 et 1809_ + (Paris, 1821); _Memoires sur les campagnes des armees de Rhin et de + Rhin-et-Moselle de 1794 a 1797_ (Paris, 1829); and _Memoires pour + servir a l'histoire militaire sous le Directoire, le Consulat, et + l'Empire_ (1831). + + See Gay de Vernon's _Vie de Gouvion Saint-Cyr_ (1857). + + + + +GOVAN, a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire, Scotland. It lies on +the south bank of the Clyde in actual contact with Glasgow, and in a +parish of the same name which includes a large part of the city on both +sides of the river. Pop. (1891) 61,589; (1901) 76,532. Govan remained +little more than a village till 1860, when the growth of shipbuilding +and allied trades gave its development an enormous impetus. Among its +public buildings are the municipal chambers, combination fever hospital, +Samaritan hospital and reception houses for the poor. Elder Park (40 +acres) presented to the burgh in 1885 contains a statue of John Elder +(1824-1869), the pioneer shipbuilder, the husband of the donor. A statue +of Sir William Pearce (1833-1888), another well-known Govan shipbuilder, +once M.P. for the burgh, stands at Govan Cross. The Govan lunacy board +opened in 1896 an asylum near Paisley. Govan is supplied with Glasgow +gas and water, and its tramways are leased by the Glasgow corporation; +but it has an electric light installation of its own, and performs all +other municipal functions quite independently of the city, annexation to +which it has always strenuously resisted. Prince's Dock lies within its +bounds and the shipbuilding yards have turned out many famous ironclads +and liners. Besides shipbuilding its other industries are match-making, +silk-weaving, hair-working, copper-working, tube-making, weaving, and +the manufacture of locomotives and electrical apparatus. The town forms +the greater part of the Govan division of Lanarkshire, which returns one +member to parliament. + + + + +GOVERNMENT (O. Fr. _governement_, mod. _gouvernement_, O. Fr. +_governer_, mod. _gouverner_, from Lat. _gubernare_, to steer a ship, +guide, rule; cf. Gr. [Greek: kubernan]), in its widest sense, the ruling +power in a political society. In every society of men there is a +determinate body (whether consisting of one individual or a few or many +individuals) whose commands the rest of the community are bound to obey. +This sovereign body is what in more popular phrase is termed the +government of the country, and the varieties which may exist in its +constitution are known as forms of government. For the opposite theory +of a community with "no government," see ANARCHISM. + +How did government come into existence? Various answers to this question +have at times been given, which may be distinguished broadly into three +classes. The first class would comprehend the legendary accounts which +nations have given in primitive times of their own forms of government. +These are always attributed to the mind of a single lawgiver. The +government of Sparta was the invention of Lycurgus. Solon, Moses, Numa +and Alfred in like manner shaped the government of their respective +nations. There was no curiosity about the institutions of other +nations--about the origin of governments in general; and each nation was +perfectly ready to accept the traditional [Greek: nomothetai] of any +other. + +The second may be called the logical or metaphysical account of the +origin of government. It contained no overt reference to any particular +form of government, whatever its covert references may have been. It +answered the question, how government in general came into existence; +and it answered it by a logical analysis of the elements of society. The +phenomenon to be accounted for being government and laws, it abstracted +government and laws, and contemplated mankind as existing without them. +The characteristic feature of this kind of speculation is that it +reflects how contemporary men would behave if all government were +removed, and infers that men must have behaved so before government came +into existence. Society without government resolves itself into a number +of individuals each following his own aims, and therefore, in the days +before government, each man followed his own aims. It is easy to see how +this kind of reasoning should lead to very different views of the nature +of the supposed original state. With Hobbes, it is a state of war, and +government is the result of an agreement among men to keep the peace. +With Locke, it is a state of liberty and equality,--it is not a state of +war; it is governed by its own law,--the law of nature, which is the +same thing as the law of reason. The state of nature is brought to an +end by the voluntary agreement of individuals to surrender their natural +liberty and submit themselves to one supreme government. In the words of +Locke, "Men being by nature all free, equal and independent, no one can +be put out of this estate and subjected to the political power of +another without his own consent. The only way whereby any one divests +himself of his natural liberty, and puts on the _bonds of civil +society_, is by agreeing with other men to join and unite into a +community" (_On Civil Government_, c. viii.). Locke boldly defends his +theory as founded on historical fact, and it is amusing to compare his +demonstration of the baselessness of Sir R. Filmer's speculations with +the scanty and doubtful examples which he accepts as the foundation of +his own. But in general the various forms of the hypothesis eliminate +the question of time altogether. The original contract from which +government sprang is likewise the subsisting contract on which civil +society continues to be based. The historical weakness of the theory was +probably always recognized. Its logical inadequacy was conclusively +demonstrated by John Austin. But it still clings to speculations on the +principles of government. + +The "social compact" (see ROUSSEAU) is the most famous of the +metaphysical explanations of government. It has had the largest history, +the widest influence and the most complete development. To the same +class belong the various forms of the theory that governments exist by +divine appointment. Of all that has been written about the divine right +of kings, a great deal must be set down to the mere flatteries of +courtiers and ecclesiastics. But there remains a genuine belief that men +are bound to obey their rulers because their rulers have been appointed +by God. Like the social compact, the theory of divine appointment +avoided the question of historical fact. + +The application of the historical method to the phenomena of society has +changed the aspect of the question and robbed it of its political +interest. The student of the history of society has no formula to +express the law by which government is born. All that he can do is to +trace governmental forms through various stages of social development. +The more complex and the larger the society, the more distinct is the +separation between the governing part and the rest, and the more +elaborate is the subdivision of functions in the government. The +primitive type of ruler is king, judge, priest and general. At the same +time, his way of life differs little from that of his followers and +subjects. The metaphysical theories were so far right in imputing +greater equality of social conditions to more primitive times. Increase +of bulk brings with it a more complex social organization. War tends to +develop the strength of the governmental organization; peace relaxes it. +All societies of men exhibit the germs of government; but there would +appear to be races of men so low that they cannot be said to live +together in society at all. Modern investigations have illustrated very +fully the importance of the family (q.v.) in primitive societies, and +the belief in a common descent has much to do with the social cohesion +of a tribe. The government of a tribe resembles the government of a +household; the head of the family is the ruler. But we cannot affirm +that political government has its origin in family government, or that +there may not have been states of society in which government of some +sort existed while the family did not. + + +I. FORMS OF GOVERNMENT + +_Three Standard Forms._--Political writers from the time of Aristotle +have been singularly unanimous in their classification of the forms of +government. There are three ways in which states may be governed. They +may be governed by one man, or by a number of men, small in proportion +to the whole number of men in the state, or by a number large in +proportion to the whole number of men in the state. The government may +be a monarchy, an aristocracy or a democracy. The same terms are used by +John Austin as were used by Aristotle, and in very nearly the same +sense. The determining quality in governments in both writers, and it +may safely be said in all intermediate writers, is the numerical +relation between the constituent members of the government and the +population of the state. There were, of course, enormous differences +between the state-systems present to the mind of the Greek philosopher +and the English jurist. Aristotle was thinking of the small independent +states of Greece, Austin of the great peoples of modern Europe. The unit +of government in the one case was a city, in the other a nation. This +difference is of itself enough to invalidate all generalization founded +on the common terminology. But on one point there is a complete parallel +between the politics of Aristotle and the politics of Austin. The Greek +cities were to the rest of the world very much what European nations and +European colonies are to the rest of the world now. They were the only +communities in which the governed visibly took some share in the work of +government. Outside the European system, as outside the Greek system, we +have only the stereotyped uniformity of despotism, whether savage or +civilized. The question of forms of government, therefore, belongs +characteristically to the European races. The virtues and defects of +monarchy, aristocracy and democracy are the virtues and defects +manifested by the historical governments of Europe. The generality of +the language used by political writers must not blind us to the fact +that they are thinking only of a comparatively small portion of mankind. + +_Greek Politics._--Aristotle divides governments according to two +principles. In all states the governing power seeks either its own +advantage or the advantage of the whole state, and the government is bad +or good accordingly. In all states the governing power is one man, or a +few men or many men. Hence six varieties of government, three of which +are bad and three good. Each excellent form has a corresponding depraved +form, thus:-- + + The good government of one (Monarchy) corresponds to the depraved form + (Tyranny). + + The good government of few (Aristocracy) corresponds to the depraved + form (Oligarchy). + + The good government of many (Commonwealth) corresponds to the depraved + form (Democracy). + +The fault of the depraved forms is that the governors act unjustly where +their own interests are concerned. The worst of the depraved forms is +tyranny, the next oligarchy and the least bad democracy.[1] Each of the +three leading types exhibits a number of varieties. Thus in monarchy we +have the heroic, the barbaric, the elective dictatorship, the +Lacedemonian (hereditary generalship, [Greek: strategia]), and absolute +monarchy. So democracy and oligarchy exhibit four corresponding +varieties. The best type of democracy is that of a community mainly +agricultural, whose citizens, therefore, have not leisure for political +affairs, and allow the law to rule. The best oligarchy is that in which +a considerable number of small proprietors have the power; here, too, +the laws prevail. The worst democracy consists of a larger citizen class +having leisure for politics; and the worst oligarchy is that of a small +number of very rich and influential men. In both the sphere of law is +reduced to a minimum. A good government is one in which as much as +possible is left to the laws, and as little as possible to the will of +the governor. + +The _Politics_ of Aristotle, from which these principles are taken, +presents a striking picture of the variety and activity of political +life in the free communities of Greece. The king and council of heroic +times had disappeared, and self-government in some form or other was the +general rule. It is to be noticed, however, that the governments of +Greece were essentially unstable. The political philosophers could lay +down the law of development by which one form of government gives birth +to another. Aristotle devotes a large portion of his work to the +consideration of the causes of revolutions. The dread of tyranny was +kept alive by the facility with which an over-powerful and unscrupulous +citizen could seize the whole machinery of government. Communities +oscillated between some form of oligarchy and some form of democracy. +The security of each was constantly imperilled by the conspiracies of +the opposing factions. Hence, although political life exhibits that +exuberant variety of form and expression which characterizes all the +intellectual products of Greece, it lacks the quality of persistent +progress. Then there was no approximation to a national government, even +of the federal type. The varying confederacies and hegemonies are the +nearest approach to anything of the kind. What kind of national +government would ultimately have arisen if Greece had not been crushed +it is needless to conjecture; the true interest of Greek politics lies +in the fact that the free citizens were, in the strictest sense of the +word, self-governed. Each citizen took his turn at the common business +of the state. He spoke his own views in the agora, and from time to time +in his own person acted as magistrate or judge. Citizenship in Athens +was a liberal education, such as it never can be made under any +representative system. + +_The Government of Rome._--During the whole period of freedom the +government of Rome was, in theory at least, municipal self-government. +Each citizen had a right to vote laws in his own person in the comitia +of the centuries or the tribes. The administrative powers of government +were, however, in the hands of a bureaucratic assembly, recruited from +the holders of high public office. The senate represented capacity and +experience rather than rank and wealth. Without some such instrument the +city government of Rome could never have made the conquest of the world. +The gradual extension of the citizenship to other Italians changed the +character of Roman government. The distant citizens could not come to +the voting booths; the device of representation was not discovered; and +the comitia fell into the power of the town voters. In the last stage of +the Roman republic, the inhabitants of one town wielded the resources of +a world-wide empire. We can imagine what would be the effect of leaving +to the people of London or Paris the supreme control of the British +empire or of France,--irresistible temptation, inevitable corruption. +The rabble of the capital learn to live on the rest of the empire.[2] +The favour of the effeminate masters of the world is purchased by _panem +et circenses_. That capable officers and victorious armies should long +be content to serve such masters was impossible. A conspiracy of +generals placed itself at the head of affairs, and the most capable of +them made himself sole master. Under Caesar, Augustus and Tiberius, the +Roman people became habituated to a new form of government, which is +best described by the name of Caesarism. The outward forms of republican +government remained, but one man united in his own person all the +leading offices, and used them to give a seemingly legal title to what +was essentially military despotism. There is no more interesting +constitutional study than the chapters in which Tacitus traces the +growth of the new system under the subtle and dissimulating intellect of +Tiberius. The new Roman empire was as full of fictions as the English +constitution of the present day. The master of the world posed as the +humble servant of a menial senate. Deprecating the outward symbols of +sovereignty, he was satisfied with the modest powers of a consul or a +tribunus plebis. The reign of Tiberius, little capable as he was by +personal character of captivating the favour of the multitude, did more +for imperialism than was done by his more famous predecessors. +Henceforward free government all over the world lay crushed beneath the +military despotism of Rome. Caesarism remained true to the character +imposed upon it by its origin. The Caesar was an elective not an +hereditary king. The real foundation of his power was the army, and the +army in course of time openly assumed the right of nominating the +sovereign. The characteristic weakness of the Roman empire was the +uncertainty of the succession. The nomination of a Caesar in the +lifetime of the emperor was an ineffective remedy. Rival emperors were +elected by different armies; and nothing less than the force of arms +could decide the question between them. + +_Modern Governments._--_Feudalism._--The Roman empire bequeathed to +modern Europe the theory of universal dominion. The nationalities which +grew up after its fall arranged themselves on the basis of territorial +sovereignty. Leaving out of account the free municipalities of the +middle ages, the problem of government had now to be solved, not for +small urban communities, but for large territorial nations. The medieval +form of government was feudal. One common type pervaded all the +relations of life. The relation of king and lord was like the relation +between lord and vassal (see FEUDALISM). The bond between them was the +tenure of land. In England there had been, before the Norman Conquest, +an approximation to a feudal system. In the earlier English +constitution, the most striking features were the power of the witan, +and the common property of the nation in a large portion of the soil. +The steady development of the power of the king kept pace with the +aggregation of the English tribes under one king. The conception that +the land belonged primarily to the people gave way to the conception +that everything belonged primarily to the king.[3] The Norman Conquest +imposed on England the already highly developed feudalism of France, and +out of this feudalism the free governments of modern Europe have grown. +One or two of the leading steps in this process may be indicated here. +The first, and perhaps the most important, was the device of +representation. For an account of its origin, and for instances of its +use in England before its application to politics, we must be content to +refer to Stubbs's _Constitutional History_, vol. ii. The problem of +combining a large area of sovereignty with some degree of +self-government, which had proved fatal to ancient commonwealths, was +henceforward solved. From that time some form of representation has been +deemed essential to every constitution professing, however remotely, to +be free. + +The connexion between representation and the feudal system of estates +must be shortly noticed. The feudal theory gave the king a limited right +to military service and to certain aids, both of which were utterly +inadequate to meet the expenses of the government, especially in time of +war. The king therefore had to get contributions from his people, and he +consulted them in their respective orders. The three estates were simply +the three natural divisions of the people, and Stubbs has pointed out +that, in the occasional treaties between a necessitous king and the +order of merchants or lawyers, we have examples of inchoate estates or +sub-estates of the realm. The right of representation was thus in its +origin a right to consent to taxation. The pure theory of feudalism had +from the beginning been broken by William the Conqueror causing all +free-holders to take an oath of direct allegiance to himself. The +institution of parliaments, and the association of the king's smaller +tenants _in capite_ with other commoners, still further removed the +government from the purely feudal type in which the mesne lord stands +between the inferior vassal and the king. + +_Parliamentary Government._--_The English System._--The right of the +commons to share the power of the king and lords in legislation, the +exclusive right of the commons to impose taxes, the disappearance of the +clergy as a separate order, were all important steps in the movement +towards popular government. The extinction of the old feudal nobility in +the dynastic wars of the 15th century simplified the question by leaving +the crown face to face with parliament. The immediate result was no +doubt an increase in the power of the crown, which probably never stood +higher than it did in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth; but even +these powerful monarchs were studious in their regard for parliamentary +conventionalities. After a long period of speculative controversy and +civil war, the settlement of 1688 established limited monarchy as the +government of England. Since that time the external form of government +has remained unchanged, and, so far as legal description goes, the +constitution of William III. might be taken for the same system as that +which still exists. The silent changes have, however, been enormous. The +most striking of these, and that which has produced the most salient +features of the English system, is the growth of cabinet government. +Intimately connected with this is the rise of the two great historical +parties of English politics. The normal state of government in England +is that the cabinet of the day shall represent that which is, for the +time, the stronger of the two. Before the Revolution the king's +ministers had begun to act as a united body; but even after the +Revolution the union was still feeble and fluctuating, and each +individual minister was bound to the others only by the tie of common +service to the king. Under the Hanoverian sovereigns the ministry became +consolidated, the position of the cabinet became definite, and its +dependence on parliament, and more particularly on the House of Commons, +was established. Ministers were chosen exclusively from one house or the +other, and they assumed complete responsibility for every act done in +the name of the crown. The simplicity of English politics has divided +parliament into the representatives of two parties, and the party in +opposition has been steadied by the consciousness that it, too, has +constitutional functions of high importance, because at any moment it +may be called to provide a ministry. Criticism is sobered by being made +responsible. Along with this movement went the withdrawal of the +personal action of the sovereign in politics. No king has attempted to +veto a bill since the Scottish Militia Bill was vetoed by Queen Anne. No +ministry has been dismissed by the sovereign since 1834. Whatever the +power of the sovereign may be, it is unquestionably limited to his +personal influence over his ministers. And it must be remembered that +since the Reform Act of 1832 ministers have become, in practice, +responsible ultimately, not to parliament, but to the House of Commons. +Apart, therefore, from democratic changes due to a wider suffrage, we +find that the House of Commons, as a body, gradually made itself the +centre of the government. Since the area of the constitution has been +enlarged, it may be doubted whether the orthodox descriptions of the +government any longer apply. The earlier constitutional writers, such as +Blackstone and J. L. Delolme, regard it as a wonderful compound of the +three standard forms,--monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. Each has its +place, and each acts as a check upon the others. Hume, discussing the +question "Whether the British government inclines more to absolute +monarchy or to a republic," decides in favour of the former alternative. +"The tide has run long and with some rapidity to the side of popular +government, and is just beginning to turn toward monarchy." And he gives +it as his own opinion that absolute monarchy would be the easiest death, +the true euthanasia of the British constitution. These views of the +English government in the 18th century may be contrasted with Bagehot's +sketch of the modern government as a working instrument.[4] + +_Leading Features of Parliamentary Government._--The parliamentary +government developed by England out of feudal materials has been +deliberately accepted as the type of constitutional government all over +the world. Its leading features are popular representation more or less +extensive, a bicameral legislature, and a cabinet or consolidated +ministry. In connexion with all of these, numberless questions of the +highest practical importance have arisen, the bare enumeration of which +would surpass the limits of our space. We shall confine ourselves to a +few very general considerations. + +_The Two Chambers._--First, as to the double chamber. This, which is +perhaps more accidental than any other portion of the British system, +has been the most widely imitated. In most European countries, in the +British colonies, in the United States Congress, and in the separate +states of the Union,[5] there are two houses of legislature. This result +has been brought about partly by natural imitation of the accepted type +of free government, partly from a conviction that the second chamber +will moderate the democratic tendencies of the first. But the elements +of the British original cannot be reproduced to order under different +conditions. There have, indeed, been a few attempts to imitate the +special character of hereditary nobility attaching to the British House +of Lords. In some countries, where the feudal tradition is still strong +(e.g. Prussia, Austria, Hungary), the hereditary element in the upper +chambers has survived as truly representative of actual social and +economic relations. But where these social conditions do not obtain +(e.g. in France after the Revolution) the attempt to establish an +hereditary peerage on the British model has always failed. For the +peculiar solidarity between the British nobility and the general mass of +the people, the outcome of special conditions and tendencies, is a +result beyond the power of constitution-makers to attain. The British +system too, after its own way, has for a long period worked without any +serious collision between the Houses,--the standing and obvious danger +of the bicameral system. The actual ministers of the day must possess +the confidence of the House of Commons; they need not--in fact they +often do not--possess the confidence of the House of Lords. It is only +in legislation that the Lower House really shares its powers with the +Upper; and (apart from any such change in the constitution as was +suggested in 1907 by Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman) the constitution +possesses, in the unlimited power of nominating peers, a well-understood +last resource should the House of Lords persist in refusing important +measures demanded by the representatives of the people. In the United +Kingdom it is well understood that the real sovereignty lies with the +people (the electorate), and the House of Lords recognizes the principle +that it must accept a measure when the popular will has been clearly +expressed. In all but measures of first-class importance, however, the +House of Lords is a real second chamber, and in these there is little +danger of a collision between the Houses. There is the widest possible +difference between the British and any other second chamber. In the +United States the Senate (constituted on the system of equal +representation of states) is the more important of the two Houses, and +the only one whose control of the executive can be compared to that +exercised by the British House of Commons. + +The real strength of popular government in England lies in the ultimate +supremacy of the House of Commons. That supremacy had been acquired, +perhaps to its full extent, before the extension of the suffrage made +the constituencies democratic. Foreign imitators, it may be observed, +have been more ready to accept a wide basis of representation than to +confer real power on the representative body. In all the monarchical +countries of Europe, however unrestricted the right of suffrage may be, +the real victory of constitutional government has yet to be won. Where +the suffrage means little or nothing, there is little or no reason for +guarding it against abuse. The independence of the executive in the +United States brings that country, from one point of view, more near to +the state system of the continent of Europe than to that of the United +Kingdom. The people make a more complete surrender of power to the +government (State or Federal) than is done in England. + +_Cabinet Government._--The peculiar functions of the English cabinet are +not easily matched in any foreign system. They are a mystery even to +most educated Englishmen. The cabinet (q.v.) is much more than a body +consisting of chiefs of departments. It is the inner council of the +empire, the arbiter of national policy, foreign or domestic, the +sovereign in commission. The whole power of the House of Commons is +concentrated in its hands. At the same time, it has no place whatever in +the legal constitution. Its numbers and its constitution are not fixed +even by any rule of practice. It keeps no record of its proceedings. The +relations of an individual minister to the cabinet, and of the cabinet +to its head and creator, the premier, are things known only to the +initiated. With the doubtful exception of France, no other system of +government presents us with anything like its equivalent. In the United +States, as in the European monarchies, we have a council of ministers +surrounding the chief of the state. + +_Change of Power in the English System._--One of the most difficult +problems of government is how to provide for the devolution of political +power, and perhaps no other question is so generally and justly applied +as the test of a working constitution. If the transmission works +smoothly, the constitution, whatever may be its other defects, may at +least be pronounced stable. It would be tedious to enumerate all the +contrivances which this problem has suggested to political societies. +Here, as usual, oriental despotism stands at the bottom of the scale. +When sovereign power is imputed to one family, and the law of succession +fails to designate exclusively the individual entitled to succeed, +assassination becomes almost a necessary measure of precaution. The +prince whom chance or intrigue has promoted to the throne of a father or +an uncle must make himself safe from his relatives and competitors. +Hence the scenes which shock the European conscience when "Amurath an +Amurath succeeds." The strong monarchical governments of Europe have +been saved from this evil by an indisputable law of succession, which +marks out from his infancy the next successor to the throne. The king +names his ministers, and the law names the king. In popular or +constitutional governments far more elaborate precautions are required. +It is one of the real merits of the English constitution that it has +solved this problem--in a roundabout way perhaps, after its fashion--but +with perfect success. The ostensible seat of power is the throne, and +down to a time not long distant the demise of the crown suspended all +the other powers of the state. In point of fact, however, the real +change of power occurs on a change of ministry. The constitutional +practice of the 19th century settled, beyond the reach of controversy, +the occasions on which a ministry is bound to retire. It must resign or +dissolve when it is defeated[6] in the House of Commons, and if after a +dissolution it is beaten again, it must resign without alternative. It +may resign if it thinks its majority in the House of Commons not +sufficiently large. The dormant functions of the crown now come into +existence. It receives back political power from the old ministry in +order to transmit it to the new. When the new ministry is to be formed, +and how it is to be formed, is also clearly settled by established +practice. The outgoing premier names his successor by recommending the +king to consult him; and that successor must be the recognized leader of +his successful rivals. All this is a matter of custom, not of law; and +it is doubtful if any two authorities could agree in describing the +custom in language of precision. In theory the monarch may send for any +one he pleases, and charge him with the formation of a government; but +the ability to form a government restricts this liberty to the +recognized head of a party, subject to there being such an individual. +It is certain that the intervention of the crown facilitates the +transfer of power from one party to another, by giving it the appearance +of a mere change of servants. The real disturbance is that caused by the +appeal to the electors. A general election is always a struggle between +the great political parties for the possession of the powers of +government. It may be noted that modern practice goes far to establish +the rule that a ministry beaten at the hustings should resign at once +without waiting for a formal defeat in the House of Commons. + +The English custom makes the ministry dependent on the will of the House +of Commons; and, on the other hand, the House of Commons itself is +dependent on the will of the ministry. In the last result both depend on +the will of the constituencies, as expressed at the general election. +There is no fixity in either direction in the tenure of a ministry. It +may be challenged at any moment, and it lasts until it is challenged and +beaten. And that there should be a ministry and a House of Commons in +harmony with each other but out of harmony with the people is rendered +all but impossible by the law and the practice as to the duration of +parliaments. + +_Change of Power in the United States._--The United States offers a very +different solution of the problem. The American president is at once +king and prime minister; and there is no titular superior to act as a +conduit-pipe between him and his successor. His crown is rigidly fixed; +he can be removed only by the difficult method of impeachment. No +hostile vote on matters of legislation can affect his position. But the +end of his term is known from the first day of his government; and +almost before he begins to reign the political forces of the country are +shaping out a new struggle for the succession. Further, a change of +government in America means a considerable change in the administrative +staff (see CIVIL SERVICE). The commotion caused by a presidential +election in the United States is thus infinitely greater and more +prolonged than that caused by a general election in England. A change of +power in England affects comparatively few personal interests, and +absorbs the attention of the country for a comparatively short space of +time. In the United States it is long foreseen and elaborately prepared +for, and when it comes it involves the personal fortunes of large +numbers of citizens. And yet the British constitution is more democratic +than the American, in the sense that the popular will can more speedily +be brought to bear upon the government. + +_Change of Power in France._--The established practice of England and +America may be compared with the constitutionalism of France. Here the +problem presents different conditions. The head of the state is neither +a premier of the English, nor a president of the American type. He is +served by a prime minister and a cabinet, who, like an English ministry, +hold office on the condition of parliamentary confidence; but he holds +office himself on the same terms, and is, in fact, a minister like the +others. So far as the transmission of power from cabinet to cabinet is +concerned, he discharges the functions of an English king. But the +transmission of power between himself and his successor is protected by +no constitutional devices whatever, and experience would seem to show +that no such devices are really necessary. Other European countries +professing constitutional government appear to follow the English +practice. The Swiss republic is so peculiarly situated that it is hardly +fair to compare it with any other. But it is interesting to note that, +while the rulers of the states are elected annually, the same persons +are generally re-elected. + +_The Relation between Government and Laws._--It might be supposed that, +if any general proposition could be established about government, it +would be one establishing some constant relation between the form of a +government and the character of the laws which it enforces. The +technical language of the English school of jurists is certainly of a +kind to encourage such a supposition. The entire body of law in force in +a country at any moment is regarded as existing solely by the fiat of +the governing power. There is no maxim more entirely in the spirit of +this jurisprudence than the following:--"The real legislator is not he +by whom the law was first ordained, but he by whose will it continues to +be law." The whole of the vast repertory of rules which make up the law +of England--the rules of practice in the courts, the local customs of a +county or a manor, the principles formulated by the sagacity of +generations of judges, equally with the statutes for the year, are +conceived of by the school of Austin as created by the will of the +sovereign and the two Houses of Parliament, or so much of them as would +now satisfy the definition of sovereignty. It would be out of place to +examine here the difficulties which embarrass this definition, but the +statement we have made carries on its face a demonstration of its own +falsity in fact. There is probably no government in the world of which +it could be said that it might change at will the substantive laws of +the country and still remain a government. However well it may suit the +purposes of analytical jurisprudence to define a law as a command set by +sovereign to subject, we must not forget that this is only a definition, +and that the assumption it rests upon is, to the student of society, +anything but a universal fact. From his point of view the cause of a +particular law is not one but many, and of the many the deliberate will +of a legislator may not be one. Sir Henry Maine has illustrated this +point by the case of the great tax-gathering empires of the east, in +which the absolute master of millions of men never dreams of making +anything in the nature of a law at all. This view is no doubt as strange +to the English statesman as to the English jurist. The most conspicuous +work of government in his view is that of parliamentary legislation. For +a large portion of the year the attention of the whole people is bent on +the operations of a body of men who are constantly engaged in making new +laws. It is natural, therefore, to think of law as a factitious thing, +made and unmade by the people who happen for the time being to +constitute parliament. It is forgotten how small a proportion the laws +actually devised by parliament are of the law actually prevailing in the +land. No European country has undergone so many changes in the form of +government as France. It is surprising how little effect these political +revolutions have had on the body of French law. The change from empire +to republic is not marked by greater legislative effects than the change +from a Conservative to a Liberal ministry in England would be. + +These reflections should make us cautious in accepting any general +proposition about forms of government and the spirit of their laws. We +must remember, also, that the classification of governments according to +the numerical proportion between governors and governed supplies but a +small basis for generalization. What parallel can be drawn between a +small town, in which half the population are slaves, and every freeman +has a direct voice in the government, and a great modern state, in which +there is not a single slave, while freemen exercise their sovereign +powers at long intervals, and through the action of delegates and +representatives? Propositions as vague as those of Montesquieu may +indeed be asserted with more or less plausibility. But to take any +leading head of positive law, and to say that monarchies treat it in one +way, aristocracies and democracies in another, is a different matter. + + +II. SPHERE OF GOVERNMENT + +The action of the state, or sovereign power, or government in a +civilized community shapes itself into the threefold functions of +legislation, judicature and administration. The two first are perfectly +well-defined, and the last includes all the kinds of state action not +included in the other two. It is with reference to legislation and +administration that the line of permissible state-action requires to be +drawn. There is no doubt about the province of the judicature, and that +function of government may therefore be dismissed with a very few +observations. + +The complete separation of the three functions marks a high point of +social organization. In simple societies the same officers discharge all +the duties which we divide between the legislator, the administrator and +the judge. The acts themselves are not consciously recognized as being +of different kinds. The evolution of all the parts of a highly complex +government from one original is illustrated in a striking way by the +history of English institutions. All the conspicuous parts of the modern +government, however little they may resemble each other now, can be +followed back without a break to their common origin. Parliament, the +cabinet, the privy council, the courts of law, all carry us back to the +same _nidus_ in the council of the feudal king. + +_Judicature._--The business of judicature, requiring as it does the +possession of a high degree of technical skill and knowledge, is +generally entrusted by the sovereign body or people to a separate and +independent class of functionaries. In England the appellate +jurisdiction of the House of Lords still maintains in theory the +connexion between the supreme legislative and the supreme judicial +functions. In some states of the American Union certain judicial +functions of the upper house were for a time maintained after the +example of the English constitution as it existed when the states were +founded. In England there is also still a considerable amount of +judicial work in which the people takes its share. The inferior +magistracies, except in populous places, are in the hands of private +persons. And by the jury system the ascertainment of fact has been +committed in very large measure to persons selected indiscriminately +from the mass of the people, subject to a small property qualification. +But the higher functions of the judicature are exercised by persons whom +the law has jealously fenced off from external interference and control. +The independence of the bench distinguishes the English system from +every other. It was established in principle as a barrier against +monarchical power, and hence has become one of the traditional ensigns +of popular government. In many of the American states the spirit of +democracy has demanded the subjection of the judiciary to popular +control. The judges are elected directly by the people, and hold office +for a short term, instead of being appointed, as in England, by the +responsible executive, and removable only by a vote of the two Houses. +At the same time the constitution of the United States has assigned to +the supreme court of the Union a perfectly unique position. The supreme +court is the guardian of the constitution (as are the state courts of +the constitution of the states: see UNITED STATES). It has to judge +whether a measure passed by the legislative powers is not void by reason +of being unconstitutional, and it may therefore have to veto the +deliberate resolutions of both Houses of Congress and the president. It +is admitted that this singular experiment in government has been +completely justified by its success. + +_Limits of State Interference in Legislation and Administration._--The +question of the limits of state action does not arise with reference to +the judiciary. The enforcement of the laws is a duty which the sovereign +power must of absolute necessity take upon itself. But to what conduct +of the citizens the laws shall extend is the most perplexing of all +political questions. The correlative question with regard to the +executive would be what works of public convenience should the state +undertake through its own servants. The whole question of the sphere of +government may be stated in these two questions: What should the state +do for its citizens? and How far should the state interfere with the +action of its citizens? These questions are the direct outcome of modern +popular government; they are equally unknown to the small democracies of +ancient times and to despotic governments at all times. Accordingly +ancient political philosophy, rich as it is in all kinds of suggestions, +has very little to say that has any bearing on the sphere of government. +The conception that the power of the state can be and ought to be +limited belongs to the times of "government by discussion," to use +Bagehot's expression,--to the time when the sovereign number is divided +by class interests, and when the action of the majority has to be +carried out in the face of strong minorities, capable of making +themselves heard. Aristotle does indeed dwell on one aspect of the +question. He would limit the action of the government in the sense of +leaving as little as possible to the personal will of the governors, +whether one or many. His maxim is that the law should reign. But that +the sphere of law itself should be restricted, otherwise than by general +principles of morality, is a consideration wholly foreign to ancient +philosophy. The state is conceived as acting like a just man, and +justice in the state is the same thing as justice in the individual. The +Greek institutions which the philosophers are unanimous in commending +are precisely those which the most state-ridden nations of modern times +would agree in repudiating. The exhaustive discussion of all political +measures, which for over two centuries has been a fixed habit of English +public life, has of itself established the principle that there are +assignable limits to the action of the state. Not that the limits ever +have been assigned in terms, but popular sentiment has more or less +vaguely fenced off departments of conduct as sacred from the +interference of the law. Phrases like "the liberty of the subject," the +"sanctity of private property," "an Englishman's house is his castle," +"the rights of conscience," are the commonplaces of political +discussion, and tell the state, "Thus far shalt thou go and no further." + +The two contrasting policies are those of _laissez-faire_ (let alone) +and Protection, or individualism and state-socialism, the one a policy +of non-interference with the free play of social forces, the other of +their regulation for the benefit of the community. The _laissez-faire_ +theory was prominently upheld by John Stuart Mill, whose essay on +_Liberty_, together with the concluding chapters of his treatise on +_Political Economy_, gives a tolerably complete view of the principles +of government. There is a general presumption against the interference +of government, which is only to be overcome by very strong evidence of +necessity. Governmental action is generally less effective than +voluntary action. The necessary duties of government are so burdensome, +that to increase them destroys its efficiency. Its powers are already so +great that individual freedom is constantly in danger. As a general +rule, nothing which can be done by the voluntary agency of individuals +should be left to the state. Each man is the best judge of his own +interests. But, on the other hand, when the thing itself is admitted to +be useful or necessary, and it cannot be effected by voluntary agency, +or when it is of such a nature that the consumer cannot be considered +capable of judging of the quality supplied, then Mill would allow the +state to interpose. Thus the education of children, and even of adults, +would fairly come within the province of the state. Mill even goes so +far as to admit that, where a restriction of the hours of labour, or the +establishment of a periodical holiday, is proved to be beneficial to +labourers as a class, but cannot be carried out voluntarily on account +of the refusal of individuals to co-operate, government may justifiably +compel them to co-operate. Still further, Mill would desire to see some +control exercised by the government over the operations of those +voluntary associations which, consisting of large numbers of +shareholders, necessarily leave their affairs in the hands of one or a +few persons. In short, Mill's general rule against state action admits +of many important exceptions, founded on no principle less vague than +that of public expediency. The essay on _Liberty_ is mainly concerned +with freedom of individual character, and its arguments apply to control +exercised, not only by the state, but by society in the form of public +opinion. The leading principle is that of Humboldt, "the absolute and +essential importance of human development in its richest diversity." +Humboldt broadly excluded education, religion and morals from the +action, direct and indirect, of the state. Mill, as we have seen, +conceives education to be within the province of the state, but he would +confine its action to compelling parents to educate their children. + +The most thoroughgoing opponent of state action, however, is Herbert +Spencer. In his _Social Statics_, published in 1850, he holds it to be +the essential duty of government to _protect_--to maintain men's rights +to life, to personal liberty and to property; and the theory that the +government ought to undertake other offices besides that of protector he +regards as an untenable theory. Each man has a right to the fullest +exercise of all his faculties, compatible with the same right in others. +This is the fundamental law of equal freedom, which it is the duty and +the only duty of the state to enforce. If the state goes beyond this +duty, it becomes, not a protector, but an aggressor. Thus all state +regulations of commerce, all religious establishments, all government +relief of the poor, all state systems of education and of sanitary +superintendence, even the state currency and the post-office, stand +condemned, not only as ineffective for their respective purposes, but as +involving violations of man's natural liberty. + +The tendency of modern legislation is more a question of political +practice than of political theory. In some cases state interference has +been abolished or greatly limited. These cases are mainly two--in +matters of opinion (especially religious opinion), and in matters of +contract. + + The mere enumeration of the individual instances would occupy a + formidable amount of space. The reader is referred to such articles as + ENGLAND, CHURCH OF; ESTABLISHMENT; MARRIAGE; OATH; ROMAN CATHOLIC + CHURCH, &c., and COMPANY; CONTRACT; PARTNERSHIP, &c. In other cases + the state has interfered for the protection and assistance of definite + classes of persons. For example, the education and protection of + children (see CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; EDUCATION; TECHNICAL + EDUCATION); the regulation of factory labour and dangerous employment + (see LABOUR LEGISLATION); improved conditions of health (see + ADULTERATION; HOUSING; PUBLIC HEALTH, LAW OF, &c.); coercion for moral + purposes (see BET AND BETTING; CRIMINAL LAW; GAMING AND WAGERING; + LIQUOR LAWS; LOTTERIES, &c.). Under numerous other headings in this + work the evolution of existing forms of government is discussed; see + also the bibliographical note to the article CONSTITUTION AND + CONSTITUTIONAL LAW. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Aristotle elsewhere speaks of the error of those who think that + any one of the depraved forms is better than any other. + + [2] None of the free states of Greece ever made extensive or + permanent conquests; but the tribute sometimes paid by one state to + another (as by the Aeginetans to the Athenians) was a manifest source + of corruption. Compare the remarks of Hume (_Essays_, part i. 3, + _That Politics may be reduced to a Science_), "free governments are + the most ruinous and oppressive for their provinces." + + [3] Ultimately, in the theory of English law, the king may be said to + have become the universal successor of the people. Some of the + peculiarities of the prerogative rights seem to be explainable only + on this view, e.g. the curious distinction between wrecks come to + land and wrecks still on water. The common right to wreckage was no + doubt the origin of the prerogative right to the former. Every + ancient common right has come to be a right of the crown or a right + held of the crown by a vassal. + + [4] See Bagehot's _English Constitution_; or, for a more recent + analysis, Sidney Low's _Governance of England_. + + [5] For an account of the double chamber system in the state + legislatures see UNITED STATES: _Constitution and Government_, and + also S. G. Fisher, _The Evolution of the Constitution_ (Philadelphia, + 1897). + + [6] A government "defeat" may, of course, not really represent a + hostile vote in exceptional cases, and in some instances a government + has obtained a reversal of the vote and has _not_ resigned. + + + + +GOVERNOR (from the Fr. _gouverneur_, from _gouverner_, O. Fr. +_governer_, Lat. _gubernare_, to steer a ship, to direct, guide), in +general, one who governs or exercises authority; specifically, an +official appointed to govern a district, province, town, &c. In British +colonies or dependencies the representative of the crown is termed a +governor. Colonial governors are classed as governors-general, governors +and lieutenant-governors, according to the status of the colony or group +of colonies over which they preside. Their powers vary according to the +position which they occupy. In all cases they represent the authority of +the crown. In the United States (q.v.) the official at the head of every +state government is called a governor. + + + + +GOW, NIEL (1727-1807), Scottish musician of humble parentage, famous as +a violinist and player of reels, but more so for the part he played in +preserving the old melodies of Scotland. His compositions, and those of +his four sons, Nathaniel, the most famous (1763-1831), William +(1751-1791), Andrew (1760-1803), and John (1764-1826), formed the "Gow +Collection," comprising various volumes edited by Niel and his sons, a +valuable repository of Scottish traditional airs. The most important of +Niel's sons was Nathaniel, who is remembered as the author of the +well-known "Caller Herrin," taken from the fishwives' cry, a tune to +which words were afterwards written by Lady Nairne. Nathaniel's son, +NIEL GOW junior (1795-1823), was the author of the famous songs "Flora +Macdonald's Lament" and "Cam' ye by Athol." + + + + +GOWER, JOHN (d. 1408), English poet, died at an advanced age in 1408, so +that he may be presumed to have been born about 1330. He belonged to a +good Kentish family, but the suggestion of Sir Harris Nicolas that the +poet is to be identified with a John Gower who was at one time possessed +of the manor of Kentwell is open to serious objections. There is no +evidence that he ever lived as a country gentleman, but he was +undoubtedly possessed of some wealth, and we know that he was the owner +of the manors of Feltwell in Suffolk and Moulton in Norfolk. In a +document of 1382 he is called an "Esquier de Kent," and he was certainly +not in holy orders. That he was acquainted with Chaucer we know, first +because Chaucer in leaving England for Italy in 1378 appointed Gower and +another to represent him in his absence, secondly because Chaucer +addressed his _Troilus and Criseide_ to Gower and Strode (whom he +addresses as "moral Gower" and "philosophical Strode") for criticism and +correction, and thirdly because of the lines in the first edition of +Gower's _Confessio amantis_, "And gret wel Chaucer whan ye mete," &c. +There is no sufficient ground for the suggestion, based partly on the +subsequent omission of these lines and partly on the humorous reference +of Chaucer to Gower's _Confessio amantis_ in the introduction to the +_Man of Law's Tale_, that the friendship was broken by a quarrel. From +his Latin poem _Vox clamantis_ we know that he was deeply and painfully +interested in the peasants' rising of 1381; and by the alterations which +the author made in successive revisions of this work we can trace a +gradually increasing sense of disappointment in the youthful king, whom +he at first acquits of all responsibility for the state of the kingdom +on account of his tender age. That he became personally known to the +king we learn from his own statement in the first edition of the +_Confessio amantis_, where he says that he met the king upon the river, +was invited to enter the royal barge, and in the conversation which +followed received the suggestion which led him to write his principal +English poem. At the same time we know, especially from the later +revisions of the _Confessio amantis_, that he was a great admirer of the +king's brilliant cousin, Henry of Lancaster, afterwards Henry IV., whom +he came eventually to regard as a possible saviour of society from the +misgovernment of Richard II. We have a record that in 1393 he received a +collar from his favourite political hero, and it is to be observed that +the effigy upon Gower's tomb is wearing a collar of SS. with the swan +badge which was used by Henry. + +The first edition of the _Confessio amantis_ is dated 1390, and this +contains, at least in some copies, a secondary dedication to the then +earl of Derby. The later form, in which Henry became the sole object of +the dedication, is of the year 1393. Gower's political opinions are +still more strongly expressed in the _Cronica tripartita_. + +In 1398 he was married to Agnes Groundolf, and from the special licence +granted by the bishop of Winchester for the celebration of this marriage +in John Gower's private oratory we gather that he was then living in +lodgings assigned to him within the priory of St Mary Overy, and perhaps +also that he was too infirm to be married in the parish church. It is +probable that this was not his first marriage, for there are indications +in his early French poem that he had a wife at the time when that was +written. His will is dated the 15th of August 1408, and his death took +place very soon after this. He had been blind for some years before his +death. A magnificent tomb with a recumbent effigy was erected over his +grave in the chapel of St John the Baptist within the church of the +priory, now St Saviour's, Southwark, and this is still to be seen, +though not quite in its original state or place. From the inscription on +the tomb, as well as from other indications, it appears that he was a +considerable benefactor of the priory and contributed largely to the +rebuilding of the church. + +The effigy on Gower's tomb rests its head upon a pile of three folio +volumes entitled _Speculum meditantis_, _Vox clamantis_ and _Confessio +amantis_. These are his three principal works. The first of these was +long supposed to have perished, but a copy of it was discovered in the +year 1895 under the title _Mirour de l'omme_. It is a French poem of +about 30,000 lines in twelve-line stanzas, and under the form of an +allegory of the human soul describes the seven deadly sins and their +opposing virtues, and then the various estates of man and the vices +incident to each, concluding with a narrative of the life of the Virgin +Mary, and with praise of her as the means of reconciliation between God +and man. The work is extremely tedious for the most part, but shows +considerable command over the language and a great facility in metrical +expression. + +Gower's next work was the _Vox clamantis_ in Latin elegiac verse, in +which the author takes occasion from the peasants' insurrection of 1381 +to deal again with the faults of the various classes of society. In the +earlier portion the insurrection itself is described in a rather vivid +manner, though under the form of an allegory: the remainder contains +much the same material as we have already seen in that part of the +French poem where the classes of society are described. Gower's Latin +verse is very fair, as judged by the medieval standard, but in this book +he has borrowed very freely from Ovid, Alexander Neckam, Peter de Riga +and others. + +Gower's chief claim, however, to reputation as a poet rests upon his +English work, the _Confessio amantis_, in which he displays in his +native language a real gift as a story-teller. He is himself the lover +of his poem, in spite of his advancing years, and he makes his +confession to Genius, the priest of Venus, under the usual headings +supplied by the seven deadly sins. These with their several branches are +successively described, and the nature of them illustrated by tales, +which are directed to the illustration both of the general nature of the +sin, and of the particular form which it may take in a lover. Finally he +receives at once his absolution, and his dismissal from the service of +Venus, for which his age renders him unfit. The idea is ingenious, and +there is often much quaintness of fancy in the application of moral +ideas to the relations of the lover and his mistress. The tales are +drawn from very various sources and are often extremely well told. The +metre is the short couplet, and it is extremely smooth and regular. The +great fault of the _Confessio amantis_ is the extent of its digressions, +especially in the fifth and seventh books. + +Gower also wrote in 1397 a short series of French ballades on the virtue +of the married state (_Traitie pour essampler les amantz maries_), and +after the accession of Henry IV. he produced the _Cronica tripartita_, a +partisan account in Latin leonine hexameters of the events of the last +twelve years of the reign of Richard II. About the same time he +addressed an English poem in seven-line stanzas to Henry IV. (_In Praise +of Peace_), and dedicated to the king a series of French ballades +(_Cinkante Balades_), which deal with the conventional topics of love, +but are often graceful and even poetical in expression. Several +occasional Latin pieces also belong to the later years of his life. + +On the whole Gower must be admitted to have had considerable literary +powers; and though not a man of genius, and by no means to be compared +with Chaucer, yet he did good service in helping to establish the +standard literary language, which at the end of the 14th century took +the place of the Middle English dialects. The _Confessio amantis_ was +long regarded as a classic of the language, and Gower and Chaucer were +often mentioned side by side as the fathers of English poetry. + + A complete edition of Gower's works in four volumes, edited by G. C. + Macaulay, was published in 1899-1902, the first volume containing the + French works, the second and third the English, and the fourth the + Latin, with a biography. Before this the _Confessio amantis_ had been + published in the following editions: Caxton (1483); Berthelette (1532 + and 1554); Chalmers, _British Poets_ (1810); Reinhold Pauli (1857); H. + Morley (1889, incomplete). The two series of French ballades and the + _Praise of Peace_ were printed for the Roxburghe Club in 1818, and the + _Vox clamantis_ and _Cronica tripartita_ were edited by H. O. Coxe for + the Roxburghe Club in 1850. The _Cronica tripartita_, the _Praise of + Peace_ and some of the minor Latin poems were printed in Wright's + _Political Poems_ (Rolls series, 14). The _Praise of Peace_ appeared + in the early folio editions of Chaucer, and has been edited also by Dr + Skeat in his _Chaucerian and other Pieces_. Reference may be made to + Todd's _Illustrations of the Lives and Writings of Gower and Chaucer_; + the article (by Sir H. Nicolas) in the _Retrospective Review_ for + 1828; _Observations on the Language of Chaucer and Gower_, by F. J. + Child; H. Morley's English Writers, iv.; Ten Brink's _History of Early + English Literature_, ii.; and Courthope's _History of English Poetry_, + i. (G. C. M.) + + + + +GOWER, a seigniory and district in the county of Glamorgan, lying +between the rivers Tawe and Loughor and between Breconshire and the sea, +its length from the Breconshire border to Worm's Head being 28 m., and +its breadth about 8 m. It corresponds to the ancient commote of Gower +(in Welsh _Gwyr_) which in early Welsh times was grouped with two other +commotes stretching westwards to the Towy and so formed part of the +principality of Ystrad Tywi. Its early association with the country to +the west instead of with Glamorgan is perpetuated by its continued +inclusion in the diocese of St Davids, its two rural deaneries, West and +East Gower, being in the archdeaconry of Carmarthen. What is meant by +Gower in modern popular usage, however, is only the peninsular part or +"English Gower" (that is the Welsh _Bro-wyr_, as distinct from _Gwyr_ +proper), roughly corresponding to the hundred of Swansea and lying +mainly to the south of a line drawn from Swansea to Loughor. + +The numerous limestone caves of the coast are noted for their immense +deposits of animal remains, but their traces of man are far scantier, +those found in Bacon Hole and in Paviland cave being the most +important. In the Roman period the river Tawe, or the great morass +between it and the Neath, probably formed the boundary between the +Silures and the Goidelic population to the west. The latter, reinforced +perhaps from Ireland, continued to be the dominant race in Gower till +their conquest or partial expulsion in the 4th century by the sons of +Cunedda who introduced a Brythonic element into the district. Centuries +later Scandinavian rovers raided the coasts, leaving traces of their +more or less temporary occupation in such place-names as Burry Holms, +Worms Head and Swansea, and probably also in some cliff earthworks. +About the year 1100 the conquest of Gower was undertaken by Henry de +Newburgh, first earl of Warwick, with the assistance of Maurice de +Londres and others. His followers, who were mostly Englishmen from the +marches and Somersetshire with perhaps a sprinkling of Flemings, settled +for the most part on the southern side of the peninsula, leaving the +Welsh inhabitants of the northern half of Gower practically undisturbed. +These invaders were probably reinforced a little later by a small +detachment of the larger colony of Flemings which settled in south +Pembrokeshire. Moated mounds, which in some cases developed into +castles, were built for the protection of the various manors into which +the district was parcelled out, the castles of Swansea and Loughor being +ascribed to the earl of Warwick and that of Oystermouth to Maurice de +Londres. These were repeatedly attacked and burnt by the Welsh during +the 12th and 13th centuries, notably by Griffith ap Rhys in 1113, by his +son the Lord Rhys in 1189, by his grandsons acting in concert with +Llewelyn the Great in 1215, and by the last Prince Llewelyn in 1257. +With the Norman conquest the feudal system was introduced, and the +manors were held _in capite_ of the lord by the tenure of castle-guard +of the castle of Swansea, the _caput baroniae_. + +About 1189 the lordship passed from the Warwick family to the crown and +was granted in 1203 by King John to William de Braose, in whose family +it remained for over 120 years except for three short intervals when it +was held for a second time by King John (1211-1215), by Llewelyn the +Great (1216-1223), and the Despensers (c. 1323-1326). In 1208 the Welsh +and English inhabitants who had frequent cause to complain of their +treatment, received each a charter, in similar terms, from King John, +who also visited the town of Swansea in 1210 and in 1215 granted its +merchants liberal privileges. In 1283 a number of de Braose's +tenants--unquestionably Welshmen--left Gower for the royal lordship of +Carmarthen, declaring that they would live under the king rather than +under a lord marcher. In the following year the king visited de Braose +at Oystermouth Castle, which seems to have been made the lord's chief +residence, after the destruction of Swansea Castle by Llewelyn. Later on +the king's officers of the newly organized county of Carmarthen +repeatedly claimed jurisdiction over Gower, thereby endeavouring to +reduce its status from that of a lordship marcher with semi-regal +jurisdiction, into that of an ordinary constituent of the new county. De +Braose resisted the claim and organized the English part of his lordship +on the lines of a county palatine, with its own _comitatus_ and chancery +held in Swansea Castle, the sheriff and chancellor being appointed by +himself. The inhabitants, who had no right of appeal to the crown +against their lord or the decisions of his court, petitioned the king, +who in 1305 appointed a special commission to enquire into their alleged +grievances, but in the following year the de Braose of the time, +probably in alarm, conceded liberal privileges both to the burgesses of +Swansea and to the English and Welsh inhabitants of his "county" of +English Gower. He was the last lord seignior to live within the +seigniory, which passed from him to his son-in-law John de Mowbray. +Other troubles befell the de Braose barons and their successors in +title, for their right to the lordship was contested by the Beauchamps, +representatives of the earlier earls of Warwick, in prolonged litigation +carried on intermittently from 1278 to 1396, the Beauchamps being +actually in possession from 1354, when a decision was given in their +favour, till its reversal in 1396. It then reverted to the Mowbrays and +was held by them until the 4th duke of Norfolk exchanged it in 1489, +for lands in England, with William Herbert, earl of Pembroke. The +latter's granddaughter brought it to her husband Charles Somerset, who +in 1506 was granted her father's subtitle of Baron Herbert of Chepstow, +Raglan and Gower, and from him the lordship has descended to the present +lord, the duke of Beaufort. + +Gower was made subject to the ordinary law of England by its inclusion +in 1535 in the county of Glamorgan as then reorganized; its chancery, +which from about the beginning of the 14th century had been located at +Oystermouth Castle, came to an end, but though the Welsh acts of 1535 +and 1542 purported to abolish the rights and privileges of the lords +marchers as conquerors, yet some of these, possibly from being regarded +as private rights, have survived into modern times. For instance, the +seignior maintained a franchise gaol in Swansea Castle till 1858, when +it was abolished by act of parliament, the appointment of coroner for +Gower is still vested in him, all writs are executed by the lord's +officers instead of by the officers of the sheriff for the county, and +the lord's rights to the foreshore, treasure trove, felon's goods and +wrecks are undiminished. + +The characteristically English part of Gower lies to the south and +south-west of its central ridge of Cefn y Bryn. It was this part that +was declared by Professor Freeman to be "more Teutonic than Kent +itself." The seaside fringe lying between this area and the town of +Swansea, as well as the extreme north-west of the peninsula, also became +anglicized at a comparatively early date, though the place-names and the +names of the inhabitants are still mainly Welsh. The present line of +demarcation between the two languages is one drawn from Swansea in a +W.N.W. direction to Llanrhidian on the north coast. It has remained +practically the same for several centuries, and is likely to continue +so, as it very nearly coincides with the southern outcrop of the coal +measures, the industrial population to the north being Welsh-speaking, +the agriculturists to the south being English. In 1901 the Gower rural +district (which includes the Welsh-speaking industrial parish of +Llanrhidian, with about three-sevenths of the total population) had +64.5% of the population above three years of age that spoke English +only, 5.2% that spoke Welsh only, the remainder being bilinguals, as +compared with 17% speaking English only, 17.7% speaking Welsh only and +the rest bilinguals in the Swansea rural district, and 7% speaking +English only, 55.2% speaking Welsh only and the rest bilinguals in the +Pontardawe rural district, the last two districts constituting Welsh +Gower. + +More than one-fourth of the whole area of Gower is unenclosed common +land, of which in English Gower fully one-half is apparently capable of +cultivation. Besides the demesne manors of the lord seignior, six in +number, there are some twelve mesne manors and fees belonging to the +Penrice estate, and nearly twenty more belonging to various other +owners. The tenure is customary freehold, though in some cases described +as copyhold, and in the ecclesiastical manor of Bishopston, descent is +by borough English. The holdings are on the whole probably smaller in +size than in any other area of corresponding extent in Wales, and +agriculture is still in a backward state. + +In the Arthurian romances Gower appears in the form of Goire as the +island home of the dead, a view which probably sprang up among the Celts +of Cornwall, to whom the peninsula would appear as an island. It is also +surmised by Sir John Rhys that Malory's Brandegore (i.e. Bran of Gower) +represents the Celtic god of the other world (Rhys, _Arthurian Legend_, +160, 329 et seq.). On Cefn Bryn, almost in the centre of the peninsula, +is a cromlech with a large capstone known as Arthur's Stone. The +unusually large number of cairns on this hill, given as eighty by Sir +Gardner Wilkinson, suggests that this part of Gower was a favourite +burial-place in early British times. + + See Rev. J. D. Davies, _A History of West Gower_ (4 vols., 1877-1894); + Col. W. Ll-Morgan, _An Antiquarian Survey of East Gower_ (1899); an + article (probably by Professor Freeman) entitled "Anglia + Trans-Walliana" in the _Saturday Review_ for May 20, 1876; "The + Signory of Gower" by G. T. Clark in _Archaeologia Cambrensis_ for + 1893-1894; _The Surveys of Gower and Kilvey_, ed. by Baker and + Grant-Francis (1861-1870). (D. Ll. T.) + + + + +GOWN, properly the term for a loose outer garment formerly worn by +either sex but now generally for that worn by women. While "dress" is +the usual English word, except in such combinations as "tea-gown," +"dressing-gown" and the like, where the original loose flowing nature of +the "gown" is referred to, "gown" is the common American word. "Gown" +comes from the O. Fr. _goune_ or _gonne_. The word appears in various +Romanic languages, cf. Ital. _gonna_. The medieval Lat. _gunna_ is used +of a garment of skin or fur. A Celtic origin has been usually adopted, +but the Irish, Gaelic and Manx words are taken from the English. Outside +the ordinary use of the word, "gown" is the name for the distinctive +robes worn by holders of particular offices or by members of particular +professions or of universities, &c. (see ROBES). + + + + +GOWRIE, JOHN RUTHVEN, 3RD EARL OF (c. 1577-1600), Scottish conspirator, +was the second son of William, 4th Lord Ruthven and 1st earl of Gowrie +(cr. 1581), by his wife Dorothea, daughter of Henry Stewart, 2nd Lord +Methven. The Ruthven family was of ancient Scottish descent, and had +owned extensive estates in the time of William the Lion; the Ruthven +peerage dated from the year 1488. The 1st earl of Gowrie (? 1541-1584), +and his father, Patrick, 3rd Lord Ruthven (c. 1520-1566), had both been +concerned in the murder of Rizzio in 1566; and both took an active part +on the side of the Kirk in the constant intrigues and factions among the +Scottish nobility of the period. The former had been the custodian of +Mary, queen of Scots, during her imprisonment in Loch Leven, where, +according to the queen, he had pestered her with amorous attentions; he +had also been the chief actor in the plot known as the "raid of Ruthven" +when King James VI. was treacherously seized while a guest at the castle +of Ruthven in 1582, and kept under restraint for several months while +the earl remained at the head of the government. Though pardoned for +this conspiracy he continued to plot against the king in conjunction +with the earls of Mar and Angus; and he was executed for high treason on +the 2nd of May 1584; his friends complaining that the confession on +which he was convicted of treason was obtained by a promise of pardon +from the king. His eldest son, William, 2nd earl of Gowrie, only +survived till 1588, the family dignities and estates, which had been +forfeited, having been restored to him in 1586. + +When, therefore, John Ruthven succeeded to the earldom while still a +child, he inherited along with his vast estates family traditions of +treason and intrigue. There was also a popular belief, though without +foundation, that there was Tudor blood in his veins; and Burnet +afterwards asserted that Gowrie stood next in succession to the crown of +England after King James VI. Like his father and grandfather before him, +the young earl attached himself to the party of the reforming preachers, +who procured his election in 1592 as provost of Perth, a post that was +almost hereditary in the Ruthven family. He received an excellent +education at the grammar school of Perth and the university of +Edinburgh, where he was in the summer of 1593, about the time when his +mother, and his sister the countess of Atholl, aided Bothwell in forcing +himself sword in hand into the king's bedchamber in Holyrood Palace. A +few months later Gowrie joined with Atholl and Montrose in offering to +serve Queen Elizabeth, then almost openly hostile to the Scottish king; +and it is probable that he had also relations with the rebellious +Bothwell. Gowrie had thus been already deeply engaged in treasonable +conspiracy when, in August 1594, he proceeded to Italy with his tutor, +William Rhynd, to study at the university of Padua. On his way home in +1599 he remained for some months at Geneva with the reformer Theodore +Beza; and at Paris he made acquaintance with the English ambassador, who +reported him to Cecil as devoted to Elizabeth's service, and a nobleman +"of whom there may be exceeding use made." In Paris he may also at this +time have had further communication with the exiled Bothwell; in London +he was received with marked favour by Queen Elizabeth and her ministers. + + + The Gowrie conspiracy. + +These circumstances owe their importance to the light they throw on the +obscurity of the celebrated "Gowrie conspiracy," which resulted in the +slaughter of the earl and his brother by attendants of King James at +Gowrie House, Perth, a few weeks after Gowrie's return to Scotland in +May 1600. This event ranks among the unsolved enigmas of history. The +mystery is caused by the improbabilities inherent in any of the +alternative hypotheses suggested to account for the unquestionable facts +of the occurrence; the discrepancies in the evidence produced at the +time; the apparent lack of forethought or plan on the part of the chief +actors, whichever hypothesis be adopted, as well as the thoughtless +folly of their actual procedure; and the insufficiency of motive, +whoever the guilty parties may have been. The solutions of the mystery +that have been suggested are three in number: first, that Gowrie and his +brother had concocted a plot to murder, or more probably to kidnap King +James, and that they lured him to Gowrie House for this purpose; +secondly, that James paid a surprise visit to Gowrie House with the +intention, which he carried out, of slaughtering the two Ruthvens; and +thirdly, that the tragedy was the outcome of an unpremeditated brawl +following high words between the king and the earl, or his brother. To +understand the relative probabilities of these hypotheses regard must be +had to the condition of Scotland in the year 1600 (see SCOTLAND: +_History_). Here it can only be recalled that plots to capture the +person of the sovereign for the purpose of coercing his actions were of +frequent occurrence, more than one of which had been successful, and in +several of which the Ruthven family had themselves taken an active part; +that the relations between England and Scotland were at this time more +than usually strained, and that the young earl of Gowrie was reckoned in +London among the adherents of Elizabeth; that the Kirk party, being at +variance with James, looked upon Gowrie as an hereditary partisan of +their cause, and had recently sent an agent to Paris to recall him to +Scotland as their leader; that Gowrie was believed to be James's rival +for the succession to the English crown. Moreover, as regards the +question of motive it is to be observed, on the one hand, that the +Ruthvens believed Gowrie's father to have been treacherously done to +death, and his widow insulted by the king's favourite minister; while, +on the other, James was indebted in a large sum of money to the earl of +Gowrie's estate, and popular gossip credited either Gowrie or his +brother, Alexander Ruthven, with being the lover of the queen. Although +the evidence on these points, and on every minute circumstance connected +with the tragedy itself, has been exhaustively examined by historians of +the Gowrie conspiracy, it cannot be asserted that the mystery has been +entirely dispelled; but, while it is improbable that complete certainty +will ever be arrived at as to whether the guilt lay with James or with +the Ruthven brothers, the most modern research in the light of materials +inaccessible or overlooked till the 20th century, points pretty clearly +to the conclusion that there was a genuine conspiracy by Gowrie and his +brother to kidnap the king. If this be the true solution, it follows +that King James was innocent of the blood of the Ruthvens; and it raises +the presumption that his own account of the occurrence was, in spite of +the glaring improbabilities which it involved, substantially true. + + + The slaughter of the Ruthvens. + +The facts as related by James and other witnesses were, in outline, as +follows. On the 5th of August 1600 the king rose early to hunt in the +neighbourhood of Falkland Palace, about 14 m. from Perth. Just as he was +setting forth in company with the duke of Lennox, the earl of Mar, Sir +Thomas Erskine and others, he was accosted by Alexander Ruthven (known +as the master of Ruthven), a younger brother of the earl of Gowrie, who +had ridden from Perth that morning to inform the king that he had met on +the previous day a man in possession of a pitcher full of foreign gold +coins, whom he had secretly locked up in a room at Gowrie House. Ruthven +urged the king to ride to Perth to examine this man for himself and to +take possession of the treasure. After some hesitation James gave credit +to the story, suspecting that the possessor of the coins was one of the +numerous Catholic agents at that time moving about Scotland in disguise. +Without giving a positive reply to Alexander Ruthven, James started to +hunt; but later in the morning he called Ruthven to him and said he +would ride to Perth when the hunting was over. Ruthven then despatched a +servant, Henderson, by whom he had been accompanied from Perth in the +early morning, to tell Gowrie that the king was coming to Gowrie House. +This messenger gave the information to Gowrie about ten o'clock in the +morning. Meanwhile Alexander Ruthven was urging the king to lose no +time, requesting him to keep the matter secret from his courtiers, and +to bring to Gowrie House as small a retinue as possible. James, with a +train of some fifteen persons, arrived at Gowrie House about one +o'clock, Alexander Ruthven having spurred forward for a mile or so to +announce the king's approach. But notwithstanding Henderson's warning +some three hours earlier, Gowrie had made no preparations for the king's +entertainment, thus giving the impression of having been taken by +surprise. After a meagre repast, for which he was kept waiting an hour, +James, forbidding his retainers to follow him, went with Alexander +Ruthven up the main staircase and passed through two chambers and two +doors, both of which Ruthven locked behind them, into a turret-room at +the angle of the house, with windows looking on the courtyard and the +street. Here James expected to find the mysterious prisoner with the +foreign gold. He found instead an armed man, who, as appeared later, was +none other than Gowrie's servant, Henderson. Alexander Ruthven +immediately put on his hat, and drawing Henderson's dagger, presented it +to the king's breast with threats of instant death if James opened a +window or called for help. An allusion by Ruthven to the execution of +his father, the 1st earl of Gowrie, drew from James a reproof of +Ruthven's ingratitude for various benefits conferred on his family. +Ruthven then uncovered his head, declaring that James's life should be +safe if he remained quiet; then, committing the king to the custody of +Henderson, he left the turret--ostensibly to consult Gowrie--and locked +the door behind him. While Ruthven was absent the king questioned +Henderson, who professed ignorance of any plot and of the purpose for +which he had been placed in the turret; he also at James's request +opened one of the windows, and was about to open the other when Ruthven +returned. Whether or not Alexander had seen his brother is uncertain. +But Gowrie had meantime spread the report below that the king had taken +horse and had ridden away; and the royal retinue were seeking their +horses to follow him. Alexander, on re-entering the turret, attempted to +bind James's hands; a struggle ensued, in the course of which the king +was seen at the window by some of his followers below in the street, who +also heard him cry "treason" and call for help to the earl of Mar. +Gowrie affected not to hear these cries, but kept asking what was the +matter. Lennox, Mar and most of the other lords and gentlemen ran up the +main staircase to the king's help, but were stopped by the locked door, +which they spent some time in trying to batter down. John Ramsay +(afterwards earl of Holdernesse), noticing a small dark stairway leading +directly to the inner chamber adjoining the turret, ran up it and found +the king struggling at grips with Ruthven. Drawing his dagger, Ramsay +wounded Ruthven, who was then pushed down the stairway by the king. Sir +Thomas Erskine, summoned by Ramsay, now followed up the small stairs +with Dr Hugh Herries, and these two coming upon the wounded Ruthven +despatched him with their swords. Gowrie, entering the courtyard with +his stabler Thomas Cranstoun and seeing his brother's body, rushed up +the staircase after Erskine and Herries, followed by Cranstoun and +others of his retainers; and in the melee Gowrie was killed. Some +commotion was caused in the town by the noise of these proceedings; but +it quickly subsided, though the king did not deem it safe to return to +Falkland for some hours. + + + The Sprot forgeries. + +The tragedy caused intense excitement throughout Scotland, and the +investigation of the circumstances was followed with much interest in +England also, where all the details were reported to Elizabeth's +ministers. The preachers of the Kirk, whose influence in Scotland was +too extensive for the king to neglect, were only with the greatest +difficulty persuaded to accept James's account of the occurrence, +although he voluntarily submitted himself to cross-examination by one of +their number. Their belief, and that of their partisans, influenced no +doubt by political hostility to James, was that the king had invented +the story of a conspiracy by Gowrie to cover his own design to extirpate +the Ruthven family. James gave some colour to this belief, which has not +been entirely abandoned, by the relentless severity with which he +pursued the two younger, and unquestionably innocent, brothers of the +earl. Great efforts were made by the government to prove the complicity +of others in the plot. One noted and dissolute conspirator, Sir Robert +Logan of Restalrig, was posthumously convicted of having been privy to +the Gowrie conspiracy on the evidence of certain letters produced by a +notary, George Sprot, who swore they had been written by Logan to Gowrie +and others. These letters, which are still in existence, were in fact +forged by Sprot in imitation of Logan's handwriting; but the researches +of Andrew Lang have shown cause for suspecting that the most important +of them was either copied by Sprot from a genuine original by Logan, or +that it embodied the substance of such a letter. If this be correct, it +would appear that the conveyance of the king to Fast Castle, Logan's +impregnable fortress on the coast of Berwickshire, was part of the plot; +and it supplies, at all events, an additional piece of evidence to prove +the genuineness of the Gowrie conspiracy. + +Gowrie's two younger brothers, William and Patrick Ruthven, fled to +England; and after the accession of James to the English throne William +escaped abroad, but Patrick was taken and imprisoned for nineteen years +in the Tower of London. Released in 1622, Patrick Ruthven resided first +at Cambridge and afterwards in Somersetshire, being granted a small +pension by the crown. He married Elizabeth Woodford, widow of the 1st +Lord Gerrard, by whom he had two sons and a daughter, Mary; the latter +entered the service of Queen Henrietta Maria, and married the famous +painter van Dyck, who painted several portraits of her. Patrick died in +poverty in a cell in the King's Bench in 1652, being buried as "Lord +Ruthven." His son, Patrick, presented a petition to Oliver Cromwell in +1656, in which, after reciting that the parliament of Scotland in 1641 +had restored his father to the barony of Ruthven, he prayed that his +"extreme poverty" might be relieved by the bounty of the Protector. + + See Andrew Lang, _James VI. and the Gowrie Mystery_ (London, 1902), + and the authorities there cited; Robert Pitcairn, _Criminal Trials in + Scotland_ (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1833); David Moysie, _Memoirs of the + Affairs of Scotland, 1577-1603_ (Edinburgh, 1830); Louis A. Barbe, + _The Tragedy of Gowrie House_ (London, 1887); Andrew Bisset, _Essays + on Historical Truth_ (London, 1871); David Calderwood, _History of the + Kirk of Scotland_ (8 vols., Edinburgh, 1842-1849); P. F. Tytler, + _History of Scotland_ (9 vols., Edinburgh, 1828-1843); John Hill + Burton, _History of Scotland_ (7 vols., Edinburgh, 1867-1870). W. A. + Craigie has edited as _Skotlands Rimur_ some Icelandic ballads + relating to the Gowrie conspiracy. He has also printed the Danish + translation of the official account of the conspiracy, which was + published at Copenhagen in 1601. (R. J. M.) + + + + +GOWRIE, a belt of fertile alluvial land (_Scotice_, "carse") of +Perthshire, Scotland. Occupying the northern shore of the Firth of Tay, +it has a generally north-easterly trend and extends from the eastern +boundaries of Perth city to the confines of Dundee. It measures 15 m. in +length, its breadth from the river towards the base of the Sidlaw Hills +varying from 2 to 4 m. Probably it is a raised beach, submerged until a +comparatively recent period. Although it contained much bog land and +stagnant water as late as the 18th century, it has since been drained +and cultivated, and is now one of the most productive tracts in +Perthshire. The district is noteworthy for the number of its castles and +mansions, almost wholly residential, among which may be mentioned +Kinfauns Castle, Inchyra House, Pitfour Castle, Errol Park, Megginch +Castle, dating from 1575; Fingask Castle, Kinnaird Castle, erected in +the 15th century and occupied by James VI. in 1617; Rossie Priory, the +seat of Lord Kinnaird; and Huntly Castle, built by the 3rd earl of +Kinghorne. + + + + +GOYA, a river town and port of Corrientes, Argentine Republic, the +commercial centre of the south-western departments of the province and +chief town of a department of the same name, on a _riacho_ or side +channel of the Parana about 5 m. from the main channel and about 120 m. +S. of the city of Corrientes. Pop. (1905, est.) 7000. The town is built +on low ground which is subject to inundations in very wet weather, but +its streets are broad and the general appearance of its edifices is +good. Among its public buildings is a handsome parish church and a +national normal school. The productions of the neighbourhood are chiefly +pastoral, and its exports include cattle, hides, wool and oranges. Goya +had an export of crudely-made cheese long before the modern cheese +factories of the Argentine Republic came into existence. The place dates +from 1807, and had its origin, it is said, in the trade established +there by a ship captain and his wife Gregoria or Goya, who supplied +passing vessels with beef. + + + + +GOYANNA, or GOIANA, a city of Brazil in the N.E. angle of the state of +Pernambuco, about 65 m. N. of the city of Pernambuco. Pop.