diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:09:15 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:09:15 -0700 |
| commit | 4469f5196d0505300d7f2e44bf6f4fe95c1832ff (patch) | |
| tree | b7dbc12076f27a92c5dc6375c6ce6de982d9337b /37984-h | |
Diffstat (limited to '37984-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/37984-h.htm | 20919 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img272.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6403 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img287.jpg | bin | 0 -> 25578 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img311.jpg | bin | 0 -> 56152 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img314.jpg | bin | 0 -> 44351 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img337.jpg | bin | 0 -> 85734 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img338.jpg | bin | 0 -> 93238 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img339.jpg | bin | 0 -> 45331 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img366.jpg | bin | 0 -> 79718 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img370.jpg | bin | 0 -> 22712 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img371a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6120 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img371b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 15911 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img371c.jpg | bin | 0 -> 19511 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img371d.jpg | bin | 0 -> 16372 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img372a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 17301 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img372b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 15913 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img372c.jpg | bin | 0 -> 11724 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img372d.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6625 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img372e.jpg | bin | 0 -> 24172 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img373a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 31784 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img373b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 15896 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img374a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 2007 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img374b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 17236 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img375.jpg | bin | 0 -> 8743 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img376a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 11381 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img376b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 34508 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 37984-h/images/img376c.jpg | bin | 0 -> 9339 bytes |
27 files changed, 20919 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/37984-h/37984-h.htm b/37984-h/37984-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..26a05aa --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/37984-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,20919 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= + "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume XII Slice III - Gordon, Lord George to Grasses. + </title> + + <style type="text/css"> + + body { margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%; text-align: justify; } + p { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;} + p.c { margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;} + p.noind { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 0; } + + h2,h3 { text-align: center; } + hr { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center; width: 70%; height: 5px; background-color: #dcdcdc; border:none; } + hr.art { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 40%; height: 5px; background-color: #778899; + margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 6em } + hr.foot {margin-left: 2em; width: 16%; background-color: black; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 0; height: 1px; } + hr.full {width: 100%} + + table.ws {white-space: nowrap; border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; + margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} + table.reg { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} + table.reg td { white-space: normal;} + table.nobctr { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse; } + table.flt { border-collapse: collapse; } + table.pic { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; } + table.math0 { vertical-align: middle; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse;} + table.math0 td {text-align: center;} + table.math0 td.np {text-align: center; padding-left: 0; padding-right: 0;} + + table.reg p {text-indent: 1em; margin-left: 1.5em; text-align: justify;} + table.reg td.tc5p { padding-left: 2em; text-indent: 0em; white-space: normal;} + table.nobctr td, table.flt td { white-space: normal; } + table.pic td { white-space: normal; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-right: 1em;} + table.nobctr p, table.flt p {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;} + table.pic td p {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;} + + td { white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;} + td.norm { white-space: normal; } + td.denom { border-top: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;} + + td.tcc { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: top;} + td.tccm { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;} + td.tccb { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;} + td.tcr { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: top;} + td.tcrb { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} + td.tcrm { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;} + td.tcl { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;} + td.tclb { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: bottom;} + td.tclm { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: middle;} + td.vb { vertical-align: bottom; } + + .caption { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: center; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} + .caption1 { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 2em;} + .caption80 { font-size: 0.8em; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 2em;} + + td.lb {border-left: black 1px solid;} + td.ltb {border-left: black 1px solid; border-top: black 1px solid;} + td.rb {border-right: black 1px solid;} + td.rb2 {border-right: black 2px solid;} + td.tb, span.tb {border-top: black 1px solid;} + td.bb {border-bottom: black 1px solid;} + td.bb1 {border-bottom: #808080 3px solid; padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + td.rlb {border-right: black 1px solid; border-left : black 1px solid;} + td.allb {border: black 1px solid;} + td.cl {background-color: #e8e8e8} + + table p { margin: 0;} + + a:link, a:visited, link {text-decoration:none} + + .author {text-align: right; margin-top: -1em; margin-right: 1em; font-variant: small-caps;} + .center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0;} + .center1 {text-align: center; text-indent: 0; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;} + .grk {font-style: normal; font-family:"Palatino Linotype","New Athena Unicode",Gentium,"Lucida Grande", Galilee, "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif;} + + .f80 {font-size: 80%} + .f90 {font-size: 90%} + .f150 {font-size: 150%} + .f200 {font-size: 200%} + + .sp {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em;} + .sp1 {position: relative; bottom: 0.6em; font-size: 0.75em;} + .su {position: relative; top: 0.3em; font-size: 0.75em;} + .su1 {position: relative; top: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em; margin-left: -1.2ex;} + .spp {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.6em;} + .suu {position: relative; top: 0.2em; font-size: 0.6em;} + .sc {font-variant: small-caps;} + .scs {text-transform: lowercase; font-variant: small-caps;} + .ov {text-decoration: overline} + .cl {background-color: #f5f5f5;} + .bk {padding-left: 0; font-size: 80%;} + .bk1 {margin-left: -1em;} + + .pagenum {position: absolute; right: 5%; text-align: right; font-size: 10pt; + background-color: #f5f5f5; color: #778899; text-indent: 0; + padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; font-style: normal; } + span.sidenote {width: 8em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1.7em; margin-right: 2em; + font-size: 85%; float: left; clear: left; font-weight: bold; + font-style: italic; text-align: left; text-indent: 0; + background-color: #f5f5f5; color: black; } + .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 0.9em; } + .fn { position: absolute; left: 12%; text-align: left; background-color: #f5f5f5; + text-indent: 0; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; } + span.correction {border-bottom: 1px dashed red;} + + div.poemr { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em;} + div.poemr p { margin-left: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; } + div.poemr p.s { margin-top: 1.5em; } + div.poemr p.i05 { margin-left: 0.4em; } + div.poemr p.i1 { margin-left: 1em; } + div.poemr p.i2 { margin-left: 2em; } + + .figright1 { padding-right: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; } + .figleft1 { padding-right: 2em; padding-left: 1em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; } + .figcenter {text-align: center; margin: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 1.5em;} + .figcenter1 {text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 2em;} + .figure {text-align: center; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 1.5em; padding-bottom: 0;} + .bold {font-weight: bold; } + + div.minind {text-align: justify;} + div.condensed, div.condensed1 { line-height: 1.3em; margin-left: 3%; margin-right: 3%; font-size: 95%; } + div.condensed1 p {margin-left: 0; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + div.condensed span.sidenote {font-size: 90%} + + div.list {margin-left: 0;} + div.list p {padding-left: 4em; text-indent: -2em;} + div.list1 {margin-left: 0;} + div.list1 p {padding-left: 6em; text-indent: -2em;} + div.list2 {margin-left: 0;} + div.list2 p {padding-left: 20em; text-indent: -2em;} + + .pt05 {padding-top: 0.5em;} + .pt1 {padding-top: 1em;} + .pt2 {padding-top: 2em;} + .ptb1 {padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + td.prl {padding-left: 10%; padding-right: 7em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 12, Slice 3, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 3 + "Gordon, Lord George" to "Grasses" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: November 11, 2011 [EBook #37984] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME XII SLICE III<br /><br /> +Gordon, Lord George to Grasses</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">GORDON, LORD GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">GOZZOLI, BENOZZO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">GORDON, SIR JOHN WATSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">GRAAFF REINET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">GORDON, LEON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">GRABBE, CHRISTIAN DIETRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">GORDON, PATRICK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">GRABE, JOHN ERNEST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">GORDON-CUMMING, ROUALEYN GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">GRACCHUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">GORE, CATHERINE GRACE FRANCES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">GORE, CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">GRACE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">GORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">GRACES, THE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">GOREE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">GRACIÁN Y MORALES, BALTASAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">GORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">GRACKLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">GÖRGEI, ARTHUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">GRADISCA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">GRADO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">GORGET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">GRADUAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">GORGIAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">GRADUATE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">GORGON, GORGONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">GRADUATION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">GORGONZOLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">GRADUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">GORI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">GRAETZ, HEINRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">GORILLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">GRAEVIUS, JOHANN GEORG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">GORINCHEM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">GRAF, ARTURO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">GORING, GEORGE GORING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">GRAF, KARL HEINRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">GORKI, MAXIM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">GRÄFE, ALBRECHT VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">GÖRLITZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">GRAFE, HEINRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">GÖRRES, JOHANN JOSEPH VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">GRÄFE, KARL FERDINAND VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">GORSAS, ANTOINE JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">GRAFFITO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">GORST, SIR JOHN ELDON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">GRAFLY, CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">GORTON, SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">GRÄFRATH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">GORTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">GRAFT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">GORTYNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">GRAFTON, DUKES OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">GÖRTZ, GEORG HEINRICH VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">GRAFTON, RICHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">GÖRZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">GRAFTON (New South Wales)</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">GÖRZ AND GRADISCA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">GRAFTON</a> (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">GOSCHEN, GEORGE JOACHIM GOSCHEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">GRAFTON</a> (West Virginia, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">GOS-HAWK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">GRAHAM, SIR GERALD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">GOSHEN</a> (Egypt)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">GOSHEN</a> (Indiana, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">GRAHAM, SYLVESTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">GOSLAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">GRAHAM, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">GOSLICKI, WAWRZYNIEC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">GRAHAME, JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">GOSLIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">GRAHAM’S DYKE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">GRAHAM’S TOWN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">GOSPATRIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">GRAIL, THE HOLY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">GOSPEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">GRAIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">GOSPORT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">GRAINS OF PARADISE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">GOSS, SIR JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">GRAIN TRADE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">GOSSAMER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">GRAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">GOSSE, EDMUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">GRAMMAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">GRAMMICHELE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">GOSSEC, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">GRAMMONT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">GOSSIP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">GRAMONT, ANTOINE AGÉNOR ALFRED</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">GOSSNER, JOHANNES EVANGELISTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">GRAMONT, PHILIBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">GOSSON, STEPHEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">GRAMOPHONE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">GOT, FRANÇOIS JULES EDMOND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">GRAMPIANS, THE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">GÖTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">GRAMPOUND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">GOTARZES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">GRAMPUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">GOTHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">GRANADA, LUIS DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">GOTHAM, WISE MEN OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">GRANADA</a> (Nicaragua)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">GOTHENBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">GRANADA</a> (province of Spain)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">GOTHIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">GRANADA</a> (town of Spain)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">GÖTHITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">GRANADILLA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">GOTHS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">GRANARIES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">GOTLAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">GRANBY, JOHN MANNERS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">GOTO ISLANDS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">GRAN CHACO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">GOTTER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">GRAND CANARY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">GÖTTINGEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">GRAND CANYON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">GÖTTLING, CARL WILHELM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">GRAND-DUKE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">GOTTSCHALK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">GRANDEE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">GOTTSCHALL, RUDOLF VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">GRAND FORKS</a> (Canada)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">GOTTSCHED, JOHANN CHRISTOPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">GRAND FORKS</a> (North Dakota, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">GÖTZ, JOHANN NIKOLAUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">GRAND HAVEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">GOUACHE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">GRANDIER, URBAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">GOUDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">GRAND ISLAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">GRANDMONTINES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">GOUFFIER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">GRAND RAPIDS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">GOUGE, MARTIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">GRAND RAPIDS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">GOUGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">GRANDSON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">GOUGH, HUGH GOUGH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">GRANET, FRANÇOIS MARIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">GOUGH, JOHN BARTHOLOMEW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">GRANGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">GOUGH, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">GRANGEMOUTH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">GOUJET, CLAUDE PIERRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">GRANGER, JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">GOUJON, JEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">GRANITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">GOUJON, JEAN MARIE CLAUDE ALEXANDRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">GRAN SASSO D’ITALIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">GOULBURN, EDWARD MEYRICK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">GOULBURN, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">GRANT, ANNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">GOULBURN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">GRANT, CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">GOULD, AUGUSTUS ADDISON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">GRANT, SIR FRANCIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">GOULD, BENJAMIN APTHORP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">GRANT, GEORGE MONRO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">GOULD, SIR FRANCIS CARRUTHERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">GRANT, JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">GOULD, JAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">GOURD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">GRANT, SIR PATRICK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">GOURGAUD, GASPAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">GRANT, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">GOURKO, JOSEPH VLADIMIROVICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">GOURMET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">GRANT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">GOUROCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">GRANTH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">GOURVILLE, JEAN HERAULD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">GRANTHAM, THOMAS ROBINSON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">GOUT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">GRANTHAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">GOUTHIČRE, PIERRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">GRANTLEY, FLETCHER NORTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">GOUVION SAINT-CYR, LAURENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">GRANTOWN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">GOVAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">GRANULITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">GOVERNMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">GRANVELLA, ANTOINE PERRENOT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">GOVERNOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE GEORGE LEVESON-GOWER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">GOW, NIEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">GRANVILLE, JOHN CARTERET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">GOWER, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">GRANVILLE</a> (Australia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">GOWER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">GRANVILLE</a> (France)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">GOWN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">GRANVILLE</a> (Ohio, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">GOWRIE, JOHN RUTHVEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">GRAPE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">GOWRIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">GRAPHICAL METHODS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">GOYA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">GRAPHITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">GOYANNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">GRAPTOLITES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">GRASLITZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">GOYÁZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">GRASMERE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">GOYEN, JAN JOSEPHSZOON VAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">GRASS AND GRASSLAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">GOZLAN, LÉON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">GRASSE, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH PAUL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">GOZO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">GRASSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">GOZZI, CARLO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">GRASSES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">GOZZI, GASPARO</a></td> <td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253"></a>253</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">GORDON, LORD GEORGE<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1751-1793), third and youngest +son of Cosmo George, duke of Gordon, was born in London on +the 26th of December 1751. After completing his education at +Eton, he entered the navy, where he rose to the rank of lieutenant +in 1772, but Lord Sandwich, then at the head of the admiralty, +would not promise him the command of a ship, and he resigned +his commission shortly before the beginning of the American +War. In 1774 the pocket borough of Ludgershall was bought +for him by General Fraser, whom he was opposing in Inverness-shire, +in order to bribe him not to contest the county. He was +considered flighty, and was not looked upon as being of any +importance. In 1779 he organized, and made himself head of +the Protestant associations, formed to secure the repeal of the +Catholic Relief Act of 1778. On the 2nd of June 1780 he headed +the mob which marched in procession from St George’s Fields +to the Houses of Parliament in order to present the monster +petition against the acts. After the mob reached Westminster a +terrific riot ensued, which continued several days, during which +the city was virtually at their mercy. At first indeed they +dispersed after threatening to make a forcible entry into the +House of Commons, but reassembled soon afterwards and +destroyed several Roman Catholic chapels, pillaged the private +dwellings of many Roman Catholics, set fire to Newgate and +broke open all the other prisons, attacked the Bank of England +and several other public buildings, and continued the work of +violence and conflagration until the interference of the military, +by whom no fewer than 450 persons were killed and wounded +before the riots were quelled. For his share in instigating the +riots Lord Gordon was apprehended on a charge of high treason; +but, mainly through the skilful and eloquent defence of Erskine, +he was acquitted on the ground that he had no treasonable +intentions. His life was henceforth full of crack-brained schemes, +political and financial. In 1786 he was excommunicated by the +archbishop of Canterbury for refusing to bear witness in an +ecclesiastical suit; and in 1787 he was convicted of libelling the +queen of France, the French ambassador and the administration +of justice in England. He was, however, permitted to withdraw +from the court without bail, and made his escape to Holland; +but on account of representations from the court of Versailles +he was commanded to quit that country, and, returning to +England, was apprehended, and in January 1788 was sentenced +to five years’ imprisonment in Newgate, where he lived at his +ease, giving dinners and dances. As he could not obtain securities +for his good behaviour on the termination of his term of imprisonment, +he was not allowed to leave Newgate, and there he died +of delirious fever on the 1st of November 1793. Some time before +his apprehension he had become a convert to Judaism, and had +undergone the initiatory rite.