(1890) 15,436. +It is built on a fertile plain between the rivers Tracunhaem and +Capibaribe-mirim near their junction to form the Goyanna river, and is +15 m. from the coast. It is surrounded by, and is the commercial centre +for, one of the richest agricultural districts of the state, which +produces sugar, rum, coffee, tobacco, cotton, cattle, hides and castor +oil. The Goyanna river is navigable for small vessels nearly up to the +city, but its entrance is partly obstructed and difficult. Goyanna is +one of the oldest towns of the state, and was occupied by the Dutch from +1636 to 1654. It has several old-style churches, an orphans' asylum, +hospital and some small industries. + + + + +GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO (1746-1828), Spanish painter, was born in +1746 at Fuendetodos, a small Aragonese village near Saragossa. At an +early age he commenced his artistic career under the direction of Jose +Luzan Martinez, who had studied painting at Naples under Mastroleo. It +is clear that the accuracy in drawing Luzan is said to have acquired by +diligent study of the best Italian masters did not much influence his +erratic pupil. Goya, a true son of his province, was bold, capricious, +headstrong and obstinate. He took a prominent part on more than one +occasion in those rival religious processions at Saragossa which often +ended in unseemly frays; and his friends were led in consequence to +despatch him in his nineteenth year to Madrid, where, prior to his +departure for Rome, his mode of life appears to have been anything but +that of a quiet orderly citizen. Being a good musician, and gifted with +a voice, he sallied forth nightly, serenading the caged beauties of the +capital, with whom he seems to have been a very general favourite. + +Lacking the necessary royal patronage, and probably scandalizing by his +mode of life the sedate court officials, he did not receive--perhaps did +not seek--the usual honorarium accorded to those students who visited +Rome for the purpose of study. Finding it convenient to retire for a +time from Madrid, he decided to visit Rome at his own cost; and being +without resources he joined a "quadrilla" of bull-fighters, passing from +town to town until he reached the shores of the Mediterranean. We next +hear of him reaching Rome, broken in health and financially bankrupt. In +1772 he was awarded the second prize in a competition initiated by the +academy of Parma, styling himself "pupil to Bayeu, painter to the king +of Spain." Compelled to quit Rome somewhat suddenly, he appears again in +Madrid in 1775, the husband of Bayeu's daughter, and father of a son. +About this time he appears to have visited his parents at Fuendetodos, +no doubt noting much which later on he utilized in his genre works. On +returning to Madrid he commenced painting canvases for the tapestry +factory of Santa Barbara, in which the king took much interest. Between +1776 and 1780 he appears to have supplied thirty examples, receiving +about L1200 for them. Soon after the revolution of 1868, an official was +appointed to take an inventory of all works of art belonging to the +nation, and in one of the cellars of the Madrid palace were discovered +forty-three of these works of Goya on rolls forgotten and neglected (see +_Los Tapices de Goya; por Cruzado Villaamil, Madrid_, 1870). + +His originality and talent were soon recognized by Mengs, the king's +painter, and royal favour naturally followed. His career now becomes +intimately connected with the court life of his time. He was +commissioned by the king to design a series of frescoes for the church +of St Anthony of Florida, Madrid, and he also produced works for +Saragossa, Valencia and Toledo. Ecclesiastical art was not his forte, +and although he cannot be said to have failed in any of his work, his +fame was not enhanced by his religious subjects. + +In portraiture, without doubt, Goya excelled: his portraits are +evidently life-like and unexaggerated, and he disdained flattery. He +worked rapidly, and during his long stay at Madrid painted, amongst many +others, the portraits of four sovereigns of Spain--Charles III. and IV., +Ferdinand VII. and "King Joseph." The duke of Wellington also sat to +him; but on his making some remark which raised the artist's choler, +Goya seized a plaster cast and hurled it at the head of the duke. There +are extant two pencil sketches of Wellington, one in the British Museum, +the other in a private collection. One of his best portraits is that of +the lovely Andalusian duchess of Alva. He now became the spoiled child +of fortune, and acquired, at any rate externally, much of the polish of +court manners. He still worked industriously upon his own lines, and, +while there is a stiffness almost ungainly in the pose of some of his +portraits, the stern individuality is always preserved. + +Including the designs for tapestry, Goya's genre works are numerous and +varied, both in style and feeling, from his Watteau-like "Al Fresco +Breakfast," "Romeria de San Isidro," to the "Curate feeding the Devil's +Lamp," the "Meson del Gallo," and the painfully realistic massacre of +the "Dos de Mayo" (1808). Goya's versatility is proverbial; in his hands +the pencil, brush and graver are equally powerful. Some of his crayon +sketches of scenes in the bull ring are full of force and character, +slight but full of meaning. He was in his thirty-second year when he +commenced his etchings from Velasquez, whose influence may, however, be +traced in his work at an earlier date. A careful examination of some of +the drawings made for these etchings indicates a steadiness of purpose +not usually discovered in Goya's craft as draughtsman. He is much more +widely known by his etchings than his oils; the latter necessarily must +be sought in public and private collections, principally in Spain, while +the former are known and prized in every capital of Europe. The etched +collections by which Goya is best known include "Los Caprichos," which +have a satirical meaning known only to the few; they are bold, weird and +full of force. "Los Proverbios" are also supposed to have some hidden +intention. "Los Desastres de la Guerra" may fairly claim to depict Spain +during the French invasion. In the bull-fight series Goya is evidently +at home; he was a skilled master of the barbarous art, and no doubt +every sketch is true to nature, and from life. + +Goya retired from Madrid, desiring probably during his latter years to +escape the trying climate of that capital. He died at Bordeaux on the +16th of April 1828, and a monument has been erected there over his +remains. From the deaths of Velasquez and Murillo to the advent of +Fortuny, Goya's name is the only important one found in the history of +Spanish art. + + See also the lives by Paul Lefort (1877), and Yriarte (1867). + + + + +GOYAZ, an inland state of Brazil, bounded by Matto Grosso and Para on +the W., Maranhao, Bahia and Minas Geraes on the E., and Minas Geraes and +Matto Grosso on the S. Pop. (1890) 227,572; (1900) 255,284, including +many half-civilized Indians and many half-breeds. Area, 288,549 sq. m. +The outline of the state is that of a roughly-shaped wedge with the thin +edge extending northward between and up to the junction of the rivers +Araguaya and Upper Tocantins, and its length is nearly 15 deg. of +latitude. The state lies wholly within the great Brazilian plateau +region, but its surface is much broken towards the N. by the deeply +eroded valleys of the Araguaya and Upper Tocantins rivers and their +tributaries. The general slope of the plateau is toward the N., and the +drainage of the state is chiefly through the above-named rivers--the +principal tributaries of the Araguaya being the Grande and Vermelho, and +of the Upper Tocantins, the Manoel Alves Grande, Somno, Paranan and +Maranhao. A considerable part of southern Goyaz, however, slopes +southward and the drainage is through numerous small streams flowing +into the Paranahyba, a large tributary of the Parana. The general +elevation of the plateau is estimated to be about 2700 ft., and the +highest elevation was reported in 1892 to be the Serra dos Pyreneos +(5250 ft.). Crossing the state N.N.E. to S.S.W. there is a well-defined +chain of mountains, of which the Pyreneos, Santa Rita and Santa Martha +ranges form parts, but their elevation above the plateau is not great. +The surface of the plateau is generally open campo and scrubby arboreal +growth called _caatingas_, but the streams are generally bordered with +forest, especially in the deeper valleys. Towards the N. the forest +becomes denser and of the character of the Amazon Valley. The climate of +the plateau is usually described as temperate, but it is essentially +sub-tropical. The valley regions are tropical, and malarial fevers are +common. The cultivation of the soil is limited to local needs, except in +the production of tobacco, which is exported to neighbouring states. The +open campos afford good pasturage, and live stock is largely exported. +Gold-mining has been carried on in a primitive manner for more than two +centuries, but the output has never been large and no very rich mines +have been discovered. Diamonds have been found, but only to a very +limited extent. There is a considerable export of quartz crystal, +commercially known as "Brazilian pebbles," used in optical work. +Although the northern and southern extremities of Goyaz lie within two +great river systems--the Tocantins and Parana--the upper courses of +which are navigable, both of them are obstructed by falls. The only +outlet for the state has been by means of mule trains to the railway +termini of Sao Paulo and Minas Geraes, pending the extension of railways +from both of those states, one entering Goyaz by way of Catalao, near +the southern boundary, and the other at some point further N. + +The capital of the state is GOYAZ, or Villa-Boa de Goyaz, a mining town +on the Rio Vermelho, a tributary of the Araguaya rising on the northern +slopes of the Serra de Santa Rita. Pop. (1890) 6807. Gold was discovered +here in 1682 by Bartholomeu Bueno, the first European explorer of this +region, and the settlement founded by him was called Santa Anna, which +is still the name of the parish. The site of the town is a barren, rocky +mountain valley, 1900 ft. above sea-level, in which the heat is most +oppressive at times and the nights are unpleasantly cold. Goyaz is the +see of a bishopric founded in 1826, and possesses a small cathedral and +some churches. + + + + +GOYEN, JAN JOSEPHSZOON VAN (1596-1656), Dutch painter, was born at +Leiden on the 13th of January 1596, learned painting under several +masters at Leiden and Haarlem, married in 1618 and settled at the Hague +about 1631. He was one of the first to emancipate himself from the +traditions of minute imitation embodied in the works of Breughel and +Savery. Though he preserved the dun scale of tone peculiar to those +painters, he studied atmospheric effects in black and white with +considerable skill. He had much influence on Dutch art. He formed +Solomon Ruysdael and Pieter Potter, forced attention from Rembrandt, and +bequeathed some of his precepts to Pieter de Molyn, Coelenbier, +Saftleven, van der Kabel and even Berghem. His life at the Hague for +twenty-five years was very prosperous, and he rose in 1640 to be +president of his gild. A friend of van Dyck and Bartholomew van der +Helst, he sat to both these artists for his likeness. His daughter +Margaret married Jan Steen, and he had steady patrons in the stadtholder +Frederick Henry, and the chiefs of the municipality of the Hague. He +died at the Hague in 1656, possessed of land and houses to the amount of +15,000 florins. + +Between 1610 and 1616 van Goyen wandered from one school to the other. +He was first apprenticed to Isaak Swanenburgh; he then passed through +the workshops of de Man, Klok and de Hoorn. In 1616 he took a decisive +step and joined Esaias van der Velde at Haarlem; amongst his earlier +pictures, some of 1621 (Berlin Museum) and 1623 (Brunswick Gallery) show +the influence of Esaias very perceptibly. The landscape is minute. +Details of branching and foliage are given, and the figures are +important in relation to the distances. After 1625 these peculiarities +gradually disappear. Atmospheric effect in landscapes of cool tints +varying from grey green to pearl or brown and yellow dun is the +principal object which van Goyen holds in view, and he succeeds +admirably in light skies with drifting misty cloud, and downs with +cottages and scanty shrubbery or stunted trees. Neglecting all detail of +foliage he now works in a thin diluted medium, laying on rubbings as of +sepia or Indian ink, and finishing without loss of transparence or +lucidity. Throwing his foreground into darkness, he casts alternate +light and shade upon the more distant planes, and realizes most pleasing +views of large expanse. In buildings and water, with shipping near the +banks, he sometimes has the strength if not the colour of Albert Cuyp. +The defect of his work is chiefly want of solidity. But even this had +its charm for van Goyen's contemporaries, and some time elapsed before +Cuyp, who imitated him, restricted his method of transparent tinting to +the foliage of foreground trees. + +Van Goyen's pictures are comparatively rare in English collections, but +his work is seen to advantage abroad, and chiefly at the Louvre, and in +Berlin, Gotha, Vienna, Munich and Augsburg. Twenty-eight of his works +were exhibited together at Vienna in 1873. Though he visited France once +or twice, van Goyen chiefly confined himself to the scenery of Holland +and the Rhine. Nine times from 1633 to 1655 he painted views of +Dordrecht. Nimeguen was one of his favourite resorts. But he was also +fond of Haarlem and Amsterdam, and he did not neglect Arnheim or +Utrecht. One of his largest pieces is a view of the Hague, executed in +1651 for the municipality, and now in the town collection of that city. +Most of his panels represent reaches of the Rhine, the Waal and the +Maese. But he sometimes sketched the downs of Scheveningen, or the sea +at the mouth of the Rhine and Scheldt; and he liked to depict the calm +inshore, and rarely ventured upon seas stirred by more than a curling +breeze or the swell of a coming squall. He often painted winter scenes, +with ice and skaters and sledges, in the style familiar to Isaac van +Ostade. There are numerous varieties of these subjects in the master's +works from 1621 to 1653. One historical picture has been assigned to van +Goyen--the "Embarkation of Charles II." in the Bute collection. But this +canvas was executed after van Goyen's death. When he tried this form of +art he properly mistrusted his own powers. But he produced little in +partnership with his contemporaries, and we can only except the +"Watering-place" in the gallery of Vienna, where the landscape is +enlivened with horses and cattle by Philip Wouvermans. Even Jan Steen, +who was his son-in-law, only painted figures for one of his pictures, +and it is probable that this piece was completed after van Goyen's +death. More than 250 of van Goyen's pictures are known and accessible. +Of this number little more than 70 are undated. None exist without the +full name or monogram, and yet there is no painter whose hand it is +easier to trace without the help of these adjuncts. An etcher, but a +poor one, van Goyen has only bequeathed to us two very rare plates. + + + + +GOZLAN, LEON (1806-1866), French novelist and play-writer, was born on +the 1st of September 1806, at Marseilles. When he was still a boy, his +father, who had made a large fortune as a ship-broker, met with a series +of misfortunes, and Leon, before completing his education, had to go to +sea in order to earn a living. In 1828 we find him in Paris, determined +to run the risks of literary life. His townsman, Joseph Mery, who was +then making himself famous by his political satires, introduced him to +several newspapers, and Gozlan's brilliant articles in the _Figaro_ did +much harm to the already tottering government of Charles X. His first +novel was _Les Memoires d'un apothicaire_ (1828), and this was followed +by numberless others, among which may be mentioned _Washington Levert et +Socrate Leblanc_ (1838), _Le Notaire de Chantilly_ (1836), _Aristide +Froissart_ (1843) (one of the most curious and celebrated of his +productions), _Les Nuits du Pere Lachaise_ (1846), _Le Tapis vert_ +(1855), _La Folle du logis_ (1857), _Les Emotions de Polydore Marasquin_ +(1857), &c. His best-known works for the theatre are--_La Pluie et le +beau temps_ (1861), and _Une Tempete dans un verre d'eau_ (1850), two +curtain-raisers which have kept the stage; _Le Lion empaille_ (1848), +_La Queue du chien d'Alcibiade_ (1849), _Louise de Nanteuil_ (1854), _Le +Gateau des reines_ (1855), _Les Paniers de la comtesse_ (1852); and he +adapted several of his own novels to the stage. Gozlan also wrote a +romantic and picturesque description of the old manors and mansions of +his country entitled _Les Chateaux de France_ (2 vols., 1844), +originally published (1836) as _Les Tourelles_, which has some +archaeological value, and a biographical essay on Balzac (_Balzac chez +lui_, 1862). He was made a member of the Legion of Honour in 1846, and +in 1859 an officer of that order. Gozlan died on the 14th of September +1866, in Paris. + + See also P. Audebrand, _Leon Gozlan_ (1887). + + + + +GOZO (GOZZO), an island of the Maltese group in the Mediterranean Sea, +second in size to Malta. It lies N.W. and 3-1/4 m. from the nearest +point of Malta, is of oval form, 8-3/4 m. in length and 4-1/2 m. in +extreme breadth, and has an area of nearly 25 m. Its chief town, +Victoria, formerly called Rabato (pop. in 1901, 5057) stands near the +middle of the island on one of a cluster of steep conical hills, 3-1/2 +m. from the port of Migiarro Bay, on the south-east shore, below Fort +Chambray. The character of the island is similar to that of Malta. The +estimated population in 1907 was 21,911. + + + + +GOZZI, CARLO, COUNT (1722-1806), Italian dramatist, was descended from +an old Venetian family, and was born at Venice in March 1722. Compelled +by the embarrassed condition of his father's affairs to procure the +means of self-support, he, at the age of sixteen, joined the army in +Dalmatia; but three years afterwards he returned to Venice, where he +soon made a reputation for himself as the wittiest member of the +Granelleschi society, to which the publication of several satirical +pieces had gained him admission. This society, nominally devoted to +conviviality and wit, had also serious literary aims, and was especially +zealous to preserve the Tuscan literature pure and untainted by foreign +influences. The displacement of the old Italian comedy by the dramas of +Pietro Chiari (1700-1788) and Goldoni, founded on French models, +threatened defeat to all their efforts; and in 1757 Gozzi came to the +rescue by publishing a satirical poem, _Tartana degli influssi per l' +anno bisestile_, and in 1761 by his comedy, _Fiaba dell' amore delle tre +melarancie_, a parody of the manner of the two obnoxious poets, founded +on a fairy tale. For its representation he obtained the services of the +Sacchi company of players, who, on account of the popularity of the +comedies of Chiari and Goldoni--which afforded no scope for the display +of their peculiar talents--had been left without employment; and as +their satirical powers were thus sharpened by personal enmity, the play +met with extraordinary success. Struck by the effect produced on the +audience by the introduction of the supernatural or mythical element, +which he had merely used as a convenient medium for his satirical +purposes, Gozzi now produced a series of dramatic pieces based on fairy +tales, which for a period obtained great popularity, but after the +breaking up of the Sacchi company were completely disregarded. They +have, however, obtained high praise from Goethe, Schlegel, Madame de +Stael and Sismondi; and one of them, _Re Turandote_, was translated by +Schiller. In his later years Gozzi set himself to the production of +tragedies in which the comic element was largely introduced; but as this +innovation proved unacceptable to the critics he had recourse to the +Spanish drama, from which he obtained models for various pieces, which, +however, met with only equivocal success. He died on the 4th of April +1806. + + His collected works were published under his own superintendence, at + Venice, in 1792, in 10 volumes; and his dramatic works, translated + into German by Werthes, were published at Bern in 1795. See Gozzi's + work, _Memorie inutili della vita di Carlo Gozzi_ (3 vols., Venice, + 1797), translated into French by Paul de Musset (1848), and into + English by J. A. Symonds (1889); F. Horn, _Uber Gozzis dramatische + Poesie_ (Venice, 1803); Gherardini, _Vita di Gasp. Gozzi_ (1821); + "Charles Gozzi," by Paul de Musset, in the _Revue des deux mondes_ for + 15th November 1844; Magrini, _Carlo Gozzi e la fiabe: saggi storici, + biografici, e critici_ (Cremona, 1876), and the same author's book on + Gozzi's life and times (Benevento, 1883). + + + + + +GOZZI, GASPARO, COUNT (1713-1786), eldest brother of Carlo Gozzi, was +born on the 4th of December 1713. In 1739 he married the poetess Luise +Bergalli, and she undertook the management of the theatre of Sant' +Angelo, Venice, he supplying the performers with dramas chiefly +translated from the French. The speculation proved unfortunate, but +meantime he had attained a high reputation for his contributions to the +_Gazzetta Veneta_, and he soon came to be known as one of the ablest +critics and purest and most elegant stylists in Italy. For a +considerable period he was censor of the press in Venice, and in 1774 he +was appointed to reorganize the university system at Padua. He died at +Padua on the 26th of December 1786. + + His principal writings are _Osservatore Veneto periodico_ (1761), on + the model of the English _Spectator_, and distinguished by its high + moral tone and its light and pleasant satire; _Lettere famigliari_ + (1755), a collection of short racy pieces in prose and verse, on + subjects of general interest; _Sermoni_, poems in blank verse after + the manner of Horace; _Il Mondo morale_ (1760), a personification of + human passions with inwoven dialogues in the style of Lucian; and + _Giudizio degli antichi poeti sopra la moderna censura di Dante_ + (1755), a defence of the great poet against the attacks of Bettinelli. + He also translated various works from the French and English, + including Marmontel's _Tales_ and Pope's _Essay on Criticism_. His + collected works were published at Venice, 1794-1798, in 12 volumes, + and several editions have appeared since. + + + + +GOZZOLI, BENOZZO, Italian painter, was born in Florence in 1424, or +perhaps 1420, and in the early part of his career assisted Fra Angelico, +whom he followed to Rome and worked with at Orvieto. In Rome he executed +in Santa Maria in Aracoeli a fresco of "St Anthony and Two Angels." In +1449 he left Angelico, and went to Montefalco, near Foligno in Umbria. +In S. Fortunate, near Montefalco, he painted a "Madonna and Child with +Saints and Angels," and three other works. One of these, the altar-piece +representing "St Thomas receiving the Girdle of the Virgin," is now in +the Lateran Museum, and shows the affinity of Gozzoli's early style to +Angelico's. He next painted in the monastery of S. Francesco, +Montefalco, filling the choir with a triple course of subjects from the +life of the saint, with various accessories, including heads of Dante, +Petrarch and Giotto. This work was completed in 1452, and is still +marked by the style of Angelico, crossed here and there with a more +distinctly Giottesque influence. In the same church, in the chapel of St +Jerome, is a fresco by Gozzoli of the Virgin and Saints, the Crucifixion +and other subjects. He remained at Montefalco (with an interval at +Viterbo) probably till 1456, employing Mesastris as assistant. Thence he +went to Perugia, and painted in a church a "Virgin and Saints," now in +the local academy, and soon afterwards to his native Florence, the +headquarters of art. By the end of 1459 he had nearly finished his +important labour in the chapel of the Palazzo Riccardi, the "Journey of +the Magi to Bethlehem," and, in the tribune of this chapel, a +composition of "Angels in a Paradise." His picture in the National +Gallery, London, a "Virgin and Child with Saints," 1461, belongs also to +the period of his Florentine sojourn. Another small picture in the same +gallery, the "Rape of Helen," is of dubious authenticity. In 1464 +Gozzoli left Florence for S. Gimignano, where he executed some extensive +works; in the church of S. Agostino, a composition of St Sebastian +protecting the City from the Plague of this same year, 1464; over the +entire choir of the church, a triple course of scenes from the legends +of St Augustine, from the time of his entering the school of Tegaste on +to his burial, seventeen chief subjects, with some accessories; in the +Pieve di S. Gimignano, the "Martyrdom of Sebastian," and other subjects, +and some further works in the city and its vicinity. Here his style +combined something of Lippo Lippi with its original elements, and he +received co-operation from Giusto d'Andrea. He stayed in this city till +1467, and then began, in the Campo Santo of Pisa, from 1469, the vast +series of mural paintings with which his name is specially identified. +There are twenty-four subjects from the Old Testament, from the +"Invention of Wine by Noah" to the "Visit of the Queen of Sheba to +Solomon." He contracted to paint three subjects per year for about ten +ducats each--a sum which may be regarded as equivalent to L100 at the +present day. It appears, however, that this contract was not strictly +adhered to, for the actual rate of painting was only three pictures in +two years. Perhaps the great multitude of figures and accessories was +accepted as a set-off against the slower rate of production. By January +1470 he had executed the fresco of "Noah and his Family,"--followed by +the "Curse of Ham," the "Building of the Tower of Babel" (which contains +portraits of Cosmo de' Medici, the young Lorenzo Politian and others), +the "Destruction of Sodom," the "Victory of Abraham," the "Marriages of +Rebecca and of Rachel," the "Life of Moses," &c. In the Cappella +Ammannati, facing a gate of the Campo Santo, he painted also an +"Adoration of the Magi," wherein appears a portrait of himself. All this +enormous mass of work, in which Gozzoli was probably assisted by Zanobi +Macchiavelli, was performed, in addition to several other pictures +during his stay in Pisa (we need only specify the "Glory of St Thomas +Aquinas," now in the Louvre), in sixteen years, lasting up to 1485. This +is the latest date which can with certainty be assigned to any work from +his hand, although he is known to have been alive up to 1498. In 1478 +the Pisan authorities had given him, as a token of their regard, a tomb +in the Campo Santo. He had likewise a house of his own in Pisa, and +houses and land in Florence. In rectitude of life he is said to have +been worthy of his first master, Fra Angelico. + +The art of Gozzoli does not rival that of his greatest contemporaries +either in elevation or in strength, but is pre-eminently attractive by +its sense of what is rich, winning, lively and abundant in the aspects +of men and things. His landscapes, thronged with birds and quadrupeds, +especially dogs, are more varied, circumstantial and alluring than those +of any predecessor; his compositions are crowded with figures, more +characteristically true when happily and gracefully occupied than when +the demands of the subject require tragic or dramatic intensity, or +turmoil of action; his colour is bright, vivacious and festive. +Gozzoli's genius was, on the whole, more versatile and assimilative than +vigorously original; his drawing not free from considerable +imperfections, especially in the extremities and articulations, and in +the perspective of his gorgeously-schemed buildings. In fresco-painting +he used the methods of tempera, and the decay of his works has been +severe in proportion. Of his untiring industry the recital of his +labours and the number of works produced are the most forcible +attestation. + + Vasari, Crowe and Cavalcaselle, and the other ordinary authorities, + can be consulted as to the career of Gozzoli. A separate _Life_ of + him, by H. Stokes, was published in 1903 in Newnes's Art library. + (W. M. R.) + + + + +GRAAFF REINET, a town of South Africa, 185 m. by rail N.W. by N. of Port +Elizabeth. Pop. (1904) 10,083, of whom 4055 were whites. The town lies +2463 ft. above the sea and is built on the banks of the Sunday river, +which rises a little farther north on the southern slopes of the +Sneeuwberg, and here ramifies into several channels. The Dutch church is +a handsome stone building with seating accommodation for 1500 people. +The college is an educational centre of some importance; it was rebuilt +in 1906. Graaff Reinet is a flourishing market for agricultural produce, +the district being noted for its mohair industry, its orchards and +vineyards. + +The town was founded by the Cape Dutch in 1786, being named after the +then governor of Cape Colony, C. J. van de Graaff, and his wife. In 1795 +the burghers, smarting under the exactions of the Dutch East India +Company proclaimed a republic. Similar action was taken by the burghers +of Swellendam. Before the authorities at Cape Town could take decisive +measures against the rebels, they were themselves compelled to +capitulate to the British. The burghers having endeavoured, +unsuccessfully, to get aid from a French warship at Algoa Bay +surrendered to Colonel (afterwards General Sir) J. O. Vandeleur. In +January 1799 Marthinus Prinsloo, the leader of the republicans in 1795, +again rebelled, but surrendered in April following. Prinsloo and +nineteen others were imprisoned in Cape Town castle. After trial, +Prinsloo and another commandant were sentenced to death and others to +banishment. The sentences were not carried out and the prisoners were +released, March 1803, on the retrocession of the Cape to Holland. In +1801 there had been another revolt in Graaff Reinet, but owing to the +conciliatory measures of General F. Dundas (acting governor of the Cape) +peace was soon restored. It was this district, where a republican +government in South Africa was first proclaimed, which furnished large +numbers of the voortrekkers in 1835-1842. It remains a strong Dutch +centre. + + See J. C. Voight, _Fifty Years of the History of the Republic in South + Africa 1795-1845_, vol. i. (London, 1899). + + + + +GRABBE, CHRISTIAN DIETRICH (1801-1836), German dramatist, was born at +Detmold on the 11th of December 1801. Entering the university of Leipzig +in 1819 as a student of law, he continued the reckless habits which he +had begun at Detmold, and neglected his studies. Being introduced into +literary circles, he conceived the idea of becoming an actor and wrote +the drama _Herzog Theodor von Gothland_ (1822). This, though showing +considerable literary talent, lacks artistic form, and is morally +repulsive. Ludwig Tieck, while encouraging the young author, pointed out +its faults, and tried to reform Grabbe himself. In 1822 Grabbe removed +to Berlin University, and in 1824 passed his advocate's examination. He +now settled in his native town as a lawyer and in 1827 was appointed a +_Militarauditeur_. In 1833 he married, but in consequence of his drunken +habits was dismissed from his office, and, separating from his wife, +visited Dusseldorf, where he was kindly received by Karl Immermann. +After a serious quarrel with the latter, he returned to Detmold, where, +as a result of his excesses, he died on the 12th of September 1836. + +Grabbe had real poetical gifts, and many of his dramas contain fine +passages and a wealth of original ideas. They largely reflect his own +life and character, and are characterized by cynicism and indelicacy. +Their construction also is defective and little suited to the +requirements of the stage. The boldly conceived _Don Juan und Faust_ +(1829) and the historical dramas _Friedrich Barbarossa_ (1829), +_Heinrich VI._ (1830), and _Napoleon oder die Hundert Tage_ (1831), the +last of which places the battle of Waterloo upon the stage, are his best +works. Among others are the unfinished tragedies _Marius and Sulla_ +(continued by Erich Korn, Berlin, 1890); and _Hannibal_ (1835, +supplemented and edited by C. Spielmann, Halle, 1901); and the patriotic +_Hermannsschlacht_ or the battle between Arminius and Varus +(posthumously published with a biographical notice, by E. Duller, 1838). + + Grabbe's works have been edited by O. Blumenthal (4 vols., 1875), and + E. Grisebach (4 vols., 1902). For further notices of his life, see K. + Ziegler, _Grabbes Leben und Charakter_ (1855); O. Blumenthal, + _Beitrage zur Kenntnis Grabbes_ (1875); C. A. Piper, _Grabbe_ (1898), + and A. Ploch, _Grabbes Stellung in der deutschen Literatur_ (1905). + + + + +GRABE, JOHN ERNEST (1666-1711), Anglican divine, was born on the 10th of +July 1666, at Konigsberg, where his father, Martin Sylvester Grabe, was +professor of theology and history. In his theological studies Grabe +succeeded in persuading himself of the schismatical character of the +Reformation, and accordingly he presented to the consistory of Samland +in Prussia a memorial in which he compared the position of the +evangelical Protestant churches with that of the Novatians and other +ancient schismatics. He had resolved to join the Church of Rome when a +commission of Lutheran divines pointed out flaws in his written argument +and called his attention to the English Church as apparently possessing +that apostolic succession and manifesting that fidelity to ancient +institutions which he desired. He came to England, settled in Oxford, +was ordained in 1700, and became chaplain of Christ Church. His +inclination was towards the party of the nonjurors. The learned labours +to which the remainder of his life was devoted were rewarded with an +Oxford degree and a royal pension. He died on the 3rd of November 1711, +and in 1726 a monument was erected to him by Edward Harley, earl of +Oxford, in Westminster Abbey. He was buried in St Pancras Church, +London. + + Some account of Grabe's life is given in R. Nelson's _Life of George + Bull_, and by George Hickes in a discourse prefixed to the pamphlet + against W. Whiston's _Collection of Testimonies against the True_ + _Deity of the Son and of the Holy Ghost_. His works, which show him + to have been learned and laborious but somewhat deficient in critical + acumen, include a _Spicilegium SS. Patrum et haereticorum_ + (1698-1699), which was designed to cover the first three centuries of + the Christian church, but was not continued beyond the close of the + second. A second edition of this work was published in 1714. He + brought out an edition of Justin Martyr's _Apologia prima_ (1700), of + Irenaeus, _Adversus omnes haereses_ (1702), of the Septuagint, and of + Bishop Bull's Latin works (1703). His edition of the Septuagint was + based on the _Codex Alexandrinus_; it appeared in 4 volumes + (1707-1720), and was completed by Francis Lee and by George Wigan. + + + + +GRACCHUS, in ancient Rome, the name of a plebeian family of the +Sempronian gens. Its most distinguished representatives were the famous +tribunes of the people, Tiberius and Gaius Sempronius Gracchus, (4) and +(5) below, usually called simply "the Gracchi." + +1. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, consul in 238 B.C., carried on +successful operations against the Ligurian mountaineers, and, at the +conclusion of the Carthaginian mercenary war, was in command of the +fleet which at the invitation of the insurgents took possession of the +island of Sardinia. + +2. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, probably the son of (1), distinguished +himself during the second Punic war. Consul in 215, he defeated the +Capuans who had entered into an alliance with Hannibal, and in 214 +gained a signal success over Hanno near Beneventum, chiefly owing to the +_volones_ (slave-volunteers), to whom he had promised freedom in the +event of victory. In 213 Gracchus was consul a second time and carried +on the war in Lucania; in the following year, while advancing northward +to reinforce the consuls in their attack on Capua, he was betrayed into +the hands of the Carthaginian Mago by a Lucanian of rank, who had +formerly supported the Roman cause and was connected with Gracchus +himself by ties of hospitality. Gracchus fell fighting bravely; his body +was sent to Hannibal, who accorded him a splendid burial. + +3. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS (c. 210-151 B.C.), father of the +tribunes, and husband of Cornelia, the daughter of the elder Scipio +Africanus, was possibly the son of a Publius Sempronius Gracchus who was +tribune in 189. Although a determined political opponent of the two +Scipios (Asiaticus and Africanus), as tribune in 187 he interfered on +their behalf when they were accused of having accepted bribes from the +king of Syria after the war. In 185 he was a member of the commission +sent to Macedonia to investigate the complaints made by Eumenes II. of +Pergamum against Philip V. of Macedon. In his curule aedileship (182) he +celebrated the games on so magnificent a scale that the burdens imposed +upon the Italian and extra-Italian communities led to the official +interference of the senate. In 181 he went as praetor to Hither Spain, +and, after gaining signal successes in the field, applied himself to the +pacification of the country. His strict sense of justice and sympathetic +attitude won the respect and affection of the inhabitants; the land had +rest for a quarter of a century. When consul in 177, he was occupied in +putting down a revolt in Sardinia, and brought back so many prisoners +that _Sardi venales_ (Sardinians for sale) became a proverbial +expression for a drug in the market. In 169 Gracchus was censor, and +both he and his colleague (C. Claudius Pulcher) showed themselves +determined opponents of the capitalists. They deeply offended the +equestrian order by forbidding any contractor who had obtained contracts +under the previous censors to make fresh offers. Gracchus stringently +enforced the limitation of the freedmen to the four city tribes, which +completely destroyed their influence in the comitia. In 165 and 161 he +went as ambassador to several Asiatic princes, with whom he established +friendly relations. Amongst the places visited by him was Rhodes, where +he delivered a speech in Greek, which he afterwards published. In 163 he +was again consul. + +4. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS (163-133 B.C.), son of (3), was the +elder of the two great reformers. He and his brother were brought up by +their mother Cornelia, assisted by the rhetorician Diophanes of Mytilene +and the Stoic Blossius of Cumae. In 147 he served under his +brother-in-law the younger Scipio in Africa during the last Punic war, +and was the first to mount the walls in the attack on Carthage. When +quaestor in 137, he accompanied the consul C. Hostilius Mancinus to +Spain. During the Numantine war the Roman army was saved from +annihilation only by the efforts of Tiberius, with whom alone the +Numantines consented to treat, out of respect for the memory of his +father. The senate refused to ratify the agreement; Mancinus was handed +over to the enemy as a sign that it was annulled, and only personal +popularity saved Tiberius himself from punishment. In 133 he was +tribune, and championed the impoverished farmer class and the lower +orders. His proposals (see AGRARIAN LAWS) met with violent opposition, +and were not carried until he had, illegally and unconstitutionally, +secured the deposition of his fellow-tribune, M. Octavius, who had been +persuaded by the optimates to veto them. The senate put every obstacle +in the way of the three commissioners appointed to carry out the +provisions of the law, and Tiberius, in view of the bitter enmity he had +aroused, saw that it was necessary to strengthen his hold on the popular +favour. The legacy to the Roman people of the kingdom and treasures of +Attalus III. of Pergamum gave him an opportunity. He proposed that the +money realized by the sale of the treasures should be divided, for the +purchase of implements and stock, amongst those to whom assignments of +land had been made under the new law. He is also said to have brought +forward measures for shortening the period of military service, for +extending the right of appeal from the _judices_ to the people, for +abolishing the exclusive privilege of the senators to act as jurymen, +and even for admitting the Italian allies to citizenship. To strengthen +his position further, Tiberius offered himself for re-election as +tribune for the following year. The senate declared that it was illegal +to hold this office for two consecutive years; but Tiberius treated this +objection with contempt. To win the sympathy of the people, he appeared +in mourning, and appealed for protection for his wife and children, and +whenever he left his house he was accompanied by a bodyguard of 3000 +men, chiefly consisting of the city rabble. The meeting of the tribes +for the election of tribunes broke up in disorder on two successive +days, without any result being attained, although on both occasions the +first divisions voted in favour of Tiberius. A rumour reached the senate +that he was aiming at supreme power, that he had touched his head with +his hand, a sign that he was asking for a crown. An appeal to the consul +P. Mucius Scaevola to order him to be put to death at once having +failed, P. Scipio Nasica exclaimed that Scaevola was acting +treacherously towards the state, and called upon those who agreed with +him to take up arms and follow him. During the riot that followed, +Tiberius attempted to escape, but stumbled on the slope of the Capitol +and was beaten to death with the end of a bench. At night his body, with +those of 300 others, was thrown into the Tiber. The aristocracy boldly +assumed the responsibility for what had occurred, and set up a +commission to inquire into the case of the partisans of Tiberius, many +of whom were banished and others put to death. Even the moderate +Scaevola subsequently maintained that Nasica was justified in his +action; and it was reported that Scipio, when he heard at Numantia of +his brother-in-law's death, repeated the line of Homer--"So perish all +who do the like again." + + See Livy, _Epit._ 58; Appian, _Bell. civ._ i. 9-17; Plutarch, + _Tiberius Gracchus_; Vell. Pat. ii. 2, 3. + +5. GAIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS (153-121 B.C.), younger brother of (4), was +a man of greater abilities, bolder and more passionate, although +possessed of considerable powers of self-control, and a vigorous and +impressive orator. When twenty years of age he was appointed one of the +commissioners to carry out the distribution of land under the provisions +of his brother's agrarian law. At the time of Tiberius's death, Gaius +was serving under his brother-in-law Scipio in Spain, but probably +returned to Rome in the following year (132). In 131 he supported the +bill of C. Papirius Carbo, the object of which was to make it legal for +a tribune to offer himself as candidate for the office in two +consecutive years, and thus to remove one of the chief obstacles that +had hampered Tiberius. The bill was then rejected, but appears to have +subsequently passed in a modified form, as Gaius himself was re-elected +without any disturbance. Possibly, however, his re-election was illegal, +and he had only succeeded where his brother had failed. For the next few +years nothing is heard of Gaius. Public opinion pointed him out as the +man to avenge his brother's death and carry out his plans, and the +aristocratic party, warned by the example of Tiberius, were anxious to +keep him away from Rome. In 126 Gaius accompanied the consul L. Aurelius +Orestes as quaestor to Sardinia, then in a state of revolt. Here he made +himself so popular that the senate in alarm prolonged the command of +Orestes, in order that Gaius might be obliged to remain there in his +capacity of quaestor. But he returned to Rome without the permission of +the senate, and, when called to account by the censors, defended himself +so successfully that he was acquitted of having acted illegally. The +disappointed aristocrats then brought him to trial on the charge of +being implicated in the revolt of Fregellae, and in other ways +unsuccessfully endeavoured to undermine his influence. Gaius then +decided to act; against the wishes of his mother he became a candidate +for the tribuneship, and, in spite of the determined opposition of the +aristocracy, he was elected for the year 123, although only fourth on +the list. The legislative proposals[1] brought forward by him had for +their object:--the punishment of his brother's enemies; the relief of +distress and the attachment to himself of the city populace; the +diminution of the power of the senate and the increase of that of the +_equites_; the amelioration of the political status of the Italians and +provincials. + + A law was passed that no Roman citizen should be tried in a matter + affecting his life or political status unless the people had + previously given its assent. This was specially aimed at Popilius + Laenas, who had taken an active part in the prosecution of the + adherents of Tiberius. Another law enacted that any magistrate who had + been deprived of office by decree of the people should be + incapacitated from holding office again. This was directed against M. + Octavius, who had been illegally deprived of his tribunate through + Tiberius. This unfair and vindictive measure was withdrawn at the + earnest request of Cornelia. + + He revived his brother's agrarian law, which, although it had not been + repealed, had fallen into abeyance. By his _Lex Frumentaria_ every + citizen resident in Rome was entitled to a certain amount of corn at + about half the usual price; as the distribution only applied to those + living in the capital, the natural result was that the poorer country + citizens flocked into Rome and swelled the number of Gaius's + supporters. No citizen was to be obliged to serve in the army before + the commencement of his eighteenth year, and his military outfit was + to be supplied by the state, instead of being deducted from his pay. + Gaius also proposed the establishment of colonies in Italy (at + Tarentum and Capua), and sent out to the site of Carthage 6000 + colonists to found the new city of Junonia, the inhabitants of which + were to possess the rights of Roman citizens; this was the first + attempt at over-sea colonization. A new system of roads was + constructed which afforded easier access to Rome. Having thus gained + over the city proletariat, in order to secure a majority in the + comitia by its aid, Gaius did away with the system of voting in the + comitia centuriata, whereby the five property classes in each tribe + gave their votes one after another, and introduced promiscuous voting + in an order fixed by lot. + + The judices in the standing commissions for the trial of particular + offences (the most important of which was that dealing with the trial + of provincial magistrates for extortion, _de repetundis_) were in + future to be chosen from the equites (q.v.), not as hitherto from the + senate. The taxes of the new province of Asia were to be let out by + the censors to Roman _publicani_ (who belonged to the equestrian + order), who paid down a lump sum for the right of collecting them. It + is obvious that this afforded the equites extensive opportunities for + money-making and extortion, while the alteration in the appointment of + the judices gave them the same practical immunity and perpetuated the + old abuses, with the difference that it was no longer senators, but + equites, who could look forward with confidence to being leniently + dealt with by men belonging to their own order; Gaius also expected + that this moneyed aristocracy, which had taken the part of the senate + against Tiberius, would now support him against it. It was enacted + that the provinces to be assigned to the consuls, should be determined + before, instead of after their election; and the consuls themselves + had to settle, by lot or other arrangement, which province each of + them would take.[2] + +These measures raised Gaius to the height of his popularity, and during +the year of his first tribuneship he may be considered the absolute +ruler of Rome. He was chosen tribune for the second time for the year +122. To this period is probably to be assigned his proposal that the +franchise should be given to all the Latin communities and that the +status of the Latins should be conferred upon the Italian allies. In 125 +M. Fulvius Flaccus had brought forward a similar measure, but he was got +out of the way by the senate, who sent him to fight in Gaul. This +proposal, more statesmanlike than any of the others, was naturally +opposed by the aristocratic party, and lessened Gaius's popularity +amongst his own supporters, who viewed with disfavour the prospect of an +increase in the number of Roman citizens. The senate put up M. Livius +Drusus to outbid him, and his absence from Rome while superintending the +organization of the newly-founded colony, Junonia-Carthago, was taken +advantage of by his enemies to weaken his influence. On his return he +found his popularity diminished. He failed to secure the tribuneship for +the third time, and his bitter enemy L. Opimius was elected consul. The +latter at once decided to propose the abandonment of the new colony, +which was to occupy the site cursed by Scipio, while its foundation had +been attended by unmistakable manifestations of the wrath of the gods. +On the day when the matter was to be put to the vote, a lictor named +Antyllius, who had insulted the supporters of Gaius, was stabbed to +death. This gave his opponents the desired opportunity. Gaius was +declared a public enemy, and the consuls were invested with dictatorial +powers. The Gracchans, who had taken up their position in the temple of +Diana on the Aventine, offered little resistance to the attack ordered +by Opimius. Gaius managed to escape across the Tiber, where his dead +body was found on the following day in the grove of Furrina by the side +of that of a slave, who had probably slain his master and then himself. +The property of the Gracchans was confiscated, and a temple of Concord +erected in the Forum from the proceeds. Beneath the inscription +recording the occasion on which the temple had been built some one +during the night wrote the words: "The work of Discord makes the temple +of Concord." + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See Livy, _Epit._ 60; Appian, _Bell. Civ._ i. 21; + Plutarch, _Gaius Gracchus_; Orosius v. 12; Aulus Gellius x. 3, xi. 10. + For an account of the two tribunes see Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_ (Eng. + trans.), bk. iv., chs. 2 and 3; C. Neumann, _Geschichte Roms wahrend + des Verfalles der Republik_ (1881); A. H. J. Greenidge, _History of + Rome_ (1904); E. Meyer, _Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Gracchen_ + (1894); G. E. Underhill, Plutarch's _Lives of the Gracchi_ (1892); W. + Warde Fowler in _English Historical Review_ (1905), pp. 209 and 417; + Long, _Decline of the Roman Republic_, chs. 10-13, 17-19, containing a + careful examination of the ancient authorities; G. F. Hertzberg in + Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyclopadie_; C. W. Oman, _Seven Roman + Statesmen of the later Republic_ (1902); T. Lau, _Die Gracchen und + ihre Zeit_ (1854). The exhaustive monograph by C. W. Nitzsch, _Die + Gracchen und ihre nachsten Vorganger_ (1847), also contains an account + of the other members of the family, with full references to ancient + authorities in the notes. (J. H. F.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] These measures cannot be arranged in any definite chronological + order, nor can it be decided which belong to his first, which to his + second tribuneship. See W. Warde Fowler in _Eng. Hist. Review_, 1905. + pp. 209 sqq., 417 sqq. + + [2] It is suggested by W. Warde Fowler that Gracchus proposed to add + a certain number of _equites_ to the senate, thereby increasing it to + 900, but the plan was never carried out. + + + + +GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848- ), English cricketer, was born at +Downend, Gloucestershire, on the 18th of July 1848. He found himself in +an atmosphere charged with cricket, his father (Henry Mills Grace) and +his uncle (Alfred Pocock) being as enthusiastic over the game as his +elder brothers, Henry, Alfred and Edward Mills; indeed, in E. M. Grace +the family name first became famous. A younger brother, George +Frederick, also added to the cricket reputation of the family. "W. G." +witnessed his first great match when he was hardly six years old, the +occasion being a game between W. Clarke's All-England Eleven and +twenty-two of West Gloucestershire. He was endowed by nature with a +splendid physique as well as with powers of self-restraint and +determination. At the acme of his career he stood full 6 ft. 2 in., +being powerfully proportioned, loose yet strong of limb. A non-smoker, +and very moderate in all matters, he kept himself in condition all the +year round, shooting, hunting or running with the beagles as soon as the +cricket season was over. He was also a fine runner, 440 yds. over 20 +hurdles being his best distance; and it may be quoted as proof of his +stamina that on the 30th of July 1866 he scored 224 not out for England +_v._ Surrey, and two days later won a race in the National and Olympian +Association meeting at the Crystal Palace. The title of "champion" was +well earned by one who for thirty-six years (1865-1900 inclusive) was +actively engaged in first-class cricket. In each of these years he was +invited to represent the Gentlemen in their matches against the Players, +and, when an Australian eleven visited England, to play for the mother +country. As late as 1899 he played in the first of the five +international contests; in 1900 he played against the players at the +Oval, scoring 58 and 3. At fifty-three he scored nearly 1300 runs in +first-class cricket, made 100 runs and over on three different occasions +and could claim an average of 42 runs. Moreover, his greatest triumphs +were achieved when only the very best cricket grounds received serious +attention; when, as some consider, bowling was maintained at a higher +standard and when all hits had to be run out. He, with his two brothers, +E. M. and G. F., assisted by some fine amateurs, made Gloucestershire in +one season a first-class county; and it was he who first enabled the +amateurs of England to meet the paid players on equal terms and to beat +them. There was hardly a "record" connected with the game which did not +stand to his credit. Grace was one of the finest fieldsmen in England, +in his earlier days generally taking long-leg and cover-point, in later +times generally standing point. He was, at his best, a fine thrower, +fast runner and safe "catch." As a bowler he was long in the first +flight, originally bowling fast, but in later times adopting a slower +and more tricky style, frequently very effective. By profession he was a +medical man. In later years he became secretary and manager of the +London County Cricket Club. He was married in 1873 to Miss Agnes Day, +and one of his sons played for two years in the Cambridge eleven. He was +the recipient of two national testimonials: the first, amounting to +L1500, being presented to him in the form of a clock and a cheque at +Lord's ground by Lord Charles Russell on the 22nd of July 1879; the +second, collected by the M.C.C., the county of Gloucestershire, the +_Daily Telegraph_ and the _Sportsman_, amounted to about L10,000, and +was presented to him in 1896. He visited Australia in 1873-1874 +(captain), and in 1891-1892 with Lord Sheffield's Eleven (captain); the +United States and Canada in 1872, with R. A. Fitzgerald's team. + + Dr Grace played his first great match in 1863, when, being only + fifteen years of age, he scored 32 against the All-England Eleven and + the bowling of Jackson, Tarrant and Tinley; but the scores which first + made his name prominent were made in 1864, viz. 170 and 56 not out for + the South Wales Club against the Gentlemen of Sussex. It was in 1865 + that he first took an active part in first-class cricket, being then 6 + ft. in height, and 11 stone in weight, and playing twice for the + Gentlemen _v._ the Players, but his selection was mainly due to his + bowling powers, the best exposition of which was his aggregate of 13 + wickets for 84 runs for the Gentlemen of the South _v._ the Players of + the South. His highest score was 400 not out, made in July 1876 + against twenty-two of Grimsby; but on three occasions he was twice + dismissed without scoring in matches against odds, a fate that never + befell him in important cricket. In first-class matches his highest + score was 344, made for the M.C.C. v. Kent at Canterbury, in August + 1876; two days later he made 177 for Gloucestershire _v._ Notts, and + two days after this 318 not out for Gloucestershire _v._ Yorkshire, + the two last-named opposing counties being possessed of exceptionally + strong bowling; thus in three consecutive innings Grace scored 839 + runs, and was only got out twice. His 344 was the third highest + individual score made in a big match in England up to the end of 1901. + He also scored 301 for Gloucestershire _v._ Sussex at Bristol, in + August 1896. He made over 200 runs on ten occasions, the most notable + perhaps being in 1871, when he performed the feat twice, each time in + benefit matches, and each time in the second innings, having been each + time got out in the first over of the first innings. He scored over + 100 runs on 121 occasions, the hundredth score being 288, made at + Bristol for Gloucestershire _v._ Somersetshire in 1895. He made every + figure from 0 to 100, on one occasion "closing" the innings when he + had made 93, the only total he had never made between these limits. In + 1871 he made ten "centuries," ranging from 268 to 116. In the matches + between the Gentlemen and Players he scored "three figures" fifteen + times, and at every place where these matches have been played. He + made over 100 in each of his "first appearances" at Oxford and + Cambridge. Three times he made over 100 in each innings of the same + match, viz. at Canterbury, in 1868, for South v. North of the Thames, + 130 and 102 not out; at Clifton, in 1887, for Gloucestershire _v._ + Kent, 101 and 103 not out; and at Clifton, in 1888, for + Gloucestershire _v._ Yorkshire, 148 and 153. In 1869, playing at the + Oval for the Gentlemen of the South _v._ the Players of the South, + Grace and B. B. Cooper put on 283 runs for the first wicket, Grace + scoring 180 and Cooper 101. In 1886 Grace and Scotton put on 170 runs + for the first wicket of England _v._ Australia; this occurred at the + Oval in August, and Grace's total score was 170. In consecutive + innings against the Players from 1871 to 1873 he scored 217, 77 and + 112, 117, 163, 158 and 70. He only twice scored over 100 in a big + match in Australia, nor did he ever make 200 at Lord's, his highest + being 196 for the M.C.C. _v._ Cambridge University in 1894. His + highest aggregates were 2739 (1871), 2622 (1876), 2346 (1895), 2139 + (1873), 2135 (1896) and 2062 (1887). He scored three successive + centuries in first-class cricket in 1871, 1872, 1873, 1874 and 1876. + Playing against Kent at Gravesend in 1895, he was batting, bowling or + fielding during the whole time the game was in progress, his scores + being 257 and 73 not out. He scored over 1000 runs and took over 100 + wickets in seven different seasons, viz. in 1874, 1665 runs and 129 + wickets; in 1875, 1498 runs, 192 wickets; in 1876, 2622 runs, 124 + wickets; in 1877, 1474 runs, 179 wickets; in 1878, 1151 runs, 153 + wickets; in 1885, 1688 runs, 118 wickets; in 1886, 1846 runs, 122 + wickets. He never captured 200 wickets in a season, his highest record + being 192 in 1875. Playing against Oxford University in 1886, he took + all the wickets in the first innings, at a cost of 49 runs. In 1895 he + not only made his hundredth century, but actually scored 1000 runs in + the month of May alone, his chief scores in that month being 103, 288, + 256, 73 and 169, he being then forty-seven years old. He also made + during that year scores of 125, 119, 118, 104 and 103 not out, his + aggregate for the year being 2346 and his average 51; his innings of + 118 was made against the Players (at Lord's), the chief bowlers being + Richardson, Mold, Peel and Attewell; he scored level with his partner, + A. E. Stoddart (his junior by fifteen years), the pair making 151 + before a wicket fell, Grace making in all 118 out of 241. This may + fairly be considered one of his most wonderful years. In 1898 the + match between Gentlemen _v._ Players was, as a special compliment, + arranged by the M.C.C. committee to take place on his birthday, and he + celebrated the event by scoring 43 and 31 not out, though handicapped + by lameness and an injured hand. In twenty-six different seasons he + scored over 1000 runs, in three of these years being the only man to + do so and five times being one out of two. + + During the thirty-six years up to and including 1900 he scored nearly + 51,000 runs, with an average of 43; and in bowling he took more than + 2800 wickets, at an average cost of about 20 runs per wicket. He made + his highest aggregate (2739 runs) and had his highest average (78) in + 1871; his average for the decade 1868-1877 was 57 runs. His style as a + batsman was more commanding than graceful, but as to its soundness and + efficacy there were never two opinions; the severest criticism ever + passed upon his powers was to the effect that he did not play slow + bowling quite as well as fast. (W. J. F.) + + + + +GRACE (Fr. _grace_, Lat. _gratia_, from _gratus_, beloved, pleasing; +formed from the root _cra-_, Gr. [Greek: chas-] cf. [Greek: chairo, +charma, charis]), a word of many shades of meaning, but always connoting +the idea of favour, whether that in which one stands to others or that +which one shows to others. The _New English Dictionary_ groups the +meanings of the word under three main heads: (1) Pleasing quality, +gracefulness, (2) favour, goodwill, (3) gratitude, thanks. + +It is in the second general sense of "favour bestowed" that the word has +its most important connotations. In this sense it means something given +by superior authority as a concession made of favour and goodwill, not +as an obligation or of right. Thus, a concession may be made by a +sovereign or other public authority "by way of grace." Previous to the +Revolution of 1688 such concessions on the part of the crown were known +in constitutional law as "Graces." "Letters of Grace" (_gratiae, +gratiosa rescripta_) is the name given to papal rescripts granting +special privileges, indulgences, exemptions and the like. In the +language of the universities the word still survives in a shadow of this +sense. The word "grace" was originally a dispensation granted by the +congregation of the university, or by one of the faculties, from some +statutable conditions required for a degree. In the English universities +these conditions ceased to be enforced, and the "grace" thus became an +essential preliminary to any degree; so that the word has acquired the +meaning of (_a_) the licence granted by congregation to take a degree, +(_b_) other decrees of the governing body (originally dispensations from +statutes), all such degrees being called "graces" at Cambridge, (_c_) +the permission which a candidate for a degree must obtain from his +college or hall. + +To this general sense of exceptional favour belong the uses of the word +in such phrases as "do me this grace," "to be in some one's good graces" +and certain meanings of "the grace of God." The style "by the grace of +God," borne by the king of Great Britain and Ireland among other +sovereigns, though, as implying the principle of "legitimacy," it has +been since the Revolution sometimes qualified on the continent by the +addition of "and the will of the people," means in effect no more than +the "by Divine Providence," which is the style borne by archbishops. To +the same general sense of exceptional favour belong the phrases implying +the concession of a right to delay in fulfilling certain obligations, +e.g. "a fortnight's grace." In law the "days of grace" are the period +allowed for the payment of a bill of exchange, after the term for which +it has been drawn (in England three days), or for the payment of an +insurance premium, &c. In religious language the "Day of Grace" is the +period still open to the sinner in which to repent. In the sense of +clemency or mercy, too, "grace" is still, though rarely used: "an Act of +Grace" is a formal pardon or a free and general pardon granted by act of +parliament. Since to grant favours is the prerogative of the great, +"Your Grace," "His Grace," &c., became dutiful paraphrases for the +simple "you" and "he." Formerly used in the royal address ("the King's +Grace," &c.), the style is in England now confined to dukes and +archbishops, though the style of "his most gracious majesty" is still +used. In Germany the equivalent, _Euer Gnaden_, is the style of princes +who are not _Durchlaucht_ (i.e. Serene Highness), and is often used as a +polite address to any superior. + +In the language of theology, though in the English Bible the word is +used in several of the above senses, "grace" (Gr. [Greek: charis]) has +special meanings. Above all, it signifies the spontaneous, unmerited +activity of the Divine Love in the salvation of sinners, and the Divine +influence operating in man for his regeneration and sanctification. +Those thus regenerated and sanctified are said to be in a "state of +grace." In the New Testament grace is the forgiving mercy of God, as +opposed to any human merit (Rom. xi. 6; Eph. ii. 5; Col. i. 6, &c.); it +is applied also to certain gifts of God freely bestowed, e.g. miracles, +tongues, &c. (Rom. xv. 15; 1 Cor. xv. 10; Eph. iii. 8, &c.), to the +Christian virtues, gifts of God also, e.g. charity, holiness, &c. (2 +Cor. viii. 7; 2 Pet. iii. 18). It is also used of the Gospel generally, +as opposed to the Law (John i. 17; Rom. vi. 14; 1 Pet. v. 12, &c.); +connected with this is the use of the term "year of grace" for a year of +the Christian era. + +The word "grace" is the central subject of three great theological +controversies: (1) that of the nature of human depravity and +regeneration (see PELAGIUS), (2) that of the relation between grace and +free-will (see CALVIN, JOHN, and ARMINIUS, JACOBUS), (3) that of the +"means of grace" between Catholics and Protestants, i.e. whether the +efficacy of the sacraments as channels of the Divine grace is _ex opere +operato_ or dependent on the faith of the recipient. + +In the third general sense, of thanks for favours bestowed, "grace" +survives as the name for the thanksgiving before or after meals. The +word was originally used in the plural, and "to do, give, render, yield +graces" was said, in the general sense of the French _rendre graces_ or +Latin _gratias agere_, of any giving thanks. The close, and finally +exclusive, association of the phrase "to say grace" with thanksgiving at +meals was possibly due to the formula "Gratias Deo agamus" ("let us give +thanks to God") with which the ceremony began in monastic refectories. +The custom of saying grace, which obtained in pre-Christian times among +the Jews, Greeks and Romans, and was adopted universally by Christian +peoples, is probably less widespread in private houses than it used to +be. It is, however, still maintained at public dinners and also in +schools, colleges and institutions generally. Such graces are generally +in Latin and of great antiquity: they are sometimes short, e.g. "Laus +Deo," "Benedictus benedicat," and sometimes, as at the Oxford and +Cambridge colleges, of considerable length. In some countries grace has +sunk to a polite formula; in Germany, e.g. it is usual before and after +meals to bow to one's neighbours and say "Gesegnete Malzeit!" (May your +meal be blessed), a phrase often reduced in practice to "Malzeit" +simply. + + + + +GRACES, THE, (Gr. [Greek: Charites], Lat. _Gratiae_), in Greek +mythology, the personification of grace and charm, both in nature and in +moral action. The transition from a single goddess, Charis, to a number +or group of Charites, is marked in Homer. In the _Iliad_ one Charis is +the wife of Hephaestus, another the promised wife of Sleep, while the +plural Charites often occurs. The Charites are usually described as +three in number--Aglaia (brightness), Euphrosyne (joyfulness), Thalia +(bloom)--daughters of Zeus and Hera (or Eurynome, daughter of Oceanus), +or of Helios and Aegle; in Sparta, however, only two were known, Cleta +(noise) and Phaenna (light), as at Athens Auxo (increase) and Hegemone +(queen). They are the friends of the Muses, with whom they live on Mount +Olympus, and the companions of Aphrodite, of Peitho, the goddess of +persuasion, and of Hermes, the god of eloquence, to each of whom charm +is an indispensable adjunct. The need of their assistance to the artist +is indicated by the union of Hephaestus and Charis. The most ancient +seat of their cult was Orchomenus in Boeotia, where their oldest images, +in the form of stones fallen from heaven, were set up in their temple. +Their worship was said to have been instituted by Eteocles, whose three +daughters fell into a well while dancing in their honour. At Orchomenus +nightly dances took place, and the festival Charitesia, accompanied by +musical contests, was celebrated; in Paros their worship was celebrated +without music or garlands, since it was there that Minos, while +sacrificing to the Charites, received the news of the death of his son +Androgeus; at Messene they were revered together with the Eumenides; at +Athens, their rites, kept secret from the profane, were held at the +entrance to the Acropolis. It was by Auxo, Hegemone and Agraulos, the +daughter of Cecrops, that young Athenians, on first receiving their +spear and shield, took the oath to defend their country. In works of art +the Charites were represented in early times as beautiful maidens of +slender form, hand in hand or embracing one another and wearing drapery; +later, the conception predominated of three naked figures gracefully +intertwined. Their attributes were the myrtle, the rose and musical +instruments. In Rome the Graces were never the objects of special +religious reverence, but were described and represented by poets and +artists in accordance with Greek models. + + See F. H. Krause, _Musen, Gratien, Horen, und Nymphen_ (1871), and the + articles by Stoll and Furtwangler in Roscher's _Lexikon der + Mythologie_, and by S. Gsell in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire + des antiquites_, with the bibliography. + + + + +GRACIAN Y MORALES, BALTASAR (1601-1658), Spanish prose writer, was born +at Calatayud (Aragon) on the 8th of January 1601. Little is known of his +personal history except that on May 14, 1619, he entered the Society of +Jesus, and that ultimately he became rector of the Jesuit college at +Tarazona, where he died on the 6th of December, 1658. His principal +works are _El Heroe_ (1630), which describes in apophthegmatic phrases +the qualities of the ideal man; the _Arte de ingenio, tratado de la +Agudeza_ (1642), republished six years afterwards under the title of +_Agudeza, y arte de ingenio_ (1648), a system of rhetoric in which the +principles of _conceptismo_ as opposed to culteranismo are inculcated; +_El Discreto_ (1645), a delineation of the typical courtier; _El Oraculo +manual y arte de prudencia_ (1647), a system of rules for the conduct of +life; and _El Criticon_ (1651-1653-1657), an ingenious philosophical +allegory of human existence. The only publication which bears Gracian's +name is _El Comulgatorio_ (1655); his more important books were issued +under the pseudonym of Lorenzo Gracian (possibly a brother of the +writer) or under the anagram of Gracian de Marlones. Gracian was +punished for publishing without his superior's permission _El Criticon_ +(in which Defoe is alleged to have found the germ of _Robinson Crusoe_); +but no objection was taken to its substance. He has been excessively +praised by Schopenhauer, whose appreciation of the author induced him to +translate the _Oraculo manual_, and he has been unduly depreciated by +Ticknor and others. He is an acute thinker and observer, misled by his +systematic misanthropy and by his fantastic literary theories. + + See Karl Borinski, _Baltasar Gracian und die Hoflitteratur in + Deutschland_ (Halle, 1894); Benedetto Croce, _I Trattatisti italiani + del "concettismo" e Baltasar Gracian_ (Napoli, 1899); Narciso Jose + Linan y Heredia, _Baltasar Gracian_ (Madrid, 1902). Schopenhauer and + Joseph Jacobs have respectively translated the _Oraculo manual_ into + German and English. + + + + +GRACKLE (Lat. _Gracculus_ or _Graculus_), a word much used in +ornithology, generally in a vague sense, though restricted to members of +the families _Sturnidae_ belonging to the Old World and _Icteridae_ +belonging to the New. Of the former those to which it has been most +commonly applied are the species known as mynas, mainas, and minors of +India and the adjacent countries, and especially the _Gracula religiosa_ +of Linnaeus, who, according to Jerdon and others, was probably led to +confer this epithet upon it by confounding it with the _Sturnus_ or +_Acridotheres tristis_,[1] which is regarded by the Hindus as sacred to +Ram Deo, one of their deities, while the true _Gracula religiosa_ does +not seem to be anywhere held in veneration. This last is about 10 in. in +length, clothed in a plumage of glossy black, with purple and green +reflections, and a conspicuous patch of white on the quill-feathers of +the wings. The bill is orange and the legs yellow, but the bird's most +characteristic feature is afforded by the curious wattles of bright +yellow, which, beginning behind the eyes, run backwards in form of a +lappet on each side, and then return in a narrow stripe to the top of +the head. Beneath each eye also is a bare patch of the same colour. This +species is common in southern India, and is represented farther to the +north, in Ceylon, Burma, and some of the Malay Islands by cognate forms. +They are all frugivorous, and, being easily tamed and learning to +pronounce words very distinctly, are favourite cage-birds.[2] + +[Illustration: _Gracula religiosa._] + +In America the name Grackle has been applied to several species of the +genera _Scolecophagus_ and _Quiscalus_, though these are more commonly +called in the United States and Canada "blackbirds," and some of them +"boat-tails." They all belong to the family _Icteridae_. The best known +of these are the rusty grackle, _S. ferrugineus_, which is found in +almost the whole of North America, and _Q. purpureus_, the purple +grackle or crow-blackbird, of more limited range, for though abundant +in most parts to the east of the Rocky Mountains, it seems not to appear +on the Pacific side. There is also Brewer's or the blue-headed grackle, +_S. cyanocephalus_, which has a more western range, not occurring to the +eastward of Kansas and Minnesota. A fourth species, _Q. major_, inhabits +the Atlantic States as far north as North Carolina. All these birds are +of exceedingly omnivorous habit, and though destroying large numbers of +pernicious insects are in many places held in bad repute from the +mischief they do to the corn-crops. (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] By some writers the birds of the genera _Acridotheres_ and + _Temenuchus_ are considered to be the true mynas, and the species of + _Gracula_ are called "hill mynas" by way of distinction. + + [2] For a valuable monograph on the various species of _Gracula_ and + its allies see Professor Schlegel's "Bijdrage tot de Kennis von het + Geschlacht Beo'" (_Nederlandsch Tijdschrift voor de Dierkunde_ i. + 1-9). + + + + +GRADISCA, a town of Austria, in the province of Gorz and Gradisca, 10 m. +S.W. of Gorz by rail. Pop. (1900) 3843, mostly Italians. It is situated +on the right bank of the Isonzo and was formerly a strongly fortified +place. Its principal industry is silk spinning. Gradisca originally +formed part of the margraviate of Friuli, came under the patriarchate of +Aquileia in 1028, and in 1420 to Venice. Between 1471 and 1481 Gradisca +was fortified by the Venetians, but in 1511 they surrendered it to the +emperor Maximilian I. In 1647 Gradisca and its territory, including +Aquileia and forty-three smaller places, were erected into a separate +countship in favour of Johann Anton von Eggenberg, duke of Krumau. On +the extinction of his line in 1717, it reverted to Austria, and was +completely incorporated with Gorz in 1754. The name was revived by the +constitution of 1861, which established the crownland of Gorz and +Gradisca. + + + + +GRADO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; 11 m. W. by +N. of the city of Oviedo, on the river Cubia, a left-hand tributary of +the Nalon. Pop. (1900) 17,125. Grado is built in the midst of a +mountainous, well-wooded and fertile region. It has some trade in +timber, live stock, cider and agricultural produce. The nearest railway +station is that of the Fabrica de Trubia, a royal cannon-foundry and +small-arms factory, 5 m. S.E. + + + + +GRADUAL (Med. Lat. _gradualis_, of or belonging to steps or degrees; +_gradus_, step), advancing or taking place by degrees or step by step; +hence used of a slow progress or a gentle declivity or slope, opposed to +steep or precipitous. As a substantive, "gradual" (Med. Lat. _graduale_ +or _gradale_) is used of a service book or antiphonal of the Roman +Catholic Church containing certain antiphons, called "graduals," sung at +the service of the Mass after the reading or singing of the Epistle. +This antiphon received the name either because it was sung on the steps +of the altar or while the deacon was mounting the steps of the ambo for +the reading or singing of the Gospel. For the so-called Gradual Psalms, +cxx.-cxxxiv., the "songs of degrees," LXX. [Greek: ode ana bathmon], see +PSALMS, BOOK OF. + + + + +GRADUATE (Med. Lat. _graduare_, to admit to an academical degree, +_gradus_), in Great Britain a verb now only used in the academical sense +intransitively, i.e. "to take or proceed to a university degree," and +figuratively of acquiring knowledge of, or proficiency in, anything. The +original transitive sense of "to confer or admit to a degree" is, +however, still preserved in America, where the word is, moreover, not +strictly confined to university degrees, but is used also of those +successfully completing a course of study at any educational +establishment. As a substantive, a "graduate" (Med. Lat. _graduatus_) is +one who has taken a degree in a university. Those who have matriculated +at a university, but not yet taken a degree, are known as +"undergraduates." The word "student," used of undergraduates e.g. in +Scottish universities, is never applied generally to those of the +English and Irish universities. At Oxford the only "students" are the +"senior students" (i.e. fellows) and "junior students" (i.e. +undergraduates on the foundation, or "scholars") of Christ Church. The +verb "to graduate" is also used of dividing anything into degrees or +parts in accordance with a given scale. For the scientific application +see GRADUATION below. It may also mean "to arrange in gradations" or "to +adjust or apportion according to a given scale." Thus by "a graduated +income-tax" is meant the system by which the percentage paid differs +according to the amount of income on a pre-arranged scale. + + + + +GRADUATION (see also GRADUATE), the art of dividing straight scales, +circular arcs or whole circumferences into any required number of equal +parts. It is the most important and difficult part of the work of the +mathematical instrument maker, and is required in the construction of +most physical, astronomical, nautical and surveying instruments. + +The art was first practised by clockmakers for cutting the teeth of +their wheels at regular intervals; but so long as it was confined to +them no particular delicacy or accurate nicety in its performance was +required. This only arose when astronomy began to be seriously studied, +and the exact position of the heavenly bodies to be determined, which +created the necessity for strictly accurate means of measuring linear +and angular magnitudes. Then it was seen that graduation was an art +which required special talents and training, and the best artists gave +great attention to the perfecting of astronomical instruments. Of these +may be named Abraham Sharp (1651-1742), John Bird (1709-1776), John +Smeaton (1724-1792), Jesse Ramsden (1735-1800), John Troughton, Edward +Troughton (1753-1835), William Simms (1793-1860) and Andrew Ross. + +The first graduated instrument must have been done by the hand and eye +alone, whether it was in the form of a straight-edge with equal +divisions, or a screw or a divided plate; but, once in the possession of +one such divided instrument, it was a comparatively easy matter to +employ it as a standard. Hence graduation divides itself into two +distinct branches, _original graduation_ and _copying_, which latter may +be done either by the hand or by a machine called a dividing engine. +Graduation may therefore be treated under the three heads of _original +graduation_, _copying_ and _machine graduation_. + +_Original Graduation._--In regard to the graduation of straight scales +elementary geometry provides the means of dividing a straight line into +any number of equal parts by the method of continual bisection; but the +practical realization of the geometrical construction is so difficult as +to render the method untrustworthy. This method, which employs the +common diagonal scale, was used in dividing a quadrant of 3 ft. radius, +which belonged to Napier of Merchiston, and which only read to +minutes--a result, according to Thomson and Tait (_Nat. Phil._), "giving +no greater accuracy than is now attainable by the pocket sextants of +Troughton and Simms, the radius of whose arc is little more than an +inch." + + The original graduation of a straight line is done either by the + method of continual bisection or by stepping. In continual bisection + the entire length of the line is first laid down. Then, as nearly as + possible, half that distance is taken in the beam-compass and marked + off by faint arcs from each end of the line. Should these marks + coincide the exact middle point of the line is obtained. If not, as + will almost always be the case, the distance between the marks is + carefully bisected by hand with the aid of a magnifying glass. The + same process is again applied to the halves thus obtained, and so on + in succession, dividing the line into parts represented by 2, 4, 8, + 16, &c. till the desired divisions are reached. In the method of + stepping the smallest division required is first taken, as accurately + as possible, by spring dividers, and that distance is then laid off, + by successive steps, from one end of the line. In this method, any + error at starting will be multiplied at each division by the number of + that division. Errors so made are usually adjusted by the dots being + put either back or forward a little by means of the dividing punch + guided by a magnifying glass. This is an extremely tedious process, as + the dots, when so altered several times, are apt to get insufferably + large and shapeless. + +The division of circular arcs is essentially the same in principle as +the graduation of straight lines. + + The first example of note is the 8-ft. mural circle which was + graduated by George Graham (1673-1751) for Greenwich Observatory in + 1725. In this two concentric arcs of radii 96.85 and 95.8 in. + respectively were first described by the beam-compass. On the inner of + these the arc of 90 deg. was to be divided into degrees and 12th parts + of a degree, while the same on the outer was to be divided into 96 + equal parts and these again into 16th parts. The reason for adopting + the latter was that, 96 and 16 being both powers of 2, the divisions + could be got at by continual bisection alone, which, in Graham's + opinion, who first employed it, is the only accurate method, and would + thus serve as a check upon the accuracy of the divisions of the outer + arc. With the same distance on the beam-compass as was used to + describe the inner arc, laid off from 0 deg., the point 60 deg. was at + once determined. With the points 0 deg. and 60 deg. as centres + successively, and a distance on the beam-compass very nearly bisecting + the arc of 60 deg., two slight marks were made on the arc; the + distance between these marks was divided by the hand aided by a lens, + and this gave the point 30 deg. The chord of 60 deg. laid off from the + point 30 deg. gave the point 90 deg., and the quadrant was now divided + into three equal parts. Each of these parts was similarly bisected, + and the resulting divisions again trisected, giving 18 parts of 5 deg. + each. Each of these quinquesected gave degrees, the 12th parts of + which were arrived at by bisecting and trisecting as before. The outer + arc was divided by continual bisection alone, and a table was + constructed by which the readings of the one arc could be converted + into those of the other. After the dots indicating the required + divisions were obtained, either straight strokes all directed towards + the centre were drawn through them by the dividing knife, or sometimes + small arcs were drawn through them by the beam-compass having its + fixed point somewhere on the line which was a tangent to the + quadrantal arc at the point where a division was to be marked. + + The next important example of graduation was done by Bird in 1767. His + quadrant, which was also 8-ft. radius, was divided into degrees and + 12th parts of a degree. He employed the method of continual bisection + aided by chords taken from an exact scale of equal parts, which could + read to .001 of an inch, and which he had previously graduated by + continual bisections. With the beam-compass an arc of radius 95.938 + in. was first drawn. From this radius the chords of 30 deg., 15 deg., + 10 deg. 20', 4 deg. 40[min] and 42 deg. 40' were computed, and each of + them by means of the scale of equal parts laid off on a separate + beam-compass to be ready. The radius laid off from 0 deg. gave the + point 60 deg.; by the chord of 30 deg. the arc of 60 deg. was + bisected; from the point 30 deg. the radius laid off gave the point 90 + deg.; the chord of 15 deg. laid off backwards from 90 deg. gave the + point 75 deg.; from 75 deg. was laid off forwards the chord of 10 deg. + 20'; and from 90 deg. was laid off backwards the chord of 4 deg. 40'; + and these were found to coincide in the point 85 deg. 20'. Now 85 deg. + 20' being = 5' X 1024 = 5' X 2^10, the final divisions of 85 deg. 20' + were found by continual bisections. For the remainder of the quadrant + beyond 85 deg. 20', containing 56 divisions of 5' each, the chord of + 64 such divisions was laid off from the point 85 deg. 40', and the + corresponding arc divided by continual bisections as before. There was + thus a severe check upon the accuracy of the points already found, + viz. 15 deg., 30 deg., 60 deg., 75 deg., 90 deg., which, however, were + found to coincide with the corresponding points obtained by continual + bisections. The short lines through the dots were drawn in the way + already mentioned. + + The next eminent artists in original graduation are the brothers John + and Edward Troughton. The former was the first to devise a means of + graduating the quadrant by continual bisection without the aid of such + a scale of equal parts as was used by Bird. His method was as follows: + The radius of the quadrant laid off from 0 deg. gave the point 60 deg. + This arc bisected and the half laid off from 60 deg. gave the point 90 + deg. The arc between 60 deg. and 90 deg. bisected gave 75 deg.; the + arc between 75 deg. and 90 deg. bisected gave the point 82 deg. 30', + and the arc between 82 deg. 30' and 90 deg. bisected gave the point 86 + deg. 15'. Further, the arc between 82 deg. 30' and 86 deg. 15' + trisected, and two-thirds of it taken beyond 82 deg. 30', gave the + point 85 deg., while the arc between 85 deg. and 86 deg. 15' also + trisected, and one-third part laid off beyond 85 deg., gave the point + 85 deg. 25'. Lastly, the arc between 85 deg. and 85 deg. 25' being + quinquesected, and four-fifths taken beyond 85 deg., gave 85 deg. 20', + which as before is = 5' X 2^10, and so can be finally divided by + continual bisection. + + The method of original graduation discovered by Edward Troughton is + fully described in the _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1809, as + employed by himself to divide a meridian circle of 4 ft. radius. The + circle was first accurately turned both on its face and its inner and + outer edges. A roller was next provided, of such diameter that it + revolved 16 times on its own axis while made to roll once round the + outer edge of the circle. This roller, made movable on pivots, was + attached to a frame-work, which could be slid freely, yet tightly, + along the circle, the roller meanwhile revolving, by means of + frictional contact, on the outer edge. The roller was also, after + having been properly adjusted as to size, divided as accurately as + possible into 16 equal parts by lines parallel to its axis. While the + frame carrying the roller was moved once round along the circle, the + points of contact of the roller-divisions with the circle were + accurately observed by two microscopes attached to the frame, one of + which (which we shall call H) commanded the ring on the circle near + its edge, which was to receive the divisions and the other viewed the + roller-divisions. The points of contact thus ascertained were marked + with faint dots, and the meridian circle thereby divided into 256 very + nearly equal parts. + + The next part of the operation was to find out and tabulate the errors + of these dots, which are called _apparent_ errors, in consequence of + the error of each dot being ascertained on the supposition that its + neighbours are all correct. For this purpose two microscopes (which we + shall call A and B) were taken, with cross wires and micrometer + adjustments, consisting of a screw and head divided into 100 + divisions, 50 of which read in the one and 50 in the opposite + direction. These microscopes were fixed so that their cross-wires + respectively bisected the dots 0 and 128, which were supposed to be + diametrically opposite. The circle was now turned half-way round on + its axis, so that dot 128 coincided with the wire of A, and, should + dot 0 be found to coincide with B, then the two dots were 180 deg. + apart. If not, the cross wire of B was moved till it coincided with + dot 0, and the number of divisions of the micrometer head noted. Half + this number gave clearly the error of dot 128, and it was tabulated + + or - according as the arcual distance between 0 and 128 was found to + exceed or fall short of the remaining part of the circumference. The + microscope B was now shifted, A remaining opposite dot 0 as before, + till its wire bisected dot 64, and, by giving the circle one quarter + of a turn on its axis, the difference of the arcs between dots 0 and + 64 and between 64 and 128 was obtained. The half of this difference + gave the apparent error of dot 64, which was tabulated with its proper + sign. With the microscope A still in the same position the error of + dot 192 was obtained, and in the same way by shifting B to dot 32 the + errors of dots 32, 96, 160 and 224 were successively ascertained. In + this way the apparent errors of all the 256 dots were tabulated. + + From this table of apparent errors a table of _real_ errors was drawn + up by employing the following formula:-- + + 1/2(x(a) + x(c)) + z = the real error of dot b, + + where x(a) is the real error of dot a, x(c) the real error of dot c, + and z the apparent error of dot b midway between a and c. Having got + the real errors of any two dots, the table of apparent errors gives + the means of finding the real errors of all the other dots. + + The last part of Troughton's process was to employ them to cut the + final divisions of the circle, which were to be spaces of 5' each. Now + the mean interval between any two dots is 360 deg./256 = 5' X 16-7/8, + and hence, in the final division, this interval must be divided into + 16-7/8 equal parts. To accomplish this a small instrument, called a + subdividing sector, was provided. It was formed of thin brass and had + a radius about four times that of the roller, but made adjustable as + to length. The sector was placed concentrically on the axis, and + rested on the upper end of the roller. It turned by frictional + adhesion along with the roller, but was sufficiently loose to allow of + its being moved back by hand to any position without affecting the + roller. While the roller passes over an angular space equal to the + mean interval between two dots, any point of the sector must pass over + 16 times that interval, that is to say, over an angle represented by + 360 deg. X 16/256 = 22 deg. 30'. This interval was therefore divided + by 16-7/8, and a space equal to 16 of the parts taken. This was laid + off on the arc of the sector and divided into 16 equal parts, each + equal to 1 deg. 20'; and, to provide for the necessary 7/8ths of a + division, there was laid off at each end of the sector, and beyond the + 16 equal parts, two of these parts each subdivided into 8 equal parts. + A microscope with cross wires, which we shall call I, was placed on + the main frame, so as to command a view of the sector divisions, just + as the microscope H viewed the final divisions of the circle. Before + the first or zero mark was cut, the zero of the sector was brought + under I and then the division cut at the point on the circle indicated + by H, which also coincided with the dot 0. The frame was then slipped + along the circle by the slow screw motion provided for the purpose, + till the first sector-division, by the action of the roller, was + brought under I. The second mark was then cut on the circle at the + point indicated by H. That the marks thus obtained are 5' apart is + evident when we reflect that the distance between them must be 1/16th + of a division on the section which by construction is 1 deg. 20'. In + this way the first 16 divisions were cut; but before cutting the 17th + it was necessary to adjust the micrometer wires of H to the real error + of dot 1, as indicated by the table, and bring back the sector, not to + zero, but to 1/8th short of zero. Starting from this position the + divisions between dots 1 and 2 were filled in, and then H was adjusted + to the real error of dot 2, and the sector brought back to its proper + division before commencing the third course. Proceeding in this manner + through the whole circle, the microscope H was finally found with its + wire at zero, and the sector with its 16th division under its + microscope indicating that the circle had been accurately divided. + +_Copying._--In graduation by copying the pattern must be either an +accurately divided straight scale, or an accurately divided circle, +commonly called a _dividing plate_. + +In copying a straight scale the pattern and scale to be divided, usually +called the work, are first fixed side by side, with their upper faces in +the same plane. The dividing square, which closely resembles an ordinary +joiner's square, is then laid across both, and the point of the dividing +knife dropped into the zero division of the pattern. The square is now +moved up close to the point of the knife; and, while it is held firmly +in this position by the left hand, the first division on the work is +made by drawing the knife along the edge of the square with the right +hand. + +It frequently happens that the divisions required on a scale are either +greater or less than those on the pattern. To meet this case, and still +use the same pattern, the work must be fixed at a certain angle of +inclination with the pattern. This angle is found in the following way. +Take the exact ratio of a division on the pattern to the required +division on the scale. Call this ratio [alpha]. Then, if the required +divisions are longer than those of the pattern, the angle is cos^-1 +[alpha], but, if shorter, the angle is sec^-1 [alpha]. In the former +case two operations are required before the divisions are cut: first, +the square is laid on the pattern, and the corresponding divisions +merely notched very faintly on the edge of the work; and, secondly, the +square is applied to the work and the final divisions drawn opposite +each faint notch. In the second case, that is, when the angle is sec^-1 +[alpha], the dividing square is applied to the work, and the divisions +cut when the edge of the square coincides with the end of each division +on the pattern. + +In copying circles use is made of the dividing plate. This is a circular +plate of brass, of 36 in. or more in diameter, carefully graduated near +its outer edge. It is turned quite flat, and has a steel pin fixed in +its centre, and at right angles to its plane. For guiding the dividing +knife an instrument called an index is employed. This is a straight bar +of thin steel of length equal to the radius of the plate. A piece of +metal, having a V notch with its angle a right angle, is riveted to one +end of the bar in such a position that the vertex of the notch is +exactly in a line with the edge of the steel bar. In this way, when the +index is laid on the plate, with the notch grasping the central pin, the +straight edge of the steel bar lies exactly along a radius. The work to +be graduated is laid flat on the dividing plate, and fixed by two clamps +in a position exactly concentric with it. The index is now laid on, with +its edge coinciding with any required division on the dividing plate, +and the corresponding division on the work is cut by drawing the +dividing knife along the straight edge of the index. + +_Machine Graduation._--The first dividing engine was probably that of +Henry Hindley of York, constructed in 1740, and chiefly used by him for +cutting the teeth of clock wheels. This was followed shortly after by an +engine devised by the duc de Chaulnes; but the first notable engine was +that made by Ramsden, of which an account was published by the Board of +Longitude in 1777. He was rewarded by that board with a sum of L300, and +a further sum of L315 was given to him on condition that he would +divide, at a certain fixed rate, the instruments of other makers. The +essential principles of Ramsden's machine have been repeated in almost +all succeeding engines for dividing circles. + + Ramsden's machine consisted of a large brass prate 45 in. in diameter, + carefully turned and movable on a vertical axis. The edge of the plate + was ratched with 2160 teeth, into which a tangent screw worked, by + means of which the plate could be made to turn through any required + angle. Thus six turns of the screw moved the plate through 1 deg., and + 1/60th of a turn through 1/360th of a degree. On the axis of the + tangent screw was placed a cylinder having a spiral groove cut on its + surface. A ratchet-wheel containing 60 teeth was attached to this + cylinder, and was so arranged that, when the cylinder moved in one + direction, it carried the tangent screw with it, and so turned the + plate, but when it moved in the opposite direction, it left the + tangent screw, and with it the plate, stationary. Round the spiral + groove of the cylinder a catgut band was wound, one end of which was + attached to a treadle and the other to a counterpoise weight. When the + treadle was depressed the tangent screw turned round, and when the + pressure was removed it returned, in obedience to the weight, to its + former position without affecting the screw. Provision was also made + whereby certain stops could be placed in the way of the screw, which + only allowed it the requisite amount of turning. The work to be + divided was firmly fixed on the plate, and made concentric with it. + The divisions were cut, while the screw was stationary, by means of a + dividing knife attached to a swing frame, which allowed it to have + only a radial motion. In this way the artist could divide very rapidly + by alternately depressing the treadle and working the dividing knife. + +Ramsden also constructed a linear dividing engine on essentially the +same principle. If we imagine the rim of the circular plate with its +notches stretched out into a straight line and made movable in a +straight slot, the screw, treadle, &c., remaining as before, we get a +very good idea of the linear engine. + +In 1793 Edward Troughton finished a circular dividing engine, of which +the plate was smaller than in Ramsden's, and which differed considerably +in simplifying matters of detail. The plate was originally divided by +Troughton's own method, already described, and the divisions so obtained +were employed to ratch the edge of the plate for receiving the tangent +screw with great accuracy. Andrew Ross (_Trans. Soc. Arts_, 1830-1831) +constructed a dividing machine which differs considerably from those of +Ramsden and Troughton. + + The essential point of difference is that, in Ross's engine, the + tangent screw does not turn the engine plate; that is done by an + independent apparatus, and the function of the tangent screw is only + to stop the plate after it has passed through the required angular + interval between two divisions on the work to be graduated. Round the + circumference of the plate are fixed 48 projections which just look as + if the circumference had been divided into as many deep and somewhat + peculiarly shaped notches or teeth. Through each of these teeth a hole + is bored parallel to the plane of the plate and also to a tangent to + its circumference. Into these holes are screwed steel screws with + capstan heads and flat ends. The tangent screw consists only of a + single turn of a large square thread which works in the teeth or + notches of the plate. This thread is pierced by 90 equally distant + holes, all parallel to the axis of the screw, and at the same distance + from it. Into each of these holes is inserted a steel screw exactly + similar to those in the teeth, but with its end rounded. It is the + rounded and flat ends of these sets of screws coming together that + stop the engine plate at the desired position, and the exact point can + be nicely adjusted by suitably turning the screws. + +[Illustration: Dividing Engine.] + +A description is given of a dividing engine made by William Simms in the +_Memoirs of the Astronomical Society_, 1843. Simms became convinced that +to copy upon smaller circles the divisions which had been put upon a +large plate with very great accuracy was not only more expeditious but +more exact than original graduation. His machine involved essentially +the same principle as Troughton's. The accompanying figure is taken by +permission. + + The plate A is 46 in. in diameter, and is composed of gun-metal cast + in one solid piece. It has two sets of 5' divisions--one very faint on + an inlaid ring of silver, and the other stronger on the gun-metal. + These were put on by original graduation, mainly on the plan of Edward + Troughton. One very great improvement in this engine is that the axis + B is tubular, as seen at C. The object of this hollow is to receive + the axis of the circle to be divided, so that it can be fixed flat to + the plate by the clamps E, without having first to be detached from + the axis and other parts to which it has already been carefully + fitted. This obviates the necessity for resetting, which can hardly be + done without some error. D is the tangent screw, and F the frame + carrying it, which turns on carefully polished steel pivots. The screw + is pressed against the edge of the plate by a spiral spring acting + under the end of the lever G, and by screwing the lever down the screw + can be altogether removed from contact with the plate. The edge of the + plate is ratched by 4320 teeth which were cut opposite the original + division by a circular cutter attached to the screw frame. H is the + spiral barrel round which the catgut band is wound, one end of which + is attached to the crank L on the end of the axis J and the other to a + counterpoise weight not seen. On the other end of J is another crank + inclined to L and carrying a band and counterpoise weight seen at K. + The object of this weight is to balance the former and give steadiness + to the motion. On the axis J is seen a pair of bevelled wheels which + move the rod I, which, by another pair of bevelled wheels attached to + the box N, gives motion to the axis M, on the end of which is an + eccentric for moving the bent lever O, which actuates the bar carrying + the cutter. Between the eccentric and the point of the screw P is an + undulating plate by which long divisions can be cut. The cutting + apparatus is supported upon the two parallel rails which can be + elevated or depressed at pleasure by the nuts Q. Also the cutting + apparatus can be moved forward or backward upon these rails to suit + circles of different diameters. The box N is movable upon the bar R, + and the rod I is adjustable as to length by having a kind of telescope + joint. The engine is self-acting, and can be driven either by hand or + by a steam-engine or other motive power. It can be thrown in or out of + gear at once by a handle seen at S. + +Mention may be made of Donkin's linear dividing engine, in which a +compensating arrangement is employed whereby great accuracy is obtained +notwithstanding the inequalities of the screw used to advance the +cutting tool. Dividing engines have also been made by Reichenbach, +Repsold and others in Germany, Gambey in Paris and by several other +astronomical instrument-makers. A machine constructed by E. R. Watts & +Son is described by G. T. McCaw, in the _Monthly Not. R. A. S._, January +1909. + + REFERENCES.