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A serious defence of most of his eccentricities is undertaken in +<i>The Life of Lord George Gordon, with a Philosophical Review of his +Political Conduct</i>, by Robert Watson, M.D. (London, 1795). The +best accounts of Lord George Gordon are to be found in the <i>Annual +Registers</i> from 1780 to the year of his death.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORDON, SIR JOHN WATSON<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1788-1864), Scottish painter, +was the eldest son of Captain Watson, R.N., a cadet of the +family of Watson of Overmains, in the county of Berwick. He +was born in Edinburgh in 1788, and was educated specially with +a view to his joining the Royal Engineers. He entered as a +student in the government school of design, under the management +of the Board of Manufactures. His natural taste for art +quickly developed itself, and his father was persuaded to allow +him to adopt it as his profession. Captain Watson was himself +a skilful draughtsman, and his brother George Watson, afterwards +president of the Scottish Academy, stood high as a portrait +painter, second only to Sir Henry Raeburn, who also was a +friend of the family. In the year 1808 John sent to the exhibition +of the Lyceum in Nicolson Street a subject from the <i>Lay of the +Last Minstrel</i>, and continued for some years to exhibit fancy +subjects; but, although freely and sweetly painted, they were +altogether without the force and character which stamped his +portrait pictures as the works of a master. After the death of +Sir Henry Raeburn in 1823, he succeeded to much of his practice. +He assumed in 1826 the name of Gordon. One of the earliest +of his famous sitters was Sir Walter Scott, who sat for a first +portrait in 1820. Then came J. G. Lockhart in 1821; Professor +Wilson, 1822 and 1850, two portraits; Sir Archibald Alison, +1839; Dr Chalmers, 1844; a little later De Quincey, and Sir +David Brewster, 1864. Among his most important works may +be mentioned the earl of Dalhousie (1833), in the Archers’ Hall, +Edinburgh; Sir Alexander Hope (1835), in the county buildings, +Linlithgow; Lord President Hope, in the Parliament House; +and Dr Chalmers. These, unlike his later works, are generally +rich in colour. The full length of Dr Brunton (1844), +and Dr Lee, the principal of the university (1846), both on the +staircase of the college library, mark a modification of his style, +which ultimately resolved itself into extreme simplicity, both +of colour and treatment.</p> + +<p>During the last twenty years of his life he painted many +distinguished Englishmen who came to Edinburgh to sit to him. +And it is significant that David Cox, the landscape painter, on +being presented with his portrait, subscribed for by many +friends, chose to go to Edinburgh to have it executed by Watson +Gordon, although he neither knew the painter personally nor +had ever before visited the country. Among the portraits +painted during this period, in what may be termed his third style, +are De Quincey, in the National Portrait Gallery, London; +General Sir Thomas Macdougall Brisbane, in the Royal Society; +the prince of Wales, Lord Macaulay, Sir M. Packington, Lord +Murray, Lord Cockburn, Lord Rutherford and Sir John Shaw +Lefevre, in the Scottish National Gallery. These latter pictures +are mostly clear and grey, sometimes showing little or no positive +colour, the flesh itself being very grey, and the handling extremely +masterly, though never obtruding its cleverness. He was very +successful in rendering acute observant character. A good +example of his last style, showing pearly flesh-painting freely +handled, yet highly finished, is his head of Sir John Shaw +Lefevre.</p> + +<p>John Watson Gordon was one of the earlier members of the +Royal Scottish Academy, and was elected its president in 1850; +he was at the same time appointed limner for Scotland to the +queen, and received the honour of knighthood. Since 1841 he +had been an associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1851 he +was elected a royal academician. He died on the 1st of June +1864.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>254</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">GORDON, LEON,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> originally <span class="sc">Judah Loeb Ben Asher</span> (1831-1892), +Russian-Jewish poet and novelist (Hebrew), was born at +Wilna in 1831 and died at St Petersburg in 1892. He took +a leading part in the modern revival of the Hebrew language +and culture. His satires did much to rouse the Russian Jews +to a new sense of the reality of life, and Gordon was the apostle +of enlightenment in the Ghettos. His Hebrew style is classical +and pure. His poems were collected in four volumes, <i>Kol Shire +Yehudah</i> (St Petersburg, 1883-1884); his novels in <i>Kol Kithbe +Yehuda</i> (Odessa, 1889).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For his works see <i>Jewish Quarterly Review</i>, xviii. 437 seq.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORDON, PATRICK<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1635-1699), Russian general, was +descended from a Scottish family of Aberdeenshire, who +possessed the small estate of Auchleuchries, and were connected +with the house of Haddo. He was born in 1635, and after +completing his education at the parish schools of Cruden and +Ellon, entered, in his fifteenth year, the Jesuit college at Braunsberg, +Prussia; but, as “his humour could not endure such a +still and strict way of living,” he soon resolved to return home. +He changed his mind, however, before re-embarking, and after +journeying on foot in several parts of Germany, ultimately, in +1655, enlisted at Hamburg in the Swedish service. In the +course of the next five years he served alternately with the +Poles and Swedes as he was taken prisoner by either. In 1661, +after further experience as a soldier of fortune, he took service +in the Russian army under Alexis I., and in 1665 he was sent +on a special mission to England. After his return he distinguished +himself in several wars against the Turks and Tatars in +southern Russia, and in recognition of his services he in 1678 was +made major-general, in 1679 was appointed to the chief command +at Kiev, and in 1683 was made lieutenant-general. He visited +England in 1686, and in 1687 and 1689 took part as quartermaster-general +in expeditions against the Crim Tatars in the +Crimea, being made full general for his services, in spite of the +denunciations of the Greek Church to which, as a heretic, he +was exposed. On the breaking out of the revolution in Moscow +in 1689, Gordon with the troops he commanded virtually decided +events in favour of the tsar Peter I., and against the tsaritsa +Sophia. He was therefore during the remainder of his life in +high favour with the tsar, who confided to him the command of +his capital during his absence from Russia, employed him in +organizing his army according to the European system, and +latterly raised him to the rank of general-in-chief. He died +on the 29th of November 1699. The tsar, who had visited him +frequently during his illness, was with him when he died, and +with his own hands closed his eyes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>General Gordon left behind him a diary of his life, written in +English. This is preserved in MS. in the archives of the Russian +foreign office. A complete German translation, edited by Dr +Maurice Possalt (<i>Tagebuch des Generals Patrick Gordon</i>) was published, +the first volume at Moscow in 1849, the second at St Petersburg in +1851, and the third at St Petersburg in 1853; and <i>Passages from +the Diary of General Patrick Gordon of Auchleuchries</i> (1635-1699), +was printed, under the editorship of Joseph Robertson, for the +Spalding Club, Aberdeen, 1859.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORDON-CUMMING, ROUALEYN GEORGE<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1820-1866), +Scottish traveller and sportsman, known as the “lion hunter,” +was born on the 15th of March 1820. He was the second son of +Sir William G. Gordon-Cumming, 2nd baronet of Altyre and +Gordonstown, Elginshire. From his early years he was distinguished +by his passion for sport. He was educated at Eton, and +at eighteen joined the East India Co.’s service as a cornet in the +Madras Light Cavalry. The climate of India not suiting him, +after two years’ experience he retired from the service and +returned to Scotland. During his stay in the East he had laid +the foundation of his collection of hunting trophies and specimens +of natural history. In 1843 he joined the Cape Mounted Rifles, +but for the sake of absolute freedom sold out at the end of the +year and with an ox wagon and a few native followers set out +for the interior. He hunted chiefly in Bechuanaland and the +Limpopo valley, regions then swarming with big game. In +1848 he returned to England. The story of his remarkable +exploits is vividly told in his book, <i>Five Years of a Hunter’s +Life in the Far Interior of South Africa</i> (London, 1850, 3rd +ed. 1851). Of this volume, received at first with incredulity +by stay-at-home critics, David Livingstone, who furnished +Gordon-Cumming with most of his native guides, wrote: “I +have no hesitation in saying that Mr Cumming’s book conveys a +truthful idea of South African hunting” (<i>Missionary Travels</i>, +chap. vii.). His collection of hunting trophies was exhibited +in London in 1851 at the Great Exhibition, and was illustrated +by a lecture delivered by Gordon-Cumming. The collection, +known as “The South Africa Museum,” was afterwards exhibited +in various parts of the country. In 1858 Gordon-Cumming went +to live at Fort Augustus on the Caledonian Canal, where the +exhibition of his trophies attracted many visitors. He died +there on the 24th of March 1866.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An abridgment of his book was published in 1856 under the title +of <i>The Lion Hunter of South Africa</i>, and in this form was frequently +reprinted, a new edition appearing in 1904.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORE, CATHERINE GRACE FRANCES<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (1799-1861), English +novelist and dramatist, the daughter of Charles Moody, a wine-merchant, +was born in 1799 at East Retford, Nottinghamshire. +In 1823 she was married to Captain Charles Gore; and, in the +next year, she published her first work, <i>Theresa Marchmont, or +the Maid of Honour</i>. Then followed, among others, the <i>Lettre +de Cachet</i> (1827), <i>The Reign of Terror</i> (1827), <i>Hungarian Tales</i> +(1829), <i>Manners of the Day</i> (1830), <i>Mothers and Daughters</i> (1831), +and <i>The Fair of May Fair</i> (1832), <i>Mrs Armytage</i> (1836). Every +succeeding year saw several volumes from her pen: The <i>Cabinet +Minister</i> and <i>The Courtier of the Days of Charles II.</i>, in 1839; +<i>Preferment</i> in 1840. In 1841 <i>Cecil, or the Adventures of a Coxcomb</i>, +attracted considerable attention. <i>Greville, or a Season in +Paris</i> appeared in the same year; then <i>Ormington, or Cecil a +Peer, Fascination, The Ambassador’s Wife</i>; and in 1843 <i>The +Banker’s Wife</i>. Mrs Gore continued to write, with unfailing +fertility of invention, till her death on the 29th of January 1861. +She also wrote some dramas of which the most successful was +the <i>School for Coquettes</i>, produced at the Haymarket (1831). +She was a woman of versatile talent, and set to music Burns’s +“And ye shall walk in silk attire,” one of the most popular songs +of her day. Her extraordinary literary industry is proved by +the existence of more than seventy distinct works. Her best +novels are <i>Cecil, or the Adventures of a Coxcomb</i>, and <i>The Banker’s +Wife</i>. <i>Cecil</i> gives extremely vivid sketches of London fashionable +life, and is full of happy epigrammatic touches. For the knowledge +of London clubs displayed in it Mrs Gore was indebted to +William Beckford, the author of <i>Vathek</i>. <i>The Banker’s Wife</i> +is distinguished by some clever studies of character, especially +in the persons of Mr Hamlyn, the cold calculating money-maker, +and his warm-hearted country neighbour, Colonel Hamilton.</p> + +<p>Mrs Gore’s novels had an immense temporary popularity; +they were parodied by Thackeray in <i>Punch</i>, in his “Lords and +Liveries by the author of <i>Dukes and Déjeuners</i>”; but, tedious +as they are to present-day readers, they presented on the whole +faithful pictures of the contemporary life and pursuits of the +English upper classes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORE, CHARLES<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1853-  ), English divine, was born in +1853, the 3rd son of the Hon. Charles Alexander Gore, brother +of the 4th earl of Arran. His mother was a daughter of the 4th +earl of Bessborough. He was educated at Harrow and at Balliol +College, Oxford, and was elected fellow of Trinity College in 1875. +From 1880 to 1883 he was vice-principal of the theological +college at Cuddesdon, and, when in 1884 Pusey House was +founded at Oxford as a home for Dr Pusey’s library and a centre +for the propagation of his principles, he was appointed principal, +a position which he held until 1893. As principal of Pusey House +Mr Gore exercised a wide influence over undergraduates and the +younger clergy, and it was largely, if not mainly, under this +influence that the “Oxford Movement” underwent a change +which to the survivors of the old school of Tractarians seemed +to involve a break with its basic principles. “Puseyism” had +been in the highest degree conservative, basing itself on authority +and tradition, and repudiating any compromise with the modern +critical and liberalizing spirit. Mr Gore, starting from the same +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page255" id="page255"></a>255</span> +basis of faith and authority, soon found from his practical experience +in dealing with the “doubts and difficulties” of the younger +generation that this uncompromising attitude was untenable, +and set himself the task of reconciling the principle of authority +in religion with that of scientific authority by attempting to +define the boundaries of their respective spheres of influence. +To him the divine authority of the Catholic Church was an +axiom, and in 1889 he published two works, the larger of which, +<i>The Church and the Ministry</i>, is a learned vindication of the +principle of Apostolic Succession in the episcopate against the +Presbyterians and other Protestant bodies, while the second, +<i>Roman Catholic Claims</i>, is a defence, couched in a more popular +form, of the Anglican Church and Anglican orders against the +attacks of the Romanists.</p> + +<p>So far his published views had been in complete consonance +with those of the older Tractarians. But in 1890 a great stir +was created by the publication, under his editorship, of <i>Lux +Mundi</i>, a series of essays by different writers, being an attempt +“to succour a distressed faith by endeavouring to bring the +Christian Creed into its right relation to the modern growth of +knowledge, scientific, historic, critical; and to modern problems +of politics and ethics.” Mr Gore himself contributed an essay +on “The Holy Spirit and Inspiration.” The book, which ran +through twelve editions in a little over a year, met with a somewhat +mixed reception. Orthodox churchmen, Evangelical and +Tractarian alike, were alarmed by views on the incarnate nature +of Christ that seemed to them to impugn his Divinity, and by +concessions to the Higher Criticism in the matter of the inspiration +of Holy Scriptures which appeared to them to convert the +“impregnable rock,” as Gladstone had called it, into a foundation +of sand; sceptics, on the other hand, were not greatly +impressed by a system of defence which seemed to draw an +artificial line beyond which criticism was not to advance. None +the less the book produced a profound effect, and that far beyond +the borders of the English Church, and it is largely due to its +influence, and to that of the school it represents, that the High +Church movement developed thenceforth on “Modernist” +rather than Tractarian lines.</p> + +<p>In 1891 Mr Gore was chosen to deliver the Bampton lectures +before the university, and chose for his subject the Incarnation. +In these lectures he developed the doctrine, the enunciation of +which in <i>Lux Mundi</i> had caused so much heart-searching. This is +an attempt to explain how it came that Christ, though incarnate +God, could be in error, <i>e.g.</i> in his citations from the Old Testament. +The orthodox explanation was based on the principle of +accommodation (<i>q.v.</i>). This, however, ignored the difficulty that +if Christ during his sojourn on earth was not subject to human +limitations, especially of knowledge, he was not a man as other +men, and therefore not subject to their trials and temptations. +This difficulty Gore sought to meet through the doctrine of the +<span class="grk" title="kenôsis">κένωσις</span>. Ever since the Pauline epistles had been received into +the canon theologians had, from various points of view, attempted +to explain what St Paul meant when he wrote of +Christ (2 Phil. ii. 7) that “he emptied himself and took upon +him the form of a servant” (<span class="grk" title="heauton ekenôsen morphęn doulou labôn">ἑαυτὸν ἐκένωσεν μορφὴν δουλοῦ λαβῶν</span>). According to Mr Gore this means that Christ, on his +incarnation, became subject to all human limitations, and had, +so far as his life on earth was concerned, stripped himself of all +the attributes of the Godhead, including the Divine omniscience, +the Divine nature being, as it were, hidden under the human.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Lux Mundi</i> and the Bampton lectures led to a situation of +some tension which was relieved when in 1893 Dr Gore resigned +his principalship and became vicar of Radley, a small parish +near Oxford. In 1894 he became canon of Westminster. Here +he gained commanding influence as a preacher and in 1898 was +appointed one of the court chaplains. In 1902 he succeeded +J. J. S. Perowne as bishop of Worcester and in 1905 was installed +bishop of Birmingham, a new see the creation of which had been +mainly due to his efforts. While adhering rigidly to his views +on the divine institution of episcopacy as essential to the +Christian Church, Dr Gore from the first cultivated friendly +relations with the ministers of other denominations, and advocated +co-operation with them in all matters when agreement +was possible. In social questions he became one of the leaders +of the considerable group of High Churchmen known, somewhat +loosely, as Christian Socialists. He worked actively against the +sweating system, pleaded for European intervention in Macedonia, +and was a keen supporter of the Licensing Bill of 1908. +In 1892 he founded the clerical fraternity known as the Community +of the Resurrection. Its members are priests, who are +bound by the obligation of celibacy, live under a common rule +and with a common purse. Their work is pastoral, evangelistic, +literary and educational. In 1898 the House of the Resurrection +at Mirfield, near Huddersfield, became the centre of the community; +in 1903 a college for training candidates for orders was +established there, and in the same year a branch house, for +missionary work, was set up in Johannesburg in South Africa.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Dr Gore’s works include <i>The Incarnation</i> (Bampton Lectures, +1891), <i>The Creed of the Christian</i> (1895), <i>The Body of Christ</i> (1901), +<i>The New Theology and the Old Religion</i> (1908), and expositions of +<i>The Sermon on the Mount</i> (1896), <i>Ephesians</i> (1898), and <i>Romans</i> +(1899), while in 1910 he published <i>Orders and Unity</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Cf. the Lutheran theologian Ernst Sartorius in his <i>Lehre von +der heiligen Liebe</i> (1844), <i>Lehre</i> ii. pp. 21 et seq.: “the Son of God +veils his all-seeing eye and descends into human darkness and as +child of man opens his eye as the gradually growing light of the +world of humanity, until at the right hand of the Father he allows +it to shine forth in all its glory.” See Loofs, Art. “Kenosis” in +Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 1901), x. 247.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORE.<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1) (O. Eng. <i>gor</i>, dung or filth), a word formerly +used in the sense of dirt, but now confined to blood that has +thickened after being shed. (2) (O. Eng. <i>gára</i>, probably connected +with <i>gare</i>, an old word for “spear”), something of +triangular shape, resembling therefore a spear-head. The word +is used for a tapering strip of land, in the “common or open +field” system of agriculture, where from the shape of the land +the acre or half-acre strips could not be portioned out in straight +divisions. Similarly “gore” is used in the United States, +especially in Maine and Vermont, for a strip of land left out +in surveying when divisions are made and boundaries marked. +The triangular sections of material used in forming the covering +of a balloon or an umbrella are also called “gores,” and in +dressmaking the term is used for a triangular piece of material +inserted in a dress to adjust the difference in widths. To gore, +<i>i.e.</i> to stab or pierce with any sharp instrument, but more +particularly used of piercing with the horns of a bull, is probably +directly connected with <i>gare</i>, a spear.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOREE,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> an island off the west coast of Africa, forming part +of the French colony of Senegal. It lies at the entrance of the +large natural harbour formed by the peninsula of Cape Verde. +The island, some 900 yds. long by 330 broad, and 3 m. distant +from the nearest point of the mainland, is mostly barren rock. +The greater part of its surface is occupied by a town, formerly +a thriving commercial entrepôt and a strong military post. +Until 1906 it was a free port. With the rise of Dakar (<i>q.v.</i>), +c. 1860, on the adjacent coast, Goree lost its trade and its +inhabitants, mostly Jolofs, had dwindled in 1905 to about 1500. +Its healthy climate, however, makes it useful as a sanatorium. +The streets are narrow, and the houses, mainly built of dark-red +stone, are flat-roofed. The castle of St Michael, the governor’s +residence, the hospital and barracks, testify to the former +importance of the town. Within the castle is an artesian well, +the only water-supply, save that collected in rain tanks, on the +island. Goree was first occupied by the Dutch, who took possession +of it early in the 17th century and called it Goeree or Goedereede, +in memory of the island on their own coast now united +with Overflakkee. Its native name is Bir, <i>i.e.</i> a belly, in allusion +to its shape. It was captured by the English under Commodore +(afterwards Admiral Sir Robert) Holmes in 1663, but retaken +in the following year by de Ruyter. The Dutch were finally +expelled in 1677 by the French under Admiral d’Estrées. +Goree subsequently fell again into the hands of the English, +but was definitely occupied by France in 1817 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Senegal</a></span>: +<i>History</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORGE,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> strictly the French word for the throat considered +externally. Hence it is applied in falconry to a hawk’s crop, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page256" id="page256"></a>256</span> +and thus, with the sense of something greedy or ravenous, to +food given to a hawk and to the contents of a hawk’s crop or +stomach. It is from this sense that the expression of a person’s +“gorge rising at” anything in the sense of loathing or disgust +is derived. “Gorge,” from analogy with “throat,” is used +with the meaning of a narrow opening as of a ravine or valley +between hills; in fortification, of the neck of an outwork or +bastion; and in architecture, of the narrow part of a Roman +Doric column, between the echinus and the astragal. From +“gorge” also comes a diminutive “gorget,” a portion of a +woman’s costume in the middle ages, being a close form of +wimple covering the neck and upper part of the breast, and also +that part of the body armour covering the neck and collarbone +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gorget</a></span>). The word “gorgeous,” of splendid or +magnificent appearance, comes from the O. Fr. <i>gorgias</i>, with +the same meaning, and has very doubtfully been connected +with gorge, a ruffle or neck-covering, of a supposed elaborate +kind.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÖRGEI, ARTHUR<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1818-  ), Hungarian soldier, was +born at Toporcz, in Upper Hungary, on the 30th of January +1818. He came of a Saxon noble family who were converts to +Protestantism. In 1837 he entered the Bodyguard of Hungarian +Nobles at Vienna, where he combined military service with a +course of study at the university. In 1845, on the death of his +father, he retired from the army and devoted himself to the +study of chemistry at Prague, after which he retired to the +family estates in Hungary. On the outbreak of the revolutionary +War of 1848, Görgei offered his sword to the Hungarian government. +Entering the Honvéd army with the rank of captain, he +was employed in the purchase of arms, and soon became major +and commandant of the national guards north of the Theiss. +Whilst he was engaged in preventing the Croatian army from +crossing the Danube, at the island of Csepel, below Pest, the +wealthy Hungarian magnate Count Eugene Zichy fell into his +hands, and Görgei caused him to be arraigned before a court-martial +on a charge of treason and immediately hanged. After +various successes over the Croatian forces, of which the most +remarkable was that at Ozora, where 10,000 prisoners fell into +his hands, Görgei was appointed commander of the army of the +Upper Danube, but, on the advance of Prince Windischgrätz +across the Leitha, he resolved to fall back, and in spite of the +remonstrances of Kossuth he held to his resolution and retreated +upon Waitzen. Here, irritated by what he considered undue +interference with his plans, he issued (January 5th, 1849) a proclamation +throwing the blame for the recent want of success +upon the government, thus virtually revolting against their +authority. Görgei retired to the Hungarian Erzgebirge and +conducted operations on his own initiative. Meanwhile the +supreme command had been conferred upon the Pole Dembinski, +but the latter fought without success the battle of Kapolna, +at which action Görgei’s corps arrived too late to take an effective +part, and some time after this the command was again conferred +upon Görgei. The campaign in the spring of 1849 was brilliantly +conducted by him, and in a series of engagements, he defeated +Windischgrätz. In April he won the victories of Gödöllö Izaszeg +and Nagy Sarló, relieved Komorn, and again won a battle at +Acs or Waitzen. Had he followed up his successes by taking +the offensive against the Austrian frontier, he might perhaps +have dictated terms in the Austrian capital itself. As it was, +he contented himself with reducing Ofen, the Hungarian capital, +in which he desired to re-establish the diet, and after effecting +this capture he remained inactive for some weeks. Meanwhile, +at a diet held at Debreczin, Kossuth had formally proposed the +dethronement of the Habsburg dynasty and Hungary had been +proclaimed a republic. Görgei had refused the field-marshal’s +bâton offered him by Kossuth and was by no means in sympathy +with the new régime. However, he accepted the portfolio of +minister of war, while retaining the command of the troops in +the field. The Russians had now intervened in the struggle and +made common cause with the Austrians; the allies were advancing +into Hungary on all sides, and Görgei was defeated by +Haynau at Pered (20th-21st of June). Kossuth, perceiving +the impossibility of continuing the struggle and being unwilling +himself to make terms, resigned his position as dictator, and was +succeeded by Görgei, who meanwhile had been fighting hard +against the various columns of the enemy. Görgei, convinced +that he could not break through the enemy’s lines, surrendered, +with his army of 20,000 infantry and 2000 cavalry, to the +Russian general Rüdiger at Vilagos. Görgei was not court-marshaled, +as were his generals, but kept in confinement at +Klagenfurt, where he lived, chiefly employed in chemical work, +until 1867, when he was pardoned and returned to Hungary. +The surrender, and particularly the fact that his life was spared +while his generals and many of his officers and men were hanged +or shot, led, perhaps naturally, to his being accused of treason +by public opinion of his countrymen. After his release he +played no further part in public life. Even in 1885 an attempt +which was made by a large number of his old comrades to rehabilitate +him was not favourably received in Hungary. After +some years’ work as a railway engineer he retired to Visegrád, +where he lived thenceforward in retreat. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>: +<i>History</i>.)</p> + +<p>General Görgei wrote a justification of his operations (<i>Mein +Leben und Wirken in Ungarn</i> 1848-1859, Leipzig, 1852), an +anonymous paper under the title <i>Was verdanken wir der Revolution?</i> +(1875), and a reply to Kossuth’s charges (signed “Joh. +Demár”) in <i>Budapesti Szemle</i>, 1881, 25-26. Amongst those +who wrote in his favour were Captain Stephan Görgei (<i>1848 és +1849 böl</i>, Budapest, 1885), and Colonel Aschermann (<i>Ein offenes +Wort in der Sache des Honvéd-Generals Arthur Görgei</i>, Klausenburg, +1867).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also A. G. Horn, <i>Görgei, Oberkommandant d. ung. Armee</i> +(Leipzig, 1850); Kinety, <i>Görgei’s Life and Work in Hungary</i> (London, +1853); Szinyei, in <i>Magyár Irók</i> (iii. 1378), Hentaller, <i>Görgei as a +Statesman</i> (Hungarian); Elemár, <i>Görgei in 1848-1849</i> (Hungarian, +Budapest, 1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1566-1647), English colonial +pioneer in America and the founder of Maine, was born in +Somersetshire, England, probably in 1566. From youth both +a soldier and a sailor, he was a prisoner in Spain at the age of +twenty-one, having been captured by a ship of the Spanish +Armada. In 1589 he was in command of a small body of troops +fighting for Henry IV. of France, and after distinguishing himself +at the siege of Rouen was knighted there in 1591. In 1596 +he was commissioned captain and keeper of the castle and fort +at Plymouth and captain of St Nicholas Isle; in 1597 he accompanied +Essex on the expedition to the Azores; in 1599 assisted +him in the attempt to suppress the Tyrone rebellion in Ireland, +and in 1600 was implicated in Essex’s own attempt at rebellion +in London. In 1603, on the accession of James I., he was +suspended from his post at Plymouth, but was restored in the +same year and continued to serve as “governor of the forts +and island of Plymouth” until 1629, when, his garrison having +been without pay for three and a half years, his fort a ruin, +and all his applications for aid having been ignored, he resigned. +About 1605 he began to be greatly interested in the New World; +in 1606 he became a member of the Plymouth Company, and he +laboured zealously for the founding of the Popham colony at +the mouth of the Sagadahoc (now the Kennebec) river in 1607. +For several years following the failure of that enterprise in 1608 +he continued to fit out ships for fishing, trading and exploring, +with colonization as the chief end in view. He was largely +instrumental in procuring the new charter of 1620 for the +Plymouth Company, and was at all times of its existence perhaps +the most influential member of that body. He was the recipient, +either solely or jointly, of several grants of territory from it, +for one of which he received in 1639 the royal charter of Maine +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Maine</a></span>). In 1635 he sought to be appointed governor-general +of all New England, but the English Civil War—in which he +espoused the royal cause—prevented him from ever actually +holding that office. A short time before his death at Long +Ashton in 1647 he wrote his <i>Briefe Narration of the Originall +Undertakings of the Advancement of Plantations into the Parts of +America</i>. He was an advocate, especially late in life, of the +feudal type of colony.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page257" id="page257"></a>257</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. P. Baxter (ed.), <i>Sir Ferdinando Gorges and his Province of +Maine</i> (3 vols., Boston, 1890; in the Prince Society Publications), +the first volume of which is a memoir of Gorges, and the other +volumes contain a reprint of the <i>Briefe Narration</i>, Gorges’s letters, +and other documentary material.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORGET<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>gorgete</i>, dim. of <i>gorge</i>, throat), the name +applied after about 1480 to the collar-piece of a suit of armour. +It was generally formed of small overlapping rings of plate, and +attached either to the body armour or to the armet. It was +worn in the 16th and 17th centuries with the half-armour, +with the plain cuirass, and even occasionally without any +body armour at all. During these times it gradually became a +distinctive badge for officers, and as such it survived in several +armies—in the form of a small metal plate affixed to the front +of the collar of the uniform coat—until after the Napoleonic wars. +In the German army to-day a gorget-plate of this sort is the +distinctive mark of military police, while the former officer’s +gorget is represented in British uniforms by the red patches or +tabs worn on the collar by staff officers and by the white patches +of the midshipmen in the Royal Navy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORGIAS<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 483-375 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Greek sophist and rhetorician, +was a native of Leontini in Sicily. In 427 he was sent by his +fellow-citizens at the head of an embassy to ask Athenian +protection against the aggression of the Syracusans. He subsequently +settled in Athens, and supported himself by the practice +of oratory and by teaching rhetoric. He died at Larissa in +Thessaly. His chief claim to recognition consists in the fact that +he transplanted rhetoric to Greece, and contributed to the +diffusion of the Attic dialect as the language of literary prose. +He was the author of a lost work <i>On Nature or the Non-existent</i> +(<span class="grk" title="Peri tou mę ontos ę peri physeôs">Περὶ τοῦ μὴ ὄντος ἦ περὶ φύσεως</span>, fragments edited by M. C. +Valeton, 1876), the substance of which may be gathered from +the writings of Sextus Empiricus, and also from the treatise +(ascribed to Theophrastus) <i>De Melisso, Xenophane, Gorgia</i>. +Gorgias is the central figure in the Platonic dialogue <i>Gorgias</i>. +The genuineness of two rhetorical exercises (<i>The Encomium +of Helen</i> and <i>The Defence of Palamedes</i>, edited with Antiphon by +F. Blass in the Teubner series, 1881), which have come down +under his name, is disputed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For his philosophical opinions see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sophists</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scepticism</a></span>. +See also Gomperz, <i>Greek Thinkers</i>, Eng. trans. vol. i. bk. iii. chap. +vii.; Jebb’s <i>Attic Orators</i>, introd. to vol. i. (1893); F. Blass, <i>Die +attische Beredsamkeit</i>, i. (1887); and article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rhetoric</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORGON, GORGONS<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Gorgô">Γοργώ</span>, <span class="grk" title="Gorgones">Γοργόνες</span>, the “terrible,” +or, according to some, the “loud-roaring”), a figure or figures +in Greek mythology. Homer speaks of only one Gorgon, whose +head is represented in the <i>Iliad</i> (v. 741) as fixed in the centre of +the aegis of Zeus. In the <i>Odyssey</i> (xi. 633) she is a monster of the +under-world. Hesiod increases the number of Gorgons to three—Stheno +(the mighty), Euryale (the far-springer) and Medusa +(the queen), and makes them the daughters of the sea-god +Phorcys and of Keto. Their home is on the farthest side of the +western ocean; according to later authorities, in Libya (Hesiod, +<i>Theog.</i> 274; Herodotus ii. 91; Pausanias ii. 21). The Attic +tradition, reproduced in Euripides (<i>Ion</i> 1002), regarded the +Gorgon as a monster, produced by Gaea to aid her sons the +giants against the gods and slain by Athena (the passage is a +<i>locus classicus</i> on the aegis of Athena).</p> + +<p>The Gorgons are represented as winged creatures, having +the form of young women; their hair consists of snakes; they +are round-faced, flat-nosed, with tongues lolling out and large +projecting teeth. Sometimes they have wings of gold, brazen +claws and the tusks of boars. Medusa was the only one of the +three who was mortal; hence Perseus was able to kill her by +cutting off her head. From the blood that spurted from her neck +sprang Chrysaor and Pegasus, her two sons by Poseidon. The +head, which had the power of turning into stone all who looked +upon it, was given to Athena, who placed it in her shield; +according to another account, Perseus buried it in the market-place +of Argos. The hideously grotesque original type of the +Gorgoneion, as the Gorgon’s head was called, was placed on the +walls of cities, and on shields and breastplates to terrify an enemy +(cf. the hideous faces on Chinese soldiers’ shields), and used +generally as an amulet, a protection against the evil eye. Heracles +is said to have obtained a lock of Medusa’s hair (which possessed +the same powers as the head) from Athena and given it to +Sterope, the daughter of Cepheus, as a protection for the town +of Tegea against attack (Apollodorus ii. 7. 3). According to +Roscher, it was supposed, when exposed to view, to bring on a +storm, which put the enemy to flight. Frazer (<i>Golden Bough</i>, i. +378) gives examples of the superstition that cut hair caused +storms. According to the later idea of Medusa as a beautiful +maiden, whose hair had been changed into snakes by Athena, +the head was represented in works of art with a wonderfully +handsome face, wrapped in the calm repose of death. The +Rondanini Medusa at Munich is a famous specimen of this +conception. Various accounts of the Gorgons were given by +later ancient writers. According to Diod. Sic. (iii. 54. 55) +they were female warriors living near Lake Tritonis in Libya, +whose queen was Medusa; according to Alexander of Myndus, +quoted in Athenaeus (v. p. 221), they were terrible wild animals +whose mere look turned men to stone. Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> vi. +36 [31]) describes them as savage women, whose persons were +covered with hair, which gave rise to the story of their snaky +hair and girdle. Modern authorities have explained them as the +personification of the waves of the sea or of the barren, unproductive +coast of Libya; or as the awful darkness of the +storm-cloud, which comes from the west and is scattered by the +sun-god Perseus. More recent is the explanation of anthropologists +that Medusa, whose virtue is really in her head, is +derived from the ritual mask common to primitive cults.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Jane E. Harrison, <i>Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion</i> +(1903); W. H. Roscher, <i>Die Gorgonen und Verwandtes</i> (1879); +J. Six, <i>De Gorgone</i> (1885), on the types of the Gorgon’s head; articles +by Roscher and Furtwängler in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>, +by G. Glotz in Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>, +and by R. Gädechens in Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine Encyclopädie</i>; +N. G. Polites (<span class="grk" title="Ho peri tôn Gorgonôn mythos para tô Hellęnikô laô">Ὁ περὶ τῶν Γοργόνων μῦθος παρὰ τῷ Ἑλληνικῷ λαῷ</span>, 1878) +gives an account of the Gorgons, and of the various superstitions +connected with them, from the modern Greek point of view, which +regards them as malevolent spirits of the sea.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORGONZOLA,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province +of Milan, from which it is 11 m. E.N.E. by steam tramway. +Pop. (1901) 5134. It is the centre of the district in which is +produced the well-known Gorgonzola cheese.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORI,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government +of Tiflis and 49 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Tiflis, on the river +Kura; altitude, 2010 ft. Pop. (1897) 10,457. The surrounding +country is very picturesque. Gori has a high school for girls, and +a school for Russian and Tatar teachers. At one time celebrated +for its silk and cotton stuffs, it is now famous for corn, reputed +the best in Georgia, and the wine is also esteemed. The climate +is excellent, delightfully cool in summer, owing to the refreshing +breezes from the mountains, though these are, however, at times +disagreeable in winter. Gori was founded (1123) by the Georgian +king David II., the Renovater, for the Armenians who fled their +country on the Persian invasion. The earliest remains of the +fortress are Byzantine; it was thoroughly restored in 1634-1658, +but destroyed by Nadir Shah of Persia in the 18th century. +There is a church constructed in the 17th century by Capuchin +missionaries from Rome. Five miles east of Gori is the remarkable +rock-cut town of Uplis-tsykhe, which was a fortress in the +time of Alexander the Great of Macedon, and an inhabited city +in the reign of the Georgian king Bagrat III. (980-1014).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORILLA<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Pongo</span>), the largest of the man-like apes, and +a native of West Africa from the Congo to Cameroon, whence +it extends eastwards across the continent to German East Africa. +Many naturalists regard the gorilla as best included in the same +genus as the chimpanzee, in which case it should be known as +<i>Anthropopithecus gorilla</i>, but by others it is regarded as the +representative of a genus by itself, when its title will be <i>Gorilla +savagei</i>, or <i>G. gorilla</i>. That there are local forms of gorilla is +quite certain: but whether any of these are entitled to rank as +distinct species may be a matter of opinion. It was long supposed +that the apes encountered on an island off the west coast of +Africa by Hanno, the Carthaginian, were gorillas, but in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id="page258"></a>258</span> +opinion of some of those best qualified to judge, it is probable +that the creatures in question were really baboons. The first +real account of the gorilla appears to be the one given by an +English sailor, Andrew Battel, who spent some time in the wilds +of West Africa during and about the year 1590; his account +being presented in Purchas’s <i>Pilgrimage</i>, published in the year +1613. From this it appears that Battel was familiar with both +the chimpanzee and the gorilla, the former of which he terms +engeco and the latter pongo—names which ought apparently +to be adopted for these two species in place of those now in use. +Between Battel’s time and 1846 nothing appears to have been +heard of the gorilla or pongo, but in that year a missionary at +the Gabun accidentally discovered a skull of the huge ape; +and in 1847 a sketch of that specimen, together with two others, +came into the hands of Sir R. Owen, by whom the name <i>Gorilla +savagei</i> was proposed for the new ape in 1848. Dr Thomas +Savage, a missionary at the Gabun, who sent Owen information +with regard to the original skull, had, however, himself proposed +the name <i>Troglodytes gorilla</i> in 1847. The first complete skeleton +of a gorilla sent to Europe was received at the museum of the +Royal College of Surgeons in 1851, and the first complete skin +appears to have reached the British Museum in 1858. Paul B. +du Chaillu’s account (1861) of his journeys in the Gabun +region popularized the knowledge of the existence of the gorilla. +Male gorillas largely exceed the females in size, and attain a +height of from 5˝ ft. to 6˝ ft., or perhaps even more. Some of +the features distinguishing the gorilla from the mere gorilla-like +chimpanzees will be found mentioned in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Primates</a></span>. +Among them are the small ears, elongated head, the presence of +a deep groove alongside the nostrils, the small size of the thumb, +and the great length of the arm, which reaches half-way down +the shin-bone (tibia) in the erect posture. In old males the eyes +are overhung by a beetling penthouse of bone, the hinder half +of the middle line of the skull bears a wall-like bony ridge for +the attachment of the powerful jaw-muscles, and the tusks, or +canines, are of monstrous size, recalling those of a carnivorous +animal. The general colour is blackish, with a more or less +marked grey or brownish tinge on the hair of the shoulders, and +sometimes of chestnut on the head. Mr G. L. Bates (in <i>Proc. +Zool. Soc.</i>, 1905, vol. i.) states that gorillas only leave the depths +of the forest to enter the outlying clearings in the neighbourhood +of human settlements when they are attracted by some special +fruit or succulent plant; the favourite being the fruit of the +“mejom,” a tall cane-like plant (perhaps a kind of <i>Amomum</i>) +which grows abundantly on deserted clearings. At one isolated +village the natives, who were unarmed, reported that they not +unfrequently saw and heard the gorillas, which broke down the +stalks of the plantains in the rear of the habitations to tear out +and eat the tender heart. On the old clearings of another village +Mr Bates himself, although he did not see a gorilla, saw the fresh +tracks of these great apes and the torn stems and discarded +fruit rinds of the “mejoms,” as well as the broken stalks of the +latter, which had been used for beds. On another occasion he +came across the bed of an old gorilla which had been used only +the night before, as was proved by a negro woman, who on the +previous evening had heard the animal breaking and treading +down the stalks to form its couch. According to native report, +the gorillas sleep on these beds, which are of sufficient thickness +to raise them a foot or two above the ground, in a sitting posture, +with the head inclined forwards on the breast. In the first case +Mr Bates states that the tracks and beds indicated the presence +of three or four gorillas, some of which were small. This account +does not by any means accord with one given by von Koppenfels, +in which it is stated that while the old male gorilla sleeps in a +sitting posture at the base of a tree-trunk (no mention being +made of a bed), the female and young ones pass the night in a +nest in the tree several yards above the ground, made by bending +the boughs together and covering them with twigs and moss. +Mr Bates’s account, as being based on actual inspection of the +beds, is probably the more trustworthy. Even when asleep and +snoring, gorillas are difficult to approach, since they awake at +the slightest rustle, and an attempt to surround the one heard +making his bed by the woman resulted in failure. Most gorillas +killed by natives are believed by Mr Bates to have been encountered +suddenly in the daytime on the ground or in low trees +in the outlying clearings. Many natives, even if armed, refuse, +however, to molest an adult male gorilla, on account of its +ferocity when wounded. Mr Bates, like Mr Winwood Reade, +refused to credit du Chaillu’s account of his having killed gorillas, +and stated that the only instance he knew of one of these animals +being slain by a European was an old male (now in Mr Walter +Rothschild’s museum at Tring) shot by the German trader +Paschen in the Yaunde district, of which an illustrated account +was published in 1901. Mr E. J. Corns states, however, that +two European traders, apparently in the “’eighties” of the 19th +century, were in the habit of surrounding and capturing these +animals as occasion offered.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Fully adult gorillas have never +been seen alive in captivity—and perhaps never will be, as the +creature is ferocious and morose to a degree. So long ago as the +year 1855, when the species was known to zoologists only by its +skeleton, a gorilla was actually living in England. This animal, +a young female, came from the Gabun, and was kept for some +months in Wombwell’s travelling menagerie, where it was treated +as a pet. On its death, the body was sent to Mr Charles Waterton, +of Walton Hall, by whom the skin was mounted in a grotesque +manner, and the skeleton given to the Leeds museum. Apparently, +however, it was not till several years later that the skin +was recognized by Mr A. D. Bartlett as that of a gorilla; the +animal having probably been regarded by its owner as a chimpanzee. +A young male was purchased by the Zoological Society +in October 1887, from Mr Cross, the Liverpool dealer in animals. +At the time of arrival it was supposed to be about three years old, +and stood 2˝ ft. high. A second, a male, supposed to be rather +older, was acquired in March 1896, having been brought to +Liverpool from the French Congo. It is described as having +been thoroughly healthy at the date of its arrival, and of an +amiable and tractable disposition. Neither survived long. Two +others were received in the Zoological Society’s menagerie in +1904, and another was housed there for a short time in the +following year, while a fifth was received in 1906. Falkenstein’s +gorilla, exhibited at the Westminster aquarium under the name +of pongo, and afterwards at the Berlin aquarium, survived for +eighteen months. “Pussi,” the gorilla of the Breslau Zoological +Gardens, holds a record for longevity, with over seven years +of menagerie life. Writing in 1903 Mr W. T. Hornaday stated +that but one live gorilla, and that a tiny infant, had ever +landed in the United States; and it lived only five days after +arrival.</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In 1905 the Rev. Geo. Grenfell reported that he had that summer +shot a gorilla in the Bwela country, east of the Mongala affluent of +the Congo.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORINCHEM<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Gorcum</span>, a fortified town of Holland in the +province of south Holland, on the right bank of the Merwede +at the confluence of the Linge, 16 m. by rail W. of Dordrecht. +It is connected by the Zederik and Merwede canals with Amsterdam, +and steamers ply hence in every direction. Pop. (1900) +11,987. Gorinchem possesses several interesting old houses, and +overlooking the river are some fortified gateways of the 17th +century. The principal buildings are the old church of St +Vincent, containing the monuments of the lords of Arkel; the +town hall, a prison, custom-house, barracks and a military +hospital. The charitable and benevolent institutions are +numerous, and there are also a library and several learned +associations. Gorinchem possesses a good harbour, and besides +working in gold and silver, carries on a considerable trade in +grain, hemp, cheese, potatoes, cattle and fish, the salmon fishery +being noted. Woerkum, or Woudrichem, a little below the town +on the left bank of the Merwede, is famous for its quaint old +buildings, which are decorated with mosaics.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORING, GEORGE GORING,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> <span class="sc">Lord</span> (1608-1657), English +Royalist soldier, son of George Goring, earl of Norwich, was born +on the 14th of July 1608. He soon became famous at court +for his prodigality and dissolute manners. His father-in-law, +Richard Boyle, earl of Cork, procured for him a post in the Dutch +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>259</span> +army with the rank of colonel. He was permanently lamed +by a wound received at Breda in 1637, and returned to England +early in 1639, when he was made governor of Portsmouth. He +served in the Scottish war, and already had a considerable +reputation when he was concerned in the “Army Plot.” Officers +of the army stationed at York proposed to petition the king and +parliament for the maintenance of the royal authority. A +second party was in favour of more violent measures, and +Goring, in the hope of being appointed lieutenant-general, +proposed to march the army on London and overawe the parliament +during Strafford’s trial. This proposition being rejected +by his fellow officers, he betrayed the proceedings to Mountjoy +Blount, earl of Newport, who passed on the information indirectly +to Pym in April. Colonel Goring was thereupon called +on to give evidence before the Commons, who commended him +for his services to the Commonwealth. This betrayal of his +comrades induced confidence in the minds of the parliamentary +leaders, who sent him back to his Portsmouth command. Nevertheless +he declared for the king in August. He surrendered +Portsmouth to the parliament in September 1642 and went to +Holland to recruit for the Royalist army, returning to England +in December. Appointed to a cavalry command by the earl of +Newcastle, he defeated Fairfax at Seacroft Moor near Leeds +in March 1643, but in May he was taken prisoner at Wakefield +on the capture of the town by Fairfax. In April 1644 he effected +an exchange. At Marston Moor he commanded the Royalist +left, and charged with great success, but, allowing his troopers +to disperse in search of plunder, was routed by Cromwell at the +close of the battle. In November 1644, on his father’s elevation +to the earldom of Norwich, he became Lord Goring. The +parliamentary authorities, however, refused to recognize the +creation of the earldom, and continued to speak of the father as +Lord Goring and the son as General Goring. In August he had +been dispatched by Prince Rupert, who recognized his ability, +to join Charles in the south, and in spite of his dissolute and +insubordinate character he was appointed to supersede Henry, +Lord Wilmot, as lieut.