--Bird, _Method of dividing Astronomical Instruments_ + (London, 1767); Duc de Chaulnes, _Nouvelle Methode pour diviser les + instruments de mathematique et d'astronomie_ (1768); Ramsden, + _Description of an Engine for dividing Mathematical Instruments_ + (London, 1777); Troughton's memoir, _Phil. Trans._ (1809); _Memoirs of + the Royal Astronomical Society_, v. 325, viii. 141, ix. 17, 35. See + also J. E. Watkins, "On the Ramsden Machine," _Smithsonian Rep._ + (1890), p. 721; and L. Ambronn, _Astronomische Instrumentenkunde_ + (1899). (J. Bl.) + + + + +GRADUS, or GRADUS AD PARNASSUM (a step to Parnassus), a Latin (or Greek) +dictionary, in which the quantities of the vowels of the words are +marked. Synonyms, epithets and poetical expressions and extracts are +also included under the more important headings, the whole being +intended as an aid for students in Greek and Latin verse composition. +The first Latin gradus was compiled in 1702 by the Jesuit Paul Aler +(1656-1727), a famous schoolmaster. There is a Latin gradus by C. D. +Yonge (1850); English-Latin by A. C. Ainger and H. G. Wintle (1890); +Greek by J. Brasse (1828) and E. Maltby (1815), bishop of Durham. + + + + +GRAETZ, HEINRICH (1817-1891), the foremost Jewish historian of modern +times, was born in Posen in 1817 and died at Munich in 1891. He received +a desultory education, and was largely self-taught. An important stage +in his development was the period of three years that he spent at +Oldenburg as assistant and pupil of S. R. Hirsch, whose enlightened +orthodoxy was for a time very attractive to Graetz. Later on Graetz +proceeded to Breslau, where he matriculated in 1842. Breslau was then +becoming the headquarters of Abraham Geiger, the leader of Jewish +reform. Graetz was repelled by Geiger's attitude, and though he +subsequently took radical views of the Bible and tradition (which made +him an opponent of Hirsch), Graetz remained a life-long foe to reform. +He contended for freedom of thought; he had no desire to fight for +freedom of ritual practice. He momentarily thought of entering the +rabbinate, but he was unsuited to that career. For some years he +supported himself as a tutor. He had previously won repute by his +published essays, but in 1853 the publication of the fourth volume of +his history of the Jews made him famous. This fourth volume (the first +to be published) dealt with the Talmud. It was a brilliant resuscitation +of the past. Graetz's skill in piecing together detached fragments of +information, his vast learning and extraordinary critical acumen, were +equalled by his vivid power of presenting personalities. No Jewish book +of the 19th century produced such a sensation as this, and Graetz won at +a bound the position he still occupies as recognized master of Jewish +history. His _Geschichte der Juden_, begun in 1853, was completed in +1875; new editions of the several volumes were frequent. The work has +been translated into many languages; it appeared in English in five +volumes in 1891-1895. The _History_ is defective in its lack of +objectivity; Graetz's judgments are sometimes biassed, and in particular +he lacks sympathy with mysticism. But the history is a work of genius. +Simultaneously with the publication of vol. iv. Graetz was appointed on +the staff of the new Breslau Seminary, of which the first director was +Z. Frankel. Graetz passed the remainder of his life in this office; in +1869 he was created professor by the government, and also lectured at +the Breslau University. Graetz attained considerable repute as a +biblical critic. He was the author of many bold conjectures as to the +date of Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther and other biblical books. His +critical edition of the Psalms (1882-1883) was his chief contribution to +biblical exegesis, but after his death Professor Bacher edited Graetz's +_Emendationes_ to many parts of the Hebrew scriptures. + + A full bibliography of Graetz's works is given in the _Jewish + Quarterly Review_, iv. 194; a memoir of Graetz is also to be found + there. Another full memoir was prefixed to the "index" volume of the + _History_ in the American re-issue of the English translation in six + volumes (Philadelphia, 1898). (I. A.) + + + + +GRAEVIUS (properly GRAVE or GREFFE), JOHANN GEORG (1632-1703). German +classical scholar and critic, was born at Naumburg, Saxony, on the 29th +of January 1632. He was originally intended for the law, but having made +the acquaintance of J. F. Gronovius during a casual visit to Deventer, +under his influence he abandoned jurisprudence for philology. He +completed his studies under D. Heinsius at Leiden, and under the +Protestant theologians A. Morus and D. Blondel at Amsterdam. During his +residence in Amsterdam, under Blondel's influence he abandoned +Lutheranism and joined the Reformed Church; and in 1656 he was called by +the elector of Brandenburg to the chair of rhetoric in the university of +Duisburg. Two years afterwards, on the recommendation of Gronovius, he +was chosen to succeed that scholar at Deventer; in 1662 he was +translated to the university of Utrecht, where he occupied first the +chair of rhetoric, and from 1667 until his death (January 11th, 1703) +that of history and politics. Graevius enjoyed a very high reputation as +a teacher, and his lecture-room was crowded by pupils, many of them of +distinguished rank, from all parts of the civilized world. He was +honoured with special recognition by Louis XIV., and was a particular +favourite of William III. of England, who made him historiographer +royal. + + His two most important works are the _Thesaurus antiquitatum + Romanarum_ (1694-1699, in 12 volumes), and the _Thesaurus antiquitatum + et historiarum Italiae_ published after his death, and continued by + the elder Burmann (1704-1725). His editions of the classics, although + they marked a distinct advance in scholarship, arc now for the most + part superseded. They include Hesiod (1667), Lucian, _Pseudosophista_ + (1668), Justin, _Historiae Philippicae_ (1669), Suetonius (1672), + Catullus, Tibullus et Propertius (1680), and several of the works of + Cicero (his best production). He also edited many of the writings of + contemporary scholars. The _Oratio funebris_ by P. Burmann (1703) + contains an exhaustive list of the works of this scholar; see also P. + H. Kulb in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine Encyklopadie_, and J. E. + Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_, ii. (1908). + + + + +GRAF, ARTURO (1848- ), Italian poet, of German extraction, was born at +Athens. He was educated at Naples University and became a lecturer on +Italian literature in Rome, till in 1882 he was appointed professor at +Turin. He was one of the founders of the _Giornale della letteratura +italiana_, and his publications include valuable prose criticism; but he +is best known as a poet. His various volumes of verse--_Poesie e +novelle_ (1874), _Dopo il tramonto versi_ (1893), &c.--give him a high +place among the recent lyrical writers of his country. + + + + +GRAF, KARL HEINRICH (1815-1869), German Old Testament scholar and +orientalist, was born at Mulhausen in Alsace on the 28th of February +1815. He studied Biblical exegesis and oriental languages at the +university of Strassburg under E. Reuss, and, after holding various +teaching posts, was made instructor in French and Hebrew at the +Landesschule of Meissen, receiving in 1852 the title of professor. He +died on the 16th of July 1869. Graf was one of the chief founders of Old +Testament criticism. In his principal work, _Die geschichtlichen Bucher +des Alten Testaments_ (1866), he sought to show that the priestly +legislation of Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers is of later origin than the +book of Deuteronomy. He still, however, held the accepted view, that the +Elohistic narratives formed part of the _Grundschrift_ and therefore +belonged to the oldest portions of the Pentateuch. The reasons urged +against the contention that the priestly legislation and the Elohistic +narratives were separated by a space of 500 years were so strong as to +induce Graf, in an essay, "Die sogenannte Grundschrift des Pentateuchs," +published shortly before his death, to regard the whole _Grundschrift_ +as post-exilic and as the latest portion of the Pentateuch. The idea had +already been expressed by E. Reuss, but since Graf was the first to +introduce it into Germany, the theory, as developed by Julius +Wellhausen, has been called the Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis. + + Graf also wrote, _Der Segen Moses Deut. 33_ (1857) and _Der Prophet + Jeremia erklart_ (1862). See T. K. Cheyne, _Founders of Old Testament + Criticism_ (1893); and Otto Pfleiderer's book translated into English + by J. F. Smith as _Development of Theology_ (1890). + + + + +GRAFE, ALBRECHT VON (1828-1870), German oculist, son of Karl Ferdinand +von Grafe, was born at Berlin on the 22nd of May 1828. At an early age +he manifested a preference for the study of mathematics, but this was +gradually superseded by an interest in natural science, which led him +ultimately to the study of medicine. After prosecuting his studies at +Berlin, Vienna, Prague, Paris, London, Dublin and Edinburgh, and +devoting special attention to ophthalmology he, in 1850, began practice +as an oculist in Berlin, where he founded a private institution for the +treatment of the eyes, which became the model of many similar ones in +Germany and Switzerland. In 1853 he was appointed teacher of +ophthalmology in Berlin university; in 1858 he became extraordinary +professor, and in 1866 ordinary professor. Grafe contributed largely to +the progress of the science of ophthalmology, especially by the +establishment in 1855 of his _Archiv fur Ophthalmologie_, in which he +had Ferdinand Arlt (1812-1887) and F. C. Donders (1818-1889) as +collaborators. Perhaps his two most important discoveries were his +method of treating glaucoma and his new operation for cataract. He was +also regarded as an authority in diseases of the nerves and brain. He +died at Berlin on the 20th of July 1870. + + See _Ein Wort der Erinnerung an Albrecht von Grafe_ (Halle, 1870) by + his cousin, Alfred Grafe (1830-1899), also a distinguished + ophthalmologist, and the author of _Das Sehen der Schielenden_ + (Wiesbaden, 1897); and E. Michaelis, _Albrecht von Grafe. Sein Leben + und Wirken_ (Berlin, 1877). + + + + +GRAFE, HEINRICH (1802-1868), German educationist, was born at Buttstadt +in Saxe-Weimar on the 3rd of May 1802. He studied mathematics and +theology at Jena, and in 1823 obtained a curacy in the town church of +Weimar. He was transferred to Jena as rector of the town school in 1825; +in 1840 he was also appointed extraordinary professor of the science of +education (Padagogik) in that university; and in 1842 he became head of +the _Burgerschule_ (middle class school) in Cassel. After reorganizing +the schools of the town, he became director of the new _Realschule_ in +1843; and, devoting himself to the interests of educational reform in +electoral Hesse, he became in 1849 a member of the school commission, +and also entered the house of representatives, where he made himself +somewhat formidable as an agitator. In 1852 for having been implicated +in the September riots and in the movement against the unpopular +minister Hassenpflug, who had dissolved the school commission, he was +condemned to three years' imprisonment, a sentence afterwards reduced to +one of twelve months. On his release he withdrew to Geneva, where he +engaged in educational work till 1855, when he was appointed director of +the school of industry at Bremen. He died in that city on the 21st of +July 1868. + + Besides being the author of many text-books and occasional papers on + educational subjects, he wrote _Das Rechisverhaltnis der Volksschule + von innen und aussen_ (1829); _Die Schulreform_ (1834); _Schule und + Unterricht_ (1839); _Allgemeine Padagogik_ (1845); _Die deutsche + Volksschule_ (1847). Together with Naumann, he also edited the _Archiv + fur das praktische Volksschulwesen_ (1828-1835). + + + + +GRAFE, KARL FERDINAND VON (1787-1840), German surgeon, was born at +Warsaw on the 8th of March 1787. He studied medicine at Halle and +Leipzig, and after obtaining licence from the Leipzig university, he was +in 1807 appointed private physician to Duke Alexius of Anhalt-Bernburg. +In 1811 he became professor of surgery and director of the surgical +clinic at Berlin, and during the war with Napoleon he was +superintendent of the military hospitals. When peace was concluded in +1815, he resumed his professorial duties. He was also appointed +physician to the general staff of the army, and he became a director of +the Friedrich Wilhelm Institute and of the Medico-Chirurgical Academy. +He died suddenly on the 4th of July 1840 at Hanover, whither he had been +called to operate on the eyes of the crown prince. Grafe did much to +advance the practice of surgery in Germany, especially in the treatment +of wounds. He improved the rhinoplastic process, and its revival was +chiefly due to him. His lectures at the university of Berlin attracted +students from all parts of Europe. + + The following are his principal works: _Normen fur die Ablosung + grosser Gliedmassen_ (Berlin, 1812); _Rhinoplastik_ (1818); _Neue + Beitrage zur Kunst Theile des Angesichts organisch zu ersetzen_ + (1821); _Die epidemisch-kontagiose Augenblennorrhoe Agyptens in den + europaischen Befreiungsheeren_ (1824); and _Jahresberichte uber das + klinisch-chirurgisch-augenarztliche Institut der Universitat zu + Berlin_ (1817-1834). He also edited, with Ph. von Walther, the + _Journal fur Chirurgie und Augenheilkunde_. See E. Michaelis, _Karl + Ferdinand von Grafe in seiner 30 jahrigen Wirken fur Staat und + Wissenschaft_ (Berlin, 1840). + + + + +GRAFFITO, plural _graffiti_, the Italian word meaning "scribbling" or +"scratchings" (_graffiare_, to scribble, Gr. [Greek: graphein]), adopted +by archaeologists as a general term for the casual writings, rude +drawings and markings on ancient buildings, in distinction from the more +formal or deliberate writings known as "inscriptions." These "graffiti," +either scratched on stone or plaster by a sharp instrument such as a +nail, or, more rarely, written in red chalk or black charcoal, are found +in great abundance, e.g. on the monuments of ancient Egypt. The +best-known "graffiti" are those in Pompeii and in the catacombs and +elsewhere in Rome. They have been collected by R. Garrucci (_Graffiti di +Pompei_, Paris, 1856), and L. Correra ("Graffiti di Roma" in _Bolletino +della commissione municipale archaeologica_, Rome, 1893; see also _Corp. +Ins. Lat._ iv., Berlin, 1871). The subject matter of these scribblings +is much the same as that of the similar scrawls made to-day by boys, +street idlers and the casual "tripper." The schoolboy of Pompeii wrote +out lists of nouns and verbs, alphabets and lines from Virgil for +memorizing, lovers wrote the names of their beloved, "sportsmen" +scribbled the names of horses they had been "tipped," and wrote those of +their favourite gladiators. Personal abuse is frequent, and rude +caricatures are found, such as that of one Peregrinus with an enormous +nose, or of Naso or Nasso with hardly any. Aulus Vettius Firmus writes +up his election address and appeals to the _pilicrepi_ or ball-players +for their votes for him as aedile. Lines of poetry, chiefly suited for +lovers in dejection or triumph, are popular, and Ovid and Propertius +appear to be favourites. Apparently private owners of property felt the +nuisance of the defacement of their walls, and at Rome near the _Porta +Portuensis_ has been found an inscription begging people not to scribble +(_scariphare_) on the walls. + +Graffiti are of some importance to the palaeographer and to the +philologist as illustrating the forms and corruptions of the various +alphabets and languages used by the people, and occasionally guide the +archaeologist to the date of the building on which they appear, but they +are chiefly valuable for the light they throw on the everyday life of +the "man in the street" of the period, and for the intimate details of +customs and institutions which no literature or formal inscriptions can +give. The graffiti dealing with the gladiatorial shows at Pompeii are in +this respect particularly noteworthy; the rude drawings such as that of +the _secutor_ caught in the net of the _retiarius_ and lying entirely at +his mercy, give a more vivid picture of what the incidents of these +shows were like than any account in words (see Garrucci, _op. cit._, +Pls. x.-xiv.; A. Mau, _Pompeii in Leben und Kunst_, 2nd ed., 1908, ch. +xxx.). In 1866 in the Trastevere quarter of Rome, near the church of S. +Crisogono, was discovered the guardhouse (_excubitorium_) of the seventh +cohort of the city police (_vigiles_), the walls being covered by the +scribblings of the guards, illustrating in detail the daily routine, the +hardships and dangers, and the feelings of the men towards their +officers (W. Henzen, "L' Escubitorio della Settima coorte dei Vigili" +in _Bull. Inst._ 1867, and _Annali Inst._, 1874; see also R. Lanciani, +_Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries_, 230, and _Ruins and +Excavations of Ancient Rome_, 1897, 548). The most famous graffito yet +discovered is that generally accepted as representing a caricature of +Christ upon the cross, found on the walls of the Domus Gelotiana on the +Palatine in 1857, and now preserved in the Kircherian Museum of the +Collegio Romano. Deeply scratched in the wall is a figure of a man clad +in the short _tunica_ with one hand upraised in salutation to another +figure, with the head of an ass, or possibly a horse, hanging on a +cross; beneath is written in rude Greek letters "Anaxamenos worships +(his) god." It has been suggested that this represents an adherent of +some Gnostic sect worshipping one of the animal-headed deities of Egypt +(see Ferd. Becker, _Das Spottcrucifix der romischen Kaiserpalaste_, +Breslau, 1866; F. X. Kraus, _Das Spottcrucifix vom Palatin_, Freiburg in +Breisgau, 1872; and Visconti and Lanciani, _Guida del Palatino_). + + There is an interesting article, with many quotations of graffiti, in + the _Edinburgh Review_, October 1859, vol. cx. (C. We.) + + + + +GRAFLY, CHARLES (1862- ), American sculptor, was born at Philadelphia, +Pennsylvania, on the 3rd of December 1862. He was a pupil of the schools +of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and of Henri +M. Chapu and Jean Dampt, and the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris. He +received an Honorable Mention in the Paris Salon of 1891 for his +"Mauvais Presage," now at the Detroit Museum of Fine Arts, a gold medal +at the Paris Exposition, in 1900, and medals at Chicago, 1893, Atlanta, +1895, and Philadelphia (the gold Medal of Honor, Pennsylvania Academy of +the Fine Arts), 1899. In 1892 he became instructor in sculpture at the +Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, also filling the same chair at +the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia. He was elected a full member of the +National Academy of Design in 1905. His better-known works include: +"General Reynolds," Fairmount Park, Philadelphia; "Fountain of Man" +(made for the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo); "From Generation to +Generation"; "Symbol of Life"; "Vulture of War," and many portrait +busts. + + + + +GRAFRATH, a town in Rhenish Prussia, on the Itterbach, 14 m. E. of +Dusseldorf on the railway Hilden-Vohwinkel. Pop. (1905) 9030. It has a +Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, and there was an abbey here +from 1185 to 1803. The principal industries are iron and steel, while +weaving is carried on in the town. + + + + +GRAFT (a modified form of the earlier "graff," through the French from +the Late Lat. _graphium_, a stylus or pencil), a small branch, shoot or +"scion," transferred from one plant or tree to another, the "stock," and +inserted in it so that the two unite (see HORTICULTURE). The name was +adopted from the resemblance in shape of the "graft" to a pencil. The +transfer of living tissue from one portion of an organism to another +part of the same or different organism where it adheres and grows is +also known as "grafting," and is frequently practised in modern surgery. +The word is applied, in carpentry, to an attachment of the ends of +timbers, and, as a nautical term, to the "whipping" or "pointing" of a +rope's end with fine twine to prevent unravelling. "Graft" is used as a +slang term, in England, for a "piece of hard work." In American usage +Webster's _Dictionary_ (ed. 1904) defines the word as "the act of any +one, especially an official or public employe, by which he procures +money surreptitiously by virtue of his office or position; also the +surreptitious gain thus procured." It is thus a word embracing blackmail +and illicit commission. The origin of the English use of the word is +probably an obsolete word "graft," a portion of earth thrown up by a +spade, from the Teutonic root meaning "to dig," seen in German _graben_, +and English "grave." + + + + +GRAFTON, DUKES OF. The English dukes of Grafton are descended from HENRY +FITZROY (1663-1690), the natural son of Charles II. by Barbara Villiers +(countess of Castlemaine and duchess of Cleveland). In 1672 he was +married to the daughter and heiress of the earl of Arlington and created +earl of Euston; in 1675 he was created duke of Grafton. He was brought +up as a sailor, and saw military service at the siege of Luxemburg in +1684. At James II.'s coronation he was lord high constable. In the +rebellion of the duke of Monmouth he commanded the royal troops in +Somersetshire; but later he acted with Churchill (duke of Marlborough), +and joined William of Orange against the king. He died of a wound +received at the storming of Cork, while leading William's forces, being +succeeded as 2nd duke by his son Charles (1682-1757). + +AUGUSTUS HENRY FITZROY, 3rd duke of Grafton (1735-1811), one of the +leading politicians of his time, was the grandson of the 2nd duke, and +was educated at Westminster and Cambridge. He first became known in +politics as an opponent of Lord Bute; in 1765 he was secretary of state +under the marquis of Rockingham; but he retired next year, and Pitt +(becoming earl of Chatham) formed a ministry in which Grafton was first +lord of the treasury (1766) but only nominally prime minister. Chatham's +illness at the end of 1767 resulted in Grafton becoming the effective +leader, but political differences and the attacks of "Junius" led to his +resignation in January 1770. He became lord privy seal in Lord North's +ministry (1771) but resigned in 1775, being in favour of conciliatory +action towards the American colonists. In the Rockingham ministry of +1782 he was again lord privy seal. In later years he was a prominent +Unitarian. + +Besides his successor, the 4th duke (1760-1844), and numerous other +children, he was the father of General Lord Charles Fitzroy (1764-1829), +whose sons Sir Charles Fitzroy (1798-1858), governor of New South Wales, +and Robert Fitzroy (q.v.), the hydrographer, were notable men. The 4th +duke's son, who succeeded as 5th duke, was father of the 6th and 7th +dukes. + + The 3rd duke left in manuscript a _Memoir_ of his public career, of + which extracts have been printed in Stanhope's _History_, Walpole's + _Memories of George III._ (Appendix, vol. iv.), and Campbell's _Lives + of the Chancellors_. + + + + +GRAFTON, RICHARD (d. 1572). English printer and chronicler, was probably +born about 1513. He received the freedom of the Grocers' Company in +1534. Miles Coverdale's version of the Bible had first been printed in +1535. Grafton was early brought into touch with the leaders of religious +reform, and in 1537 he undertook, in conjunction with Edward Whitchurch, +to produce a modified version of Coverdale's text, generally known as +Matthew's Bible (Antwerp, 1537). He went to Paris to reprint Coverdale's +revised edition (1538). There Whitchurch and he began to print the folio +known as the Great Bible by special licence obtained by Henry VIII. from +the French government. Suddenly, however, the work was officially +stopped and the presses seized. Grafton fled, but Thomas Cromwell +eventually bought the presses and type, and the printing was completed +in England. The Great Bible was reprinted several times under his +direction, the last occasion being 1553. In 1544 Grafton and Whitchurch +secured the exclusive right of printing church service books, and on the +accession of Edward VI. he was appointed king's printer, an office which +he retained throughout the reign. In this capacity he produced _The +Booke of the Common Praier and Administracion of the Sacramentes, and +other Rites and Ceremonies of the Churche: after the Use of the Churche +of Englande_ (1549 fol.), and _Actes of Parliament_ (1552 and 1553). In +1553 he printed Lady Jane Grey's proclamation and signed himself the +queen's printer. For this he was imprisoned for a short time, and he +seems thereafter to have retired from active business. His historical +works include a continuation (1543) of Hardyng's Chronicle from the +beginning of the reign of Edward IV. down to Grafton's own times. He is +said to have taken considerable liberties with the original, and may +practically be regarded as responsible for the whole work. He printed in +1548 Edward Hall's _Union of the ... Families of Lancastre and Yorke_, +adding the history of the years from 1532 to 1547. After he retired from +the printing business he published _An Abridgement of the Chronicles of +England_ (1562), _Manuell of the Chronicles of England_ (1565), +_Chronicle at large and meere Historye of the Affayres of England_ +(1568). In these books he chiefly adapted the work of his predecessors, +but in some cases he gives detailed accounts of contemporary events. His +name frequently appears in the records of St Bartholomew's and Christ's +hospitals, and in 1553 he was treasurer-general of the hospitals of King +Edward's foundation. In 1553-1554 and 1556-1557 he represented the City +in Parliament, and in 1562-1563 he sat for Coventry. + + An elaborate account of Grafton was written in 1901 by Mr J. A. + Kingdon under the auspices of the Grocers' Company, with the title + _Richard Grafton, Citizen and Grocer of London, &c._, in continuation + of _Incidents in the Lives of T. Poyntz and R. Grafton_ (1895). His + _Chronicle at large_ was reprinted by Sir Henry Ellis in 1809. + + + + +GRAFTON, a city of Clarence county, New South Wales, lying on both sides +of the Clarence river, at a distance of 45 m. from its mouth, 342 m. +N.E. of Sydney by sea. Pop. (1901) 4174, South Grafton, 976. The two +sections, North Grafton and South Grafton, form separate municipalities. +The river is navigable from the sea to the town for ships of moderate +burden, and for small vessels to a point 35 m. beyond it. The entrance +to the river has been artificially improved. Grafton is the seat of the +Anglican joint-bishopric of Grafton and Armidale, and of a Roman +Catholic bishopric created in 1888, both of which have fine cathedrals. +Dairy-farming and sugar-growing are important industries, and there are +several sugar-mills in the neighbourhood; great numbers of horses, also, +are bred for the Indian and colonial markets. Tobacco, cereals and +fruits are also grown. Grafton has a large shipping trade with Sydney. +There is rail-connexion with Brisbane, &c. The city became a +municipality in 1859. + + + + +GRAFTON, a township in the S.E. part of Worcester county, Massachusetts, +U.S.A. Pop. (1905) 5052; (1910) 5705. It is served by the New York, New +Haven & Hartford, and the Boston & Albany railways, and by interurban +electric lines. The township contains several villages (including +Grafton, North Grafton, Saundersville, Fisherville and Farnumsville); +the principal village, Grafton, is about 7 m. S.E. of Worcester. The +villages are residential suburbs of Worcester, and attract many summer +residents. In the village of Grafton there is a public library. There is +ample water power from the Blackstone river and its tributaries, and +among the manufactures of Grafton are cotton-goods, boots and shoes, &c. +Within what is now Grafton stood the Nipmuck Indian village of +Hassanamesit. John Eliot, the "apostle to the Indians," visited it soon +after 1651, and organized the third of his bands of "praying Indians" +there; in 1671 he established a church for them, the second of the kind +in New England, and also a school. In 1654 the Massachusetts General +Court granted to the Indians, for their exclusive use, a tract of about +4 sq. m., of which they remained the sole proprietors until 1718, when +they sold a small farm to Elisha Johnson, the first permanent white +settler in the neighbourhood. In 1728 a group of residents of Marlboro, +Sudbury, Concord and Stowe, with the permission of the General Court, +bought from the Indians 7500 acres of their lands, and agreed to +establish forty English families on the tract within three years, and to +maintain a church and school of which the Indians should have free use. +The township was incorporated in 1735, and was named in honour of the +2nd duke of Grafton. The last of the pure-blooded Indians died about +1825. + + + + +GRAFTON, a city and the county-seat of Taylor county, West Virginia, +U.S.A., on Tygart river, about 100 m. by rail S.E. of Wheeling. Pop. +(1890) 3159; (1900) 5650, including 226 foreign-born and 162 negroes; +(1910) 7563. It is served by four divisions of the Baltimore & Ohio +railway, which maintains extensive car shops here. The city is about +1000 ft. above sea-level. It has a small national cemetery, and about 4 +m. W., at Pruntytown, is the West Virginia Reform School. Grafton is +situated near large coal-fields, and is supplied with natural gas. Among +its manufactures are machine-shop and foundry products, window glass and +pressed glass ware, and grist mill and planing-mill products. The first +settlement was made about 1852, and Grafton was incorporated in 1856 and +chartered as a city in 1899. In 1903 the population and area of the city +were increased by the annexation of the town of Fetterman (pop. in 1900, +796), of Beaumont (unincorporated), and of other territory. + + + + +GRAHAM, SIR GERALD (1831-1899), British general, was born on the 27th of +June 1831 at Acton, Middlesex. He was educated at Dresden and Woolwich +Academy, and entered the Royal Engineers in 1850. He served with +distinction through the Russian War of 1854 to 1856, was present at the +battles of the Alma and Inkerman, was twice wounded in the trenches +before Sevastopol, and was awarded the Victoria Cross for gallantry at +the attack on the Redan and for devoted heroism on numerous occasions. +He also received the Legion of Honour, and was promoted to a brevet +majority. In the China War of 1860 he took part in the actions of Sin-ho +and Tang-ku, the storming of the Taku Forts, where he was severely +wounded, and the entry into Peking (brevet lieutenant-colonelcy and +C.B.). Promoted colonel in 1869, he was employed in routine duties until +1877, when he was appointed assistant-director of works for barracks at +the war office, a position he held until his promotion to major-general +in 1881. In command of the advanced force in Egypt in 1882, he bore the +brunt of the fighting, was present at the action of Magfar, commanded at +the first battle of Kassassin, took part in the second, and led his +brigade at Tell-el-Kebir. For his services in the campaign he received +the K.C.B. and thanks of parliament. In 1884 he commanded the expedition +to the eastern Sudan, and fought the successful battles of El Teb and +Tamai. On his return home he received the thanks of parliament and was +made a lieutenant-general for distinguished service in the field. In +1885 he commanded the Suakin expedition, defeated the Arabs at Hashin +and Tamai, and advanced the railway from Suakin to Otao, when the +expedition was withdrawn (thanks of parliament and G.C.M.G.). In 1896 he +was made G.C.B., and in 1899 colonel-commandant Royal Engineers. He died +on the 17th of December 1899. He published in 1875 a translation of +Goetze's _Operations of the German Engineers in 1870-1871_, and in 1887 +_Last Words with Gordon_. + + + + +GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT GEORGE, Bart. (1792-1861), British statesman, +son of a baronet, was born at Naworth, Cumberland, on the 1st of June +1792, and was educated at Westminster and Oxford. Shortly after quitting +the university, while making the "grand tour" abroad, he became private +secretary to the British minister in Sicily. Returning to England in +1818 he was elected to parliament as member for Hull in the Whig +interest; but he was unseated at the election of 1820. In 1824 he +succeeded to the baronetcy; and in 1826 he re-entered parliament as +representative for Carlisle, a seat which he soon exchanged for the +county of Cumberland. In the same year he published a pamphlet entitled +"Corn and Currency," which brought him into prominence as a man of +advanced Liberal opinions; and he became one of the most energetic +advocates in parliament of the Reform Bill. On the formation of Earl +Grey's administration he received the post of first lord of the +admiralty, with a seat in the cabinet. From 1832 to 1837 he sat for the +eastern division of the county of Cumberland. Dissensions on the Irish +Church question led to his withdrawal from the ministry in 1834, and +ultimately to his joining the Conservative party. Rejected by his former +constituents in 1837, he was in 1838 elected for Pembroke, and in 1841 +for Dorchester. In the latter year he took office under Sir Robert Peel +as secretary of state for the home department, a post he retained until +1846. As home secretary he incurred considerable odium in Scotland, by +his unconciliating policy on the church question prior to the +"disruption" of 1843; and in 1844 the detention and opening of letters +at the post-office by his warrant raised a storm of public indignation, +which was hardly allayed by the favourable report of a parliamentary +committee of investigation. From 1846 to 1852 he was out of office; but +in the latter year he joined Lord Aberdeen's cabinet as first lord of +the admiralty, in which capacity he acted also for a short time in the +Palmerston ministry of 1855. The appointment of a select committee of +inquiry into the conduct of the Russian war ultimately led to his +withdrawal from official life. He continued as a private member to +exercise a considerable influence on parliamentary opinion. He died at +Netherby, Cumberland, on the 25th of October 1861. + + His _Life_, by C. S. Parker, was published in 1907. + + + + + +GRAHAM, SYLVESTER (1794-1851), American dietarian, was born in Suffield, +Connecticut, in 1794. He studied at Amherst College, and was ordained to +the Presbyterian ministry in 1826, but he seems to have preached but +little. He became an ardent advocate of temperance reform and of +vegetarianism, having persuaded himself that a flesh diet was the cause +of abnormal cravings. His last years were spent in retirement and he +died at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the 11th of September 1851. His +name is now remembered because of his advocacy of unbolted (Graham) +flour, and as the originator of "Graham bread." But his reform was much +broader than this. He urged, primarily, physiological education, and in +his _Science of Human Life_ (1836; republished, with biographical +memoir, 1858) furnished an exhaustive text-book on the subject. He had +carefully planned a complete regimen including many details besides a +strict diet. A Temperance (or Graham) Boarding House was opened in New +York City about 1832 by Mrs Asenath Nicholson, who published _Nature's +Own Book_ (2nd ed., 1835) giving Graham's rules for boarders; and in +Boston a Graham House was opened in 1837 at 23 Brattle Street. + + There were many Grahamites at Brook Farm, and the American + Physiological Society published in Boston in 1837 and 1838 a weekly + called _The Graham Journal of Health and Longevity, designed to + illustrate by facts and sustain by reason and principles the science + of human life as taught by Sylvester Graham_, edited by David + Campbell. Graham wrote _Essay on Cholera_ (1832); _The Esculapian + Tablets of the Nineteenth Century_ (1834); _Lectures to Young Men on + Chastity_ (2nd ed., 1837); and _Bread and Bread Making_; and projected + a work designed to show that his system was not counter to the Holy + Scriptures. + + + + +GRAHAM, THOMAS (1805-1869), British chemist, born at Glasgow on the 20th +of December 1805, was the son of a merchant of that city. In 1819 he +entered the university of Glasgow with the intention of becoming a +minister of the Established Church. But under the influence of Thomas +Thomson (1773-1852), the professor of chemistry, he developed a taste +for experimental science and especially for molecular physics, a subject +which formed his main preoccupation throughout his life. After +graduating in 1824, he spent two years in the laboratory of Professor T. +C. Hope at Edinburgh, and on returning to Glasgow gave lessons in +mathematics, and subsequently chemistry, until the year 1829, when he +was appointed lecturer in the Mechanics' Institute. In 1830 he succeeded +Dr Andrew Ure (1778-1857) as professor of chemistry in the Andersonian +Institution, and in 1837, on the death of Dr Edward Turner, he was +transferred to the chair of chemistry in University College, London. +There he remained till 1855, when he succeeded Sir John Herschel as +Master of the Mint, a post he held until his death on the 16th of +September 1869. The onerous duties his work at the Mint entailed +severely tried his energies, and in quitting a purely scientific career +he was subjected to the cares of official life, for which he was not +fitted by temperament. The researches, however, which he conducted +between 1861 and 1869 were as brilliant as any of those in which he +engaged. Graham was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1836, and a +corresponding member of the Institute of France in 1847, while Oxford +made him a D. C. L. in 1855. He took a leading part in the foundation of +the London Chemical and the Cavendish societies, and served as first +president of both, in 1841 and 1846. Towards the close of his life the +presidency of the Royal Society was offered him, but his failing health +caused him to decline the honour. + +Graham's work is remarkable at once for its originality and for the +simplicity of the methods employed obtaining most important results. He +communicated papers to the Philosophical Society of Glasgow before the +work of that society was recorded in _Transactions_, but his first +published paper, "On the Absorption of Gases by Liquids," appeared in +the _Annals of Philosophy_ for 1826. The subject with which his name is +most prominently associated is the diffusion of gases. In his first +paper on this subject (1829) he thus summarizes the knowledge experiment +had afforded as to the laws which regulate the movement of gases. +"Fruitful as the miscibility of gases has been in interesting +speculations, the experimental information we possess on the subject +amounts to little more than the well-established fact that gases of a +different nature when brought into contact do not arrange themselves +according to their density, but they spontaneously diffuse through each +other so as to remain in an intimate state of mixture for any length of +time." For the fissured jar of J. W. Dobereiner he substituted a glass +tube closed by a plug of plaster of Paris, and with this simple +appliance he developed the law now known by his name "that the diffusion +rate of gases is inversely as the square root of their density." (See +DIFFUSION.) He further studied the passage of gases by transpiration +through fine tubes, and by effusion through a minute hole in a platinum +disk, and was enabled to show that gas may enter a vacuum in three +different ways: (1) by the molecular movement of diffusion, in virtue of +which a gas penetrates through the pores of a disk of compressed +graphite; (2) by effusion through an orifice of sensible dimensions in a +platinum disk the relative times of the effusion of gases in mass being +similar to those of the molecular diffusion, although a gas is usually +carried by the former kind of impulse with a velocity many thousand +times as great as is demonstrable by the latter; and (3) by the peculiar +rate of passage due to transpiration through fine tubes, in which the +ratios appear to be in direct relation with no other known property of +the same gases--thus hydrogen has exactly double the transpiration rate +of nitrogen, the relation of those gases as to density being as 1:14. He +subsequently examined the passage of gases through septa or partitions +of india-rubber, unglazed earthenware and plates of metals such as +palladium, and proved that gases pass through these septa neither by +diffusion nor effusion nor by transpiration, but in virtue of a +selective absorption which the septa appear to exert on the gases in +contact with them. By this means ("atmolysis") he was enabled partially +to separate oxygen from air. + +His early work on the movements of gases led him to examine the +spontaneous movements of liquids, and as a result of the experiments he +divided bodies into two classes--crystalloids, such as common salt, and +colloids, of which gum-arabic is a type--the former having high and the +latter low diffusibility. He also proved that the process of liquid +diffusion causes partial decomposition of certain chemical compounds, +the potassium sulphate, for instance, being separated from the aluminium +sulphate in alum by the higher diffusibility of the former salt. He also +extended his work on the transpiration of gases to liquids, adopting the +method of manipulation devised by J. L. M. Poiseuille. He found that +dilution with water does not effect proportionate alteration in the +transpiration velocities of different liquids, and a certain +determinable degree of dilution retards the transpiration velocity. + +With regard to Graham's more purely chemical work, in 1833 he showed +that phosphoric anhydride and water form three distinct acids, and he +thus established the existence of polybasic acids, in each of which one +or more equivalents of hydrogen are replaceable by certain metals (see +ACID). In 1835 he published the results of an examination of the +properties of water of crystallization as a constituent of salts. Not +the least interesting part of this inquiry was the discovery of certain +definite salts with alcohol analogous to hydrates, to which the name of +alcoholates was given. A brief paper entitled "Speculative Ideas on the +Constitution of Matter" (1863) possesses special interest in connexion +with work done since his death, because in it he expressed the view that +the various kinds of matter now recognized as different elementary +substances may possess one and the same ultimate or atomic molecule in +different conditions of movement. + + Graham's _Elements of Chemistry_, first published in 1833, went + through several editions, and appeared also in German, remodelled + under J. Otto's direction. His _Chemical and Physical Researches_ were + collected by Dr James Young and Dr Angus Smith, and printed "for + presentation only" at Edinburgh in 1876, Dr Smith contributing to the + volume a valuable preface and analysis of its contents. See also T. E. + Thorpe, _Essays in Historical Chemistry_ (1902). + + + + +GRAHAME, JAMES (1765-1811), Scottish poet, was born in Glasgow on the +22nd of April 1765, the son of a successful lawyer. After completing his +literary course at Glasgow university, Grahame went in 1784 to +Edinburgh, where he qualified as writer to the signet, and subsequently +for the Scottish bar, of which he was elected a member in 1795. But his +preferences had always been for the Church, and when he was forty-four +he took Anglican orders, and became a curate first at Shipton, +Gloucestershire, and then at Sedgefield, Durham. His works include a +dramatic poem, _Mary Queen of Scots_ (1801), _The Sabbath_ (1804), +_British Georgics_ (1804), _The Birds of Scotland_ (1806), and _Poems on +the Abolition of the Slave Trade_ (1810). His principal work, _The +Sabbath_, a sacred and descriptive poem in blank verse, is characterized +by devotional feeling and by happy delineation of Scottish scenery. In +the notes to his poems he expresses enlightened views on popular +education, the criminal law and other public questions. He was +emphatically a friend of humanity--a philanthropist as well as a poet. +He died in Glasgow on the 14th of September 1811. + + + + +GRAHAM'S DYKE (or SHEUGH = trench), a local name for the Roman fortified +frontier, consisting of rampart, forts and road, which ran across the +narrow isthmus of Scotland from the Forth to the Clyde (about 36 m.), +and formed from A.D. 140 till about 185 the northern frontier of Roman +Britain. The name is locally explained as recording a victorious assault +on the defences by one Robert Graham and his men; it has also been +connected with the Grampian Hills and the Latin surveying term _groma_. +But, as is shown by its earliest recorded spelling, Grymisdyke (Fordun, +A.D. 1385), it is the same as the term Grim's Ditch which occurs several +times in England in connexion with early ramparts--for example, near +Wallingford in south Oxfordshire or between Berkhampstead (Herts) and +Bradenham (Bucks). Grim seems to be a Teutonic god or devil, who might +be credited with the wish to build earthworks in unreasonably short +periods of time. By antiquaries the Graham's Dyke is usually styled the +Wall of Pius or the Antonine Vallum, after the emperor Antoninus Pius, +in whose reign it was constructed. See further BRITAIN: _Roman_. + (F. J. H.) + + + + +GRAHAM'S TOWN, a city of South Africa, the administrative centre for the +eastern part of the Cape province, 106 m. by rail N.E. of Port Elizabeth +and 43 m. by rail N.N.W. of Port Alfred. Pop. (1904) 13,887, of whom +7283 were whites and 1837 were electors. The town is built in a basin of +the grassy hills forming the spurs of the Zuurberg, 1760 ft. above +sea-level. It is a pleasant place of residence, has a remarkably healthy +climate, and is regarded as the most English-like town in the Cape. The +streets are broad, and most of them lined with trees. In the High Street +are the law courts, the Anglican cathedral of St George, built from +designs by Sir Gilbert Scott, and Commemoration Chapel, the chief place +of worship of the Wesleyans, erected by the British emigrants of 1820. +The Roman Catholic cathedral of St Patrick, a Gothic building, is to the +left of the High Street. The town hall, also in the Gothic style, has a +square clock tower built on arches over the pavement. Graham's Town is +one of the chief educational centres in the Cape province. Besides the +public schools and the Rhodes University College (which in 1904 took +over part of the work carried on since 1855 by St Andrew's College), +scholastic institutions are maintained by religious bodies. The town +possesses two large hospitals, which receive patients from all parts of +South Africa, and the government bacteriological institute. It is the +centre of trade for an extensive pastoral and agricultural district. +Owing to the sour quality of the herbage in the surrounding _zuurveld_, +stock-breeding and wool-growing have been, however, to some extent +replaced by ostrich-farming, for which industry Graham's Town is the +most important entrepot. Dairy farming is much practised in the +neighbourhood. + +In 1812 the site of the town was chosen as the headquarters of the +British troops engaged in protecting the frontier of Cape Colony from +the inroads of the Kaffirs, and it was named after Colonel John Graham +(1778-1821), then commanding the forces. (Graham had commanded the light +infantry battalion at the taking of the Cape by the British in the +action of the 6th of January 1806. He also took part in campaigns in +Italy and Holland during the Napoleonic wars.) In 1819 an attempt was +made by the Kaffirs to surprise Graham's Town, and 10,000 men attacked +it, but they were repulsed by the garrison, which numbered not more than +320 men, infantry and artillery, under Lieut.-Colonel (afterwards +General Sir) Thomas Willshire. In 1822 the town was chosen as the +headquarters of the 4000 British immigrants who had reached Cape Colony +in 1820. It has maintained its position as the most important inland +town of the eastern part of the Cape province. In 1864 the Cape +parliament met in Graham's Town, the only instance of the legislature +sitting elsewhere than in Cape Town. It is governed by a municipality. +The rateable value in 1906 was L891,536 and the rate levied 2-1/2d. in +the pound. + + See T. Sheffield, _The Story of the Settlement ..._ (2nd ed., Graham's + Town, 1884); C. T. Campbell, _British South Africa ... with notices of + some of the British Settlers of 1820_ (London, 1897). + + + + +GRAIL, THE HOLY, the famous talisman of Arthurian romance, the object of +quest on the part of the knights of the Round Table. It is mainly, if +not wholly, known to English readers through the medium of Malory's +translation of the French _Quete du Saint Graal_, where it is the cup or +chalice of the Last Supper, in which the blood which flowed from the +wounds of the crucified Saviour has been miraculously preserved. +Students of the original romances are aware that there is in these texts +an extraordinary diversity of statement as to the nature and origin of +the Grail, and that it is extremely difficult to determine the precise +value of these differing versions.[1] Broadly speaking the Grail +romances have been divided into two main classes: (1) those dealing with +the search for the Grail, the _Quest_, and (2) those relating to its +early history. These latter appear to be dependent on the former, for +whereas we may have a _Quest_ romance without any insistence on the +previous history of the Grail, that history is never found without some +allusion to the hero who is destined to bring the quest to its +successful termination. The _Quest_ versions again fall into three +distinct classes, differentiated by the personality of the hero who is +respectively Gawain, Perceval or Galahad. The most important and +interesting group is that connected with Perceval, and he was regarded +as the original Grail hero, Gawain being, as it were, his understudy. +Recent discoveries, however, point to a different conclusion, and +indicate that the _Gawain_ stories represent an early tradition, and +that we must seek in them rather than in the _Perceval_ versions for +indications as to the ultimate origin of the Grail. + +The character of this talisman or relic varies greatly, as will be seen +from the following summary. + +1. GAWAIN, included in the continuation to Chretien's _Perceval_ by +Wauchier de Denain, and attributed to Bleheris the Welshman, who is +probably identical with the Bledhericus of Giraldus Cambrensis, and +considerably earlier than Chretien de Troyes. Here the Grail is a +food-providing, self-acting talisman, the precise nature of which is not +specified; it is designated as the "rich" Grail, and serves the king and +his court _sans serjant et sans seneschal_, the butlers providing the +guests with wine. In another version, given at an earlier point of the +same continuation, but apparently deriving from a later source, the +Grail is borne in procession by a weeping maiden, and is called the +"holy" Grail, but no details as to its history or character are given. +In a third version, that of _Diu Crone_, a long and confused romance, +the origin of which has not been determined, the Grail appears as a +reliquary, in which the Host is presented to the king, who once a year +partakes alike of it and of the blood which flows from the lance. +Another account is given in the prose _Lancelot_, but here Gawain has +been deposed from his post as first hero of the court, and, as is to be +expected from the treatment meted out to him in this romance, the visit +ends in his complete discomfiture. The Grail is here surrounded with the +atmosphere of awe and reverence familiar to us through the _Quete_, and +is regarded as the chalice of the Last Supper. These are the _Gawain_ +versions. + +2. PERCEVAL.--The most important _Perceval_ text is the _Conte del +Grael_, or _Perceval le Galois_ of Chretien de Troyes. Here the Grail is +wrought of gold richly set with precious stones; it is carried in solemn +procession, and the light issuing from it extinguishes that of the +candles. What it is is not explained, but inasmuch as it is the vehicle +in which is conveyed the Host on which the father of the Fisher king +depends for nutriment, it seems not improbable that here, as in _Diu +Crone_, it is to be understood as a reliquary. In the _Parzival_ of +Wolfram von Eschenbach, the ultimate source of which is identical with +that of Chretien, on the contrary, the Grail is represented as a +precious stone, brought to earth by angels, and committed to the +guardianship of the Grail king and his descendants. It is guarded by a +body of chosen knights, or templars, and acts alike as a life and youth +preserving talisman--no man may die within eight days of beholding it, +and the maiden who bears it retains perennial youth--and an oracle +choosing its own servants, and indicating whom the Grail king shall wed. +The sole link with the Christian tradition is the statement that its +virtue is renewed every Good Friday by the agency of a dove from heaven. +The discrepancy between this and the other Grail romances is most +startling. + +In the short prose romance known as the "Didot" _Perceval_ we have, for +the first time, the whole history of the relic logically set forth. The +_Perceval_ forms the third and concluding section of a group of short +romances, the two preceding being the _Joseph of Arimathea_ and the +_Merlin_. In the first we have the precise history of the Grail, how it +was the dish of the Last Supper, confided by our Lord to the care of +Joseph, whom he miraculously visited in the prison to which he had been +committed by the Jews. It was subsequently given by Joseph to his +brother-in-law Brons, whose grandson Perceval is destined to be the +final winner and guardian of the relic. The _Merlin_ forms the +connecting thread between this definitely ecclesiastical romance and the +chivalric atmosphere of Arthur's court; and finally, in the _Perceval_, +the hero, son of Alain and grandson to Brons, is warned by Merlin of the +quest which awaits him and which he achieves after various adventures. + +In the _Perlesvaus_ the Grail is the same, but the working out of the +scheme is much more complex; a son of Joseph of Arimathea, Josephe, is +introduced, and we find a spiritual knighthood similar to that used so +effectively in the _Parzival_. + +3. GALAHAD.--The _Quete du Saint Graal_, the only romance of which +Galahad is the hero, is dependent on and a completion of the _Lancelot_ +development of the Arthurian cycle. Lancelot, as lover of Guinevere, +could not be permitted to achieve so spiritual an emprise, yet as +leading knight of Arthur's court it was impossible to allow him to be +surpassed by another. Hence the invention of Galahad, son to Lancelot by +the Grail king's daughter; predestined by his lineage to achieve the +quest, foredoomed, the quest achieved, to vanish, a sacrifice to his +father's fame, which, enhanced by connexion with the Grail-winner, could +not risk eclipse by his presence. Here the Grail, the chalice of the +Last Supper, is at the same time, as in the _Gawain_ stories, +self-acting and food-supplying. + +The last three romances unite, it will be seen, the quest and the early +history. Introductory to the Galahad quest, and dealing only with the +early history, is the _Grand Saint Graal_, a work of interminable +length, based upon the _Joseph of Arimathea_, which has undergone +numerous revisions and amplifications: its precise relation to the +_Lancelot_, with which it has now much matter in common, is not easy to +determine. + +To be classed also under the head of early history are certain +interpolations in the MSS. of the _Perceval_, where we find the _Joseph_ +tradition, but in a somewhat different form, e.g. he is said to have +caused the Grail to be made for the purpose of receiving the holy blood. +With this account is also connected the legend of the _Volto Santo_ of +Lucca, a crucifix said to have been carved by Nicodemus. In the +conclusion to Chretien's poem, composed by Manessier some fifty years +later, the Grail is said to have _followed_ Joseph to Britain, how, is +not explained. Another continuation by Gerbert, interpolated between +those of Wauchier and Manessier, relates how the Grail was brought to +Britain by Perceval's mother in the companionship of Joseph. + +It will be seen that with the exception of the _Grand Saint Graal_, +which has now been practically converted into an introduction to the +_Quete_, no two versions agree with each other; indeed, with the +exception of the oldest _Gawain-Grail_ visit, that due to Bleheris, they +do not agree with themselves, but all show, more or less, the influence +of different and discordant versions. Why should the vessel of the Last +Supper, jealously guarded at Castle Corbenic, visit Arthur's court +independently? Why does a sacred relic provide purely material food? +What connexion can there be between a precious stone, a _baetylus_, as +Dr Hagen has convincingly shown, and Good Friday? These, and such +questions as these, suggest themselves at every turn. + +Numerous attempts have been made to solve these problems, and to +construct a theory of the origin of the Grail story, but so far the +difficulty has been to find an hypothesis which would admit of the +practically simultaneous existence of apparently contradictory features. +At one time considered as an introduction from the East, the theory of +the Grail as an Oriental talisman has now been discarded, and the expert +opinion of the day may be said to fall into two groups: (1) those who +hold the Grail to have been from the first a purely Christian vessel +which has accidentally, and in a manner never clearly explained, +acquired certain folk-lore characteristics; and (2) those who hold, on +the contrary, that the Grail is _aborigine_ folk-lore and Celtic, and +that the Christian development is a later and accidental rather than an +essential feature of the story. The first view is set forth in the work +of Professor Birch-Hirschfeld, the second in that of Mr Alfred Nutt, the +two constituting the only _travaux d'ensemble_ which have yet appeared +on the subject. It now seems probable that both are in a measure +correct, and that the ultimate solution will be recognized to lie in a +blending of two originally independent streams of tradition. The +researches of Professor Mannhardt in Germany and of J. G. Frazer in +England have amply demonstrated the enduring influence exercised on +popular thought and custom by certain primitive forms of vegetation +worship, of which the most noteworthy example is the so-called mysteries +of Adonis. Here the ordinary processes of nature and progression of the +seasons were symbolized under the figure of the death and resuscitation +of the god. These rites are found all over the world, and in his +monumental work, _The Golden Bough_, Dr Frazer has traced a host of +extant beliefs and practices to this source. The earliest form of the +Grail story, the _Gawain_-Bleheris version, exhibits a marked affinity +with the characteristic features of the Adonis or Tammuz worship; we +have a castle on the sea-shore, a dead body on a bier, the identity of +which is never revealed, mourned over with solemn rites; a wasted +country, whose desolation is mysteriously connected with the dead man, +and which is restored to fruitfulness when the quester asks the meaning +of the marvels he beholds (the two features of the weeping women and the +wasted land being retained in versions where they have no significance); +finally the mysterious food-providing, self-acting talisman of a common +feast--one and all of these features may be explained as survivals of +the Adonis ritual. Professor Martin long since suggested that a key to +the problems of the Arthurian cycle was to be found in a nature myth: +Professor Rhys regards Arthur as an agricultural hero; Dr Lewis Mott has +pointed out the correspondence between the so-called Round Table sites +and the ritual of nature worship; but it is only with the discovery of +the existence of Bleheris as reputed authority for Arthurian tradition, +and the consequent recognition that the Grail story connected with his +name is the earliest form of the legend, that we have secured a solid +basis for such theories. + +With regard to the religious form of the story, recent research has +again aided us--we know now that a legend similar in all respects to the +Joseph of Arimathea Grail story was widely current at least a century +before our earliest Grail texts. The story with Nicodemus as protagonist +is told of the _Saint-Sang_ relic at Fecamp; and, as stated already, a +similar origin is ascribed to the _Volto Santo_ at Lucca. In this +latter case the legend professes to date from the 8th century, and +scholars who have examined the texts in their present form consider that +there may be solid ground for this attribution. It is thus demonstrable +that the material for our Grail legend, in its present form, existed +long anterior to any extant text, and there is no improbability in +holding that a confused tradition of pagan mysteries which had assumed +the form of a popular folk-tale, became finally Christianized by +combination with an equally popular ecclesiastical legend, the point of +contact being the vessel of the common ritual feast. Nor can there be +much doubt that in this process of combination the Fecamp legend played +an important role. The best and fullest of the _Perceval_ MSS. refer to +a book written at Fecamp as source for certain _Perceval_ adventures. +What this book was we do not know, but in face of the fact that certain +special Fecamp relics, silver knives, appear in the Grail procession of +the _Parzival_, it seems most probable that it was a _Perceval_-Grail +story. The relations between the famous Benedictine abbey and the +English court both before and after the Conquest were of an intimate +character. Legends of the part played by Joseph of Arimathea in the +conversion of Britain are closely connected with Glastonbury, the monks +of which foundation showed, in the 12th century, considerable literary +activity, and it seems a by no means improbable hypothesis that the +present form of the Grail legend may be due to a monk of Glastonbury +elaborating ideas borrowed from Fecamp. This much is certain, that +between the _Saint-Sang_ of Fecamp, the _Volto Santo_ of Lucca, and the +Grail tradition, there exists a connecting link, the precise nature of +which has yet to be determined. The two former were popular objects of +pilgrimage; was the third originally intended to serve the same purpose +by attracting attention to the reputed burial-place of the apostle of +the Grail, Joseph of Arimathea? + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the Gawain Grail visits see the Potvin edition of + the _Perceval_, which, however, only gives the Bleheris version; the + second visit is found in the best and most complete MSS., such as + 12,576 and 12,577 (_Fonds francais_) of the Paris library. _Diu + Crone_, edited by Scholl (Stuttgart, 1852). vol. vi. of _Arthurian + Romances_ (Nutt), gives a translation of the Bleheris, _Diu Crone_ and + _Prose Lancelot_ visits. + + The _Conte del Graal_, or _Perceval_, is only accessible in the + edition of M. Potvin (6 vols., 1866-1871). The Mons MS., from which + this has been printed, has proved to be an exceedingly poor and + untrustworthy text. _Parzival_, by Wolfram von Eschenbach, has been + frequently and well edited; the edition by Bartsch (1875-1877), in + _Deutsche Classiker des Mittelalters_, contains full notes and a + glossary. Suitable for the more advanced student are those by K. + Lachmann (1891), Leitzmann (1902-1903) and E. Martin (1903). There are + modern German translations by Simrock (very close to the original) and + Hertz (excellent notes). English translation with notes and appendices + by J. L. Weston. "Didot" _Perceval_, ed. Hucher, _Le Saint Graal_ + (1875-1878), vol. i. _Perlesvaus_ was printed by Potvin, under the + title of _Perceval le Gallois_, in vol. i. of the edition above + referred to; a Welsh version from the Hengwert MS. was published with + translation by Canon R. Williams (2 vols., 1876-1892). Under the title + of _The High History of the Holy Grail_ a fine version was published + by Dr Sebastian Evans in the Temple Classics (2 vols., 1898). The + _Grand Saint Graal_ was published by Hucher as given above; this + edition includes the _Joseph of Arimathea_. A 15th century metrical + English adaptation by one Henry Lovelich, was printed by Dr Furnivall + for the Roxburghe Club 1861-1863; a new edition was undertaken for the + Early English Text Society. _Quete du Saint Graal_ can best be studied + in Malory's somewhat abridged translation, books xiii.-xviii. of the + _Morte Arthur_. It has also been printed by Dr Furnivall for the + Roxburghe Club, from a MS. in the British Museum. Neither of these + texts is, however, very good, and the student who can decipher old + Dutch would do well to read it in the metrical translation published + by Joenckbloet, _Roman van Lanceloet_, as the original here was + considerably fuller. + + For general treatment of the subject see _Legend of Sir Perceval_, by + J. L. Weston, Grimm Library, vol. xvii. (1906); _Studies on the Legend + of the Holy Grail_, by A. Nutt (1888), and a more concise treatment of + the subject by the same writer in No. 14 of _Popular Studies_ (1902); + Professor Birch-Hirschfeld's _Die Sage vom Gral_ (1877). The late + Professor Heinzel's _Die alt-franzosischen Gral-Romane_ contains a + mass of valuable matter, but is very confused and ill-arranged. For + the Fecamp legend see Leroux de Lincey's _Essai sur l'abbaye de + Fescamp_ (1840); for the _Volto Santo_ and kindred legends, Ernest von + Dobschutz, _Christus-Bilder_ (Leipzig, 1899). (J. L. W.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The etymology of the O. Fr. _graal_ or _greal_, of which "grail" + is an adaptation, has been much discussed. The Low Lat. original, + _gradale_ or _grasale_, a flat dish or platter, has generally been + taken to represent a diminutive _cratella_ of _crater_, bowl, or a + lost _cratale_, formed from the same word (see W. W. Skeat, Preface + to _Joseph of Arimathie_, Early Eng. Text Soc).--ED. + + + + +GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. _granum_, seed, from an +Aryan root meaning "to wear down," which also appears in the common +Teutonic word "corn"), a word particularly applied to the seed, in +botanical language the "fruit," of cereals, and hence applied, as a +collective term to cereal plants generally, to which, in English, the +term "corn" is also applied (see GRAIN TRADE). Apart from this, the +chief meaning, the word is used of the malt refuse of brewing and +distilling, and of many hard rounded small particles, resembling the +seeds of plants, such as "grains" of sand, salt, gold, gunpowder, &c. +"Grain" is also the name of the smallest unit of weight, both in the +United Kingdom and the United States of America. Its origin is supposed +to be the weight of a grain of wheat, dried and gathered from the middle +of the ear. The troy grain = 1/5760 of a lb., the avoirdupois grain = +1/7000 of a lb. In diamond weighing the grain = 1/4 of the carat, = +.7925 of the troy grain. The word "grains" was early used, as also in +French, of the small seed-like insects supposed formerly to be the +berries of trees, from which a scarlet dye was extracted (see COCHINEAL +and KERMES). From the Fr. _en graine_, literally in dye, comes the +French verb _engrainer_, Eng. "engrain" or "ingrain," meaning to dye in +any fast colour. From the further use of "grain" for the texture of +substances, such as wood, meat, &c., "engrained" or "ingrained" means +ineradicable, impregnated, dyed through and through. The "grain" of +leather is the side of a skin showing the fibre after the hair has been +removed. The imitating in paint of the grain of different kinds of woods +is known as "graining" (see PAINTER-WORK). "Grain," or more commonly in +the plural "grains," construed as a singular, is the name of an +instrument with two or more barbed prongs, used for spearing fish. This +word is Scandinavian in origin, and is connected with Dan. _green_, +Swed. _gren_, branch, and means the fork of a tree, of the body, or the +prongs of a fork, &c. It is not connected with "groin," the inguinal +parts of the body, which in its earliest forms appears as _grynde_. + + + + +GRAINS OF PARADISE, GUINEA GRAINS, or MELEGUETA PEPPER (Ger. +_Paradieskorner_, Fr. _graines de Paradis_, _maniguette_), the seeds of +_Amomum Melegueta_, a reed-like plant of the natural order +_Zingiberaceae_. It is a native of tropical western Africa, and of +Prince's and St Thomas's islands in the Gulf of Guinea, is cultivated in +other tropical countries, and may with ease be grown in hothouses in +temperate climates. The plant has a branched horizontal rhizome; smooth, +nearly sessile, narrowly lanceolate-oblong alternate leaves; large, +white, pale pink or purplish flowers; and an ovate-oblong fruit, +ensheathed in bracts, which is of a scarlet colour when fresh, and +reaches under cultivation a length of 5 in. The seeds are contained in +the acid pulp of the fruit, are commonly wedge-shaped and bluntly +angular, are about 1-1/4 lines in diameter and have a glossy dark-brown +husk, with a conical light-coloured membranous caruncle at the base and +a white kernel. They contain, according to Fluckiger and Hanbury, 0.3% +of a faintly yellowish neutral essential oil, having an aromatic, not +acrid taste, and a specific gravity at 15.5 deg. C of 0.825, and giving +on analysis the formula C20H32O, or C10H16 + C10H16O; also 5.83% of an +intensely pungent, viscid, brown resin. + +Grains of paradise were formerly officinal in British pharmacopoeias, +and in the 13th and succeeding centuries were used as a drug and a +spice, the wine known as hippocras being flavoured with them and with +ginger and cinnamon. In 1629 they were employed among the ingredients of +the twenty-four herring pies which were the ancient fee-favour of the +city of Norwich, ordained to be carried to court by the lord of the +manor of Carleton (Johnston and Church, _Chem. of Common Life_, p. 355, +1879). Grains of paradise were anciently brought overland from West +Africa to the Mediterranean ports of the Barbary states, to be shipped +for Italy. They are now exported almost exclusively from the Gold Coast. +Grains of paradise are to some extent used illegally to give a +fictitious strength to malt liquors, gin and cordials. By 56 Geo. III. +c. 58, no brewer or dealer in beer shall have in his possession or use +grains of paradise, under a penalty of L200 for each offence; and no +druggist shall sell the same to a brewer under a penalty of L500. They +are, however, devoid of any injurious physiological action, and are much +esteemed as a spice by the natives of Guinea. + + See Bentley and Trimen, _Medicinal Plants_, tab. 268; Lanessan, _Hist. + des Drogues_, pp. 456-460 (1878). + + + + +GRAIN TRADE. The complexity of the conditions of life in the 20th +century may be well illustrated from the grain trade of the world. The +ordinary bread sold in Great Britain represents, for example, produce of +nearly every country in the world outside the tropics. + + + General considerations. + +Wheat has been cultivated from remote antiquity. In a wild state it is +practically unknown. It is alleged to have been found growing wild +between the Euphrates and the Tigris; but the discovery has never been +authenticated, and, unless the plant be sedulously cared for, the +species dies out in a surprisingly short space of time. Modern +experiments in cross-fertilization in Lancashire by the Garton Brothers +have evolved the most extraordinary "sports," showing, it is claimed, +that the plant has probably passed through stages of which until the +present day there had been no conception. The tales that grains of wheat +found in the cerements of Egyptian mummies have been planted and come to +maturity are no longer credited, for the vital principle in the wheat +berry is extremely evanescent; indeed, it is doubtful whether wheat +twenty years old is capable of reproduction. The Garton artificial +fertilization experiments have shown endless deviations from the +ordinary type, ranging from minute seeds with a closely adhering husk to +big berries almost as large as sloes and about as worthless. It is +conjectured that the wheat plant, as now known, is a degenerate form of +something much finer which flourished thousands of years ago, and that +possibly it may be restored to its pristine excellence, yielding an +increase twice or thrice as large as it now does, thus postponing to a +distant period the famine doom prophesied by Sir W. Crookes in his +presidential address to the British Association in 1898. Wheat well +repays careful attention; contrast the produce of a carelessly tilled +Russian or Indian field and the bountiful yield on a good Lincolnshire +farm, the former with its average yield of 8 bushels, the latter with +its 50 bushels per acre; or compare the quality, as regards the quantity +and flavour of the flour from a fine sample of British wheat, such as is +on sale at almost every agricultural show in Great Britain, with the +produce of an Egyptian or Syrian field; the difference is so great as to +cause one to doubt whether the berries are of the same species. + +It may be stated roundly that an average quartern loaf in Great Britain +is made from wheat grown in the following countries in the proportions +named:-- + + +------+-----+-------+------+-------+-------+---------+------+----------+ + |U.S.A.| U.K.|Russia.|Argen-|British|Canada.|Rumania- |Austr-| Other | + | | | | tina.|India. | |Bulgaria.| alia.|Countries.| + +------+-----+-------+------+-------+-------+---------+------+----------+ + | Oz. | Oz. | Oz. | Oz. | Oz. | Oz. | Oz. | Oz. | Oz. | + | 26 | 13 9 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 1 | + | Or expressed in percentages as follows:-- | + | 40 | 20 | 14 | 8 | 6 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 2 | + +------+-----+-------+------+-------+-------+---------+------+----------+ + +For details connected with grain and its handling see AGRICULTURE, CORN +LAWS, GRANARIES, FLOUR, BAKING, WHEAT, &c. + +Wheat occupies of all cereals the widest region of any food-stuff. Rice, +which shares with millet the distinction of being the principal +food-stuff of the greatest number of human beings, is not grown nearly +as widely as is wheat, the staple food of the white races. Wheat grows +as far south as Patagonia, and as far north as the edge of the Arctic +Circle; it flourishes throughout Europe, and across the whole of +northern Asia and in Japan; it is cultivated in Persia, and raised +largely in India, as far south as the Nizam's dominions. It is grown +over nearly the whole of North America. In Canada a very fine wheat crop +was raised in the autumn of 1898 as far north as the mission at Fort +Providence, on the Mackenzie river, in a latitude above 62 deg.--or less +than 200 m. south of the latitude of Dawson City--the period between +seed-time and harvest having been ninety-one days. In Africa it was an +article of commerce in the days of Jacob, whose son Joseph may be said +to have run the first and only successful "corner" in wheat. For many +centuries Egypt was famous as a wheat raiser; it was a cargo of wheat +from Alexandria which St Paul helped to jettison on one of his +shipwrecks, as was also, in all probability, that of the "ship of +Alexandria whose sign was Castor and Pollux," named in the same +narrative. General Gordon is quoted as having stated that the Sudan if +properly settled would be capable of feeding the whole of Europe. Along +the north coast of Africa are areas which, if properly irrigated, as was +done in the days of Carthage, could produce enough wheat to feed half of +the Caucasian race. For instance, the vilayet of Tripoli, with an area +of 400,000 sq. m., or three times the extent of Great Britain and +Ireland, according to the opinion of a British consul, could raise +millions of acres of wheat. The cereal flourishes on all the high +plateaus of South Africa, from Cape Town to the Zambezi. Land is being +extensively put under wheat in the pampas of South America and in the +prairies of Siberia. + +In the raising of the standard of farming to an English level the volume +of the world's crop would be trebled, another fact which Sir William +Crookes seems to have overlooked. The experiments of the late Sir J. B. +Lawes in Hertfordshire have proved that the natural fruitfulness of the +wheat plant can be increased threefold by the application of the proper +fertilizer. The results of these experiments will be found in a +compendium issued from the Rothamsted Agricultural Experimental Station. + +It is by no means, however, the wheat which yields the greatest number +of bushels per acre which is the most valuable from a miller's +standpoint, for the thinness of the bran and the fineness and strength +of the flour are with him important considerations, too often overlooked +by the farmer when buying his seed. Nevertheless it is the deficient +quantity of the wheat raised in the British Islands, and not the quality +of the grain, which has been the cause of so much anxiety to economists +and statesmen. + + + Freight rates. + +Sir J. Caird, writing in the year 1880, expressed the opinion that +arable land in Great Britain would always command a substantial rent of +at least 30s. per acre. His figures were based on the assumption that +wheat was imported duty free. He calculated that the cost of carriage +from abroad of wheat, or the equivalent of the product of an acre of +good wheat land in Great Britain, would not be less than 30s. per ton. +But freights had come down by 1900 to half the rates predicated by +Caird; indeed, during a portion of the interval they ruled very close to +zero, as far as steamer freights from America were concerned. In 1900 an +all-round freight rate for wheat might be taken at 15s. _per ton_ (a ton +representing approximately the produce of an acre of good wheat land in +England), say from 10s. for Atlantic American and Russian, to 30s. for +Pacific American and Australian; about midway between these two extremes +we find Indian and Argentine, the greatest bulk coming at about the 15s. +rate. Inferior land bearing less than 4-1/2 quarters per acre would not +be protected to the same extent, and moreover, seeing that a portion of +the British wheat crop has to stand a charge as heavy for land carriage +across a county as that borne by foreign wheat across a continent or an +ocean, the protection is not nearly so substantial as Caird would make +out. The compilation showing the changes in the rates of charges for the +railway and other transportation services issued by the Division of +Statistics, Department of Agriculture, U.S.A. (Miscellaneous series, +Bulletin No. 15, 1898), is a valuable reference book. From its pages are +culled the following facts relating to the changes in the rates of +freight up to the year 1897.[1] In Table 3 the average rates per ton per +mile in cents are shown since 1846. For the Fitchburg Railroad the rate +for that year was 4.523 cents per ton per mile, since when a great and +almost continuous fall has been taking place, until in 1897, the latest +year given, the rate had declined to .870 of a cent per ton per mile. +The railway which shows the greatest fall is the Chesapeake & Ohio, for +the charge has fallen from over 7 cents in 1862 and 1863 to .419 of a +cent in 1897, whereas the Erie rates have fallen only from 1.948 in 1852 +to .609 in 1897. Putting the rates of the twelve returning railways +together, we find the average freight in the two years 1859-1860 was +3.006 cents per ton per mile, and that in 1896-1897 the average rate had +fallen to .797 of a cent per ton per mile. This difference is very large +compared with the smallness of the unit. Coming to the rates on grain, +we find (in Table 23) a record for the forty years 1858-1897 of the +charge on wheat from Chicago to New York, via all rail from 1858, and +via lake and rail since 1868, the authority being the secretary of the +Chicago Board of Trade. From 1858 to 1862 the rate varied between 42.37 +and 34.80 cents per bushel for the whole trip of roundly 1000 m., the +average rate in the quinquennium being 38.43. In the five years +immediately prior to the time at which Sir J. Caird expressed the +opinion that the cost of carriage from abroad would always protect the +British grower, the average all-rail freight from Chicago to New York +was 17.76 cents, while the summer rate (partly by water) was 13.17 +cents. These rates in 1897, the last year shown on the table, had fallen +to 12.50 and 7.42 respectively. The rates have been as follows in +quinquennial periods, via all rail:-- + +_Chicago to New York in Cents per Bushel._ + + +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | 1858- | 1863- | 1868- | 1873- | 1878- | 1883- | 1888- | 1893- | + | 1862. | 1867. | 1872. | 1877. | 1882. | 1887. | 1892. | 1897. | + +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | 38.43 | 31.42 | 27.91 | 21.29 | 16.77 | 14.67 | 14.52 | 12.88 | + +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ + +Calculating roundly a cent as equal to a halfpenny, and eight bushels to +the quarter, the above would appear in English currency as follows:-- + +_Chicago to New York in Shillings and Pence per Quarter._ + + +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+-------+-------+ + | 1858- | 1863- | 1868- | 1873- | 1878- | 1883- | 1888- | 1893- | + | 1862. | 1867. | 1872. | 1877. | 1882. | 1887. | 1892. | 1897. | + +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+-------+-------+ + | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. |s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | + | 12 8 | 10 6 | 9 3 | 7 1 | 5 7 |4 10-1/2| 4 10 | 4 3 | + +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+-------+-------+ + +Another table (No. 38) shows the average rates from Chicago to New York +by lakes, canal and river. These in their quinquennial periods are given +for the season as follows:-- + +_In Cents per Bushel of_ 60 lb. + + +----------+----------+----------+ + |1857-1861.