-general of the Royalist horse (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Great +Rebellion</a></span>). He secured some successes in the west, and in +January 1645 advanced through Hampshire and occupied +Farnham; but want of money compelled him to retreat to +Salisbury and thence to Exeter. The excesses committed by his +troops seriously injured the Royalist cause, and his exactions +made his name hated throughout the west. He had himself +prepared to besiege Taunton in March, yet when in the next +month he was desired by Prince Charles, who was at Bristol, +to send reinforcements to Sir Richard Grenville for the siege of +Taunton, he obeyed the order only with ill-humour. Later in +the month he was summoned with his troops to the relief of the +king at Oxford. Lord Goring had long been intriguing for an +independent command, and he now secured from the king what +was practically supreme authority in the west. It was alleged +by the earl of Newport that he was willing to transfer his +allegiance once more to the parliament. It is not likely that he +meditated open treason, but he was culpably negligent and +occupied with private ambitions and jealousies. He was still +engaged in desultory operations against Taunton when the +main campaign of 1645 opened. For the part taken by Goring’s +army in the operations of the Naseby campaign see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Great +Rebellion</a></span>. After the decisive defeat of the king, the army of +Fairfax marched into the west and defeated Goring in a disastrous +fight at Langport on the 10th of July. He made no further +serious resistance to the parliamentary general, but wasted his +time in frivolous amusements, and in November he obtained +leave to quit his disorganized forces and retire to France on the +ground of health. His father’s services secured him the command +of some English regiments in the Spanish service. He died at +Madrid in July or August 1657. Clarendon gives him a very +unpleasing character, declaring that “Goring ... would, +without hesitation, have broken any trust, or done any act of +treachery to have satisfied an ordinary passion or appetite; and +in truth wanted nothing but industry (for he had wit, and +courage, and understanding and ambition, uncontrolled by any +fear of God or man) to have been as eminent and successful in +the highest attempt of wickedness as any man in the age he +lived in or before. Of all his qualifications dissimulation was +his masterpiece; in which he so much excelled, that men were +not ordinarily ashamed, or out of countenance, with being +deceived but twice by him.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the life by C. H. Firth in the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>; +Dugdale’s <i>Baronage</i>, where there are some doubtful stories of his +life in Spain; the <i>Clarendon State Papers</i>; Clarendon’s <i>History of the +Great Rebellion</i>; and S. R. Gardiner’s <i>History of the Great Civil War</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORKI, MAXIM<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1868-  ), the pen-name of the Russian +novelist Alexei Maximovich Pyeshkov, who was born at Nizhni-Novgorod +on the 26th of March 1868. His father was a dyer, +but he lost both his parents in childhood, and in his ninth year +was sent to assist in a boot-shop. We find him afterwards in a +variety of callings, but devouring books of all sorts greedily, +whenever they fell into his hands. He ran away from the boot-shop +and went to help a land-surveyor. He was then a cook +on board a steamer and afterwards a gardener. In his fifteenth +year he tried to enter a school at Kazan, but was obliged to betake +himself again to his drudgery. He became a baker, than hawked +about <i>kvas</i>, and helped the barefooted tramps and labourers +at the docks. From these he drew some of his most striking +pictures, and learned to give sketches of humble life generally +with the fidelity of a Defoe. After a long course of drudgery +he had the good fortune to obtain the place of secretary to a +barrister at Nizhni-Novgorod. This was the turning-point of +his fortunes, as he found a sympathetic master who helped him. +He also became acquainted with the novelist Korolenko, who +assisted him in his literary efforts. His first story was <i>Makar +Chudra</i>, which was published in the journal <i>Kavkaz</i>. He contributed +to many periodicals and finally attracted attention by +his tale called <i>Chelkash</i>, which appeared in <i>Russkoe Bogatsvo</i> +(“Russian wealth”). This was followed by a series of tales +in which he drew with extraordinary vigour the life of the +<i>bosniaki</i>, or tramps. He has sometimes described other classes +of society, tradesmen and the educated classes, but not with +equal success. There are some vigorous pictures, however, +of the trading class in his <i>Foma Gordeyev</i>. But his favourite +type is the rebel, the man in revolt against society, and him he +describes from personal knowledge, and enlists our sympathies +with him. We get such a type completely in <i>Konovalov</i>. Gorki +is always preaching that we must have ideals—something better +than everyday life, and this view is brought out in his play +<i>At the Lowest Depths</i>, which had great success at Moscow, but +was coldly received at St Petersburg.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a good criticism of Gorki see <i>Ideas and Realities in Russian +Literature</i>, by Prince Kropotkin. Many of his works have been +translated into English.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÖRLITZ,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Silesia, on the left bank of the Neisse, 62 m. E. from Dresden +on the railway to Breslau, and at the junction of lines to Berlin, +Zittau and Halle. Pop. (1885) 55,702, (1905) 80,931. The +Neisse at this point is crossed by a railway bridge 1650 ft. long +and 120 ft. high, with 32 arches. Görlitz is one of the handsomest, +and, owing to the extensive forests of 70,000 acres, +which are the property of the municipality, one of the wealthiest +towns in Germany. It is surrounded by beautiful walks and +fine gardens, and although its old walls and towers have now +been demolished, many of its ancient buildings remain to form +a picturesque contrast with the signs of modern industry. From +the hill called Landskrone, about 1500 ft. high, an extensive +prospect is obtained of the surrounding country. The principal +buildings are the fine Gothic church of St Peter and St Paul, +dating from the 15th century, with two stately towers, a famous +organ and a very heavy bell; the Frauen Kirche, erected about +the end of the 15th century, and possessing a fine portal and +choir in pierced work; the Kloster Kirche, restored in 1868, +with handsome choir stalls and a carved altar dating from 1383; +and the Roman Catholic church, founded in 1853, in the Roman +style of architecture, with beautiful glass windows and oil-paintings. +The old town hall (Rathaus) contains a very valuable +library, having at its entrance a fine flight of steps. There is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a>260</span> +also a new town hall which was erected in 1904-1906. Other +buildings are: the old bastion, named Kaisertrutz, now used +as a guardhouse and armoury; the gymnasium buildings in +the Gothic style erected in 1851; the Ruhmeshalle with the +Kaiser Friedrich museum, the house of the estates of the province +(Ständehaus), two theatres and the barracks. Near the town +is the chapel of the Holy Cross, where there is a model of the +Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem made during the 15th century. +In the public park there is a bust of Schiller, a monument to +Alexander von Humboldt, and a statue of the mystic Jakob +Böhme (1575-1624); a monument has been erected in the town +in commemoration of the war of 1870-71, and also one to the +emperor William I. and a statue of Prince Frederick Charles. +In connexion with the natural history society there is a valuable +museum, and the scientific institute possesses a large library +and a rich collection of antiquities, coins and articles of <i>virtu</i>. +Görlitz, next to Breslau, is the largest and most flourishing +commercial town of Silesia, and is also regarded as classic ground +for the study of German Renaissance architecture. Besides +cloth, which forms its staple article of commerce, it has manufactories +of various linen and woollen wares, machines, railway +wagons, glass, sago, tobacco, leather, chemicals and tiles.</p> + +<p>Görlitz existed as a village from a very early period, and at +the beginning of the 12th century received civic rights. It was +then known as Drebenau, but on being rebuilt after its destruction +by fire in 1131 it received the name of Zgorzelice. About +the end of the 12th century it was strongly fortified, and for a +short time it was the capital of a duchy of Görlitz. It was +several times besieged and taken during the Thirty Years’ War, +and it also suffered considerably in the Seven Years’ War. In the +battle which took place near it between the Austrians and +Prussians on the 7th of September 1757, Hans Karl von Winterfeldt, +the general of Frederick the Great, was slain. In 1815 the +town, with the greater part of Upper Lusatia, came into the +possession of Prussia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Neumann, <i>Geschichte von Görlitz</i> (1850).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÖRRES, JOHANN JOSEPH VON<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1776-1848), German +writer, was born on the 25th of January 1776, at Coblenz. His +father was a man of moderate means, who sent his son to a Latin +college under the direction of the Roman Catholic clergy. The +sympathies of the young Görres were from the first strongly +with the French Revolution, and the dissoluteness and irreligion +of the French exiles in the Rhineland confirmed him in his hatred +of princes. He harangued the revolutionary clubs, and insisted +on the unity of interests which should ally all civilized states to +one another. He then commenced a republican journal called <i>Das +rote Blatt</i>, and afterwards <i>Rübezahl</i>, in which he strongly condemned +the administration of the Rhenish provinces by France.</p> + +<p>After the peace of Campo Formio (1797) there was some hope +that the Rhenish provinces would be constituted into an independent +republic. In 1799 the provinces sent an embassy, of +which Görres was a member, to Paris to put their case before the +directory. The embassy reached Paris on the 20th of November +1799; two days before this Napoleon had assumed the supreme +direction of affairs. After much delay the embassy was received +by him; but the only answer they obtained was “that they +might rely on perfect justice, and that the French government +would never lose sight of their wants.” Görres on his return +published a tract called <i>Resultate meiner Sendung nach Paris</i>, in +which he reviewed the history of the French Revolution. During +the thirteen years of Napoleon’s dominion Görres lived a retired +life, devoting himself chiefly to art or science. In 1801 he +married Catherine de Lasaulx, and was for some years teacher +at a secondary school in Coblenz; in 1806 he moved to Heidelberg, +where he lectured at the university. As a leading member +of the Heidelberg Romantic group, he edited together with +K. Brentano and L. von Arnim the famous <i>Zeitung für Einsiedler</i> +(subsequently re-named <i>Tröst-Einsamkeit</i>), and in 1807 he +published <i>Die teutschen Volksbücher</i>. He returned to Coblenz +in 1808, and again found occupation as a teacher in a secondary +school, supported by civic funds. He now studied Persian, and +in two years published a <i>Mythengeschichte der asiatischen Welt</i>, +which was followed ten years later by <i>Das Heldenbuch von Iran</i>, +a translation of part of the <i>Shahnama</i>, the epic of Firdousi. In +1813 he actively took up the cause of national independence, +and in the following year founded <i>Der rheinische Merkur</i>. The +intense earnestness of the paper, the bold outspokenness of its +hostility to Napoleon, and its fiery eloquence secured for it +almost instantly a position and influence unique in the history +of German newspapers. Napoleon himself called it <i>la cinquičme +puissance</i>. The ideal it insisted on was a united Germany, with +a representative government, but under an emperor after the +fashion of other days,—for Görres now abandoned his early +advocacy of republicanism. When Napoleon was at Elba, +Görres wrote an imaginary proclamation issued by him to the +people, the intense irony of which was so well veiled that many +Frenchmen mistook it for an original utterance of the emperor. +He inveighed bitterly against the second peace of Paris (1815), +declaring that Alsace and Lorraine should have been demanded +back from France.</p> + +<p>Stein was glad enough to use the <i>Merkur</i> at the time of the +meeting of the congress of Vienna as a vehicle for giving expression +to his hopes. But Hardenberg, in May 1815, warned Görres +to remember that he was not to arouse hostility against France, +but only against Bonaparte. There was also in the <i>Merkur</i> an +antipathy to Prussia, a continual expression of the desire that +an Austrian prince should assume the imperial title, and also a +tendency to pronounced liberalism—all of which made it most +distasteful to Hardenberg, and to his master King Frederick +William III. Görres disregarded warnings sent to him by the +censorship and continued the paper in all its fierceness. Accordingly +it was suppressed early in 1816, at the instance of the +Prussian government; and soon after Görres was dismissed from +his post as teacher at Coblenz. From this time his writings +were his sole means of support, and he became a most diligent +political pamphleteer. In the wild excitement which followed +Kotzebue’s assassination, the reactionary decrees of Carlsbad +were framed, and these were the subject of Görres’s celebrated +pamphlet <i>Teutschland und die Revolution</i> (1820). In this work +he reviewed the circumstances which had led to the murder of +Kotzebue, and, while expressing all possible horror at the deed +itself, he urged that it was impossible and undesirable to repress +the free utterance of public opinion by reactionary measures. +The success of the work was very marked, despite its ponderous +style. It was suppressed by the Prussian government, and +orders were issued for the arrest of Görres and the seizure of his +papers. He escaped to Strassburg, and thence went to Switzerland. +Two more political tracts, <i>Europa und die Revolution</i> +(1821) and <i>In Sachen der Rheinprovinzen und in eigener Angelegenheit</i> +(1822), also deserve mention.</p> + +<p>In Görres’s pamphlet <i>Die heilige Allianz und die Völker auf +dem Kongress zu Verona</i> he asserted that the princes had met +together to crush the liberties of the people, and that the people +must look elsewhere for help. The “elsewhere” was to Rome; +and from this time Görres became a vehement Ultramontane +writer. He was summoned to Munich by King Ludwig of Bavaria +as Professor of History in the university, and there his writing +enjoyed very great popularity. His <i>Christliche Mystik</i> (1836-1842) +gave a series of biographies of the saints, together with an +exposition of Roman Catholic mysticism. But his most celebrated +ultramontane work was a polemical one. Its occasion +was the deposition and imprisonment by the Prussian government +of the archbishop Clement Wenceslaus, in consequence of +the refusal of that prelate to sanction in certain instances the +marriages of Protestants and Roman Catholics. Görres in his +<i>Athanasius</i> (1837) fiercely upheld the power of the church, +although the liberals of later date who have claimed Görres as +one of their own school deny that he ever insisted on the absolute +supremacy of Rome. <i>Athanasius</i> went through several editions, +and originated a long and bitter controversy. In the <i>Historisch-politische +Blätter</i>, a Munich journal, Görres and his son Guido +(1805-1852) continually upheld the claims of the church. +Görres received from the king the order of merit for his services. +He died on the 29th of January 1848.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>261</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Görres’s <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i> (only his political writings) appeared +in six volumes (1854-1860), to which three volumes of <i>Gesammelte +Briefe</i> were subsequently added (1858-1874). Cp. J. Galland, +<i>Joseph von Görres</i> (1876, 2nd ed. 1877); J. N. Sepp, <i>Görres und seine +Zeitgenossen</i> (1877), and by the same author, <i>Görres</i>, in the series +<i>Geisteshelden</i> (1896). A <i>Görres-Gesellschaft</i> was founded in 1876.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORSAS, ANTOINE JOSEPH<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (1752-1793), French publicist +and politician, was born at Limoges (Haute-Vienne) on the 24th +of March 1752, the son of a shoemaker. He established himself +as a private tutor in Paris, and presently set up a school for the +army at Versailles, which was attended by commoners as well +as nobles. In 1781 he was imprisoned for a short time in the +Bicętre on an accusation of corrupting the morals of his pupils, +his real offence being the writing of satirical verse. These +circumstances explain the violence of his anti-monarchical +sentiment. At the opening of the states-general he began to +publish the <i>Courrier de Versailles ŕ Paris et de Paris ŕ Versailles</i>, +in which appeared on the 4th of October 1789 the account of the +banquet of the royal bodyguard. Gorsas is said to have himself +read it in public at the Palais Royal, and to have headed one of +the columns that marched on Versailles. He then changed the +name of his paper to the <i>Courrier des quatre-vingt-trois départements</i>, +continuing his incendiary propaganda, which had no +small share in provoking the popular insurrections of June and +August 1792. During the September massacres he wrote in +his paper that the prisons were the centre of an anti-national +conspiracy and that the people exercised a just vengeance on +the guilty. On the 10th of September 1792 he was elected to +the Convention for the department of Seine-et-Oise, and on the +10th of January 1793 was elected one of its secretaries. He sat +at first with the Mountain, but having been long associated +with Roland and Brissot, his agreement with the Girondists +became gradually more pronounced; during the trial of Louis XVI. +he dissociated himself more and more from the principles of the +Mountain, and he voted for the king’s detention during the war +and subsequent banishment. A violent attack on Marat in +the <i>Courrier</i> led to an armed raid on his printing establishment +on the 9th of March 1793. The place was sacked, but Gorsas +escaped the popular fury by flight. The facts being reported to +the Convention, little sympathy was shown to Gorsas, and a +resolution (which was evaded) was passed forbidding representatives +to occupy themselves with journalism. On the 2nd +of June he was ordered by the Convention to hold himself under +arrest with other members of his party. He escaped to Normandy +to join Buzot, and after the defeat of the Girondists at +Pacy-sur-Eure he found shelter in Brittany. He was imprudent +enough to return to Paris in the autumn, where he was arrested +on the 6th of October and guillotined the next day.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Moniteur</i>, No. 268 (1792), Nos. 20, 70 new series 18 (1793); +M. Tourneux, <i>Bibl. de l’hist. de Paris</i>, 10,291 seq. (1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORST, SIR JOHN ELDON<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1835-  ). English statesman, +was born at Preston in 1835, the son of Edward Chaddock +Gorst, who took the name of Lowndes on succeeding to the +family estate in 1853. He graduated third wrangler from St +John’s College, Cambridge, in 1857, and was admitted to a +fellowship. After beginning to read for the bar in London, his +father’s illness and death led to his sailing to New Zealand, where +he married in 1860 Mary Elizabeth Moore. The Maoris had at +that time set up a king of their own in the Waikato district and +Gorst, who had made friends with the chief Tamihana (William +Thomson), acted as an intermediary between the Maoris and +the government. Sir George Grey made him inspector of +schools, then resident magistrate, and eventually civil commissioner +in Upper Waikato. Tamihana’s influence secured his +safety in the Maori outbreak of 1863. In 1908 he published a +volume of recollections, under the title of <i>New Zealand Revisited: +Recollections of the Days of my Youth</i>. He then returned to +England and was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1865, +becoming Q.C. in 1875. He stood unsuccessfully for Hastings +in the Conservative interest in 1865, and next year entered +parliament as member for the borough of Cambridge, but failed +to secure re-election at the dissolution of 1868. After the +Conservative defeat of that year he was entrusted by Disraeli +with the reorganization of the party machinery, and in five years +of hard work he paved the way for the Conservative success at +the general election of 1874. At a bye-election in 1875 he re-entered +parliament as member for Chatham, which he continued +to represent until 1892. He joined Sir Henry Drummond-Wolff, +Lord Randolph Churchill and Mr Arthur Balfour in the +“Fourth Party,” and he became solicitor-general in the administration +of 1885-1886 and was knighted. On the formation +of the second Salisbury administration (1886) he became under-secretary +for India and in 1891 financial secretary to the +Treasury. At the general election of 1892 he became member +for Cambridge University. He was deputy chairman of committees +in the House of Commons from 1888 to 1891, and on the +formation of the third Salisbury administration in 1895 he +became vice-president of the committee of the council on education +(until 1902). Sir John Gorst adhered to the principles of +Tory democracy which he had advocated in the days of the +fourth party, and continued to exhibit an active interest in the +housing of the poor, the education and care of their children, +and in social questions generally, both in parliament and in the +press. But he was always exceedingly “independent” in his +political action. He objected to Mr Chamberlain’s proposals +for tariff reform, and lost his seat at Cambridge at the general +election of 1906 to a tariff reformer. He then withdrew from +the vice-chancellorship of the Primrose League, of which he +had been one of the founders, on the ground that it no longer +represented the policy of Lord Beaconsfield. In 1910 he contested +Preston as a Liberal, but failed to secure election.</p> + +<p>His elder son, <span class="sc">Sir J. Eldon Gorst</span> (b. 1861), was financial +adviser to the Egyptian government from 1898 to 1904, when +he became assistant under-secretary of state for foreign affairs. +In 1907 he succeeded Lord Cromer as British agent and consul-general +in Egypt.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An account of Sir John Gorst’s connexion with Lord Randolph +Churchill will be found in the <i>Fourth Party</i> (1906), by his younger +son, Harold E. Gorst.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORTON, SAMUEL<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1600-1677), English sectary and +founder of the American sect of Gortonites, was born about +1600 at Gorton, Lancashire. He was first apprenticed to a +clothier in London, but, fearing persecution for his religious +convictions, he sailed for Boston, Massachusetts, in 1636. Constantly +involved in religious disputes, he fled in turn to Plymouth, +and (in 1637-1638) to Aquidneck (Newport), where he +was publicly whipped for insulting the clergy and magistrates. +In 1643 he bought land from the Narraganset Indians at +Shawomet—now Warwick—where he was joined by a number +of his followers; but he quarrelled with the Indians and the +authorities at Boston sent soldiers to arrest Gorton and six of his +companions. He served a term of imprisonment for heresy at +Charlestown, after which he was ejected from the colony. +In England in 1646 he published the curious tract “Simplicities +Defence against Seven Headed Policy” (reprinted in +1835), giving an account of his grievances against the Massachusetts +government. In 1648 he returned to New England +with a letter of protection from the earl of Warwick, and joining +his former companions at Shawomet, which he named Warwick, +in honour of the earl, he remained there till his death at the end +of 1677. He is chiefly remembered as the founder of a small +sect called the Gortonites, which survived till the end of the +18th century. They had a great contempt for the regular clergy +and for all outward forms of religion, holding that the true +believers partook of the perfection of God.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among his quaint writings are: <i>An Incorruptible Key composed +of the CX. Psalms wherewith you may open the rest of the Scriptures</i> +(1647), and <i>Saltmarsh returned from the Dead</i>, with its sequel, <i>An +Antidote against the Common Plague of the World</i> (1657). See L. G. +Jones, <i>Samuel Gorton: a forgotten Founder of our Liberties</i> (Providence, +1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GORTON,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> an urban district in the Gorton parliamentary +division of Lancashire, England, forming an eastern suburb +of Manchester. Pop. (1901) 26,564. It is largely a manufacturing +district, having cotton mills and iron, engineering and +chemical works.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>262</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">GORTYNA,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gortyn</span>, an important ancient city on the +southern side of the island of Crete. It stood on the banks +of the small river Lethaeus (Mitropolipotamo), about three hours +distant from the sea, with which it communicated by means of +its two harbours, Metallum and Lebena. It had temples of +Apollo Pythius, Artemis and Zeus. Near the town was the +famous fountain of Sauros, inclosed by fruit-bearing poplars; +and not far from this was another spring, overhung by an evergreen +plane tree which in popular belief marked the scene of +the amours of Zeus and Europa. Gortyna was, next to Cnossus, +the largest and most powerful city of Crete. The two cities +combined to subdue the rest of the island; but when they had +gained their object they quarrelled with each other, and the +history of both towns is from this time little more than a record +of their feuds. Neither plays a conspicuous part in the history +of Greece. Under the Romans Gortyna became the metropolis +of the island. Extensive ruins may still be seen at the modern +village of Hagii Deka, and here was discovered the great inscription +containing chapters of its ancient laws. Though partly +ruinous, the church of St Titus is a very interesting monument +of early Christian architecture, dating from about the 4th century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>, and for a full account of the laws see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek +Law</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÖRTZ, GEORG HEINRICH VON,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron von Schlitz</span> +(1668-1719), Holstein statesman, was educated at Jena. He +entered the Holstein-Gottorp service, and after the death of +the duchess Hedwig Sophia, Charles XII.’s sister, became very +influential during the minority of her son Duke Charles Frederick. +His earlier policy aimed at strengthening Holstein-Gottorp +at the expense of Denmark. With this object, during Charles +XII.’s stay at Altranstädt (1706-1707), he tried to divert the +king’s attention to the Holstein question, and six years later, +when the Swedish commander, Magnus Stenbock, crossed the +Elbe, Görtz rendered him as much assistance as was compatible +with not openly breaking with Denmark, even going so far +as to surrender the fortress of Tönning to the Swedes. Görtz +next attempted to undermine the grand alliance against Sweden +by negotiating with Russia, Prussia and Saxony for the purpose +of isolating Denmark, or even of turning the arms of the allies +against her, a task by no means impossible in view of the strained +relations between Denmark and the tsar. The plan foundered, +however, on the refusal of Charles XII. to save the rest of his +German domains by ceding Stettin to Prussia. Another simultaneous +plan of procuring the Swedish crown for Duke Charles +Frederick also came to nought. Görtz first suggested the +marriage between the duke of Holstein and the tsarevna Anne +of Russia, and negotiations were begun in St Petersburg with +that object. On the arrival of Charles XII. from Turkey at +Stralsund, Görtz was the first to visit him, and emerged from +his presence chief minister or “grand-vizier” as the Swedes +preferred to call the bold and crafty satrap, whose absolute +devotion to the Swedish king took no account of the intense +wretchedness of the Swedish nation. Görtz, himself a man of +uncommon audacity, seems to have been fascinated by the +heroic element in Charles’s nature and was determined, if +possible, to save him from his difficulties. He owed his extraordinary +influence to the fact that he was the only one of Charles’s +advisers who believed, or pretended to believe, that Sweden +was still far from exhaustion, or at any rate had a sufficient +reserve of power to give support to an energetic diplomacy—Charles’s +own opinion, in fact. Görtz’s position, however, +was highly peculiar. Ostensibly, he was only the Holstein +minister at Charles’s court, in reality he was everything in Sweden +except a Swedish subject—finance minister, plenipotentiary +to foreign powers, factotum, and responsible to the king alone, +though he had not a line of instructions. But he was just the +man for a hero in extremities, and his whole course of procedure +was, of necessity, revolutionary. His chief financial expedient +was to debase, or rather ruin, the currency by issuing copper +tokens redeemable in better times; but it was no fault of his +that Charles XII., during his absence, flung upon the market +too enormous an amount of this copper money for Görtz to deal +with. By the end of 1718 it seemed as if Görtz’s system could +not go on much longer, and the hatred of the Swedes towards +him was so intense and universal that they blamed him for +Charles XII.’s tyranny as well as for his own. Görtz hoped, +however, to conclude peace with at least some of Sweden’s +numerous enemies before the crash came and then, by means +of fresh combinations, to restore Sweden to her rank as a great +power. It must be admitted that, in pursuance of his “system,” +Görtz displayed a genius for diplomacy which would have done +honour to a Metternich or a Talleyrand. He desired peace with +Russia first of all, and at the congress of Ĺland even obtained +relatively favourable terms, only to have them rejected by his +obstinately optimistic master. Simultaneously, Görtz was negotiating +with Cardinal Alberoni and with the whigs in England; but +all his ingenious combinations collapsed like a house of cards on +the sudden death of Charles XII. The whole fury of the Swedish +nation instantly fell upon Görtz. After a trial before a special +commission which was a parody of justice—the accused was +not permitted to have any legal assistance or the use of writing +materials—he was condemned to decapitation and promptly +executed. Perhaps Görtz deserved his fate for “unnecessarily +making himself the tool of an unheard-of despotism,” but his +death was certainly a judicial murder, and some historians even +regard him as a political martyr.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. N. Bain, <i>Charles XII.</i> (London, 1895), and <i>Scandinavia</i>, +chap. 12 (Cambridge, 1905); B. von Beskow, <i>Freherre Georg +Heinrich von Görtz</i> (Stockholm, 1868).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÖRZ<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (Ital. <i>Gorizia</i>; Slovene, <i>Gorica</i>), the capital of the +Austrian crownland of Görz and Gradisca, about 390 m. S.W. +of Vienna by rail. Pop (1900) 25,432, two-thirds Italians, +the remainder mostly Slovenes and Germans. It is picturesquely +situated on the left bank of the Isonzo in a fertile valley, 35 m. +N.N.W. of Trieste by rail. It is the seat of an archbishop and +possesses an interesting cathedral, built in the 14th century +and the richly decorated church of St Ignatius, built in the +17th century by the Jesuits. On an eminence, which dominates +the town, is situated the old castle, formerly the seat of the +counts of Görz, now partly used as barracks. Owing to the +mildness of its climate Görz has become a favourite winter-resort, +and has received the name of the Nice of Austria. Its +mean annual temperature is 55° F.; while the mean winter +temperature is 38.7° F. It is adorned with several pretty gardens +with a luxuriant southern vegetation. On a height to the N. +of the town is situated the Franciscan convent of Castagnavizza, +in whose chapel lie the remains of Charles X. of France (d. 1836), +the last Bourbon king, of the duke of Angoulęme (d. 1844), +his son, and of the duke of Chambord (d. 1883). Seven miles +to the north of Görz is the Monte Santo (2275 ft.), a much-frequented +place on which stands a pilgrimage church. The +industries include cotton and silk weaving, sugar refining, +brewing, the manufacture of leather and the making of rosoglio. +There is also a considerable trade in wooden work, vegetables, +early fruit and wine. Görz is mentioned for the first time at +the beginning of the 11th century, and received its charter as +a town in 1307. During the middle ages the greater part of +its population was German.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÖRZ AND GRADISCA,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> a county and crownland of Austria, +bounded E. by Carniola, S. by Istria, the Triestine territory +and the Adriatic, W. by Italy and N. by Carinthia. It has +an area of 1140 sq. m. The coast line, though extending for +25 m., does not present any harbour of importance. It is fringed +by alluvial deposits and lagoons, which are for the most part +of very modern formation, for as late as the 4th or 5th centuries +Aquileia was a great seaport. The harbour of Grado is the only +one accessible to the larger kind of coasting craft. On all sides, +except towards the south-west where it unites with the Friulian +lowland, it is surrounded by mountains, and about four-sixths +of its area is occupied by mountains and hills. From the Julian +Alps, which traverse the province in the north, the country +descends in successive terraces towards the sea, and may roughly +be divided into the upper highlands, the lower highlands, the +hilly district and the lowlands. The principal peaks in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>263</span> +Julian Alps are the Monte Canin (8469 ft.), the Manhart (8784 ft.), +the Jalouc (8708 ft.), the Krn (7367 ft.), the Matajur (5386 ft.), +and the highest peak in the whole range, the Triglav or +Terglou (9394 ft.). The Julian Alps are crossed by the Predil +Pass (3811 ft.), through which passes the principal road from +Carinthia to the Coastland. The southern part of the province +belongs to the Karst region, and here are situated the famous +cascades and grottoes of Sankt Kanzian, where the river Reka +begins its subterranean course. The principal river of the +province is the Isonzo, which rises in the Triglav, and pursues +a strange zigzag course for a distance of 78 m. before it reaches +the Adriatic. At Görz the Isonzo is still 138 ft. above the sea, +and it is navigable only in its lowest section, where it takes the +name of the Sdobba. Its principal affluents are the Idria, +the Wippach and the Torre with its tributary the Judrio, +which forms for a short distance the boundary between Austria +and Italy. Of special interest not only in itself but for the +frequent allusions to it in classical literature is the Timavus +or Timavo, which appears near Duino, and after a very short +course flows into the Gulf of Trieste. In ancient times it appears, +according to the well-known description of Virgil (<i>Aen.</i> i. 244) +to have rushed from the mountain by nine separate mouths +and with much noise and commotion, but at present it usually +issues from only three mouths and flows quiet and still. It +is strange enough, however, to see the river coming out full +formed from the rock, and capable at its very source of bearing +vessels on its bosom. According to a probable hypothesis it +is a continuation of the above-mentioned river Reka, which is +lost near Sankt Kanzian.</p> + +<p>Agriculture, and specially viticulture, is the principal occupation +of the population, and the vine is here planted not only +in regular vineyards, but is introduced in long lines through +the ordinary fields and carried up the hills in terraces locally +called <i>ronchi</i>. The rearing of the silk-worm, especially in the +lowlands, constitutes another great source of revenue, and +furnishes the material for the only extensive industry of the +country. The manufacture of silk is carried on at Görz, and in +and around the village of Haidenschaft. Görz and Gradisca +had in 1900 a population of 232,338, which is equivalent to +203 inhabitants per square mile. According to nationality about +two-thirds were Slovenes, and the remainder Italians, with only +about 2200 Germans. Almost the whole of the population +(99.6%) belongs to the Roman Catholic Church. The local +diet, of which the archbishop of Görz is a member <i>ex-officio</i>, +is composed of 22 members, and the crownland sends 5 deputies +to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes the +province is divided into 4 districts and an autonomous municipality, +Görz (pop. 25,432), the capital. Other principal places +are Cormons (5824), Monfalcone (5536), Kirchheim (5699), +Gradisca (3843) and Aquileia (2319).</p> + +<p>Görz first appears distinctly in history about the close of the +10th century, as part of a district bestowed by the emperor +Otto III. on John, patriarch of Aquileia. In the 11th century +it became the seat of the Eppenstein family, who frequently +bore the title of counts of Gorizia; and in the beginning of the +12th century the countship passed from them to the Lurngau +family which continued to exist till the year 1500, and acquired +possessions in Tirol, Carinthia, Friuli and Styria. On the +death of Count Leonhard (12th April 1500) the fief reverted to +the house of Habsburg. The countship of Gradisca was united +with it in 1754. The province was occupied by the French in +1809, but reverted again to Austria in 1815. It formed a district +of the administrative province of Trieste until 1861, when it +became a separate crownland under its actual name.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOSCHEN, GEORGE JOACHIM GOSCHEN,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> 1st <span class="sc">Viscount</span> +(1831-1907), British statesman, son of William Henry Göschen, +a London merchant of German extraction, was born in London +on the 10th of August 1831. He was educated at Rugby under +Dr Tait, and at Oriel College, Oxford, where he took a first-class +in classics. He entered his father’s firm of Frühling & +Göschen, of Austin Friars, in 1853, and three years later became +a director of the Bank of England. His entry into public life +took place in 1863, when he was returned without opposition +as member for the city of London in the Liberal interest, +and this was followed by his re-election, at the head of the poll, +in the general election of 1865. In November of the same year +he was appointed vice-president of the Board of Trade and +paymaster-general, and in January 1866 he was made chancellor +of the duchy of Lancaster, with a seat in the cabinet. When +Mr Gladstone became prime minister in December 1868, Mr +Goschen joined the cabinet as president of the Poor Law Board, +and continued to hold that office until March 1871, when he +succeeded Mr Childers as first lord of the admiralty. In 1874 +he was elected lord rector of the university of Aberdeen. Being +sent to Cairo in 1876 as delegate for the British holders of +Egyptian bonds, in order to arrange for the conversion of +the debt, he succeeded in effecting an agreement with the +Khedive.</p> + +<p>In 1878 his views upon the county franchise question prevented +him from voting uniformly with his party, and he informed +his constituents in the city that he would not stand +again at the forthcoming general election. In 1880 he was +elected for Ripon, and continued to represent that constituency +until the general election of 1885, when he was returned for the +Eastern Division of Edinburgh. Being opposed to the extension +of the franchise, he was unable to join Mr Gladstone’s government +in 1880; declining the post of viceroy of India, he accepted +that of special ambassador to the Porte, and was successful in +settling the Montenegrin and Greek frontier questions in 1880 +and 1881. He was made an ecclesiastical commissioner in 1882, +and when Sir Henry Brand was raised to the peerage in 1884, +the speakership of the House of Commons was offered to him, +but declined. During the parliament of 1880-1885 he frequently +found himself unable to concur with his party, especially as +regards the extension of the franchise and questions of foreign +policy; and when Mr Gladstone adopted the policy of Home +Rule for Ireland, Mr Goschen followed Lord Hartington (afterwards +duke of Devonshire) and became one of the most active of +the Liberal Unionists. His vigorous and eloquent opposition to +Mr Gladstone’s Home Rule Bill of 1886 brought him into greater +public prominence than ever, but he failed to retain his seat for +Edinburgh at the election in July of that year. On the resignation +of Lord Randolph Churchill in December 1886, Mr Goschen, +though a Liberal Unionist, accepted Lord Salisbury’s invitation +to join his ministry, and became chancellor of the exchequer. +Being defeated at Liverpool, 26th of January 1887, by seven +votes, he was elected for St George’s, Hanover Square, on the +9th of February. His chancellorship of the exchequer during +the ministry of 1886 to 1892 was rendered memorable by his +successful conversion of the National Debt in 1888 (see National +Debt). With that financial operation, under which the new +2ž% Consols became known as “Goschens,” his name will +long be connected. Aberdeen University again conferred upon +him the honour of the lord rectorship in 1888, and he received +a similar honour from the University of Edinburgh in 1890. +In the Unionist opposition of 1893 to 1895 Mr Goschen again +took a vigorous part, his speeches both in and out of the House +of Commons being remarkable for their eloquence and debating +power. From 1895 to 1900 Mr Goschen was first lord of the +admiralty, and in that office he earned the highest reputation +for his business-like grasp of detail and his statesmanlike outlook +on the naval policy of the country. He retired in 1900, and was +raised to the peerage by the title of Viscount Goschen of Hawkhurst, +Kent. Though retired from active politics he continued +to take a great interest in public affairs; and when Mr Chamberlain +started his tariff reform movement in 1903, Lord Goschen +was one of the weightiest champions of free trade on the Unionist +side. He died on the 7th of February 1907, being succeeded in +the title by his son George Joachim (b. 1866), who was Conservative +M.P. for East Grinstead from 1895 to 1900, and +married a daughter of the 1st earl of Cranbrook.</p> + +<p>In educational subjects Goschen had always taken the greatest +interest, his best known, but by no means his only, contribution +to popular culture being his participation in the University +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>264</span> +Extension Movement; and his first efforts in parliament were +devoted to advocating the abolition of religious tests and the +admission of Dissenters to the universities. His published +works indicate how ably he combined the wise study of economics +with a practical instinct for business-like progress, without +neglecting the more ideal aspects of human life. In addition to +his well-known work on <i>The Theory of the Foreign Exchanges</i>, +he published several financial and political pamphlets and +addresses on educational and social subjects, among them being +that on <i>Cultivation of the Imagination</i>, Liverpool, 1877, and that +on <i>Intellectual Interest</i>, Aberdeen, 1888. He also wrote <i>The Life +and Times of Georg Joachim Goschen, publisher and printer of +Leipzig</i> (1903).</p> +<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOS-HAWK,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> <i>i.e.</i> goose-hawk, the <i>Astur palumbarius</i> of +ornithologists, and the largest of the short-winged hawks used +in falconry. Its English name, however, has possibly been +transferred to this species from one of the long-winged hawks +or true falcons, since there is no tradition of the gos-hawk, now +so called, having ever been used in Europe to take geese or other +large and powerful birds. The genus <i>Astur</i> may be readily +distinguished from <i>Falco</i> by the smooth edges of its beak, +its short wings (not reaching beyond about the middle of the tail), +and its long legs and toes—though these last are stout and comparatively +shorter than in the sparrow-hawks (<i>Accipiter</i>). In +plumage the gos-hawk has a general resemblance to the peregrine +falcon, and it undergoes a corresponding change as it +advances from youth to maturity—the young being longitudinally +streaked beneath, while the adults are transversely barred. +The irides, however, are always yellow, or in old birds orange, +while those of the falcons are dark brown. The sexes differ +greatly in size. There can be little doubt that the gos-hawk, +nowadays very rare in Britain, was once common in England, +and even towards the end of the 18th century Thornton obtained +a nestling in Scotland, while Irish gos-hawks were of old highly +celebrated. Being strictly a woodland-bird, its disappearance +may be safely connected with the disappearance of the ancient +forests in Great Britain, though its destructiveness to poultry +and pigeons has doubtless contributed to its present scarcity. +In many parts of the continent of Europe it still abounds. It +ranges eastward to China and is much valued in India. In +North America it is represented by a very nearly allied species, +<i>A. atricapillus</i>, chiefly distinguished by the closer barring of +the breast. Three or four examples corresponding with this +form have been obtained in Britain. A good many other species +of <i>Astur</i> (some of them passing into <i>Accipiter</i>) are found in +various parts of the world, but the only one that need here be +mentioned is the <i>A. novae-hollandiae</i> of Australia, which is +remarkable for its dimorphism—one form possessing the normal +dark-coloured plumage of the genus and the other being perfectly +white, with crimson irides. Some writers hold these two forms +to be distinct species and call the dark-coloured one <i>A. cinereus</i> +or <i>A. raii</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOSHEN,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> a division of Egypt settled by the Israelites between +Jacob’s immigration and the Exodus. Its exact delimitation +is a difficult problem. The name may possibly be of Semitic, +or at least non-Egyptian origin, as in Palestine we meet with a +district (Josh. x. 41) and a city (<i>ib.</i> xv. 51) of the same name. +The Septuagint reads <span class="grk" title="Gesem Arabias">Γέσεμ Ἀραβίας</span> in Gen. xlv. 10, and +xlvi. 34, elsewhere simply <span class="grk" title="Gesem">Γέσεμ</span>. In xlvi. 28 “Goshen ... the +land of Goshen” are translated respectively “Heroopolis ... +the land of Rameses.” This represents a late Jewish +identification. Ptolemy defines “Arabia” as an Egyptian nome +on the eastern border of the delta, with capital Phacussa, +corresponding to the Egyptian nome Sopt and town Kesem. +It is doubtful whether Phacussa be situated at the mounds of +Fākūs, or at another place, Saft-el-Henneh, which suits Strabo’s +description of its locality rather better. The extent of Goshen, +according to the apocryphal book of Judith (i. 9, 10), included +Tanis and Memphis; this is probably an overstatement. It +is indeed impossible to say more than that it was a place of +good pasture, on the frontier of Palestine, and fruitful in edible +vegetables and in fish (Numbers xi. 5).</p> +<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOSHEN,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Elkhart county, +Indiana, U.S.A., on the Elkhart river, about 95 m. E. by S. +of Chicago, at an altitude of about 800 ft. Pop. (1890) +6033; (1900) 7810 (462 foreign-born); (1910) 8514. Goshen is +served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and +the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railways, and is connected +by electric railway with Warsaw and South Bend. The city +has a Carnegie library, and is the seat of Goshen College (under +Mennonite control), chartered as Elkhart Institute, at Elkhart, +Ind., in 1895, and removed to Goshen and opened under its +present name in 1903. The college includes a collegiate department, +an academy, a Bible school, a normal school, a summer +school and correspondence courses, and schools of business, +of music and of oratory, and in 1908-1909 had 331 students, +73 of whom were in the Academy. Goshen is situated in +a good farming region and is an important lumber market. +There is a good water-power. Among the city’s manufactures +are wagons and carriages, furniture, wooden-ware, veneering, +sash and doors, ladders, lawn swings, rubber goods, +flour, foundry products and agricultural machinery. The +municipality owns its water works and its electric-lighting +system. Goshen was first settled in 1828 and was first chartered +as a city in 1868.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOSLAR,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Hanover, romantically situated on the Gose, an affluent of the +Oker, at the north foot of the Harz, 24 m. S.E. of Hildesheim +and 31 m. S.W. from Brunswick, by rail. Pop. (1905) 17,817. +It is surrounded by walls and is of antique appearance. Among +the noteworthy buildings are the “Zwinger,” a tower with +walls 23 ft. thick; the market church, in the Romanesque +style, restored since its partial destruction by fire in 1844, and +containing the town archives and a library in which are some +of Luther’s manuscripts; the old town hall (Rathaus), possessing +many interesting antiquities; the Kaiserworth (formerly the +hall of the tailors’ gild and now an inn) with the statues of +eight of the German emperors; and the Kaiserhaus, the oldest +secular building in Germany, built by the emperor Henry III. +before 1050 and often the residence of his successors. This was +restored in 1867-1878 at the cost of the Prussian government, +and was adorned with frescoes portraying events in German +history. Other buildings of interest are:—the small chapel +which is all that remains since 1820 of the old and famous +cathedral of St Simon and St Jude founded by Henry III. about +1040, containing among other relics of the cathedral an old +altar supposed to be that of the idol Krodo which formerly +stood on the Burgberg near Neustadt-Harzburg; the church +of the former Benedictine monastery of St Mary, or Neuwerk, +of the 12th century, in the Romanesque style, with wall-paintings +of considerable merit; and the house of the bakers’ gild now +an hotel, the birthplace of Marshal Saxe. There are four +Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a synagogue, +several schools, a natural science museum, containing a collection +of Harz minerals, the Fenkner museum of antiquities and a +number of small foundations. The town has equestrian statues +of the emperor Frederick I. and of the German emperor William +I. The population is chiefly occupied in connexion with the +sulphur, copper, silver and other mines in the neighbourhood. +The town has also been long noted for its beer, and possesses +some small manufactures and a considerable trade in fruit.</p> + +<p>Goslar is believed to have been founded by Henry the Fowler +about 920, and when in the time of Otto the Great the mineral +treasures in the neighbourhood were discovered it increased +rapidly in prosperity. It was often the meeting-place of German +diets, twenty-three of which are said to have been held here, +and was frequently the residence of the emperors. About 1350 +it joined the Hanseatic League. In the middle of the 14th +century the famous <i>Goslar statutes</i>, a code of laws, which was +adopted by many other towns, was published. The town was +unsuccessfully besieged in 1625, during the Thirty Years’ War, +but was taken by the Swedes in 1632 and nearly destroyed by +fire. Further conflagrations in 1728 and 1780 gave a severe +blow to its prosperity. It was a free town till 1802, when it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>265</span> +came into the possession of Prussia. In 1807 it was joined to +Westphalia, in 1816 to Hanover and in 1866 it was, along with +Hanover, re-united to Prussia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See T. Erdmann, <i>Die alte Kaiserstadt Goslar und ihre Umgebung +in Geschichte, Sage und Bild</i> (Goslar, 1892); Crusius, <i>Geschichte +der vormals kaiserlichen freien Reichstadt Goslar</i> (1842-1843); A. +Wolfstieg, <i>Verfassungsgeschichte von Goslar</i> (Berlin, 1885); T. Asche, +<i>Die Kaiserpfalz zu Goslar</i> (1892); Neuburg, <i>Goslars Bergbau bis +1552</i> (Hanover, 1892); and the <i>Urkundenbuch der Stadt Goslar</i>, +edited by G. Bode (Halle, 1893-1900). For the <i>Goslarische Statuten</i> +see the edition published by Göschen (Berlin, 1840).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOSLICKI, WAWRZYNIEC<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (? 1533-1607), Polish bishop, +better known under his Latinized name of Laurentius Grimalius +Goslicius, was born about 1533. After having studied at Cracow +and Padua, he entered the church, and was successively appointed +bishop of Kaminietz and of Posen. Goslicki was an active man +of business, was held in high estimation by his contemporaries +and was frequently engaged in political affairs. It was chiefly +through his influence, and through the letter he wrote to the +pope against the Jesuits, that they were prevented from establishing +their schools at Cracow. He was also a strenuous advocate +of religious toleration in Poland. He died on the 31st of October +1607.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal work is <i>De Optimo senatore</i>, &c. (Venice, 1568). +There are two English translations published respectively under +the titles <i>A commonwealth of good counsaile</i>, &c. (1607), and <i>The +Accomplished Senator, done into English by Mr Oldisworth</i> (1733).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOSLIN,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gauzlinus</span> (d. <i>c.