|1876-1880.|1893-1897.| + +----------+----------+----------+ + | 22.15 | 10.47 | 4.92 | + +----------+----------+----------+ + +_In Shillings and Pence per Quarter of_ 480 lb. + + +----------+----------+----------+ + |1857-1861.|1876-1880.|1893-1897.| + +----------+----------+----------+ + | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | + | 7 4 | 3 6 | 1 7 | + +----------+----------+----------+ + +_In Shillings and Pence per Ton of_ 2240 lb. + + +----------+----------+----------+ + |1857-1861.|1876-1880.|1893-1897.| + +----------+----------+----------+ + | s. d. | s. d. | s. d. | + | 34 6 | 16 6 | 7 6 | + +----------+----------+----------+ + +This latter mode is the cheapest by which grain can be carried to the +eastern seaboard from the American prairies, and it can now be done at a +cost of 7s. 6d. per ton. The ocean freight has to be added before the +grain can be delivered free on the quay at Liverpool. A rate from New +York to Liverpool of 2-1/2d. per bushel, or 7s. 10d. per ton, a low +rate, reached in Dec. 1900, is yet sufficiently high, it is claimed, to +leave a profit; indeed, there have frequently been times when the rate +was as low as 1d. per bushel, or 3s. 1d. per ton; and in periods of +great trade depression wheat is carried from New York to Liverpool as +ballast, being paid for by the ship-owner. Another route worked more +cheaply than formerly is that by river, from the centre of the winter +wheat belt, say at St Louis, to New Orleans, and thence by steamer to +Liverpool. The river rate has fallen below five cents per bushel, or +7s. per ton, 2240 lb. In Table No. 71 the cost of transportation is +compared year by year with the export price of the two leading cereals +in the States as follows:-- + +_Wheat and Corn--Export Prices and Transportation Rates compared._ + + +------+----------------------------------+----------------------------------+ + | | Wheat. | Corn. | + | +---------+-------------+----------+---------+-------------+----------+ + | | | | Number | | | Number | + | | |Rate, Chicago|of Bushels| |Rate, Chicago|of Bushels| + | Year.| Export | to New York | carried | Export | to New York | carried | + | |Price per| by Lake | for Price|Price per| by Lake | for Price| + | | Bushel. | and Canal, | of One | Bushel. | and Canal, | of One | + | | | per Bushel. | Bushel. | | per Bushel. | Bushel. | + +------+---------+-------------+----------+---------+-------------+----------+ + | | | Cents. | | | Cents. | | + | 1867 | $0.92 | 15.95 | 5.77 |$0.72 | 14.58 | 4.94 | + | 1868 | 1.36 | 16.23 | 8.38 | .84.1 | 13.57 | 6.20 | + | 1869 | 1.05 | 17.20 | 6.10 | .72.8 | 14.98 | 4.86 | + | 1870 | 1.12 | 14.85 | 7.54 | .80.5 | 13.78 | 5.84 | + | 1871 | 1.18 | 17.75 | 6.65 | .67.9 | 16.53 | 4.11 | + | 1872 | 1.31 | 21.55 | 6.08 | .61.8 | 19.62 | 3.15 | + | 1873 | 1.15 | 16.89 | 6.81 | .54.3 | 15.39 | 3.53 | + | 1874 | 1.29 | 12.75 | 10.12 | .64.7 | 11.29 | 5.73 | + | 1875 | .97 | 9.90 | 9.80 | .73.8 | 8.93 | 8.26 | + | 1876 | 1.11 | 8.63 | 12.86 | .60.3 | 7.93 | 7.60 | + | 1877 | 1.12 | 10.76 | 10.41 | .56.0 | 9.41 | 5.95 | + | 1878 | 1.33 | 9.10 | 14.62 | .55.8 | 8.27 | 6.75 | + | 1879 | 1.07 | 11.60 | 9.22 | .47.1 | 10.43 | 4.52 | + | 1880 | 1.25 | 12.27 | 10.19 | .54.3 | 11.14 | 4.87 | + | 1881 | 1.11 | 8.19 | 13.55 | .55.2 | 7.26 | 7.60 | + | 1882 | 1.19 | 7.89 | 15.08 | .66.8 | 7.23 | 9.24 | + | 1883 | 1.13 | 8.37 | 13.50 | .68.4 | 7.66 | 8.93 | + | 1884 | 1.07 | 6.31 | 16.96 | .61.1 | 5.64 | 10.83 | + | 1885 | .86 | 5.87 | 14.65 | .54.0 | 5.38 | 10.04 | + | 1886 | .87 | 8.71 | 9.99 | .49.8 | 7.98 | 6.24 | + | 1887 | .89 | 8.51 | 10.46 | .47.9 | 7.88 | 6.08 | + | 1888 | .85 | 5.93 | 14.33 | .55.0 | 5.41 | 10.17 | + | 1889 | .90 | 6.89 | 13.06 | .47.4 | 6.19 | 7.66 | + | 1890 | .83 | 5.86 | 14.16 | .41.8 | 5.10 | 8.20 | + | 1891 | .93 | 5.96 | 15.60 | .57.4 | 5.36 | 10.71 | + | 1892 | 1.03 | 5.61 | 18.36 | .55 | 5.03 | 10.93 | + | 1893 | .80 | 6.31 | 12.68 | .53 | 5.71 | 9.28 | + | 1894 | .67 | 4.44 | 15.09 | .46 | 3.99 | 11.53 | + | 1895 | .58 | 4.11 | 14.11 | .53 | 3.71 | 14.29 | + | 1896 | .65 | 5.38 | 12.08 | .38 | 4.94 | 7.69 | + | 1897 | .75 | 4.35 | 17.24 | .31 | 3.79 | 8.18 | + +------+---------+-------------+----------+---------+-------------+----------+ + +The farmers of the United States have now to meet a greatly increased +output from Canada--the cost of transport from that country to England +being much the same as from the United States. So much improved is the +position of the farmer in North America compared with what it was about +1870, that the transport companies in 1901 carried 17-1/4 bushels of his +grain to the seaboard in exchange for the value of one bushel, whereas +in 1867 he had to give up one bushel in every six in return for the +service. As regards the British farmer, it does not appear as if he had +improved his position; for he has to send his wheat to greater +distances, owing to the collapse of many country millers or their +removal to the seaboard, while railway rates have fallen only to a very +small extent; again the farmer's wheat is worth only half of what it was +formerly; it may be said that the British farmer has to give up one +bushel in nine to the railway company for the purpose of transportation, +whereas in the 'seventies he gave up one in eighteen only. Enough has +been said to prove that the advantage of position claimed for the +British farmer by Caird was somewhat illusory. Speaking broadly, the +Kansas or Minnesota farmer's wheat does not have to pay for carriage to +Liverpool more than 2s. 6d. to 7s. 6d. per ton in excess of the rate +paid by a Yorkshire farmer; this, it will be admitted, does not go very +far towards enabling the latter to pay rent, tithes and rates and taxes. + +The subject of the rates of ocean carriage at different periods requires +consideration if a proper understanding of the working of the foreign +grain trade is to be obtained. Only a very small proportion of the +decline in the price of wheat since 1880 is due to cheapened transport +rates; for while the mileage rate has been falling, the length of +haulage has been extending, until in 1900 the principal wheat fields of +America were 2000 m. farther from the eastern seaboard than was the case +in 1870, and consequently, notwithstanding the fall in the mileage rate +of 50 to 75%, it still costs the United Kingdom nearly as much to have +its quota of foreign wheat fetched from abroad as it did then. The +difference in the cost of the operation is shown in the following +tabular statement, both the cost in the aggregate on a year's imports +and the cost per quarter:-- + +_Quantity of Wheat and Wheaten Flour (as wheat) imported into the United +Kingdom from various sources during the calendar year 1900, together +with the average rate of freight._ + + 1900. + + +----------------------+-------------+---------------+------------+ + | | | Ocean Freight | Total Cost | + | Countries of Origin. | Quantities. | to United | of Ocean | + | | Qrs. 480 lb.| Kingdom. | Carriage. | + | | | Per 480 lb. | | + +----------------------+-------------+---------------+------------+ + | | | s. d. | L | + | Atlantic America | 11,171,100 | 2 3 | 1,257,100 | + | South Russia | 569,000 | 2 2 | 62,000 | + | Pacific America | 2,389,900 | 8 1 | 966,000 | + | Canada | 1,877,100 | 2 8 | 250,000 | + | Rumania | 176,400 | 2 6 | 22,000 | + | Argentina and Uruguay| 4,322,300 | 4 10 | 1,045,000 | + | France | 251,900 | 1 3 | 16,000 | + | Bulgaria and Rumelia | 30,600 | 2 6 | 4,000 | + | India | 2,200 | 4 0 | 400 | + | Austria-Hungary | 389,300 | 1 9 | 34,000 | + | Chile | 600 | .. | .. | + | North Russia | 462,700 | 1 6 | 35,000 | + | Germany | 438,700 | 1 6 | 33,000 | + | Australasia | 883,900 | 6 5 | 284,000 | + | Minor Countries | 225,100 | 2 6 | 28,000 | + | +-------------+---------------+------------+ + | Total | 23,190,800 |Average 3s. 6d.| L4,036,500 | + +----------------------+-------------+---------------+------------+ + +Comparing these figures with a similar statement for the year 1872, the +most remote year for which similar facts are available, it will be found +that the actual total cost per quarter for ocean carriage has not much +decreased. + +_Quantity of Wheat and Wheaten Flour (as wheat) imported into the United +Kingdom from various sources during the calendar year 1872, together +with the average rate of freight._ + + 1872. + + +-----------------------+-----------+---------------+------------+ + | | | Ocean Freight | | + | Countries of Origin. |Quantities.| to United | Total Cost | + | | Qrs. | Kingdom. |of Carriage.| + | | | Per qr. | | + +-----------------------+-----------+---------------+------------+ + | | | s. d. | L | + | South Russia | 3,678,000 | 8 6 | 1,563,000 | + | United States | 2,030,000 | 6 6 | 659,000 | + | Germany | 910,000 | 2 0 | 91,000 | + | France | 660,000 | 3 0 | 99,000 | + | Egypt | 536,000 | 4 6 | 120,000 | + | North Russia | 490,000 | 2 0 | 49,000 | + | Canada | 400,000 | 7 6 | 150,000 | + | Chile | 330,000 | 12 0 | 198,000 | + | Turkey | 195,000 | 7 6 | 72,000 | + | Spain | 130,000 | 3 6 | 23,000 | + | Scandinavia | 160,000 | 2 0 | 16,000 | + | +-----------+---------------+------------+ + | Total, Chief Countries| 9,519,000 |Average 6s. 5d.| L3,040,000 | + +-----------------------+-----------+---------------+------------+ + +_N.B._--A trifling quantity of Californian and Australian wheat was +imported in the period in question, but the Board of Trade records do +not distinguish the quantities, therefore they cannot be given. The +freight in that year from those countries averaged about 13s. per +quarter. + +The exact difference between the average freight for the years 1872 and +1900 amounts to about 2s. 11d. per quarter (480 lb.), a trifle in +comparison with the actual fall in the price of wheat during the same +years. + +The following data bearing upon the subject, for selected periods, are +partly taken from the _Corn Trade Year-Book_:-- + + +------+----------------+-------------+--------------+ + | | United Kingdom |Ocean Freight| | + | Year.| Annual Imports.| to United |Aggregate Cost| + | |Wheat and Flour.| Kingdom. | of Carriage. | + | | Qrs. | Per qr. | | + +------+----------------+-------------+--------------+ + | | | s. d. | L | + | 1872 | 9,469,000 | 6 5 | 3,040,000 | + | 1882 | 14,850,000 | 7 4 | 5,420,000 | + | 1894 | 16,229,000 | 3 9 | 3,041,000 | + | 1895 | 25,197,000 | 3 0 | 3,825,000 | + | 1896 | 23,431,000 | 2 9 | 3,258,000 | + | 1900 | 23,196,000 | 3 6 | 4,036,000 | + +------+----------------+-------------+--------------+ + +In passing, it may be pointed out that for a period of four years, from +1871 to 1874, the price of wheat averaged 56s. per quarter (or 7s. per +bushel), with the charge for ocean carriage at 6s. 5d. per quarter, +whereas in 1901 wheat was sold in England at 28s. (or 3s. 6d. per +bushel), and the charge for ocean carriage was 3s. 6d. per quarter; the +ocean transport companies carried eight bushels of wheat across the seas +in 1901 for the value of one bushel, or exactly at the same ratio as in +1872. + +The contrast between the case of railway freight and ocean freight is to +be explained by the greater length of the present ocean voyage, which +now extends to 10,000 miles in the case of Europe's importation of white +wheat from the Pacific Coast of the United States and Australia, in +contrast with the short voyage from the Black Sea or across the English +Channel or German Ocean. It is largely due to the overlooking of this +phase of the question that an American statistician has fallen into the +error of stating that about 16s. per quarter of the fall in the price of +wheat, which happened between 1880 and 1894, is attributable to the +lessened cost of transport. + + + WHEAT PRICES + + The following figures show the fluctuations from year to year of + English wheat, chiefly according to a record published by Mr T. Smith, + Melford, the period covered being from 1656 to 1905: + + _Price per Quarter_ + + +------+-------++------+-------++------+-------++------+-------++------+-------+ + | | s. d.|| | s. d.|| | s. d.|| | s. d.|| | s. d.| + | 1656 | 38 2 || 1706 | 23 1 || 1756 | 40 1 || 1806 | 79 1 || 1856 | 69 2 | + | 1657 | 41 5 || 1707 | 25 4 || 1757 | 53 4 || 1807 | 75 4 || 1857 | 56 4 | + | 1658 | 57 9 || 1708 | 36 10 || 1758 | 44 5 || 1808 | 84 4 || 1858 | 44 2 | + | 1659 | 58 8 || 1709 | 69 9 || 1759 | 35 3 || 1809 | 97 4 || 1859 | 43 9 | + | 1660 | 50 2 || 1710 | 69 4 || 1760 | 32 5 || 1810 |106 5 || 1860 | 53 3 | + | 1661 | 62 2 || 1711 | 48 0 || 1761 | 26 9 || 1811 | 95 3 || 1861 | 55 4 | + | 1662 | 65 9 || 1712 | 41 2 || 1762 | 34 8 || 1812 |126 6 || 1862 | 55 5 | + | 1663 | 50 8 || 1713 | 45 4 || 1763 | 36 1 || 1813 |109 9 || 1863 | 44 9 | + | 1664 | 36 0 || 1714 | 44 9 || 1764 | 41 5 || 1814 | 74 4 || 1864 | 40 2 | + | 1665 | 43 10 || 1715 | 38 2 || 1765 | 48 0 || 1815 | 65 7 || 1865 | 41 10 | + | 1666 | 32 0 || 1716 | 42 8 || 1766 | 43 1 || 1816 | 78 6 || 1866 | 49 11 | + | 1667 | 32 0 || 1717 | 40 7 || 1767 | 57 4 || 1817 | 96 11 || 1867 | 64 5 | + | 1668 | 35 6 || 1718 | 34 6 || 1768 | 53 9 || 1818 | 86 3 || 1868 | 63 9 | + | 1669 | 39 5 || 1719 | 31 1 || 1769 | 40 7 || 1819 | 74 6 || 1869 | 48 2 | + | 1670 | 37 0 || 1720 | 32 10 || 1770 | 43 6 || 1820 | 67 10 || 1870 | 46 11 | + | 1671 | 37 4 || 1721 | 33 4 || 1771 | 47 2 || 1821 | 56 1 || 1871 | 56 8 | + | 1672 | 36 5 || 1722 | 32 0 || 1772 | 50 8 || 1822 | 44 7 || 1872 | 57 0 | + | 1673 | 41 5 || 1723 | 30 10 || 1773 | 51 0 || 1823 | 53 4 || 1873 | 58 8 | + | 1674 | 61 0 || 1724 | 32 10 || 1774 | 52 8 || 1824 | 63 11 || 1874 | 55 9 | + | 1675 | 57 5 || 1725 | 43 1 || 1775 | 48 4 || 1825 | 68 6 || 1875 | 45 2 | + | 1676 | 33 9 || 1726 | 40 10 || 1776 | 38 2 || 1826 | 58 8 || 1876 | 46 2 | + | 1677 | 37 4 || 1727 | 37 4 || 1777 | 45 6 || 1827 | 60 6 || 1877 | 56 9 | + | 1678 | 52 5 || 1728 | 48 5 || 1778 | 42 0 || 1828 | 60 5 || 1878 | 46 5 | + | 1679 | 53 4 || 1729 | 41 7 || 1779 | 33 8 || 1829 | 66 3 || 1879 | 43 10 | + | 1680 | 40 0 || 1730 | 32 5 || 1780 | 35 8 || 1830 | 64 3 || 1880 | 44 4 | + | 1681 | 41 5 || 1731 | 29 2 || 1781 | 44 8 || 1831 | 66 4 || 1881 | 45 4 | + | 1682 | 39 1 || 1732 | 23 8 || 1782 | 47 10 || 1832 | 58 8 || 1882 | 45 1 | + | 1683 | 35 6 || 1733 | 25 2 || 1783 | 52 8 || 1833 | 52 11 || 1883 | 41 7 | + | 1684 | 39 1 || 1734 | 34 6 || 1784 | 48 10 || 1834 | 46 2 || 1884 | 35 8 | + | 1685 | 41 5 || 1735 | 38 2 || 1785 | 51 10 || 1835 | 49 4 || 1885 | 32 10 | + | 1686 | 30 2 || 1736 | 35 10 || 1786 | 38 10 || 1836 | 48 6 || 1886 | 31 0 | + | 1687 | 22 4 || 1737 | 33 9 || 1787 | 41 2 || 1837 | 55 0 || 1887 | 32 6 | + | 1688 | 40 10 || 1738 | 31 6 || 1788 | 45 0 || 1838 | 64 7 || 1888 | 31 10 | + | 1689 | 26 8 || 1739 | 34 2 || 1789 | 51 2 || 1839 | 70 8 || 1889 | 29 9 | + | 1690 | 30 9 || 1740 | 45 1 || 1790 | 54 9 || 1840 | 66 4 || 1890 | 31 11 | + | 1691 | 30 2 || 1741 | 41 5 || 1791 | 48 7 || 1841 | 64 4 || 1891 | 37 0 | + | 1692 | 41 5 || 1742 | 30 2 || 1792 | 43 0 || 1842 | 57 3 || 1892 | 30 3 | + | 1693 | 60 1 || 1743 | 22 1 || 1793 | 49 3 || 1843 | 50 1 || 1893 | 26 4 | + | 1694 | 56 10 || 1744 | 22 1 || 1794 | 52 3 || 1844 | 51 3 || 1894 | 22 10 | + | 1695 | 47 1 || 1745 | 24 5 || 1795 | 75 2 || 1845 | 50 10 || 1895 | 23 1 | + | 1696 | 63 1 || 1746 | 34 8 || 1796 | 78 7 || 1846 | 54 8 || 1896 | 26 2 | + | 1697 | 53 4 || 1747 | 30 11 || 1797 | 53 9 || 1847 | 69 9 || 1897 | 30 2 | + | 1698 | 60 9 || 1748 | 32 10 || 1798 | 51 10 || 1848 | 50 6 || 1898 | 34 0 | + | 1699 | 56 10 || 1749 | 32 10 || 1799 | 69 0 || 1849 | 44 3 || 1899 | 25 8 | + | 1700 | 35 6 || 1750 | 28 10 || 1800 |113 10 || 1850 | 40 3 || 1900 | 26 11 | + | 1701 | 33 5 || 1751 | 34 2 || 1801 |119 6 || 1851 | 38 6 || 1901 | 26 9 | + | 1702 | 26 2 || 1752 | 37 2 || 1802 | 69 10 || 1852 | 40 9 || 1902 | 28 1 | + | 1703 | 32 0 || 1753 | 39 8 || 1803 | 58 10 || 1853 | 53 3 || 1903 | 26 9 | + | 1704 | 41 4 || 1754 | 30 9 || 1804 | 62 3 || 1854 | 72 5 || 1904 | 28 4 | + | 1705 | 26 8 || 1755 | 30 1 || 1805 | 89 9 || 1855 | 74 8 || 1905 | 29 8 | + +------+-------++------+-------++------+-------++------+-------++------+-------+ + |Average || || || || | + | 50 42 10 || 36 0 || 51 9 || 65 10 || *42 7 | + | years || || || || | + +--------------++--------------++--------------++--------------++--------------+ + * Average for 46 years only. + +Thus, whatever the cause of the decline in the price of wheat may be, +it cannot be attributed solely to the fall in the rate of rail or ocean +freights. Incidental charges are lower than they were in 1870; handling +charges, brokers' commissions and insurance premiums have been in many +instances reduced, but all these economies when combined only amount to +about 2s. per quarter. Now if we add together all these savings in the +rate of rail and ocean freights and incidental expenses, we arrive at an +aggregate economy of 8s. per quarter, or not one-third of the actual +difference between the average price of wheat in 1872 and 1900. To what +the remaining difference was due it is difficult to say with certitude; +there are some who argue that the tendency of prices to fall is +inherent, and that the constant whittling away of intermediaries' +profits is sufficient explanation, while bi-metallists have maintained +that the phenomenon is clearly to be traced to the action of the German +government in demonetizing silver in 1872. + + + FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Valuable information will also be found in Bulletin No. 38 + (1905), "Crop Export Movement and Port Facilities on the Atlantic and + Gulf Coasts"; in Bulletin No. 49 (1907), "Cost of Hauling Crops from + Farms to Shipping Points"; and in Bulletin No. 69 (1908), "European + Grain Trade." + + + + +GRAM, or CHICK-PEA, called also Egyptian pea, or Bengal gram (from Port. +_grao_, formerly _gram_, Lat. _granum_, Hindi _Chana_, Bengali _Chhola_, +Ital. _cece_, Span. _garbanzo_), the _Cicer arietinum_ of Linnaeus, so +named from the resemblance of its seed to a ram's head. It is a member +of the natural order Leguminosae, largely cultivated as a pulse-food in +the south of Europe, Egypt and western Asia as far as India, but is not +known undoubtedly wild. The plant is an annual herb with flexuose +branches, and alternately arranged pinnately compound leaves, with +small, oval, serrated leaflets and small eared stipules. The flowers are +borne singly in the leaf-axils on a stalk about half the length of the +leaf and jointed and bent in the middle; the corolla is blue-purple. The +inflated pod, 1 to 1-1/2 in. long, contains two roundish seeds. It was +cultivated by the Greeks in Homer's time under the name _erebinthos_, +and is also referred to by Dioscorides as _krios_ from the resemblance +of the pea to the head of a ram. The Romans called it _cicer_, from +which is derived the modern names given to it in the south of Europe. +Names, more or less allied to one another, are in vogue among the +peoples of the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea, Armenia and Persia, and there +is a Sanskrit name and several others analogous or different in modern +Indian languages. The plant has been cultivated in Egypt from the +beginning of the Christian era, but there is no proof that it was known +to the ancient Egyptians. Alphonse de Candolle (_Origin of Cultivated +Plants_, p. 325) suggests that the plant originally grew wild in the +countries to the south of the Caucasus and to the north of Persia. "The +western Aryans (Pelasgians, Hellenes) perhaps introduced the plant into +southern Europe, where, however, there is some probability that it was +also indigenous. The western Aryans carried it to India." Gram is +largely cultivated in the East, where the seeds are eaten raw or cooked +in various ways, both in their ripe and unripe condition, and when +roasted and ground subserve the same purposes as ordinary flour. In +Europe the seeds are used as an ingredient in soups. They contain, in +100 parts without husks, nitrogenous substances 22.7, fat 3.76, starch +63.18, mineral matters 2.6 parts, with water (Forbes Watson, quoted in +Parkes's _Hygiene_). The liquid which exudes from the glandular hairs +clothing the leaves and stems of the plant, more especially during the +cold season when the seeds ripen, contains a notable proportion of +oxalic acid. In Mysore the dew containing it is collected by means of +cloths spread on the plant over night, and is used in domestic medicine. +The steam of water in which the fresh plant is immersed is in the Deccan +resorted to by the Portuguese for the treatment of dysmenorrhoea. The +seed of _Phaseolus Mungo_, or green gram (Hind. and Beng. _moong_), a +form of which plant with black seeds (_P. Max_ of Roxburgh) is termed +black gram, is an important article of diet among the labouring classes +in India. The meal is an excellent substitute for soap, and is stated by +Elliot to be an invariable concomitant of the Hindu bath. A variety, +var. _radiatus_ (_P. Roxburghii_, W. and Arn., or _P. radiatus_, Roxb.) +(vern. _urid_, _mashkalai_), also known as green gram, is perhaps the +most esteemed of the leguminous plants of India, where the meal of its +seed enters into the composition of the more delicate cakes and dishes. +Horse gram, _Dolichos biflorus_ (vern. _kulthi_), which supplies in +Madras the place of the chick-pea, affords seed which, when boiled, is +extensively employed as a food for horses and cattle in South India, +where also it is eaten in curries. + + See W. Elliot, "On the Farinaceous Grains and the various kinds of + Pulses used in Southern India," _Edin. New Phil. Journ._ xvi. (1862) + 16 sq.; H. Drury, _The Useful Plants of India_ (1873); U. C. Dutt, + _Materia Medica of the Hindus_ (Calcutta, 1877); G. Watt, _Dictionary + of the Economic Products of India_ (1890). + + + + +GRAMMAR (from Lat. _grammatica_, sc. _ars_; Gr. [Greek: gramma], letter, +from [Greek: graphein], to write). By the grammar of a language is meant +either the relations borne by the words of a sentence and by sentences +themselves one to another, or the systematized exposition of these. The +exposition may be, and frequently is, incorrect; but it always +presupposes the existence of certain customary uses of words when in +combination. In what follows, therefore, grammar will be generally +employed in its primary sense, as denoting the mode in which words are +connected in order to express a complete thought, or, as it is termed in +logic, a proposition. + + + Scope of grammar. + +The object of language is to convey thought, and so long as this object +is attained the machinery for attaining it is of comparatively slight +importance. The way in which we combine our words and sentences matters +little, provided that our meaning is clear to others. The expressions +"horseflesh" and "flesh of a horse" are equally intelligible to an +Englishman and therefore are equally recognized by English grammar. The +Chinese manner of denoting a genitive is by placing the defining word +before that which it defines, as in _koue jin_, "man of the kingdom," +literally "kingdom man," and the only reason why it would be incorrect +in French or Italian is that such a combination would be unintelligible +to a Frenchman or an Italian. Hence it is evident that the grammatical +correctness or incorrectness of an expression depends upon its +intelligibility, that is to say, upon the ordinary use and custom of a +particular language. Whatever is so unfamiliar as not to be generally +understood is also ungrammatical. In other words, it is contrary to the +habit of a language, as determined by common usage and consent. + +In this way we can explain how it happens that the grammar of a +cultivated dialect and that of a local dialect in the same country so +frequently disagree. Thus, in the dialect of West Somerset, _thee_ is +the nominative of the second personal pronoun, while in cultivated +English the plural accusative _you_ (A.-S. _eow_) has come to represent +a nominative singular. Both are grammatically correct within the sphere +of their respective dialects, but no further. _You_ would be as +ungrammatical in West Somerset as _thee_ is in classical English; and +both _you_ and _thee_, as nominatives singular, would have been equally +ungrammatical in Early English. Grammatical propriety is nothing more +than the established usage of a particular body of speakers at a +particular time in their history. + +It follows from this that the grammar of a people changes, like its +pronunciation, from age to age. Anglo-Saxon or Early English grammar is +not the grammar of Modern English, any more than Latin grammar is the +grammar of modern Italian; and to defend an unusual construction or +inflexion on the ground that it once existed in literary Anglo-Saxon is +as wrong as to import a peculiarity of some local dialect into the +grammar of the cultivated speech. It further follows that different +languages will have different grammars, and that the differences will be +more or less according to the nearer or remoter relationship of the +languages themselves and the modes of thought of those who speak them. +Consequently, to force the grammatical framework of one language upon +another is to misconceive the whole nature of the latter and seriously +to mislead the learner. Chinese grammar, for instance, can never be +understood until we discard, not only the terminology of European +grammar, but the very conceptions which underlie it, while the +polysynthetic idioms of America defy all attempts to discover in them +"the parts of speech" and the various grammatical ideas which occupy so +large a place in our school-grammars. The endeavour to find the +distinctions of Latin grammar in that of English has only resulted in +grotesque errors, and a total misapprehension of the usage of the +English language. + + + Subdivision of grammar. + +It is to the Latin grammarians--or, more correctly, to the Greek +grammarians, upon whose labours those of the Latin writers were +based--that we owe the classification of the subjects with which grammar +is commonly supposed to deal. The grammar of Dionysius Thrax, which he +wrote for Roman schoolboys in the time of Pompey, has formed the +starting-point for the innumerable school-grammars which have since seen +the light, and suggested that division of the matter treated of which +they have followed. He defines grammar as a practical acquaintance with +the language of literary men, and as divided into six parts--accentuation +and phonology, explanation of figurative expressions, definition, +etymology, general rules of flexion and critical canons. Of these, +phonology and accentuation, or prosody, can properly be included in +grammar only in so far as the construction of a sentence and the +grammatical meaning of a word are determined by accent or letter-change; +the accentual difference in English, for example, between _incense_ and +_incense_ belongs to the province of grammar, since it indicates a +difference between noun and verb; and the changes of vowel in the Semitic +languages, by which various nominal and verbal forms are distinguished +from one another, constitute a very important part of their grammatical +machinery. But where accent and pronunciation do not serve to express the +relations of words in a sentence, they fall into the domain of phonology, +not of grammar. The explanation of figurative expressions, again, must be +left to the rhetorician, and definition to the lexicographer; the +grammarian has no more to do with them than he has with the canons of +criticism. + +In fact, the old subdivision of grammar, inherited from the grammarians +of Rome and Alexandria, must be given up and a new one put in its place. +What grammar really deals with are all those contrivances whereby the +relations of words and sentences are pointed out. Sometimes it is +position, sometimes phonetic symbolization, sometimes composition, +sometimes flexion, sometimes the use of auxiliaries, which enables the +speaker to combine his words in such a way that they shall be +intelligible to another. Grammar may accordingly be divided into the +three departments of composition or "word-building," syntax and +accidence, by which is meant an exposition of the means adopted by +language for expressing the relations of grammar when recourse is not +had to composition or simple position. + + + Modes of treatment. + +A systematized exposition of grammar may be intended for the purely +practical purpose of teaching the mechanism of a foreign language. In +this case all that is necessary is a correct and complete statement of +the facts. But a correct and complete statement of the facts is by no +means so easy a matter as might appear at first sight. The facts will be +distorted by a false theory in regard to them, while they will certainly +not be presented in a complete form if the grammarian is ignorant of the +true theory they presuppose. The Semitic verb, for example, remains +unintelligible so long as the explanation of its forms is sought in the +conjugation of the Aryan verb, since it has no tenses in the Aryan sense +of the word, but denotes relation and not time. + +A good practical grammar of a language, therefore, should be based on a +correct appreciation of the facts which it expounds, and a correct +appreciation of the facts is only possible where they are examined and +co-ordinated in accordance with the scientific method. A practical +grammar ought, wherever it is possible, to be preceded by a scientific +grammar. + +Comparison is the instrument with which science works, and a scientific +grammar, accordingly, is one in which the comparative method has been +applied to the relations of speech. If we would understand the origin +and real nature of grammatical forms, and of the relations which they +represent, we must compare them with similar forms in kindred dialects +and languages, as well as with the forms under which they appeared +themselves at an earlier period of their history. We shall thus have a +comparative grammar and an historical grammar, the latter being devoted +to tracing the history of grammatical forms and usages in the same +language. Of course, an historical grammar is only possible where a +succession of written records exists; where a language possesses no +older literature we must be content with a comparative grammar only, and +look to cognate idioms to throw light upon its grammatical +peculiarities. In this case we have frequently to leave whole forms +unexplained, or at most conjecturally interpreted, since the machinery +by means of which the relations of grammar are symbolized is often +changed so completely during the growth of a language as to cause its +earlier shape and character to be unrecognizable. Moreover, our area of +comparison must be as wide as possible; where we have but two or three +languages to compare, we are in danger of building up conclusions on +insufficient evidence. The grammatical errors of the classical +philologists of the 18th century were in great measure due to the fact +that their area of comparison was confined to Latin and Greek. + +The historical grammar of a single language or dialect, which traces the +grammatical forms and usages of the language as far back as documentary +evidence allows, affords material to the comparative grammarian, whose +task it is to compare the grammatical forms and usages of an allied +group of tongues and thereby reduce them to their earliest forms and +senses. The work thus carried out by the comparative grammarian within a +particular family of languages is made use of by universal grammar, the +object of which is to determine the ideas that underlie all grammar +whatsoever, as distinct from those that are peculiar to special families +of speech. Universal grammar is sometimes known as "the metaphysics of +language," and it has to decide such questions as the nature of gender +or of the verb, the true purport of the genitive relation, or the origin +of grammar itself. Such questions, it is clear, can only be answered by +comparing the results gained by the comparative treatment of the +grammars of various groups of language. What historical grammar is to +comparative grammar, comparative grammar is to universal grammar. + + + Universal grammar. + +Universal grammar, as founded on the results of the scientific study of +speech, is thus essentially different from that "universal grammar" so +much in vogue at the beginning of the 19th century, which consisted of a +series of a priori assumptions based on the peculiarities of European +grammar and illustrated from the same source. But universal grammar, as +conceived by modern science, is as yet in its infancy; its materials are +still in the process of being collected. The comparative grammar of the +Indo-European languages is alone in an advanced state, those of the +Semitic idioms, of the Finno-Ugrian tongues and of the Bantu dialects of +southern Africa are still in a backward condition; and the other +families of speech existing in the world, with the exception of the +Malayo-Polynesian and the Sonorian of North America, have not as yet +been treated scientifically. Chinese, it is true, possesses an +historical grammar, and Van Eys, in his comparative grammar of Basque, +endeavoured to solve the problems of that interesting language by a +comparison of its various dialects; but in both cases the area of +comparison is too small for more than a limited success to be +attainable. Instead of attempting the questions of universal grammar, +therefore, it will be better to confine our attention to three +points--the fundamental differences in the grammatical conceptions of +different groups of languages, the main results of a scientific +investigation of Indo-European grammar, and the light thrown by +comparative philology upon the grammar of our own tongue. + + + Differences in grammar of unallied languages. + +The proposition or sentence is the unit and starting-point of speech, +and grammar, as we have seen, consists in the relations of its several +parts one to another, together with the expression of them. These +relations may be regarded from various points of view. In the +polysynthetic languages of America the sentence is conceived as a whole, +not composed of independent words, but, like the thought which it +expresses, one and indivisible. What we should denote by a series of +words is consequently denoted by a single long compound--_kuligatchis_ +in Delaware, for instance, signifying "give me your pretty little paw," +and _aglekkigiartorasuarnipok_ in Eskimo, "he goes away hastily and +exerts himself to write." Individual words can be, and often are, +extracted from the sentence; but in this case they stand, as it were, +outside it, being represented by a pronoun within the sentence itself. +Thus, in Mexican, we can say not only _ni-sotsi-temoa_, "I look for +flowers," but also _ni-k-temoa sotsitl_, where the interpolated guttural +is the objective pronoun. As a necessary result of this conception of +the sentence the American languages possess no true verb, each act being +expressed as a whole by a single word. In Cherokee, for example, while +there is no verb signifying "to wash" in the abstract, no less than +thirteen words are used to signify every conceivable mode and object of +washing. In the incorporating languages, again, of which Basque may be +taken as a type, the object cannot be conceived except as contained in +the verbal action. Hence every verbal form embodies an objective +pronoun, even though the object may be separately expressed. If we pass +to an isolating language like Chinese, we find the exact converse of +that which meets us in the polysynthetic tongues. Here each proposition +or thought is analysed into its several elements, and these are set over +against one another as so many independent words. The relations of +grammar are consequently denoted by position, the particular position of +two or more words determining the relation they bear to each other. The +analysis of the sentence has not been carried so far in agglutinative +languages like Turkish. In these the relations of grammar are +represented by individual words, which, however, are subordinated to the +words expressing the main ideas intended to be in relation to one +another. The defining words, or indices of grammatical relations, are, +in a large number of instances, placed after the words which they +define; in some cases, however, as, for example, in the Bantu languages +of southern Africa, the relation is conceived from the opposite point of +view, the defining words being prefixed. The inflexional languages call +in the aid of a new principle. The relations of grammar are denoted +symbolically either by a change of vowel or by a change of termination, +more rarely by a change at the beginning of a word. Each idea, together +with the relation which it bears to the other ideas of a proposition, is +thus represented by a single word; that is to say, the ideas which make +up the elements of a sentence are not conceived severally and +independently, as in Chinese, but as always having a certain connexion +with one another. Inflexional languages, however, tend to become +analytical by the logical separation of the flexion from the idea to +which it is attached, though the primitive point of view is never +altogether discarded, and traces of flexion remain even in English and +Persian. In fact, there is no example of a language which has wholly +forsaken the conception of the sentence and the relation of its elements +with which it started, although each class of languages occasionally +trespasses on the grammatical usages of the others. In language, as +elsewhere in nature, there are no sharp lines of division, no sudden +leaps; species passes insensibly into species, class into class. At the +same time the several types of speech--polysynthetic, isolating, +agglutinative and inflexional--remain clear and fixed; and even where +two languages belong to the same general type, as, for instance, an +Indo-European and a Semitic language in the inflexional group, or a +Bantu and a Turkish language in the agglutinative group, we find no +certain example of grammatical interchange. A mixed grammar, in which +the grammatical procedure of two distinct families of speech is +intermingled, is almost, if not altogether, unknown. + +It is obvious, therefore, that grammar constitutes the surest and most +important basis for a classification of languages. Words may be borrowed +freely by one dialect from another, or, though originally unrelated, +may, by the action of phonetic decay, come to assume the same forms, +while the limited number of articulate sounds and conceptions out of +which language was first developed, and the similarity of the +circumstances by which the first speakers were everywhere surrounded, +naturally produce a resemblance between the roots of many unconnected +tongues. Where, however, the fundamental conceptions of grammar and the +machinery by which they are expressed are the same, we may have no +hesitation in inferring a common origin. + + + Forms of Indo-European grammar. + +The main results of scientific inquiry into the origin and primitive +meaning of the forms of Indo-European grammar may be summed up as +follows. We start with stems or themes, by which are meant words of two +or more syllables which terminate in a limited number of sounds. These +stems can be classed in groups of two kinds, one in which the groups +consist of stems of similar meanings and similar initial syllables, and +another in which the final syllables alone coincide. In the first case +we have what are termed roots, the simplest elements into which words +can be decomposed; in the second case stems proper, which may be +described as consisting of suffixes attached to roots. Roots, therefore, +are merely the materials out of which speech can be made, the +embodiments of isolated conceptions with which the lexicographer alone +has to deal, whereas stems present us with words already combined in a +sentence and embodying the relations of grammar. If we would rightly +understand primitive Indo-European grammar, we must conceive it as +having been expressed or implied in the suffixes of the stems, and in +the order according to which the stems were arranged in a sentence. In +other words, the relations of grammar were denoted partly by +juxtaposition or syntax, partly by the suffixes of stems. + +These suffixes were probably at first unmeaning, or rather clothed with +vague significations, which changed according to the place occupied in +the sentence by the stem to which they were joined. Gradually this +vagueness of signification disappeared, and particular suffixes came to +be set apart to represent particular relations of grammar. What had +hitherto been expressed by mere position now attached itself to the +terminations or suffixes of stems, which accordingly became full-grown +words. Some of the suffixes denoted purely grammatical ideas, that is to +say, were flexions; others were classificatory, serving to distinguish +nouns from verbs, presents from aorists, objects from agents and the +like; while others, again, remained unmeaning adjuncts of the root. This +origin of the flexions explains the otherwise strange fact that the same +suffix may symbolize wholly different grammatical relations. In Latin, +for instance, the context and dictionary will alone tell us that +_mus-as_ is the accusative plural of a noun, and _am-as_ the second +person singular of a verb, or that _mus-a_ is the nominative singular of +a feminine substantive, _bon-a_ the accusative plural of a neuter +adjective. In short, the flexions were originally merely the +terminations of stems which were adapted to express the various +relations of words to each other in a sentence, as these gradually +presented themselves to the consciousness and were extracted from what +had been previously implied by position. Necessarily, the same suffix +might be used sometimes in a classificatory, sometimes in a flexional +sense, and sometimes without any definite sense at all. In the Greek +dative-locative [Greek: pod-es-si], for example, the suffix [Greek: -es] +is classificatory; in the nominative [Greek: pod-es] it is flexional. + +When a particular termination or suffix once acquired a special sense, +it would be separated in thought from the stem to which it belonged, and +attached in the same sense to other stems and other terminations. Thus +in modern English we can attach the suffix -ize to almost any word +whatsoever, in order to give the latter a transitive meaning, and the +Gr. [Greek: podessi], quoted above, really contains no less than three +suffixes, [Greek: -es], [Greek: -su] and [Greek: -i], the last two both +denoting the locative, and coalescing, through [Greek: swi], into a +single syllable [Greek: -si]. The latter instance shows us how two or +more suffixes denoting exactly the same idea may be tacked on one to +another, if the original force and signification of the first of them +comes to be forgotten. Thus, in O. Eng. _sang-estre_ was the feminine of +_sang-ere_, "singer," but the meaning of the termination has so entirely +died out of the memory that we have to add the Romanic _-ess_ to it if +we would still distinguish it from the masculine _singer_. A familiar +example of the way in which the full sense of the exponent of a +grammatical idea fades from the mind and has to be supplied by a new +exponent is afforded by the use of expletives in conversational English +to denote the superlative. "Very warm" expresses little more than the +positive, and to represent the intensity of his feelings the Englishman +has recourse to such expressions as "awfully warm" like the Ger. +"schrecklich warm." + +Such words as "very," "awfully," "schrecklich," illustrate a second mode +in which Indo-European grammar has found means of expression. Words may +lose their true signification and become the mere exponents of +grammatical ideas. Professor Earle divides all words into _presentive_ +and _symbolic_, the former denoting objects and conceptions, the latter +the relations which exist between these. Symbolic words, therefore, are +what the Chinese grammarians call "empty words"--words, that is, which +have been divested of their proper signification and serve a grammatical +purpose only. Many of the classificatory and some of the flexional +suffixes of Indo-European speech can be shown to have had this origin. +Thus the suffix _tar_, which denotes names of kinship and agency, seems +to come from the same root as the Lat. _terminus_ and _trans_, our +_through_, the Sans. _tar-ami_, "I pass over," and to have primarily +signified "one that goes through" a thing. Thus, too, the Eng. _head_ or +_hood_, in words like _godhead_ and _brotherhood_, is the A.-S. _had_, +"character" or "rank"; _dom_, in kingdom, the A.-S. _dom_, "judgment"; +and _lock_ or _ledge_, in _wedlock_ and _knowledge_, the A.-S. _lac_, +"sport" or "gift." In all these cases the "empty words," after first +losing every trace of their original significance, have followed the +general analogy of the language and assumed the form and functions of +the suffixes with which they had been confused. + +A third mode of representing the relations of grammar is by the symbolic +use of vowels and diphthongs. In Greek, for instance, the distinction +between the reduplicated present [Greek: didomi] and the reduplicated +perfect [Greek: dedoka] is indicated by a distinction of vowel, and in +primitive Aryan grammar the vowel _a_ seems to have been set apart to +denote the subjunctive mood just as _ya_ or _i_ was set apart to denote +the potential. So, too, according to M. Hovelacque, the change of _a_ +into _i_ or _u_ in the parent Indo-European symbolized a change of +meaning from passive to active. This symbolic use of the vowels, which +is the purest application of the principle of flexion, is far less +extensively carried out in the Indo-European than in the Semitic +languages. The Semitic family of speech is therefore a much more +characteristic type of the inflexional languages than is the +Indo-European. + +The primitive Indo-European noun possessed at least eight +cases--nominative, accusative, vocative, instrumental, dative, genitive, +ablative and locative. M. Bergaigne has attempted to show that the first +three of these, the "strong cases" as they are termed, are really +abstracts formed by the suffixes _-as_ (_-s_), _-an, -m, -t, -i, -a_ and +_-ya_ (_-i_), the plural being nothing more than an abstract singular, +as may be readily seen by comparing words like the Gr. [Greek: epo-s], +and [Greek: ope-s], which mean precisely the same. The remaining "weak" +cases, formed by the suffixes _-sma, -sya, -sya, -ya, -i, -an, -t, -bhi, +-su, -i, -a_ and _-a_, are really adjectives and adverbs. No +distinction, for example, can be drawn between "a cup of gold" and "a +golden cup," and the instrumental, the dative, the ablative and the +locative are, when closely examined, merely adverbs attached to a verb. +The terminations of the strong cases do not displace the accent of the +stem to which they are suffixed; the suffixes of the weak cases, on the +other hand, generally draw the accent upon themselves. + +According to Hubschmann, the nominative, accusative and genitive cases +are purely grammatical, distinguished from one another through the +exigencies of the sentence only, whereas the locative, ablative and +instrumental have a logical origin and determine the logical relation +which the three other cases bear to each other and the verb. The nature +of the dative is left undecided. The locative primarily denotes rest in +a place, the ablative motion from a place, and the instrumental the +means or concomitance of an action. The dative Hubschmann regards as +"the case of the participant object." Like Hubschmann, Holzweissig +divides the cases into two classes--the one grammatical and the other +logical; and his analysis of their primitive meaning is the same as that +of Hubschmann, except as regards the dative, the primary sense of which +he thinks to have been motion towards a place. This is also the view of +Delbruck, who makes it denote tendency towards an object. Delbruck, +however, holds that the primary sense of the ablative was that of +separation, the instrumental originally indicating concomitance, while +there was a double locative, one used like the ablative absolute in +Latin, the other being a locative of the object. + +The dual was older than the plural, and after the development of the +latter survived as a merely useless encumbrance, of which most of the +Indo-European languages contrived in time to get rid. There are still +many savage idioms in which the conception of plurality has not advanced +beyond that of duality. In the Bushman dialects, for instance, the +plural, or rather that which is more than one, is expressed by repeating +the word; thus _tu_ is "mouth," _tutu_ "mouths." It may be shown that +most of the suffixes of the Indo-European dual are the longer and more +primitive forms of those of the plural which have grown out of them by +the help of phonetic decay. The plural of the weak cases, on the other +hand (the accusative alone excepted), was identical with the singular of +abstract nouns; so far as both form and meaning are concerned, no +distinction can be drawn between [Greek: opes] and [Greek: epos]. +Similarly, _humanity_ and _men_ signify one and the same thing, and the +use of English words like _sheep_ or _fish_ for both singular and plural +shows to what an extent our appreciation of number is determined by the +context rather than by the form of the noun. The so-called "broken +plurals" of Arabic and Ethiopic are really singular collectives employed +to denote the plural. + +Gender is the product partly of analogy, partly of phonetic decay. In +many languages, such as Eskimo and Choctaw, its place is taken by a +division of objects into animate and inanimate, while in other languages +they are separated into rational and irrational. There are many +indications that the parent Indo-European in an early stage of its +existence had no signs of gender at all. The terminations of the names +of _father_ and _mother_, _pater_ and _mater_, for example, are exactly +the same, and in Latin and Greek many diphthongal stems, as well as +stems in _i_ or _ya_ and u (like [Greek: naus] and [Greek: nekus], +[Greek: polis] and [Greek: lis]), may be indifferently masculine and +feminine. Even stems in _o_ and _a_ (of the second and first +declensions), though the first are generally masculine and the second +generally feminine, by no means invariably maintain the rule; and +feminines like _humus_ and [Greek: hodos], or masculines like _advena_ +and [Greek: polites], show that there was a time when these stems also +indicated no particular gender, but owed their subsequent adaptation, +the one to mark the masculine and the other to mark the feminine, to the +influence of analogy. The idea of gender was first suggested by the +difference between man and woman, male and female, and, as in so many +languages at the present day, was represented not by any outward sign +but by the meaning of the words themselves. When once arrived at, the +conception of gender was extended to other objects besides those to +which it properly belonged. The primitive Indo-European did not +distinguish between subject and object, but personified objects by +ascribing to them the motives and powers of living beings. Accordingly +they were referred to by different pronouns, one class denoting the +masculine and another class the feminine, and the distinction that +existed between these two classes of pronouns was after a time +transferred to the nouns. As soon as the preponderant number of stems in +_o_ in daily use had come to be regarded as masculine on account of +their meaning, other stems in _o_, whatever might be their +signification, were made to follow the general analogy and were +similarly classed as masculines. In the same way, the suffix _i_ or _ya_ +acquired a feminine sense, and was set apart to represent the feminine +gender. Unlike the Semites, the Indo-Europeans were not satisfied with +these two genders, masculine and feminine. As soon as object and +subject, patient and agent, were clearly distinguished from each other, +there arose a need for a third gender, which should be neither masculine +nor feminine, but denote things without life. This third gender was +fittingly expressed either by the objective case used as a nominative +(e.g. _regnum_), or by a stem without any case ending at all (e.g. +_virus_). + +The adverbial meaning of so many of the cases explains the readiness +with which they became crystallized into adverbs and prepositions. An +adverb is the attribute of an attribute--"the rose smells sweetly," for +example, being resolvable into "the rose has the attribute of scent with +the further attribute of sweetness." In our own language _once_, +_twice_, _needs_, are all genitives; _seldom_ is a dative. The Latin and +Greek _humi_ and [Greek: chamai] are locatives, _facillime_ +(_facillumed_) and [Greek: eutychos] ablatives, [Greek: pante] and +[Greek: hama] instrumentals, [Greek: paros], [Greek: hexes] and [Greek: +telou] genitives. The frequency with which particular cases of +particular nouns were used in a specifically attributive sense caused +them to become, as it were, petrified, the other cases of the nouns in +question passing out of use, and the original force of those that were +retained being gradually forgotten. Prepositions are adverbs employed to +define nouns instead of verbs and adjectives. Their appearance in the +Indo-European languages is comparatively late, and the Homeric poems +allow us to trace their growth in Greek. The adverb, originally intended +to define the verb, came to be construed with the noun, and the +government of the case with which it was construed was accordingly +transferred from the verb to the noun. Thus when we read in the +_Odyssey_(iv. 43), [Greek: autous d eisegon theion domon], we see that +[Greek: eis] is still an adverb, and that the accusative is governed by +the verb; it is quite otherwise, however, with a line like [Greek: +Atreides de gerontas aolleas egen Achaion es klisien] (Il. i. 89) where +the adverb has passed into a preposition. The same process of +transformation is still going on in English, where we can say +indifferently, "What are you looking at?" using "at" as an adverb, and +governing the pronoun by the verb, and "At what are you looking?" where +"at" has become a preposition. With the growth and increase of +prepositions the need of the case-endings diminished, and in some +languages the latter disappeared altogether. + +Like prepositions, conjunctions also are primarily adverbs used in a +demonstrative and relative sense. Hence most of the conjunctions are +petrified cases of pronouns. The relation between two sentences was +originally expressed by simply setting them side by side, afterwards by +employing a demonstrative at the beginning of the second clause to refer +to the whole preceding one. The relative pronoun can be shown to have +been in the first instance a demonstrative; indeed, we can still use +_that_ in English in a relative sense. Since the demonstrative at the +beginning of the second clause represented the first clause, and was +consequently an attribute of the second, it had to stand in some case, +and this case became a conjunction. How closely allied the adverb and +the conjunction are may be seen from Greek and Latin, where [Greek: hos] +or _quum_ can be used as either the one or the other. Our own _and_, it +may be observed, has probably the same root as the Greek locative adverb +[Greek: eti], and originally signified "going further." + +Another form of adverb is the infinitive, the adverbial force of which +appears clearly in such a phrase as "A wonderful thing to see." Various +cases, such as the locative, the dative or the instrumental, are +employed in Vedic Sanskrit in the sense of the infinitive, besides the +bare stem or neuter formed by the suffixes _man_ and _van_. In Greek the +neuter stem and the dative case were alone retained for the purpose. The +first is found in infinitives like [Greek: domen] and [Greek: ferein] +(for an earlier [Greek: fere-wen]), the second in the infinitives in +[Greek: -ai]. Thus the Gr. [Greek: dounai] answers letter for letter to +the Vedic dative _davane_, "to give," and the form [Greek: pseudesthai] +is explained by the Vedic _vayodhai_, for _vayas-dhai_, literally "to do +living," _dhai_ being the dative of a noun from the root _dha_, "to +place" or "do." When the form [Greek: pseudesthai] had once come into +existence, analogy was ready to create such false imitations as [Greek: +grapsasthai] or [Greek: graphthesesthai]. The Latin infinitive in _-re_ +for _-se_ has the same origin, _amare_, for instance, being the dative +of an old stem _amas_. In _fieri_ for _fierei_ or _fiesei_, from the +same root as our English _be_, the original length of the final syllable +is preserved. The suffix in _-um_ is an accusative, like the +corresponding infinitive of classical Sanskrit. This origin of the +infinitive explains the Latin construction of the accusative and +infinitive. When the Roman said, "Miror te ad me nihil scribere," all +that he meant at first was, "I wonder at you for writing nothing to me," +where the infinitive was merely a dative case used adverbially. + +The history of the infinitive makes it clear how little distinction must +have been felt at the outset between the noun and the verb. Indeed, the +growth of the verb was a slow process. There was a time in the history +of Indo-European speech when it had not as yet risen to the +consciousness of the speaker, and in the period when the noun did not +possess a plural there was as yet also no verb. The attachment of the +first and second personal pronouns, or of suffixes resembling them, to +certain stems, was the first stage in the development of the latter. +Like the Semitic verb, the Indo-European verb seems primarily to have +denoted relation only, and to have been attached as an attribute to the +subject. The idea of time, however, was soon put into it, and two tenses +were created, the one expressing a present or continuous action, the +other an aoristic or momentary one. The distinction of sense was +symbolized by a distinction of pronunciation, the root-syllable of the +aorist being an abbreviated form of that of the present. This +abbreviation was due to a change in the position of the accent (which +was shifted from the stem-syllable to the termination), and this change +again was probably occasioned by the prefixing of the so-called augment +to the aorist, which survived into historical times only in Sanskrit, +Zend and Greek, and the origin of which is still a mystery. The weight +of the first syllable in the aorist further caused the person-endings to +be shortened, and so two sets of person-endings, usually termed primary +and secondary, sprang into existence. By reduplicating the root-syllable +of the present tense a perfect was formed; but originally no distinction +was made between present and perfect, and Greek verbs like [Greek: +didomi] and [Greek: heko] are memorials of a time when the difference +between "I am come" and "I have come" was not yet felt. Reduplication +was further adapted to the expression of intensity and desire (in the +so-called intensive and desiderative forms). By the side of the aorist +stood the imperfect, which differed from the aorist, so far as outward +form was concerned, only in possessing the longer and more original stem +of the present. Indeed, as Benfey first saw, the aorist itself was +primitively an imperfect, and the distinction between aorist and +imperfect is not older than the period when the stem-syllables of +certain imperfects were shortened through the influence of the accent, +and this differentiation of forms appropriated to denote a difference +between the sense of the aorist and the imperfect which was beginning to +be felt. After the analogy of the imperfect, a pluperfect was created +out of the perfect by prefixing the augment (of which the Greek [Greek: +ememekon] is an illustration); though the pluperfect, too, was +originally an imperfect formed from the reduplicated present. + +Besides time, mood was also expressed by the primitive Indo-European +verb, recourse being had to symbolization for the purpose. The +imperative was represented by the bare stem, like the vocative, the +accent being drawn back to the first syllable, though other modes of +denoting it soon came into vogue. Possibility was symbolized by the +attachment of the suffix _-ya_ to the stem, probability by the +attachment of _-a_ and _-a_, and in this way the optative and +conjunctive moods first arose. The creation of a future by the help of +the suffix _-sya_ seems to belong to the same period in the history of +the verb. This suffix is probably identical with that used to form a +large class of adjectives and genitives (like the Greek [Greek: hippoio] +for [Greek: hipposio]); in this case future time will have been regarded +as an attribute of the subject, no distinction being drawn, for +instance, between "rising sun" and "the sun will rise." It is possible, +however, that the auxiliary verb _as_, "to be," enters into the +composition of the future; if so, the future will be the product of the +second stage in the development of the Indo-European verb when new forms +were created by means of composition. The sigmatic or first aorist is in +favour of this view, as it certainly belongs to the age of Indo-European +unity, and may be a compound of the verbal stem with the auxiliary _as_. + +After the separation of the Indo-European languages, composition was +largely employed in the formation of new tenses. Thus in Latin we have +perfects like _scrip-si_ and _ama-vi_, formed by the help of the +auxiliaries _as (sum)_ and _fuo_, while such forms as _amaveram +(amavi-eram)_ or _amarem (ama-sem)_ bear their origin on their face. So, +too, the future in Latin and Old Celtic (_amabo_, Irish _carub_) is +based upon the substantive verb _fuo_, "to be," and the English +preterite in _-ed_ goes back to a suffixed _did_, the reduplicated +perfect of _do_. New tenses and moods, however, were created by the aid +of suffixes as well as by the aid of composition, or rather were formed +from nouns whose stems terminated in the suffixes in question. Thus in +Greek we have aorists and perfects in [Greek: -ka], and the +characteristics of the two passive aorists, _ye_ and _the_, are more +probably the suffixes of nominal stems than the roots of the two verbs +_ya_, "to go," and _dha_, "to place," as Bopp supposed. How late some of +these new formations were may be seen in Greek, where the Homeric poems +are still ignorant of the weak future passive, the optative future, and +the aspirated perfect, and where the strong future passive occurs but +once and the desiderative but twice. On the other hand, many of the +older tenses were disused and lost. In classical Sanskrit, for instance, +of the modal aorist forms the precative and benedictive almost alone +remain, while the pluperfect, of which Delbruck has found traces in the +Veda, has wholly disappeared. + +The passive voice did not exist in the parent Indo-European speech. No +need for it had arisen, since such a sentence as "I am pleased" could be +as well represented by "This pleases me," or "I please myself." It was +long before the speaker was able to imagine an action without an object, +and when he did so, it was a neuter or substantival rather than a +passive verb that he formed. The passive, in fact, grew out of the +middle or reflexive, and, except in the two aorists, continued to be +represented by the middle in Greek. So, too, in Latin the second person +plural is really the middle participle with _estis_ understood, and the +whole class of deponent or reflexive verbs proves that the +characteristic _r_ which Latin shares with Celtic could have had at the +outset no passive force. + +Much light has been thrown on the character and construction of the +primitive Indo-European sentence by comparative syntax. In +contradistinction to Semitic, where the defining word follows that which +is defined, the Indo-European languages place that which is defined +after that which defines it; and Bergaigne has made it clear that the +original order of the sentence was (1) object, (2) verb, and (3) +subject. Greater complication of thought and its expression, the +connexion of sentences by the aid of conjunctions, and rhetorical +inversion caused that dislocation of the original order of the sentence +which reaches its culminating point in the involved periods of Latin +literature. Our own language still remains true, however, to the syntax +of the parent Indo-European when it sets both adjective and genitive +before the nouns which they define. In course of time a distinction came +to be made between an attribute used as a mere qualificative and an +attribute used predicatively, and this distinction was expressed by +placing the predicate in opposition to the subject and accordingly after +it. The opposition was of itself sufficient to indicate the logical +copula or substantive verb; indeed, the word which afterwards commonly +stood for the latter at first signified "existence," and it was only +through the wear and tear of time that a phrase like _Deus bonus est_, +"God exists as good," came to mean simply "God is good." It is needless +to observe that neither of the two articles was known to the parent +Indo-European; indeed, the definite article, which is merely a decayed +demonstrative pronoun, has not yet been developed in several of the +languages of the Indo-European family. + + + Investigation of English grammar. + +We must now glance briefly at the results of a scientific investigation +of English grammar and the modifications they necessitate in our +conception of it. The idea that the free use of speech is tied down by +the rules of the grammarian must first be given up; all that the +grammarian can do is to formulate the current uses of his time, which +are determined by habit and custom, and are accordingly in a perpetual +state of flux. We must next get rid of the notion that English grammar +should be modelled after that of ancient Rome; until we do so we shall +never understand even the elementary principles upon which it is based. +We cannot speak of declensions, since English has no genders except in +the pronouns of the third person, and no cases except the genitive and a +few faint traces of an old dative. Its verbal conjugation is essentially +different from that of an inflexional language like Latin, and cannot be +compressed into the same categories. In English the syntax has been +enlarged at the expense of the accidence; position has taken the place +of forms. To speak of an adjective "agreeing" with its substantive is as +misleading as to speak of a verb "governing" a case. In fact, the +distinction between noun and adjective is inapplicable to English +grammar, and should be replaced by a distinction between objective and +attributive words. In a phrase like "this is a cannon," _cannon_ is +objective; in a phrase like "a cannon-ball," it is attributive; and to +call it a substantive in the one case and an adjective in the other is +only to introduce confusion. With the exception of the nominative, the +various forms of the noun are all attributive; there is no difference, +for example, between "doing a thing" and "doing badly." Apart from the +personal pronouns, the accusative of the classical languages can be +represented only by position; but if we were to say that a noun which +follows a verb is in the accusative case we should have to define "king" +as an accusative in such sentences as "he became king" or "he is king." +In conversational English "it is me" is as correct as "c'est moi" in +French, or "det er mig" in Danish; the literary "it is I" is due to the +influence of classical grammar. The combination of noun or pronoun and +preposition results in a compound attribute. As for the verb, Sweet has +well said that "the really characteristic feature of the English finite +verb is its inability to stand alone without a pronominal prefix." Thus +"dream" by itself is a noun; "I dream" is a verb. The place of the +pronominal prefix may be taken by a noun, though both poetry and vulgar +English frequently insert the pronoun even when the noun precedes. The +number of inflected verbal forms is but small, being confined to the +third person singular and the special forms of the preterite and past +participle, though the latter may with more justice be regarded as +belonging to the province of the lexicographer rather than to that of +the grammarian. The inflected subjunctive (_be, were, save_ in "God save +the King," &c.) is rapidly disappearing. New inflected forms, however, +are coming into existence; at all events, we have as good a right to +consider _wont, shant, cant_ new inflected forms as the French _aimerai +(amare habeo), aimerais (amare habebam)_. If the ordinary grammars are +correct in treating forms like "I am loving," "I was loving," "I did +love," as separate tenses, they are strangely inconsistent in omitting +to notice the equally important emphatic form "I do love" or the +negative form "I do not love" ("I don't love"), as well as the +semi-inflexional "I'll love," "he's loving." It is true that these +latter contracted forms are heard only in conversation and not seen in +books; but the grammar of a language, it must be remembered, is made by +those who speak it and not by the printers. + + + History of formal grammar. + +Our school grammars are the inheritance we have received from Greece and +Rome. The necessities of rhetoric obliged the Sophists to investigate +the structure of the Greek language, and to them was accordingly due the +first analysis of Greek grammar. Protagoras distinguished the three +genders and the verbal moods, while Prodicus busied himself with the +definition of synonyms. Aristotle, taking the side of Democritus, who +had held that the meaning of words is put into them by the speaker, and +that there is no necessary connexion between sound and sense, laid down +that words "symbolize" objects according to the will of those who use +them, and added to the [Greek: onoma] or "noun," and the [Greek: rhema] +or "verb," the [Greek: sundesmos] or "particle." He also introduced the +term [Greek: ptosis], "case," to denote any flexion whatsoever. He +further divided nouns into simple and compound, invented for the neuter +another name than that given by Protagoras, and starting from the +termination of the nominative singular, endeavoured to ascertain the +rules for indicating a difference of gender. Aristotle was followed by +the Stoics, who separated the [Greek: arthron] or "article" from the +particles, determined a fifth part of speech, [Greek: pandektes] or +"adverb," confined the term "case" to the flexions of the nouns, +distinguishing the four principal cases by names, and divided the verb +into its tenses, moods and classes. Meanwhile the Alexandrian critics +were studying the language of Homer and the Attic writers, and comparing +it with the language of their own day, the result being a minute +examination of the facts and rules of grammar. Two schools of +grammarians sprang up--the Analogists, headed by Aristarchus, who held +that a strict law of analogy existed between idea and word, and refused +to admit exceptions to the grammatical rules they laid down, and the +Anomalists, who denied general rules of any kind, except in so far as +they were consecrated by custom. Foremost among the Anomalists was +Crates of Mallos, the leader of the Pergamenian school, to whom we owe +the first formal Greek grammar and collection of the grammatical facts +obtained by the labours of the Alexandrian critics, as well as an +attempt to reform Greek orthography. The immediate cause of this grammar +seems to have been a comparison of Latin with Greek, Crates having +lectured on the subject while ambassador of Attalus at Rome in 159 B.C. +The zeal with which the Romans threw themselves into the study of Greek +resulted in the school grammar of Dionysius Thrax, a pupil of +Aristarchus, which he published at Rome in the time of Pompey and which +is still in existence. Latin grammars were soon modelled upon it, and +the attempt to translate the technical terms of the Greek grammarians +into Latin was productive of numerous blunders which have been +perpetuated to our own day. Thus _tenues_ is a mistranslation of the +[Greek: psila], "unaspirated"; _genetivus_ of [Greek: genike], the case +"of the genus"; _accusativus_ of [Greek: aitiatike], the case "of the +object"; _infinitivus_ of [Greek: aparemphatos], "without a secondary +meaning" of tense or person. New names were coined to denote forms +possessed by Latin and not by Greek; _ablative_, for instance, was +invented by Julius Caesar, who also wrote a treatise _De analogia_. By +the 2nd century of the Christian era the dispute between the Anomalists +and the Analogists was finally settled, analogy being recognized as the +principle that underlies language, though every rule admits of +exceptions. Two eminent grammarians of Alexandria, Apollonius Dyscolus +and his son Herodian, summed up the labours and controversies of their +predecessors, and upon their works were based the Latin grammar composed +by Aelius Donatus in the 4th century, and the eighteen books on grammar +compiled by Priscian in the age of Justinian. The grammar of Donatus +dominated the schools of the middle ages, and, along with the +productions of Priscian, formed the type and source of the Latin and +Greek school-grammars of modern Europe. + + + Learning of grammar of foreign languages. + +A few words remain to be said, in conclusion, on the bearing of a +scientific study of grammar upon the practical task of teaching and +learning foreign languages. The grammar of a language is not to be +confined within the rules laid down by grammarians, much less is it the +creation of grammarians, and consequently the usual mode of making the +pupil learn by heart certain fixed rules and paradigms not only gives a +false idea of what grammar really is, but also throws obstacles in the +way of acquiring it. The unit of speech is the sentence; and it is with +the sentence therefore, and not with lists of words and forms, that the +pupil should begin. When once a sufficient number of sentences has been, +so to speak, assimilated, it will be easy to analyse them into their +component parts, to show the relations that these bear to one another, +and to indicate the nature and varieties of the latter. In this way the +learner will be prevented from regarding grammar as a piece of dead +mechanism or a Chinese puzzle, of which the parts must be fitted +together in accordance with certain artificial rules, and will realize +that it is a living organism which has a history and a reason of its +own. The method of nature and science alike is analytic; and if we would +learn a foreign language properly we must learn it as we did our +mother-tongue, by first mastering the expression of a complete thought +and then breaking up this expression into its several elements. + (A. H. S.) + + See PHILOLOGY, and articles on the various languages. Also Steinthal, + _Charakteristik der hauptsachlichsten Typen des Sprachbaues_ (Berlin, + 1860); Schleicher, _Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the + Indo-European Languages_, translated by H. Bendall (London, 1874); + Pezzi, _Aryan Philology according to the most recent Researches_, + translated by E. S. Roberts (London, 1879); Sayce, _Introduction to + the Science of Language_ (London, 1879); Lersch, _Die + Sprachphilosophie der Alten_ (Bonn, 1838-1841); Steinthal, _Geschichte + der Sprachwissenschaft bei den Griechen und Romern mit besonderer + Rucksicht auf die Logik_ (Berlin, 1863, 2nd ed. 1890); Delbruck, + _Ablativ localis instrumentalis im Altindischen, Lateinischen, + Griechischen, und Deutschen_ (Berlin, 1864); Jolly, _Ein Kapitel + vergleichender Syntax_ (Munich, 1873); Hubschmann, _Zur Casuslehre_ + (Munich, 1875); Holzweissig, _Wahrheit und Irrthum der localistischen + Casustheorie_ (Leipzig, 1877); Draeger, _Historische Syntax der + lateinischen Sprache_ (Leipzig, 1874-1876); Sweet, _Words, Logic, and + Grammar_ (London, 1876); P. Giles, _Manual of Comp. Philology_ (1901); + C. Abel, _Agypt.-indo-eur. Sprachverwandschaft_ (1903); Brugmann and + Delbruck, _Grundriss d. vergl. Gram. d. indogerm. Spr._ (1886-1900); + Fritz Mauthner, _Beitrage zu einer Kritik der Sprache_ vol. iii. + (1902); T. G. Tucker, _Introd. to a Nat. Hist. of Language_ (1908). + + + + +GRAMMICHELE, a town of Sicily, in the province of Catania, 55 m. S.W. of +it by rail and 31 m. direct. Pop. (1901) 15,075. It was built in 1693, +after the destruction by an earthquake of the old town of Occhiala to +the north; the latter, on account of the similarity of name, is +generally identified with Echetla, a frontier city between Syracusan and +Carthaginian territory in the time of Hiero II., which appears to have +been originally a Sicel city in which Greek civilization prevailed from +the 5th century onwards. To the east of Grammichele a cave shrine of +Demeter, with fine votive terra-cottas, has been discovered. + + See _Mon. Lincei_, vii. (1897), 201; _Not. degli scavi_ (1902), 223. + + + + +GRAMMONT (the Flemish name _Gheeraardsbergen_ more clearly reveals its +etymology _Gerardi-mons_), a town in East Flanders, Belgium, near the +meeting point with the provinces of Brabant and Hainaut. It is on the +Dender almost due south of Alost, and is chiefly famous because the +charter of Grammont given by Baldwin VI., count of Flanders, in A.D. +1068 was the first of its kind. This charter has been styled "the most +ancient written monument of civil and criminal laws in Flanders." The +modern town is a busy industrial centre. Pop. (1904) 12,835. + + + + +GRAMONT, ANTOINE AGENOR ALFRED, DUC DE, DUC DE GUICHE, PRINCE DE BIDACHE +(1819-1880), French diplomatist and statesman, was born at Paris on the +14th of August 1819, of one of the most illustrious families of the old +_noblesse_, a cadet branch of the viscounts of Aure, which took its name +from the seigniory of Gramont in Navarre. His grandfather, Antoine Louis +Marie, duc de Gramont (1755-1836), had emigrated during the Revolution, +and his father, Antoine Heraclius Genevieve Agenor (1789-1855), duc de +Gramont and de Guiche, fought under the British flag in the Peninsular +War, became a lieutenant-general in the French army in 1823, and in 1830 +accompanied Charles X. to Scotland. The younger generation, however, +were Bonapartist in sympathy; Gramont's cousin Antoine Louis Raymond, +comte de Gramont (1787-1825), though also the son of an _emigre_, served +with distinction in Napoleon's armies, while Antoine Agenor, duc de +Gramont, owed his career to his early friendship for Louis Napoleon. + +Educated at the Ecole Polytechnique, Gramont early gave up the army for +diplomacy. It was not, however, till after the _coup d'etat_ of the 2nd +of December 1851, which made Louis Napoleon supreme in France, that he +became conspicuous as a diplomat. He was successively minister +plenipotentiary at Cassel and Stuttgart (1852), at Turin (1853), +ambassador at Rome (1857) and at Vienna (1861). On the 15th of May 1870 +he was appointed minister of foreign affairs in the Ollivier cabinet, +and was thus largely, though not entirely, responsible for the bungling +of the negotiations between France and Prussia arising out of the +candidature of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern for the throne of Spain, +which led to the disastrous war of 1870-71. The exact share of Gramont +in this responsibility has been the subject of much controversy. The +last word may be said to have been uttered by M. Emile Ollivier himself +in his _L'Empire liberal_ (tome xii., 1909, _passim_). The famous +declaration read by Gramont in the Chamber on the 6th of July, the +"threat with the hand on the sword-hilt," as Bismarck called it, was the +joint work of the whole cabinet; the original draft presented by Gramont +was judged to be too "elliptical" in its conclusion and not sufficiently +vigorous; the reference to a revival of the empire of Charles V. was +suggested by Ollivier; the paragraph asserting that France would not +allow a foreign power to disturb to her own detriment the actual +equilibrium of Europe was inserted by the emperor. So far, then, as this +declaration is concerned, it is clear that Gramont's responsibility must +be shared with his sovereign and his colleagues (Ollivier _op. cit._ +xii. 107; see also the two _projets de declaration_ given on p. 570). It +is clear, however that he did not share the "passion" of his colleagues +for "peace with honour," clear also that he wholly misread the +intentions of the European powers in the event of war. That he reckoned +upon the active alliance of Austria was due, according to M. Ollivier, +to the fact that for nine years he had been a _persona grata_ in the +aristocratic society of Vienna, where the necessity for revenging the +humiliation of 1866 was an article of faith. This confidence made him +less disposed than many of his colleagues to make the best of the +renunciation of the candidature made, on behalf of his son, by the +prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. It was Gramont who pointed out to +the emperor, on the evening of the 12th, the dubious circumstances of +the act of renunciation, and on the same night, without informing M. +Ollivier, despatched to Benedetti at Ems the fatal telegram demanding +the king of Prussia's guarantee that the candidature would not be +revived. The supreme responsibility for this act must rest with the +emperor, "who imposed it by an exercise of personal power on the only +one of his ministers who could have lent himself to such a forgetfulness +of the safeguards of a parliamentary regime." As for Gramont, he had "no +conception of the exigencies of this regime; he remained an ambassador +accustomed to obey the orders of his sovereign; in all good faith he had +no idea that this was not correct, and that, himself a parliamentary +minister, he had associated himself with an act destructive of the +authority of parliament."[1] "On his part," adds M. Ollivier, "it was +the result only of obedience, not of warlike premeditation" (_op. cit._ +p. 262). The apology may be taken for what it is worth. To France and to +the world Gramont was responsible for the policy which put his country +definitely into the wrong in the eyes of Europe, and enabled Bismarck to +administer to her the "slap in the face" (_soufflet_)--as Gramont called +it in the Chamber--by means of the mutilated "Ems telegram," which was +the immediate cause of the French declaration of war on the 15th. + +After the defeat of Weissenburg (August 4) Gramont resigned office with +the rest of the Ollivier ministry (August 9), and after the revolution +of September he went to England, returning after the war to Paris, where +he died on the 18th of January 1880. His marriage in 1848 with Miss +Mackinnon, a Scottish lady, remained without issue. During his +retirement he published various apologies for his policy in 1870, +notably _La France et la Prusse avant la guerre_ (Paris, 1872). + + Besides M. Ollivier's work quoted in the text, see L. Thouvenel, _Le + Secret de l'empereur, correspondance ... echangee entre M. Thouvenel, + le duc de Gramont, et le general comte de Flahaut 1860-1863_ (2nd ed., + 2 vols., 1889). A small pamphlet containing his _Souvenirs 1848-1850_ + was published in 1901 by his brother Antoine Leon Philibert Auguste de + Gramont, duc de Lesparre. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Compare with this Bismarck's remarks to Hohenlohe (Hohenlohe, + _Denkwurdigkeiten_, ii. 71): "When Gramont was made minister, + Bismarck said to Benedetti that this indicated that the emperor was + meditating something evil, otherwise he would not have made so stupid + a person minister. Benedetti replied that the emperor knew too little + of him, whereupon Bismarck said that the emperor had once described + Gramont to him as 'un ancien bellatre.'" + + + + +GRAMONT, PHILIBERT, COMTE DE (1621-1707), the subject of the famous +_Memoirs_, came of a noble Gascon family, said to have been of Basque +origin. His grandmother, Diane d'Andouins, comtesse de Gramont, was "la +belle Corisande," one of the mistresses of Henry IV. The grandson +assumed that his father Antoine II. de Gramont, viceroy of Navarre, was +the son of Henry IV., and regretted that he had not claimed the +privileges of royal birth. Philibert de Gramont was the son of Antoine +II. by his second marriage with Claude de Montmorency, and was born in +1621, probably at the family seat of Bidache. He was destined for the +church, and was educated at the _college_ of Pau, in Bearn. He refused +the ecclesiastical life, however, and joined the army of Prince Thomas +of Savoy, then besieging Trino in Piedmont. He afterwards served under +his elder half-brother, Antoine, marshal de Gramont, and the prince of +Conde. He was present at Fribourg and Nordlingen, and also served with +distinction in Spain and Flanders in 1647 and 1648. He favoured Conde's +party at the beginning of the Fronde, but changed sides before he was +too severely compromised. In spite of his record in the army he never +received any important commission either military or diplomatic, perhaps +because of an incurable levity in his outlook, He was, however, made a +governor of the Pays d'Aunis and lieutenant of Bearn. During the +Commonwealth he visited England, and in 1662 he was exiled from Paris +for paying court to Mademoiselle de la Motte Houdancourt, one of the +king's mistresses. He went to London, where he found at the court of +Charles II. an atmosphere congenial to his talents for intrigue, +gallantry and pleasure. He married in London, under pressure from her +two brothers, Elizabeth Hamilton, the sister of his future biographer. +She was one of the great beauties of the English court, and was, +according to her brother's optimistic account, able to fix the count's +affections. She was a woman of considerable wit, and held her own at the +court of Louis XIV., but her husband pursued his gallant exploits to the +close of a long life, being, said Ninon de l'Enclos, the only old man +who could affect the follies of youth without being ridiculous. In 1664 +he was allowed to return to France. He revisited England in 1670 in +connexion with the sale of Dunkirk, and again in 1671 and 1676. In 1688 +he was sent by Louis XIV. to congratulate James II. on the birth of an +heir. From all these small diplomatic missions he succeeded in obtaining +considerable profits, being destitute of scruples whenever money was in +question. At the age of seventy-five he had a dangerous illness, during +which he became reconciled to the church. His penitence does not seem to +have survived his recovery. He was eighty years old when he supplied his +brother-in-law, Anthony Hamilton (q.v.), with the materials for his +_Memoires_. Hamilton said that they had been dictated to him, but there +is no doubt that he was the real author. The account of Gramont's early +career was doubtless provided by himself, but Hamilton was probably more +familiar with the history of the court of Charles II., which forms the +most interesting section of the book. Moreover Gramont, though he had a +reputation for wit, was no writer, and there is no reason to suppose +that he was capable of producing a work which remains a masterpiece of +style and of witty portraiture. When the _Memoires_ were finished it is +said that Gramont sold the MS. for 1500 francs, and kept most of the +money himself. Fontenelle, then censor of the press, refused to license +the book from considerations of respect to the strange old man, whose +gambling, cheating and meannesses were so ruthlessly exposed. But +Gramont himself appealed to the chancellor and the prohibition was +removed. He died on the 10th of January 1707, and the _Memoires_ +appeared six years later. + +Hamilton was far superior to the comte de Gramont, but he relates the +story of his hero without comment, and no condemnation of the prevalent +code of morals is allowed to appear, unless in an occasional touch of +irony. The portrait is drawn with such skill that the count, in spite of +his biographer's candour, imposes by his grand air on the reader much as +he appears to have done on his contemporaries. The book is the most +entertaining of contemporary memoirs, and in no other book is there a +description so vivid, truthful, and graceful of the licentious court of +Charles II. There are other and less flattering accounts of the count. +His scandalous tongue knew no restraint, and he was a privileged person +who was allowed to state even the most unpleasing truths to Louis XIV. +Saint-Simon in his memoirs describes the relief that was felt at court +when the old man's death was announced. + + _Memoires de la vie du comte de Grammont contenant particulierement + l'histoire amoureuse de la cour d'Angleterre sous le regne de Charles + II_ was printed in Holland with the inscription Cologne, 1713. Other + editions followed in 1715 and 1716. _Memoirs of the Life of Count de + Grammont ... translated out of the French by Mr [Abel] Boyer_ (1714), + was supplemented by a "compleat key" in 1719. The _Memoires_ + "augmentees de notes et d'eclaircissemens" was edited by Horace + Walpole in 1772. In 1793 appeared in London an edition adorned with + portraits engraved after originals in the royal collection. An English + edition by Sir Walter Scott was published by H. G. Bohn (1846), and + this with additions was reprinted in 1889, 1890, 1896, &c. Among other + modern editions are an excellent one in the _Bibliotheque Charpentier_ + edited by M. Gustave Brunet (1859); _Memoires ..._ (Paris, 1888) with + etchings by L. Boisson after C. Delort and an introduction by H. + Gausseron; _Memoirs ..._ (1889), edited by Mr H. Vizetelly; and + _Memoirs ..._ (1903), edited by Mr Gordon Goodwin. + + + + +GRAMOPHONE (an invented word, formed on an inversion of "phonogram"; +[Greek: phone], sound, [Greek: gramma], letter), an instrument for +recording and reproducing sounds. It depends on the same general +principles as the phonograph (q.v.), but it differs in certain details +of construction, especially in having the sound-record cut spirally on a +flat disk instead of round a cylinder. + + + + +GRAMPIANS, THE, a mass of mountains in central Scotland. Owing to the +number of ramifications and ridges it is difficult to assign their +precise limits, but they may be described as occupying the area between +a line drawn from Dumbartonshire to the North Sea at Stonehaven, and the +valley of the Spey or even Glenmore (the Caledonian Canal). Their trend +is from south-west to north-east, the southern face forming the natural +division between the Lowlands and Highlands. They lie in the shires of +Argyll, Dumbarton, Stirling, Perth, Forfar, Kincardine, Aberdeen, Banff +and Inverness. Among the highest summits are Ben Nevis, Ben Macdhui, and +Cairngorms, Ben Lawers, Ben More, Ben Alder, Ben Cruachan and Ben +Lomond. The principal rivers flowing from the watershed northward are +the Findhorn, Spey, Don, Dee and their tributaries, and southward the +South Esk, Tay and Forth with their affluents. On the north the mass is +wild and rugged; on the south the slope is often gentle, affording +excellent pasture in many places, but both sections contain some of the +finest deer-forests in Scotland. They are crossed by the Highland, West +Highland and Callander to Oban railways, and present some of the finest +scenery in the kingdom. The rocks consist chiefly of granite, gneiss, +schists, quartzite, porphyry and diorite. Their fastnesses were +originally inhabited by the northern Picts, the Caledonians who, under +Galgacus, were defeated by Agricola in A.D. 84 at Mons Graupius--the +false reading of which, Grampius, has been perpetuated in the name of +the mountains--the site of which has not been ascertained. Some +authorities place it at Ardoch; others near the junction of the Tay and +Isla, or at Dalginross near Comrie; while some, contending for a +position nearer the east coast, refer it to a site in west Forfarshire +or to Raedykes near Stonehaven. + + + + +GRAMPOUND, a small market town in the mid-parliamentary division of +Cornwall, England, 9 m. E.N.E. of Truro, and 2 m. from its station +(Grampound Road) on the Great Western railway. It is situated on the +river Fal, and has some industry in tanning. It retains an ancient town +hall; there is a good market cross; and in the neighbourhood, along the +Fal, are several early earthworks. + +Grampound (Ponsmure, Graundpont, Grauntpount, Graundpond) and the +hundred, manor and vill of Tibeste were formerly so closely associated +that in 1400 the former is found styled the vill of Grauntpond called +Tibeste. At the time of the Domesday Survey Tibeste was amongst the most +valuable of the manors granted to the count of Mortain. The burgensic +character of Ponsmure first appears in 1299. Thirty-five years later +John of Eltham granted to the burgesses the whole town of Grauntpount. +This grant was confirmed in 1378 when its extent and jurisdiction were +defined. It was provided that the hundred court of Powdershire should +always be held there and two fairs at the feasts of St Peter in Cathedra +and St Barnabas, both of which are still held, and a Tuesday market (now +held on Friday) and that it should be a free borough rendering a yearly +rent to the earl of Cornwall. Two members were summoned to parliament by +Edward VI. in 1553. The electors consisted of an indefinite number of +freemen, about 50 in all, indirectly nominated by the mayor and +corporation, which existed by prescription. The venality of the electors +became notorious. In 1780 L3000 was paid for a seat: in 1812 each +supporter of one of the candidates received L100. The defeat of this +candidate in 1818 led to a parliamentary inquiry which disclosed a +system of wholesale corruption, and in 1821 the borough was +disfranchised. A former woollen trade is extinct. + + + + +GRAMPUS (_Orca gladiator_, or _Orca orca_), a cetacean belonging to the +_Delphinidae_ or dolphin family, characterized by its rounded head +without distinct beak, high dorsal fin and large conical teeth. The +upper parts are nearly uniform glossy black, and the under parts white, +with a strip of the same colour over each eye. The O. Fr. word was +_grapois_, _graspeis_ or _craspeis_, from Med. Lat. _crassus piscis_, +fat fish. This was adapted into English as _grapeys_, _graspeys_, &c., +and in the 16th century becomes _grannie pose_ as if from _grand +poisson_. The final corruption to "grampus" appears in the 18th century +and was probably nautical in origin. The animal is also known as the +"killer," in allusion to its ferocity in attacking its prey, which +consists largely of seals, porpoises and the smaller dolphins. Its +fierceness is only equalled by its voracity, which is such that in a +specimen measuring 21 ft. in length, the remains of thirteen seals and +thirteen porpoises were found, in a more or less digested state, while +the animal appeared to have been choked in the endeavour to swallow +another seal, the skin of which was found entangled in its teeth. These +cetaceans sometimes hunt in packs or schools, and commit great havoc +among the belugas or white whales, which occasionally throw themselves +ashore to escape their persecutors. The grampus is an inhabitant of +northern seas, occurring on the shores of Greenland, and having been +caught, although rarely, as far south as the Mediterranean. There are +numerous instances of its capture on the British coasts. (See CETACEA.) + + + + +GRANADA, LUIS DE (1504-1588), Spanish preacher and ascetic writer, born +of poor parents named Sarria at Granada. He lost his father at an early +age and his widowed mother was supported by the charity of the +Dominicans. A child of the Alhambra, he entered the service of the +alcalde as page, and, his ability being discovered, received his +education with the sons of the house. When nineteen he entered the +Dominican convent and in 1525 took the vows; and, with the leave of his +prior, shared his daily allowance of food with his mother. He was sent +to Valladolid to continue his studies and then was appointed procurator +at Granada. Seven years after he was elected prior of the convent of +Scala Caeli in the mountains of Cordova, which after eight years he +succeeded in restoring from its ruinous state, and there he began his +work as a zealous reformer. His preaching gifts were developed by the +orator Juan de Avila, and he became one of the most famous of Spanish +preachers. He was invited to Portugal in 1555 and became provincial of +his order, declining the offer of the archbishopric of Braga but +accepting the position of confessor and counsellor to Catherine, the +queen regent. At the expiration of his tenure of the provincialship, he +retired to the Dominican convent at Lisbon, where he lived till his +death on the last day of 1588. Aiming, both in his sermons and ascetical +writings, at development of the religious view, the danger of the times +as he saw it was not so much in the Protestant reformation, which was an +outside influence, but in the direction that religion had taken among +the masses. He held that in Spain the Catholic faith was not understood +by the people, and that their ignorance was the pressing danger. He fell +under the suspicion of the Inquisition; his mystical teaching was said +to be heretical, and his most famous book, the _Guia de Peccadores_, +still a favourite treatise and one that has been translated into nearly +every European tongue, was put on the Index of the Spanish Inquisition, +together with his book on prayer, in 1559. His great opponent was the +restless and ambitious Melchior Cano, who stigmatized the second book +as containing grave errors smacking of the heresy of the Alumbrados and +manifestly contradicting Catholic faith and teaching. But in 1576 the +prohibition was removed and the works of Luis de Granada, so prized by +St Francis de Sales, have never lost their value. The friend of St +Teresa, St Peter of Alcantara, and of all the noble minds of Spain of +his day, no one among the three hundred Spanish mystics excels Luis de +Granada in the beauty of a didactic style, variety of illustration and +soberness of statement. + + The last collected edition of his works is that published in 9 vols. + at Antwerp in 1578. A biography by L. Monoz, _La Vida y virtudes de + Luis de Granada_ (Madrid, 1639); a study of his system by P. Rousselot + in _Mystiques espagnoles_ (Paris, 1867); Ticknor, _History of Spanish + Literature_ (vol. iii.), and Fitzmaurice Kelly, _History of Spanish + Literature_, pp. 200-202 (London, 1898), may also be consulted. + + + + +GRANADA, the capital of the department of Granada, Nicaragua; 32 m. by +rail S.E. of Managua, the capital of the republic. Pop. (1900) about +25,000. Granada is built on the north-western shore of Lake Nicaragua, +of which it is the principal port. Its houses are of the usual central +American type, constructed of adobe, rarely more than one storey high, +and surrounded by courtyards with ornamental gateways. The suburbs, +scattered over a large area, consist chiefly of cane huts occupied by +Indians and half-castes. There are several ancient churches and +convents, in one of which the interior of the chancel roof is inlaid +with mother-of-pearl. An electric tramway connects the railway station +and the adjacent wharves with the market, about 1 m. distant. Ice, +cigars, hats, boots and shoes are manufactured, but the characteristic +local industry is the production of "Panama chains," ornaments made of +thin gold wire. In the neighbourhood there are large cocoa plantations; +and the city has a thriving trade in cocoa, coffee, hides, cotton, +native tobacco and indigo. + +Granada was founded in 1523 by Francisco Fernandez de Cordoba. It became +one of the wealthiest of central American cities, although it had always +a keen commercial rival in Leon, which now surpasses it in size and +importance. In the 17th century it was often raided by buccaneers, +notably in 1606, when it was completely sacked. In 1855 it was captured +and partly burned by the adventurer William Walker (see CENTRAL AMERICA: +_History_). + + + + +GRANADA, a maritime province of southern Spain, formed in 1833 of +districts belonging to Andalusia, and coinciding with the central parts +of the ancient kingdom of Granada. Pop. (1900) 492,460; area, 4928 sq. +m. Granada is bounded on the N. by Cordova, Jaen and Albacete, E. by +Murcia and Almeria, S. by the Mediterranean Sea, and W. by Malaga. It +includes the western and loftier portion of the Sierra Nevada (q.v.), a +vast ridge rising parallel to the sea and attaining its greatest +altitudes in the Cerro de Mulhacen (11,421 ft.) and Picacho de la Veleta +(11,148), which overlook the city of Granada. Lesser ranges, such as the +Sierras of Parapanda, Alhama, Almijara or Harana, adjoin the main ridge. +From this central watershed the three principal rivers of the province +take their rise, viz.: the Guadiana Menor, which, flowing past Guadix in +a northerly direction, falls into the Guadalquivir in the neighbourhood +of Ubeda; the Genil which, after traversing the Vega, or Plain of +Granada, leaves the province a little to the westward of Loja and joins +the Guadalquivir between Cordova and Seville; and the Rio Grande or +Guadalfeo, which falls into the Mediterranean at Motril. The coast is +little indented and none of its three harbours, Almunecar, Albunol and +Motril, ranks high in commercial importance. The climate in the lower +valleys and the narrow fringe along the coast is warm, but on the higher +grounds of the interior is somewhat severe; and the vegetation varies +accordingly from the subtropical to the alpine. The soil of the plains +is very productive, and that of the Vega of Granada is considered the +richest in the whole peninsula; from the days of the Moors it has been +systematically irrigated, and it continues to yield in great abundance +and in good quality wheat, barley, maize, wine, oil, sugar, flax, +cotton, silk and almost every variety of fruit. In the mountains +immediately surrounding the city of Granada occur many kinds of +alabaster, some very fine; there are also quantities of jasper and other +precious stones. Mineral waters chiefly chalybeate and sulphurous, are +abundant, the most important springs being those of Alhama, which have a +temperature of 112 deg. F. There are valuable iron mines, and small +quantities of zinc, lead and mercury are obtained. The cane and beet +sugar industries, for which there are factories at Loja, at Motril, and +in the Vega, developed rapidly after the loss of the Spanish West Indies +and the Philippine Islands in 1898, with the consequent decrease in +competition. There are also tanneries, foundries and manufactories of +woollen, linen, cotton, and rough frieze stuffs, cards, soap, spirits, +gunpowder and machinery. Apart from the great highways traversing the +province, which are excellent, the roads are few and ill-kept. The +railway from Madrid enters the province on the north and bifurcates +north-west of Guadix; one branch going eastward to Almeria, the other +westward to Loja, Malaga and Algeciras. Baza is the terminus of a +railway from Lorca. The chief towns include Granada, the capital (pop. +1900, 75,900) with Alhama de Granada (7697), Baza (12,770), Guadix +(12,652), Loja (19,143), Montefrio (10,725), and Motril (18,528). These +are described in separate articles. Other towns with upwards of 7000 +inhabitants are Albunol (8646), Almunecar (8022), Cullar de Baza (8007), +Huescar (7763), Illora (9496) and Puebla de Don Fadrique (7420). The +history of the ancient kingdom is inseparable from that of the city of +Granada (q.v.). + + + + +GRANADA, the capital of the province, and formerly of the kingdom of +Granada, in southern Spain; on the Madrid-Granada-Algeciras railway. +Pop. (1900) 75,900. Granada is magnificently situated, 2195 ft. above +the sea, on the north-western slope of the Sierra Nevada, overlooking +the fertile lowlands known as the Vega de Granada on the west and +overshadowed by the peaks of Veleta (11,148 ft.) and Mulhacen (11,421 +ft.) on the south-east. The southern limit of the city is the river +Genil, the Roman _Singilis_ and Moorish _Shenil_, a swift stream flowing +westward from the Sierra Nevada, with a considerable volume of water in +summer, when the snows have thawed. Its tributary the Darro, the Roman +_Salon_ and Moorish _Hadarro_, enters Granada on the east, flows for +upwards of a mile from east to west, and then turns sharply southward to +join the main river, which is spanned by a bridge just above the point +of confluence. The waters of the Darro are much reduced by irrigation +works along its lower course, and within the city it has been canalized +and partly covered with a roof. + +Granada comprises three main divisions, the Antequeruela, the Albaicin +(or Albaycin), and Granada properly so-called. The first division, +founded by refugees from Antequera in 1410, consists of the districts +enclosed by the Darro, besides a small area on its right, or western +bank. It is bounded on the east by the gardens and hill of the Alhambra +(q.v.), the most celebrated of all the monuments left by the Moors. The +Albaicin (Moorish _Rabad al Bayazin_, "Falconers' Quarter") lies +north-west of the Antequeruela. Its name is sometimes associated with +that of Baeza, since, according to one tradition, it was colonized by +citizens of Baeza, who fled hither in 1246, after the capture of their +town by the Christians. It was long the favourite abode of the Moorish +nobles, but is now mainly inhabited by gipsies and artisans. Granada, +properly so-called, is north of the Antequeruela, and west of the +Albaicin. The origin of its name is obscure; it has been sometimes, +though with little probability, derived from _granada_, a pomegranate, +in allusion to the abundance of pomegranate trees in the neighbourhood. +A pomegranate appears on the city arms. The Moors, however, called +Granada _Karnattah_ or _Karnattah-al-Yahud_, and possibly the name is +composed of the Arabic words _kurn_, "a hill," and _nattah_, +"stranger,"--the "city" or "hill of strangers." + +Although the city has been to some extent modernized, the architecture +of its more ancient quarters has many Moorish characteristics. The +streets are, as a rule, ill-lighted, ill-paved and irregular; but there +are several fine squares and avenues, such as the Bibarrambla, where +tournaments were held by the Moors; the spacious Plaza del Trionfo, +adjoining the bull-ring, on the north; the Alameda, planted with plane +trees, and the Paseo del Salon. The business centre of the city is the +Puerta Real, a square named after a gate now demolished. + +Granada is the see of an archbishop. Its cathedral, which commemorates +the reconquest of southern Spain from the Moors, is a somewhat heavy +classical building, begun in 1529 by Diego de Siloe, and only finished +in 1703. It is profusely ornamented with jasper and coloured marbles, +and surmounted by a dome. The interior contains many paintings and +sculptures by Alonso Cano (1601-1667), the architect of the fine west +facade, and other artists. In one of the numerous chapels, known as the +Chapel Royal (_Capilla Real_), is the monument of Philip I. of Castile +(1478-1506), and his queen Joanna; with the tomb of Ferdinand and +Isabella, the first rulers of united Spain (1452-1516). The church of +Santa Maria (1705-1759), which may be regarded as an annexe of the +cathedral, occupies the site of the chief mosque of Granada. This was +used as a church until 1661. Santa Ana (1541) also replaced a mosque; +Nuestra Senora de las Angustias (1664-1671) is noteworthy for its fine +towers, and the rich decoration of its high altar. The convent of San +Geronimo (or Jeronimo), founded in 1492 by Ferdinand and Isabella, was +converted into barracks in 1810; its church contains the tomb of the +famous captain Gonsalvo or Gonzalo de Cordova (1453-1515). The Cartuja, +or Carthusian monastery north of the city, was built in 1516 on +Gonzalo's estate, and in his memory. It contains several fine paintings, +and an interesting church of the 17th and 18th centuries. + +After the Alhambra, and such adjacent buildings as the Generalife and +Torres Bermejas, which are more fitly described in connexion with it, +the principal Moorish antiquities of Granada are the 13th-century villa +known as the Cuarto Real de San Domingo, admirably preserved, and +surrounded by beautiful gardens; the Alcazar de Genil, built in the +middle of the 14th century as a palace for the Moorish queens; and the +Casa del Cabildo, a university of the same period, converted into a +warehouse in the 19th century. Few Spanish cities possess a greater +number of educational and charitable establishments. The university was +founded by Charles V. in 1531, and transferred to its present buildings +in 1769. It is attended by about 600 students. In 1900, the primary +schools of Granada numbered 22, in addition to an ecclesiastical +seminary, a training-school for teachers, schools of art and +jurisprudence, and museums of art and archaeology. There were twelve +hospitals and orphanages for both sexes, including a leper hospital in +one of the convents. Granada has an active trade in the agricultural +produce of the Vega, and manufactures liqueurs, soap, paper and coarse +linen and woollen fabrics. Silk-weaving was once extensively carried on, +and large quantities of silk were exported to Italy, France, Germany and +even America, but this industry died during the 19th century. + +_History._--The identity of Granada with the Iberian city of _Iliberris_ +or _Iliberri_, which afterwards became a flourishing Roman colony, has +never been fully established; but Roman tombs, coins, inscriptions, &c., +have been discovered in the neighbourhood. With the rest of Andalusia, +as a result of the great invasion from the north in the 5th century, +Granada fell to the lot of the Vandals. Under the caliphs of Cordova, +onwards from the 8th century, it rapidly gained in importance, and +ultimately became the seat of a provincial government, which, after the +fall of the Omayyad dynasty in 1031, or, according to some authorities, +1038, ranked with Seville, Jaen and others as an independent +principality. The family of the Zeri, Ziri or Zeiri maintained itself as +the ruling dynasty until 1090; it was then displaced by the Almohades, +who were in turn overthrown by the Almoravides, in 1154. The dominion of +the Almoravides continued unbroken, save for an interval of one year +(1160-1161), until 1229. From 1229 to 1238 Granada formed part of the +kingdom of Murcia; but in the last-named year it passed into the hands +of Abu Abdullah Mahommed Ibn Al Ahmar, prince of Jaen and founder of the +dynasty of the Nasrides. Al Ahmar was deprived of Jaen in 1246, but +united Granada, Almeria and Malaga under his sceptre, and, as the +fervour of the Christian crusade against the Moors had temporarily +abated, he made peace with Castile, and even aided the Christians to +vanquish the Moslem princes of Seville. At the same time he offered +asylum to refugees from Valencia, Murcia and other territories in which +the Moors had been overcome. Al Ahmar and his successors ruled over +Granada until 1492, in an unbroken line of twenty-five sovereigns who +maintained their independence partly by force, and partly by payment of +tribute to their stronger neighbours. Their encouragement of +commerce--notably the silk trade with Italy--rendered Granada the +wealthiest of Spanish cities; their patronage of art, literature and +science attracted many learned Moslems, such as the historian Ibn +Khaldun and the geographer Ibn Batuta, to their court, and resulted in a +brilliant civilization, of which the Alhambra is the supreme monument. + +The kingdom of Granada, which outlasted all the other Moorish states in +Spain, fell at last through dynastic rivalries and a harem intrigue. The +two noble families of the Zegri and the Beni Serraj (better known in +history and legend as the _Abencerrages_) encroached greatly upon the +royal prerogatives during the middle years of the 15th century. A crisis +arose in 1462, when an endeavour to control the Abencerrages resulted in +the dethronement of Abu Nasr Saad, and the accession of his son, Muley +Abu'l Hassan, whose name is preserved in that of Mulhacen, the loftiest +peak of the Sierra Nevada, and in a score of legends. Muley Hassan +weakened his position by resigning Malaga to his brother Ez Zagal, and +incurred the enmity of his first wife Aisha by marrying a beautiful +Spanish slave, Isabella de Solis, who had adopted the creed of Islam and +taken the name of Zorayah, "morning star." Aisha or Ayesha, who thus saw +her sons Abu Abdullah Mahommed (Boabdil) and Yusuf in danger of being +supplanted, appealed to the Abencerrages, whose leaders, according to +tradition, paid for their sympathy with their lives (see ALHAMBRA). In +1482 Boabdil succeeded in deposing his father, who fled to Malaga, but +the gradual advance of the Christians under Ferdinand and Isabella +forced him to resign the task of defence into the more warlike hands of +Muley Hassan and Ez Zagal (1483-1486). In 1491 after the loss of these +leaders, the Moors were decisively beaten; Boabdil, who had already been +twice captured and liberated by the Spaniards, was compelled to sign +away his kingdom; and on the 2nd of January 1492 the Spanish army +entered Granada, and the Moorish power in Spain was ended. The campaign +had aroused intense interest throughout Christendom; when the news +reached London a special thanksgiving service was held in St Paul's +Cathedral by order of Henry VII. + + + + +GRANADILLA, the name applied to _Passiflora quadrangularis_, Linn., a +plant of the natural order _Passifloreae_, a native of tropical America, +having smooth, cordate, ovate or acuminate leaves; petioles bearing from +4 to 6 glands; an emetic and narcotic root; scented flowers; and a +large, oblong fruit, containing numerous seeds, imbedded in a subacid +edible pulp. The granadilla is sometimes grown in British hothouses. The +fruits of several other species of _Passiflora_ are eaten. _P. +laurifolia_ is the "water lemon," and _P. maliformis_ the "sweet +calabash" of the West Indies. + + + + +GRANARIES. From ancient times grain has been stored in greater or lesser +bulk. The ancient Egyptians made a practice of preserving grain in years +of plenty against years of scarcity, and probably Joseph only carried +out on a large scale an habitual practice. The climate of Egypt being +very dry, grain could be stored in pits for a long time without sensible +loss of quality. The silo pit, as it has been termed, has been a +favourite way of storing grain from time immemorial in all oriental +lands. In Turkey and Persia usurers used to buy up wheat or barley when +comparatively cheap, and store it in hidden pits against seasons of +dearth. Probably that custom is not yet dead. In Malta a relatively +large stock of wheat is always preserved in some hundreds of pits +(silos) cut in the rock. A single silo will store from 60 to 80 tons of +wheat, which, with proper precautions, will keep in good condition for +four years or more. The silos are shaped like a cylinder resting on a +truncated cone, and surmounted by the same figure. The mouth of the pit +is round and small and covered by a stone slab, and the inside is lined +with barley straw and kept very dry. Samples are occasionally taken from +the wheat as from the hold of a ship, and at any signs of fermentation +the granary is cleared and the wheat turned over, but such is the +dryness of these silos that little trouble of this kind is experienced. + +Towards the close of the 19th century warehouses specially intended for +holding grain began to multiply in Great Britain, but America is the +home of great granaries, known there as elevators. There are climatic +difficulties in the way of storing grain in Great Britain on a large +scale, but these difficulties have been largely overcome. To preserve +grain in good condition it must be kept as much as possible from +moisture and heat. New grain when brought into a warehouse has a +tendency to sweat, and in this condition will easily heat. If the +heating is allowed to continue the quality of the grain suffers. An +effectual remedy is to turn out the grain in layers, not too thick, on a +floor, and to keep turning it over so as to aerate it thoroughly. Grain +can thus be conditioned for storage in silos. There is reason to think +that grain in a sound and dry condition can be better stored in bins or +dry pits than in the open air; from a series of experiments carried out +on behalf of the French government it would seem that grain exposed to +the air is decomposed at 3-1/2 times the rate of grain stored in silo or +other bins. + +In comparing the grain-storage system of Great Britain with that of +North America it must be borne in mind that whereas Great Britain raises +a comparatively small amount of grain, which is more or less rapidly +consumed, grain-growing is one of the greatest industries of the United +States and of Canada. The enormous surplus of wheat and maize produced +in America can only be profitably dealt with by such a system of storage +as has grown up there since the middle of the 19th century. The American +farmer can store his wheat or maize at a moderate rate, and can get an +advance on his warrant if he is in need of money. A holder of wheat in +Chicago can withdraw a similar grade of wheat from a New York elevator. + +Modern granaries are all built on much the same plan. The mechanical +equipment for receiving and discharging grain is very similar in all +modern warehouses. A granary is usually erected on a quay at which large +vessels can lie and discharge. On the land side railway sidings connect +the warehouse with the chief lines in its district; accessibility to a +canal is an advantage. Ships are usually cleared by bucket elevators +which are dipped into the cargo, though in some cases pneumatic +elevators are substituted (see CONVEYORS). A travelling band with +throw-off carriage will speedily distribute a heavy load of grain. Band +conveyors serve equally well for charging or discharging the bins. Bins +are invariably provided with hopper bottoms, and any bin can be +effectively cleared by the band, which runs underneath, either in a +cellar or in a specially constructed tunnel. All granaries should be +provided with a sufficient plant of cleaning machinery to take from the +grain impurities as would be likely to be detrimental to its storing +qualities. Chief among such machines are the warehouse separators which +work by sieves and air currents (see FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE). + +The typical grain warehouse is furnished with a number of chambers for +grain storage which are known as silos, and may be built of wood, brick, +iron or ferro-concrete. Wood silos are usually square, made of flat +strips of wood nailed one on top of the other, and so overlapping each +other at the corners that alternately a longitudinal and a transverse +batten extends past the corner. The gaps are filled by short pieces of +timber securely nailed, and the whole silo wall is thus solid. This type +of bin was formerly in great favour, but it has certain drawbacks, such +as the possibility of dry rot, while weevils are apt to harbour in the +interstices unless lime washing is practised. Bricks and cement are good +materials for constructing silos of hexagonal form, but necessitate deep +foundations and substantial walls. Iron silos of circular form are used +to some extent in Great Britain, but are more common in North and South +America. In their case the walls are much thinner than with any other +material, but the condensation against the inner wall in wet weather is +a drawback in damp climates. Cylindrical tank silos have also been made +of fire-proof tiles. Ferro-concrete silos have been built on both the +Monier and the Hennebique systems. In the earlier type the bin was made +of an iron or steel framework filled in with concrete, but more recent +structures are composed entirely of steel rods embedded in cement. +Granaries built of this material have the great advantage, if properly +constructed, of being free from any risk of failure even in case of +uneven expansion of the material. With brick silos collapses through +pressure of the stored material are not unknown. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + + Port Arthur, Canada. + + One of the largest and most complete grain elevators or warehouses in + the world belongs to the Canadian Northern Railway Company, and was + erected at Port Arthur, Canada, in 1901-1904. It has a total storage + capacity of 7,000,000 bushels, or 875,000 qrs. of 480 lb. The range of + buildings and bins forms an oblong, and consists of two storage + houses, B and C, placed between two working or receiving houses A and + D (fig. 1). The receiving houses are fed by railway sidings. House A, + for example, has two sidings, one running through it and the other + beside it. Each siding serves five receiving pits, and a receiving + elevator of 10,000 lb. capacity per minute, or 60,000 bushels per + hour, can draw grain from either of two pits. Five elevators of 12,000 + bushels per hour on the other side of the house serve five warehouse + separators, and all the grain received or discharged is weighed, there + being ten sets of automatic scales in the upper part of the house, + known as the cupola. The hopper of each weigher can take a charge of + 1400 bushels (84,000 lb.). Grain can be conveyed either vertically or + horizontally to any part of the house, into any of the bins in the + annex B, or into any truck or lake steamer. This house is constructed + of timber and roofed with corrugated iron. The conveyor belts are 36 + in. wide; those at the top of the house are provided with throw-off + carriages. The dust from the cleaning machinery is carefully collected + and spouted to the furnace under the boiler house, where it is + consumed. The cylindrical silo bins in the storage houses consist of + hollow tiles of burned clay which, it is claimed, are fire-proof. The + tiles are laid on end and are about 12 in. by 12 in. and from 4 in. to + 6 in. in thickness according to the size of the bin. Each alternate + course consists of grooved blocks of channel tile forming a continuous + groove or belt round the bin. This groove receives a steel band acting + as a tension member and resisting the lateral pressure of the grain. + The steel bands once in position, the groove is completely filled with + cement grout by which the steel is encased and protected. Usually the + bottoms of the bins are furnished with self-discharging hoppers of + weak cinder or gravel concrete finished with cement mortar. For the + foundation or supporting floor reinforced concrete is frequently used. + The tiles already described are faced with tiles 1/2 to 1 in. thick, + which are laid solid in cement mortar covering the whole exterior of + the bin. Any damage to the facing tiles can easily be repaired since + they can be removed and replaced without affecting the main bin walls. + It is claimed that these facers constitute the best possible + protection against fire. A steel framework, covered with tiles, crowns + these circular bins and contains the conveyors and spouts which are + used to fill the bins. Five tunnels in the concrete bedding that + supports the bins carry the belt conveyors which bring back the grain + to the working house for cleaning or shipment. There are altogether in + each of the storage houses 80 circular bins, each 21 ft. in diameter, + and so grouped as to form 63 smaller interspace bins, or 143 bins in + all. Each bin will store grain in a column 85 ft. deep, and the whole + group has a capacity of 2,500,000 bushels. These bins were all + constructed by the Barnett & Record Company of Minneapolis, Minnesota, + U.S.A., in accordance with the Johnson & Record patent system of + fire-proof tile grain storage construction. In case one of the working + houses is attacked by fire the fire-proof storage houses protect not + only their own contents but also the other working house, and in the + event of its disablement or destruction the remaining one can be + easily connected with both the storage houses and handle their + contents. + + + Barrow-in-Furness. + + Circular tank silos have not been extensively adopted in Great + Britain, but a typical silo tank installation exists at the Walmsley & + Smith flour mills which stand beside the Devonshire dock at + Barrow-in-Furness. There four circular bins, built of riveted steel + plates, stand in a group on a quadrangle close to the mill warehouse. + A covered gantry, through which passes a band conveyor, runs from the + mill warehouse to the working silo house which stands in the central + space amid the four steel tanks. The tanks are 70 ft. high, with a + diameter of 45 ft., and rest on foundations of concrete and steel. + Each has a separate conical roof and they are flat-bottomed, the grain + resting directly on the steel and concrete foundation bed. As the load + of the full tank is very heavy its even distribution on the bed is + considered a point of importance. Each tank can hold about 2500 tons + of wheat, which gives a total storage capacity for the four bins of + over 45,000 qrs. of 480 lb. Attached to the mill warehouse is a skip + elevator with a discharging capacity of 75 tons an hour. The grain is + cleared by this elevator from the hold or holds of the vessel to be + unloaded, and is delivered to the basement of the warehouse. Thence it + is elevated to an upper storey and passed through an automatic weigher + capable of taking a charge of 1 ton. From the weighing machine it can + be taken, with or without a preliminary cleaning, to any floor of the + warehouse, which has a total storing capacity of 8000 tons, or it can + be carried by the band conveyor through the gantry to the working + house of the silo installation and distributed to any one of the four + tank silos. There is also a connexion by a band conveyor running + through a covered gantry into the mill, which stands immediately in + the rear. It is perfectly easy to turn over the contents of any tank + into any other tank. The whole intake and wheat handling plant is + moved by two electro-motors of 35 H.P. each, one installed in the + warehouse and the other in the silo working house. Steel silo tanks + have the advantage of storing a heavy stock of wheat at comparatively + small capital outlay. On an average an ordinary silo bin will not hold + more than 500 to 1000 qrs., but each of the bins at Barrow will + contain 2500 tons or over 1100 qrs. The steel construction also + reduces the risk of fire and consequently lessens the fire premium. + + + Liverpool. + + The important granaries at the Liverpool docks date from 1868, but + have since been brought up to modern requirements. The warehouses on + the Waterloo docks have an aggregate storage area of 11-3/4 acres, + while the sister warehouses on the Birkenhead side, which stand on the + margin of the great float, have an area of 11 acres. The total + capacity of these warehouses is about 200,000 qrs. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + + Manchester. + + The grain warehouse of the Manchester docks at Trafford wharf is + locally known as the grain elevator, because it was built to a great + extent on the model of an American elevator. Some of the mechanical + equipment was supplied by a Chicago firm. The total capacity is + 1,500,000 bushels or 40,000 tons of grain, which is stored in 226 + separate bins. The granary proper stands about 340 ft. from the side + of the dock, but is directly connected with the receiving tower, which + rises at the water's edge, by a band conveyor protected by a gantry. + The main building is 448 ft. long by 80 ft. wide; the whole of the + superstructure was constructed of wood with an external casing of + brickwork and tiles. The receiving tower is fitted with a bucket + elevator capable, within fairly wide limits, of adjustment to the + level of the hold to be unloaded. The elevator has the large unloading + capacity of 350 tons per hour, assuming it to be working in a full + hold. It is supplemented by a pneumatic elevator (Duckham system) + which can raise 200 tons per hour and is used chiefly in dealing with + parcels of grain or in clearing grain out of holds which the ordinary + elevator cannot reach. The power required to work the large elevator + as well as the various band conveyors is supplied by two sets of + horizontal Corliss compound engines of 500 H.P. jointly, which are fed + by two Galloway boilers working at 100 lb. pressure. The pneumatic + elevator is driven by two sets of triple expansion vertical engines of + 600 H.P. fed by three boilers working at a pressure of 160 lb. The + grain received in the tower is automatically weighed. From the + receiving tower the grain is conveyed into the warehouse where it is + at once elevated to the top of a central tower, and is thence + distributed to any of the bins by band conveyors in the usual way. The + mechanical equipment of this warehouse is very complete, and the + following several operations can be simultaneously effected: + discharging grain from vessels in the dock at the rate of 350 tons + per hour; weighing in the tower; conveying grain into the warehouse + and distributing it into any of the 226 bins; moving grain from bin to + bin either for aerating or delivery, and simultaneously weighing in + bulk at the rate of 500 tons per hour; sacking grain, weighing and + loading the sacks into 40 railway trucks and 10 carts simultaneously; + loading grain from the warehouse into barges or coasting craft at the + rate of 150 tons per hour in bulk or of 250 sacks per hour. This + warehouse is equipped with a dryer of American construction, which can + deal with 50 tons of damp grain at one time, and is connected with the + whole bin system so that grain can be readily moved from any bin to + the dryer or conversely. + + + London. + + A grain warehouse at the Victoria docks, London, belonging to the + London and India Docks Company (fig. 2) has a storing capacity of + about 25,000 qrs. or 200,000 bushels. It is over 100 ft. high, and is + built on the American plan of interlaced timbers resting on iron + columns. The walls are externally cased with steel plates. The grain + is stored in 56 silos, most of which are about 10 ft. square by 50 ft. + deep. The intake plant has a capacity of 100 tons of wheat an hour, + and includes six automatic grain scales, each of which can weigh off + one sack at a time. The main delivery floor of the warehouse is at a + convenient height above the ground level. Portable automatic weighing + machines can be placed under any bin. The whole of the plant is driven + by electric motors, one being allotted to each machine. + + The transit silos of the London Grain Elevator Company, also at the + Victoria docks, consist of four complete and independent installations + standing on three tongues of land which project into the water (figs. + 2 and 3). Each silo house is furnished with eight bins, each of which, + 12 ft. square by 80 ft. deep, has a capacity of 1000 qrs. of grain. A + kind of well in the middle of each silo house contains the necessary + elevators, staircases, &c. The silo bins in each granary are erected + on a massive cast iron tank forming a sort of cellar, which rests on a + concrete foundation 6 ft. thick. The base of the tank is 30 ft. below + the water level. The silos are formed of wooden battens nailed one on + top of the other, the pieces interlacing. Rolled steel girders resting + on cast iron columns support the silos. To ensure a clean discharge + the hopper bottoms were designed so as to avoid joints and thus to be + free from rivets or similar protuberances. The exterior of each silo + house is covered with corrugated iron, and the same material is used + for the roofing. No conveyors serve the silo bins, as the elevators + which rise above the tops of the silos can feed any one of them by + gravity. There are three delivery elevators to each granary, one with + a capacity of 120 tons and the other two of 100 tons each an hour. + Each silo house is served by a large elevator with a capacity of 120 + tons per hour, which discharges into the elevator well inside the + house. The delivery elevators discharge into a receiving shed in which + there is a large hopper feeding six automatic weighing machines. Each + charge as it is weighed empties itself automatically into sacks, which + are then ready for loading. Each pair of warehouses is provided with a + conveyor band 308 ft. long, used either for carrying sacks from the + weighing sheds to railway trucks or for carrying grain in bulk to + barges or trucks. Each silo house has an identical mechanical + equipment apart from the delivery band it shares with its fellow + warehouse. All operations in connexion with the silo houses are + effected under cover. The silos are normally fed by a fleet of + twenty-six of Philip's patent self-discharging lighters. These craft + are hopper-bottomed and fitted with band conveyors of the ordinary + type, running between the double keelson of the lighter and delivering + into an elevator erected at the stern of the lighter. By this means + little trimming is required after the barge, which holds about 200 + tons of grain, has been cleared. Ocean steamers of such draft as to + preclude their entry into any of the up river docks are cleared at + Tilbury by these lighters. It is said that grain loaded at Tilbury + into these lighters can be delivered from the transit silos to railway + trucks or barges in about six hours. The total storage capacity of the + silos amounts to 32,000 qrs. The motive power is furnished by 14 gas + engines of a total capacity of 366 H.P. + + + Rumania. + + Two of the largest granaries on the continent of Europe are situated + at the mouth of the Danube, at Braila and Galatz, in Rumania, and + serve for both the reception and discharge of grain. At the edge of + the quay on which these warehouses are built there are rails with a + gauge of 11-1/2 ft., upon which run two mechanical loading and + unloading appliances. The first consists of a telescopic elevator + which raises the grain and delivers it to one of the two band + conveyors at the head of the apparatus. Each of these bands feeds + automatic weighing machines with an hourly capacity of 75 tons. From + these weighers the grain is either discharged through a manhole in the + ground to a band conveyor running in a tunnel parallel to the quay + wall, or it is raised by a second elevator (part of the same unloading + apparatus), set at an inclined angle, which delivers at a sufficient + height to load railway trucks on the siding running parallel to the + quay. A turning gear is provided so as to reverse, if required, the + operation of the whole apparatus, that the portion overhanging the + water can be turned to the land side. The unloading capacity is 150 + tons of grain per hour. If it be desired to load a ship the telescopic + elevator has only to be turned round and dipped into any one of 15 + wells, which can be filled up with grain from the land side. The + capacity of each granary is 233,333 qrs. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3. + + Transit Silos of the London Grain Elevator Co. Ltd., Victoria Docks, + London. + + A. Barge Elevators + B. Receiving Elevators + C. Silo Bins + D. Delivery Elevators + E. Weigh Houses + F. Automatic Scales + G. Sack, Band Gantry + + Longitudinal Elevation looking towards Barge Elevators. + + Cross Section through Transit Silos.] + + + Stuttgart. + + Many large granaries have been built, in which grain is stored on open + floors, in bulk or in sacks. A notable instance is the warehouse of + the city of Stuttgart. This is a structure of seven floors, including + a basement and entresol. An engine house accommodates two gas engines + as well as an hydraulic installation for the lifts. The grain is + received by an elevator from the railway trucks, and is delivered to a + weighing machine from which it is carried by a second elevator to the + top storey, where it is fed to a band running the length of the + building. A system of pipes runs from floor to floor, and by means of + the band conveyor with its movable throw-off carriage grain can be + shot to any floor. A second band conveyor is installed in the entresol + floor, and serves to convey grain either to the elevator, if it is + desired to elevate it to the top floor, or to the loading shed. A + second elevator runs through the centre of the building, and is + provided with a spout by means of which grain can be delivered into + the hopper feeding the cleaning machine, whence the grain passes into + a second hopper under which is an automatic weigher; directly under + this weigher the grain is sacked. + + + Mannheim. + + A good example of a grain warehouse on the combined silo bin and floor + storage system is afforded by the granary at Mannheim on the Rhine, + which has the storage capacity of 2100 tons. The building is 370 ft. + in length, 78 ft. wide and 78 ft. high, and by means of transverse + walls it is divided into three sections; of these one contains silos, + in another section grain is stored on open floors, while the third, + which is situated between the other two, is the grain-cleaning + department. This granary stands by the quay side, and a ship elevator + of great capacity, which serves the cleaning department, can rapidly + clear any ship or barge beneath. The central or screening house + section contains machinery specially designed for cleaning barley as + well as wheat. The barley plant has a capacity of 5 tons per hour. + There are four main elevators in this warehouse, while two more serve + the screen house. The usual band conveyors fitted with throw-off + carriages are provided, and are supplemented by an elaborate system of + pipes which receive grain from the elevators and bands and distribute + it at any required point. The plant is operated by electric motors. If + desired the floors of the non-silo section can be utilized for storing + other goods than grain, and to this end a lift with a capacity of 1 + ton runs from the basement to the top storey. The combined capacity + of the elevators and conveyors is 100 tons of grain per hour. The + mechanical equipment is so complete that four distinct operations are + claimed as possible. A ship may be unloaded into silos or into the + granary floors, and may simultaneously be loaded either from silos or + floors with different kinds of grain. Again, a cargo may be discharged + either into silos or upon the floors, and simultaneously the grain may + be cleaned. Grain may also be cleared from a vessel, mixed with other + grain already received, and then distributed to any desired point. + With equal facility grain may be cleaned, blended with other + varieties, re-stored in any section of the granary, and transferred + from one ship to another. + + + Dortmund. + + A granary with special features of interest, erected on the quay at + Dortmund, Germany, by a co-operative society, is built of brick on a + base of hewn stone, with beams and supports of timber. It is 78 ft. + high and consists of seven floors, including basement and attic. Here + again there are two sections, the larger being devoted to the storage + of grain in low bins, while the smaller section consists of an + ordinary silo house. Grain in sacks may be stored in the basement of + the larger section which has a capacity of 1675 tons as compared with + 825 tons in the silo department. Thus the total storage capacity is + 2500 tons. In the silo house the bins, constructed of planks nailed + one over the other, are of varying size and are capable of storing + grain to a depth of 42 to 47 ft. Some of the bins have been specially + adapted for receiving damp grain by being provided internally with + transverse wooden arms which form square or lozenge-shaped sections. + The object of this arrangement is to break up and aerate the stored + grain. The arms are of triangular section and are slightly hollowed at + the base so as to bring a current of air into direct contact with the + grain. The air can be warmed if necessary. The other and larger + section of the granary is provided with 105 bins of moderate height + arranged in groups of 21 on the five floors between the basement and + attic. On the intermediate floors and the bottom floor each bin lies + exactly under the bin above. Grain is not stored in these bins to a + greater depth than 5 ft. The bins are fitted with removable side + walls, and damp grain is only stored in certain bins aerated for half + the area of their side walls through a wire mesh. The arrangements for + distributing grain in this warehouse are very complete. The uncleaned + grain is taken by the receiving elevator, with a lifting capacity of + 20 tons per hour, to a warehouse separator, whence it is passed + through an automatic weigher and is then either sacked or spouted to + the main elevator (capacity 25 tons per hour) and elevated to the + attic. From the head of this main elevator the grain can either be fed + to a bin in one or other of the main granary floors, or shot to one of + the bins in the silo house. In the attic the grain is carried by a + spout and belt conveyor to one or other of the turntables, as the + appliances may be termed, which serve to distribute through spouts the + grain to any one of the floor or silo bins. Alternatively, the grain + may be shot into the basement and there fed back into the main + elevator by a band conveyor. In this way the grain may be turned over + as often as it is deemed necessary. At the bottom of each bin are four + apertures connected by spouts, both with the bin below and with the + central vertical pipe which passes down through the centre of each + group of bins. To regulate the course of the grain from bin to bin or + from bin to central pipe, the connecting spouts are fitted with valves + of ingenious yet simple construction which deflect the grain in any + desired direction, so that the contents of two or more bins may be + blended, or grain may be transferred from a bin on one floor to a bin + on a lower floor, missing the bin on the floor between. The valves are + controlled by chains from the basement. + + With reference to the floor bins used at Dortmund, it may be observed + that there are granaries built on a similar principle in the United + Kingdom. It is probable that bins of moderate height are more suitable + for storing grain containing a considerable amount of moisture than + deep silos, whether made of wood, ferro-concrete or other material. + For one thing floor bins of the Dortmund pattern can be more + effectually aerated than deep silos. German wheat has many + characteristics in common with British, and, especially in north + Germany, is not infrequently harvested in a more or less damp + condition. In the United Kingdom, Messrs Spencer & Co., of Melksham, + have erected several granaries on the floor-bin principle, and have + adopted an ingenious system of "telescopic" spouting, by means of + which grain may be discharged from one bin to another or at any + desired point. This spouting can be applied to bins either with level + floors or with hoppered bottoms, if they are arranged one above the + other on the different floors, and is so constructed that an opening + can be effected at certain points by simply sliding upwards a section + of the spout. + +_National Granaries._--Wheat forms the staple food of a large proportion +of the population of the British Isles, and of the total amount consumed +about four-fifths is sea-borne. The stocks normally held in the country +being limited, serious consequences might result from any interruption +of the supply, such as might occur were Great Britain involved in war +with a power or powers commanding a strong fleet. To meet this +contingency it has been suggested that the State should establish +granaries containing a national reserve of wheat for use in emergency, +or should adopt measures calculated to induce merchants, millers, &c., +to hold larger stocks than at present and to stimulate the production of +home-grown wheat. + + + Amount of stocks. + +Stocks of wheat (and of flour expressed in its equivalent weight of +wheat) are held by merchants, millers and farmers. Merchants' stocks are +kept in granaries at ports of importation and are known as first-hand +stocks. Stocks of wheat and flour in the hands of millers and of flour +held by bakers are termed second-hand stocks, while farmers' stocks only +consist of native wheat. Periodical returns are generally made of +first-hand or port stocks, nor should a wide margin of error be possible +in the case of farmers' stocks, but second-hand stocks are more +difficult to gauge. Since the last decade of the 19th century the +storage capacity of British mills has considerably increased. As the +number of small mills has diminished the capacity of the bigger ones has +increased, and proportionately their warehousing accommodation has been +enlarged. At the present time first-hand stocks tend to diminish because +a larger proportion of millers' holdings are in mill granaries and silo +houses. The immense preponderance of steamers over sailing vessels in +the grain trade has also had the effect of greatly diminishing stocks. +With his cargo or parcel on a steamer a corn merchant can tell almost to +a day when it will be due. In fact foreign wheat owned by British +merchants is to a great extent stored in foreign granaries in preference +to British warehouses. The merchant's risk is thereby lessened to a +certain extent. When his wheat has been brought into a British port, to +send it farther afield means extra expense. But wheat in an American or +Argentine elevator may be ordered wherever the best price can be +obtained for it. Options or "futures," too, have helped to restrict the +size of wheat stocks in the United Kingdom. A merchant buys a cargo of +wheat on passage for arrival at a definite time, and, lest the market +value of grain should have depreciated by the time it arrives, he sells +an option against it. In this way he hedges his deal, the option serving +as insurance against loss. This is why the British corn trade finds it +less risky to limit purchases to bare needs, protecting itself by option +deals, than to store large quantities which may depreciate and involve +their owners in loss. + +Varying estimates have been made of the number of weeks' supply of +breadstuffs (wheat and flour) held by millers at various seasons of the +year. A table compiled by the secretary of the National Association of +British and Irish Millers from returns for 1902 made by 170 milling +firms showed 4.7, 4.9, 4.9 and 5 weeks' supply at the end of March, +June, September and December respectively. These 170 mills were said to +represent 46% of the milling capacity of the United Kingdom, and claimed +to have ground 12,000,000 qrs. out of 25,349,000 qrs. milled in 1902. +These were obviously large mills; it is probable that the other mills +would not have shown anything like such a proportion of stock of either +raw or finished material. A fair estimate of the stocks normally held by +millers and bakers throughout the United Kingdom would be about four +weeks' supply. First-hand stocks vary considerably, but the limits are +definite, ranging from 1,000,000 to 3,500,000 qrs., the latter being a +high figure. The tendency is for first-hand stocks to decline, but two +weeks' supply must be a minimum. Farmers' stocks necessarily vary with +the size of the crop and the period of the year; they will range from 9 +or 10 weeks on the 1st of September to a half week on the 1st of August. +Taking all the stocks together, it is very exceptional for the stock of +breadstuffs to fall below 7 weeks' supply. Between the cereal years +1893-1894 and 1903-1904, a period of 570 weeks, the stocks of all kinds +fell below 7 weeks' supply in only 9 weeks; of these 9 weeks 7 were +between the beginning of June and the end of August 1898. This was +immediately after the Leiter collapse. In seven of these eleven years +there is no instance of stocks falling below 8 weeks' supply. In 21 out +of these 570 weeks and in 39 weeks during the same period stocks dropped +below 7-1/2 and 8 weeks' supply respectively. Roughly speaking the stock +of wheat available for bread-making varies from a two to four months' +supply and is at times well above the latter figure. + + + National reserve. + +The formation of a national reserve of wheat, to be held at the disposal +of the state in case of urgent need during war, is beset by many +practical difficulties. The father of the scheme was probably _The +Miller_, a well-known trade journal. In March and April 1886 two +articles appeared in that paper under the heading "Years of Plenty and +State Granaries," in which it was urged that to meet the risk of hostile +cruisers interrupting the supplies it would be desirable to lay up in +granaries on British soil and under government control a stock of wheat +sufficient for 12 or alternatively 6 months' consumption. This was to be +national property, not to be touched except when the fortune of war sent +up the price of wheat to a famine level or caused severe distress. The +State holding this large stock--a year's supply of foreign grain would +have meant at least 15,000,000 qrs., and have cost about L25,000,000 +exclusive of warehousing--was in peace time to sell no wheat except when +it became necessary to part with stock as a precautionary measure. In +that case the wheat sold was to be replaced by the same amount of new +grain. The idea was to provide the country with a supply of wheat until +sufficient wheat-growing soil could be broken up to make it practically +self-sufficing in respect of wheat. The original suggestion fell quite +flat. Two years later Captain Warren, R.N., read a paper on "Great +Britain's Corn Supplies in War," before the London Chamber of Commerce, +and accepted national granaries as the only practicable safeguard +against what appeared to him a great peril. The representatives of the +shipping interest opposed the scheme, probably because it appeared to +them likely to divert the public from insisting on an all-powerful navy. +The corn trade opposed the project on account of its great practical +difficulties. But constant contraction of the British wheat acreage kept +the question alive, and during the earlier half of the 'nineties it was +a favourite theme with agriculturists. Some influential members of +parliament pressed the matter on the government, who, acting, no doubt, +on the advice of their military and naval experts, refused either a +royal commission or a departmental committee. While the then technical +advisers of the government were divided on the advisability of +establishing national granaries as a defensive measure, the balance of +expert opinion was adverse to the scheme. Lord Wolseley, then +commander-in-chief, publicly stigmatized the theory that Great Britain +might in war be starved into submission as "unmitigated humbug." + + + Yerburgh committee. + +In spite of official discouragement the agitation continued, and early +in 1897 the council of the Central and Associated Chambers of +Agriculture, at the suggestion to a great extent of Mr R. A. Yerburgh, +M.P., nominated a committee to examine the question of national wheat +stores. This committee held thirteen sittings and examined fifty-four +witnesses. Its report, which was published (L. G. Newman & Co., 12 +Finsbury Square, London, E.C.) with minutes of the evidence taken, +practically recommended that a national reserve of wheat on the lines +already sketched should be formed and administered by the State, and +that the government should be strongly urged to obtain the appointment +of a royal commission, comprising representatives of agriculture, the +corn trade, shipping, and the army and navy, to conduct an exhaustive +inquiry into the whole subject of the national food-supply in case of +war. This recommendation was ultimately carried into effect, but not +till nearly five years had elapsed. Of two schemes for national +granaries put before the Yerburgh committee, one was formulated by Mr +Seth Taylor, a London miller and corn merchant, who reckoned that a +store of 10,000,000 qrs. of wheat might be accumulated at an average +cost of 40s. per qr.--this was in the Leiter year of high prices--and +distributed in six specially constructed granaries to be erected at +London, Liverpool, Hull, Bristol, Glasgow and Dublin. The cost of the +granaries was put at L7,500,000. Mr Taylor's scheme, all charges +included, such as 2-1/2% interest on capital, cost of storage (at 6d. +per qr.), and 2s. per qr. for cost of replacing wheat, involved an +annual expenditure of L1,250,000. The Yerburgh committee also considered +a proposal to stimulate the home supply of wheat by offering a bounty to +farmers for every quarter of wheat grown. This proposal has taken +different shapes; some have suggested that a bounty should be given on +every acre of land covered with wheat, while others would only allow the +bounty on wheat raised and kept in good condition up to a certain date, +say the beginning of the following harvest. It is obvious that a bounty +on the area of land covered by wheat, irrespective of yield, would be a +premium on poor farming, and might divert to wheat-growing land +unsuitable for that purpose. The suggestion to pay a bounty of say 3s. +to 5s. per qr. for all wheat grown and stacked for a certain time stands +on a different basis; it is conceivable that a bounty of 5s. might +expand the British production of wheat from say 7,000,000 to 9,000,000 +qrs., which would mean that a bounty of L2,250,000 per annum, plus costs +of administration, had secured an extra home production of 2,000,000 +qrs. Whether such a price would be worth paying is another matter; the +Yerburgh committee's conclusion was decidedly in the negative. It has +also been suggested that the State might subsidize millers to the extent +of 2s. 6d. per sack of 280 lb. per annum on condition that each +maintained a minimum supply of two months' flour. This may be taken to +mean that for keeping a special stock of flour over and above his usual +output a miller would be entitled to an annual subsidy of 2s. 6d. per +sack. An extra stock of 10,000,000 sacks might be thus kept up at an +annual cost of L1,250,000, plus the expenditure of administration, which +would probably be heavy. With regard to this suggestion, it is very +probable that a few large mills which have plenty of warehouse +accommodation and depots all over the country would be ready to keep up +a permanent extra stock of 100,000 sacks. Thus a mill of 10,000 sacks' +capacity per week, which habitually maintains a total stock of 50,000 +sacks, might bring up its stock to 150,000 sacks. Such a mill, being a +good customer to railways, could get from them the storage it required +for little or nothing. But the bulk of the mills have no such +advantages. They have little or no spare warehousing room, and are not +accustomed to keep any stock, sending their flour out almost as fast as +it is milled. It is doubtful therefore if a bounty of 2s. 6d. per sack +would have the desired effect of keeping up a stock of 10,000,000 sacks, +sufficient for two to three months' bread consumption. + + + Royal commission, 1903-1905. + +The controversy reached a climax in the royal commission appointed in +1903, to which was also referred the importation of raw material in war +time. Its report appeared in 1905. To the question whether the +unquestioned dependence of the United Kingdom on an uninterrupted supply +of sea-borne breadstuffs renders it advisable or not to maintain at all +times a six months' stock of wheat and flour, it returned no decided +answer, or perhaps it would be more correct to say that the commission +was hopelessly divided. The main report was distinctly optimistic so far +as the liability of the country to harass and distress at the hands of a +hostile naval power or combination of powers was concerned. But there +were several dissentients, and there was hardly any portion of the +report in chief which did not provoke some reservation or another. That +a maritime war would cause freights and insurance to rise in a high +degree was freely admitted, and it was also admitted that the price of +bread must also rise very appreciably. But, provided the navy did not +break down, the risk of starvation was dismissed. Therefore all the +proposals for providing national granaries or inducing merchants and +millers to carry bigger stocks were put aside as unpractical and +unnecessary. The commission was, however, inclined to consider more +favourably a suggestion for providing free storage for wheat at the +expense of the State. The idea was that if the State would subsidize any +large granary company to the extent of 6d. or 5d. per qr., grain now +warehoused in foreign lands would be attracted to the British Isles. But +on the whole the commission held that the main effect of the scheme +would be to saddle the government with the rent of all grain stored in +public warehouses in the United Kingdom without materially increasing +stocks. The proposal to offer bounties to farmers to hold stocks for a +longer period and to grow more wheat met with equally little favour. + +To sum up the advantages of national granaries, assuming any sort of +disaster to the navy, the possession of a reserve of even six months' +wheat-supply in addition to ordinary stocks would prevent panic prices. +On the other hand, the difficulties in the way of forming and +administering such a reserve are very great. The world grows no great +surplus of wheat, and to form a six months', much more a twelve months', +stock would be the work of years. The government in buying up the wheat +would have to go carefully if they would avoid sending up prices with a +rush. They would have to buy dearly, and when they let go a certain +amount of stock they would be bound to sell cheaply. A stock once formed +might be held by the State with little or no disturbance of the corn +market, although the existence of such an emergency stock would hardly +encourage British farmers to grow more wheat. The cost of erecting, +equipping and keeping in good order the necessary warehouses would be, +probably, much heavier than the most liberal estimate hitherto made by +advocates of national granaries. (G. F. Z.) + + + + +GRANBY, JOHN MANNERS, MARQUESS OF (1721-1770), British soldier, was the +eldest son of the third duke of Rutland. He was born in 1721 and +educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, and was returned as +member of parliament for Grantham in 1741. Four years later he received +a commission as colonel of a regiment raised by the Rutland interest in +and about Leicester to assist in quelling the Highland revolt of 1745. +This corps never got beyond Newcastle, but young Granby went to the +front as a volunteer on the duke of Cumberland's staff, and saw active +service in the last stages of the insurrection. Very soon his regiment +was disbanded. He continued in parliament, combining with it military +duties, making the campaign of Flanders (1747). Promoted major-general +in 1755, three years later he was appointed colonel of the Royal Horse +Guards (Blues). Meanwhile he had married the daughter of the duke of +Somerset, and in 1754 had begun his parliamentary connexion with +Cambridgeshire, for which county he sat until his death. The same year +that saw Granby made colonel of the Blues, saw also the despatch of a +considerable British contingent to Germany. Minden was Granby's first +great battle. At the head of the Blues he was one of the cavalry leaders +halted at the critical moment by Sackville, and when in consequence that +officer was sent home in disgrace, Lieut.-General Lord Granby succeeded +to the command of the British contingent in Ferdinand's army, having +32,000 men under his orders at the beginning of 1760. In the remaining +campaigns of the Seven Years' War the English contingent was more +conspicuous by its conduct than the Prussians themselves. On the 31st of +July 1760 Granby brilliantly stormed Warburg at the head of the British +cavalry, capturing 1500 men and ten pieces of artillery. A year later +(15th of July 1761) the British defended the heights of Vellinghausen +with what Ferdinand himself styled "indescribable bravery." In the last +campaign, at Gravenstein und Wilhelmsthal, Homburg and Cassel, Granby's +men bore the brunt of the fighting and earned the greatest share of the +glory. + +Returning to England in 1763 the marquess found himself the popular +hero of the war. It is said that couriers awaited his arrival at all the +home ports to offer him the choice of the Ordnance or the Horse Guards. +His appointment to the Ordnance bore the date of the 1st of July 1763, +and three years later he became commander-in-chief. In this position he +was attacked by "Junius," and a heated discussion arose, as the writer +had taken the greatest pains in assailing the most popular member of the +Grafton ministry. In 1770 Granby, worn out by political and financial +trouble, resigned all his offices, except the colonelcy of the Blues. He +died at Scarborough on the 18th of October 1770. He had been made a +privy councillor in 1760, lord lieutenant of Derbyshire in 1762, and +LL.D. of Cambridge in 1769. + + Two portraits of Granby were painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, one of + which is now in the National Gallery. His contemporary popularity is + indicated by the number of inns and public-houses which took his name + and had his portrait as sign-board. + + + + +GRAN CHACO, an extensive region in the heart of South America belonging +to the La Plata basin, stretching from 20 deg. to 29 deg S. lat., and +divided between the republics of Argentine, Bolivia and Paraguay, with a +small district of south-western Matto Grosso (Brazil). Its area is +estimated at from 250,000 to 425,000 sq. m., but the true Chaco region +probably does not exceed 300,000 sq. m. The greater part is covered with +marshes, lagoons and dense tropical jungle and forest, and is still +unexplored. On its southern and western borders there are extensive +tracts of open woodland, intermingled with grassy plains, while on the +northern side in Bolivia are large areas of open country subject to +inundations in the rainy season. In general terms the Gran Chaco may be +described as a great plain sloping gently to the S.E., traversed in the +same direction by two great rivers, the Pilcomayo and Bermejo, whose +sluggish courses are not navigable because of sand-banks, barriers of +overturned trees and floating vegetation, and confusing channels. This +excludes that part of eastern Bolivia belonging to the Amazon basin, +which is sometimes described as part of the Chaco. The greater part of +its territory is occupied by nomadic tribes of Indians, some of whom are +still unsubdued, while others, like the Matacos, are sometimes to be +found on neighbouring sugar estates and estancias as labourers during +the busy season. The forest wealth of the Chaco region is incalculable +and apparently inexhaustible, consisting of a great variety of palms and +valuable cabinet woods, building timber, &c. Its extensive tracts of +"quebracho Colorado" (_Loxopterygium Lorentzii_) are of very great value +because of its use in tanning leather. Both the wood and its extract are +largely exported. Civilization is slowly gaining footholds in this +region along the southern and eastern borders. + + + + +GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE (alternatively called the War of the League +of Augsburg), the third[1] of the great aggressive wars waged by Louis +XIV. of France against Spain, the Empire, Great Britain, Holland and +other states. The two earlier wars, which are redeemed from oblivion by +the fact that in them three great captains, Turenne, Conde and +Montecucculi, played leading parts, are described in the article DUTCH +WARS. In the third war the leading figures are: Henri de +Montmorency-Boutteville, duke of Luxemburg, the former aide-de-camp of +Conde and heir to his daring method of warfare; William of Orange, who +had fought against both Conde and Luxemburg in the earlier wars, and was +now king of England; Vauban, the founder of the sciences of +fortification and siegecraft, and Catinat, the follower of Turenne's +cautious and systematic strategy, who was the first commoner to receive +high command in the army of Louis XIV. But as soldiers, these +men--except Vauban--are overshadowed by the great figures of the +preceding generation, and except for a half-dozen outstanding episodes, +the war of 1689-97 was an affair of positions and manoeuvres. + +It was within these years that the art and practice of war began to +crystallize into the form called "linear" in its strategic and tactical +aspect, and "cabinet-war" in its political and moral aspect. In the +Dutch wars, and in the minor wars that preceded the formation of the +League of Augsburg, there were still survivals of the loose +organization, violence and wasteful barbarity typical of the Thirty +Years' War; and even in the War of the Grand Alliance (in its earlier +years) occasional brutalities and devastations showed that the old +spirit died hard. But outrages that would have been borne in dumb misery +in the old days now provoked loud indignation, and when the fierce +Louvois disappeared from the scene it became generally understood that +barbarity was impolitic, not only as alienating popular sympathies, but +also as rendering operations a physical impossibility for want of +supplies. + + + Character of the war. + +Thus in 1700, so far from terrorizing the country people into +submission, armies systematically conciliated them by paying cash and +bringing trade into the country. Formerly, wars had been fought to +compel a people to abjure their faith or to change sides in some +personal or dynastic quarrel. But since 1648 this had no longer been the +case. The Peace of Westphalia established the general relationship of +kings, priests and peoples on a basis that was not really shaken until +the French Revolution, and in the intervening hundred and forty years +the peoples at large, except at the highest and gravest moments (as in +Germany in 1689, France In 1709 and Prussia in 1757) held aloof from +active participation in politics and war. This was the beginning of the +theory that war was an affair of the regular forces only, and that +intervention in it by the civil population was a punishable offence. +Thus wars became the business of the professional soldiers in the king's +own service, and the scarcity and costliness of these soldiers combined +with the purely political character of the quarrels that arose to reduce +a campaign from an "intense and passionate drama" to a humdrum affair, +to which only rarely a few men of genius imparted some degree of vigour, +and which in the main was an attempt to gain small ends by a small +expenditure of force and with the minimum of risk. As between a prince +and his subjects there were still quarrels that stirred the average +man--the Dragonnades, for instance, or the English Revolution--but +foreign wars were "a stronger form of diplomatic notes," as Clausewitz +called them, and were waged with the object of adding a codicil to the +treaty of peace that had closed the last incident. + +Other causes contributed to stifle the former ardour of war. Campaigns +were no longer conducted by armies of ten to thirty thousand men. Large +regular armies had come into fashion, and, as Guibert points out, +instead of small armies charged with grand operations we find grand +armies charged with small operations. The average general, under the +prevailing conditions of supply and armament, was not equal to the task +of commanding such armies. Any real concentration of the great forces +that Louis XIV. had created was therefore out of the question, and the +field armies split into six or eight independent fractions, each charged +with operations on a particular theatre of war. From such a policy +nothing remotely resembling the crushing of a great power could be +expected to be gained. The one tangible asset, in view of future peace +negotiations, was therefore a fortress, and it was on the preservation +or capture of fortresses that operations in all these wars chiefly +turned. The idea of the decisive battle for its own sake, as a +settlement of the quarrel, was far distant; for, strictly speaking, +there was no quarrel, and to use up highly trained and exceedingly +expensive soldiers in gaining by brute force an advantage that might +equally well be obtained by chicanery was regarded as foolish. + +The fortress was, moreover, of immediate as well as contingent value to +a state at war. A century of constant warfare had impoverished middle +Europe, and armies had to spread over a large area if they desired to +"live on the country." This was dangerous in the face of the enemy (cf. +the Peninsular War), and it was also uneconomical. The only way to +prevent the country people from sending their produce into the +fortresses for safety was to announce beforehand that cash would be +paid, at a high rate, for whatever the army needed. But even promises +rarely brought this about, and to live at all, whether on supplies +brought up from the home country and stored in magazines (which had to +be guarded) or on local resources, an army had as a rule to maintain or +to capture a large fortress. Sieges, therefore, and manoeuvres are the +features of this form of war, wherein armies progressed not with the +giant strides of modern war, but in a succession of short hops from one +foothold to the next. This was the procedure of the average commander, +and even when a more intense spirit of conflict was evoked by the +Luxemburgs and Marlboroughs it was but momentary and spasmodic. + +The general character of the war being borne in mind, nine-tenths of its +marches and manoeuvres can be almost "taken as read"; the remaining +tenth, the exceptional and abnormal part of it, alone possesses an +interest for modern readers. + +In pursuance of a new aggressive policy in Germany Louis XIV. sent his +troops, as a diplomatic menace rather than for conquest, into that +country in the autumn of 1688. Some of their raiding parties plundered +the country as far south as Augsburg, for the political intent of their +advance suggested terrorism rather than conciliation as the best method. +The league of Augsburg at once took up the challenge, and the addition +of new members (Treaty of Vienna, May 1689) converted it into the "Grand +Alliance" of Spain, Holland, Sweden, Savoy and certain Italian states, +Great Britain, the emperor, the elector of Brandenburg, &c. + +"Those who condemned the king for raising up so many enemies, admired +him for having so fully prepared to defend himself and even to forestall +them," says Voltaire. Louvois had in fact completed the work of +organizing the French army on a regular and permanent basis, and had +made it not merely the best, but also by far the most numerous in +Europe, for Louis disposed in 1688 of no fewer than 375,000 soldiers and +60,000 sailors. The infantry was uniformed and drilled, and the socket +bayonet and the flint-lock musket had been introduced. The only relic of +the old armament was the pike, which was retained for one-quarter of the +foot, though it had been discarded by the Imperialists in the course of +the Turkish wars described below. The first artillery regiment was +created in 1684, to replace the former semi-civilian organization by a +body of artillerymen susceptible of uniform training and amenable to +discipline and orders. + + + Devastation of the Palatinate, 1689. + +In 1689 Louis had six armies on foot. That in Germany, which had +executed the raid of the previous autumn, was not in a position to +resist the principal army of the coalition so far from support. Louvois +therefore ordered it to lay waste the Palatinate, and the devastation of +the country around Heidelberg, Mannheim, Spires, Oppenheim and Worms was +pitilessly and methodically carried into effect in January and February. +There had been devastations in previous wars, even the high-minded +Turenne had used the argument of fire and sword to terrify a population +or a prince, while the whole story of the last ten years of the great +war had been one of incendiary armies leaving traces of their passage +that it took a century to remove. But here the devastation was a purely +military measure, executed systematically over a given strategic front +for no other purpose than to delay the advance of the enemy's army. It +differed from the method of Turenne or Cromwell in that the sufferers +were not those people whom it was the purpose of the war to reduce to +submission, but others who had no interest in the quarrel. It differed +from Wellington's laying waste of Portugal in 1810 in that it was not +done for the defence of the Palatinate against a national enemy, but +because the Palatinate was where it was. The feudal theory that every +subject of a prince at war was an armed vassal, and therefore an enemy +of the prince's enemy, had in practice been obsolete for two centuries +past; by 1690 the organization of war, its causes, its methods and its +instruments had passed out of touch with the people at large, and it had +become thoroughly understood that the army alone was concerned with the +army's business. Thus it was that this devastation excited universal +reprobation; and that, in the words of a modern French writer, the +"idea of Germany came to birth in the flames of the Palatinate." + +As a military measure this crime was, moreover, quite unprofitable; for +it became impossible for Marshal Duras, the French commander, to hold +out on the east side of the middle Rhine, and he could think of nothing +better to do than to go farther south and to ravage Baden and the +Breisgau, which was not even a military necessity. The grand army of the +Allies, coming farther north, was practically unopposed. Charles of +Lorraine and the elector of Bavaria--lately comrades in the Turkish war +(see below)--invested Mainz, the elector of Brandenburg Bonn. The +latter, following the evil precedent of his enemies, shelled the town +uselessly instead of making a breach in its walls and overpowering its +French garrison, an incident not calculated to advance the nascent idea +of German unity. Mainz, valiantly defended by Nicolas du Ble, marquis +d'Uxelles, had to surrender on the 8th of September. The governor of +Bonn, baron d'Asfeld, not in the least intimidated by the bombardment, +held out till the army that had taken Mainz reinforced the elector of +Brandenburg, and then, rejecting the hard terms of surrender offered him +by the latter, he fell in resisting a last assault on the 12th of +October. Only 850 men out of his 6000 were left to surrender on the +16th, and the duke of Lorraine, less truculent than the elector, +escorted them safely to Thionville. Boufflers, with another of Louis's +armies, operated from Luxemburg (captured by the French in 1684 and +since held) and Trarbach towards the Rhine, but in spite of a minor +victory at Kochheim on the 21st of August, he was unable to relieve +either Mainz or Bonn. + +In the Low Countries the French marshal d'Humieres, being in superior +force, had obtained _special permission_ to offer battle to the Allies. +Leaving the garrison of Lille and Tournay to amuse the Spaniards, he +hurried from Maubeuge to oppose the Dutch, who from Namur had advanced +slowly on Philippeville. Coming upon their army (which was commanded by +the prince of Waldeck) in position behind the river Heure, with an +advanced post in the little walled town of Walcourt, he flung his +advanced guard against the bridge and fortifications of this place to +clear the way for his deployment beyond the river Heure (27th August). +After wasting a thousand brave men in this attempt, he drew back. For a +few days the two armies remained face to face, cannonading one another +at intervals, but no further fighting occurred. Humieres returned to the +region of the Scheldt fortresses, and Waldeck to Brussels. For the +others of Louis' six armies the year's campaign passed off quite +uneventfully. + + + The war in Ireland, 1689-1691. + + Simultaneously with these operations, the Jacobite cause was being + fought to an issue in Ireland. War began early in 1689 with desultory + engagements between the Orangemen of the north and the Irish regular + army, most of which the earl of Tyrconnel had induced to declare for + King James. The northern struggle after a time condensed itself into + the defence of Derry and Enniskillen. The siege of the former place, + begun by James himself and carried on by the French general Rosen, + lasted 105 days. In marked contrast to the sieges of the continent, + this was resisted by the townsmen themselves, under the leadership of + the clergyman George Walker. But the relieving force (consisting of + two frigates, a supply ship and a force under Major-general Percy + Kirke) was dilatory, and it was not until the defenders were in the + last extremity that Kirke actually broke through the blockade (July + 31st). Enniskillen was less closely invested, and its inhabitants, + organized by Colonel Wolseley and other officers sent by Kirke, + actually kept the open field and defeated the Jacobites at Newtown + Butler (July 31st). A few days later the Jacobite army withdrew from + the north. But it was long before an adequate army could be sent over + from England to deal with it. Marshal Schomberg (q.v.), one of the + most distinguished soldiers of the time, who had been expelled from + the French service as a Huguenot, was indeed sent over in August, but + the army he brought, some 10,000 strong, was composed of raw recruits, + and when it was assembled in camp at Dundalk to be trained for its + work, it was quickly ruined by an epidemic of fever. But James failed + to take advantage of his opportunity to renew the war in the north, + and the relics of Schomberg's army wintered in security, covered by + the Enniskillen troops. In the spring of 1690, however, more troops, + this time experienced regiments from Holland, Denmark and Brandenburg, + were sent, and in June, Schomberg in Ireland and Major-general + Scravemore in Chester having thoroughly organized and equipped the + field army, King William assumed the command himself. Five days after + his arrival he began his advance from Loughbrickland near Newry, and + on the 1st of July he engaged James's main army on the river Boyne, + close to Drogheda. Schomberg was killed and William himself wounded, + but the Irish army was routed. + + No stand was made by the defeated party either in the Dublin or in the + Waterford district. Lauzun, the commander of the French auxiliary + corps in James's army, and Tyrconnel both discountenanced any attempt + to defend Limerick, where the Jacobite forces had reassembled; but + Patrick Sarsfield (earl of Lucan), as the spokesman of the younger and + more ardent of the Irish officers, pleaded for its retention. He was + left, therefore, to hold Limerick, while Tyrconnel and Lauzun moved + northward into Galway. Here, as in the north, the quarrel enlisted the + active sympathies of the people against the invader, and Sarsfield not + only surprised and destroyed the artillery train of William's army, + but repulsed every assault made on the walls that Lauzun had said + "could be battered down by rotten apples." William gave up the siege + on the 30th of August. The failure was, however, compensated in a + measure by the arrival in Ireland of an expedition under Lord + Marlborough, which captured Cork and Kinsale, and next year (1691) the + Jacobite cause was finally crushed by William's general Ginckell + (afterwards earl of Athlone) in the battle of Aughrim in Galway (July + 12th), in which St Ruth, the French commander, was killed and the + Jacobite army dissipated. Ginckell, following up his victory, besieged + Limerick afresh. Tyrconnel died of apoplexy while organizing the + defence, and this time the town was invested by sea as well as by + land. After six weeks' resistance the defenders offered to capitulate, + and with the signing of the treaty of Limerick on the 1st of October + the Irish war came to an end. Sarsfield and the most energetic of King + James's supporters retired to France and were there formed into the + famous "Irish brigade." Sarsfield was killed at the battle of + Neerwinden two years later. + +The campaign of 1690 on the continent of Europe is marked by two +battles, one of which, Luxemburg's victory of Fleurus, belongs to the +category of the world's great battles. It is described under FLEURUS, +and the present article only deals summarily with the conditions in +which it was fought. These, though they in fact led to an encounter that +could, in itself, fairly be called decisive, were in closer accord with +the general spirit of the war than was the decision that arose out of +them. + +Luxemburg had a powerful enemy in Louvois, and he had consequently been +allotted only an insignificant part in the first campaign. But after the +disasters of 1689 Louis re-arranged the commands on the north-east +frontier so as to allow Humieres, Luxemburg and Boufflers to combine for +united action. "I will take care that Louvois plays fair," Louis said to +the duke when he gave him his letters of service. Though apparently +Luxemburg was not authorized to order such a combination himself, as +senior officer he would automatically take command if it came about. The +whole force available was probably close on 100,000, but not half of +these were present at the decisive battle, though Luxemburg certainly +practised the utmost "economy of force" as this was understood in those +days (see also NEERWINDEN). On the remaining theatres of war, the +dauphin, assisted by the duc de Lorge, held the middle Rhine, and +Catinat the Alps, while other forces were in Roussillon, &c., as before. +Catinat's operations are briefly described below. Those of the others +need no description, for though the Allies formed a plan for a grand +concentric advance on Paris, the preliminaries to this advance were so +numerous and so closely interdependent that on the most favourable +estimate the winter would necessarily find the Allied armies many +leagues short of Paris. In fact, the Rhine offensive collapsed when +Charles of Lorraine died (17th April), and the reconquest of his lost +duchy ceased to be a direct object of the war. + + + Fleurus, 1690. + +Luxemburg began operations by drawing in from the Sambre country, where +he had hitherto been stationed, to the Scheldt and "eating up" the +country between Oudenarde and Ghent in the face of a Spanish army +concentrated at the latter place (15th May-12th June). He then left +Humieres with a containing force in the Scheldt region and hurried back +to the Sambre to interpose between the Allied army under Waldeck and the +fortress of Dinant which Waldeck was credited with the intention of +besieging. His march from Tournay to Gerpinnes was counted a model of +skill--the _locus classicus_ for the maxim that ruled till the advent of +Napoleon--"march always in the order in which you encamp, or purpose to +encamp, or fight." For four days the army marched across country in +close order, covered in all directions by reconnoitring cavalry and +advanced, flank and rear guards. Under these conditions eleven miles a +day was practically forced marching, and on arriving at +Jeumont-sur-Sambre the army was given three days' rest. Then followed a +few leisurely marches in the direction of Charleroi, during which a +detachment of Boufflers's army came in, and the cavalry explored the +country to the north. On news of the enemy's army being at Trazegnies, +Luxemburg hurried across a ford of the Sambre above Charleroi, but this +proved to be a detachment only, and soon information came in that +Waldeck was encamped near Fleurus. Thereupon Luxemburg, without +consulting his subordinate generals, took his army to Velaine. He knew +that the enemy was marking time till the troops of Liege and the +Brandenburgers from the Rhine were near enough to co-operate in the +Dinant enterprise, and he was determined to fight a battle at once. From +Velaine, therefore, on the morning of the 1st of July, the army moved +forward to Fleurus and there won one of the most brilliant victories in +the history of the Royal army. But Luxemburg was not allowed to pursue +his advantage. He was ordered to hold his army in readiness to besiege +either Namur, Mons, Charleroi or Ath, according as later orders +dictated; and to send back the borrowed regiments to Boufflers, who was +being pressed back by the Brandenburg and Liege troops. Thus Waldeck +reformed his army in peace at Brussels, where William III. of England +soon afterwards assumed command of the Allied forces in the Netherlands, +and Luxemburg and the other marshals stood fast for the rest of the +campaign, being forbidden to advance until Catinat--in Italy--should +have won a battle. + + + Staffarda. + +In this quarter the armed neutrality of the duke of Savoy had long +disquieted the French court. His personal connexions with the imperial +family and his resentment against Louvois, who had on some occasion +treated him with his usual patronizing arrogance, inclined him to join +the Allies, while on the other hand he could hope for extensions of his +scanty territory only by siding with Louis. In view of this doubtful +condition of affairs the French army under Catinat had for some time +been maintained on the Alpine frontier, and in the summer of 1690 Louis +XIV. sent an ultimatum to Victor Amadeus to compel him to take one side +or the other actively and openly. The result was that Victor Emmanuel +threw in his lot with the Allies and obtained help from the Spaniards +and Austrians in the Milanese. Catinat thereupon advanced into Piedmont, +and won, principally by virtue of his own watchfulness and the high +efficiency of his troops, the important victory of Staffarda (August +18th, 1690). This did not, however, enable him to overrun Piedmont, and +as the duke was soon reinforced, he had to be content with the +methodical conquest of a few frontier districts. On the side of Spain, a +small French army under the duc de Noailles passed into Catalonia and +there lived at the enemy's expense for the duration of the campaign. + +In these theatres of war, and on the Rhine, where the disunion of the +German princes prevented vigorous action, the following year, 1691, was +uneventful. But in the Netherlands there were a siege, a war of +manoeuvres and a cavalry combat, each in its way somewhat remarkable. +The siege was that of Mons, which was, like many sieges in the former +wars, conducted with much pomp by Louis XIV. himself, with Boufflers and +Vauban under him. On the surrender of the place, which was hastened by +red-hot shot (April 8th), Louis returned to Versailles and divided his +army between Boufflers and Luxemburg, the former of whom departed to the +Meuse. There he attempted by bombardment to enforce the surrender of +Liege, but had to desist when the elector of Brandenburg threatened +Dinant. The principal armies on either side faced one another under the +command respectively of William III. and of Luxemburg. The Allies were +first concentrated to the south of Namur, and Luxemburg hurried thither, +but neither party found any tempting opportunity for battle, and when +the cavalry had consumed all the forage available in the district, the +two armies edged away gradually towards Flanders. The war of manoeuvre +continued, with a slight balance of advantage on Luxemburg's side, +until September, when William returned to England, leaving Waldeck in +command of the Allied army, with orders to distribute it in winter +quarters amongst the garrison towns. This gave the momentary