</i> 886), bishop of Paris and defender +of the city against the Northmen (885), was, according to some +authorities, the son of Roricon II., count of Maine, according +to others the natural son of the emperor Louis I. In 848 he +became a monk, and entered a monastery at Reims, later he +became abbot of St Denis. Like most of the prelates of his +time he took a prominent part in the struggle against the +Northmen, by whom he and his brother Louis were taken +prisoners (858), and he was released only after paying a heavy +ransom (<i>Prudentii Trecensis episcopi Annales</i>, ann. 858). From +855 to 867 he held intermittently, and from 867 to 881 regularly, +the office of chancellor to Charles the Bald and his successors. +In 883 or 884 he was elected bishop of Paris, and foreseeing the +dangers to which the city was to be exposed from the attacks +of the Northmen, he planned and directed the strengthening +of the defences, though he also relied for security on the merits +of the relics of St Germain and St Genevičve. When the attack +finally came (885), the defence of the city was entrusted to him +and to Odo, count of Paris, and Hugh, abbot of St Germain +l’Auxerrois. The city was attacked on the 26th of November, +and the struggle for the possession of the bridge (now the Pont-au-Change) +lasted for two days; but Goslin repaired the destruction +of the wooden tower overnight, and the Normans were +obliged to give up the attempt to take the city by storm. The +siege lasted for about a year longer, while the emperor Charles +the Fat was in Italy. Goslin died soon after the preliminaries +of the peace had been agreed on, worn out by his exertions, or +killed by a pestilence which raged in the city.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Amaury Duval, <i>L’Évęque Gozlin ou le sičge de Paris par les +Normands, chronique du IX<span class="sp">e</span> sičcle</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1832, 3rd ed. <i>ib.</i> +1835).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (d. 1607), English navigator. +Nothing is known of his birth, parentage or early life. In 1602, +in command of the “Concord,” chartered by Sir Walter Raleigh +and others, he crossed the Atlantic; coasted from what is now +Maine to Martha’s Vineyard, landing at and naming Cape Cod +and Elizabeth Island (now Cuttyhunk) and giving the name +Martha’s Vineyard to the island now called No Man’s Land; +and returned to England with a cargo of furs, sassafras and other +commodities obtained in trade with the Indians about Buzzard’s +Bay. In London he actively promoted the colonization of +the regions he had visited and, by arousing the interest of Sir +Ferdinando Gorges and other influential persons, contributed +toward securing the grants of the charters to the London and +Plymouth Companies in 1606. In 1606-1607 he was associated +with Christopher Newport in command of the three vessels +by which the first Jamestown colonists were carried to Virginia. +As a member of the council he took an active share in the affairs +of the colony, ably seconding the efforts of John Smith to introduce +order, industry and system among the motley array of +adventurers and idle “gentlemen” of which the little band was +composed. He died from swamp fever on the 22nd of August 1607.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Works of John Smith</i> (Arber’s Edition, London, 1884); +and J. M. Brereton, <i>Brief and True Relation of the North Part of +Virginia</i> (reprinted by B. F. Stevens, London, 1901), an account of +Gosnold’s voyage of 1602.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOSPATRIC<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (fl. 1067), earl of Northumberland, belonged to +a family which had connexions with the royal houses both of +Wessex and Scotland. Before the Conquest he accompanied +Tostig on a pilgrimage to Rome (1061); and at that time +was a landholder in Cumberland. About 1067 he bought the +earldom of Northumberland from William the Conqueror; but, +repenting of his submission, fled with other Englishmen to the +court of Scotland (1068). He joined the Danish army of invasion +in the next year; but was afterwards able, from his +possession of Bamburgh castle, to make terms with the conqueror, +who left him undisturbed till 1072. The peace concluded +in that year with Scotland left him at William’s mercy. He +lost his earldom and took refuge in Scotland, where Malcolm +seems to have provided for him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. A. Freeman, <i>Norman Conquest</i>, vol. i. (Oxford, 1877), +and the <i>English Hist. Review</i>, vol. xix. (London, 1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOSPEL<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>godspel</i>, <i>i.e.</i> good news, a translation of Lat. +<i>bona annuntiatio</i>, or <i>evangelium</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="euangelion">εὐαγγέλιον</span>; cf. Goth. +<i>iu spillon</i>, “to announce good news,” Ulfilas’ translation of +the Greek, from <i>iu</i>, that which is good, and <i>spellon</i> to announce), +primarily the “glad tidings” announced to the world by Jesus +Christ. The word thus came to be applied to the whole body of +doctrine taught by Christ and his disciples, and so to the Christian +revelation generally (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Christianity</a></span>); by analogy the term +“gospel” is also used in other connexions as equivalent to +“authoritative teaching.” In a narrower sense each of the +records of the life and teaching of Christ preserved in the writings +of the four “evangelists” is described as a Gospel. The many +more or less imaginative lives of Christ which are not accepted +by the Christian Church as canonical are known as “apocryphal +gospels” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apocryphal Literature</a></span>). The present article +is concerned solely with general considerations affecting the +four canonical Gospels; see for details of each, the articles +under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Matthew</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mark</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Luke</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">John</a></span>.</p> + +<p><i>The Four Gospels.</i>—The disciples of Jesus proclaimed the +Gospel that He was the Christ. Those to whom this message +was first delivered in Jerusalem and Palestine had seen and +heard Jesus, or had heard much about Him. They did not +require to be told who He was. But more and more as the work +of preaching and teaching extended to such as had not this +knowledge, it became necessary to include in the Gospel delivered +some account of the ministry of Jesus. Moreover, alike those +who had followed Him during His life on earth, and all who +joined themselves to them, must have felt the need of dwelling +on His precepts, so that these must have been often repeated, +and also in all probability from an early time grouped together +according to their subjects, and so taught. For some time, +probably for upwards of thirty years, both the facts of the life +of Jesus and His words were only related orally. This would +be in accordance with the habits of mind of the early preachers +of the Gospel. Moreover, they were so absorbed in the expectation +of the speedy return of Christ that they did not feel called +to make provision for the instruction of subsequent generations. +The Epistles of the New Testament contain no indications of +the existence of any written record of the life and teaching +of Christ. Tradition indicates <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 60-70 as the period when +written accounts of the life and teaching of Jesus began to be +made (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mark, Gospel of</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Matthew, Gospel of</a></span>). +This may be accepted as highly probable. We cannot but +suppose that at a time when the number of the original band +of disciples of Jesus who survived must have been becoming +noticeably smaller, and all these were advanced in life, the +importance of writing down that which had been orally delivered +concerning the Gospel-history must have been realized. We also +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>266</span> +gather from Luke’s preface (i. 1-4) that the work of writing +was undertaken in these circumstances and under the influence +of this feeling, and that various records had already in consequence +been made.</p> + +<p>But do our Gospels, or any of them, in the form in which +we actually have them, belong to the number of those earliest +records? Or, if not, what are the relations in which they +severally stand to them? These are questions which in modern +criticism have been greatly debated. With a view to obtaining +answers to them, it is necessary to consider the reception of the +Gospels in the early Church, and also to examine and compare +the Gospels themselves. Some account of the evidence supplied +in these two ways must be given in the present article, so far +as it is common to all four Gospels, or to three or two of them, +and in the articles on the several Gospels so far as it is especial +to each.</p> + +<p>1. <i>The Reception of the Gospels in the Early Church.</i>—The +question of the use of the Gospels and of the manner in which +they were regarded during the period extending from the latter +years of the 1st century to the beginning of the last quarter +of the 2nd is a difficult one. There is a lack of explicit references +to the Gospels;<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and many of the quotations which may be +taken from them are not exact. At the same time these facts +can be more or less satisfactorily accounted for by various +circumstances. In the first place, it would be natural that +the habits of thought of the period when the Gospel was delivered +orally should have continued to exert influence even after the +tradition had been committed to writing. Although documents +might be known and used, they would not be regarded as the +authorities for that which was independently remembered, and +would not, therefore, necessarily be mentioned. Consequently, +it is not strange that citations of sayings of Christ—and these +are the only express citations in writings of the Subapostolic +Age—should be made without the source whence they were +derived being named, and (with a single exception) without +any clear indication that the source was a document. The +exception is in the little treatise commonly called the Epistle +of Barnabas, probably composed about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 130, where (c. iv. +14) the words “many are called but few chosen” are introduced +by the formula “as it is written.”</p> + +<p>For the identification, therefore, of the source or sources +used we have to rely upon the amount of correspondence with +our Gospels in the quotations made, and in respect to other +parallelisms of statement and of expression, in these early +Christian writers. The correspondence is in the main full and +true as regards spirit and substance, but it is rarely complete +in form. The existence of some differences of language may, +however, be too readily taken to disprove derivation. Various +forms of the same saying occurring in different documents, +or remembered from oral tradition and through catechetical +instruction, would sometimes be purposely combined. Or, +again, the memory might be confused by this variety, and the +verification of quotations, especially of brief ones, was difficult, +not only from the comparative scarcity of the copies of books, +but also because ancient books were not provided with ready +means of reference to particular passages. On the whole there +is clearly a presumption that where we have striking expressions +which are known to us besides only in one of our Gospel-records, +that particular record has been the source of it. And where +there are several such coincidences the ground for the supposition +that the writing in question has been used may become very +strong. There is evidence of this kind, more or less clear in the +several cases, that all the four Gospels were known in the first +two or three decades of the 2nd century. It is fullest as to our +first Gospel and, next to this one, as to our third.</p> + +<p>After this time it becomes manifest that, as we should expect, +documents were the recognized authorities for the Gospel history; +but there is still some uncertainty as to the documents upon +which reliance was placed, and the precise estimation in which +they were severally held. This is in part at least due to the +circumstance that nearly all the writings which have remained +of the Christian literature belonging to the period <i>circa</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +130-180 are addressed to non-Christians, and that for the most +part they give only summaries of the teaching of Christ and of +the facts of the Gospel, while terms that would not be understood +by, and names that would not carry weight with, others +than Christians are to a large extent avoided. The most important +of the writings now in question are two by Justin +Martyr (<i>circa</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 145-160), viz. his <i>Apology</i> and his <i>Dialogue +with Trypho</i>. In the former of these works he shows plainly +his intention of adapting his language and reasoning to Gentile, +and in the latter to Jewish, readers. In both his name for the +Gospel-records is “Memoirs of the Apostles.” After a great +deal of controversy there has come to be very wide agreement +that he reckoned the first three Gospels among these Memoirs. +In the case of the second and third there are indications, though +slight ones, that he held the view of their composition and +authorship which was common from the last quarter of the +century onwards (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mark, Gospel of</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Luke, Gospel +of</a></span>), but he has made the largest use of our first Gospel. It is +also generally allowed that he was acquainted with the fourth +Gospel, though some think that he used it with a certain reserve. +Evidence may, however, be adduced which goes far to show +that he regarded it, also, as of apostolic authority. There is a +good deal of difference of opinion still as to whether Justin +reckoned other sources for the Gospel-history besides our +Gospels among the Apostolic Memoirs. In this connexion, +however, as well as on other grounds, it is a significant fact that +within twenty years or so after the death of Justin, which probably +occurred <i>circa</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 160, Tatian, who had been a hearer of +Justin, produced a continuous narrative of the Gospel-history +which received the name <i>Diatessaron</i> (“through four”), in +the main a compilation from our four Gospels.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>Before the close of the 2nd century the four Gospels had +attained a position of unique authority throughout the greater +part of the Church, not different from that which they have +held since, as is evident from the treatise of Irenaeus <i>Against +Heresies</i> (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 180; see esp. iii. i. 1 f. and x., xi.) and from other +evidence only a few years later. The struggle against Gnosticism, +which had been going on during the middle part of the century, +had compelled the Church both to define her creed and to draw +a sharper line of demarcation than heretofore between those +writings whose authority she regarded as absolute and all others. +The effect of this was no doubt to enhance the sense generally +entertained of the value of the four Gospels. At the same time +in the formal statements now made it is plainly implied that the +belief expressed is no new one. And it is, indeed, difficult to +suppose that agreement on this subject between different +portions of the Church could have manifested itself at this time +in the spontaneous manner that it does, except as the consequence +of traditional feelings and convictions, which went back to the +early part of the century, and which could hardly have arisen +without good foundation, with respect to the special value of +these works as embodiments of apostolic testimony, although +all that came to be supposed in regard to their actual authorship +cannot be considered proved.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Internal Criticism of the Gospels.</i>—In the middle of the +19th century an able school of critics, known as the Tübingen +school, sought to show from indications in the several Gospels +that they were composed well on in the 2nd century in the +interests of various strongly marked parties into which the Church +was supposed to have been divided by differences in regard to +the Judaic and Pauline forms of Christianity. These theories +are now discredited. It may on the contrary be confidently +asserted with regard to the first three Gospels that the local +colouring in them is predominantly Palestinian, and that they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>267</span> +show no signs of acquaintance with the questions and the +circumstances of the 2nd century; and that the character even +of the Fourth Gospel is not such as to justify its being placed, +at furthest, much after the beginning of that century.</p> + +<p>We turn to the literary criticism of the Gospels, where solid +results have been obtained. The first three Gospels have in +consequence of the large amount of similarity between them +in contents, arrangement, and even in words and the forms of +sentences and paragraphs, been called Synoptic Gospels. It +has long been seen that, to account for this similarity, relations +of interdependence between them, or of common derivation, +must be supposed. And the question as to the true theory of +these relations is known as the <i>Synoptic Problem</i>. Reference +has already been made to the fact that during the greater part +of the Apostolic age the Gospel history was taught orally. Now +some have held that the form of this oral teaching was to a great +extent a fixed one, and that it was the common source of our +first three Gospels. This oral theory was for a long time the +favourite one in England; it was never widely held in Germany, +and in recent years the majority of English students of the +Synoptic Problem have come to feel that it does not satisfactorily +explain the phenomena. Not only are the resemblances too +close, and their character in part not of a kind, to be thus +accounted for, but even many of the differences between parallel +contexts are rather such as would arise through the revision +of a document than through the freedom of oral delivery.</p> + +<p>It is now and has for many years been widely held that a +document which is most nearly represented by the Gospel of +Mark, or which (as some would say) was virtually identical +with it, has been used in the composition of our first and third +Gospels. This source has supplied the Synoptic Outline, and in +the main also the narratives common to all three. Questions +connected with the history of this document are treated in the +article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mark, Gospel of</a></span>.</p> + +<p>There is also a considerable amount of matter common to +Matthew and Luke, but not found in Mark. It is introduced +into the Synoptic Outline very differently in those two Gospels, +which clearly suggests that it existed in a separate form, and +was independently combined by the first and third evangelists +with their other document. This common matter has also a +character of its own; it consists mainly of pieces of discourse. +The form in which it is given in the two Gospels is in several +passages so nearly identical that we must suppose these pieces +at least to have been derived immediately or ultimately from +the same Greek document. In other cases there is more divergence, +but in some of them this is accounted for by the +consideration that in Matthew passages from the source now +in question have been interwoven with parallels in the other +chief common source before mentioned. There are, however, +instances in which no such explanation will serve, and it is +possible that our first and third evangelists may have used +two documents which were not in all respects identical, but which +corresponded very closely on the whole. The ultimate source +of the subject matter in question, or of the most distinctive +and larger part of it, was in all probability an Aramaic one, +and in some parts different translations may have been used.</p> + +<p>This second source used in the composition of Matthew and +Luke has frequently been called “The Logia” in order to signify +that it was a collection of the sayings and discourses of Jesus. +This name has been suggested by Schleiermacher’s interpretation +of Papias’ fragment on Matthew (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Matthew, Gospel of</a></span>). +But some have maintained that the source in question also +contained a good many narratives, and in order to avoid any +premature assumption as to its contents and character several +recent critics have named it “Q.” It may, however, fairly +be called “the Logian document,” as a convenient way of +indicating the character of the greater part of the matter which +our first and third evangelists have taken from it, and this +designation is used in the articles on the Gospels of Luke +and Matthew. The reconstruction of this document has been +attempted by several critics. The arrangement of its contents +can, it seems, best be learned from Luke.</p> + +<p>3. One or two remarks may here be added as to the bearing +of the results of literary criticism upon the use of the Gospels. +Their effect is to lead us, especially when engaged in historical +inquiries, to look beyond our Gospels to their sources, instead +of treating the testimony of the Gospels severally as independent +and ultimate. Nevertheless it will still appear that each Gospel +has its distinct value, both historically and in regard to the +moral and spiritual instruction afforded. And the fruits of +much of that older study of the Gospels, which was largely +employed in pointing out the special characteristics of each, +will still prove serviceable.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—1. German Books: <i>Introductions to the New +Testament</i>—H. J. Holtzmann (3rd ed., 1892), B. Weiss (Eng. trans., +1887), Th. Zahn (2nd ed., 1900), G. A. Jülicher (6th ed., 1906; Eng. +trans., 1904); H. v. Soden, <i>Urchristliche Literaturgeschichte</i>, vol. i. +(1905; Eng. trans., 1906). Books on the Synoptic Gospels, especially +the Synoptic Problem: H. J. Holtzmann, <i>Die synoptischen +Evangelien</i> (1863); Weizsäcker, <i>Untersuchungen über die evangelische +Geschichte</i> (1864); B. Weiss, <i>Das Marcus-Evangelium und seine +synoptischen Parallelen</i> (1872); <i>Das Matthäus-Evangelium und seine +Lucas-Parallelen</i> (1876); H. H. Wendt, <i>Die Lehre Jesu</i> (1886); +A. Resch, <i>Agrapha</i> (1889); &c.; P. Wernle, <i>Die synoptische Frage</i> +(1899); W. Soltau, <i>Unsere Evangelien, ihre Quellen und ihr Quellenwert</i> +(1901); H. J. Holtzmann, <i>Hand-Commentar zum N.T.</i>, vol. i. +(1889); J. Wellhausen, <i>Das Evangelium Marci</i>, <i>Das Evangelium +Matthäi</i>, <i>Das Evangelium Lucas</i> (1904), <i>Einleitung in die drei ersten +Evangelien</i> (1905); A. Harnack, <i>Sprüche und Reden Jesu, die +zweite Quelle des Matthäus und Lukas</i> (1907).</p> + +<p>2. French Books: A. Loisy, <i>Les Évangiles synoptiques</i> (1907-1908).</p> + +<p>3. English Books: G. Salmon, <i>Introduction to the New Testament</i> +(1st ed., 1885; 9th ed., 1904); W. Sanday, <i>Inspiration</i> (Lect. vi., +3rd ed., 1903); B. F. Westcott, <i>An Introduction to the Study of the +Gospels</i> (1st ed., 1851; 8th ed., 1895); A. Wright, <i>The Composition +of the Four Gospels</i> (1890); J. E. Carpenter, <i>The First Three Gospels, +their Origin and Relations</i> (1890); A. J. Jolley, <i>The Synoptic Problem</i> +(1893); J. C. Hawkins, <i>Horae synopticae</i> (1899); W. Alexander, +<i>Leading Ideas of the Gospels</i> (new ed., 1892); E. A. Abbott, <i>Clue</i> +(1900); J. A. Robinson, <i>The Study of the Gospels</i> (1902); F. C. +Burkitt, <i>The Gospel History and its Transmission</i> (1906); G. Salmon, +<i>The Human Element in the Gospels</i> (1907); V. H. Stanton, <i>The +Gospels as Historical Documents</i>: Pt. I., <i>The Early Use of the Gospels</i> +(1903); Pt. II., <i>The Synoptic Gospels</i> (1908).</p> + +<p>4. Synopses.—W. G. Rushbrooke, <i>Synopticon, An Exposition of +the Common Matter of the Synoptic Gospels</i> (1880); A. Wright, <i>The +Synopsis of the Gospels in Greek</i> (2nd ed., 1903).</p> + +<p>See also the articles on each Gospel, and the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>, section +<i>New Testament</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(V. H. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the only two that can be held to be such in the first half +of the 2nd century, and the doubts whether they refer to our present +Gospels, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mark, Gospel of</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Matthew, Gospel of</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The character of Tatian’s <i>Diatessaron</i> has been much disputed +in the past, but there can no longer be any reasonable doubt on the +subject after recent discoveries and investigations. (An account +of these may be seen most conveniently in <i>The Diatessaron of Tatian</i>, +by S. Hemphill; see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tatian</a></span>.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOSPORT,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a seaport in the Fareham parliamentary division +of Hampshire, England, facing Portsmouth across Portsmouth +harbour, 81 m. S.W. from London by the London & Southwestern +railway. Pop. of urban district of Gosport and Alverstoke +(1901), 28,884. A ferry and a floating bridge connect it +with Portsmouth. It is enclosed within a double line of fortifications, +consisting of the old Gosport lines, and, about 3000 yds. +to the east, a series of forts connected by strong lines with +occasional batteries, forming part of the defence works of Portsmouth +harbour. The principal buildings are the town hall and +market hall, and the church of Holy Trinity, erected in the time of +William III. To the south at Haslar there is a magnificent +naval hospital, capable of containing 2000 patients, and adjoining +it a gunboat slipway and large barracks. To the north is +the Royal Clarence victualling yard, with brewery, cooperage, +powder magazines, biscuit-making establishment, and storehouses +for various kinds of provisions for the royal navy.</p> + +<p>Gosport (Goseporte, Gozeport, Gosberg, Godsport) was +originally included in Alverstoke manor, held in 1086 by the +bishop and monks of Winchester under whom villeins farmed the +land. In 1284 the monks agreed to give up Alverstoke with +Gosport to the bishop, whose successors continued to hold them +until the lands were taken over by the ecclesiastical commissioners. +After the confiscation of the bishop’s lands in 1641, +however, the manor of Alverstoke with Gosport was granted to +George Withers, but reverted to the bishop at the Restoration. +In the 16th century Gosport was “a little village of fishermen.” +It was called a borough in 1461, when there are also traces of +burgage tenure. From 1462 one bailiff was elected annually +in the borough court, and government by a bailiff continued +until 1682, when Gosport was included in Portsmouth borough +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page268" id="page268"></a>268</span> +under the charter of Charles II. to that town. This was annulled +in 1688, since which time there is no evidence of the election of +bailiffs. With this exception no charter of incorporation is +known, although by the 16th century the inhabitants held common +property in the shape of tolls of the ferry. The importance of +Gosport increased during the 16th and 17th centuries owing to +its position at the mouth of Portsmouth harbour, and its convenience +as a victualling station. For this reason also the town +was particularly prosperous during the American and Peninsular +Wars. About 1540 fortifications were built there for the defence +of the harbour, and in the 17th century it was a garrison town +under a lord-lieutenant.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOSS, SIR JOHN<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1800-1880), English composer, was born +at Fareham, Hampshire, on the 27th of December 1800. He +was elected a chorister of the Chapel Royal in 1811, and in 1816, +on the breaking of his voice, became a pupil of Attwood. A +few early compositions, some for the theatre, exist, and some +glees were published before 1825. He was appointed organist +of St Luke’s, Chelsea, in 1824, and in 1838 became organist of +St Paul’s in succession to Attwood; he kept the post until +1872, when he resigned and was knighted. His position in the +London musical world of the time was an influential one, and he +did much by his teaching and criticism to encourage the study and +appreciation of good music. In 1876 he was given the degree +of Mus.D. at Cambridge. Though his few orchestral works +have very small importance, his church music includes some +fine compositions, such as the anthems “O taste and see,” +“O Saviour of the world” and others. He was the last of the +great English school of church composers who devoted themselves +almost exclusively to church music; and in the history of the glee +his is an honoured name, if only on account of his finest work +in that form, the five-part glee, Ossian’s “Hymn to the sun.” +He died at Brixton, London, on the 10th of May 1880.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOSSAMER,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a fine, thread like and filmy substance spun +by small spiders, which is seen covering stubble fields and gorse +bushes, and floating in the air in clear weather; especially in the +autumn. By transference anything light, unsubstantial or +flimsy is known as “gossamer.” A thin gauzy material used +for trimming and millinery, resembling the “chiffon” of to-day, +was formerly known as gossamer; and in the early Victorian +period it was a term used in the hat trade, for silk hats of very +light weight.</p> + +<p>The word is obscure in origin, it is found in numerous forms +in English, and is apparently taken from <i>gose</i>, goose and +<i>somere</i>, summer. The Germans have <i>Mädchensommer</i>, maidens’ +summer, and <i>Altweibersommer</i>, old women’s summer, as well +as <i>Sommerfäden</i>, summer-threads, as equivalent to the English +gossamer, the connexion apparently being that gossamer is +seen most frequently in the warm days of late autumn (St +Martin’s summer) when geese are also in season. Another +suggestion is that the word is a corruption of <i>gaze ŕ Marie</i> +(gauze of Mary) through the legend that gossamer was originally +the threads which fell away from the Virgin’s shroud on her +assumption.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOSSE, EDMUND<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1849-  ), English poet and critic, was +born in London on the 21st of September 1849, son of the zoologist +P. H. Gosse. In 1867 he became an assistant in the department +of printed books in the British Museum, where he remained +until he became in 1875 translator to the Board of Trade. In +1904 he was appointed librarian to the House of Lords. In +1884-1890 he was Clark Lecturer in English literature at Trinity +College, Cambridge. Himself a writer of literary verse of much +grace, and master of a prose style admirably expressive of a wide +and appreciative culture, he was conspicuous for his valuable +work in bringing foreign literature home to English readers. +<i>Northern Studies</i> (1879), a collection of essays on the literature +of Holland and Scandinavia, was the outcome of a prolonged +visit to those countries, and was followed by later work in the +same direction. He translated Ibsen’s <i>Hedda Gabler</i> (1891), +and, with W. Archer, <i>The Master-Builder</i> (1893), and in 1907 +he wrote a life of Ibsen for the “Literary Lives” series. He +also edited the English translation of the works of Björnson. +His services to Scandinavian letters were acknowledged in 1901, +when he was made a knight of the Norwegian order of St Olaf +of the first class. Mr Gosse’s published volumes of verse include +<i>On Viol and Flute</i> (1873), <i>King Erik</i> (1876), <i>New Poems</i> (1879), +<i>Firdausi in Exile</i> (1885), <i>In Russet and Silver</i> (1894), <i>Collected +Poems</i> (1896). <i>Hypolympia, or the Gods on the Island</i> (1901), +an “ironic phantasy,” the scene of which is laid in the 20th +century, though the personages are Greek gods, is written in +prose, with some blank verse. His <i>Seventeenth Century Studies</i> +(1883), <i>Life of William Congreve</i> (1888), <i>The Jacobean Poets</i> +(1894), <i>Life and Letters of Dr John Donne, Dean of St Paul’s</i> +(1899), <i>Jeremy Taylor</i> (1904, “English Men of Letters”), and +<i>Life of Sir Thomas Browne</i> (1905) form a very considerable +body of critical work on the English 17th-century writers. He +also wrote a life of Thomas Gray, whose works he edited (4 vols., +1884); <i>A History of Eighteenth Century Literature</i> (1889); a +<i>History of Modern English Literature</i> (1897), and vols. iii. and iv. +of an <i>Illustrated Record of English Literature</i> (1903-1904) undertaken +in connexion with Dr Richard Garnett. Mr Gosse was +always a sympathetic student of the younger school of French +and Belgian writers, some of his papers on the subject being +collected as <i>French Profiles</i> (1905). <i>Critical Kit-Kats</i> (1896) +contains an admirable criticism of J. M. de Heredia, reminiscences +of Lord de Tabley and others. He edited Heinemann’s series +of “Literature of the World” and the same publisher’s “International +Library.” To the 9th edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia +Britannica</i> he contributed numerous articles, and his services +as chief literary adviser in the preparation of the 10th and 11th +editions incidentally testify to the high position held by him +in the contemporary world of letters. In 1905 he was entertained +in Paris by the leading <i>littérateurs</i> as a representative of English +literary culture. In 1907 Mr Gosse published anonymously +<i>Father and Son</i>, an intimate study of his own early family life. +He married Ellen, daughter of Dr G. W. Epps, and had a son and +two daughters.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1810-1888), English naturalist, +was born at Worcester on the 6th of April 1810, his father, +Thomas Gosse (1765-1844) being a miniature painter. In his +youth the family settled at Poole, where Gosse’s turn for natural +history was noticed and encouraged by his aunt, Mrs Bell, the +mother of the zoologist, Thomas Bell (1792-1880). He had, +however, little opportunity for developing it until, in 1827, +he found himself clerk in a whaler’s office at Carbonear, in +Newfoundland, where he beguiled the tedium of his life by +observations, chiefly with the microscope. After a brief and +unsuccessful interlude of farming in Canada, during which he +wrote an unpublished work on the entomology of Newfoundland, +he travelled in the United States, was received and noticed +by men of science, was employed as a teacher for some time +in Alabama, and returned to England in 1839. His <i>Canadian +Naturalist</i> (1840), written on the voyage home, was followed +in 1843 by his <i>Introduction to Zoology</i>. His first widely popular +book was <i>The Ocean</i> (1844). In 1844 Gosse, who had meanwhile +been teaching in London, was sent by the British Museum to +collect specimens of natural history in Jamaica. He spent +nearly two years on that island, and after his return published +his <i>Birds of Jamaica</i> (1847) and his <i>Naturalist’s Sojourn in +Jamaica</i> (1851). He also wrote about this time several zoological +works for the S.P.C.K., and laboured to such an extent as to +impair his health. While recovering at Ilfracombe, he was +attracted by the forms of marine life so abundant on that shore, +and in 1853 published <i>A Naturalist’s Rambles on the Devonshire +Coast</i>, accompanied by a description of the marine aquarium +invented by him, by means of which he succeeded in preserving +zoophytes and other marine animals of the humbler grades +alive and in good condition away from the sea. This arrangement +was more fully set forth and illustrated in his <i>Aquarium</i> +(1854), succeeded in 1855-1856 by <i>A Manual of Marine Zoology</i>, +in two volumes, illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings +after the author’s drawings. A volume on the marine fauna +of Tenby succeeded in 1856. In June of the same year he was +elected F.R.S. Gosse, who was a most careful observer, but who +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>269</span> +lacked the philosophical spirit, was now tempted to essay work +of a more ambitious order, publishing in 1857 two books, <i>Life</i> +and <i>Omphalos</i>, embodying his speculations on the appearance +of life on the earth, which he considered to have been instantaneous, +at least as regarded its higher forms. His views met +with no favour from scientific men, and he returned to the +field of observation, which he was better qualified to cultivate. +Taking up his residence at St Marychurch, in South Devon, he +produced from 1858 to 1860 his standard work on sea-anemones, +the <i>Actinologia Britannica</i>. <i>The Romance of Natural History</i> +and other popular works followed. In 1865 he abandoned +authorship, and chiefly devoted himself to the cultivation of +orchids. Study of the Rotifera, however, also engaged his +attention, and his results were embodied in a monograph by +Dr C. T. Hudson (1886). He died at St Marychurch on the +23rd of August 1888.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>His life was written by his son, Edmund Gosse.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOSSEC, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1734-1829), French musical +composer, son of a small farmer, was born at the village of +Vergnies, in Belgian Hainaut, and showing early a taste for +music became a choir-boy at Antwerp. He went to Paris in +1751 and was taken up by Rameau. He became conductor +of a private band kept by La Popeliničre, a wealthy amateur, +and gradually determined to do something to revive the study +of instrumental music in France. He had his own first symphony +performed in 1754, and as conductor to the Prince de Condé’s +orchestra he produced several operas and other compositions +of his own. He imposed his influence upon French music with +remarkable success, founded the Concert des Amateurs in 1770, +organized the École de Chant in 1784, was conductor of the band +of the Garde Nationale at the Revolution, and was appointed +(with Méhul and Cherubini) inspector of the Conservatoire de +Musique when this institution was created in 1795. He was an +original member of the Institute and a chevalier of the legion +of honour. Outside France he was but little known, and his +own numerous compositions, sacred and secular, were thrown +into the shade by those of men of greater genius; but he has a +place in history as the inspirer of others, and as having powerfully +stimulated the revival of instrumental music. He died at +Passy on the 16th of February 1829.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Lives</i> by P. Hédouin (1852) and E. G. J. Gregoir (1878).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOSSIP<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (from the O. E. <i>godsibb</i>, <i>i.e.</i> God, and <i>sib</i>, akin, standing +in relation to), originally a god-parent, <i>i.e.</i> one who by taking a +sponsor’s vows at a baptism stands in a spiritual relationship +to the child baptized. The common modern meaning is of light +personal or social conversation, or, with an invidious sense, of +idle tale-bearing. “Gossip” was early used with the sense of +a friend or acquaintance, either of the parent of the child +baptized or of the other god-parents, and thus came to be used, +with little reference to the position of sponsor, for women friends +of the mother present at a birth; the transition of meaning +to an idle chatterer or talker for talking’s sake is easy. The +application to the idle talk of such persons does not appear to +be an early one.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOSSNER, JOHANNES EVANGELISTA<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1773-1858), German +divine and philanthropist, was born at Hausen near Augsburg +on the 14th of December 1773, and educated at the university +of Dillingen. Here like Martin Boos and others he came under +the spell of the Evangelical movement promoted by Johann +Michael Sailer, the professor of pastoral theology. After taking +priest’s orders, Gossner held livings at Dirlewang (1804-1811) +and Munich (1811-1817), but his evangelical tendencies brought +about his dismissal and in 1826 he formally left the Roman +Catholic for the Protestant communion. As minister of the +Bethlehem church in Berlin (1829-1846) he was conspicuous +not only for practical and effective preaching, but for the founding +of schools, asylums and missionary agencies. He died on the +20th of March 1858.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Lives</i> by Bethmann-Hollweg (Berlin, 1858) and H. Dalton +(Berlin, 1878).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOSSON, STEPHEN<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1554-1624), English satirist, was +baptized at St George’s, Canterbury, on the 17th of April 1554. +He entered Corpus Christi College, Oxford, 1572, and on leaving +the university in 1576 he went to London. In 1598 Francis +Meres in his <i>Palladis Tamia</i> mentions him with Sidney, Spenser, +Abraham Fraunce and others among the “best for pastorall,” +but no pastorals of his are extant. He is said to have been an +actor, and by his own confession he wrote plays, for he speaks +of <i>Catilines Conspiracies</i> as a “Pig of mine own Sowe.” To +this play and some others, on account of their moral intention, +he extends indulgence in the general condemnation of stage +plays contained in his <i>Schoole of Abuse, containing a pleasant +invective against Poets, Pipers, Plaiers, Jesters and such like +Caterpillars of the Commonwealth</i> (1579). The euphuistic style +of this pamphlet and its ostentatious display of learning were +in the taste of the time, and do not necessarily imply insincerity. +Gosson justified his attack by considerations of the disorder +which the love of melodrama and of vulgar comedy was introducing +into the social life of London. It was not only by +extremists like Gosson that these abuses were recognized. +Spenser, in his <i>Teares of the Muses</i> (1591), laments the same +evils, although only in general terms. The tract was dedicated +to Sir Philip Sidney, who seems not unnaturally to have +resented being connected with a pamphlet which opened with +a comprehensive denunciation of poets, for Spenser, writing +to Gabriel Harvey (Oct. 16, 1579) of the dedication, says the +author “was for hys labor scorned.” He dedicated, however, +a second tract, <i>The Ephemerides of Phialo ... and A Short +Apologie of the Schoole of Abuse</i>, to Sidney on Oct. 28th, 1579. +Gosson’s abuse of poets seems to have had a large share in +inducing Sidney to write his <i>Apologie for Poetrie</i>, which probably +dates from 1581. After the publication of the <i>Schoole of Abuse</i> +Gosson retired into the country, where he acted as tutor to the +sons of a gentleman (<i>Plays Confuted</i>. “To the Reader,” 1582). +Anthony ŕ Wood places this earlier and assigns the termination +of his tutorship indirectly to his animosity against the stage, +which apparently wearied his patron of his company. The +publication of his polemic provoked many retorts, the most +formidable of which was Thomas Lodge’s <i>Defence of Playes</i> +(1580). The players themselves retaliated by reviving Gosson’s +own plays. Gosson replied to his various opponents in 1582 +by his <i>Playes Confuted in Five Actions</i>, dedicated to Sir Francis +Walsingham. Meanwhile he had taken orders, was made +lecturer of the parish church at Stepney (1585), and was presented +by the queen to the rectory of Great Wigborough, Essex, +which he exchanged in 1600 for St Botolph’s, Bishopsgate. He +died on the 13th of February 1624. <i>Pleasant Quippes for Upstart +New-fangled Gentlewomen</i> (1595), a coarse satiric poem, is also +ascribed to Gosson.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Schoole of Abuse and Apologie</i> were edited (1868) by Prof. E. +Arber in his <i>English Reprints</i>. Two poems of Gosson’s are included.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOT, FRANÇOIS JULES EDMOND<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1822-1901), French actor, +was born at Lignerolles on the 1st of October 1822, and entered +the Conservatoire in 1841, winning the second prize for comedy +that year and the first in 1842. After a year of military service +he made his début at the Comédie Française on the 17th of July +1844, as Alexis in <i>Les Héritiers</i> and Mascarelles in <i>Les Précieuses +ridicules</i>. He was immediately admitted <i>pensionnaire</i>, and became +<i>sociétaire</i> in 1850. By special permission of the emperor +in 1866 he played at the Odéon in Emile Augier’s <i>Contagion</i>. +His golden jubilee at the Théâtre Français was celebrated in +1894, and he made his final appearance the year after. Got +was a fine representative of the grand style of French acting, +and was much admired in England as well as in Paris. He +wrote the libretto of the opera <i>François Villon</i> (1857) and also +of <i>L’Esclave</i> (1874). In 1881 he was decorated with the cross +of the Legion of Honour.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÖTA,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> a river of Sweden, draining the great Lake Vener. +The name, however, is more familiar in its application to the +canal which affords communication between Gothenburg and +Stockholm. The river flows out of the southern extremity +of the lake almost due south to the Cattegat, which it enters +by two arms enclosing the island of Hisingen, the eastern forming +the harbour and bearing the heavy sea-traffic of the port of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270"></a>270</span> +Gothenburg. The Göta river is 50 m. in length, and is navigable +for large vessels, a series of locks surmounting the famous falls +of Trollhättan (<i>q.v.</i>). Passing the abrupt wooded Halleberg +and Hunneberg (royal shooting preserves) Lake Vener is reached +at Venersborg. Several important ports lie on the north, east +and south shores (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vener</a></span>). From Sjötorp, midway on the +eastern shore, the western Göta canal leads S.E. to Karlsborg. +Its course necessitates over twenty locks to raise it from the +Vener level (144 ft.) to its extreme height of 300 ft., and lower +it over the subsequent fall through the small lakes Viken and +Botten to Lake Vetter (<i>q.v.</i>; 289 ft.), which the route crosses to +Motala. The eastern canal continues eastward from this point, +and a descent is followed through five locks to Lake Boren, +after which the canal, carried still at a considerable elevation, +overlooks a rich and beautiful plain. The picturesque Lake +Roxen with its ruined castle of Stjernarp is next traversed. At +Norsholm a branch canal connects Lake Glan to the north, +giving access to the important manufacturing centre of Norrköping. +Passing Lake Asplĺngen, the canal follows a cut through +steep rocks, and then resumes an elevated course to the old town +of Söderköping, after which the Baltic is reached at Mem. +Vessels plying to Stockholm run N.E. among the coastal island-fringe +(<i>skärgĺrd</i>), and then follow the Södertelge canal into +Lake Mälar. The whole distance from Gothenburg to Stockholm +is about 360 m., and the voyage takes about 2˝ days. The length +of artificial work on the Göta canal proper is 54 m., and there +are 58 locks. The scenery is not such as will bear adverse +weather conditions; that of the western canal is without any +interest save in the remarkable engineering work. The idea +of a canal dates from 1516, but the construction was organized +by Baron von Platten and engineered by Thomas Telford in +1810-1832. The falls of Trollhättan had already been locked +successfully in 1800.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOTARZES,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Goterzes</span>, king of Parthia (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 42-51). +In an inscription at the foot of the rock of Behistun<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> he is +called <span class="grk" title="Gôtarzęs Geopothros">Γωτάρζης Γεόποθρος</span>, <i>i.e.</i> “son of Gēw,” and seems +to be designated as “satrap of satrap.” This inscription +therefore probably dates from the reign of Artabanus II. (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> +10-40), to whose family Gotarzes must have belonged. From +a very barbarous coin of Gotarzes with the inscription <span class="grk" title="Basileôs +basileôn Arsanoz uos kekaloumenos Artabavou Gôtepzęs">βασιλεως βασιλεων Αρσανοζ υος κεκαλουμενος Αρταβανου Γωτερζης</span> +(Wroth, <i>Catalogue of the Coins of Parthia</i>, p. 165; <i>Numism</i>. +<i>Chron.</i>, 1900, p. 95; the earlier readings of this inscription are +wrong), which must be translated “king of kings Arsakes, +named son of Artabanos, Gotarzes,” it appears that he was +adopted by Artabanus. When the troublesome reign of Artabanus +II. ended in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 39 or 40, he was succeeded by Vardanes, +probably his son; but against him in 41 rose Gotarzes (the dates +are fixed by the coins). He soon made himself detested by his +cruelty—among many other murders he even slew his brother +Artabanus and his whole family (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xi. 8)—and Vardanes +regained the throne in 42; Gotarzes fled to Hyrcania and +gathered an army from the Dahan nomads. The war between +the two kings was at last ended by a treaty, as both were afraid +of the conspiracies of their nobles. Gotarzes returned to +Hyrcania. But when Vardanes was assassinated in 45, Gotarzes +was acknowledged in the whole empire (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xi. 9 ff.; +Joseph. <i>Antiq.</i> xx. 3, 4, where Gotarzes is called Kotardes). +He now takes on his coins the usual Parthian titles, “king of +kings Arsaces the benefactor, the just, the illustrious (<i>Epiphanes</i>), +the friend of the Greeks (<i>Philhellen</i>),” without mentioning his +proper name. The discontent excited by his cruelty and luxury +induced the hostile party to apply to the emperor Claudius +and fetch from Rome an Arsacid prince Meherdates (<i>i.e.</i> Mithradates), +who lived there as hostage. He crossed the Euphrates +in 49, but was beaten and taken prisoner by Gotarzes, who cut +off his ears (Tac. <i>Ann.</i> xii. 10 ff.). Soon after Gotarzes died, +according to Tacitus, of an illness; Josephus says that he was +murdered. His last coin is dated from June 51.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An earlier “Arsakes with the name Gotarzes,” mentioned on +some astronomical tablets from Babylon (Strassmaier in <i>Zeitschr. +für Assyriologie</i>, vi. 216; Mahler in <i>Wiener Zeitschr. für Kunde des +Morgenlands</i>, xv. 63 ff.), appears to have reigned for some time in +Babylonia about 87 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> +</div> +<div class="author">(Ed. M.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Rawlinson, <i>Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc.</i> ix. 114; Flandin and Coste, +<i>La Perse ancienne</i>, i. tab. 19; Dittenberger, <i>Orientis Graeci inscr.</i> +431.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOTHA,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> a town of Germany, alternately with Coburg the +residence of the dukes of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in a pleasant +situation on the Leine canal, 6 m. N. of the slope of the Thuringian +forest, 17 m. W. from Erfurt, on the railway to Bebra-Cassel. +Pop. (1905) 36,906. It consists of an old inner town and encircling +suburbs, and is dominated by the castle of Friedenstein, lying +on the Schlossberg at an elevation of 1100 ft. With the exception +of those in the older portion of the town, the streets are handsome +and spacious, and the beautiful gardens and promenades +between the suburbs and the castle add greatly to the town’s +attractiveness. To the south of the castle there is an extensive +and finely adorned park. To the north-west of the town the +Galberg—on which there is a public pleasure garden—and +to the south-west the Seeberg rise to a height of over 1300 ft. +and afford extensive views. The castle of Friedenstein, begun +by Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in 1643 and +completed in 1654, occupies the site of the old fortress of Grimmenstein. +It is a huge square building flanked with two wings, +having towers rising to the height of about 140 ft. It contains +the ducal cabinet of coins and the ducal library of nearly 200,000 +volumes, among which are several rare editions and about +6900 manuscripts. The picture gallery, the cabinet of engravings, +the natural history museum, the Chinese museum, and the +cabinet of art, which includes a collection of Egyptian, Etruscan, +Roman and German antiquities, are now included in the new +museum, completed in 1878, which stands on a terrace to the +south of the castle. The principal other public buildings are +the church of St Margaret with a beautiful portal and a lofty +tower, founded in the 12th century, twice burnt down, and +rebuilt in its present form in 1652; the church of the Augustinian +convent, with an altar-piece by the painter Simon Jacobs; +the theatre; the fire insurance bank and the life insurance bank; +the ducal palace, in the Italian villa style, with a winter garden +and picture gallery; the buildings of the ducal legislature; +the hospital; the old town-hall, dating from the 11th century; +the old residence of the painter Lucas Cranach, now used as a +girls’ school; the ducal stable; and the Friedrichsthal palace, +now used as public offices. The educational establishments +include a gymnasium (founded in 1524, one of the most famous +in Germany), two training schools for teachers, conservatoires +of music and several scientific institutions. Gotha is remarkable +for its insurance societies and for the support it has given to +cremation. The crematorium was long regarded as a model +for such establishments.</p> + +<p>Gotha is one of the most active commercial towns of Thuringia, +its manufactures including sausages, for which it has a great +reputation, porcelain, tobacco, sugar, machinery, mechanical +and surgical instruments, musical instruments, shoes, lamps +and toys. There are also a number of nurseries and market +gardens. The book trade is represented by about a dozen firms, +including that of the great geographical house of Justus Perthes, +founded in 1785.</p> + +<p>Gotha (in old chronicles called <i>Gotegewe</i> and later <i>Gotaha</i>) +existed as a village in the time of Charlemagne. In 930 its lord +Gothard abbot of Hersfeld surrounded it with walls. It was +known as a town as early as 1200, about which time it came +into the possession of the landgraves of Thuringia. On the +extinction of that line Gotha came into the possession of the +electors of Saxony, and it fell later to the Ernestine line of dukes. +After the battle of Mühlberg in 1547 the castle of Grimmenstein +was partly destroyed, but it was again restored in 1554. In +1567 the town was taken from Duke John Frederick by the +elector Augustus of Saxony. After the death of John Frederick’s +sons, it came into the possession of Duke Ernest the Pious, the +founder of the line of the dukes of Gotha; and on the extinction +of this family it was united in 1825 along with the dukedom to +Coburg.