opportunity +for which Luxemburg had been watching, and at Leuze (20th Sept.) he fell +upon the cavalry of Waldeck's rearguard and drove it back in disorder +with heavy losses until the pursuit was checked by the Allied infantry. + +In 1692[2] the Rhine campaign was no more decisive than before, although +Lorge made a successful raid into Wurttemberg in September and foraged +his cavalry in German territory till the approach of winter. The Spanish +campaign was unimportant, but on the Alpine side the Allies under the +duke of Savoy drove back Catinat into Dauphine, which they ravaged with +fire and sword. But the French peasantry were quicker to take arms than +the Germans, and, inspired by the local gentry--amongst whom figured the +heroine, Philis de la Tour du Pin (1645-1708), daughter of the marquis +de la Charce--they beset every road with such success that the small +regular army of the invaders was powerless. Brought practically to a +standstill, the Allies soon consumed the provisions that could be +gathered in, and then, fearing lest the snow should close the passes +behind them, they retreated. + + + Siege of Namur, 1692. + + Steenkirk. + +In the Low Countries the campaign as before began with a great siege. +Louis and Vauban invested Namur on the 26th of May. The place was +defended by the prince de Barbancon (who had been governor of Luxemburg +when that place was besieged in 1684) and Coehoorn (q.v.), Vauban's +rival in the science of fortification. Luxemburg, with a small army, +manoeuvred to cover the siege against William III.'s army at Louvain. +The place fell on the 5th of June,[3] after a very few days of Vauban's +"regular" attack, but the citadel held out until the 23rd. Then, as +before, Louis returned to Versailles, giving injunctions to Luxemburg to +"preserve the strong places and the country, while opposing the enemy's +enterprises and subsisting the army at his expense." This negative +policy, contrary to expectation, led to a hard-fought battle. William, +employing a common device, announced his intention of retaking Namur, +but set his army in motion for Flanders and the sea-coast fortresses +held by the French. Luxemburg, warned in time, hurried towards the +Scheldt, and the two armies were soon face to face again, Luxemburg +about Steenkirk, William in front of Hal. William then formed the plan +of surprising Luxemburg's right wing before it could be supported by the +rest of his army, relying chiefly on false information that a detected +spy at his headquarters was forced to send, to mislead the duke. But +Luxemburg had the material protection of a widespread net of outposts as +well as a secret service, and although ill in bed when William's advance +was reported, he shook off his apathy, mounted his horse and, enabled by +his outpost reports to divine his opponent's plan, he met it (3rd +August) by a swift concentration of his army, against which the Allies, +whose advance and deployment had been mismanaged, were powerless (see +STEENKIRK). In this almost accidental battle both sides suffered +enormous losses, and neither attempted to bring about, or even to risk, +a second resultless trial of strength. Boufflers's army returned to the +Sambre and Luxemburg and William established themselves for the rest of +the season at Lessines and Ninove respectively, 13 m. apart. After both +armies had broken up into their winter quarters, Louis ordered Boufflers +to attempt the capture of Charleroi. But a bombardment failed to +intimidate the garrison, and when the Allies began to re-assemble, the +attempt was given up (19th-21st Oct.). This failure was, however, +compensated by the siege and capture of Furnes (28th Dec. 1692-7th Jan. +1693). + +In 1693, the culminating point of the war was reached. It began, as +mentioned above, with a winter enterprise that at least indicated the +aggressive spirit of the French generals. The king promoted his admiral, +Tourville, and Catinat, the _roturier_, to the marshalship, and founded +the military order of St Louis on the 10th of April. The grand army in +the Netherlands this year numbered 120,000, to oppose whom William III. +had only some 40,000 at hand. But at the very beginning of operations +Louis, after reviewing this large force at Gembloux, broke it up, in +order to send 30,000 under the dauphin to Germany, where Lorge had +captured Heidelberg and seemed able, if reinforced, to overrun south +Germany. But the imperial general Prince Louis of Baden took up a +position near Heilbronn so strong that the dauphin and Lorge did not +venture to attack him. Thus King Louis sacrificed a reality to a dream, +and for the third time lost the opportunity, for which he always longed, +of commanding in chief in a great battle. He himself, to judge by his +letter to Monsieur on the 8th of June, regarded his action as a +sacrifice of personal dreams to tangible realities. And, before the +event falsified predictions, there was much to be said for the course he +took, which accorded better with the prevailing system of war than a +Fleurus or a Neerwinden. In this system of war the rival armies, as +armies, were almost in a state of equilibrium, and more was to be +expected from an army dealing with something dissimilar to itself--a +fortress or a patch of land or a convoy--than from its collision with +another army of equal force. + + + Neerwinden. + +Thus Luxemburg obtained his last and greatest opportunity. He was still +superior in numbers, but William at Louvain had the advantage of +position. The former, authorized by his master this year "_non seulement +d'empecher les ennemis de rien entreprendre, mais d'emporter quelques +avantages sur eux_," threatened Liege, drew William over to its defence +and then advanced to attack him. The Allies, however, retired to another +position, between the Great and Little Geete rivers, and there, in a +strongly entrenched position around Neerwinden, they were attacked by +Luxemburg on the 29th of July. The long and doubtful battle, one of the +greatest victories ever won by the French army, is briefly described +under NEERWINDEN. It ended in a brilliant victory for the assailant, but +Luxemburg's exhausted army did not pursue; William was as unshaken and +determined as ever; and the campaign closed, not with a treaty of peace, +but with a few manoeuvres which, by inducing William to believe in an +attack on Ath, enabled Luxemburg to besiege and capture Charleroi +(October). + + + Marsaglia. + +Neerwinden was not the only French victory of the year. Catinat, +advancing from Fenestrelle and Susa to the relief of Pinerolo +(Pignerol), which the duke of Savoy was besieging, took up a position in +formal order of battle north of the village of Marsaglia. Here on the +4th of October the duke of Savoy attacked him with his whole army, front +to front. But the greatly superior regimental efficiency of the French, +and Catinat's minute attention to details[4] in arraying them, gave the +new marshal a victory that was a not unworthy pendant to Neerwinden. The +Piedmontese and their allies lost, it is said, 10,000 killed, wounded +and prisoners, as against Catinat's 1800. But here, too, the results +were trifling, and this year of victory is remembered chiefly as the +year in which "people perished of want to the accompaniment of _Te +Deums_." + + In 1694 (late in the season owing to the prevailing distress and + famine) Louis opened a fresh campaign in the Netherlands. The armies + were larger and more ineffective than ever, and William offered no + further opportunities to his formidable opponent. In September, after + inducing William to desist from his intention of besieging Dunkirk by + appearing on his flank with a mass of cavalry,[5] which had ridden + from the Meuse, 100 m., in 4 days, Luxemburg gave up his command. He + died on the 4th of January following, and with him the tradition of + the Conde school of warfare disappeared from Europe. In Catalonia the + marshal de Noailles won a victory (27th May) over the Spaniards at the + ford of the Ter (Torroella, 5 m. above the mouth of the river), and + in consequence captured a number of walled towns. + + + Later campaigns of the war. + + In 1695 William found Marshal Villeroi a far less formidable opponent + than Luxemburg had been, and easily succeeded in keeping him in + Flanders while a corps of the Allies invested Namur. Coehoorn directed + the siege-works, and Boufflers the defence. Gradually, as in 1692, the + defenders were dislodged from the town, the citadel outworks and the + citadel itself, the last being assaulted with success by the "British + grenadiers," as the song commemorates, on the 30th of August. + Boufflers was rewarded for his sixty-seven days' defence by the grade + of marshal. + + By 1696 necessity had compelled Louis to renounce his vague and + indefinite offensive policy, and he now frankly restricted his efforts + to the maintenance of what he had won in the preceding campaigns. In + this new policy he met with much success. Boufflers, Lorge, Noailles + and even the incompetent Villeroi held the field in their various + spheres of operations without allowing the Allies to inflict any + material injury, and also (by having recourse again to the policy of + living by plunder) preserving French soil from the burden of their own + maintenance. In this, as before, they were powerfully assisted by the + disunion and divided counsels of their heterogeneous enemies. In + Piedmont, Catinat crowned his work by making peace and alliance with + the duke of Savoy, and the two late enemies having joined forces + captured one of the fortresses of the Milanese. The last campaign was + in 1697. Catinat and Vauban besieged Ath. This siege was perhaps the + most regular and methodical of the great engineer's career. It lasted + 23 days and cost the assailants only 50 men. King William did not stir + from his entrenched position at Brussels, nor did Villeroi dare to + attack him there. Lastly, in August 1697 Vendome, Noailles' successor, + captured Barcelona. The peace of Ryswijk, signed on the 30th of + October, closed this war by practically restoring the _status quo + ante_; but neither the ambitions of Louis nor the Grand Alliance that + opposed them ceased to have force, and three years later the struggle + began anew (see SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE). + + + Austro-Turkish wars, 1682-1699. + + Concurrently with these campaigns, the emperor had been engaged in a + much more serious war on his eastern marches against the old enemy, + the Turks. This war arose in 1682 out of internal disturbances in + Hungary. The campaign of the following year is memorable for all time + as the last great wave of Turkish invasion. Mahommed IV. advanced from + Belgrade in May, with 200,000 men, drove back the small imperial army + of Prince Charles of Lorraine, and early in July invested Vienna + itself. The two months' defence of Vienna by Count Rudiger Starhemberg + (1635-1701) and the brilliant victory of the relieving army led by + John Sobieski, king of Poland, and Prince Charles on the 12th of + September 1683, were events which, besides their intrinsic importance, + possess the romantic interest of an old knightly crusade against the + heathen. + + But the course of the war, after the tide of invasion had ebbed, + differed little from the wars of contemporary western Europe. Turkey + figured rather as a factor in the balance of power than as the + "infidel," and although the battles and sieges in Hungary were + characterized by the bitter personal hostility of Christian to Turk + which had no counterpart in the West, the war as a whole was as + methodical and tedious as any Rhine or Low Countries campaign. In 1684 + Charles of Lorraine gained a victory at Waitzen on the 27th of June + and another at Eperies on the 18th of September, and unsuccessfully + besieged Budapest. + + In 1685 the Germans were uniformly successful, though a victory at + Gran (August 16th) and the storming of Neuhausel (August 19th) were + the only outstanding incidents. In 1686 Charles, assisted by the + elector Max Emanuel of Bavaria, besieged and stormed Budapest (Sept. + 2nd). In 1687 they followed up their success by a great victory at + Mohacz (Aug. 12th). In 1688 the Austrians advanced still further, took + Belgrade, threatened Widin and entered Bosnia. The margrave Louis of + Baden, who afterward became one of the most celebrated of the + methodical generals of the day, won a victory at Derbent on the 5th of + September 1688, and next year, in spite of the outbreak of a general + European war, he managed to win another battle at Nisch (Sept. 24th), + to capture Widin (Oct. 14th) and to advance to the Balkans, but in + 1690, more troops having to be withdrawn for the European war, the + imperialist generals lost Nisch, Widin and Belgrade one after the + other. There was, however, no repetition of the scenes of 1683, for in + 1691 Louis won the battle of Szlankamen (Aug. 19th). After two more + desultory if successful campaigns he was called to serve in western + Europe, and for three years more the war dragged on without result, + until in 1697 the young Prince Eugene was appointed to command the + imperialists and won a great and decisive victory at Zenta on the + Theiss (Sept. 11th). This induced a last general advance of the + Germans eastward, which was definitively successful and brought about + the peace of Carlowitz (January 1699). (C. F. A.) + + +NAVAL OPERATIONS + +The naval side of the war waged by the powers of western Europe from +1689 to 1697, to reduce the predominance of King Louis XIV., was not +marked by any very conspicuous exhibition of energy or capacity, but it +was singularly decisive in its results. At the beginning of the struggle +the French fleet kept the sea in face of the united fleets of Great +Britain and Holland. It displayed even in 1690 a marked superiority over +them. Before the struggle ended it had been fairly driven into port, and +though its failure was to a great extent due to the exhaustion of the +French finances, yet the inability of the French admirals to make a +proper use of their fleets, and the incapacity of the king's ministers +to direct the efforts of his naval officers to the most effective aims, +were largely responsible for the result. + +When the war began in 1689, the British Admiralty was still suffering +from the disorders of the reign of King Charles II., which had been only +in part corrected during the short reign of James II. The first +squadrons were sent out late and in insufficient strength. The Dutch, +crushed by the obligation to maintain a great army, found an increasing +difficulty in preparing their fleet for action early. Louis XIV., a +despotic monarch, with as yet unexhausted resources, had it within his +power to strike first. The opportunity offered him was a very tempting +one. Ireland was still loyal to King James II., and would therefore have +afforded an admirable basis of operations to a French fleet. No serious +attempt was made to profit by the advantage thus presented. In March +1689 King James was landed and reinforcements were prepared for him at +Brest. A British squadron under the command of Arthur Herbert +(afterwards Lord Torrington), sent to intercept them, reached the French +port too late, and on returning to the coast of Ireland sighted the +convoy off the Old Head of Kinsale on the 10th of May. The French +admiral Chateaurenault held on to Bantry Bay, and an indecisive +encounter took place on the 11th of May. The troops and stores for King +James were successfully landed. Then both admirals, the British and the +French, returned home, and neither in that nor in the following year was +any serious effort made by the French to gain command of the sea between +Ireland and England. On the contrary, a great French fleet entered the +Channel, and gained a success over the combined British and Dutch fleets +on the 10th of July 1690 (see BEACHY HEAD, BATTLE OF), which was not +followed up by vigorous action. In the meantime King William III. passed +over to Ireland and won the battle of the Boyne. During the following +year, while the cause of King James was being finally ruined in Ireland, +the main French fleet was cruising in the Bay of Biscay, principally for +the purpose of avoiding battle. During the whole of 1689, 1690 and 1691, +British squadrons were active on the Irish coast. One raised the siege +of Londonderry in July 1689, and another convoyed the first British +forces sent over under the duke of Schomberg. Immediately after Beachy +Head in 1690, a part of the Channel fleet carried out an expedition +under the earl (afterwards duke) of Marlborough, which took Cork and +reduced a large part of the south of the island. In 1691 the French did +little more than help to carry away the wreckage of their allies and +their own detachments. In 1692 a vigorous but tardy attempt was made to +employ their fleet to cover an invasion of England (see LA HOGUE, BATTLE +OF). It ended in defeat, and the allies remained masters of the Channel. +The defeat of La Hogue did not do so much harm to the naval power of +King Louis as has sometimes been supposed. In the next year, 1693, he +was able to strike a severe blow at the Allies. The important +Mediterranean trade of Great Britain and Holland, called for convenience +the Smyrna convoy, having been delayed during the previous year, anxious +measures were taken to see it safe on its road in 1693. But the +arrangements of the allied governments and admirals were not good. They +made no effort to blockade Brest, nor did they take effective steps to +discover whether or not the French fleet had left the port. The convoy +was seen beyond the Scilly Isles by the main fleet. But as the French +admiral Tourville had left Brest for the Straits of Gibraltar with a +powerful force and had been joined by a squadron from Toulon, the whole +convoy was scattered or taken by him, in the latter days of June, near +Lagos. But though this success was a very fair equivalent for the defeat +at La Hogue, it was the last serious effort made by the navy of Louis +XIV. in this war. Want of money compelled him to lay his fleet up. The +allies were now free to make full use of their own, to harass the French +coast, to intercept French commerce, and to co-operate with the armies +acting against France. Some of the operations undertaken by them were +more remarkable for the violence of the effort than for the magnitude of +the results. The numerous bombardments of French Channel ports, and the +attempts to destroy St Malo, the great nursery of the active French +privateers, by infernal machines, did little harm. A British attack on +Brest in June 1694 was beaten off with heavy loss. The scheme had been +betrayed by Jacobite correspondents. Yet the inability of the French +king to avert these enterprises showed the weakness of his navy and the +limitations of his power. The protection of British and Dutch commerce +was never complete, for the French privateers were active to the end. +But French commerce was wholly ruined. + +It was the misfortune of the allies that their co-operation with armies +was largely with the forces of a power so languid and so bankrupt as +Spain. Yet the series of operations directed by Russel in the +Mediterranean throughout 1694 and 1695 demonstrated the superiority of +the allied fleet, and checked the advance of the French in Catalonia. +Contemporary with the campaigns in Europe was a long series of cruises +against the French in the West Indies, undertaken by the British navy, +with more or less help from the Dutch and a little feeble assistance +from the Spaniards. They began with the cruise of Captain Lawrence +Wright in 1690-1691, and ended with that of Admiral Nevil in 1696-1697. +It cannot be said that they attained to any very honourable achievement, +or even did much to weaken the French hold on their possessions in the +West Indies and North America. Some, and notably the attack made on +Quebec by Sir William Phips in 1690, with a force raised in the British +colonies, ended in defeat. None of them was so triumphant as the plunder +of Cartagena in South America by the Frenchman Pointis, in 1697, at the +head of a semi-piratical force. Too often there was absolute misconduct. +In the buccaneering and piratical atmosphere of the West Indies, the +naval officers of the day, who were still infected with the corruption +of the reign of Charles II., and who calculated on distance from home to +secure them immunity, sank nearly to the level of pirates and +buccaneers. The indifference of the age to the laws of health, and its +ignorance of them, caused the ravages of disease to be frightful. In the +case of Admiral Nevil's squadron, the admiral himself and all his +captains except one, died during the cruise, and the ships were +unmanned. Yet it was their own vices which caused these expeditions to +fail, and not the strength of the French defence. When the war ended, +the navy of King Louis XIV. had disappeared from the sea. + + See Burchett, _Memoirs of Transactions at Sea during the War with + France, 1688-1697_ (London, 1703); Lediard, _Naval History_ (London, + 1735), particularly valuable for the quotations in his notes. For the + West Indian voyages, Tronde, _Batailles navales de la France_ (Paris, + 1867); De Yonghe, _Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewezen_ + (Haarlem, 1860). (D. H.) + + + FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The name "Grand Alliance" is applied to the coalition against + Louis XIV. begun by the League of Augsburg. This coalition not only + waged the war dealt with in the present article, but (with only + slight modifications and with practically unbroken continuity) the + war of the Spanish Succession (q.v.) that followed. + + [2] Louvois died in July 1691. + + [3] A few days before this the great naval reverse of La Hogue put an + end to the projects of invading England hitherto entertained at + Versailles. + + [4] Marsaglia is, if not the first, at any rate, one of the first, + instances of a bayonet charge by a long deployed line of infantry. + + [5] Hussars figured here for the first time in western Europe. A + regiment of them had been raised in 1692 from deserters from the + Austrian service. + + + + +GRAND CANARY (Gran Canaria), an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming +part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop. +(1900) 127,471; area 523 sq. m. Grand Canary, the most fertile island of +the group, is nearly circular in shape, with a diameter of 24 m. and a +circumference of 75 m. The interior is a mass of mountain with ravines +radiating to the shore. Its highest peak, Los Pexos, is 6400 ft. Large +tracts are covered with native pine (_P. canariensis_). There are +several mineral springs on the island. Las Palmas (pop. 44,517), the +capital, is described in a separate article. Telde (8978), the second +place in the island, stands on a plain, surrounded by palm trees. At +Atalaya, a short distance from Las Palmas, the making of earthenware +vessels employs some hundreds of people, who inhabit holes made in the +tufa. + + + + +GRAND CANYON, a profound gorge in the north-west corner of Arizona, in +the south-western part of the United States of America, carved in the +plateau region by the Colorado river. Of it Captain Dutton says: "Those +who have long and carefully studied the Grand Canyon of the Colorado do +not hesitate for a moment to pronounce it by far the most sublime of all +earthly spectacles"; and this is also the verdict of many who have only +viewed it in one or two of its parts. + +The Colorado river is made by the junction of two large streams, the +Green and Grand, fed by the rains and snows of the Rocky Mountains. It +has a length of about 2000 m. and a drainage area of 255,000 sq. m., +emptying into the head of the Gulf of California. In its course the +Colorado passes through a mountain section; then a plateau section; and +finally a desert lowland section which extends to its mouth. It is in +the plateau section that the Grand Canyon is situated. Here the surface +of the country lies from 5000 to 9000 ft. above sea-level, being a +tableland region of buttes and mesas diversified by lava intrusions, +flows and cinder cones. The region consists in the main of stratified +rocks bodily uplifted in a nearly horizontal position, though profoundly +faulted here and there, and with some moderate folding. For a thousand +miles the river has cut a series of canyons, bearing different names, +which reach their culmination in the Marble Canyon, 66 m. long, and the +contiguous Grand Canyon which extends for a distance of 217 m. farther +down stream, making a total length of continuous canyon from 2000 to +6000 ft. in depth, for a distance of 283 m., the longest and deepest +canyon in the world. This huge gash in the earth is the work of the +Colorado river, with accompanying weathering, through long ages; and the +river is still engaged in deepening it as it rushes along the canyon +bottom. + +The higher parts of the enclosing plateau have sufficient rainfall for +forests, whose growth is also made possible in part by the cool climate +and consequently retarded evaporation; but the less elevated portions +have an arid climate, while the climate in the canyon bottom is that of +the true desert. Thus the canyon is really in a desert region, as is +shown by the fact that only two living streams enter the river for a +distance of 500 m. from the Green river to the lower end of the Grand +Canyon; and only one, the Kanab Creek, enters the Grand Canyon itself. +This, moreover, is dry during most of the year. In spite of this lack of +tributaries, a large volume of water flows through the canyon at all +seasons of the year, some coming from the scattered tributaries, some +from springs, but most from the rains and snows of the distant mountains +about the headwaters. Owing to enclosure between steeply rising canyon +walls, evaporation is retarded, thus increasing the possibility of the +long journey of the water from the mountains to the sea across a vast +stretch of arid land. + +The river in the canyon varies from a few feet to an unknown depth, and +at times of flood has a greatly increased volume. The river varies in +width from 50 ft. in some of the narrow Granite Gorges, where it bathes +both rock walls, to 500 or 600 ft. in more open places. In the 283 m. of +the Marble and Grand Canyons, the river falls 2330 ft., and at one point +has a fall of 210 ft. in 10 m. The current velocity varies from 3 to 20 +or more miles per hour, being increased in places by low falls and +rapids; but there are no high falls below the junction of the Green and +Grand. + +Besides the canyons of the main river, there are a multitude of lateral +canyons occupied by streams at intervals of heavy rain. As Powell says, +the region "is a composite of thousands, and tens of thousands of +gorges." There are "thousands of gorges like that below Niagara Falls, +and there are a thousand Yosemites." The largest of all, the Grand +Canyon, has an average depth of 4000 ft. and a width of 4-1/2 to 12 m. +For a long distance, where crossing the Kaibab plateau, the depth is +6000 ft. For much of the distance there is an inner narrower gorge sunk +in the bottom of a broad outer canyon. The narrow gorge is in some +places no more than 3500 ft. wide at the top. To illustrate the depth of +the Grand Canyon, Powell writes: "Pluck up Mount Washington (6293 ft. +high) by the roots to the level of the sea, and drop it head first into +the Grand Canyon, and the dam will not force its waters over the wall." + +While there are notable differences in the Grand Canyon from point to +point, the main elements are much alike throughout its length and are +due to the succession of rock strata revealed in the canyon walls. At +the base, for some 800 ft., there is a complex of crystalline rocks of +early geological age, consisting of gneiss, schist, slate and other +rocks, greatly plicated and traversed by dikes and granite intrusions. +This is an ancient mountain mass, which has been greatly denuded. On it +rest a series of durable quartzite beds inclined to the horizontal, +forming about 800 ft. more of the lower canyon wall. On this come first +500 ft. of greenish sandstones and then 700 ft. of bedded sandstone and +limestone strata, some massive and some thin, which on weathering form a +series of alcoves. These beds, like those above, are in nearly +horizontal position. Above this comes 1600 ft. of limestone--often a +beautiful marble, as in the Marble Canyon, but in the Grand Canyon +stained a brilliant red by iron oxide washed from overlying beds. Above +this "red wall" are 800 ft. of grey and bright red sandstone beds +looking "like vast ribbons of landscape." At the top of the canyon is +1000 ft. of limestone with gypsum and chert, noted for the pinnacles and +towers which denudation has developed. It is these different rock beds, +with their various colours, and the differences in the effect of +weathering upon them, that give the great variety and grandeur to the +canyon scenery. There are towers and turrets, pinnacles and alcoves, +cliffs, ledges, crags and moderate talus slopes, each with its +characteristic colour and form according to the set of strata in which +it lies. The main river has cleft the plateau in a huge gash; +innumerable side gorges have cut it to right and left; and weathering +has etched out the cliffs and crags and helped to paint it in the gaudy +colour bands that stretch before the eye. There is grandeur here and +weirdness in abundance, but beauty is lacking. Powell puts the case +graphically when he writes: "A wall of homogeneous granite like that in +the Yosemite is but a naked wall, whether it be 1000 or 5000 ft. high. +Hundreds and thousands of feet mean nothing to the eye when they stand +in a meaningless front. A mountain covered by pure snow 10,000 ft. high +has but little more effect on the imagination than a mountain of snow +1000 ft. high--it is but more of the same thing; but a facade of seven +systems of rock has its sublimity multiplied sevenfold." + +To the ordinary person most of the Grand Canyon is at present +inaccessible, for, as Powell states, "a year scarcely suffices to see it +all"; and "it is a region more difficult to traverse than the Alps or +the Himalayas." But a part of the canyon is now easily accessible to +tourists. A trail leads from the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railway at +Flagstaff, Arizona; and a branch line of the railway extends from +Williams, Arizona, to a hotel on the very brink of the canyon. The +plateau, which in places bears an open forest, mainly of pine, varies in +elevation, but is for the most part a series of fairly level terrace +tops with steep faces, with mesas and buttes here and there, and, +especially near the huge extinct volcano of San Francisco mountain, with +much evidence of former volcanic activity, including numerous cinder +cones. The traveller comes abruptly to the edge of the canyon, at whose +bottom, over a mile below, is seen the silvery thread of water where the +muddy torrent rushes along on its never-ceasing task of sawing its way +into the depths of the earth. Opposite rise the highly coloured and +terraced slopes of the other canyon wall, whose crest is fully 12 m. +distant. + +Down by the river are the folded rocks of an ancient mountain system, +formed before vertebrate life appeared on the earth, then worn to an +almost level condition through untold ages of slow denudation. Slowly, +then, the mountains sank beneath the level of the sea, and in the +Carboniferous Period--about the time of the formation of the +coal-beds--sediments began to bury the ancient mountains. This lasted +through other untold ages until the Tertiary Period--through much of the +Palaeozoic and all of the Mesozoic time--and a total of from 12,000 to +16,000 ft. of sediments were deposited. Since then erosion has been +dominant, and the river has eaten its way down to, and into, the deeply +buried mountains, opening the strata for us to read, like the pages of a +book. In some parts of the plateau region as much as 30,000 ft. of rock +have been stripped away, and over an area of 200,000 sq. m. an average +of over 6000 ft. has been removed. + +The Grand Canyon was probably discovered by G. L. de Cardenas in 1540, +but for 329 years the inaccessibility of the region prevented its +exploration. Various people visited parts of it or made reports +regarding it; and the Ives Expedition of 1858 contains a report upon the +canyon written by Prof. J. S. Newberry. But it was not until 1869 that +the first real exploration of the Grand Canyon was made. In that year +Major J. W. Powell, with five associates (three left the party in the +Grand Canyon), made the complete journey by boat from the junction of +the Green and Grand rivers to the lower end of the Grand Canyon. This +hazardous journey ranks as one of the most daring and remarkable +explorations ever undertaken in North America; and Powell's descriptions +of the expedition are among the most fascinating accounts of travel +relating to the continent. Powell made another expedition in 1871, but +did not go the whole length of the canyon. The government survey +conducted by Lieut. George M. Wheeler also explored parts of the canyon, +and C. E. Dutton carried on extensive studies of the canyon and the +contiguous plateau region. In 1890 Robert B. Stanton, with six +associates, went through the canyon in boats, making a survey to +determine the feasibility of building a railway along its base. Two +other parties, one in 1896 (Nat. Galloway and William Richmond) the +other in 1897 (George F. Flavell and companion), have made the journey +through the canyon. So far as there is record these are the only four +parties that have ever made the complete journey through the Grand +Canyon. It has sometimes been said that James White made the passage of +the canyon before Powell did; but this story rests upon no real basis. + + For accounts of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado see J. W. Powell, + _Explorations of the Colorado River of the West and its Tributaries_ + (Washington, 1875); J. W. Powell, _Canyons of the Colorado_ + (Meadville, Pa., 1895); F. S. Dellenbaugh, _The Romance of the + Colorado River_ (New York, 1902); Capt. C. E. Dutton, _Tertiary + History of the Grand Canyon District, with Atlas_ (Washington, 1882), + being Monograph No. 2, U.S. Geological Survey. See also the excellent + topographic map of the Grand Canyon prepared by F. E. Matthes and + published by the U.S. Geological Survey. (R. S. T.) + + + + +GRAND-DUKE (Fr. _grand-duc_, Ital. _granduca_, Ger. _Grossherzog_), a +title borne by princes ranking between king and duke. The dignity was +first bestowed in 1567 by Pope Pius V. on Duke Cosimo I. of Florence, +his son Francis obtaining the emperor's confirmation in 1576; and the +predicate "Royal Highness" was added in 1699. In 1806 Napoleon created +his brother-in-law Joachim Murat, grand-duke of Berg, and in the same +year the title was assumed by the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, the +elector of Baden, and the new ruler of the secularized bishopric of +Wurzburg (formerly Ferdinand III., grand-duke of Tuscany) on joining the +Confederation of the Rhine. At the present time, according to the +decision of the Congress of Vienna, the title is borne by the sovereigns +of Luxemburg, Saxe-Weimar (grand-duke of Saxony), Mecklenburg-Schwerin, +Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and Oldenburg (since 1829), as well as by those of +Hesse-Darmstadt and Baden. The emperor of Austria includes among his +titles those of grand-duke of Cracow and Tuscany, and the king of +Prussia those of grand-duke of the Lower Rhine and Posen. The title is +also retained by the dispossessed Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty of Tuscany. + +Grand-duke is also the conventional English equivalent of the Russian +_velikiy knyaz_, more properly "grand-prince" (Ger. Grossfurst), at one +time the title of the rulers of Russia, who, as the eldest born of the +house of Rurik, exercised overlordship over the _udyelniye knyazi_ or +local princes. On the partition of the inheritance of Rurik, the eldest +of each branch assumed the title of grand-prince. Under the domination +of the Golden Horde the right to bestow the title _velikiy knyaz_ was +reserved by the Tatar Khan, who gave it to the prince of Moskow. In +Lithuania this title also symbolized a similar overlordship, and it +passed to the kings of Poland on the union of Lithuania with the Polish +republic. The style of the emperor of Russia now includes the titles of +grand-duke (_velikiy knyaz_) of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia +and Finland. Until 1886 this title grand-duke or grand-duchess, with the +style "Imperial Highness," was borne by all descendants of the imperial +house. It is now confined to the sons and daughters, brothers and +sisters, and male grandchildren of the emperor. The other members of the +imperial house bear the title of prince (_knyaz_) and princess +(_knyaginya_, if married, _knyazhna_, if unmarried) with the style of +"Highness." The emperor of Austria, as king of Hungary, also bears this +title as "grand-duke" of Transylvania, which was erected into a +"grand-princedom" (Grossfurstentum) in 1765 by Maria Theresa. + + + + +GRANDEE (Span. _Grande_), a title of honour borne by the highest class +of the Spanish nobility. It would appear to have been originally assumed +by the most important nobles to distinguish them from the mass of the +_ricos hombres_, or great barons of the realm. It was thus, as Selden +points out, not a general term denoting a class, but "an additional +dignity not only to all dukes, but to some marquesses and condes also" +(_Titles of Honor_, ed. 1672, p. 478). It formerly implied certain +privileges; notably that of sitting covered in the royal presence. Until +the time of Ferdinand and Isabella, when the power of the territorial +nobles was broken, the grandees had also certain more important rights, +e.g. freedom from taxation, immunity from arrest save at the king's +express command, and even--in certain cases--the right to renounce their +allegiance and make war on the king. Their number and privileges were +further restricted by Charles I. (the emperor Charles V.), who reserved +to the crown the right to bestow the title. The grandees of Spain were +further divided into three classes: (1) those who spoke to the king and +received his reply with their heads covered; (2) those who addressed him +uncovered, but put on their hats to hear his answer; (3) those who +awaited the permission of the king before covering themselves. All +grandees were addressed by the king as "my cousin" (_mi primo_), whereas +ordinary nobles were only qualified as "my kinsman" (_mi pariente_). The +title of "grandee," abolished under King Joseph Bonaparte, was revived +in 1834, when by the _Estatudo real_ grandees were given precedence in +the Chamber of Peers. The designation is now, however, purely titular, +and implies neither privilege nor power. + + + + +GRAND FORKS, a city in the Boundary district of British Columbia; +situated at the junction of the north and south forks of the Kettle +river, 2 m. N. of the international boundary. Pop. (1908) about 2500. It +is in a good agricultural district, but owes its importance largely to +the erection here of the extensive smelting plant of the Granby +Consolidated Company, which smelts the ores obtained from the various +parts of the Boundary country, but chiefly those from the Knob Hill and +Old Ironsides mines. The Canadian Pacific railway, as well as the Great +Northern railway, runs to Grand Forks, which thus has excellent railway +communication with the south and east. + + + + +GRAND FORKS, a city and the county-seat of Grand Forks county, North +Dakota, U.S.A., at the junction of the Red river (of the North) and Red +Lake river (whence its name), about 80 m. N. of Fargo. Pop. (1900) 7652, +of whom 2781 were foreign-born; (1905) 10,127; (1910) 27,888. It is +served by the Northern Pacific and the Great Northern railways, and has +a considerable river traffic, the Red river (when dredged) having a +channel 60 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep at low water below Grand Forks. At +University, a small suburb, is the University of North Dakota +(co-educational; opened 1884). Affiliated with it is Wesley College +(Methodist Episcopal), now at Grand Forks (with a campus adjoining that +of the University), but formerly the Red River Valley University at +Wahpeton, North Dakota. In 1907-1908 the University had 57 instructors +and 861 students; its library had 25,000 bound volumes and 5000 +pamphlets. At Grand Forks, also, are St Bernard's Ursuline Academy +(Roman Catholic) and Grand Forks College (Lutheran). Among the city's +principal buildings are the public library, the Federal building and a +Y.M.C.A. building. As the centre of the great wheat valley of the Red +river, it has a busy trade in wheat, flour and agricultural machinery +and implements, as well as large jobbing interests. There are railway +car-shops here, and among the manufactures are crackers, brooms, bricks +and tiles and cement. The municipality owns its water-works and an +electric lighting plant for street lighting. In 1801 John Cameron (d. +1804) erected a temporary trading post for the North-West Fur Company on +the site of the present city; it afterwards became a trading post of the +Hudson's Bay Company. The first permanent settlement was made in 1871, +and Grand Forks was reached by the Northern Pacific and chartered as a +city in 1881. + + + + +GRAND HAVEN, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Ottawa +county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan, at the mouth of Grand river, +30 m. W. by N. of Grand Rapids and 78 m. E. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1900) +4743, of whom 1277 were foreign-born; (1904) 5239; (1910) 5856. It is +served by the Grand Trunk and the Pere Marquette railways, and by +steamboat lines to Chicago, Milwaukee and other lake ports, and is +connected with Grand Rapids and Muskegon by an electric line. The city +manufactures pianos, refrigerators, printing presses and leather; is a +centre for the shipment of fruit and celery; and has valuable fisheries +near--fresh, salt and smoked fish, especially whitefish, are shipped in +considerable quantities. Grand Haven is the port of entry for the +Customs District of Michigan, and has a small export and import trade. +The municipality owns and operates its water-works and electric-lighting +plant. A trading post was established here about 1821 by an agent of the +American Fur Company, but the permanent settlement of the city did not +begin until 1834. Grand Haven was laid out as a town in 1836, and was +chartered as a city in 1867. + + + + +GRANDIER, URBAN (1590-1634), priest of the church of Sainte Croix at +Loudun in the department of Vienne, France, was accused of witchcraft in +1632 by some hysterical novices of the Carmelite Convent, where the +trial, protracted for two years, was held. Grandier was found guilty and +burnt alive at Loudun on the 18th of August 1634. + + + + +GRAND ISLAND, a city and the county-seat of Hall county, Nebraska, +U.S.A., on the Platte river, about 154 m. W. by S. of Omaha. Pop. (1900) +7554 (1339 foreign-born); (1910) 10,326. It is served by the Union +Pacific, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the St Joseph & Grand +Island railways, being the western terminus of the last-named line and a +southern terminus of a branch of the Union Pacific. The city is situated +on a slope skirting the broad, level bottom-lands of the Platte river, +in the midst of a fertile farming region. Grand Island College (Baptist; +co-educational) was established in 1892 and the Grand Island Business +and Normal College in 1890; and the city is the seat of a state Sailors' +and Soldiers' Home, established in 1888. Grand Island has a large +wholesale trade in groceries, fruits, &c.; is an important horse-market, +and has large stock-yards. There are shops of the Union Pacific in the +city, and among its manufactures are beet-sugar--Grand Island is in one +of the principal beet-sugar-growing districts of the state--brooms, wire +fences, confectionery and canned corn. The most important industry of +the county is the raising and feeding of sheep and meat cattle. A "Grand +Island" was founded in 1857, and was named from a large island (nearly +50 m. long) in the Platte opposite its site; but the present city was +laid out by the Union Pacific in 1866. It was chartered as a city in +1873. + + + + +GRANDMONTINES, a religious order founded by St Stephen of Thiers in +Auvergne towards the end of the 11th century. St Stephen was so +impressed by the lives of the hermits whom he saw in Calabria that he +desired to introduce the same manner of life into his native country. He +was ordained, and in 1073 obtained the pope's permission to establish an +order. He betook himself to Auvergne, and in the desert of Muret, near +Limoges, he made himself a hut of branches of trees and lived there for +some time in complete solitude. A few disciples gathered round him, and +a community was formed. The rule was not reduced to writing until after +Stephen's death, 1124. The life was eremitical and very severe in regard +to silence, diet and bodily austerities; it was modelled after the rule +of the Camaldolese, but various regulations were adopted from the +Augustinian canons. The superior was called the "Corrector." About 1150 +the hermits, being compelled to leave Muret, settled in the neighbouring +desert of Grandmont, whence the order derived its name. Louis VII. +founded a house at Vincennes near Paris, and the order had a great vogue +in France, as many as sixty houses being established by 1170, but it +seems never to have found favour out of France; it had, however, a +couple of cells in England up to the middle of the 15th century. The +system of lay brothers was introduced on a large scale, and the +management of the temporals was in great measure left in their hands; +the arrangement did not work well, and the quarrels between the lay +brothers and the choir monks were a constant source of weakness. Later +centuries witnessed mitigations and reforms in the life, and at last the +order came to an end just before the French Revolution. There were two +or three convents of Grandmontine nuns. The order played no great part +in history. + + See Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1714), vii. cc. 54, 55; Max + Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896). i. S 31; and the art. + in Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (ed. 2), and in Herzog, + _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 3). (E. C. B.) + + + + +GRAND RAPIDS, a city and the county-seat of Kent county, Michigan, +U.S.A., at the head of navigation on the Grand river, about 30 m. from +Lake Michigan and 145 m. W.N.W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890) 60,278; (1900) +87,565, of whom 23,896 were foreign-born and 604 were negroes; (1910 +census) 112,571. Of the foreign-born population in 1900, 11,137 were +Hollanders; 3318 English-Canadians; 3253 Germans; 1137 Irish; 1060 from +German Poland; and 1026 from England. Grand Rapids is served by the +Michigan Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Trunk, +the Pere Marquette and the Grand Rapids & Indiana railways, and by +electric interurban railways. The valley here is about 2 m. wide, with a +range of hills on either side, and about midway between these hills the +river flows over a limestone bed, falling about 18 ft. in 1 m. Factories +and mills line both banks, but the business blocks are nearly all along +the foot of the E. range of hills; the finest residences command +picturesque views from the hills farther back, the residences on the W. +side being less pretentious and standing on bottom-lands. The principal +business thoroughfares are Canal, Monroe and Division streets. Among the +important buildings are the United States Government building (Grand +Rapids is the seat of the southern division of the Federal judicial +district of western Michigan), the County Court house, the city hall, +the public library (presented by Martin A. Ryerson of Chicago), the +Manufacturer's building, the _Evening Press_ building, the Michigan +Trust building and several handsome churches. The principal charitable +institutions are the municipal Tuberculosis Sanatorium; the city +hospital; the Union Benevolent Association, which maintains a home and +hospital for the indigent, together with a training school for nurses; +Saint John's orphan asylum (under the superintendence of the Dominican +Sisters); Saint Mary's hospital (in charge of the Sisters of Mercy); +Butterworth hospital (with a training school for nurses); the Woman's +Home and Hospital, maintained largely by the Woman's Christian +Temperance Union; the Aldrich Memorial Deaconess' Home; the D. A. +Blodgett Memorial Children's Home, and the Michigan Masonic Home. About +1 m. N. of the city, overlooking the river, is the Michigan Soldiers' +Home, with accommodation for 500. On the E. limits of the city is Reed's +Lake, a popular resort during the summer season. The city is the see of +Roman Catholic and Protestant Episcopal bishops. In 1907-1908, through +the efforts of a committee of the Board of Trade, interest was aroused +in the improvement of the city, appropriations were made for a "city +plan," and flood walls were completed for the protection of the lower +parts of the city from inundation. The large quantities of fruit, +cereals and vegetables from the surrounding country, and ample +facilities for transportation by rail and by the river, which is +navigable from below the rapids to its mouth, make the commerce and +trade of Grand Rapids very important. The manufacturing interests are +greatly promoted by the fine water-power, and as a furniture centre the +city has a world-wide reputation--the value of the furniture +manufactured within its limits in 1904 amounted to $9,409,097, about +5.5% of the value of all furniture manufactured in the United States. +Grand Rapids manufactures carpet sweepers--a large proportion of the +whole world's product,--flour and grist mill products, foundry and +machine-shop products, planing-mill products, school seats, wood-working +tools, fly paper, calcined plaster, barrels, kegs, carriages, wagons, +agricultural implements and bricks and tile. The total factory product +in 1904 was valued at $31,032,589, an increase of 39.6% in four years. + +On the site of Grand Rapids there was for a long time a large Ottawa +Indian village, and for the conversion of the Indians a Baptist mission +was established in 1824. Two years later a trading post joined the +mission, in 1833 a saw mill was built, and for the next few years the +growth was rapid. The settlement was organized as a town in 1834, was +incorporated as a village in 1838, and was chartered as a city in 1850, +the city charter being revised in 1857, 1871, 1877 and 1905. + + + + +GRAND RAPIDS, a city and the county-seat of Wood county, Wisconsin, +U.S.A., on both sides of the Wisconsin river, about 137 m. N.W. of +Milwaukee. Pop. (1900) 4493, of whom 1073 were foreign-born; (1905) +6157; (1910) 6521. It is served by the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste +Marie, the Green Bay & Western, the Chicago & North-Western, and the +Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways. It is a railway and distributing +centre, and has manufactories of lumber, sash, doors and blinds, hubs +and spokes, woodenware, paper, wood-pulp, furniture and flour. The +public buildings include a post office, court house, city hall, city +hospital and the T. B. Scott Free Public Library (1892). The city owns +and operates its water-works; the electric-lighting and telephone +companies are co-operative. Grand Rapids was first chartered as a city +in 1869. That part of Grand Rapids on the west bank of the Wisconsin +river was formerly the city of Centralia (pop. in 1890, 1435); it was +annexed in 1900. + + + + +GRANDSON (Ger. _Grandsee_), a town in the Swiss canton of Vaud, near the +south-western end of the Lake of Neuchatel, and by rail 20 m. S.W. of +Neuchatel and 3 m. N. of Yverdon. Its population in 1900 was 1771, +mainly French-speaking and Protestant. Its ancient castle was long the +home of a noted race of barons, while in the very old church (once +belonging to a Benedictine monastery) there are a number of Roman +columns, &c., from Avenches and Yverdon. It has now a tobacco factory. +Its lords were vassals of the house of Savoy, till in 1475 the castle +was taken by the Swiss at the beginning of their war with Charles the +Bold, duke of Burgundy, whose ally was the duchess of Savoy. It was +retaken by Charles in February 1476, and the garrison put to death. The +Swiss hastened to revenge this deed, and in a famous battle (2nd March +1476) defeated Charles with great loss, capturing much booty. The scene +of the battle was between Concise and Corcelles, north-east of the town, +and is marked by several columns, perhaps ancient menhirs. Grandson was +thenceforward till 1798 ruled in common by Berne and Fribourg, and then +was given to the canton du Leman, which in 1803 became that of Vaud. + + See F. Chabloz, _La Bataille de Grandson_ (Lausanne, 1897). + + + + +GRANET, FRANCOIS MARIUS (1777-1849), French painter, was born at Aix in +Provence, on the 17th of December 1777; his father was a small builder. +The boy's strong desires led his parents to place him--after some +preliminary teaching from a passing Italian artist--in a free school of +art directed by M. Constantin, a landscape painter of some reputation. +In 1793 Granet followed the volunteers of Aix to the siege of Toulon, at +the close of which he obtained employment as a decorator in the arsenal. +Whilst a lad he had, at Aix, made the acquaintance of the young comte de +Forbin, and upon his invitation Granet, in the year 1797, went to Paris. +De Forbin was one of the pupils of David, and Granet entered the same +studio. Later he got possession of a cell in the convent of Capuchins, +which, having served for a manufactory of assignats during the +Revolution, was afterwards inhabited almost exclusively by artists. In +the changing lights and shadows of the corridors of the Capuchins, +Granet found the materials for that one picture to the painting of +which, with varying success, he devoted his life. In 1802 he left Paris +for Rome, where he remained until 1819, when he returned to Paris, +bringing with him besides various other works one of fourteen +repetitions of his celebrated Choeur des Capucins, executed in 1811. The +figures of the monks celebrating mass are taken in this subject as a +substantive part of the architectural effect, and this is the case with +all Granet's works, even with those in which the figure subject would +seem to assert its importance, and its historical or romantic interest. +"Stella painting a Madonna on his Prison Wall," 1810 (Leuchtenberg +collection); "Sodoma a l'hopital," 1815 (Louvre); "Basilique basse de St +Francois d'Assise," 1823 (Louvre); "Rachat de prisonniers," 1831 +(Louvre); "Mort de Poussin," 1834 (Villa Demidoff, Florence), are among +his principal works; all are marked by the same peculiarities, +everything is sacrificed to tone. In 1819 Louis Philippe decorated +Granet, and afterwards named him Chevalier de l'Ordre St Michel, and +Conservateur des tableaux de Versailles (1826). He became member of the +institute in 1830; but in spite of these honours, and the ties which +bound him to M. de Forbin, then director of the Louvre, Granet +constantly returned to Rome. After 1848 he retired to Aix, immediately +lost his wife, and died himself on the 21st of November 1849. He +bequeathed to his native town the greater part of his fortune and all +his collections, now exhibited in the Musee, together with a very fine +portrait of the donor painted by Ingres in 1811. + + + + +GRANGE (through the A.-Fr. _graunge_, from the Med. Lat. _granea_, a +place for storing grain, _granum_), properly a granary or barn. In the +middle ages a "grange" was a detached portion of a manor with +farm-houses and barns belonging to a lord or to a religious house; in it +the crops could be conveniently stored for the purpose of collecting +rent or tithe. Thus, such barns are often known as "tithe-barns." In +many cases a chapel was included among the buildings or stood apart as a +separate edifice. The word is still used as a name for a superior kind +of farm-house, or for a country-house which has farm-buildings and +agricultural land attached to it. + +Architecturally considered, the "grange" was usually a long building +with high wooden roof, sometimes divided by posts or columns into a sort +of nave and aisles, and with walls strongly buttressed. Sometimes these +granges were of very great extent; one at St Leonards, Hampshire, was +originally 225 ft. long by 75 ft. wide, and a still larger one (303 ft. +long) existed at Chertsey. Ancient granges, or tithe-barns, still exist +at Glastonbury, Bradford-on-Avon, St Mary's Abbey, York, and at Coxwold. +A fine example at Peterborough was pulled down at the end of the 19th +century. In France there are many examples in stone of the 12th, 13th +and 14th centuries; some divided into a central and two side aisles by +arcades in stone. Externally granges are noticeable on account of their +great roofs and the slight elevation of the eaves, from 8 to 10 ft. only +in height. In the 15th century they were sometimes protected by moats +and towers. At Ardennes in Normandy, where the grange was 154 ft. long; +Vauclerc near Laon, Picardy, 246 ft. long and in two storeys; at +Perrieres, St Vigor, near Bayeux, and Ouilly near Falaise, all in +Normandy; and at St Martin-au-Bois (Oise) are a series of fine examples. +Attached to the abbey of Longchamps, near Paris, is one of the +best-preserved granges in France, with walls in stone and internally +divided into three aisles in oak timber of extremely fine construction. + +In the social economic movement in the United States of America, which +began in 1867 and was known as the "Farmers' Movement," "grange" was +adopted as the name for a local chapter of the Order of the Patrons of +Husbandry, and the movement is thus often known as the "Grangers' +Movement" (see FARMERS' MOVEMENT). There are a National Grange at +Washington, supervising the local divisions, and state granges in most +states. + + + + +GRANGEMOUTH, a police burgh and seaport of Stirlingshire, Scotland. Pop. +(1901) 8386. It is situated on the south shore of the estuary of the +Forth, at the mouth of the Carron and also of Grange Burn, a right-hand +tributary of the Carron, 3 m. N.E. of Falkirk by the North British and +Caledonian railways. It is the terminus of the Forth and Clyde Canal, +from the opening of which (1789) its history may be dated. The principal +buildings are the town hall (in the Greek style), public hall, public +institute and free library, and there is a public park presented by the +marquess of Zetland. Since 1810, when it became a head port, it has +gradually attained the position of the chief port of the Forth west of +Leith. The first dock (opened in 1846), the second (1859) and the third +(1882) cover an area of 28 acres, with timber ponds of 44 acres and a +total quayage of 2500 yards. New docks, 93 acres in extent, with an +entrance from the firth, were opened in 1905 at a cost of more than +L1,000,000. The works rendered it necessary to divert the influx of the +Grange from the Carron to the Forth. Timber, pig-iron and iron ore are +the leading imports, and coal, produce and iron the chief exports. The +industries include shipbuilding, rope and sail making and iron founding. +There is regular steamer communication with London, Christiania, +Hamburg, Rotterdam and Amsterdam. Experiments in steam navigation were +carried out in 1802 with the "Charlotte Dundas" on the Forth and Clyde +Canal at Grangemouth. Kersa House adjoining the town on the S.W. is a +seat of the marquess of Zetland. + + + + +GRANGER, JAMES (1723-1776), English clergyman and print-collector, was +born in Dorset in 1723. He went to Oxford, and then entered holy orders, +becoming vicar of Shiplake; but apart from his hobby of +portrait-collecting, which resulted in the principal work associated +with his name, and the publication of some sermons, his life was +uneventful. Yet a new word was added to the language--"to +grangerize"--on account of him. In 1769 he published in two quarto +volumes a _Biographical History of England_ "consisting of characters +dispersed in different classes, and adapted to a methodical catalogue of +engraved British heads"; this was "intended as an essay towards reducing +our biography to a system, and a help to the knowledge of portraits." +The work was supplemented in later editions by Granger, and still +further editions were brought out by the Rev. Mark Noble, with additions +from Granger's materials. Blank leaves were left for the filling in of +engraved portraits for extra illustration of the text, and it became a +favourite pursuit to discover such illustrations and insert them in a +_Granger_, so that "grangerizing" became a term for such an +extra-illustration of any work, especially with cuts taken from other +books. The immediate result of the appearance of Granger's own work was +the rise in value of books containing portraits, which were cut out and +inserted in collector's copies. + + + + +GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. _granito_, grained; Lat. _granum_, +grain), the group designation for a family of igneous rocks whose +essential characteristics are that they are of acid composition +(containing high percentages of silica), consist principally of quartz +and felspar, with some mica, hornblende or augite, and are of +holocrystalline or "granitoid" structure. In popular usage the term is +given to almost any crystalline rock which resembles granite in +appearance or properties. Thus syenites, diorites, gabbros, diabases, +porphyries, gneiss, and even limestones and dolomites, are bought and +sold daily as "granites." True granites are common rocks, especially +among the older strata of the earth's crust. They have great variety in +colour and general appearance, some being white or grey, while others +are pink, greenish or yellow: this depends mainly on the state of +preservation of their felspars, which are their most abundant minerals, +and partly also on the relative proportion in which they contain biotite +and other dark coloured silicates. Many granites have large rounded or +angular crystals of felspar (Shap granite, many Cornish granites), well +seen on polished faces. Others show an elementary foliation or banding +(e.g. Aberdeen granite). Rounded or oval dark patches frequently appear +in the granitic matrix of many Cornish rocks of this group. + +In the field granite usually occurs in great masses, covering wide +areas. These are generally elliptical or nearly circular and may be 20 +m. in diameter or more. In the same district separate areas or "bosses" +of granite may be found, all having much in common in their +mineralogical and structural features, and such groups have probably all +proceeded from the same focus or deep-seated source. Towards their +margins these granite outcrops often show modifications by which they +pass into diorite or syenite, &c.; they may also be finer grained (like +porphyries) or rich in tourmaline, or intersected by many veins of +pegmatite. From the main granite dikes or veins often run out into the +surrounding rocks, thus proving that the granite is intrusive and has +forced its way upwards by splitting apart the strata among which it +lies. Further evidence of this is afforded by the alteration which the +granite has produced through a zone which varies from a few yards to a +mile or more in breadth around it. In the vicinity of intrusive granites +slates become converted into hornfelses containing biotite, chiastolite +or andalusite, sillimanite and a variety of other minerals; limestones +recrystallize as marbles, and all rocks, according to their composition, +are more or less profoundly modified in such a way as to prove that they +have been raised to a high temperature by proximity to the molten +intrusive mass. Where exposed in cliffs and other natural sections many +granites have a rudely columnar appearance. Others weather into large +cuboidal blocks which may produce structures resembling cyclopean +masonry. The tors of the west of England are of this nature. These +differences depend on the disposition of the joint cracks which traverse +the rock and are opened up by the action of frost and weathering. + +The majority of granites are so coarse in grain that their principal +component minerals may be identified in the hand specimens by the +unaided eye. The felspar is pearly, white or pink, with smooth cleaved +surfaces; the quartz is usually transparent, glassy with rough irregular +fractures; the micas appear as shining black or white flakes. Very +coarse granites are called pegmatite or giant granite, while very fine +granites are known as microgranites (though the latter term has also +been applied to certain porphyries). Many granites show pearly scales of +white mica; others contain dark green or black hornblende in small +prisms. Reddish grains of sphene or of garnet are occasionally visible. +In the tourmaline granites prisms of black schorl occur either singly or +in stellate groups. The parallel banded structures of many granites, +which may be original or due to crushing, connect these rocks with the +granite gneisses or orthogneisses. + +Under the microscope the felspar is mainly orthoclase with perthite or +microcline, while a small amount of plagioclase (ranging from oligoclase +to albite) is practically never absent. These minerals are often clouded +by a deposit of fine mica and kaolin, due to weathering. The quartz is +transparent, irregular in form, destitute of cleavage, and is filled +with very small cavities which contain a fluid, a mobile bubble and +sometimes a minute crystal. The micas, brown and white, are often in +parallel growth. The hornblende of granites is usually pale green in +section, the augite and enstatite nearly colourless. Tourmaline may be +brown, yellow or blue, and often the same crystal shows zones of +different colours. Apatite, zircon and iron oxides, in small crystals, +are always present. Among the less common accessories may be mentioned +pinkish garnets; andalusite in small pleochroic crystals; colourless +grains of topaz; six-sided compound crystals of cordierite, which +weather to dark green pinite; blue-black hornblende (riebeckite), beryl, +tinstone, orthite and pyrites. + +The sequence of crystallization in the granites is of a normal type, and +may be ascertained by observing the perfection with which the different +minerals have crystallized and the order in which they enclose one +another. Zircon, apatite and iron oxides are the first; their crystals +are small, very perfect and nearly free from enclosures; they are +followed by hornblende and biotite; if muscovite is present it succeeds +the brown mica. Of the felspars the plagioclase separates first and +forms well-shaped crystals of which the central parts may be more basic +than the outer zones. Last come orthoclase, quartz, microcline and +micropegmatite, which fill up the irregular spaces left between the +earlier minerals. Exceptions to this sequence are unusual; sometimes the +first of the felspars have preceded the hornblende or biotite which may +envelop them in ophitic manner. An earlier generation of felspar, and +occasionally also of quartz, may be represented by large and perfect +crystals of these minerals giving the rock a porphyritic character. + +Many granites have suffered modification by the action of vapours +emitted during cooling. Hydrofluoric and boric emanations exert a +profound influence on granitic rocks; their felspar is resolved into +aggregates of kaolin, muscovite and quartz; tourmaline appears, largely +replacing the brown mica; topaz also is not uncommon. In this way the +rotten granite or china stone, used in pottery, originates; and over +considerable areas kaolin replaces the felspar and forms valuable +sources of china clay. Veins of quartz, tourmaline and chlorite may +traverse the granite, containing tinstone often in workable quantities. +These veins are the principal sources of tin in Cornwall, but the same +changes may appear in the body of the granite without being restricted +to veins, and tinstone occurs also as an original constituent of some +granite pegmatites. + +Granites may also be modified by crushing. Their crystals tend to lose +their original forms and to break into mosaics of interlocking grains. +The latter structure is very well seen in the quartz, which is a brittle +mineral under stress. White mica develops in the felspars. The larger +crystals are converted into lenticular or elliptical "augen," which may +be shattered throughout or may have a peripheral seam of small detached +granules surrounding a still undisintegrated core. Streaks of +"granulitic" or pulverized material wind irregularly through the rock, +giving it a roughly foliated character. + +The interesting structural variation of granite in which there are +spheroidal masses surrounded by a granitic matrix is known as "orbicular +granite." The spheroids range from a fraction of an inch to a foot in +diameter, and may have a felspar crystal at the centre. Around this +there may be several zones, alternately lighter and darker in colour, +consisting of the essential minerals of the rock in different +proportions. Radiate arrangement is sometimes visible in the crystals of +the whole or part of the spheroid. Spheroidal granites of this sort are +found in Sweden, Finland, Ireland, &c. In other cases the spheroids are +simply dark rounded lumps of biotite, in fine scales. These are probably +due to the adhesion of the biotite crystals to one another as they +separated from the rock magma at an early stage in its crystallization. +The Rapakiwi granites of Finland have many round or ovoidal felspar +crystals scattered through a granitic matrix. These larger felspars have +no crystalline outlines and consist of orthoclase or microcline +surrounded by borders of white oligoclase. Often they enclose dark +crystals of biotite and hornblende, arranged zonally. Many of these +granites contain tourmaline, fluorite and monazite. In most granite +masses, especially near their contacts with the surrounding rocks, it is +common to find enclosures of altered sedimentary or igneous materials +which are more or less dissolved and permeated by the granitic magma. + + The chemical composition of a few granites from different parts of the + world is given below:-- + + +-----+-------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | | SiO2. | Al2O3.| Fe2O3.| FeO. | MgO. | CaO. | Na2O.| K2O. | + +-----+-------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | I. | 74.69 | 16.21 | .. | 1.16 | 0.48 | 0.28 | 1.18 | 3.64 | + | II. | 71.33 | 11.18 | 3.96 | 1.45 | 0.88 | 2.10 | 3.51 | 3.49 | + |III. | 72.93 | 13.87 | 1.94 | 0.79 | 0.51 | 0.74 | 3.68 | 3.74 | + | IV. | 76.12 | 12.18 | 1.21 | 0.72 | 1.12 | 1.54 | 2.55 | 3.21 | + | V. | 73.90 | 13.65 | 0.28 | 0.42 | 0.14 | 0.23 | 2.53 | 7.99 | + | VI. | 68.87 | 16.62 | 0.43 | 2.72 | 1.60 | 0.71 | 1.80 | 6.48 | + +-----+-------+-------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+ + + I. Carn Brea, Cornwall (Phillips); II. Mazaruni, Brit. Guiana + (Harrison); III. Rodo, near Alno, Vesternorrland, Sweden (Holmquist); + IV. Abruzzen, a group of hills in the Riesengebirge (Milch); V. Pikes + Peak, Colorado (Matthews); VI. Wilson's Creek, near Omeo, Victoria + (Howitt). + + Only the most important components are shown in the table, but all + granites contain also small amounts of zirconia, titanium oxide, + phosphoric acid, sulphur, oxides of barium, strontium, manganese and + water. These are in all cases less than 1%, and usually much less than + this, except the water, which may be 2 or 3% in weathered rocks. From + the chemical composition it may be computed that granites contain, on + an average, 35 to 55% of quartz, 20 to 30% of orthoclase, 20 to 30% of + plagioclase felspar (including the albite of microperthite) and 5 to + 10% of ferromagnesian silicates and minor accessories such as + apatite, zircon, sphene and iron oxides. The aplites, pegmatites, + graphic granites and muscovite granites are usually richest in silica, + while with increase of biotite and hornblende, augite and enstatite + the analyses show the presence of more magnesia, iron and lime. + + In the weathering of granite the quartz suffers little change; the + felspar passes into dull cloudy, soft aggregates of kaolin, muscovite + and secondary quartz, while chlorite, quartz and calcite replace the + biotite, hornblende and augite. The rock often assumes a rusty brown + colour from the liberation of the oxides of iron, and the decomposed + mass is friable and can easily be dug with a spade; where the granite + has been cut by joint planes not too close together weathering + proceeds from their surfaces and large rounded blocks may be left + embedded in rotted materials. The amount of water in the rock + increases and part of the alkalis is carried away in solution; they + form valuable sources of mineral food to plants. The chemical changes + are shown by the following analyses: + + +-----+------+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+ + | | H2O. | SiO2. | TiO2.| Al2O3.| FeO. |Fe2O3.| CaO. | MgO. | Na2O.| K2O. | P2O5. | + +-----+------+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+ + | I. | 1.22 | 69.33 | n.d. | 14.33 | 3.60 | .. | 3.21 | 2.44 | 2.70 | 2.67 | 0.10 | + | II. | 3.27 | 66.82 | n.d. | 15.62 | 1.69 | 1.88 | 3.13 | 2.76 | 2.58 | 2.44 | n.d. | + |III. | 4.70 | 65.69 | 0.31 | 15.23 | .. | 4.39 | 2.63 | 2.64 | 2.12 | 2.00 | 0.06 | + +-----+------+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+-------+ + + Analyses of I., fresh grey granite; II. brown moderately firm granite; + III. residual sand, produced by the weathering of the same mass (anal. + G. P. Merrill). + +The differences are surprisingly small and are principally an increase +in the water and a diminution in the amount of alkalis and lime together +with the oxidation of the ferrous oxide. (J. S. F.) + + + + +GRAN SASSO D'ITALIA ("Great Rock of Italy"), a mountain of the Abruzzi, +Italy, the culminating point of the Apennines, 9560 ft. in height. In +formation it resembles the limestone Alps of Tirol and there are on its +elevated plateaus a number of _doline_ or funnel-shaped depressions into +which the melted snow and the rain sink. The summit is covered with snow +for the greater part of the year. Seen from the Adriatic, Monte Corno, +as it is sometimes called, from its resemblance to a horn, affords a +magnificent spectacle; the Alpine region beneath its summit is still the +home of the wild boar, and here and there are dense woods of beech and +pine. The group has numerous other lofty peaks, of which the chief are +the Pizzo d'Intermesole (8680 ft.), the Corno Piccolo (8650 ft.), the +Pizzo Cefalone (8307 ft.) and the Monte della Portella (7835 ft.). The +most convenient starting-point for the ascent is Assergi, 10 m. N.E. of +Aquila, at the S. foot of the Gran Sasso. The Italian Alpine Club has +erected a hut S.W. of the principal summit, and has published a special +guidebook (E. Abbate, _Guida al Gran Sasso d' Italia_, Rome, 1888). The +view from the summit extends to the Tyrrhenian Sea on the west and the +mountains of Dalmatia on the east in clear weather. The ascent was first +made in 1794 by Orazio Delfico from the Teramo side. In Assergi is the +interesting church of Sta. Maria Assunta, dating from 1150, with later +alterations (see Gavini, in _L' Arte_, 1901, 316, 391). + + + + +GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER, 8th Bart. (1826-1884), British scholar and +educationalist, was born in New York on the 13th of September 1826. +After a childhood spent in the West Indies, he was educated at Harrow +and Oxford. He entered Oxford as scholar of Balliol, and subsequently +held a fellowship at Oriel from 1849 to 1860. He made a special study of +the Aristotelian philosophy, and in 1857 published an edition of the +_Ethics_ (4th ed. 1885) which became a standard text-book at Oxford. In +1855 he was one of the examiners for the Indian Civil Service, and in +1856 a public examiner in classics at Oxford. In the latter year he +succeeded to the baronetcy. In 1859 he went to Madras with Sir Charles +Trevelyan, and was appointed inspector of schools; the next year he +removed to Bombay, to fill the post of Professor of History and +Political Economy in the Elphinstone College. Of this he became +Principal in 1862; and, a year later, vice-chancellor of Bombay +University, a post he held from 1863 to 1865 and again from 1865 to +1868. In 1865 he took upon himself also the duties of Director of Public +Instruction for Bombay Presidency. In 1868 he was appointed a member of +the Legislative Council. In the same year, upon the death of Sir David +Brewster, he was appointed Principal of Edinburgh University, which had +conferred an honorary LL.D. degree upon him in 1865. From that time till +his death (which occurred in Edinburgh on the 30th of November 1884) his +energies were entirely devoted to the well-being of the University. The +institution of the medical school in the University was almost solely +due to his initiative; and the Tercentenary Festival, celebrated in +1884, was the result of his wisely directed enthusiasm. In that year he +published _The Story of the University of Edinburgh during its First +Three Hundred Years_. He was created Hon. D.C.L. of Oxford in 1880, and +an honorary fellow of Oriel College in 1882. + + + + +GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838), Scottish writer, generally known as Mrs Grant +of Laggan, was born in Glasgow, on the 21st of February 1755. Her +childhood was spent in America, her father, Duncan MacVicar, being an +army officer on service there. In 1768 the family returned to Scotland, +and in 1779 Anne married James Grant, an army chaplain, who was also +minister of the parish of Laggan, near Fort Augustus, Inverness, where +her father was barrack-master. On her husband's death in 1801 she was +left with a large family and a small income. In 1802 she published by +subscription a volume of _Original Poems, with some Translations from +the Gaelic_, which was favourably received. In 1806 her _Letters from +the Mountains_, with their spirited description of Highland scenery and +legends, awakened much interest. Her other works are _Memoirs of an +American Lady, with Sketches of Manners and Scenery in America as they +existed previous to the Revolution_ (1808), containing reminiscences of +her childhood; _Essays on the Superstitions of the Highlanders of +Scotland_ (1811); and _Eighteen Hundred and Thirteen, a Poem_ (1814). In +1810 she went to live in Edinburgh. For the last twelve years of her +life she received a pension from government. She died on the 7th of +November 1838. + + See _Memoir and Correspondence of Mrs Grant of Laggan, edited by her + son J. P. Grant_ (3 vols., 1844). + + + + +GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823), British politician, was born at Aldourie, +Inverness-shire, on the 16th of April 1746, the day on which his father, +Alexander Grant, was killed whilst fighting for the Jacobites at +Culloden. When a young man Charles went to India, where he became +secretary, and later a member of the board of trade. He returned to +Scotland in 1790, and in 1802 was elected to parliament as member for +the county of Inverness. In the House of Commons his chief interests +were in Indian affairs, and he was especially vigorous in his hostility +to the policy of the Marquess Wellesley. In 1805 he was chosen chairman +of the directors of the East India Company and he retired from +parliament in 1818. A friend of William Wilberforce, Grant was a +prominent member of the evangelical party in the Church of England; he +was a generous supporter of the church's missionary undertakings. He was +largely responsible for the establishment of the East India college, +which was afterwards erected at Haileybury. He died in London on the +31st of October 1823. His eldest son, Charles, was created a peer in +1835 as Baron Glenelg. + + See Henry Morris, _Life of Charles Grant_ (1904). + + + + +GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878), English portrait-painter, fourth son of +Francis Grant of Kilgraston, Perthshire, was born at Edinburgh in 1803. +He was educated for the bar, but at the age of twenty-four he began at +Edinburgh systematically to study the practice of art. On completing a +course of instruction he removed to London, and as early as 1843 +exhibited at the Royal Academy. At the beginning of his career he +utilized his sporting experiences by painting groups of huntsmen, horses +and hounds, such as the "Meet of H.M. Staghounds" and the "Melton Hunt"; +but his position in society gradually made him a fashionable +portrait-painter. In drapery he had the taste of a connoisseur, and +rendered the minutest details of costume with felicitous accuracy. In +female portraiture he achieved considerable success, although rather in +depicting the high-born graces and external characteristics than the +true personality. Among his portraits of this class may be mentioned +Lady Glenlyon, the marchioness of Waterford, Lady Rodney and Mrs +Beauclerk. In his portraits of generals and sportsmen he proved himself +more equal to his subjects than in those of statesmen and men of +letters. He painted many of the principal celebrities of the time, +including Scott, Macaulay, Lockhart, Disraeli, Hardinge, Gough, Derby, +Palmerston and Russell, his brother Sir J. Hope Grant and his friend Sir +Edwin Landseer. From the first his career was rapidly prosperous. In +1842 he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1851 an +Academician; and in 1866 he was chosen to succeed Sir C. Eastlake in the +post of president, for which his chief recommendations were his social +distinction, tact, urbanity and friendly and liberal consideration of +his brother artists. Shortly after his election as president he was +knighted, and in 1870 the degree of D.C.L. was conferred upon him by the +university of Oxford. He died on the 5th of October 1878. + + + + +GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835-1902), principal of Queen's University, +Kingston, Ontario, was born in Nova Scotia in 1835. He was educated at +Glasgow university, where he had a brilliant academic career; and having +entered the ministry of the Presbyterian Church, he returned to Canada +and obtained a pastoral charge in Halifax, Nova Scotia, which he held +from 1863 to 1877. He quickly gained a high reputation as a preacher and +as an eloquent speaker on political subjects. When Canada was +confederated in 1867 Nova Scotia was the province most strongly opposed +to federal union. Grant threw the whole weight of his great influence in +favour of confederation, and his oratory played an important part in +securing the success of the movement. When the consolidation of the +Dominion by means of railway construction was under discussion in 1872, +Grant travelled from the Atlantic to the Pacific with the engineers who +surveyed the route of the Canadian Pacific railway, and his book _Ocean +to Ocean_ (1873) was one of the first things that opened the eyes of +Canadians to the value of the immense heritage they enjoyed. He never +lost an opportunity, whether in the pulpit or on the platform, of +pressing on his hearers that the greatest future for Canada lay in unity +with the rest of the British Empire; and his broad statesman-like +judgment made him an authority which politicians of all parties were +glad to consult. In 1877 Grant was appointed principal of Queen's +University, Kingston, Ontario, which through his exertions and influence +expanded from a small denominational college into a large and +influential educational centre; and he attracted to it an exceptionally +able body of professors whose influence in speculation and research was +widely felt during the quarter of a century that he remained at its +head. In 1888 he visited Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, the +effect of this experience being to strengthen still further the +Imperialism which was the guiding principle of his political opinions. +On the outbreak of the South African War in 1899 Grant was at first +disposed to be hostile to the policy of Lord Salisbury and Mr +Chamberlain; but his eyes were soon opened to the real nature of +President Kruger's government, and he enthusiastically welcomed and +supported the national feeling which sent men from the outlying portions +of the Empire to assist in upholding British supremacy in South Africa. +Grant did not live to see the conclusion of peace, his death occurring +at Kingston on the 10th of May 1902. At the time of his death _The +Times_ observed that "it is acknowledged on all hands that in him the +Dominion has lost one of the ablest men that it has yet produced." He +was the author of a number of works, of which the most notable besides +_Ocean to Ocean_ are, _Advantages of Imperial Federation_ (1889), _Our +National Objects and Aims_ (1890), _Religions of the World in Relation +to Christianity_ (1894) and volumes of sermons and lectures. Grant +married in 1872 Jessie, daughter of William Lawson of Halifax. + + + + +GRANT, JAMES (1822-1887), British novelist, was born in Edinburgh on the +1st of August 1822. His father, John Grant, was a captain in the 92nd +Gordon Highlanders and had served through the Peninsular War. For +several years James Grant was in Newfoundland with his father, but in +1839 he returned to England, and entered the 62nd Foot as an ensign. In +1843 he resigned his commission and devoted himself to writing, first +magazine articles, but soon a profusion of novels, full of vivacity and +incident, and dealing mainly with military scenes and characters. His +best stories, perhaps, were _The Romance of War_ (his first, 1845), +_Bothwell_ (1851), _Frank Hilton; or, The Queen's Own_ (1855), _The +Phantom Regiment_ and _Harry Ogilvie_ (1856), _Lucy Arden_ (1858), _The +White Cockade_ (1867), _Only an Ensign_ (1871), _Shall I Win Her?_ +(1874), _Playing with Fire_ (1887). Grant also wrote _British Battles on +Land and Sea_ (1873-1875) and valuable books on Scottish history. +Permanent value attaches to his great work, in three volumes, on _Old +and New Edinburgh_ (1880). He was the founder and energetic promoter of +the National Association for the Vindication of Scottish Rights. In 1875 +he became a Roman Catholic. He died on the 5th of May 1887. + + + + +GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827-1892), Scottish explorer of eastern +equatorial Africa, was born at Nairn, where his father was the parish +minister, on the 11th of April 1827. He was educated at the grammar +school and Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in 1846 joined the Indian +army. He saw active service in the Sikh War (1848-49), served throughout +the mutiny of 1857, and was wounded in the operations for the relief of +Lucknow. He returned to England in 1858, and in 1860 joined J. H. Speke +(q.v.) in the memorable expedition which solved the problem of the Nile +sources. The expedition left Zanzibar in October 1860 and reached +Gondokoro, where the travellers were again in touch with civilization, +in February 1863. Speke was the leader, but Grant carried out several +investigations independently and made valuable botanical collections. He +acted throughout in absolute loyalty to his comrade. In 1864 he +published, as supplementary to Speke's account of their journey, _A Walk +across Africa_, in which he dealt particularly with "the ordinary life +and pursuits, the habits and feelings of the natives" and the economic +value of the countries traversed. In 1864 he was awarded the patron's +medal of the Royal Geographical Society, and in 1866 given the +Companionship of the Bath in recognition of his services in the +expedition. He served in the intelligence department of the Abyssinian +expedition of 1868; for this he was made C.S.I. and received the +Abyssinian medal. At the close of the war he retired from the army with +the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He had married in 1865, and he now +settled down at Nairn, where he died on the 11th of February 1892. He +made contributions to the journals of various learned societies, the +most notable being the "Botany of the Speke and Grant Expedition" in +vol. xxix. of the _Transactions of the Linnaean Society_. + + + + +GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808-1875), English general, fifth and youngest +son of Francis Grant of Kilgraston, Perthshire, and brother of Sir +Francis Grant, P.R.A., was born on the 22nd of July 1808. He entered the +army in 1826 as cornet in the 9th Lancers, and became lieutenant in 1828 +and captain in 1835. In 1842 he was brigade-major to Lord Saltoun in the +Chinese War, and specially distinguished himself at the capture of +Chin-Kiang, after which he received the rank of major and the C.B. In +the first Sikh War of 1845-46 he took part in the battle of Sobraon; and +in the Punjab campaign of 1848-49 he commanded the 9th Lancers, and won +high reputation in the battles of Chillianwalla and Guzerat (Gujarat). +He was promoted brevet lieutenant-colonel and shortly afterwards to the +same substantive rank. In 1854 he became brevet-colonel, and in 1856 +brigadier of cavalry. He took a leading part in the suppression of the +Indian mutiny of 1857, holding for some time the command of the cavalry +division, and afterwards of a movable column of horse and foot. After +rendering valuable service in the operations before Delhi and in the +final assault on the city, he directed the victorious march of the +cavalry and horse artillery despatched in the direction of Cawnpore to +open up communication with the commander-in-chief Sir Colin Campbell, +whom he met near the Alambagh, and who raised him to the rank of +brigadier-general, and placed the whole force under his command during +what remained of the perilous march to Lucknow for the relief of the +residency. After the retirement towards Cawnpore he greatly aided in +effecting there the total rout of the rebel troops, by making a detour +which threatened their rear; and following in pursuit with a flying +column, he defeated them with the loss of nearly all their guns at +Serai Ghat. He also took part in the operations connected with the +recapture of Lucknow, shortly after which he was promoted to the rank of +major-general, and appointed to the command of the force employed for +the final pacification of India, a position in which his unwearied +energy, and his vigilance and caution united to high personal daring, +rendered very valuable service. Before the work of pacification was +quite completed he was created K.C.B. In 1859 he was appointed, with the +local rank of lieutenant-general, to the command of the British land +forces in the united French and British expedition against China. The +object of the campaign was accomplished within three months of the +landing of the forces at Pei-tang (1st of August 1860). The Taku Forts +had been carried by assault, the Chinese defeated three times in the +open and Peking occupied. For his conduct in this, which has been called +the "most successful and the best carried out of England's little wars," +he received the thanks of parliament and was gazetted G.C.B. In 1861 he +was made lieutenant-general and appointed commander-in-chief of the army +of Madras; on his return to England in 1865 he was made +quartermaster-general at headquarters; and in 1870 he was transferred to +the command of the camp at Aldershot, where he took a leading part in +the reform of the educational and training systems of the forces, which +followed the Franco-German War. The introduction of annual army +manoeuvres was largely due to Sir Hope Grant. In 1872 he was gazetted +general. He died in London on the 7th of March 1875. + + _Incidents in the Sepoy War of 1857-58, compiled from the Private + Journal of General Sir Hope Grant, K.C.B., together with some + explanatory chapters by Capt. H. Knollys, Royal Artillery_, was + published in 1873, and _Incidents in the China War of 1860_ appeared + posthumously under the same editorship in 1875. + + + + +GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895), British field marshal, was the second +son of Major John Grant, 97th Foot, of Auchterblair, Inverness-shire, +where he was born on the 11th of September 1804. He entered the Bengal +native infantry as ensign in 1820, and became captain in 1832. He served +in Oudh from 1834 to 1838, and raised the Hariana Light Infantry. +Employed in the adjutant-general's department of the Bengal army from +1838 until 1854, he became adjutant-general in 1846. He served under Sir +Hugh Gough at the battle of Maharajpur in 1843, winning a brevet +majority, was adjutant-general of the army at the battles of Moodkee in +1845 (twice severely wounded), and of Ferozshah and Sobraon in 1846, +receiving the C.B. and the brevet rank of lieutenant-colonel. He took +part in the battles of Chillianwalla and Gujarat in 1849, gaining +further promotion, and was appointed aide-de-camp to the queen. He +served also in Kohat in 1851 under Sir Charles Napier. Promoted +major-general in 1854, he was commander-in-chief of the Madras army from +1856 to 1861. He was made K.C.B. in 1857, and on General Anson's death +was summoned to Calcutta to take supreme command of the army in India. +From Calcutta he directed the operations against the mutineers, sending +forces under Havelock and Outram for the relief of Cawnpore and Lucknow, +until the arrival of Sir Colin Campbell from England as +commander-in-chief, when he returned to Madras. On leaving India in 1861 +he was decorated with the G.C.B. He was promoted lieutenant-general in +1862, was governor of Malta from 1867 to 1872, was made G.C.M.G. in +1868, promoted general in 1870, field marshal in 1883 and colonel of the +Royal Horse Guards and gold-stick-in-waiting to the queen in 1885. He +married as his second wife, in 1844, Frances Maria, daughter of Sir Hugh +(afterwards Lord) Gough. He was governor of the Royal Hospital, Chelsea, +from 1874 until his death there on the 28th of March 1895. + + + + +GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892), British astronomer, was born at Grantown, +Scotland, on the 17th of June 1814. At the age of thirteen the promise +of a brilliant career was clouded by a prolonged illness of such a +serious character as to incapacitate him from all school-work for six +years. At twenty, however, his health greatly improved, and he set +himself resolutely, without assistance, to repair his earlier +disadvantages by the diligent study of Greek, Latin, Italian and +mathematics. Astronomy also occupied his attention, and it was +stimulated by the return of Halley's comet in 1835, as well as by his +success in observing the annular eclipse of the sun of the 15th of May +1836. After a short course at King's College, Aberdeen, he obtained in +1841 employment in his brother's counting-house in London. During this +period the idea occurred to him of writing a history of physical +astronomy. Before definitely beginning the work he had to search, +amongst other records, those of the French Academy, and for that purpose +took up his residence in Paris in 1845, supporting himself by giving +lessons in English. He returned to London in 1847. _The History of +Physical Astronomy from the Earliest Ages to the Middle of the +Nineteenth Century_ was first published in parts in _The Library of +Useful Knowledge_, but after the issue of the ninth part this mode of +publication was discontinued, and the work appeared as a whole in 1852. +The main object of the work is, in the author's words, "to exhibit a +view of the labours of successive inquirers in establishing a knowledge +of the mechanical principles which regulate the movements of the +celestial bodies, and in explaining the various phenomena relative to +their physical constitution which observation with the telescope has +disclosed." The lucidity and completeness with which a great variety of +abstruse subjects were treated, the extent of research and the maturity +of judgment it displayed, were the more remarkable, when it is +remembered that this was the first published work of one who enjoyed no +special opportunities, either for acquiring materials, or for discussing +with others engaged in similar pursuits the subjects it treats of. The +book at once took a leading place in astronomical literature, and earned +for its author in 1856 the award of the Royal Astronomical Society's +gold medal. In 1859 he succeeded John Pringle Nichol as professor of +astronomy in the University of Glasgow. From time to time he contributed +astronomical papers to the _Monthly Notices, Astronomische Nachrichten, +Comptes rendus_ and other scientific serials; but his principal work at +Glasgow consisted in determining the places of a large number of stars +with the Ertel transit-circle of the Observatory. The results of these +labours, extending over twenty-one years, are contained in the _Glasgow +Catalogue of 6415 Stars_, published in 1883. This was followed in 1892 +by the _Second Glasgow Catalogue of 2156 Stars_, published a few weeks +after his death, which took place on the 24th of October 1892. + + See _Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society_, liii., 210 (E. Dunkin); + _Nature_, Nov. 10, 1892; _The Times_, Nov. 2, 1892; _Roy. Society's + Catalogue of Scient. Papers_. (A. A. R.*) + + + + +GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885), American soldier, and eighteenth +president of the United States, was born at Point Pleasant, Ohio, on the +27th of April 1822. He was a descendant of Matthew Grant, a Scotchman, +who settled in Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1630. His earlier years +were spent in helping his father, Jesse R. Grant, upon his farm in Ohio. +In 1839 he was appointed to a place in the military academy at West +Point, and it was then that his name assumed the form by which it is +generally known. He was christened Hiram, after an ancestor, with +Ulysses for a middle name. As he was usually called by his middle name, +the congressman who recommended him for West Point supposed it to be his +first name, and added thereto the name of his mother's family, Simpson. +Grant was the best horseman of his class, and took a respectable place +in mathematics, but at his graduation in 1843 he only ranked +twenty-first in a class of thirty-nine. In September 1845 he went with +his regiment to join the forces of General Taylor in Mexico; there he +took part in the battles of Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma and Monterey, +and, after his transfer to General Scott's army, which he joined in +March 1847, served at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Churubusco, Molino del Rey +and at the storming of Chapultepec. He was breveted first lieutenant for +gallantry at Molino del Rey and captain for gallantry at Chapultepec. In +August 1848, after the close of the war, he married Julia T. Dent +(1826-1902), and was for a while stationed in California and Oregon, but +in 1854 he resigned his commission. His reputation in the service had +suffered from allegations of intemperate drinking, which, whether well +founded or not, certainly impaired his usefulness as a soldier. For the +next six years he lived in St Louis, Missouri, earning a scanty +subsistence by farming and dealings in real estate. In 1860 he removed +to Galena, Illinois, and became a clerk in a leather store kept by his +father. At that time his earning capacity seems not to have exceeded +$800 a year, and he was regarded by his friends as a broken and +disappointed man. He was living at Galena at the outbreak of hostilities +between the North and South. + + + Grant's Civil War career. + +[For the history of the Civil War, and of Grant's battles and campaigns, +the reader is referred to the article AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. To the "call +to arms" of 1861 Grant promptly responded. After some delay he was +commissioned colonel of the 21st Illinois regiment and soon afterwards +brigadier-general. He was shortly assigned to a territorial command on +the Mississippi, and first won distinction by his energy in seizing, on +his own responsibility, the important point of Paducah, Kentucky, +situated at the confluence of the two great waterways of the Tennessee +and the Ohio (6th Sept. 1861). On the 7th of November he fought his +first battle as a commander, that of Belmont (Missouri), which, if it +failed to achieve any material result, certainly showed him to be a +capable and skilful leader. Early in 1862 he was entrusted by General H. +W. Halleck with the command of a large force to clear the lower reaches +of the Cumberland and the Tennessee, and, whatever criticism may be +passed on the general strategy of the campaign, Grant himself, by his +able and energetic work, thoroughly deserved the credit of his brilliant +success of Fort Donelson, where 15,000 Confederates were forced to +capitulate. Grant and his division commanders were promoted to the rank +of major-general U.S.V. soon afterwards, but Grant's own fortunes +suffered a temporary eclipse owing to a disagreement with Halleck. When, +after being virtually under arrest, he rejoined his army, it was +concentrated about Savannah on the Tennessee, preparing for a campaign +towards Corinth, Miss. On the 6th of April 1862 a furious assault on +Grant's camps brought on the battle of Shiloh (q.v.). After two days' +desperate fighting the Confederates withdrew before the combined attack +of the Army of the Tennessee under Grant and the Army of the Ohio under +Buell. But the Army of the Tennessee had been on the verge of +annihilation on the evening of the first day, and Grant's leadership +throughout was by no means equal to the emergency, though he displayed +his usual personal bravery and resolution. In the grand advance of +Halleck's armies which followed Shiloh, Grant was relieved of all +important duties by his assignment as second in command of the whole +force, and was thought by the army at large to be in disgrace. But +Halleck soon went to Washington as general-in-chief, and Grant took +command of his old army and of Rosecrans' Army of the Mississippi. Two +victories (Iuka and Corinth) were won in the autumn of 1862, but the +credit of both fell to Rosecrans, who commanded in the field, and the +nadir of Grant's military fortunes was reached when the first advance on +Vicksburg (q.v.), planned on an unsound basis, and complicated by a +series of political intrigues (which had also caused the adoption of the +original scheme), collapsed after the minor reverses of Holly Springs +and Chickasaw Bayou (December 1862). + +It is fair to assume that Grant would have followed other unsuccessful +generals into retirement, had he not shown that, whatever his mistakes +or failures, and whether he was or was not sober and temperate in his +habits, he possessed the iron determination and energy which in the eyes +of Lincoln and Stanton,[1] and of the whole Northern people, was the +first requisite of their generals. He remained then with his army near +Vicksburg, trying one plan after another without result, until at last +after months of almost hopeless work his perseverance was crowned with +success--a success directly consequent upon a strange and bizarre +campaign of ten weeks, in which his daring and vigour were more +conspicuous than ever before. On the 4th of July 1863 the great fortress +surrendered with 29,491 men, this being one of the most important +victories won by the Union arms in the whole war. Grant was at once made +a major-general in the regular army. A few months later the great +reverse of Chickamauga created an alarm in the North commensurate with +the elation that had been felt at the double victory of Vicksburg and +Gettysburg, and Grant was at once ordered to Chattanooga, to decide the +fate of the Army of the Cumberland in a second battle. Four armies were +placed under his command, and three of these concentrated at +Chattanooga. On the 25th of November 1863 a great three-days' battle +ended with the crushing defeat of the Confederates, who from this day +had no foothold in the centre and west. + +After this, in preparation for a grand combined effort of all the Union +forces, Grant was placed in supreme command, and the rank of +lieutenant-general revived for him (March 1864). Grant's headquarters +henceforth accompanied the Army of the Potomac, and the +lieutenant-general directed the campaign in Virginia. This, with Grant's +driving energy infused into the best army that the Union possessed, +resolved itself into a series, almost uninterrupted, of terrible +battles. Tactically the Confederates were almost always victorious, +strategically, Grant, disposing of greatly superior forces, pressed back +Lee and the Army of Northern Virginia to the lines of Richmond and +Petersburg, while above all, in pursuance of his explicit policy of +"attrition," the Federal leader used his men with a merciless energy +that has few, if any, parallels in modern history. At Cold Harbor six +thousand men fell in one useless assault lasting an hour, and after two +months the Union armies lay before Richmond and Petersburg indeed, but +had lost no fewer than 72,000 men. But Grant was unshaken in his +determination. "I purpose to fight it out on this line, if it takes all +summer," was his message from the battlefield of Spottsylvania to the +chief of staff at Washington. Through many weary months he never relaxed +his hold on Lee's army, and, in spite of repeated partial reverses, that +would have been defeats for his predecessors, he gradually wore down his +gallant adversary. The terrible cost of these operations did not check +him: only on one occasion of grave peril were any troops sent from his +lines to serve elsewhere, and he drew to himself the bulk of the men +whom the Union government was recruiting by thousands for the final +effort. Meanwhile all the other campaigns had been closely supervised by +Grant, preoccupied though he was with the operations against his own +adversary. At a critical moment he actually left the Virginian armies to +their own commanders, and started to take personal command in a +threatened quarter, and throughout he was in close touch with Sherman +and Thomas, who conducted the campaigns on the south-east and the +centre. That he succeeded in the efficient exercise of the chief command +of armies of a total strength of over one million men, operating many +hundreds of miles apart from each other, while at the same time he +watched and manoeuvred against a great captain and a veteran army in one +field of the war, must be the greatest proof of Grant's powers as a +general. In the end complete success rewarded the sacrifices and efforts +of the Federals on every theatre of war; in Virginia, where Grant was in +personal control, the merciless policy of attrition wore down Lee's army +until a mere remnant was left for the final surrender. + +Grant had thus brought the great struggle to an end, and was universally +regarded as the saviour of the Union. A careful study of the history of +the war thoroughly bears out the popular view. There were soldiers more +accomplished, as was McClellan, more brilliant, as was Rosecrans, and +more exact, as was Buell, but it would be difficult to prove that these +generals, or indeed any others in the service, could have accomplished +the task which Grant brought to complete success. Nor must it be +supposed that Grant learned little from three years' campaigning in +high command. There is less in common than is often supposed between the +buoyant energy that led Grant to Shiloh and the grim plodding +determination that led him to Vicksburg and to Appomattox. Shiloh +revealed to Grant the intensity of the struggle, and after that battle, +appreciating to the full the material and moral factors with which he +had to deal, he gradually trained his military character on those lines +which alone could conduce to ultimate success. Singleness of purpose, +and relentless vigour in the execution of the purpose, were the +qualities necessary to the conduct of the vast enterprise of subduing +the Confederacy. Grant possessed or acquired both to such a degree that +he proved fully equal to the emergency. If in technical finesse he was +surpassed by many of his predecessors and his subordinates, he had the +most important qualities of a great captain, courage that rose higher +with each obstacle, and the clear judgment to distinguish the essential +from the minor issues in war.--(C. F. A.)] + + + Presidency, 1868. + +After the assassination of President Lincoln a disposition was shown by +his successor, Andrew Johnson, to deal severely with the Confederate +leaders, and it was understood that indictments for treason were to be +brought against General Lee and others. Grant, however, insisted that +the United States government was bound by the terms accorded to Lee and +his army at Appomattox. He went so far as to threaten to resign his +commission if the president disregarded his protest. This energetic +action on Grant's part saved the United States from a foul stain upon +its escutcheon. In July 1866 the grade of general was created, for the +first time since the organization of the government, and Grant was +promoted to that position. In the following year he became involved in +the deadly quarrel between President Johnson and Congress. To tie the +president's hands Congress had passed the Tenure of Office Act, +forbidding the president to remove any cabinet officer without the +consent of the Senate; but in August 1867 President Johnson suspended +Secretary Stanton and appointed Grant secretary of war _ad interim_ +until the pleasure of the Senate should be ascertained. Grant accepted +the appointment under protest, and held it until the following January, +when the Senate refused to confirm the president's action, and Secretary +Stanton resumed his office. President Johnson was much disgusted at the +readiness with which Grant turned over the office to Stanton, and a +bitter controversy ensued between Johnson and Grant. Hitherto Grant had +taken little part in politics. The only vote which he had ever cast for +a presidential candidate was in 1856 for James Buchanan; and leading +Democrats, so late as the beginning of 1868, hoped to make him their +candidate in the election of that year; but the effect of the +controversy with President Johnson was to bring Grant forward as the +candidate of the Republican party. At the convention in Chicago on the +20th of May 1868 he was unanimously nominated on the first ballot. The +Democratic party nominated the one available Democrat who had the +smallest chance of beating him--Horatio Seymour, lately governor of New +York, an excellent statesman, but at that time hopeless as a candidate +because of his attitude during the war. The result of the contest was at +no time in doubt; Grant received 214 electoral votes and Seymour 80. + +The most important domestic event of Grant's first term as president was +the adoption of the fifteenth amendment to the Constitution on the 30th +of March 1870, providing that suffrage throughout the United States +should not be restricted on account of race, colour or previous +condition of servitude. The most important event in foreign policy was +the treaty with Great Britain of the 8th of May 1871, commonly known as +the Treaty of Washington, whereby several controversies between the +United States and Great Britain, including the bitter questions as to +damage inflicted upon the United States by the "Alabama" and other +Confederate cruisers built and equipped in England, were referred to +arbitration. In 1869 the government of Santo Domingo (or the Dominican +Republic) expressed a wish for annexation by the United States, and such +a step was favoured by Grant, but a treaty negotiated with this end in +view failed to obtain the requisite two-thirds vote in the Senate. In +May 1872 something was done towards alleviating the odious +Reconstruction laws for dragooning the South, which had been passed by +Congress in spite of the vetoes of President Johnson. The Amnesty Bill +restored civil rights to all persons in the South, save from 300 to 500 +who had held high positions under the Confederacy. As early as 1870 +President Grant recommended measures of civil service reform, and +succeeded in obtaining an act authorizing him to appoint a Civil Service +commission. A commission was created, but owing to the hostility of the +politicians in Congress it accomplished little. During the fifty years +since Crawford's Tenure of Office Act was passed in 1820, the country +had been growing more and more familiar with the spectacle of corruption +in high places. The evil rose to alarming proportions during Grant's +presidency, partly because of the immense extension of the civil +service, partly because of the growing tendency to alliance between +spoilsmen and the persons benefited by protective tariffs, and partly +because the public attention was still so much absorbed in Southern +affairs that little energy was left for curbing rascality in the North. +The scandals, indeed, were rife in Washington, and affected persons in +close relations with the president. Grant was ill-fitted for coping with +the difficulties of such a situation. Along with high intellectual +powers in certain directions, he had a simplicity of nature charming in +itself, but often calculated to render him the easy prey of sharpers. He +found it almost impossible to believe that anything could be wrong in +persons to whom he had given his friendship, and on several occasions +such friends proved themselves unworthy of him. The feeling was widely +prevalent in the spring of 1872 that the interests of pure government in +the United States demanded that President Grant should not be elected to +a second term. This feeling led a number of high-minded gentlemen to +form themselves into an organization under the name of Liberal +Republicans. They held a convention at Cincinnati in May with the +intention of nominating for the presidency Charles Francis Adams, who +had ably represented the United States at the court of St James's during +the Civil War. The convention, was, however, captured by politicians who +converted the whole affair into a farce by nominating Horace Greeley, +editor of the _New York Tribune_, who represented almost anything rather +than the object for which the convention had been called together. The +Democrats had despaired of electing a candidate of their own, and hoped +to achieve success by adopting the Cincinnati nominee, should he prove +to be an eligible person. The event showed that while their defeat in +1868 had taught them despondency, it had not taught them wisdom; it was +still in their power to make a gallant fight by nominating a person for +whom Republican reformers could vote. But with almost incredible +fatuity, they adopted Greeley as their candidate. As a natural result +Grant was re-elected by an overwhelming majority. + + + Second presidency. + +The most important event of his second term was his veto of the +Inflation Bill in 1874 followed by the passage of the Resumption Act in +the following year. The country was still labouring under the curse of +an inconvertible paper currency originating with the Legal Tender Act of +1862. There was a considerable party in favour of debasing the currency +indefinitely by inflation, and a bill with that object was passed by +Congress in April 1874. It was promptly vetoed by President Grant, and +two months later he wrote a very sensible letter to Senator J. P. Jones +of Nevada advocating a speedy return to specie payments. The passage of +the Resumption Act in January 1875 was largely due to his consistent +advocacy, and for these measures he deserves as high credit as for his +victories in the field. In spite of these great services, popular +dissatisfaction with the Republican party rapidly increased during the +years 1874-1876. The causes were twofold: firstly, there was great +dissatisfaction with the troubles in the Southern states, owing to the +harsh Reconstruction laws and the robberies committed by the carpet-bag +governments which those laws kept in power; secondly, the scandals at +Washington, comprising wholesale frauds on the public revenue, awakened +lively disgust. In some cases the culprits were so near to President +Grant that many persons found it difficult to avoid the suspicion that +he was himself implicated, and never perhaps was his hold upon popular +favour so slight as in the summer and autumn of 1876. + + + Later life. + +After the close of his presidency in the spring of 1877 Grant started on +a journey round the world, accompanied by his wife and one son. He was +received with distinguished honours in England and on the continent of +Europe, whence he made his way to India, China and Japan. After his +return to America in September 1880 he went back to his old home in +Galena, Illinois. A faction among the managers of the Republican party +attempted to secure his nomination for a third term as president, and in +the convention at Chicago in June 1880 he received a vote exceeding 300 +during 36 consecutive ballots. Nevertheless, his opponents made such +effective use of the popular prejudice against third terms that the +scheme was defeated, and Garfield was named in his stead. In August 1881 +General Grant bought a house in the city of New York. His income was +insufficient for the proper support of his family, and accordingly he +had become partner in a banking house in which one of his sons was +interested along with other persons. The name of the firm was Grant and +Ward. The ex-president invested in it all his available property, but +paid no attention to the management of the business. His facility in +giving his confidence to unworthy people was now to be visited with dire +calamity. In 1884 the firm became bankrupt, and it was discovered that +two of the partners had been perpetrating systematic and gigantic +frauds. This severe blow left General Grant penniless, just at the time +when he was beginning to suffer acutely from the disease which finally +caused his death. Down to this time he had never made any pretensions to +literary skill or talent, but on being approached by the _Century +Magazine_ with a request for some articles he undertook the work in +order to keep the wolf from the door. It proved a congenial task, and +led to the writing of his _Personal Memoirs_, a frank, modest and +charming book, which ranks among the best standard military biographies. +The sales earned for the general and his family something like half a +million dollars. The circumstances in which it was written made it an +act of heroism comparable with any that Grant ever showed as a soldier. +During most of the time he was suffering tortures from cancer in the +throat, and it was only four days before his death that he finished the +manuscript. In the spring of 1885 Congress passed a bill creating him a +general on the retired list; and in the summer he was removed to a +cottage at Mount M'Gregor, near Saratoga, where he passed the last five +weeks of his life, and where he died on the 23rd of July 1885. His body +was placed in a temporary tomb in Riverside Drive, in New York City, +overlooking the Hudson river.[2] + +Grant showed many admirable and lovable traits. There was a charming +side to his trustful simplicity, which was at times almost like that of +a sailor set ashore. He abounded in kindliness and generosity, and if +there was anything especially difficult for him to endure, it was the +sight of human suffering, as was shown on the night at Shiloh, where he +lay out of doors in the icy rain rather than stay in a comfortable room +where the surgeons were at work. His good sense was strong, as well as +his sense of justice, and these qualities stood him in good service as +president, especially in his triumphant fight against the greenback +monster. Altogether, in spite of some shortcomings, Grant was a massive, +noble and lovable personality, well fit to be remembered as one of the +heroes of a great nation. (J. Fi.) + +General Grant's son, FREDERICK DENT GRANT (b. 1850), graduated at the +U.S. Military Academy in 1871, was aide-de-camp to General Philip +Sheridan in 1873-1881, and resigned from the army in 1881, after having +attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He was U.S. minister to Austria +in 1889-1893, and police commissioner of New York city in 1894-1898. He +served as a brigadier-general of volunteers in the Spanish-American War +of 1898, and then in the Philippines, becoming brigadier-general in the +regular army in February 1901 and major-general in February 1906. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Adam Badeau's _Military History of U. S. Grant_ (3 + vols., New York, 1867-1881), and _Grant in Peace_ (Hartford, 1887), + are appreciative but lacking in discrimination. William Conant + Church's _Ulysses S. Grant and the Period of National Preservation and + Reconstruction_ (New York, 1897) is a good succinct account. Hamlin + Garland's _Ulysses S. Grant, His Life and Character_ (New York, 1898) + gives especial attention to the personal traits of Grant and abounds + in anecdote. See also Grant's _Personal Memoirs_ (2 vols., New York, + 1885-1886); J. G. Wilson's _Life and Public Services of U. S. Grant_ + (New York, 1886); J. R. Young's _Around the World with General Grant_ + (New York, 1880); Horace Porter's _Campaigning with Grant_ (New York, + 1897); James Ford Rhodes's _History of the United States_ (vols. + iii.-vii., New York, 1896-1906); James K. Hosmer's _Appeal to Arms and + Outcome of the Civil War_ (New York, 1907); John Eaton's _Grant, + Lincoln, and the Freedmen_ (New York, 1907), and various works + mentioned in the articles AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, WILDERNESS CAMPAIGN, &c. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] President Lincoln was Grant's most unwavering supporter. Many + amusing stories are told of his replies to various deputations which + waited upon him to ask for Grant's removal. On one occasion he asked + the critics to ascertain the brand of whisky favoured by Grant, so + that he could send kegs of it to the other generals. The question of + Grant's abstemiousness was and is of little importance. The cause at + stake over-rode every prejudice and the people of the United States, + since the war, have been in general content to leave the question + alone, as was evidenced by the outcry raised in 1908, when President + Taft reopened it in a speech at Grant's tomb. + + [2] The permanent tomb is of white granite and white marble and is + 150 ft. high with a circular cupola topping a square building 90 ft. + on the side and 72 ft. high; the sarcophagus, in the centre of the + building, is of red Wisconsin porphyry. The cornerstone was laid by + President Harrison in 1892, and the tomb was dedicated on the 27th of + April 1897 with a splendid parade and addresses by President McKinley + and General Horace Porter, president of the Grant Monument + Association, which from 90,000 contributions raised the funds for the + tomb. + + + + +GRANT (from A.-Fr. _graunter_, O. Fr. _greanter_ for _creanter_, popular +Lat. _creantare_, for _credentare_, to entrust, Lat. _credere_, to +believe, trust), originally permission, acknowledgment, hence the gift +of privileges, rights, &c., specifically in law, the transfer of +property by an instrument in writing, termed a deed of grant. According +to the old rule of common law, the immediate freehold in corporeal +hereditaments lay in livery (see FEOFFMENT), whereas incorporeal +hereditaments, such as a reversion, remainder, advowson, &c., lay in +grant, that is, passed by the delivery of the deed of conveyance or +grant without further ceremony. The distinction between property lying +in livery and in grant is now abolished, the Real Property Act 1845 +providing that all corporeal tenements and hereditaments shall be +transferable as well by grant as by livery (see CONVEYANCING). A grant +of personal property is properly termed an assignment or bill of sale. + + + + +GRANTH, the holy scriptures of the Sikhs, containing the spiritual and +moral teaching of Sikhism (q.v.). The book is called the _Adi Granth +Sahib_ by the Sikhs as a title of respect, because it is believed by +them to be an embodiment of the gurus. The title is generally applied to +the volume compiled by the fifth guru Arjan, which contains the +compositions of Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh religion; of his +successors, Guru Angad, Amar Das, Ram Das and Arjan; hymns of the Hindu +bhagats or saints, Jaidev, Namdev, Trilochan, Sain, Ramanand, Kabir, Rai +Das, Pipa, Bhikhan, Beni, Parmanand Das, Sur Das, Sadhna and Dhanna Jat; +verses of the Mahommedan saint called Farid; and panegyrics of the gurus +by bards who either attended them or admired their characters. The +compositions of the ninth guru, Teg Bahadur, were subsequently added to +the _Adi Granth_ by Guru Govind Singh. One recension of the sacred +volume preserved at Mangat in the Gujrat district contains a hymn +composed by Mira Bai, queen of Chitor. The _Adi Granth_ contains +passages of great picturesqueness and beauty. The original copy is said +to be in Kartarpur in the Jullundur district, but the chief copy in use +is now in the Har Mandar or Golden Temple at Amritsar, where it is daily +read aloud by the attendant Granthis or scripture readers. + +There is also a second _Granth_ which was compiled by the Sikhs in 1734, +and popularly known as the _Granth of the tenth Guru_, but it has not +the same authority as the _Adi Granth_. It contains Guru Govind Singh's +_Japji_, the _Akal Ustit_ or Praise of the Creator, thirty-three +_sawaias_ (quatrains containing some of the main tenets of the guru and +strong reprobation of idolatry and hypocrisy), and the _Vachitar Natak_ +or wonderful drama, in which the guru gives an account of his parentage, +divine mission and the battles in which he was engaged. Then come three +abridged translations by different hands of the _Devi Mahatamya_, an +episode in the _Markandeya Puran_, in praise of Durga, the goddess of +war. Then follow the _Gyan Parbodh_ or awakening of knowledge, accounts +of twenty-four incarnations of the deity, selected because of their +warlike character; the _Hazare de Shabd_; the _Shastar Nam Mala_, which +is a list of offensive and defensive weapons used in the guru's time, +with special reference to the attributes of the Creator; the _Tria +Charitar_ or tales illustrating the qualities, but principally the +deceit of women; the _Kabit_, compositions of a miscellaneous character; +the _Zafarnama_ containing the tenth guru's epistle to the emperor +Aurangzeb, and several metrical tales in the Persian language. This +_Granth_ is only partially the composition of the tenth guru. The +greater portion of it was written by bards in his employ. + + + Form of the Granth. + +The two volumes are written in several different languages and dialects. +The _Adi Granth_ is largely in old Punjabi and Hindi, but Prakrit, +Persian, Mahratti and Gujrati are also represented. The _Granth of the +Tenth Guru_ is written in the old and very difficult Hindi affected by +literary men in the Patna district in the 16th century. In neither of +these sacred volumes is there any separation of words. As there is no +separation of words in Sanskrit, the _gyanis_ or interpreters of the +guru's hymns prefer to follow the ancient practice of junction of words. +This makes the reading of the Sikh scriptures very difficult, and is one +of the causes of the decline of the Sikh religion. + +The hymns in the _Adi Granth_ are arranged not according to the gurus or +bhagats who compose them, but according to rags or musical measures. +There are thirty-one such measures in the _Adi Granth_, and the hymns +are arranged according to the measures to which they are composed. The +gurus who composed hymns, namely the first, second, third, fourth, fifth +and ninth gurus, all used the name Nanak as their nom-de-plume. Their +compositions are distinguished by mahallas or wards. Thus the +compositions of Guru Nanak are styled mahalla one, the compositions of +Guru Angad are styled mahalla two, and so on. After the hymns of the +gurus are found the hymns of the bhagats under their several musical +measures. The Sikhs generally dislike any arrangement of the _Adi +Granth_ by which the compositions of each guru or bhagat should be +separately shown. + + + The Sikh doctrines. + +All the doctrines of the Sikhs are found set forth in the two _Granths_ +and in compositions called _Rahit Namas_ and _Tanakhwah Namas_, which +are believed to have been the utterances of the tenth guru. The cardinal +principle of the sacred books is the unity of God, and starting from +this premiss the rejection of idolatry and superstition. Thus Guru +Govind Singh writes: + + "Some worshipping stones, put them on their heads; + Some suspend lingams from their necks; + Some see the God in the South; some bow their heads to the West. + Some fools worship idols, others busy themselves with worshipping + the dead. + The whole world entangled in false ceremonies hath not found God's + secret." + +Next to the unity of God comes the equality of all men in His sight, and +so the abolition of caste distinctions. Guru Nanak says: + + "Caste hath no power in the next world; there is a new order of beings, + Those whose accounts are honoured are the good." + +The concremation of widows, though practised in later times by Hinduized +Sikhs, is forbidden in the _Granth_. Guru Arjan writes: + + "She who considereth her beloved as her God, + Is the blessed _sati_ who shall be acceptable in God's Court." + +It is a common belief that the Sikhs are allowed to drink wine and other +intoxicants. This is not the case. Guru Nanak wrote: + + "By drinking wine man committeth many sins." + +Guru Arjan wrote: + + "The fool who drinketh evil wine is involved in sin." + +And in the Rahit Nama of Bhai Desu Singh there is the following: + + "Let a Sikh take no intoxicant; it maketh the body lazy; it diverteth + men from their temporal and spiritual duties, and inciteth them to + evil deeds." + +It is also generally believed that the Sikhs are bound to abstain from +the flesh of kine. This, too, is a mistake, arising from the Sikh +adoption of Hindu usages. The two _Granths_ of the Sikhs and all their +canonical works are absolutely silent on the subject. The Sikhs are not +bound to abstain from any flesh, except that which is obviously unfit +for human food, or what is killed in the Mahommedan fashion by jagging +an animal's throat with a knife. This flesh-eating practice is one of +the main sources of their physical strength. Smoking is strictly +prohibited by the Sikh religion. Guru Teg Bahadur preached to his host +as follows: + + "Save the people from the vile drug, and employ thyself in the service + of Sikhs and holy men. When the people abandon the degrading smoke and + cultivate their lands, their wealth and prosperity shall increase, and + they shall want for nothing ... but when they smoke the vile + vegetable, they shall grow poor and lose their wealth." + +Guru Govind Singh also said: + + "Wine is bad, bhang destroyeth one generation, but tobacco destroyeth + all generations." + +In addition to these prohibitions Sikhism inculcates most of the +positive virtues of Christianity, and specially loyalty to rulers, a +quality which has made the Sikhs valuable servants of the British crown. + + The _Granth_ was translated by Dr Trumpp, a German missionary, on + behalf of the Punjab government in 1877, but his rendering is in many + respects incorrect, owing to insufficient knowledge of the Punjabi + dialects. _The Sikh Religion_, &c., in 6 vols. (London, 1909) is an + authoritative version prepared by M. Macauliffe, in concert with the + modern leaders of the Sikh sect. (M. M.) + + + + +GRANTHAM, THOMAS ROBINSON, 1st BARON (c. 1695-1770), English diplomatist +and politician, was a younger son of Sir William Robinson, Bart. +(1655-1736) of Newby, Yorkshire, who was member of parliament for York +from 1697 to 1722. Having been a scholar and minor fellow of Trinity +College, Cambridge, Thomas Robinson gained his earliest diplomatic +experience in Paris and then went to Vienna, where he was English +ambassador from 1730 to 1748. During 1741 he sought to make peace +between the empress Maria Theresa and Frederick the Great, but in vain, +and in 1748 he represented his country at the congress of +Aix-la-Chapelle. Returning to England he sat in parliament for +Christchurch from 1749 to 1761. In 1754 Robinson was appointed a +secretary of state and leader of the House of Commons by the prime +minister, the duke of Newcastle, and it was on this occasion that Pitt +made the famous remark to Fox, "the duke might as well have sent us his +jackboot to lead us." In November 1755 he resigned, and in April 1761 he +was created Baron Grantham. He was master of the wardrobe from 1749 to +1754 and again from 1755 to 1760, and was joint postmaster-general in +1765 and 1766. He died in London on the 30th of September 1770. + +Grantham's elder son, THOMAS ROBINSON (1738-1786), who became the 2nd +baron, was born at Vienna on the 30th of November 1738. Educated at +Westminster School and at Christ's College, Cambridge, he entered +parliament as member for Christchurch in 1761, and succeeded to the +peerage in 1770. In 1771 he was sent as ambassador to Madrid and +retained this post until war broke out between England and Spain in +1779. From 1780 to 1782 Grantham was first commissioner of the board of +trade and foreign plantations, and from July 1782 to April 1783 +secretary for the foreign department under Lord Shelburne. He died on +the 20th of July 1786, leaving two sons, Thomas Philip, who became the +3rd baron, and Frederick John afterwards 1st earl of Ripon. + +THOMAS PHILIP ROBINSON, 3rd Baron Grantham (1781-1859). in 1803 took the +name of Weddell instead of that of Robinson. In May 1833 he became Earl +de Grey of Wrest on the death of his maternal aunt, Amabell +Hume-Campbell, Countess de Grey (1751-1833), and he now took the name of +de Grey. He was first lord of the admiralty under Sir Robert Peel in +1834-1835 and from 1841 to 1844 lord-lieutenant of Ireland. On his +death without male issue his nephew, George Frederick Samuel Robinson, +afterwards marquess of Ripon (q.v.), succeeded as Earl de Grey. + + + + +GRANTHAM, a municipal and parliamentary borough of Lincolnshire, +England; situated in a pleasant undulating country on the river Witham. +Pop. (1901) 17,593. It is an important junction of the Great Northern +railway, 105 m. N. by W. from London, with branch lines to Nottingham, +Lincoln and Boston; while there is communication with Nottingham and the +Trent by the Grantham canal. The parish church of St Wulfram is a +splendid building, exhibiting all the Gothic styles, but mainly Early +English and Decorated. The massive and ornate western tower and spire, +about 280 ft. in height, are of early Decorated workmanship. There is a +double Decorated crypt beneath the lady chapel. The north and south +porches are fine examples of a later period of the same style. The +delicately carved font is noteworthy. Two libraries, respectively of the +16th and 17th centuries, are preserved in the church. At the King Edward +VI. grammar school Sir Isaac Newton received part of his education. A +bronze statue commemorates him. The late Perpendicular building is +picturesque, and the school was greatly enlarged in 1904. The Angel +Hotel is a hostelry of the 15th century, with a gateway of earlier date. +A conduit dating from 1597 stands in the wide market-place. Modern +public buildings are a gild hall, exchange hall, and several churches +and chapels. The Queen Victoria Memorial home for nurses was erected in +1902-1903. The chief industries are malting and the manufacture of +agricultural implements. Grantham returns one member to parliament. The +borough falls within the S. Kesteven or Stamford division of the county. +Grantham was created a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Lincoln in +1905. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 +councillors. Area, 1726 acres. + +Although there is no authentic evidence of Roman occupation, Grantham +(Graham, Granham in Domesday Book) from its situation on the Ermine +Street, is supposed to have been a Roman station. It was possibly a +borough in the Saxon period, and by the time of the Domesday Survey it +was a royal borough with 111 burgesses. Charters of liberties existing +now only in the confirmation charter of 1377 were granted by various +kings. From the first the town was governed by a bailiff appointed by +the lord of the manor, but by the end of the 14th century the office of +alderman had come into existence. Finally government under a mayor and +alderman was granted by Edward IV. in 1463, and Grantham became a +corporate town. Among later charters, that of James II., given in 1685, +changed the title to that of government by a mayor and 6 aldermen, but +this was afterwards reversed and the old order resumed. Grantham was +first represented in parliament in 1467, and returned two members; but +by the Redistribution Act of 1885 the number was reduced to one. Richard +III. in 1483 granted a Wednesday market and two fairs yearly, namely on +the feast of St Nicholas the Bishop, and the two following days, and on +Passion Sunday and the day following. At the present day the market is +held on Saturday, and fairs are held on the Monday, Tuesday and +Wednesday following the fifth Sunday in Lent; a cherry fair on the 11th +of July and two stock fairs on the 26th of October and the 17th of +December. + + + + +GRANTLEY, FLETCHER NORTON, 1st Baron (1716-1789), English politician, +was the eldest son of Thomas Norton of Grantley, Yorkshire, where he was +born on the 23rd of June 1716. He became a barrister in 1739, and, after +a period of inactivity, obtained a large and profitable practice, +becoming a K.C. in 1754, and afterwards attorney-general for the county +palatine of Lancaster. In 1756 he was elected member of parliament for +Appleby; he represented Wigan from 1761 to 1768, and was appointed +solicitor-general for England and knighted in 1762. He took part in the +proceedings against John Wilkes, and, having become attorney-general in +1763, prosecuted the 5th Lord Byron for the murder of William Chaworth, +losing his office when the marquess of Rockingham came into power in +July 1765. In 1769, being now member of parliament for Guildford, +Norton became a privy councillor and chief justice in eyre of the +forests south of the Trent, and in 1770 was chosen Speaker of the House +of Commons. In 1777, when presenting the bill for the increase of the +civil list to the king, he told George III. that parliament has "not +only granted to your majesty a large present supply, but also a very +great additional revenue; great beyond example; great beyond your +majesty's highest expense." This speech aroused general attention and +caused some irritation; but the Speaker was supported by Fox and by the +city of London, and received the thanks of the House of Commons. George, +however, did not forget these plain words, and after the general +election of 1780, the prime minister, Lord North, and his followers +declined to support the re-election of the retiring Speaker, alleging +that his health was not equal to the duties of the office, and he was +defeated when the voting took place. In 1782 he was made a peer as Baron +Grantley of Markenfield. He died in London on the 1st of January 1789. +He was succeeded as Baron Grantley by his eldest son William +(1742-1822). Wraxall describes Norton as "a bold, able and eloquent, but +not a popular pleader," and as Speaker he was aggressive and indiscreet. +Derided by satirists as "Sir Bullface Doublefee," and described by +Horace Walpole as one who "rose from obscure infamy to that infamous +fame which will long stick to him," his character was also assailed by +Junius, and the general impression is that he was a hot-tempered, +avaricious and unprincipled man. + + See H. Walpole, _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._, edited by G. F. + R. Barker (1894); Sir N. W. Wraxall, _Historical and Posthumous + Memoirs_, edited by H. B. Wheatley (1884); and J. A. Manning, _Lives + of the Speakers_ (1850). + + + + +GRANTOWN, the capital of Speyside, Elginshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) +1568. It lies on the left bank of the Spey, 23-1/4 m. S. of Forres by +the Highland railway, with a station on the Great North of Scotland's +Speyside line connecting Craigellachie with Boat of Garten. It was +founded in 1776 by Sir James Grant of Grant, and became the chief seat +of that ancient family, who had lived on their adjoining estate of +Freuchie (Gaelic, _fraochach_, "heathery") since the beginning of the +15th century, and hence were usually described as the lairds of +Freuchie. The public buildings include the town hall, court house and +orphan hospital; and the industries are mainly connected with the cattle +trade and the distilling of whisky. The town, built of grey granite, +presents a handsome appearance, and being delightfully situated in the +midst of the most beautiful pine and birch woods in Scotland, with pure +air and a bracing climate, is an attractive resort. Castle Grant, +immediately to the north, is the principal mansion of the earl of +Seafield, the head of the Clan Grant. In a cave, still called "Lord +Huntly's Cave," in a rocky glen in the vicinity, George, marquess of +Huntly, lay hid during Montrose's campaign in 1644-45. + + + + +GRANULITE (Lat. _granulum_, a little grain), a name used by +petrographers to designate two distinct classes of rocks. According to +the terminology of the French school it signifies a granite in which +both kinds of mica (muscovite and biotite) occur, and corresponds to the +German _Granit_, or to the English "muscovite biotite granite." This +application has not been accepted generally. To the German petrologists +"granulite" means a more or less banded fine-grained metamorphic rock, +consisting mainly of quartz and felspar in very small irregular +crystals, and containing usually also a fair number of minute rounded +pale-red garnets. Among English and American geologists the term is +generally employed in this sense. The granulites are very closely allied +to the gneisses, as they consist of nearly the same minerals, but they +are finer grained, have usually less perfect foliation, are more +frequently garnetiferous, and have some special features of microscopic +structure. In the rocks of this group the minerals, as seen in a +microscopic slide, occur as small rounded grains forming a mosaic +closely fitted together. The individual crystals have never perfect +form, and indeed rarely any traces of it. In some granulites they +interlock, with irregular borders; in others they have been drawn out +and flattened into tapering lenticles by crushing. In most cases they +are somewhat rounded with smaller grains between the larger. This is +especially true of the quartz and felspar which are the predominant +minerals; mica always appears as flat scales (irregular or rounded but +not hexagonal). Both muscovite and biotite may be present and vary +considerably in abundance; very commonly they have their flat sides +parallel and give the rock a rudimentary schistosity, and they may be +aggregated into bands--in which case the granulites are +indistinguishable from certain varieties of gneiss. The garnets are very +generally larger than the above-mentioned ingredients, and easily +visible with the eye as pink spots on the broken surfaces of the rock. +They usually are filled with enclosed grains of the other minerals. + +The felspar of the granulites is mostly orthoclase or cryptoperthite; +microcline, oligoclase and albite are also common. Basic felspars occur +only rarely. Among accessory minerals, in addition to apatite, zircon, +and iron oxides, the following may be mentioned: hornblende (not +common), riebeckite (rare), epidote and zoisite, calcite, sphene, +andalusite, sillimanite, kyanite, hercynite (a green spinel), rutile, +orthite and tourmaline. Though occasionally we may find larger grains of +felspar, quartz or epidote, it is more characteristic of these rocks +that all the minerals are in small, nearly uniform, imperfectly shaped +individuals. + +On account of the minuteness with which it has been described and the +important controversies on points of theoretical geology which have +arisen regarding it, the granulite district of Saxony (around Rosswein, +Penig, &c.) may be considered the typical region for rocks of this +group. It should be remembered that though granulites are probably the +commonest rocks of this country, they are mingled with granites, +gneisses, gabbros, amphibolites, mica schists and many other +petrographical types. All of these rocks show more or less metamorphism +either of a thermal character or due to pressure and crushing. The +granites pass into gneiss and granulite; the gabbros into flaser gabbro +and amphibolite; the slates often contain andalusite or chiastolite, and +show transitions to mica schists. At one time these rocks were regarded +as Archean gneisses of a special type. Johannes Georg Lehmann propounded +the hypothesis that their present state was due principally to crushing +acting on them in a solid condition, grinding them down and breaking up +their minerals, while the pressure to which they were subjected welded +them together into coherent rock. It is now believed, however, that they +are comparatively recent and include sedimentary rocks, partly of +Palaeozoic age, and intrusive masses which may be nearly massive or may +have gneissose, flaser or granulitic structures. These have been +developed largely by the injection of semi-consolidated highly viscous +intrusions, and the varieties of texture are original or were produced +very shortly after the crystallization of the rocks. Meanwhile, however, +Lehmann's advocacy of post-consolidation crushing as a factor in the +development of granulites has been so successful that the terms +granulitization and granulitic structures are widely employed to +indicate the results of dynamometamorphism acting on rocks at a period +long after their solidification. + +The Saxon granulites are apparently for the most part igneous and +correspond in composition to granites and porphyries. There are, +however, many granulites which undoubtedly were originally sediments +(arkoses, grits and sandstones). A large part of the highlands of +Scotland consists of paragranulites of this kind, which have received +the group name of "Moine gneisses." + +Along with the typical acid granulites above described, in Saxony, +India, Scotland and other countries there occur dark-coloured basic +granulites ("trap granulites"). These are fine-grained rocks, not +usually banded, nearly black in colour with small red spots of garnet. +Their essential minerals are pyroxene, plagioclase and garnet: +chemically they resemble the gabbros. Green augite and hypersthene form +a considerable part of these rocks, they may contain also biotite, +hornblende and quartz. Around the garnets there is often a radial +grouping of small grains of pyroxene and hornblende in a clear matrix of +felspar: these "centric" structures are frequent in granulites. The +rocks of this group accompany gabbro and serpentine, but the exact +conditions under which they are formed and the significance of their +structures is not very clearly understood. (J. S. F.) + + + + +GRANVELLA, ANTOINE PERRENOT, CARDINAL DE (1517-1586), one of the ablest +and most influential of the princes of the church during the great +political and ecclesiastical movements which immediately followed the +appearance of Protestantism in Europe, was born on the 20th of August +1517 at Besancon, where his father, Nicolas Perrenot de Granvella +(1484-1550), who afterwards became chancellor of the empire under +Charles V., was practising as a lawyer. Later Nicolas held an +influential position in the Netherlands, and from 1530 until his death +he was one of the emperor's most trusted advisers in Germany. On the +completion of his studies in law at Padua and in divinity at Louvain, +Antoine held a canonry at Besancon, but he was promoted to the bishopric +of Arras when barely twenty-three (1540). In his episcopal capacity he +attended several diets of the empire, as well as the opening meetings of +the council of Trent; and the influence of his father, now chancellor, +led to his being entrusted with many difficult and delicate pieces of +public business, in the execution of which he developed a rare talent +for diplomacy, and at the same time acquired an intimate acquaintance +with most of the currents of European politics. One of his specially +noteworthy performances was the settlement of the terms of peace after +the defeat of the league of Schmalkalden at Muhlberg in 1547, a +settlement in which, to say the least, some particularly sharp practice +was exhibited. In 1550 he succeeded his father in the office of +secretary of state; in this capacity he attended Charles in the war with +Maurice, elector of Saxony, accompanied him in the flight from +Innsbruck, and afterwards drew up the treaty of Passau (August 1552). In +the following year he conducted the negotiations for the marriage of +Mary of England and Philip II. of Spain, to whom, in 1555, on the +abdication of the emperor, he transferred his services, and by whom he +was employed in the Netherlands. In April 1559 Granvella was one of the +Spanish commissioners who arranged the peace of Cateau Cambresis, and on +Philip's withdrawal from the Netherlands in August of the same year he +was appointed prime minister to the regent, Margaret of Parma. The +policy of repression which in this capacity he pursued during the next +five years secured for him many tangible rewards, in 1560 he was +elevated to the archiepiscopal see of Malines, and in 1561 he received +the cardinal's hat; but the growing hostility of a people whose +religious convictions he had set himself to trample under foot +ultimately made it impossible for him to continue in the Low Countries, +and by the advice of his royal master he, in March 1564, retired to +Franche Comte. Nominally this withdrawal was only of a temporary +character, but it proved to be final. The following six years were spent +in comparative quiet, broken, however, by a visit to Rome in 1565; but +in 1570 Granvella, at the call of Philip, resumed public life by +accepting another mission to Rome. Here he helped to arrange the +alliance between the Papacy, Venice and Spain against the Turks, an +alliance which was responsible for the victory of Lepanto. In the same +year he became viceroy of Naples, a post of some difficulty and danger, +which for five years he occupied with ability and success. He was +summoned to Madrid in 1575 by Philip II. to be president of the council +for Italian affairs. Among the more delicate negotiations of his later +years were those of 1580, which had for their object the ultimate union +of the crowns of Spain and Portugal, and those of 1584, which resulted +in a check to France by the marriage of the Spanish infanta Catherine to +Charles Emmanuel, duke of Savoy. In the same year he was made archbishop +of Besancon, but meanwhile he had been stricken with a lingering +disease; he was never enthroned, but died at Madrid on the 21st of +September 1586. His body was removed to Besancon, where his father had +been buried. Granvella was a man of great learning, which was equalled +by his industry, and these qualities made him almost indispensable both +to Charles V. and to Philip II. + + Numerous letters and memoirs of Granvella are preserved in the + archives of Besancon. These were to some extent made use of by Prosper + Leveque in his _Memoires pour servir_ (1753), as well as by the Abbe + Boisot in the _Tresor de Granvella_. A commission for publishing the + whole of the letters and memoirs was appointed by Guizot in 1834, and + the result has been the issue of nine volumes of the _Papiers d'Etat + du cardinal de Granvelle_, edited by C. Weiss (Paris, 1841-1852). They + form a part of the _Collection de documents inedits sur l'histoire de + France_, and were supplemented by the _Correspondance du cardinal + Granvelle, 1565-1586_, edited by M. E. Poullet and G. J. C. Piot (12 + vols., Brussels, 1878-1896). See also the anonymous _Histoire du + cardinal de Granville_, attributed to Courchetet D'Esnans (Paris, + 1761); J. L. Motley, _Rise of the Dutch Republic_; M. Philippson, _Ein + Ministerium unter Philipp II._ (Berlin, 1895); and the _Cambridge + Modern History_ (vol. iii. 1904). + + + + +GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE GEORGE LEVESON-GOWER, 2ND EARL (1815-1891), English +statesman, eldest son of the 1st Earl Granville (1773-1846), by his +marriage with Lady Harriet, daughter of the duke of Devonshire, was born +in London on the 11th of May 1815. His father, Granville Leveson-Gower, +was a younger son of Granville, 2nd Lord Gower and 1st marquess of +Stafford (1720-1803), by his third wife; an elder son by the second wife +(a daughter of the 1st duke of Bridgwater) became the 2nd marquess of +Stafford, and his marriage with the daughter and heiress of the 17th +earl of Sutherland (countess of Sutherland in her own right) led to the +merging of the Gower and Stafford titles in that of the dukes of +Sutherland (created 1833), who represent the elder branch of the family. +As Lord Granville Leveson-Gower, the 1st Earl Granville (created +viscount in 1815 and earl in 1833) entered the diplomatic service and +was ambassador at St Petersburg (1804-1807) and at Paris (1824-1841). He +was a Liberal in politics and an intimate friend of Canning. The title +of Earl Granville had been previously held in the Carteret family. + +After being at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, young Lord Leveson went +to Paris for a short time under his father, and in 1836 was returned to +parliament in the Whig interest for Morpeth. For a short time he was +under-secretary for foreign affairs in Lord Melbourne's ministry. In +1840 he married Lady Acton (Marie Louise Pelline de Dalberg, widow of +Sir Richard Acton; see ACTON and DALBERG). From 1841 till his father's +death in 1846, when he succeeded to the title, he sat for Lichfield. In +the House of Lords he signalized himself as a Free Trader, and Lord John +Russell made him master of the buckhounds (1846). He proved a useful +member of the party, and his influence and amiable character were +valuable in all matters needing diplomacy and good breeding. He became +vice-president of the Board of Trade in 1848, and took a prominent part +in promoting the great exhibition of 1851. In the latter year, having +already been admitted to the cabinet, he succeeded Palmerston at the +foreign office until Lord John Russell's defeat in 1852; and when Lord +Aberdeen formed his government at the end of the year, he became first +president of the council, and then chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster +(1854). Under Lord Palmerston (1855) he was president of the council. +His interest in education (a subject associated with this office) led to +his election (1856) as chancellor of the London University, a post he +held for thirty-five years; and he was a prominent champion of the +movement for the admission of women, and also of the teaching of modern +languages. From 1855 Lord Granville led the Liberals in the Upper House, +both in office, and, after Palmerston's resignation in 1858, in +opposition. He went in 1856 as head of the British mission to the tsar's +coronation in Moscow. In June 1859 the queen, embarrassed by the rival +ambitions of Palmerston and Russell, sent for him to form a ministry, +but he was unable to do so, and Palmerston again became prime minister, +with Lord John as foreign secretary and Granville as president of the +council. In 1860 his wife died, and to this heavy loss was shortly added +that of his great friends Lord and Lady Canning and of his mother +(1862); but he devoted himself to his political work, and retained his +office when, on Palmerston's death in 1865, Lord Russell (now a peer) +became prime minister and took over the leadership in the House of +Lords. He was made Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, and in the same +year married again, his second wife being Miss Castalia Campbell. From +1866 to 1868 he was in opposition, but in December 1868 he became +colonial secretary in Gladstone's first ministry. His tact was +invaluable to the government in carrying the Irish Church and Land Bills +through the House of Lords. On the 27th of June 1870, on Lord +Clarendon's death, he was transferred to the foreign office. Lord +Granville's name is mainly associated with his career as foreign +secretary (1870-1874 and 1880-1885); but the Liberal foreign policy of +that period was not distinguished by enterprise or "backbone." Lord +Granville personally was patient and polite, but his courteous and +pacific methods were somewhat inadequate in dealing with the new +situation then arising in Europe and outside it; and foreign governments +had little scruple in creating embarrassments for Great Britain, and +relying on the disinclination of the Liberal leaders to take strong +measures. The Franco-German War of 1870 broke out within a few days of +Lord Granville's quoting in the House of Lords (11th of July) the +curiously unprophetic opinion of the permanent under-secretary (Mr +Hammond) that "he had never known so great a lull in foreign affairs." +Russia took advantage of the situation to denounce the Black Sea clauses +of the treaty of Paris, and Lord Granville's protest was ineffectual. In +1871 an intermediate zone between Asiatic Russia and Afghanistan was +agreed on between him and Shuvalov; but in 1873 Russia took possession +of Khiva, within the neutral zone, and Lord Granville had to accept the +aggression. When the Conservatives came into power in 1874, his part for +the next six years was to criticize Disraeli's "spirited" foreign +policy, and to defend his own more pliant methods. He returned to the +foreign office in 1880, only to find an anti-British spirit developing +in German policy which the temporizing methods of the Liberal leaders +were generally powerless to deal with. Lord Granville failed to realize +in time the importance of the Angra Pequena question in 1883-1884, and +he was forced, somewhat ignominiously, to yield to Bismarck over it. +Whether in Egypt, Afghanistan or equatorial and south-west Africa, +British foreign policy was dominated by suavity rather than by the +strength which commands respect. Finally, when Gladstone took up Home +Rule for Ireland, Lord Granville, whose mind was similarly receptive to +new ideas, adhered to his chief (1886), and gracefully gave way to Lord +Rosebery when the latter was preferred to the foreign office; the +Liberals had now realized that they had lost ground in the country by +Lord Granville's occupancy of the post. He went to the Colonial Office +for six months, and in July 1886 retired from public life. He died in +London on the 31st of March 1891, being succeeded in the title by his +son, born in 1872. Lord Granville was a man of much charm and many +friendships, and an admirable after-dinner speaker. He spoke French like +a Parisian, and was essentially a diplomatist; but he has no place in +history as a constructive statesman. + + The life of Lord Granville (1905), by Lord Fitzmaurice, is full of + interesting material for the history of the period, but being written + by a Liberal, himself an under-secretary for foreign affairs, it + explains rather than criticizes Lord Granville's work in that + department. (H. Ch.) + + + + +GRANVILLE, JOHN CARTERET, EARL (1690-1763), English statesman, commonly +known by his earlier title as Lord Carteret, born on the 22nd of April +1690, was the son of George, 1st Lord Carteret, by his marriage with +Grace Granville, daughter of Sir John Granville, 1st earl of Bath, and +great grandson of the Elizabethan admiral, Sir Richard Grenville, famous +for his death in the "Revenge." The family of Carteret was settled in +the Channel Islands, and was of Norman descent. John Carteret was +educated at Westminster, and at Christ Church, Oxford. Swift says that +"with a singularity scarce to be justified he carried away more Greek, +Latin and philosophy than properly became a person of his rank." +Throughout life Carteret not only showed a keen love of the classics, +but a taste for, and a knowledge of, modern languages and literatures. +He was almost the only Englishman of his time who knew German. Harte, +the author of the _Life of Gustavus Adolphus_, acknowledged the aid +which Carteret had given him. On the 17th of October 1710 he married at +Longleat Lady Frances Worsley, grand-daughter of the first Viscount +Weymouth. He took his seat in the Lords on the 25th of May 1711. Though +his family, on both sides, had been devoted to the house of Stuart, +Carteret was a steady adherent of the Hanoverian dynasty. He was a +friend of the Whig leaders Stanhope and Sunderland, took a share in +defeating the Jacobite conspiracy of Bolingbroke on the death of Queen +Anne, and supported the passing of the Septennial Act. Carteret's +interests were however in foreign, and not in domestic policy. His +serious work in public life began with his appointment, early in 1719, +as ambassador to Sweden. During this and the following year he was +employed in saving Sweden from the attacks of Peter the Great, and in +arranging the pacification of the north. His efforts were finally +successful. During this period of diplomatic work he acquired an +exceptional knowledge of the affairs of Europe, and in particular of +Germany, and displayed great tact and temper in dealing with the Swedish +senate, with Queen Ulrica, with the king of Denmark and Frederick +William I. of Prussia. But he was not qualified to hold his own in the +intrigues of court and parliament in London. Named secretary of state +for the southern department on his return home, he soon became +helplessly in conflict with the intrigues of Townshend and Sir Robert +Walpole. To Walpole, who looked upon every able colleague, or +subordinate, as an enemy to be removed, Carteret was exceptionally +odious. His capacity to speak German with the king would alone have made +Sir Robert detest him. When, therefore, the violent agitation in Ireland +against Wood's halfpence (see SWIFT, JONATHAN) made it necessary to +replace the duke of Grafton as lord lieutenant, Carteret was sent to +Dublin. He landed in Dublin on the 23rd of October 1724, and remained +there till 1730. In the first months of his tenure of office he had to +deal with the furious opposition to Wood's halfpence, and to counteract +the effect of Swift's _Draper's Letters_. The lord lieutenant had a +strong personal liking for Swift, who was also a friend of Lady +Carteret's family. It is highly doubtful whether Carteret could have +reconciled his duty to the crown with his private friendships, if +government had persisted in endeavouring to force the detested coinage +on the Irish people. Wood's patent was however withdrawn, and Ireland +settled down. Carteret was a profuse and popular lord lieutenant who +pleased both the "English interest" and the native Irish. He was at all +times addicted to lavish hospitality, and according to the testimony of +contemporaries was too fond of burgundy. When he returned to London in +1730, Walpole was firmly established as master of the House of Commons, +and as the trusted minister of King George II. He had the full +confidence of Queen Caroline, whom he prejudiced against Carteret. Till +the fall of Walpole in 1742, Carteret could take no share in public +affairs except as a leader of opposition of the Lords. His brilliant +parts were somewhat obscured by his rather erratic conduct, and a +certain contempt, partly aristocratic and partly intellectual, for +commonplace men and ways. He endeavoured to please Queen Caroline, who +loved literature, and he has the credit, on good grounds, of having paid +the expenses of the first handsome edition of _Don Quixote_ to please +her. But he reluctantly, and most unwisely, allowed himself to be +entangled in the scandalous family quarrel between Frederick, prince of +Wales, and his parents. Queen Caroline was provoked into classing him +and Bolingbroke, as "the two most worthless men of parts in the +country." Carteret took the popular side in the outcry against Walpole +for not making war on Spain. When the War of the Austrian Succession +approached, his sympathies were entirely with Maria Theresa--mainly on +the ground that the fall of the house of Austria would dangerously +increase the power of France, even if she gained no accession of +territory. These views made him welcome to George II., who gladly +accepted him as secretary of state in 1742. In 1743 he accompanied the +king of Germany, and was present at the battle of Dettingen on the 27th +of June. He held the secretaryship till November 1744. He succeeded in +promoting an agreement between Maria Theresa and Frederick. He +understood the relations of the European states, and the interests of +Great Britain among them. But the defects which had rendered him unable +to baffle the intrigues of Walpole made him equally unable to contend +with the Pelhams. His support of the king's policy was denounced as +subservience to Hanover. Pitt called him "an execrable, a sole minister +who had renounced the British nation." A few years later Pitt adopted an +identical policy, and professed that whatever he knew he had learnt from +Carteret. On the 18th of October 1744 Carteret became Earl Granville on +the death of his mother. His first wife died in June 1743 at +Aschaffenburg, and in April 1744 he married Lady Sophia Fermor, daughter +of Lord Pomfret--a fashionable beauty and "reigning toast" of London +society, who was younger than his daughters. "The nuptials of our great +Quixote and the fair Sophia," and Granville's ostentatious performance +of the part of lover, were ridiculed by Horace Walpole. The countess +Granville died on the 7th of October 1745, leaving one daughter Sophia, +who married Lord Shelburne, 1st marquis of Lansdowne. This marriage may +have done something to increase Granville's reputation for eccentricity. +In February 1746 he allowed himself to be entrapped by the intrigues of +the Pelhams into accepting the secretaryship, but resigned in +forty-eight hours. In June 1751 he became president of the council, and +was still liked and trusted by the king, but his share in government did +not go beyond giving advice, and endeavouring to forward ministerial +arrangements. In 1756 he was asked by Newcastle to become prime minister +as the alternative to Pitt, but Granville, who perfectly understood why +the offer was made, declined and supported Pitt. When in October 1761 +Pitt, who had information of the signing of the "Family Compact" wished +to declare war on Spain, and declared his intention to resign unless his +advice was accepted, Granville replied that "the opinion of the majority +(of the Cabinet) must decide." He spoke in complimentary terms of Pitt, +but resisted his claim to be considered as a "sole minister" or, in the +modern phrase, "a prime minister." Whether he used the words attributed +to him in the Annual Register for 1761 is more than doubtful, but the +minutes of council show that they express his meaning. Granville +remained in office as president till his death. His last act was to +listen while on his death-bed to the reading of the preliminaries of the +treaty of Paris. He was so weak that the under-secretary, Robert Wood, +author of an essay on _The Original Genius of Homer_, would have +postponed the business, but Granville said that it "could not prolong +his life to neglect his duty," and quoted the speech of Sarpedon from +_Iliad_ xii. 322-328, repeating the last word ([Greek: iomen]) "with a +calm and determined resignation." He died in his house in Arlington +Street, London, on the 22nd of January 1763. The title of Granville +descended to his son Robert, who died without issue in 1776, when the +earldom of this creation became extinct. + + A somewhat partisan life of Granville was published in 1887, by + Archibald Ballantyne, under the title of _Lord Carteret, a Political + Biography_. + + + + +GRANVILLE, a town of Cumberland county, New South Wales, 13 m. by rail +W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 5094. It is an important railway junction and +manufacturing town, producing agricultural implements, tweed, pipes, +tiles and bricks; there are also tanneries, flour-mills, and kerosene +and meat export works. It became a municipality in 1885. + + + + +GRANVILLE, a fortified sea-port and bathing-resort of north-western +France, in the department of Manche, at the mouth of the Bosq, 85 m. S. +by W. of Cherbourg by rail. Pop. (1906) 10,530. Granville consists of +two quarters, the upper town built on a promontory jutting into the sea +and surrounded by ramparts, and the lower town and harbour lying below +it. The barracks and the church of Notre-Dame, a low building of +granite, partly Romanesque, partly late Gothic in style, are in the +upper town. The port consists of a tidal harbour, two floating basins +and a dry dock. Its fleets take an active part in deep sea fishing, +including the cod-fishing off Newfoundland, and oyster-fishing is +carried on. It has regular communication with Guernsey and Jersey, and +with the islands of St Pierre and Miquelon. The principal exports are +eggs, vegetables and fish; coal, timber and chemical manures are +imported. The industries include ship-building, fish-salting, the +manufacture of cod-liver oil, the preserving of vegetables, dyeing, +metal-founding, rope-making and the manufacture of chemical manures. +Among the public institutions are a tribunal and a chamber of commerce. +In the commune are included the Iles Chausey about 7-1/2 m. N.W. of +Granville (see Channel Islands). Granville, before an insignificant +village, was fortified by the English in 1437, taken by the French in +1441, bombarded and burned by the English in 1695, and unsuccessfully +besieged by the Vendean troops in 1793. It was again bombarded by the +English in 1803. + + + + +GRANVILLE, a village in Licking county, Ohio, U.S.A., in the township of +Granville, about 6 m. W. of Newark and 27 m. E. by N. of Columbus. Pop. +of the village (1910) 1394; of the township (1910) 2442. Granville is +served by the Toledo & Ohio Central and the Ohio Electric railways, the +latter reaching Newark (where it connects with the Pittsburg, +Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis and the Baltimore & Ohio railways), +Columbus, Dayton, Zanesville and Springfield. Granville is the seat of +Denison University, founded in 1831 by the Ohio Baptist Education +Society and opened as a manual labour school, called the Granville +Literary and Theological Institution. It was renamed Granville College +in 1845, and took its present name in 1854 in honour of William S. +Denison of Adamsville, Ohio, who had given $10,000 to the college. The +university comprised in 1907-1908 five departments: Granville College +(229 students), the collegiate department for men; Shepardson College +(246 students, including 82 in the preparatory department), the +collegiate department for women, founded as the Young Ladies' Institute +of Granville in 1859, given to the Baptist denomination in 1887 by Dr +Daniel Shepardson, its principal and owner, and closely affiliated for +scholastic purposes, since 1900, with the university, though legally it +is still a distinct institution; Doane Academy (137 students), the +preparatory department for boys, established in 1831, named Granville +Academy in 1887, and renamed in 1895 in honour of William H. Doane of +Cincinnati, who gave to it its building; a conservatory of music (137 +students); and a school of art (38 students). + +In 1805 the Licking Land Company, organized in the preceding year in +Granville, Massachusetts, bought 29,040 acres of land in Ohio, including +the site of Granville; the town was laid out, and in the last months of +that year settlers from Granville, Mass., began to arrive. By January +1806 the colony numbered 234 persons; the township was incorporated in +1806 and the village was incorporated in 1831. There are several +remarkable Indian mounds near Granville, notably one shaped like an +alligator. + + See Henry Bushnell, _History of Granville, Ohio_ (Columbus, O., 1889). + + + + +GRAPE, the fruit of the vine (q.v.). The word is adopted from the O. Fr. +_grape_, mod. _grappe_, bunch or cluster of flowers or fruit, _grappes +de raisin_, bunch of grapes. The French word meant properly a hook; cf. +M.H.G. _krapfe_, Eng. "grapnel," and "cramp." The development of meaning +seems to be vine-hook, cluster of grapes cut with a hook, and thence in +English a single grape of a cluster. The projectile called "grape" or +"grape-shot," formerly used with smooth-bore ordnance, took its name +from its general resemblance to a bunch of grapes. It consisted of a +number of spherical bullets (heavier than those of the contemporary +musket) arranged in layers separated by thin iron plates, a bolt passing +through the centre of the plates binding the whole together. On being +discharged the projectile delivered the bullets in a shower somewhat +after the fashion of case-shot. + + + + +GRAPHICAL METHODS, devices for representing by geometrical figures the +numerical data which result from the quantitative investigation of +phenomena. The simplest application is met with in the representation of +tabular data such as occur in statistics. Such tables are usually of +single entry, i.e. to a certain value of one variable there corresponds +one, and only one, value of the other variable. To construct the graph, +as it is called, of such a table, Cartesian co-ordinates are usually +employed. Two lines or axes at right angles to each other are chosen, +intersecting at a point called the origin; the horizontal axis is the +axis of abscissae, the vertical one the axis of ordinates. Along one, +say the axis of abscissae, distances are taken from the origin +corresponding to the values of one of the variables; at these points +perpendiculars are erected, and along these ordinates distances are +taken corresponding to the related values of the other variable. The +curve drawn through these points is the graph. A general inspection of +the graph shows in bold relief the essential characters of the table. +For example, if the world's production of corn over a number of years be +plotted, a poor yield is represented by a depression, a rich one by a +peak, a uniform one over several years by a horizontal line and so on. +Moreover, such graphs permit a convenient comparison of two or more +different phenomena, and the curves render apparent at first sight +similarities or differences which can be made out from the tables only +after close examination. In making graphs for comparison, the scales +chosen must give a similar range of variation, otherwise the +correspondence may not be discerned. For example, the scales adopted for +the average consumption of tea and sugar must be ounces for the former +and pounds for the latter. Cartesian graphs are almost always yielded by +automatic recording instruments, such as the barograph, meteorograph, +seismometer, &c. The method of polar co-ordinates is more rarely used, +being only specially applicable when one of the variables is a direction +or recorded as an angle. A simple case is the representation of +photometric data, i.e. the value of the intensity of the light emitted +in different directions from a luminous source (see LIGHTING). + + The geometrical solution of arithmetical and algebraical problems is + usually termed graphical analysis; the application to problems in + mechanics is treated in MECHANICS, S 5, _Graphic Statics_, and + DIAGRAM. A special phase is presented in VECTOR ANALYSIS. + + + + +GRAPHITE, a mineral species consisting of the element carbon +crystallized in the rhombohedral system. Chemically, it is thus +indentical with the cubic mineral diamond, but between the two there are +very wide differences in physical characters. Graphite is black and +opaque, whilst diamond is colourless and transparent; it is one of the +softest (H = 1) of minerals, and diamond the hardest of all; it is a +good conductor of electricity, whilst diamond is a bad conductor. The +specific gravity is 2.2, that of diamond is 3.5. Further, unlike +diamond, it never occurs as distinctly developed crystals, but only as +imperfect six-sided plates and scales. There is a perfect cleavage +parallel to the surface of the scales, and the cleavage flakes are +flexible but not elastic. The material is greasy to the touch, and soils +everything with which it comes into contact. The lustre is bright and +metallic. In its external characters graphite is thus strikingly similar +to molybdenite (q.v.). + +The name graphite, given by A. G. Werner in 1789, is from the Greek +[Greek: graphein], "to write," because the mineral is used for making +pencils. Earlier names, still in common use, are plumbago and +black-lead, but since the mineral contains no lead these names are +singularly inappropriate. Plumbago (Lat. _plumbum_, lead) was originally +used for an artificial product obtained from lead ore, and afterwards +for the ore (galena) itself; it was confused both with graphite and with +molybdenite. The true chemical nature of graphite was determined by K. +W. Scheele in 1779. + +Graphite occurs mainly in the older crystalline rocks--gneiss, +granulite, schist and crystalline limestone--and also sometimes in +granite: it is found as isolated scales embedded in these rocks, or as +large irregular masses or filling veins. It has also been observed as a +product of contact-metamorphism in carbonaceous clay-slates near their +contact with granite, and where igneous rocks have been intruded into +beds of coal; in these cases the mineral has clearly been derived from +organic matter. The graphite found in granite and in veins in gneiss, as +well as that contained in meteoric irons, cannot have had such an +origin. As an artificial product, graphite is well known as dark +lustrous scales in grey pig-iron, and in the "kish" of iron furnaces: it +is also produced artificially on a large scale, together with +carborundum, in the electric furnace (see below). The graphite veins in +the older crystalline rocks are probably akin to metalliferous veins and +the material derived from deep-seated sources; the decomposition of +metallic carbides by water and the reduction of hydrocarbon vapours have +been suggested as possible modes of origin. Such veins often attain a +thickness of several feet, and sometimes possess a columnar structure +perpendicular to the enclosing walls; they are met with in the +crystalline limestones and other Laurentian rocks of New York and +Canada, in the gneisses of the Austrian Alps and the granulites of +Ceylon. Other localities which have yielded the mineral in large amount +are the Alibert mine in Irkutsk, Siberia and the Borrowdale mine in +Cumberland. The Santa Maria mines of Sonora, Mexico, probably the +richest deposits in the world, supply the American lead pencil +manufacturers. The graphite of New York, Pennsylvania and Alabama is +"flake" and unsuitable for this purpose. + +Graphite is used for the manufacture of pencils, dry lubricants, grate +polish, paints, crucibles and for foundry facings. The material as mined +usually does not contain more than 20 to 50% of graphite: the ore has +therefore to be crushed and the graphite floated off in water from the +heavier impurities. Even the purest forms contain a small percentage of +volatile matter and ash. The Cumberland graphite, which is especially +suitable for pencils, contains about 12% of impurities. (L. J. S.) + +_Artificial Manufacture._--The alteration of carbon at high temperatures +into a material resembling graphite has long been known. In 1893 Girard +and Street patented a furnace and a process by which this transformation +could be effected. Carbon powder compressed into a rod was slowly passed +through a tube in which it was subjected to the action of one or more +electric arcs. E. G. Acheson, in 1896, patented an application of his +carborundum process to graphite manufacture, and in 1899 the +International Acheson Graphite Co. was formed, employing electric +current from the Niagara Falls. Two procedures are adopted: (1) +graphitization of moulded carbons; (2) graphitization of anthracite _en +masse_. The former includes electrodes, lamp carbons, &c. Coke, or some +other form of amorphous carbon, is mixed with a little tar, and the +required article moulded in a press or by a die. The articles are +stacked transversely in a furnace, each being packed in granular coke +and covered with carborundum. At first the current is 3000 amperes at +220 volts, increasing to 9000 amperes at 20 volts after 20 hours. In +graphitizing _en masse_ large lumps of anthracite are treated in the +electric furnace. A soft, unctuous form results on treating carbon with +ash or silica in special furnaces, and this gives the so-called +"deflocculated" variety when treated with gallotannic acid. These two +modifications are valuable lubricants. The massive graphite is very +easily machined and is widely used for electrodes, dynamo brushes, lead +pencils and the like. + + See "Graphite and its Uses," _Bull. Imperial Institute_, (1906) P. + 353. (1907) p. 70; F. Cirkel, _Graphite_ (Ottawa, 1907). (W. G. M.) + + + + +GRAPTOLITES, an assemblage of extinct zoophytes whose skeletal remains +are found in the Palaeozoic rocks, occasionally in great abundance. They +are usually preserved as branching or unbranching carbonized bodies, +tree-like, leaf-like or rod-like in shape, their edges regularly toothed +or denticulated. Most frequently they occur lying on the bedding planes +of black shales; less commonly they are met with in many other kinds of +sediment, and when in limestone they may retain much of their original +relief and admit of a detailed microscopic study. + +Each Graptolite represents the common horny or chitinous investment or +supporting structure of a colony of zooids, each tooth-like projection +marking the position of the sheath or _theca_ of an individual zooid. +Some of the branching forms have a distinct outward resemblance to the +polyparies of _Sertularia_ and _Plumularia_ among the recent Hydroida +(_Calyptoblastea_); in none of the unbranching forms, however, is the +similarity by any means close. + +The Graptolite polyparies vary considerably in size: the majority range +from 1 in. to about 6 in. in length; few examples have been met with +having a length or more than 30 in. + +Very different views have been held as to the systematic place and rank +of the Graptolites. Linnaeus included them in his group of false fossils +(_Graptolithus_ = written stone). At one time they were referred by some +to the Polyzoa (Bryozoa), and later, by almost general consent, to the +Hydroida (Calyptoblastea) among the Hydrozoa (Hydromedusae). Of late +years an opinion is gaining ground that they may be regarded as +constituting collectively an independent phylum of their own +(_Graptolithina_). + +There are two main groups, or sub-phyla: the _Graptoloidea_ or +Graptolites proper, and the _Dendroidea_ or tree-like Graptolites; the +former is typified by the unbranched genus _Monograptus_ and the latter +by the many-branched genus _Dendrograptus_. + + A _Monograptus_ makes its first appearance as a minute dagger-like + body (the _sicula_), which represents the flattened covering of the + primary or embryonic zooid of the colony. This sicula, which had + originally the shape of a hollow cone, is formed of two portions or + regions--an upper and smaller (_apical_ or embryonic) portion, marked + by delicate longitudinal lines, and having a fine tabular thread (the + _nema_) proceeding from its apex; and a lower (thecal or _apertural_) + portion, marked by transverse lines of growth and widening in the + direction of the mouth, the lip or apertural margin of which forms the + broad end of the sicula. This margin is normally furnished with a + perpendicular spine (_virgella_) and occasionally with two shorter + lateral spines or lobes. + + A bud is given off from the sicula at a variable distance along its + length. From this bud is developed the first zooid and first serial + theca of the colony. This theca grows in the direction of the apex of + the sicula, to which it adheres by its dorsal wall. Thus while the + mouth of the sicula is directed downwards, that of the first serial + theca is pointed upwards, making a theoretical angle of about 180 deg. + with the direction of that of the sicula. + + From this first theca originates a second, opening in the same + direction, and from the second a third, and soon, in a continuous + linear series until the polypary is complete. Each zooid buds from the + one immediately preceding it in the series, and intercommunication is + effected by all the budding orifices (including that in the wall of + the sicula) remaining permanently open. The sicula itself ceases to + grow soon after the earliest theca have been developed; it remains + permanently attached to the dorsal wall of the polypary, of which it + forms the proximal end, its apex rarely reaching beyond the third or + fourth theca. + +A fine cylindrical rod or fibre (the so-called solid axis or _virgula_) +becomes developed in a median groove in the dorsal wall of the polypary, +and is sometimes continued distally as a naked rod. It was formerly +supposed that a virgula was present in all the Graptoloidea; hence the +term _Rhabdophora_ sometimes employed for the Graptoloidea in general, +and _rhabdosome_ for the individual polypary; but while the virgula is +present in many (Axonophora) it is absent as such in others (Axonolipa). + +The GRAPTOLOIDEA are arranged in eight families, each named after a +characteristic genus: (1) Dichograptidae; (2) Leptograptidae; (3) +Dicranograptidae; (4) Diplograptidae; (5) Glossograptidae (sub-family, +Lasiograptidae); (6) Retiolitidae; (7) Dimorphograptidae; (8) +Monograptidae. + +In all these families the polypary originates as in _Monograptus_ from a +nema-bearing sicula, which invariably opens downwards and gives off only +a single bud, such branching as may take place occurring at subsequent +stages in the growth of the polypary. In some species young examples +have been met with in which the nema ends above in a small membranous +disk, which has been interpreted as an organ of attachment to the +underside of floating bodies, probably sea weeds, from which the young +polypary hung suspended. + +Broadly speaking, these families make their first appearance in time in +the order given above, and show a progressive morphological evolution +along certain special lines. There is a tendency for the branches to +become reduced in number, and for the serial thecae to become directed +more and more upwards towards the line of the nema. In the oldest +family--Dichograptidae--in which the branching polypary is bilaterally +symmetrical and the thecae uniserial (_monoprionidian_)--there is a +gradation from earlier groups with many branches to later groups with +only two; and from species in which all the branches and their thecae +are directed downwards, through species in which the branches become +bent back more and more outwards and upwards, until in some the terminal +thecae open almost vertically. In the genus _Phyllograptus_ the branches +have become reduced to four and these coalesce by their dorsal walls +along the line of the nema, and the sicula becomes embedded in the base +of the polypary. In the family of the Diplograptidae the branches are +reduced to two; these also coalesce similarly by their dorsal walls, and +the polypary thus becomes biserial (_diprionidian_), and the line of the +nema is taken by a long axial tube-like structure, the _nemacaulus_ or +virgular tube. Finally, in the latest family, the Monograptidae, the +branches are theoretically reduced to one, the polypary is uniserial +throughout, and all the thecae are directed outwards and upwards. + +[Illustration: + + 1, _Diptograptus_, young sicula. + 2, _Monograptus dubius_, sicula and first serial theca (partly + restored). + 3, Young form (all above after Wiman). + 4a, Older form. + 4b, Showing virgula (after Holm). + 5, _Rastrites distans._ + 6, Base of Diptograptus (after Wiman). + 7, D. calcaratus. + 8, Dimorphograptus. + 9, Base of _Didymograptus minulus_ (after Holm). + 10, Young _Dictyograptus_, with primary disk. + 11, Ibid. _Diptograptus_ (after Ruedemann). + 12 a-b, Base and transverse section, _Retiolites Geinitzianus_ (after + Holm). + 13, _Bryograptus Kjerulfi_. + 14, _Dichograptus octobrachiatus_, with central disk. + 15, _Didymograptus Murchisoni_. + 16, _D. gibberulus_. + 17 a-b, _Phyllograptus_ and transverse section. + 18, _Nemagraptus gracilis_. + 19, _Dicranograptus ramosus_. + 20, _Climacograptus Scharenbergi_. + 21, _Glossograptus Hincksii_. + 22, _Lasiograptus costatus_ (after Elles and Wood). + 23, _Dictyonema (-graptus) flabelliforme (-is)_. + 24, _Dictyonema (-dendron) peltatum_ with base of attachment. + 25, _D. cervicorne_, branches (after Holm). + 26, _D. rarum_ (section after Wiman). + 27, _Dendrograptus Hallianus_. + 28, Synrhabdosome of _Diptograptus_ (after Ruedemann). + S, Sicula. + u, Upper or apical portion. + l, Lower or apertural. + m, Mouth. + N, Nema. + nn, Nemacaulus or virgular tube. + V, Virgula. + vv, Virgella. + zz, Septal strands. + T, Theca. + C, Common canal (in Retiolites). + G, Gonangium. + g, Gonotheca. + b, Budding theca.] + + The thecae in the earliest family--Dichograptidae--are so similar in + form to the sicula itself that the polypary has been compared to a + colony of siculae; there is the greatest variation in shape in those + of the latest family--Monograptidae--in some species of which the + terminal portion of each theca becomes isolated (_Rastrites_) and in + some coiled into a rounded lobe. The thecae in several of the families + are occasionally provided with spines or lateral processes: the spines + are especially conspicuous at the base in some biserial forms: in the + Lasiograptidae the lateral processes originate a marginal meshwork + surrounding the polypary. + + _Histologically_, the perisarc or _test_ in the Graptoloidea appears + to be composed of three layers, a middle layer of variable structure, + and an overlying and an underlying layer of remarkable tenuity. The + central layer is usually thick and marked by lines of growth; but in + _Glossograptus_ and _Lasiograptus_ it is thinned down to a fine + membrane stretched upon a skeleton framework of lists and fibres, and + in _Retiolites_ this membrane is reduced to a delicate network. The + groups typified by these three genera are sometimes referred to, + collectively, as the _Retioloidea_, and the structure as _retioloid_. + +It is the general practice of palaeontologists to regard each graptolite +polypary (_rhabdosome_) developed from a single sicula as an individual +of the highest order. Certain American forms, however, which are +preserved as stellate groups, have been interpreted as complex +umbrella-shaped colonial stocks, individuals of a still higher order +(_synrhabdosomes_), composed of a number of biserial polyparies (each +having a sicula at its outer extremity) attached by their nemacauli to a +common centre of origin, which is provided with two disks, a swimming +bladder and a ring of capsules. + +In the DENDROIDEA, as a rule, the polypary is non-symmetrical in shape +and tree-like or shrub-like in habit, with numerous branches irregularly +disposed, and with a distinct stem-like or short basal portion ending +below in root-like fibres or in a membranous disk or sheet of +attachment. An exception, however, is constituted by the comprehensive +genus _Dictyonema_, which embraces species composed of a large number of +divergent and sub-parallel branches, united by transverse dissepiments +into a symmetrical cone-like or funnel-shaped polypary, and includes +some forms (_Dictyograptus_) which originate from a nema-bearing sicula +and have been claimed as belonging to the Graptoloidea. + +Of the early development of the polypary in the Dendroidea little is +known, but the more mature stages have been fully worked out. In +_Dictyonema_ the branches show thecae of two kinds: (1) the ordinary +tubular thecae answering to those of the Graptoloidea and occupied by +the nourishing zooids; and (2) the so-called _bithecae_, birdnest-like +cups (regarded by their discoverers as gonothecae) opening alternately +right and left of the ordinary thecae. Internally, there existed a third +set of thecae, held to have been inhabited by the budding individuals. +In the genus _Dendrograptus_ the gonothecae open within the walls of the +ordinary thecae, and the branches present an outward resemblance to +those of the uniserial Graptoloidea. But in striking contrast to what +obtains among the Graptoloidea in general, the budding orifices in the +Dendroidea become closed, and all the various cells shut off from each +other. + +The classification of the Dendroidea is as yet unsatisfactory: the +families most conspicuous are those typified by the genera +_Dendrograptus_, _Dictyonema_, _Inocaulis_ and _Thamnograptus_. + + As regards the _modes of reproduction among the Graptolites_ little is + known. In the Dendroidea, as already pointed out, the bithecae were + possibly gonothecae, but they have been interpreted by some as + nematophores. In the Graptoloidea certain lateral and vesicular + appendages of the polypary in the Lasiograptidae have been looked upon + as connected with the reproductive system; and in the umbrella-shaped + _synrhabdosomes_ already referred to, the common centre is surrounded + by a ring of what have been regarded as ovarian capsules. The theory + of the gonangial nature of the vesicular bodies in the Graptoloidea + is, however, disputed by some authorities, and it has been suggested + that the zooid of the sicula itself is not the product of the normal + or sexual mode of propagation in the group, but owes its origin to a + peculiar type of budding or non-sexual reproduction, in which, as + temporary resting or protecting structures, the vesicular bodies may + have had a share. + +As respects the _mode of life of the Graptolites_ there can be little +doubt that the Dendroidea were, with some exceptions, sessile or +benthonic animals, their polyparies, like those of the recent +Calyptoblastea, growing upwards, their bases remaining attached to the +sea floor or to foreign bodies, usually fixed. The Graptoloidea have +also been regarded by some as benthonic organisms. A more prevalent +view, however, is that the majority were pseudo-planktonic or drifting +colonies, hanging from the underside of floating seaweeds; their +polyparies being each suspended by the nema in the earliest stages of +growth, and, in later stages, some by the nemacaulus, while others +became adherent above by means of a central disk or by parts of their +dorsal walls. Some of these ancient seaweeds may have remained +permanently rooted in the littoral regions, while others may have become +broken off and drifted, like the recent Sargassum, at the mercy of the +winds and currents, carrying the attached Graptolites into all +latitudes. The more complex umbrella-shaped colonies of colonies +(synrhabdosomes) described as provided with a common swimming bladder +(pneumatophore?) may have attained a holo-planktonic or free-swimming +mode of existence. + +The _range of the Graptolites in time_ extends from the Cambrian to the +Carboniferous. The Dendroidea alone, however, have this extended range, +the Graptoloidea becoming extinct at the close of Silurian time. Both +groups make their first appearance together near the end of the +Cambrian; but while in the succeeding Ordovician and Silurian the +Dendroidea are comparatively rare, the Graptoloidea become the most +characteristic and, locally, the most abundant fossils of these systems. + +The species of the Graptoloidea have individually a remarkably short +range in geological time; but the geographical distribution of the group +as a whole, and that of many of its species, is almost world-wide. This +combination of circumstances has given the Graptoloidea a paramount +stratigraphical importance as palaeontological indices of the detailed +sequence and correlation of the Lower Palaeozoic rocks in general. Many +_Graptolite zones_, showing a constant uniformity of succession, +paralleled in this respect only by the longer known Ammonite zones of +the Jurassic, have been distinguished in Britain and northern Europe, +each marked by a characteristic species. Many British species and +associations of genera and species, occurring on corresponding horizons +to those on which they are found in Britain, have been met with in the +graptolite-bearing Lower Palaeozoic formations of other parts of Europe, +in America, Australia, New Zealand and elsewhere. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Linnaeus, _Systema naturae_ (12th ed. 1768); Hall, + _Graptolites of the Quebec Group_ (1865); Barrande, _Graptolites de + Boheme_ (1850); Carruthers, _Revision of the British Graptolites_ + (1868); H. A. Nicholson, _Monograph of British Graptolites_, pt. 1 + (1872); id. and J. E. Marr, _Phylogeny of the Graptolites_ (1895); + Hopkinson, _On British Graptolites_ (1869); Allman, _Monograph of + Gymnoblastic Hydroids_ (1872); Lapworth, _An Improved Classification + of the Rhabdophora_ (1873); _The Geological Distribution of the + Rhabdophora_ (1879, 1880); Walther, _Lebensweise fossiler Meerestiere_ + (1897); Tullberg, _Skanes Grapioliter_ (1882, 1883); Tornquist, + _Graptolites Scanian Rastrites Beds_ (1899); Wiman, _Die Graptolithen_ + (1895); Holm, _Gotlands Graptoliter_ (1890); Perner, _Graptolites de + Boheme_ (1894-1899); R. Ruedemann, _Development and Mode of Growth of + Diplograptus_ (1895-1896); _Graptolites of New York_, vol. i. (1904), + vol. ii. (1908); Frech, _Lethaea palaeozoica, Graptolithiden_ (1897); + Elles and Wood, _Monograph of British Graptolites_ (1901-1909). + (C. L.*) + + + + +GRASLITZ (Czech, _Kraslice_), a town of Bohemia, on the Zwodau, 145 m. +N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,803, exclusively German. Graslitz +is one of the most important industrial towns of Bohemia, its +specialities being the manufacture of musical instruments, carried on +both as a factory and a domestic industry, and lace-making. Next in +importance are cotton-spinning and weaving, machine embroidery, brewing, +and the mother-of-pearl industry. + + + + +GRASMERE, a village and lake of Westmorland, in the heart of the English +Lake District. The village (pop. of urban district in 1901, 781) lies +near the head of the lake, on the small river Rothay and the +Keswick-Ambleside road, 12-1/2 m. from Keswick and 4 from Ambleside. The +scenery is very beautiful; the valley about the lakes of Grasmere and +Rydal Water is in great part wooded, while on its eastern flank there +rises boldly the range of hills which includes Rydal Fell, Fairfield and +Seat Sandal, and, farther north, Helvellyn. On the west side are +Loughrigg Fell and Silver How. The village has become a favourite centre +for tourists, but preserves its picturesque and sequestered appearance. +In a house still standing William Wordsworth lived from 1799 to 1808, +and it was subsequently occupied by Thomas de Quincey and by Hartley +Coleridge. Wordsworth's tomb, and also that of Coleridge, are in the +churchyard of the ancient church of St Oswald, which contains a memorial +to Wordsworth with an inscription by John Keble. A festival called the +Rushbearing takes place on the Saturday within the octave of St Oswald's +day (August 5th), when a holiday is observed and the church decorated +with rushes, heather and flowers. The festival is of early origin, and +has been derived by some from the Roman _Floralia_, but appears also to +have been made the occasion for carpeting the floors of churches, +unpaved in early times, with rushes. Moreover, in a procession which +forms part of the festivities at Grasmere, certain Biblical stories are +symbolized, and in this a connexion with the ancient miracle plays may +be found (see H. D. Rawnsley, _A Rambler's Note-Book at the English +Lakes_, Glasgow, 1902). Grasmere is also noted for an athletic meeting +in August. + +The lake of Grasmere is just under 1 m. in length, and has an extreme +breadth of 766 yds. A ridge divides the basin from north to south, and +rises so high as to form an island about the middle. The greatest depth +of the lake (75 ft.) lies to the east of this ridge. + + + + +GRASS AND GRASSLAND, in agriculture. The natural vegetable covering of +the soil in most countries is "grass" (for derivation see GRASSES) of +various kinds. Even where dense forest or other growth exists, if a +little daylight penetrates to the ground grass of some sort or another +will grow. On ordinary farms, or wherever farming of any kind is carried +out, the proportion of the land not actually cultivated will either be +in grass or will revert naturally to grass in time if left alone, after +having been cultivated. + +Pasture land has always been an important part of the farm, but since +the "era of cheap corn" set in its importance has been increased, and +much more attention has been given to the study of the different species +of grass, their characteristics, the improvement of a pasture generally, +and the "laying down" of arable land into grass where tillage farming +has not paid. Most farmers desire a proportion of grass-land on their +farms--from a third to a half of the area--and even on wholly arable +farms there are usually certain courses in the rotation of crops devoted +to grass (or clover). Thus the Norfolk 4-course rotation is corn, roots, +corn, clover; the Berwick 5-course is corn, roots, corn, grass, grass; +the Ulster 8-course, corn, flax, roots, corn, flax, grass, grass, grass; +and so on, to the point where the grass remains down for 5 years, or is +left indefinitely. + +Permanent grass may be grazed by live-stock and classed as pasture pure +and simple, or it may be cut for hay. In the latter case it is usually +classed as "meadow" land, and often forms an alluvial tract alongside a +stream, but as grass is often grazed and hayed in alternate years, the +distinction is not a hard and fast one. + +There are two classes of pasturage, temporary and permanent. The latter +again consists of two kinds, the permanent grass natural to land that +has never been cultivated, and the pasture that has been laid down +artificially on land previously arable and allowed to remain and improve +itself in the course of time. The existence of ridge and furrow on many +old pastures in Great Britain shows that they were cultivated at one +time, though perhaps more than a century ago. Often a newly laid down +pasture will decline markedly in thickness and quality about the fifth +and sixth year, and then begin to thicken and improve year by year +afterwards. This is usually attributed to the fact that the unsuitable +varieties die out, and the "naturally" suitable varieties only come in +gradually. This trouble can be largely prevented, however, by a +judicious selection of seed, and by subsequently manuring with +phosphatic manures, with farmyard or other bulky "topdressings," or by +feeding sheep with cake and corn over the field. + +All the grasses proper belong to the natural order _Gramineae_ (see +GRASSES), to which order also belong all the "corn" plants cultivated +throughout the world, also many others, such as bamboo, sugar-cane, +millet, rice, &c. &c., which yield food for mankind. Of the grasses +which constitute pastures and hay-fields over a hundred species are +classified by botanists in Great Britain, with many varieties in +addition, but the majority of these, though often forming a part of +natural pastures, are worthless or inferior for farming purposes. The +grasses of good quality which should form a "sole" in an old pasture and +provide the bulk of the forage on a newly laid down piece of grass are +only about a dozen in number (see below), and of these there are only +some six species of the very first importance and indispensable in a +"prescription" of grass seeds intended for laying away land in temporary +or permanent pasture. Dr W. Fream caused a botanical examination to be +made of several of the most celebrated pastures of England, and, +contrary to expectation, found that their chief constituents were +ordinary perennial ryegrass and white clover. Many other grasses and +legumes were present, but these two formed an overwhelming proportion of +the plants. + +In ordinary usage the term grass, pasturage, hay, &c., includes many +varieties of clover and other members of the natural order _Leguminosae_ +as well as other "herbs of the field," which, though not strictly +"grasses," are always found in a grass field, and are included in +mixtures of seeds for pasture and meadows. The following is a list of +the most desirable or valuable agricultural grasses and clovers, which +are either actually sown or, in the case of old pastures, encouraged to +grow by draining, liming, manuring, and so on:-- + + _Grasses._ + + Alopecurus pratensis Meadow foxtail. + Anthoxanthum odoratum Sweet vernal grass. + Avena elatior Tall oat-grass. + Avena flavescens Golden oat-grass. + Cynosurus cristatus Crested dogstail. + Dactylis glomerata Cocksfoot. + Festuca duriuscula Hard fescue. + Festuca elatior Tall fescue. + Festuca ovina Sheep's fescue. + Festuca pratensis Meadow fescue. + Lolium italicum Italian ryegrass. + Phleum pratense Timothy or catstail. + Poa nemoralis Wood meadow-grass. + Poa pratensis Smooth meadow-grass. + Poa trivialis Rough meadow-grass. + + _Clovers, &c._ + + Medicago lupulina Trefoil or "Nonsuch." + Medicago sativa Lucerne (Alfalfa). + Trifolium hybridum Alsike clover. + " pratense Broad red clover. + " pratense \ Perennial clover. + " perennne / + " incarnatum Crimson clover or "Trifolium." + " procumbens Yellow Hop-trefoil. + " repens White or Dutch clover. + Achillea Millefolium Yarrow or Milfoil. + Anthyllis vulneraria Kidney-vetch. + Lotus major Greater Birdsfoot Trefoil. + Lotus corniculatus Lesser " " + Carum petroselinum Field parsley. + Plantago lanceolata Plantain. + Cichorium intybus Chicory. + Poterium officinale Burnet. + +The predominance of any particular species is largely determined by +climatic circumstances, the nature of the soil and the treatment it +receives. In limestone regions sheep's fescue has been found to +predominate; on wet clay soil the dog's bent (_Agrostis canina_) is +common; continuous manuring with nitrogenous manures kills out the +leguminous plants and stimulates such grasses as cocksfoot; manuring +with phosphates stimulates the clovers and other legumes; and so on. +Manuring with basic slag at the rate of from 5 to 10 cwt. per acre has +been found to give excellent results on poor clays and peaty soils. +Basic slag is a by-product of the Bessemer steel process, and is rich in +a soluble form of phosphate of lime (tetra-phosphate) which specially +stimulates the growth of clovers and other legumes, and has renovated +many inferior pastures. + +In the Rothamsted experiments continuous manuring with "mineral manures" +(no nitrogen) on an old meadow has reduced the grasses from 71 to 64% of +the whole, while at the same time it has increased the _Leguminosae_ +from 7% to 24%. On the other hand, continuous use of nitrogenous manure +in addition to "minerals" has raised the grasses to 94% of the total and +reduced the legumes to less than 1%. + +As to the best kinds of grasses, &c., to sow in making a pasture out of +arable land, experiments at Cambridge, England, have demonstrated that +of the many varieties offered by seedsmen only a very few are of any +permanent value. A complex mixture of tested seeds was sown, and after +five years an examination of the pasture showed that only a few +varieties survived and made the "sole" for either grazing or forage. +These varieties in the order of their importance were:-- + + Cocksfoot 26 + Perennial rye grass 16 + Meadow fescue 13 + Hard fescue 9 + Crested dogstail 8 + Timothy 6 + White clover 4 + Meadow foxtail 2 + +The figures represent approximate percentages. + +Before laying down grass it is well to examine the species already +growing round the hedges and adjacent fields. An inspection of this sort +will show that the Cambridge experiments are very conclusive, and that +the above species are the only ones to be depended on. Occasionally some +other variety will be prominent, but if so there will be a special local +reason for this. + +On the other hand, many farmers when sowing down to grass like to have a +good bulk of forage for the first year or two, and therefore include +several of the clovers, lucerne, Italian ryegrass, evergreen ryegrass, +&c., knowing that these will die out in the course of years and leave +the ground to the more permanent species. + +There are also several mixtures of "seeds" (the technical name given on +the farm to grass-seeds) which have been adopted with success in laying +down permanent pasture in some localities. + + +---------------------+------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------+ + | | | | | |Cambridge|General | + | |Young.|De Laune.|Leicester.|Elliot.| average.|purpose | + | | | | | | |mixture.| + +---------------------+------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------+ + | Cocksfoot | .. | 8 | 4 | 8 | 8 | 4 | + | Perennial ryegrass | .. | .. | 2 | 6 | 10 | 10 | + | Meadow fescue | .. | 6 | 2 | .. | 5 | .. | + | Hard fescue | .. | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | .. | + | Crested dogstail | 3 | 2 | .. | 1 | 3 | .. | + | Timothy | .. | 3 | 1 | .. | 2 | 2 | + | Meadow foxtail | .. | 10 | .. | .. | 1 | 1 | + | Tall fescue | .. | 3 | 1 | 3-1/2 | .. | 2 | + | Tall oat grass | .. | .. | 1 | 3 | .. | .. | + | Italian ryegrass | .. | .. | 2 | .. | .. | 5 | + | Smooth meadow grass | .. | .. | .. | 1 | .. | .. | + | Rough meadow grass | .. | 1 | .. | 1 | .. | .. | + | Golden oat grass | .. | .. | 1/4 | 1 | .. | .. | + | Sheep's fescue | .. | 1 | .. | .. | .. | .. | + | Broad red clover | .. | 1 | .. | .. | .. | 2 | + | Perennial red clover| .. | 1 | .. | 1-1/2 | .. | 2 | + | Alsike | .. | 1 | 1-1/2 | 1 | .. | 2 | + | Lucerne (Alfalfa) | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 8 | + | White clover | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | + | Kidney vetch | 6 | .. | .. | 2-1/2 | .. | .. | + | Sheep's parsley | .. | .. | .. | 1 | .. | .. | + | Yarrow | 1 | 1 | 1/4 | 1 | .. | .. | + | Burnet | 8 | .. | .. | 8 | .. | .. | + | Chicory | 4 | .. | .. | 2-1/2 | .. | .. | + | Plantain | 4 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | + | +------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------+ + | Total lb. per acre | 30 | 40 | 17 | 40 | 30 | 40 | + +---------------------+------+---------+----------+-------+---------+--------+ + +Arthur Young more than 100 years ago made out one to suit chalky +hillsides; Mr Faunce de Laune (Sussex) in our days was the first to +study grasses and advocated leaving out ryegrass of all kinds; Lord +Leicester adopted a cheap mixture suitable for poor land with success; +Mr Elliot (Kelso) has introduced many deep-rooted "herbs" in his mixture +with good results. Typical examples of such mixtures are given on +preceding page. + +Temporary pastures are commonly resorted to for rotation purposes, and +in these the bulky fast-growing and short-lived grasses and clovers are +given the preference. Three examples of temporary mixtures are given +below. + + +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+ + | | One | Two | Three | + | | year. | years.|or four| + | | | | years.| + +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+ + | Italian ryegrass | 14 | 10 | 6 | + | Cocksfoot | 2 | 4 | 6 | + | Timothy | .. | 2 | 3 | + | Broad red clover | 8 | 5 | 3 | + | Alsike | 3 | 2 | 2 | + | Trefoil | 3 | 2 | 2 | + | Perennial ryegrass | .. | 5 | 10 | + | Meadow fescue | .. | 2 | 2 | + | Perennial red clover | .. | 2 | 2 | + | White clover | .. | 1 | 2 | + | Meadow foxtail | .. | 1 | 2 | + | +-------+-------+-------+ + | Total lb. per acre | 30 | 36 | 40 | + +-----------------------+-------+-------+-------+ + +Where only a one-year hay is required, broad red clover is often grown, +either alone or mixed with a little Italian ryegrass, while other forage +crops, like trefoil and trifolium, are often grown alone. + +In Great Britain a heavy clay soil is usually preferred for pasture, +both because it takes most kindly to grass and because the expense of +cultivating it makes it unprofitable as arable land when the price of +corn is low. On light soil the plant frequently suffers from drought in +summer, the want of moisture preventing it from obtaining proper +root-hold. On such soil the use of a heavy roller is advantageous, and +indeed on any soil excepting heavy clay frequent rolling is beneficial +to the grass, as it promotes the capillary action of the soil-particles +and the consequent ascension of ground-water. + +In addition, the grass on the surface helps to keep the moisture from +being wasted by the sun's heat. + +The graminaceous crops of western Europe generally are similar to those +enumerated. Elsewhere in Europe are found certain grasses, such as +Hungarian brome, which are suitable for introduction into the British +Isles. The grasses of the American prairies also include many plants not +met with in Great Britain. Some half-dozen species are common to both +countries: Kentucky "blue-grass" is the British _Poa pratensis_; couch +grass (_Triticum repens_) grows plentifully without its underground +runners; bent (_Agrostis vulgaris_) forms the famous "red-top," and so +on. But the American buffalo-grass, the Canadian buffalo-grass, the +"bunch" grasses, "squirrel-tail" and many others which have no +equivalents in the British Islands, form a large part of the prairie +pasturage. There is not a single species of true clover found on the +prairies, though cultivated varieties can be introduced. (P. McC.) + + + + +GRASSE, FRANCOIS JOSEPH PAUL, MARQUIS DE GRASSETILLY, COMTE DE +(1722-1788), French sailor, was born at Bar, in the present department +of the Alpes Maritimes. In 1734 he took service on the galleys of the +order of Malta, and in 1740 entered the service of France, being +promoted to chief of squadron in 1779. He took part in the naval +operations of the American War of Independence, and distinguished +himself in the battles of Dominica and Saint Lucia (1780), and of Tobago +(1781). He was less fortunate at St Kitts, where he was defeated by +Admiral Hood. Shortly afterwards, in April 1782, he was defeated and +taken prisoner by Admiral Rodney. Some months later he returned to +France, published a _Memoire justificatif_, and was acquitted by a +court-martial (1784). He died at Paris in January 1788. + + His son Alexandre de Grasse, published a _Notice bibliographique sur + l'amiral comte de Grasse d'apres les documents inedits_ in 1840. See + G. Lacour-Gayet, _La Marine militaire de la France sous le regne de + Louis XV_ (Paris, 1902). + + + + +GRASSE, a town in the French department of the Alpes Maritimes (till +1860 in that of the Var), 12-1/2 m. by rail N. of Cannes. Pop. (1906) +town, 13,958; commune, 20,305. It is built in a picturesque situation, +in the form of an amphitheatre and at a height oL 1066 ft. above the +sea, on the southern slope of a hill, facing the Mediterranean. In the +older (eastern) part of the town the streets are narrow, steep and +winding, but the new portion (western) is laid out in accordance with +modern French ideas. It possesses a remarkably mild and salubrious +climate, and is well supplied with water. That used for the purpose of +the factories comes from the fine spring of Foux. But the drinking water +used in the higher portions of the town flows, by means of a conduit, +from the Foulon stream, one of the sources of the Loup. Grasse was from +1244 (when the see was transferred hither from Antibes) to 1790 an +episcopal see, but was then included in the diocese of Frejus till 1860, +when politically as well as ecclesiastically, the region was annexed to +the newly-formed department of the Alpes Maritimes. It still possesses a +12th-century cathedral, now a simple parish church; while an ancient +tower, of uncertain date, rises close by near the town hall, which was +formerly the bishop's palace (13th century). There is a good town +library, containing the muniments of the abbey of Lerins, on the island +of St Honorat opposite Cannes. In the chapel of the old hospital are +three pictures by Rubens. The painter J. H. Fragonard (1732-1806) was a +native of Grasse, and some of his best works were formerly to be seen +here (now in America). Grasse is particularly celebrated for its +perfumery. Oranges and roses are cultivated abundantly in the +neighbourhood. It is stated that the preparation of attar of roses +(which costs nearly L100 per 2 lb.) requires alone nearly 7,000,000 +roses a year. The finest quality of olive oil is also manufactured at +Grasse. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +GRASSES,[1] a group of plants possessing certain characters in common +and constituting a family (Gramineae) of the class Monocotyledons. It is +one of the largest and most widespread and, from an economic point of +view, the most important family of flowering plants. No plant is +correctly termed a grass which is not a member of this family, but the +word is in common language also used, generally in combination, for many +plants of widely different affinities which possess some resemblance +(often slight) in foliage to true grasses; e.g. knot-grass (_Polygonum +aviculare_), cotton-grass (_Eriophorum_), rib-grass (_Plantago_), +scorpion-grass (_Myosotis_), blue-eyed grass (_Sisyrinchium_), sea-grass +(_Zostera_). The grass-tree of Australia (_Xanthorrhoea_) is a +remarkable plant, allied to the rushes in the form of its flower, but +with a tall, unbranched, soft-woody, palm-like trunk bearing a crown of +long, narrow, grass-like leaves and stalked heads of small, +densely-crowded flowers. In agriculture the word has an extended +signification to include the various fodder-plants, chiefly leguminous, +often called "artificial grasses." Indeed, formerly _grass_ (also spelt +_gwrs_, _gres_, _gyrs_ in the old herbals) meant any green herbaceous +plant of small size. + +Yet the first attempts at a classification of plants recognized and +separated a group of _Gramina_, and this, though bounded by nothing more +definite than habit and general appearance, contained the Gramineae of +modern botanists. The older group, however, even with such systematists +as Ray (1703), Scheuchzer (1719), and Micheli (1729), embraced in +addition the Cyperaceae (Sedge family), Juncaceae (Rush family), and +some other monocotyledons with inconspicuous flowers. Singularly enough, +the sexual system of Linnaeus (1735) served to mark off more distinctly +the true grasses from these allies, since very nearly all of the former +then known fell under his Triandria Digynia, whilst the latter found +themselves under his other classes and orders. + +I. STRUCTURE.--The general type of true grasses is familiar in the +cultivated cereals of temperate climates--wheat, barley, rye, oats, and +in the smaller plants which make up pastures and meadows and form a +principal factor of the turf of natural downs. Less familiar are the +grains of warmer climates--rice, maize, millet and sorgho, or the +sugar-cane. Still farther removed are the bamboos of the tropics, the +columnar stems of which reach to the height of forest trees. All are, +however, formed on a common plan. + +_Root._--Most cereals and many other grasses are annual, and possess a +tuft of very numerous slender root-fibres, much branched and of great +length. The majority of the members of the family are of longer +duration, and have the roots also fibrous, but fewer, thicker and less +branched. In such cases they are very generally given off from just +above each node (often in a circle) of the lower part of the stem or +rhizome, perforating the leaf-sheaths. In some bamboos they are very +numerous from the lower nodes of the erect culms, and pass downwards to +the soil, whilst those from the upper nodes shrivel up and form circles +of spiny fibres. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Rhizome of Bamboo. A, B, C, D, successive series +of axes, the last bearing aerial culms. Much reduced.] + +_Stem._--The underground stem or rootstock (rhizome) of perennial +grasses is usually well developed, and often forms very long creeping or +subterranean rhizomes, with elongated internodes and sheathing scales; +the widely-creeping, slender rhizomes in Marram-grass (_Psamma_), +_Agropyrum junceum_, _Elymus arenarius_, and other sand-loving plants +render them useful as sand-binders. It is also frequently short, with +the nodes crowded. The turf-formation, which is characteristic of open +situations in cool temperate climates, results from an extensive +production of short stolons, the branches and the fibrous roots +developed from their nodes forming the dense "sod." The very large +rhizome of the bamboos (fig. 1) is also a striking example of "definite" +growth; it is much branched, the short, thick, curved branches being +given off below the apex of the older ones and at right angles to them, +the whole forming a series of connected arched axes, truncate at their +ends, which were formerly continued into leafy culms. The rhizome is +always solid, and has the usual internal structure of the +monocotyledonous stem. In the cases of branching just cited the branches +break directly through the sheath of the leaf in connexion with which +they arise. In other cases the branches grow upwards through the sheaths +which they ultimately split from above, and emerging as aerial shoots +give a tufted habit to the plant. Good examples are the oat, cock's-foot +(_Dactylis_) and other British grasses. This mode of growth is the cause +of the "tillering" of cereals, or the production of a large number of +erect growing branches from the lower nodes of the young stem. Isolated +tufts or tussocks are also characteristic of steppe--and +savanna--vegetation and open places generally in the warmer parts of the +earth. + +The aerial leaf-bearing branches (culms) are a characteristic feature of +grasses. They are generally numerous, erect, cylindrical (rarely +flattened) and conspicuously jointed with evident nodes. The nodes are +solid, a strong plate of tissue passing across the stem, but the +internodes are commonly hollow, although examples of completely solid +stems are not uncommon (e.g. maize, many Andropogons, sugar-cane). The +swollen nodes are a characteristic feature. In wheat, barley and most of +the British native grasses they are a development, not of the culm, but +of the base of the leaf-sheath. The function of the nodes is to raise +again culms which have become bent down; they are composed of highly +turgescent tissue, the cells of which elongate on the side next the +earth when the culm is placed in a horizontal or oblique position, and +thus raise the culm again to an erect position. The internodes continue +to grow in length, especially the upper ones, for some time; the +increase takes place in a zone at the extreme base, just above the node. +The exterior of the culms is more or less concealed by the leaf-sheaths; +it is usually smooth and often highly polished, the epidermal cells +containing an amount of silica sufficient to leave after burning a +distinct skeleton of their structure. Tabasheer is a white substance +mainly composed of silica, found in the joints of several bamboos. A few +of the lower internodes may become enlarged and sub-globular, forming +nutriment-stores, and grasses so characterized are termed "bulbous" +(_Arrhenatherum_, _Poa bulbosa_, &c.). In internal structure +grass-culms, save in being hollow, conform to that usual in +monocotyledons; the vascular bundles run parallel in the internodes, but +a horizontal interlacement occurs at the nodes. In grasses of temperate +climates branching is rare at the upper nodes of the culm, but it is +characteristic of the bamboos and many tropical grasses. The branches +are strictly distichous. In many bamboos they are long and spreading or +drooping and copiously ramified, in others they are reduced to hooked +spines. One genus (_Dinochloa_, a native of the Malay archipelago) is +scandent, and climbs over trees 100 ft. or more in height, _Olyra +latifolia_, a widely-spread tropical species, is also a climber on a +humbler scale. + +Grass-culms grow with great rapidity, as is most strikingly seen in +bamboos, where a height of over 100 ft. is attained in from two to three +months, and many species grow two, three or even more feet in +twenty-four hours. Silicic hardening does not begin till the full height +is nearly attained. The largest bamboo recorded is 170 ft., and the +diameter is usually reckoned at about 4 in. to each 50 ft. + +_Leaves._--These present special characters usually sufficient for +ordinal determination. They are solitary at each node and arranged in +two rows, the lower often crowded, forming a basal tuft. They consist of +two distinct portions, the sheath and the blade. The sheath is often of +great length, and generally completely surrounds the culm, forming a +firm protection for the internode, the younger basal portion of which, +including the zone of growth, remains tender for some time. As a rule it +is split down its whole length, thus differing from that of Cyperaceae +which is almost invariably (_Eriospora_ is an exception) a complete +tube; in some grasses, however (species of _Poa_, _Bromus_ and others), +the edges are united. The sheaths are much dilated in _Alopecurus +vaginatus_ and in a species of _Potamochloa_, in the latter, an East +Indian aquatic grass, serving as floats. At the summit of the sheath, +above the origin of the blade, is the _ligule_, a usually membranous +process of small size (occasionally reaching 1 in. in length) erect and +pressed around the culm. It is rarely quite absent, but may be +represented by a tuft of hairs (very conspicuous in _Pariana_). It +serves to prevent rain-water, which has run down the blade, from +entering the sheath. _Melica uniflora_ has in addition to the ligule, a +green erect tongue-like process, from the line of junction of the edges +of the sheath. + +The blade is frequently wanting or small and imperfect in the basal +leaves, but in the rest is long and set on to the sheath at an angle. +The usual form is familiar--sessile, more or less ribbon-shaped, +tapering to a point, and entire at the edge. The chief modifications are +the articulation of the deciduous blade on to the sheath, which occurs +in all the Bambuseae (except _Planotia_) and in _Spartina stricta_; and +the interposition of a petiole between the sheath and the blade, as in +bamboos, _Leptaspis_, _Pharus_, _Pariana_, _Lophatherum_ and others. In +the latter case the leaf usually becomes oval, ovate or even cordate or +sagittate, but these forms are found in sessile leaves also (_Olyra_, +_Panicum_). The venation is strictly parallel, the midrib usually +strong, and the other ribs more slender. In _Anomochloa_ there are +several nearly equal ribs and in some broad-leaved grasses (_Bambuseae_, +_Pharus_, _Leptaspis_) the venation becomes tesselated by transverse +connecting veins. The tissue is often raised above the veins, forming +longitudinal ridges, generally on the upper face; the stomata are in +lines in the intervening furrows. The thick prominent veins in +_Agropyrum_ occupy the whole upper surface of the leaf. Epidermal +appendages are rare, the most frequent being marginal, saw-like, +cartilaginous teeth, usually minute, but occasionally (_Danthonia +scabra_, _Panicum serratum_) so large as to give the margin a serrate +appearance. The leaves are occasionally woolly, as in _Alopecurus +lanatus_ and one or two _Panicums_. The blade is often twisted, +frequently so much so that the upper and under faces become reversed. In +dry-country grasses the blades are often folded on the midrib, or rolled +up. The rolling is effected by bands of large wedge-shaped +cells--motor-cells--between the nerves, the loss of turgescence by +which, as the air dries, causes the blade to curl towards the face on +which they occur. The rolling up acts as a protection from too great +loss of water, the exposed surface being specially protected to this end +by a strong cuticle, the majority or all of the stomata occurring on the +protected surface. The stiffness of the blade, which becomes very marked +in dry-country grasses, is due to the development of girders of +thick-walled mechanical tissue which follow the course of all or the +principal veins (fig. 2). + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Magnified transverse section of one-half of a +leaf-blade of _Festuca rubra_. The dark portions represent supporting +and conducting tissue; the upper face bears furrows, at the bottom of +each of which are seen the motor cells m.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--One-flowered spikelet of _Agrostis_.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Two-flowered spikelet of _Aira_. + +b, Barren glumes; f, flowering glumes. (Both Enlarged.)] + +_Inflorescence._--This possesses an exceptional importance in grasses, +since, their floral envelopes being much reduced and the sexual organs +of very great uniformity, the characters employed for classification are +mainly derived from the arrangement of the flowers and their investing +bracts. Various interpretations have been given to these glumaceous +organs and different terms employed for them by various writers. It may, +however, be considered as settled that the whole of the bodies known as +glumes and paleae, and distichously arranged externally to the flower, +form no part of the floral envelopes, but are of the nature of bracts. +These are arranged so as to form _spikelets_ (locustae), and each +spikelet may contain one, as in _Agrostis_ (fig. 3) two, as in _Aira_ +(fig. 4) three, or a great number of flowers, as in _Briza_ (fig. 5) +_Triticum_ (fig. 6); in some species of _Eragrostis_ there are nearly +60. The flowers are, as a rule, placed laterally on the axis +(_rachilla_) of the spikelet, but in one-flowered spikelets they appear +to be terminal, and are probably really so in _Anthoxanthum_ (fig. 7) +and in two anomalous genera, _Anomochloa_ and _Streptochaeta_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Spikelet of _Briza_.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Spikelet of _Triticum_. + +(Both enlarged.)] + +In immediate relation with the flower itself, and often entirely +concealing it, is the _palea_ or _pale_ ("upper pale" of most systematic +agrostologists). This organ (fig. 13, 1) is peculiar to grasses among +Glumiflorae (the series to which belong the two families Gramineae and +Cyperaceae), and is almost always present, certain _Oryzeae_ and +_Phalarideae_ being the only exceptions. It is of thin membranous +consistence, usually obtuse, often bifid, and possesses no central rib +or nerve, but has two lateral ones, one on either side; the margins are +frequently folded in at the ribs, which thus become placed at the sharp +angles. This structure was formerly regarded as pointing to the fusion +of two organs, and the pale was considered by Robert Brown to represent +two portions soldered together of a trimerous perianth-whorl, the third +portion being the "lower pale." The pale is now generally considered to +represent the single bracteole, characteristic of Monocotyledons, the +binerved structure being the result of the pressure of the axis of the +spikelet during the development of the pale, as in _Iris_ and others. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Spikelet of _Anthoxanthum_ (enlarged) without +the two lower barren glumes, showing the two upper awned barren glumes +(g) and the flower.] + +The flower with its pale is sessile, and is placed in the axis of +another bract in such a way that the pale is exactly opposed to it, +though at a slightly higher level. It is this second bract or flowering +glume which has been generally called by systematists the "lower pale," +and with the "upper pale" was formerly considered to form an outer +floral envelope ("calyx," Jussieu; "perianthium," Brown). The two bracts +are, however, on different axes, one secondary to the other, and cannot +therefore be parts of one whorl of organs. They are usually quite unlike +one another, but in some genera (e.g. most _Festuceae_) are very similar +in shape and appearance. + +The flowering glume has generally a more or less boat-shaped form, is of +firm consistence, and possesses a well-marked central midrib and +frequently several lateral ones. The midrib in a large proportion of +genera extends into an appendage termed the _awn_ (fig. 4), and the +lateral veins more rarely extend beyond the glume as sharp points (e.g. +_Pappophorum_). The form of the flowering glume is very various, this +organ being plastic and extensively modified in different genera. It +frequently extends downwards a little on the rachilla, forming with the +latter a swollen callus, which is separated from the free portion by a +furrow. In _Leptaspis_ it is formed into a closed cavity by the union of +its edges, and encloses the flower, the styles projecting through the +pervious summit. Valuable characters for distinguishing genera are +obtained from the awn. This presents itself variously developed from a +mere subulate point to an organ several inches in length, and when +complete (as in _Andropogoneae_, _Aveneae_ and _Stipeae_) consists of +two well-marked portions, a lower twisted part and a terminal straight +portion, usually set in at an angle with the former, sometimes trifid +and occasionally beautifully feathery (fig. 8). The lower part is most +often suppressed, and in the large group of the _Paniceae_ awns of any +sort are very rarely seen. The awn may be either terminal or may come +off from the back of the flowering glume, and Duval Jouve's observations +have shown that it represents the blade of the leaf of which the portion +of the flowering glume below its origin is the sheath; the twisted part +(so often suppressed) corresponds with the petiole, and the portion of +the glume extending beyond the origin of the awn (very long in some +species, e.g. of _Danthonia_) with the ligule of the developed +foliage-leaf. When terminal the awn has three fibro-vascular bundles, +when dorsal only one; it is covered with stomate-bearing epidermis. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Spikelet of _Stipa pennata_. The pair of barren +glumes (b) are separated from the flowering glume, which bears a long +awn, twisted below the knee and feathery above. About 3/4 nat. size.] + +The flower with its palea is thus sessile in the axil of a floriferous +glume, and in a few grasses (_Leersia_ (fig. 9), _Coleanthus_, _Nardus_) +the spikelet consists of nothing more, but usually (even in uniflorous +spikelets) other glumes are present. Of these the two placed +distichously opposite each other at the base of the spikelet never bear +any flower in their axils, and are called the _empty_ or _barren glumes_ +(figs. 3, 8). They are the "glumes" of most writers, and together form +what was called the "gluma" by R. Brown. They rarely differ much from +one another, but one may be smaller or quite absent (_Panicum_, +_Setaria_ (fig. 10), _Paspalum_, _Lolium_), or both be altogether +suppressed, as above noticed. They are commonly firm and strong, often +enclose the spikelet, and are rarely provided with long points or +imperfect awns. Generally speaking they do not share in the special +modifications of the flowering glumes, and rarely themselves undergo +modification, chiefly in hardening of portions (_Sclerachne_, +_Manisuris_, _Anthephora_, _Peltophorum_), so as to afford greater +protection to the flowers or fruit. But it is usual to find, besides the +basal glumes, a few other empty ones, and these are in two- or +more-flowered spikelets (see _Triticum_, fig. 6) at the top of the +rhachilla (numerous in _Lophatherum_), or in uniflorous ones (fig. 10) +below and interposed between the floral glume and the basal pair. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Spikelet of _Leersia_. f, Flowering glume; p, +pale.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Spikelet of _Setaria_, with an abortive branch +(h) beneath it. b, Barren glumes; f, flowering glume; p, pale.] + +The axis of the spikelet is frequently jointed and breaks up into +articulations above each flower. Tufts or borders of hairs are +frequently present (_Calamagrostis_, _Phragmites_, _Andropogon_), and +are often so long as to surround and conceal the flowers (fig. 11). The +axis is often continued beyond the last flower or glume as a bristle or +stalk. + +_Involucres_ or organs outside the spikelets also occur, and are formed +in various ways. Thus in _Setaria_ (fig. 10), _Pennisetum_, &c., the one +or more circles of simple or feathery hairs represent abortive branches +of the inflorescence; in _Cenchrus_ (fig. 12) these become consolidated, +and the inner ones flattened so as to form a very hard globular spiny +case to the spikelets. The cup-shaped involucre of _Cornucopia_ is a +dilatation of the axis into a hollow receptacle with a raised border. In +_Cynosurus_ (Dog's tail) the pectinate involucre which conceals the +spikelet is a barren or abortive spikelet. Bracts of a more general +character subtending branches of the inflorescence are singularly rare +in Gramineae, in marked contrast with Cyperaceae, where they are so +conspicuous. They however occur in a whole section of _Andropogon_, in +_Anomochloa_, and at the base of the spike in _Sesleria_. The remarkable +ovoid involucre of _Coix_, which becomes of stony hardness, white and +polished (then known as "Job's tears," q.v.), is also a modified bract +or leaf-sheath. It is closed except at the apex, and contains the female +spikelet, the stalks of the male inflorescence and the long styles +emerging through the small apical orifice. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Spikelet of Reed (_Phragmites communis_) opened +out. + + a, b, Barren glumes. + + c, c, Fertile glumes, each enclosing one flower with its pale d. + + Note the zigzag axis (_rhachilla_) bearing long silky hairs.] + +Any number of spikelets may compose the inflorescence, and their +arrangement is very various. In the spicate forms, with sessile +spikelets on the main axis, the latter is often dilated and flattened +(_Paspalum_), or is more or less thickened and hollowed out +(_Stenotaphrum_, _Rottboellia_, _Tripsacum_), when the spikelets are +sunk and buried within the cavities. Every variety of racemose and +paniculate inflorescence obtains, and the number of spikelets composing +those of the large kinds is often immense. Rarely the inflorescence +consists of very few flowers; thus _Lygeum Spartum_, the most anomalous +of European grasses, has but two or three large uniflorous spikelets, +which are fused together at the base, and have no basal glumes, but are +enveloped in a large, hooded, spathe-like bract. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Spikelet of _Cenchrus echinatus_ enclosed in a +bristly involucre.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Flowers of Grasses (enlarged). 1, +_Piptatherum_, with the palea p; 2, _Poa_; 3, _Oryza_; l, Lodicule.] + +_Flower._--This is characterized by remarkable uniformity. The perianth +is represented by very rudimentary, small, fleshy scales arising below +the ovary, called _lodicules_; they are elongated or truncate, sometimes +fringed with hairs, and are in contact with the ovary. Their usual +number is two, and they are placed collaterally at the anterior side of +the flower (fig. 13,) that is, within the flowering glume. They are +generally considered to represent the inner whorl of the ordinary +monocotyledonous (liliaceous) perianth, the outer whorl of these being +suppressed as well as the posterior member of the inner whorl. This +latter is present almost constantly in _Stipeae_ and _Bambuseae_, which +have three lodicules, and in the latter group they are occasionally more +numerous. In _Anomochloa_ they are represented by hairs. In +_Streptochaeta_ there are six lodicules, alternately arranged in two +whorls. Sometimes, as in _Anthoxanthum_, they are absent. In _Melica_ +there is one large anterior lodicule resulting presumably from the union +of the two which are present in allied genera. Professor E. Hackel, +however, regards this as an undivided second pale, which in the majority +of the grasses is split in halves, and the posterior lodicule, when +present, as a third pale. On this view the grass-flower has no perianth. +The function of the lodicules is the separation of the pale and glume to +allow the protrusion of stamens and stigmas; they effect this by +swelling and thus exerting pressure on the base of these two structures. +Where, as in _Anthoxanthum_, there are no lodicules, pale and glume do +not become laterally separated, and the stamens and stigmas protrude +only at the apex of the floret (fig. 7). Grass-flowers are usually +hermaphrodite, but there are very many exceptions. Thus it is common to +find one or more imperfect (usually male) flowers in the same spikelet +with bisexual ones, and their relative position is important in +classification. _Holcus_ and _Arrhenatherum_ are examples in English +grasses; and as a rule in species of temperate regions separation of the +sexes is not carried further. In warmer countries monoecious and +dioecious grasses are more frequent. In such cases the male and female +spikelets and inflorescence may be very dissimilar, as in maize, Job's +tears, _Euchlaena_, _Spinifex_, &c.; and in some dioecious species this +dissimilarity has led to the two sexes being referred to different +genera (e.g. _Anthephora axilliflora_ is the female of _Buchloe +dactyloides_, and _Neurachne paradoxa_ of a species of _Spinifex_). In +other grasses, however, with the sexes in different plants (e.g. +_Brizopyrum_, _Distichlis_, _Eragrostis capitala_, _Gynerium_), no such +dimorphism obtains. _Amphicarpum_ is remarkable in having cleistogamic +flowers borne on long radical subterranean peduncles which are fertile, +whilst the conspicuous upper paniculate ones, though apparently perfect, +never produce fruit. Something similar occurs in _Leersia oryzoides_, +where the fertile spikelets are concealed within the leaf-sheaths. + +_Androecium._--In the vast majority there are three stamens alternating +with the lodicules, and therefore one anterior, i.e. opposite the +flowering glume, the other two being posterior and in contact with the +palea (fig. 13, 1 and 2). They are hypogynous, and have long and very +delicate filaments, and large, linear or oblong two-celled anthers, +dorsifixed and ultimately very versatile, deeply indented at each end, +and commonly exserted and pendulous. Suppression of the anterior stamen +sometimes occurs (e.g. _Anthoxanthum_, fig. 7), or the two posterior +ones may be absent (_Uniola_, _Cinna_, _Phippsia_, _Festuca bromoides_). +There is in some genera (_Oryza_, most _Bambuseae_) another row of three +stamens, making six in all (fig. 13, 3); and _Anomochloa_ and +_Tetrarrhena_ possess four. The stamens become numerous (ten to forty) +in the male flowers of a few monoecious genera (_Pariana_, _Luziola_). +In _Ochlandra_ they vary from seven to thirty, and in _Gigantochloa_ +they are monadelphous. + +_Gynoecium._--The pistil consists of a single carpel, opposite the pale +in the median plane of the spikelet. The ovary is small, rounded to +elliptical, and one-celled, and contains a single slightly bent ovule +sessile on the ventral suture (that is, springing from the back of the +ovary); the micropyle points downwards. It bears usually two lateral +styles which are quite distinct or connate at the base, sometimes for a +greater length (fig. 14, 1), each ends in a densely hairy or feathery +stigma (fig. 14). Occasionally there is but a single style, as in +_Nardus_ (fig. 14, 7), which corresponds to the midrib of the carpel. +The very long and apparently simple stigma of maize arises from the +union of two. Many of the bamboos have a third, anterior, style. + +Comparing the flower of Gramineae with the general monocotyledonous plan +as represented by Liliaceae and other families (fig. 15), it will be +seen to differ in the absence of the outer row and the posterior member +of the inner row of the perianth-leaves, of the whole inner row of +stamens, and of the two lateral carpels, whilst the remaining members of +the perianth are in a rudimentary condition. But each or any of the +usually missing organs are to be found normally in different genera, or +as occasional developments. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Pistils of grasses (much enlarged). 1, +_Alopecurus_; 2, _Bromus_; 3, _Arrhenatherum_; 4, _Glyceria_; 5, +_Melica_; 6, _Mibora_; 7, _Nardus_.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Diagrams of the ordinary Grass-flower. + + 1, Actual condition; + 2, Theoretical, with the suppressed organs supplied. + a, Axis. + b, Flowering glume. + c, Palea. + d, Outer row of perianth leaves. + e, Inner row. + f, Outer row of stamens. + g, Inner row. + h, Pistil.] + +_Pollination._--Grasses are generally wind-pollinated, though +self-fertilization sometimes occurs. A few species, as we have seen, are +monoecious or dioecious, while many are polygamous (having unisexual as +well as bisexual flowers as in many members of the tribes +_Andropogoneae_, fig. 18, and _Paniceae_), and in these the male flower +of a spikelet always blooms later than the hermaphrodite, so that its +pollen can only effect cross-fertilization upon other spikelets in the +same or another plant. Of those with only bisexual flowers, many are +strongly protogynous (the stigmas protruding before the anthers are +ripe), such as _Alopecurus_ and _Anthoxanthum_ (fig. 7), but generally +the anthers protrude first and discharge the greater part of their +pollen before the stigmas appear. The filaments elongate rapidly at +flowering-time, and the lightly versatile anthers empty an abundance of +finely granular smooth pollen through a longitudinal slit. Some flowers, +such as rye, have lost the power of effective self-fertilization, but in +most cases both forms, self- and cross-fertilization, seem to be +possible. Thus the species of wheat are usually self-fertilized, but +cross-fertilization is possible since the glumes are open above, the +stigmas project laterally, and the anthers empty only about one-third of +their pollen in their own flower and the rest into the air. In some +cultivated races of barley, cross-fertilization is precluded, as the +flowers never open. Reference has already been made to cleistogamic +species which occur in several genera. + +_Fruit and Seed._--The ovary ripens into a usually small ovoid or +rounded fruit, which is entirely occupied by the single large seed, from +which it is not to be distinguished, the thin pericarp being completely +united to its surface. To this peculiar fruit the term _caryopsis_ has +been applied (more familiarly "grain"); it is commonly furrowed +longitudinally down one side (usually the inner, but in _Coix_ and its +allies, the outer), and an additional covering is not unfrequently +provided by the adherence of the persistent palea, or even also of the +flowering glume ("chaff" of cereals). From this type are a few +deviations; thus in _Sporobolus_, &c. (fig. 16), the pericarp is not +united with the seed but is quite distinct, dehisces, and allows the +loose seed to escape. Sometimes the pericarp is membranous, sometimes +hard, forming a nut, as in some genera of _Bambuseae_, while in other +_Bambuseae_ it becomes thick and fleshy, forming a berry often as large +as an apple. In _Melocanna_ the berry forms an edible fruit 3 or 4 in. +long, with a pointed beak of 2 in. more; it is indehiscent, and the +small seed germinates whilst the fruit is still attached to the tree, +putting out a tuft of roots and a shoot, and not falling till the latter +is 6 in. long. The position of the embryo is plainly visible on the +front side at the base of the grain. On the other, posterior, side of +the grain is a more or less evident, sometimes punctiform, sometimes +elongated or linear mark, the hilum, the place where the ovule was +fastened to the wall of the ovary. The form of the hilum is constant +throughout a genus, and sometimes also in whole tribes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Fruit of _Sporobolus_, showing the dehiscent +pericarp and seed.] + +The testa is thin and membranous but occasionally coloured, and the +embryo small, the great bulk of the seed being occupied by the hard +farinaceous endosperm (albumen) on which the nutritive value of the +grain depends. The outermost layer of endosperm, the aleuron-layer, +consists of regular cells filled with small proteid granules; the rest +is made up of large polygonal cells containing numerous starch-grains in +a matrix of proteid which may be continuous (horny endosperm) or +granular (mealy endosperm). The embryo presents many points of interest. +Its position is remarkable, closely applied to the surface of the +endosperm at the base of its outer side. This character is absolute for +the whole order, and effectually separates Gramineae from Cyperaceae. +The part in contact with the endosperm is plate-like, and is known as +the _scutellum_; the surface in contact with the endosperm forms an +absorptive epithelium. In some grasses there is a small scale-like +appendage opposite the scutellum, the _epiblast_. There is some +difference of opinion as to which structure or structures represent the +cotyledon. Three must be considered: (1) the scutellum, connected by +vascular tissue with the vascular cylinder of the main axis of the +embryo which it more or less envelops; it never leaves the seed, serving +merely to prepare and absorb the food-stuff in the endosperm; (2) the +cellular outgrowth of the axis, the epiblast, small and inconspicuous as +in wheat, or larger as in _Stipa_; (3) the pileole or germ-sheath, +arising on the same side of the axis and above the scutellum, enveloping +the plumule in the seed and appearing above ground as a generally +colourless sheath from the apex of which the plumule ultimately breaks +(fig. 17, 4, b). The development of these structures (which was +investigated by van Tieghem), especially in relation to the origin of +the vascular bundles which supply them, favours the view that the +scutellum and pileole are highly differentiated parts of a single +cotyledon, and this view is in accord with a comparative study of the +seedling of grasses and of other monocotyledons. The epiblast has been +regarded as representing a second cotyledon, but this is a very doubtful +interpretation. + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--A Grain of Wheat. 1, back, and 2, front view; +3, vertical section, showing (b) the endosperm, and (a) embryo; 4, +beginning of germination, showing (b) the pileole and (c) the radicle +and secondary rootlets surrounded by their coleorrhizae.] + +_Germination._--In germination the coleorhiza lengthens, ruptures the +pericarp, and fixes the grain to the ground by developing numerous +hairs. The radicle then breaks through the coleorhiza, as do also the +secondary rootlets where, as in the case of many cereals, these have +been formed in the embryo (fig. 17, 4). The germ-sheath grows vertically +upwards, its stiff apex pushing through the soil, while the plumule is +hidden in its hollow interior. Finally the plumule escapes, its leaves +successively breaking through at the tip of the germ-sheath. The +scutellum meanwhile feeds the developing embryo from the endosperm. The +growth of the primary root is limited; sooner or later adventitious +roots develop from the axis above the radicle which they ultimately +exceed in growth. + +_Means of Distribution._--Various methods of scattering the grain have +been adopted, in which parts of the spikelet or inflorescence are +concerned. Short spikes may fall from the culm as a whole; or the axis +of a spike or raceme is jointed so that one spikelet falls with each +joint as in many _Andropogoneae_ and _Hordeae_. In many-flowered +spikelets the rachilla is often jointed and breaks into as many pieces +as there are fruits, each piece bearing a glume and pale. One-flowered +spikelets may fall as a whole (as in the tribes _Paniceae_ and +_Andropogoneae_), or the axis is jointed above the barren glumes so that +only the flowering glume and pale fall with the fruit. These +arrangements are, with few exceptions, lacking in cultivated cereals +though present in their wild forms, so far as these are known. Such +arrangements are disadvantageous for the complete gathering of the +fruit, and therefore varieties in which they are not present would be +preferred for cultivation. The persistent bracts (glume and pale) afford +an additional protection to the fruit; they protect the embryo, which is +near the surface, from too rapid wetting and, when once soaked, from +drying up again. They also decrease the specific gravity, so that the +grain is more readily carried by the wind, especially when, as in +_Briza_, the glume has a large surface compared with the size of the +grain, or when, as in _Holcus_, empty glumes also take part; in Canary +grass (_Phalaris_) the large empty glumes bear a membranous wing on the +keel. In the sugar-cane (_Saccharum_) and several allied genera the +separating joints of the axis bear long hairs below the spikelets; in +others, as in _Arundo_ (a reed-grass), the flowering glumes are +enveloped in long hairs. The awn which is frequently borne on the +flowering glume is also a very efficient means of distribution, catching +into fur of animals or plumage of birds, or as often in _Stipa_ (fig. 8) +forming a long feather for wind-carriage. In _Tragus_ the glumes bear +numerous short hooked bristles. The fleshy berries of some _Bambuseae_ +favour distribution by animals. + +The awn is also of use in burying the fruit in the soil. Thus in +_Stipa_, species of _Avena_, _Heteropogon_ and others the base of the +glume forms a sharp point which will easily penetrate the ground; above +the point are short stiff upwardly pointing hairs which oppose its +withdrawal. The long awn, which is bent and closely twisted below the +bend, acts as a driving organ; it is very hygroscopic, the coils +untwisting when damp and twisting up when dry. The repeated twisting and +untwisting, especially when the upper part of the awn has become fixed +in the earth or caught in surrounding vegetation, drives the point +deeper and deeper into the ground. Such grasses often cause harm to +sheep by catching in the wool and boring through the skin. + +A peculiar method of distribution occurs in some alpine and arctic +grasses, which grow under conditions where ripening of the fruit is +often uncertain. The entire spikelet, or single flowers, are transformed +into small-leaved shoots which fall from the axes and readily root in +the ground. Some species, such as _Poa stricta_, are known only in this +viviparous condition; others, like our British species _Festuca ovina_ +and _Poa alpina_, become viviparous under the special climatic +conditions. + +II. CLASSIFICATION.--Gramineae are sharply defined from all other +plants, and there are no genera as to which it is possible to feel a +doubt whether they should be referred to it or not. The only family +closely allied is Cyperaceae, and the points of difference between the +two may be here brought together. The best distinctions are found in +the position of the embryo in relation to the endosperm--lateral in +grasses, basal in Cyperaceae--and in the possession by Gramineae of the +2-nerved palea below each flower. Less absolute characters, but +generally trustworthy and more easily observed, are the feathery +stigmas, the always distichous arrangement of the glumes, the usual +absence of more general bracts in the inflorescence, the split +leaf-sheaths, and the hollow, cylindrical, jointed culms--some or all of +which are wanting in all Cyperaceae. The same characters will +distinguish grasses from the other glumiferous orders, Restiaceae, and +Eriocaulonaceae, which are besides further removed by their capsular +fruit and pendulous ovules. To other monocotyledonous families the +resemblances are merely of adaptive or vegetative characters. Some +Commelinaceae and Marantaceae approach grasses in foliage; the leaves of +_Allium_, &c., possess a ligule; the habit of some palms reminds one of +the bamboos; and Juncaceae and a few Liliaceae possess an inconspicuous +scarious perianth. There are about 300 genera containing about 3500 +well-defined species. + +The great uniformity among the very numerous species of this vast family +renders its _classification_ very difficult. The difficulty has been +increased by the confusion resulting from the multiplication of genera +founded on slight characters, and from the description (in consequence +of their wide distribution) of identical plants under several different +genera. + +No characters for main divisions can be obtained from the flower proper +or fruit (with the exception of the character of the hilum), and it has +therefore been found necessary to trust to characters derived from the +usually less important inflorescence and bracts. + +Robert Brown suggested two primary divisions--Paniceae and Poaceae, +according to the position of the most perfect flower in the spikelet; +this is the upper (apparently) terminal one in the first, whilst in the +second it occupies the lower position, the more imperfect ones (if any) +being above it. Munro supplemented this by another character easier of +verification, and of even greater constancy, in the articulation of the +pedicel in the Paniceae immediately below the glumes; whilst in Poaceae +this does not occur, but the axis of the spikelet frequently articulates +_above_ the pair of empty basal glumes. Neither of these great divisions +will well accommodate certain genera allied to _Phalaris_, for which +Brown proposed tentatively a third group (since named _Phalarideae_); +this, or at least the greater part of it, is placed by Bentham under the +Poaceae. + +The following arrangement has been proposed by Professor Eduard Hackel +in his recent monograph on the order. + + A. Spikelets one-flowered, rarely two-flowered as in Zea, falling from + the pedicel entire or with certain joints of the rachis at maturity. + Rachilla not produced beyond the flowers. + + a. Hilum a point; spikelets not laterally compressed. + + [alpha] Fertile glume and pale hyaline; empty glumes thick, + membranous to coriaceous or cartilaginous, the lowest the largest. + Rachis generally jointed and breaking up when mature. + + 1. Spikelets unisexual, male and female in separate inflorescences + or on different parts of the same inflorescence. + 1. _Maydeae_. + + 2. Spikelets bisexual, or male and bisexual, each male standing + close to a bisexual. + 2. _Andropogoneae_. + + [beta] Fertile glume and pale cartilaginous, coriaceous or papery; + empty glumes more delicate, usually herbaceous, the lowest usually + smallest. Spikelets falling singly from the unjointed rachis of the + spike or the ultimate branches of the panicle. + 3. _Paniceae_. + + b. Hilum a line; spikelets laterally compressed. + 4. _Oryzeae_. + + B. Spikelets one- to indefinite-flowered; in the one-flowered the + rachilla frequently produced beyond the flower; rachilla generally + jointed above the empty glumes, which remain after the fruiting glumes + have fallen. When more than one-flowered, distinct internodes are + developed between the flowers. + + a. Culm herbaceous, annual; leaf-blade sessile, and not jointed to the + sheath. + + [alpha] Spikelets upon distinct pedicels and arranged in panicles or + racemes. + + I. Spikelets one-flowered. + + i. Empty glumes 4. 5. _Phalarideae_. + ii. Empty glumes 2. 6. _Agrostideae_. + + II. Spikelets more than one-flowered. + + i. Fertile glumes generally shorter than the empty glumes, usually + with a bent awn on the back. + 7. _Aveneae_. + + ii. Fertile glumes generally longer than the empty, unawned or + with a straight, terminal awn. + 9. _Festuceae_. + + [beta] Spikelets crowded in two close rows, forming a one-sided + spike or raceme with a continuous (not jointed) rachis. + 8. _Chlorideae_. + + [gamma] Spikelets in two opposite rows forming an equal-sided spike. + 10. _Hordeae_. + + b. Culm woody, at any rate at the base, leaf-blade jointed to the + sheath, often with a short, slender petiole. + 11. _Bambuseae_. + + Tribe 1. _Maydeae_ (7 genera in the warmer parts of the earth). _Zea + Mays_ (maize, q.v., or Indian corn) (q.v.). _Tripsacum_, 2 or 3 + species in subtropical America north of the equator; _Tr. dactyloides_ + (gama grass) extends northwards to Illinois and Connecticut; it is + used for fodder and as an ornamental plant. _Coix Lacryma-Jobi_ (Job's + tears) q.v. + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.--A pair of spikelets of _Andropogon_.] + + Tribe 2. _Andropogoneae_ (25 genera, mainly tropical). The spikelets + are arranged in spike-like racemes, generally in pairs consisting of a + sessile and stalked spikelet at each joint of the rachis (fig. 18). + Many are savanna grasses, in various parts of the tropics, for + instance the large genus _Andropogon_, _Elionurus_ and others. + _Saccharum officinarum_ (sugar-cane) (q.v.). _Sorghum_, an important + tropical cereal known as black millet or _durra_ (q.v.). _Miscanthus_ + and _Erianthus_, nearly allied to _Saccharum_, are tall reed-like + grasses, with large silky flower-panicles, which are grown for + ornament. _Imperata_, another ally, is a widespread tropical genus; + one species _I. arundinacea_ is the principal grass of the alang-alang + fields in the Malay Archipelago; it is used for thatch. _Vossia_, an + aquatic grass, often floating, is found in western India and tropical + Africa. In the swampy lands of the upper Nile it forms, along with a + species of _Saccharum_, huge floating grass barriers. _Elionurus_, a + widespread savanna grass in tropical and subtropical America, and also + in the tropics of the old world, is rejected by cattle probably on + account of its aromatic character, the spikelets having a strong + balsam-like smell. Other aromatic members are _Andropogon Nardus_, a + native of India, but also cultivated, the rhizome, leaves and + especially the spikelets of which contain a volatile oil, which on + distillation yields the citronella oil of commerce. A closely allied + species, _A. Schoenanthus_ (lemon-grass), yields lemon-grass oil; a + variety is used by the negroes in western Africa for haemorrhage. + Other species of the same genus are used as stimulants and cosmetics + in various parts of the tropics. The species of _Heteropogon_, a + cosmopolitan genus in the warmer parts of the world, have strongly + awned spikelets. _Themeda Forskalii_, which occurs from the + Mediterranean region to South Africa and Tasmania, is the kangaroo + grass of Australia, where, as in South Africa, it often covers wide + tracts. + + Tribe 3. _Paniceae_ (about 25 genera, tropical to subtropical; a few + temperate), a second flower, generally male, rarely hermaphrodite, is + often present below the fertile flower. _Paspalum_, is a large + tropical genus, most abundant in America, especially on the pampas and + campos; many species are good forage plants, and the grain is + sometimes used for food. _Amphicarpum_, native in the south-eastern + United States, has fertile cleistogamous spikelets on filiform runners + at the base of the culm, those on the terminal panicle are sterile. + _Panicum_, a very polymorphic genus, and one of the largest in the + order, is widely spread in all warm countries; together with species + of _Paspalum_ they form good forage grasses in the South American + savannas and campos. _Panicum Crus-galli_ is a polymorphic + cosmopolitan grass, which is often grown for fodder; in one form (_P. + frumentaceum_) it is cultivated in India for its grain. _P. plicatum_, + with broad folded leaves, is an ornamental greenhouse grass. _P. + miliaceum_ is millet (q.v.), and _P. altissimum_, Guinea grass. In the + closely allied genus _Digitaria_, which is sometimes regarded as a + section of _Panicum_, the lowest barren glume is reduced to a point; + _D. sanguinalis_ is a very widespread grass, in Bohemia it is + cultivated as a food-grain; it is also the crab-grass of the southern + United States, where it is used for fodder. + + In _Setaria_ and allied genera the spikelet is subtended by an + involucre of bristles or spines which represent sterile branches of + the inflorescence. _Setaria italica_, Hungarian grass, is extensively + grown as a food-grain both in China and Japan, parts of India and + western Asia, as well as in Europe, where its culture dates from + prehistoric times; it is found in considerable quantity in the lake + dwellings of the Stone age. + + In _Cenchrus_ the bristles unite to form a tough spiny capsule (fig. + 12); _C. tribuloides_ (bur-grass) and other species are troublesome + weeds in North and South America, as the involucre clings to the wool + of sheep and is removed with great difficulty. _Pennisetum typhoideum_ + is widely cultivated as a grain in tropical Africa. _Spinifex_, a + dioecious grass, is widespread on the coasts of Australia and eastern + Asia, forming an important sand-binder. The female heads are spinose + with long pungent bracts, fall entire when ripe and are carried away + by wind or sea, becoming finally anchored in the sand and falling to + pieces. + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.--_Phalarideae._ Spikelet of Hierochloe.] + + Tribe 4. _Oryzeae_ (16 genera, mainly tropical and subtropical). The + spikelets are sometimes unisexual, and there are often six stamens. + _Leersia_ is a genus of swamp grasses, one of which _L. oryzoides_ + occurs in the north temperate zone of both old and new worlds, and is + a rare grass in Surrey, Sussex and Hampshire. _Zizania aquatica_ + (Tuscarora or Indian rice) is a reed-like grass growing over large + areas on banks of streams and lakes in North America and north-east + Asia. The Indians collect the grain for food. _Oryza sativa_ (rice) + (q.v.). _Lygeum Spartum_, with a creeping stem and stiff rush-like + leaves, is common on rocky soil on the high plains bordering the + western Mediterranean, and is one of the sources of esparto. + + Tribe 5. _Phalarideae_ (6 genera, three of which are South African and + Australasian; the others are more widely distributed, and represented + in our flora). _Phalaris arundinacea_, is a reed-grass found on the + banks of British rivers and lakes; a variety with striped leaves known + as ribbon-grass is grown for ornament. _P. canariensis_ (Canary grass, + a native of southern Europe and the Mediterranean area) is grown for + bird-food and sometimes as a cereal. _Anthoxanthum odoratum_, the + sweet vernal grass of our flora, owes its scent to the presence of + coumarin, which is also present in the closely allied genus + _Hierochloe_ (fig. 19), which occurs throughout the temperate and + frigid zones. + + Tribe 6. _Agrostideae_ (about 35 genera, occurring in all parts of the + world; eleven are British). _Aristida_ and _Stipa_ are large and + widely distributed genera, occurring especially on open plains and + steppes; the conspicuously awned persistent flowering glume forms an + efficient means of dispersing the grain. _Stipa pennata_ is a + characteristic species of the Russian steppes. _St. spartea_ + (porcupine grass) and other species are plentiful on the North + American prairies. _St. tenacissima_ is the Spanish esparto grass + (q.v.), known in North Africa as halfa or alfa. _Phleum_ has a + cylindrical spike-like inflorescence; _P. pratense_ (timothy) is a + valuable fodder grass, as also is _Alopecurus pratensis_ (foxtail). + _Sporobolus_, a large genus in the warmer parts of both hemispheres, + but chiefly America, derives its name from the fact that the seed is + ultimately expelled from the fruit. _Agrostis_ is a large world-wide + genus, but especially developed in the north temperate zone, where it + includes important meadow-grasses. _Calamagrostis_ and _Deyeuxia_ are + tall, often reed-like grasses, occurring throughout the temperate and + arctic zones and upon high mountains in the tropics. _Ammophila + arundinacea_ (or _Psamma arenaria_) (Marram grass) with its long + creeping stems forms a useful sand-binder on the coasts of Europe, + North Africa and the Atlantic states of America. + + Tribe 7. _Aveneae_ (about 24 genera, seven of which are British). + _Holcus lanatus_ (Yorkshire fog, soft grass) is a common meadow and + wayside grass with woolly or downy leaves. _Aira_ is a genus of + delicate annuals with slender hair-like branches of the panicle. + _Deschampsia_ and _Trisetum_ occur in temperate and cold regions or on + high mountains in the tropics; _T. pratense_ (_Avena flavescens_) with + a loose panicle and yellow shining spikelets is a valuable + fodder-grass. _Avena fatua_ is the wild oat and _A. sativa_ the + cultivated oat (q.v.). _Arrhenatherum avenaceum_, a perennial field + grass, native in Britain and central and southern Europe, is + cultivated in North America. + + Tribe 8. _Chlorideae_ (about 30 genera, chiefly in warm countries). + The only British representative is _Cynodon Dactylon_ (dog's tooth, + Bermuda grass) found on sandy shores in the south-west of England; it + is a cosmopolitan, covering the ground in sandy soils, and forming an + important forage grass in many dry climates (Bermuda grass of the + southern United States, and known as durba, dub and other names in + India). Species of _Chloris_ are grown as ornamental grasses. + _Bouteloua_ with numerous species (mesquite grass, grama grass) on the + plains of the south-western United States, afford good grazing. + _Eleusine indica_ is a common tropical weed; the nearly allied species + _E. Coracana_ is a cultivated grain in the warmer parts of Asia and + throughout Africa. _Buchloe dactyloides_ is the buffalo grass of the + North American prairies, a valuable fodder. + + Tribe 9. _Festuceae_ (about 83 genera, including tropical, temperate, + arctic and alpine forms) many are important meadow-grasses; 15 are + British. _Gynerium argenteum_ (pampas grass) is a native of southern + Brazil and Argentina. _Arundo_ and _Phragmites_ are tall reed-grasses + (see REED). Several species of _Triodia_ cover large areas of the + interior of Australia, and from their stiff, sharply pointed leaves + are very troublesome. _Eragrostis_, one of the larger genera of the + order, is widely distributed in the warmer parts of the earth; many + species are grown for ornament and _E. abyssinica_ is an important + food-plant in Abyssinia. _Koeleria cristata_ is a fodder-grass. _Briza + media_ (quaking grass) is a useful meadow-grass. _Dactylis glomerata_ + (cock's-foot), a perennial grass with a dense panicle, common in + pastures and waste places is a useful meadow-grass. It has become + naturalized in North America, where it is known as orchard grass, as + it will grow in shade. _Cynosurus cristatus_ (dog's tail) is a common + pasture-grass. _Poa_, a large genus widely distributed in temperate + and cold countries, includes many meadow and alpine grasses; eight + species are British; _P. annua_ (fig. 20) is the very common weed in + paths and waste places; _P. pratensis_ and _P. trivialis_ are also + common grasses of meadows, banks and pastures, the former is the "June + grass" or "Kentucky blue grass" of North America; _P. alpina_ is a + mountain grass of the northern hemisphere and found also in the Arctic + region. The largest species of the genus is _Poa flabellata_ which + forms great tufts 6-7 ft. high with leaves arranged like a fan; it is + a native of the Falkland and certain antarctic islands where it is + known as tussock grass. _Glyceria fluitans_, manna-grass, so-called + from the sweet grain, is one of the best fodder grasses for swampy + meadows; the grain is an article of food in central Europe. _Festuca_ + (fescue) is also a large and widely distributed genus, but found + especially in the temperate and cold zones; it includes valuable + pasture grasses, such as _F. ovina_ (sheep's fescue), _F. rubra_; nine + species are British. The closely allied genus _Bromus_ (brome grass) + is also widely distributed but most abundant in the north temperate + zone; _B. erectus_ is a useful forage grass on dry chalky soil. + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.--_Poa annua._ Plant in Flower; about 1/2 nat. + size. 1, one spikelet.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Spike of Wheat (_Triticum sativum_). About + 2/3 nat. size.] + + Tribe 10. _Hordeae_ (about 19 genera, widely distributed; six are + British). _Nardus stricta_ (mat-weed), found on heaths and dry + pastures, is a small perennial with slender rigid stem and leaves, it + is a useless grass, crowding out better sorts. _Lolium perenne_, ray- + (or by corruption rye-) grass, is common in waste places and a + valuable pasture-grass; _L. italicum_ is the Italian ray-grass; _L. + temulentum_ (darnel) contains a narcotic principle in the grain. + _Secale cereale_, rye (q.v.), is cultivated mainly in northern Europe. + _Agropyrum repens_ (couch grass) has a long creeping underground stem, + and is a troublesome weed in cultivated land; the widely creeping stem + of _A. junceum_, found on sandy sea-shores, renders it a useful + sand-binder. _Triticum sativum_ is wheat (q.v.) (fig. 21), and + _Hordeum sativum_, barley (q.v.). _H. murinum_, wild barley, is a + common grass in waste places. _Elymus arenarius_ (lyme grass) occurs + on sandy sea-shores in the north temperate zone and is a useful + sand-binder. + + Tribe 11. _Bambuseae_. Contains 23 genera, mainly tropical. See + BAMBOO. + +III. DISTRIBUTION.--Grasses are the most universally diffused of all +flowering plants. There is no district in which they do not occur, and +in nearly all they are a leading feature of the flora. In number of +species Gramineae comes considerably after Compositae and Leguminosae, +the two most numerous orders of phanerogams, but in number of individual +plants it probably far exceeds either; whilst from the wide extension of +many of its species, the proportion of Gramineae to other orders in the +various floras of the world is much higher than its number of species +would lead one to expect. In tropical regions, where Leguminosae is the +leading order, grasses closely follow as the second, whilst in the warm +and temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, in which Compositae +takes the lead, Gramineae again occupies the second position. + +While the greatest number of species is found in the tropical zone, the +number of individuals is greater in the temperate zones, where they form +extended areas of turf. Turf- or meadow-formation depends upon uniform +rainfall. Grasses also characterize steppes and savannas, where they +form scattered tufts. The bamboos are a feature of tropical forest +vegetation, especially in the monsoon region. As the colder latitudes +are entered the grasses become relatively more numerous, and are the +leading family in Arctic and Antarctic regions. The only countries where +the order plays a distinctly subordinate part are some extra-tropical +regions of the southern hemisphere, Australia, the Cape, Chili, &c. The +proportion of graminaceous species to the whole phanerogamic flora in +different countries is found to vary from nearly 1/4th in the Arctic +regions to about 1/25th at the Cape; in the British Isles it is about +1/12th. + +The principal climatic cause influencing the number of graminaceous +species appears to be amount of moisture. A remarkable feature of the +distribution of grasses is its uniformity; there are no great centres +for the order, as in Compositae, where a marked preponderance of endemic +species exists; and the genera, except some of the smallest or monotypic +ones, have usually a wide distribution. + +The distribution of the tropical tribe _Bambuseae_ is interesting. The +species are about equally divided between the Indo-Malayan region and +tropical America, only one species being common to both. The tribe is +very poorly represented in tropical Africa; one species _Oxytenanthera +abyssinica_ has a wide range, and three monotypic genera are endemic in +western tropical Africa. None is recorded for Australia, though species +may perhaps occur on the northern coast. One species of _Arundinaria_ +reaches northwards as far as Virginia, and the elevation attained in the +Andes by some species of _Chusquea_ is very remarkable,--one, _C. +aristata_, being abundant from 15,000 ft. up to nearly the level of +perpetual snow. + +Many grasses are almost cosmopolitan, such as the common reed, +_Phragmites communis_; and many range throughout the warm regions of the +globe, e.g. _Cynodon Dactylon_, _Eleusine indica_, _Imperata +arundinacea_, _Sporobolus indicus_, &c., and such weeds of cultivation +as species of _Setaria_, _Echinochloa_. Several species of the north +temperate zone, such as _Poa nemoralis_, _P. pratensis_, _Festuca +ovina_, _F. rubra_ and others, are absent in the tropics but reappear in +the antarctic regions; others (e.g. _Phleum alpinum_) appear in isolated +positions on high mountains in the intervening tropics. No tribe is +confined to one hemisphere and no large genus to any one floral region; +facts which indicate that the separation of the tribes goes back to very +ancient times. The revision of the Australian species by Bentham well +exhibits the wide range of the genera of the order in a flora generally +so peculiar and restricted as that of Australia. Thus of the 90 +indigenous genera (many monotypic or very small) only 14 are endemic, 1 +extends to South Africa, 3 are common to Australia and New Zealand, 18 +extend also into Asia, whilst no fewer than 54 are found in both the Old +and New Worlds; 26 being chiefly tropical and 28 chiefly extra-tropical. + +Of specially remarkable species _Lygeum_ is found on the sea-sand of the +eastern half of the Mediterranean basin, and the minute _Coleanthus_ +occurs in three or four isolated spots in Europe (Norway, Bohemia, +Austria, Normandy), in North-east Asia (Amur) and on the Pacific coast +of North America (Oregon, Washington). Many remarkable endemic genera +occur in tropical America, including _Anomochloa_ of Brazil, and most of +the large aquatic species with separated sexes are found in this region. +The only genus of flowering plants peculiar to the arctic regions is the +beautiful and rare grass _Pleuropogon Sabinii_, of Melville Island. + +_Fossil Grasses._--While numerous remains of grass-like leaves are a +proof that grasses were widespread and abundantly developed in past +geological ages, especially in the Tertiary period, the fossil remains +are in most cases too fragmentary and badly preserved for the +determination of genera, and conclusions based thereon in explanation of +existing geographical distribution are most unsatisfactory. There is, +however, justification for referring some specimens to _Arundo_, +_Phragmites_, and to the _Bambuseae_. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--E. Hackel, _The True Grasses_ (translated from Engler + and Prantl, _Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien_, by F. Lamson Scribner + and E. A. Southworth); and _Andropogoneae_ in de Candolle's + _Monographiae phanerogamarum_ (Paris, 1889); K. S. Kunth, _Revision + des graminees_ (Paris, 1829-1835) and _Agrostographia_ (Stuttgart, + 1833); J. C. Doll in Martius and Eichler, _Flora Brasiliensis_, ii. + Pts. II. and III. (Munich, 1871-1883); A. W. Eichler, + _Bluthendiagramme_ i. 119 (Leipzig, 1875); Bentham and Hooker, _Genera + plantarum_, iii. 1074 (London, 1883); H. Baillon, _Histoire des + plantes_, xii. 136 (Paris, 1893); J. S. Gamble, "_Bambuseae_ of + British India" in _Annals Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta_, vii. + (1896); John Percival, _Agricultural Botany_ (chapters on "Grasses," + 2nd ed., London, 1902). See also accounts of the family in the various + great floras, such as Ascherson and Graebner, _Synopsis der + mitteleuropaischen Flora_; N. L. Britton and A. Brown, _Illustrated + Flora of the Northern United States and Canada_ (New York, 1896); + Hooker's _Flora of British India_; _Flora Capensis_ (edited by W. + Thiselton-Dyer); Boissier, _Flora orientalis_, &c. &c. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The word "grass" (O. Eng. _gaers_, _graes_) is common to Teutonic + languages, cf. Dutch Ger. Goth, _gras_, Dan. _graes_; the root is the + O. Teut. _gra_-, _gro_-, to increase, whence "grow," and "green," the + typical colour of growing vegetation. The Indo-European root is seen + in Lat. _gramen_. The O. Eng. _grasian_, formed from _graes_, gives + "to graze," of cattle feeding on growing herbage, also "grazier," one + who grazes or feeds cattle for the market; "to graze," to abrade, to + touch lightly in passing, may be a development of this from the idea + of close cropping; if it is to be distinguished a possible connexion + may be found with "glace" (Fr. _glacer_, glide, slip, Lat. _glacies_, + ice), to glance off, the change in form being influenced by "grate," + to scrape, scratch (Fr. _gratter_, Ger. _kratzen_). + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 12, Slice 3, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 37984.txt or 37984.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/7/9/8/37984/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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