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>271</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Gotha und seine Umgebung</i> (Gotha, 1851); Kühne, <i>Beiträge +zur Geschichte der Entwicklung der socialen Zustände der Stadt +und des Herzogtums Gotha</i> (Gotha, 1862); Humbert, <i>Les Villes +de la Thuringe</i> (Paris, 1869), and Beck, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Gotha</i> +(Gotha, 1870).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOTHAM, WISE MEN OF,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> the early name given to the people +of the village of Gotham, Nottingham, in allusion to their reputed +simplicity. But if tradition is to be believed the Gothamites +were not so very simple. The story is that King John intended +to live in the neighbourhood, but that the villagers, foreseeing +ruin as the cost of supporting the court, feigned imbecility when +the royal messengers arrived. Wherever the latter went they +saw the rustics engaged in some absurd task. John, on this +report, determined to have his hunting lodge elsewhere, and the +“wise men” boasted, “we ween there are more fools pass +through Gotham than remain in it.” The “foles of Gotham” +are mentioned as early as the 15th century in the <i>Towneley +Mysteries</i>; and a collection of their “jests” was published in +the 16th century under the title <i>Merrie Tales of the Mad Men +of Gotham, gathered together by A.B., of Phisicke Doctour</i>. The +“A.B.” was supposed to represent Andrew Borde or Boorde +(1490?-1549), famous among other things for his wit, but he +probably had nothing to do with the compilation. As typical +of the Gothamite folly is usually quoted the story of the villagers +joining hands round a thornbush to shut in a cuckoo so that it +would sing all the year. The localizing of fools is common to +most countries, and there are many other reputed “imbecile” +centres in England besides Gotham. Thus there are the people +of Coggeshall, Essex, the “carles of Austwick,” Yorkshire, +“the gowks of Gordon,” Berwickshire, and for many centuries +the charge of folly has been made against “silly” Suffolk and +Norfolk (<i>Descriptio Norfolciensium</i> about 12th century, printed +in Wright’s <i>Early Mysteries and other Latin Poems</i>). In Germany +there are the <i>Schildburgers</i>, in Holland the people of Kampen. +Among the ancient Greeks Boeotia was the home of fools; +among the Thracians, Abdera; among the ancient Jews, +Nazareth.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. A. Clouston, <i>Book of Noodles</i> (London, 1888); R. H. +Cunningham, <i>Amusing Prose Chap-books</i> (1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOTHENBURG<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (Swed. <i>Göteborg</i>), a city and seaport of +Sweden, on the river Göta, 5 m. above its mouth in the Cattegat, +285 m. S.W. of Stockholm by rail, and 360 by the Göta canal-route. +Pop. (1900) 130,619. It is the chief town of the district +(<i>län</i>) of Göteborg och Bohus, and the seat of a bishop. It lies +on the east or left bank of the river, which is here lined with +quays on both sides, those on the west belonging to the large +island of Hisingen, contained between arms of the Göta. On +this island are situated the considerable suburbs of Lindholmen +and Lundby.</p> + +<p>The city itself stretches east and south from the river, with +extensive and pleasant residential suburbs, over a wooded plain +enclosed by low hills. The inner city, including the business +quarter, is contained almost entirely between the river and the +Rosenlunds canal, continued in the Vallgraf, the moat of the old +fortifications; and is crossed by the Storahamn, Östrahamn +and Vestrahamn canals. The Storahamn is flanked by the +handsome tree-planted quays, Norra and Södra Hamngatan. +The first of these, starting from the Stora Bommenshamn, +where the sea-going passenger-steamers lie, leads past the museum +to the Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg. The museum, in the old East +India Company’s house, has fine collections in natural history, +entomology, botany, anatomy, archaeology and ethnography, +a picture and sculpture gallery, and exhibits of coins and industrial +art. Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg is the business centre, and +contains the town-hail (1670) and exchange (1849). Here are +statues by B. E. Fogelberg of Gustavus Adolphus and of Odin, +and of Oscar I. by J. P. Molin. Among several churches in +this quarter of the city is the cathedral (<i>Gustavii Domkyrka</i>), +a cruciform church founded in 1633 and rebuilt after fires in +1742 and 1815. Here are also the customs-house and residence +of the governor of the <i>län</i>. On the north side, closely adjacent, +are the Lilla Bommenshamn, where the Göta canal steamers +lie, and the two principal railway stations, Statens and Bergslafs +Bangĺrd. Above the Rosenlunds canal rises a low, rocky +eminence, Lilla Otterhälleberg. The inner city is girdled on +the south and east by the Kungspark, which contains Molin’s +famous group of statuary, the Belt-bucklers (<i>Bältespännare</i>), +and by the beautiful gardens of the Horticultural Society +(<i>Trädgĺrdsforeningen</i>). These grounds are traversed by the +broad Nya Allé, a favourite promenade, and beyond them lies +the best residential quarter, the first houses facing Vasa Street, +Vasa Park and Kungsport Avenue. At the north end of the +last are the university and the New theatre. At the west end +of Vasa Street is the city library, the most important in the +country except the royal library at Stockholm and the university +libraries at Upsala and Lund. The suburbs are extensive. To +the south-west are Majorna and Masthugget, with numerous +factories. Beyond these lie the fine Slottskog Park, planted with +oaks, and picturesquely broken by rocky hills commanding views +of the busy river and the city. The suburb of Annedal is the +workmen’s quarter; others are Landala, Garda and Stampen. +All are connected with the city by electric tramways. Six +railways leave the city from four stations. The principal lines, +from the Statens and Bergslafs stations, run N. to Trollhättan, +and into Norway (Christiania); N.E. between Lakes Vener +and Vetter to Stockholm, Falun and the north; E. to Borĺs +and beyond, and S. by the coast to Helsingborg, &c. From +the Vestgöta station a narrow-gauge line runs N.E. to Skara +and the southern shores of Vener, and from Sarö station near +Slottskog Park a line serves Sarö, a seaside watering-place on +an island 20 m. S. of Gothenburg.</p> + +<p>The city has numerous important educational establishments. +The university (<i>Högskola</i>) was a private foundation (1891), +but is governed by a board, the members of which are nominated +by the state, the town council, Royal Society of Science and +Literature, directors of the museum, and the staffs of the various +local colleges. There are several boys’ schools, a college for +girls, a scientific college, a commercial college (1826), a school +of navigation, and Chalmers’ Polytechnical College, founded +by William Chalmers (1748-1811), a native of Gothenburg of +English parentage. He bequeathed half his fortune to this +institution, and the remainder to the Sahlgrenska hospital. +A people’s library was founded by members of the family of +Dickson, several of whom have taken a prominent part in +philanthropical works in the city. The connexion of the family +with Gothenburg dates from 1802, when Robert Dickson, a +native of Montrose in Scotland, founded the business in which +he was joined in 1807 by his brother James.</p> + +<p>In respect of industry and commerce as a whole Gothenburg +ranks as second to Stockholm in the kingdom; but it is actually +the principal centre of export trade and port of register; and +as a manufacturing town it is slightly inferior to Malmö. Its +principal industrial establishments are mechanical works (both +in the city and at Lundby), saw-mills, dealing with the timber +which is brought down the Göta, flour-mills, margarine factories, +breweries and distilleries, tobacco works, cotton mills, dyeing +and bleaching works (at Levanten in the vicinity), furniture +factories, paper and leather works, and shipbuilding yards. +The vessels registered at the port in 1901 were 247 of 120,488 tons. +There are about 3 m. of quays approachable by vessels drawing +20 ft., and slips for the accommodation of large vessels. Gothenburg +is the principal port of embarkation of Swedish emigrants +for America.</p> + +<p>The city is governed by a council including two mayors, and +returns nine members to the second chamber of the Riksdag +(parliament).</p> + +<p>Founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1619, Gothenburg was +from the first designed to be fortified, a town of the same name +founded on Hisingen in 1603 having been destroyed by the Danes +during the Calmar war. From 1621, when it was first chartered, +it steadily increased, though it suffered greatly in the Danish +wars of the last half of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th +centuries, and from several extensive conflagrations (the last +in 1813), which have destroyed important records of its history. +The great development of its herring fishery in the latter part +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>272</span> +of the 18th century gave a new impulse to the city’s trade, which +was kept up by the influence of the “Continental System,” +under which Gothenburg became a depot for the colonial merchandise +of England. After the fall of Napoleon it began to +decline, but after its closer connexion with the interior of the +country by the Göta canal (opened 1832) and Western railway +it rapidly advanced both in population and trade. Since the +demolition of its fortifications in 1807, it has been defended +only by some small forts. Gothenburg was the birthplace of +the poet Bengt Lidner (1757-1793) and two of Sweden’s greatest +sculptors, Bengt Erland Fogelberg (1786-1854) and Johann +Peter Molin (1814-1873). After the French Revolution Gothenburg +was for a time the residence of the Bourbon family. The +name of this city is associated with the municipal licensing +system known as the Gothenburg System (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liquor Laws</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. Berg, <i>Samlingar till Göteborgs historia</i> (Gothenburg, 1893); +Lagerberg, <i>Göteborg i äldre och nyare tid</i> (Gothenburg, 1902); +Fröding, <i>Det forna Göteborg</i> (Stockholm, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOTHIC,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> the term generally applied to medieval architecture, +and more especially to that in which the pointed arch appears. +The style was at one time supposed to have originated with the +warlike people known as the Goths, some of whom (the East +Goths, or Ostrogoths) settled in the eastern portion of Europe, +and others (the West Goths, or Visigoths) in the Asturias of +Spain; but as no buildings or remains of any description have +ever been found, in which there are any traces of an independent +construction in either brick or stone, the title is misleading; +since, however, it is now so generally accepted it would be difficult +to change it. The term when first employed was one of reproach, +as Evelyn (1702) when speaking of the faultless building (<i>i.e.</i> +classic) says, “they were demolished by the Goths or Vandals, +who introduced their own licentious style now called modern +or Gothic.” The employment of the pointed arch in Syria, +Egypt and Sicily from the 8th century onwards by the Mahommedans +for their mosques and gateways, some four centuries +before it made its appearance in Europe, also makes it advisable +to adhere to the old term Gothic in preference to Pointed +Architecture. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:136px; height:208px" src="images/img272.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="bold">GÖTHITE,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Goethite</span>, a mineral composed of an iron +hydrate, Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>ˇH<span class="su">2</span>O, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system +and isomorphous with diaspore and manganite (<i>q.v.</i>). It was +first noticed in 1789, and in 1806 was named after the poet +Goethe. Crystals are prismatic, acicular or scaly in habit; +they have a perfect cleavage parallel to the brachypinacoid +(M in the figure). Reniform and stalactitic +masses with a radiated fibrous structure also +occur. The colour varies from yellowish +or reddish to blackish-brown, and by transmitted +light it is often blood-red; the streak +is brownish-yellow; hardness, 5; specific +gravity, 4.3. The best crystals are the +brilliant, blackish-brown prisms with terminal +pyramidal planes (fig.) from the Restormel +iron mines at Lostwithiel, and the Botallack +mine at St Just in Cornwall. A variety +occurring as thin red scales at Siegen in Westphalia is known +as Rubinglimmer or pyrrhosiderite (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="pyrros">πυρρός</span>, flame-coloured, +and <span class="grk" title="sidęros">σίδηρος</span>, iron): a scaly-fibrous variety from the +same locality is called lepidocrocite (from <span class="grk" title="lepis">λεπίς</span>, scale, and <span class="grk" title="krokis">κροκίς</span>, +fibre). Sammetblende or przibramite is a variety, from Przibram +in Bohemia, consisting of delicate acicular or capillary crystals +arranged in radiating groups with a velvety surface and yellow +colour.</p> + +<p>Göthite occurs with other iron oxides, especially limonite +and hematite, and when found in sufficient quantity is mined +with these as an ore of iron. It often occurs also as an enclosure +in other minerals. Acicular crystals, resembling rutile in appearance, +sometimes penetrate crystals of pale-coloured amethyst, +for instance, at Wolf’s Island in Lake Onega in Russia: this +form of the mineral has long been known as onegite, and the +crystals enclosing it are cut for ornamental purposes under the +name of “Cupid’s darts” (<i>flčches d’amour</i>). The metallic glitter +of avanturine or sun-stone (<i>q.v.</i>) is due to the enclosed scales +of göthite and certain other minerals.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOTHS<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (<i>Gotones</i>, later <i>Gothis</i>), a Teutonic people who in the +1st century of the Christian era appear to have inhabited the +middle part of the basin of the Vistula. They were +probably the easternmost of the Teutonic peoples. +<span class="sidenote">Early history.</span> +According to their own traditions as recorded by +Jordanes, they had come originally from the island Scandza, +<i>i.e.</i> Skĺne or Sweden, under the leadership of a king named +Berig, and landed first in a region called Gothiscandza. Thence +they invaded the territories of the Ulmerugi (the Holmryge of +Anglo-Saxon tradition), probably in the neighbourhood of +Rügenwalde in eastern Pomerania, and conquered both them +and the neighbouring Vandals. Under their sixth king Filimer +they migrated into Scythia and settled in a district which they +called Oium. The rest of their early history, as it is given by +Jordanes following Cassiodorus, is due to an erroneous identification +of the Goths with the Getae, and ancient Thracian people.</p> + +<p>The credibility of the story of the migration from Sweden +has been much discussed by modern authors. The legend was +not peculiar to the Goths, similar traditions being current among +the Langobardi, the Burgundians, and apparently several +other Teutonic nations. It has been observed with truth +that so many populous nations can hardly have sprung from +the Scandinavian peninsula; on the other hand, the existence of +these traditions certainly requires some explanation. Possibly, +however, many of the royal families may have contained an +element of Scandinavian blood, a hypothesis which would well +accord with the social conditions of the migration period, as +illustrated, <i>e.g.</i>, in <i>Völsunga Saga</i> and in <i>Hervarar Saga ok +Heiđreks Konungs</i>. In the case of the Goths a connexion with +Gotland is not unlikely, since it is clear from archaeological +evidence that this island had an extensive trade with the coasts +about the mouth of the Vistula in early times. If, however, +there was any migration at all, one would rather have expected +it to have taken place in the reverse direction. For the origin +of the Goths can hardly be separated from that of the Vandals, +whom according to Procopius they resembled in language and +in all other respects. Moreover the Gepidae, another Teutonic +people, who are said to have formerly inhabited the delta of +the Vistula, also appear to have been closely connected with +the Goths. According to Jordanes they participated in the +migration from Scandza.</p> + +<p>Apart from a doubtful reference by Pliny to a statement +of the early traveller Pytheas, the first notices we have of the +Goths go back to the first years of the Christian era, at which +time they seem to have been subject to the Marcomannic king +Maroboduus. They do not enter into Roman history, however, +until after the beginning of the 3rd century, at which time they +appear to have come in conflict with the emperor Caracalla. +During this century their frontier seems to have been advanced +considerably farther south, and the whole country as far as the +lower Danube was frequently ravaged by them. The emperor +Gordianus is called “victor Gothorum” by Capitolinus, though +we have no record of the ground for the claim, and further conflicts +are recorded with his successors, one of whom, Decius, was slain +by the Goths in Moesia. According to Jordanes the kings of +the Goths during these campaigns were Ostrogotha and afterwards +Cniva, the former of whom is praised also in the Anglo-Saxon +poem <i>Widsith</i>. The emperor Gallus was forced to pay +tribute to the Goths. By this time they had reached the coasts of +the Black Sea, and during the next twenty years they frequently +ravaged the maritime regions of Asia Minor and Greece. Aurelian +is said to have won a victory over them, but the province of +Dacia had to be given up. In the time of Constantine the Great +Thrace and Moesia were again plundered by the Goths, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 321. +Constantine drove them back and concluded peace with their +king Ariaric in 336. From the end of the 3rd century we hear +of subdivisions of the nation called Greutungi, Teruingi, +Austrogothi (Ostrogothi), Visigothi, Taifali, though it is not +clear whether these were all distinct.</p> + +<p>Though by this time the Goths had extended their territories +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273"></a>273</span> +far to the south and east, it must not be assumed that they had +evacuated their old lands on the Vistula. Jordanes records +several traditions of their conflicts with other Teutonic tribes, +in particular a victory won by Ostrogotha over Fastida, king of +the Gepidae, and another by Geberic over Visimar, king of the +Vandals, about the end of Constantine’s reign, in consequence +of which the Vandals sought and obtained permission to settle +in Pannonia. Geberic was succeeded by the most famous of +the Gothic kings, Hermanaric (Eormenric, Iörmunrekr), whose +deeds are recorded in the traditions of all Teutonic nations. +According to Jordanes he conquered the Heruli, the Aestii, +the Venedi, and a number of other tribes who seem to have been +settled in the southern part of Russia. From Anglo-Saxon +sources it seems probable that his supremacy reached westwards +as far as Holstein. He was of a cruel disposition, and is said to +have killed his nephews Embrica (Emerca) and Fritla (Fridla) +in order to obtain the great treasure which they possessed. +Still more famous is the story of Suanihilda (Svanhildr), who +according to Northern tradition was his wife and was cruelly +put to death on a false charge of unfaithfulness. An attempt +to avenge her death was made by her brothers Ammius (Hamđir) +and Sarus (Sörli) by whom Hermanaric was severely wounded. +To his time belong a number of other heroes whose exploits +are recorded in English and Northern tradition, amongst whom +we may mention Wudga (Vidigoia), Hama and several others, +who in <i>Widsith</i> are represented as defending their country against +the Huns in the forest of the Vistula. Hermanaric committed +suicide in his distress at an invasion of the Huns about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 370, +and the portion of the nation called Ostrogoths then came under +Hunnish supremacy. The Visigoths obtained permission to +cross the Danube and settle in Moesia. A large part of the nation +became Christian about this time (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">below</a></span>). The exactions +of the Roman governors, however, soon led to a quarrel, which +ended in the total defeat and death of Valens at Adrianople +in the year 378.</p> +<div class="author">(F. G. M. B.)</div> + +<p>From about 370 the history of the East and West Goths +parts asunder, to be joined together again only incidentally +and for a season. The great mass of the East Goths +stayed north of the Danube, and passed under the +<span class="sidenote">Later history.</span> +overlordship of the Hun. They do not for the present +play any important part in the affairs of the Empire. The great +mass of the West Goths crossed the Danube into the Roman +provinces, and there played a most important part in various +characters of alliance and enmity. The great migration was in +376, when they were allowed to pass as peaceful settlers under +their chief Frithigern. His rival Athanaric seems to have tried +to maintain his party for a while north of the Danube in defiance +of the Huns; but he had presently to follow the example of the +great mass of the nation. The peaceful designs of Frithigern +were meanwhile thwarted by the ill-treatment which the Goths +suffered from the Roman officials, which led first to disputes +and then to open war. In 378 the Goths won the great battle of +Adrianople, and after this Theodosius the Great, the successor +of Valens, made terms with them in 381, and the mass of the +Gothic warriors entered the Roman service as <i>foederati</i>. Many +of their chiefs were in high favour; but it seems that the orthodox +Theodosius showed more favour to the still remaining heathen +party among the Goths than to the larger part of them who had +embraced Arian Christianity. Athanaric himself came to Constantinople +in 381; he was received with high honours, and had +a solemn funeral when he died. His saying is worth recording, +as an example of the effect which Roman civilization had on +the Teutonic mind. “The emperor,” he said, “was a god upon +earth, and he who resisted him would have his blood on his +own head.”</p> + +<p>The death of Theodosius in 395 broke up the union between +the West Goths and the Empire. Dissensions arose between +them and the ministers of Arcadius; the Goths threw off their +allegiance, and chose Alaric as their king. This was a restoration +alike of national unity and of national independence. The +royal title had not been borne by their leaders in the Roman +service. Alaric’s position is quite different from that of several +Goths in the Roman service, who appear as simple rebels. He +was of the great West Gothic house of the Balthi, or Bold-men, +a house second in nobility only to that of the Amali. His whole +career was taken up with marchings to and fro within the lands, +first of the Eastern, then of the Western empire. The Goths +are under him an independent people under a national king; +their independence is in no way interfered with if the Gothic +king, in a moment of peace, accepts the office and titles of a +Roman general. But under Alaric the Goths make no lasting +settlement. In the long tale of intrigue and warfare between +the Goths and the two imperial courts which fills up this whole +time, cessions of territory are offered to the Goths, provinces +are occupied by them, but as yet they do not take root anywhere; +no Western land as yet becomes <i>Gothia</i>. Alaric’s designs of +settlement seem in his first stage to have still kept east of the +Adriatic, in Illyricum, possibly in Greece. Towards the end of +his career his eyes seem fixed on Africa.</p> + +<p>Greece was the scene of his great campaign in 395-96, the +second Gothic invasion of that country. In this campaign the +religious position of the Goths is strongly marked. The Arian +appeared as an enemy alike to the pagan majority and the +Catholic minority; but he came surrounded by monks, and his +chief wrath was directed against the heathen temples (<i>vide</i> G. F. +Hertzberg, <i>Geschichte Griechenlands</i>, iii. 391). His Italian campaigns +fall into two great divisions, that of 402-3, when he +was driven back by Stilicho, and that of 408-10, after Stilicho’s +death. In this second war he thrice besieged Rome (408, 409, +410). The second time it suited a momentary policy to set +up a puppet emperor of his own, and even to accept a military +commission from him. The third time he sacked the city, +the first time since Brennus that Rome had been taken by an +army of utter foreigners. The intricate political and military +details of these campaigns are of less importance in the history +of the Gothic nation than the stage which Alaric’s reign marks +in the history of that nation. It stands between two periods +of settlement within the Empire and of service under the Empire. +Under Alaric there is no settlement, and service is quite secondary +and precarious; after his death in 410 the two begin again in +new shapes.</p> + +<p>Contemporary with the campaigns of Alaric was a barbarian +invasion of Italy, which, according to one view, again brings +the East and West Goths together. The great mass of the East +Goths, as has been already said, became one of the many nations +which were under vassalage to the Huns; but their relation +was one merely of vassalage. They remained a distinct people +under kings of their own, kings of the house of the Amali and of +the kindred of Ermanaric (Jordanes, 48). They had to follow the +lead of the Huns in war, but they were also able to carry on wars +of their own; and it has been held that among these separate +East Gothic enterprises we are to place the invasion of Italy in +405 by Radagaisus (whom R. Pallmann<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> writes Ratiger, and +takes him for the chief of the heathen part of the East Goths). +One chronicler, Prosper, makes this invasion preceded by another +in 400, in which Alaric and Radagaisus appear as partners. +The paganism of Radagaisus is certain. The presence of Goths +in his army is certain, but it seems dangerous to infer that his +invasion was a national Gothic enterprise.</p> + +<p>Under Ataulphus, the brother-in-law and successor of Alaric, +another era opens, the beginning of enterprises which did in the +end lead to the establishment of a settled Gothic monarchy +in the West. The position of Ataulphus is well marked by the +speech put into his mouth by Orosius. He had at one time +dreamed of destroying the Roman power, of turning <i>Romania</i> +into <i>Gothia</i>, and putting Ataulphus in the stead of Augustus; +but he had learned that the world could be governed only by +the laws of Rome and he had determined to use the Gothic arms +for the support of the Roman power. And in the confused and +contradictory accounts of his actions (for the story in Jordanes +cannot be reconciled with the accounts in Olympiodorus and +the chroniclers), we can see something of this principle at work +throughout. Gaul and Spain were overrun both by barbarian +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274"></a>274</span> +invaders and by rival emperors. The sword of the Goth was +to win back the last lands for Rome. And, amid many shiftings +of allegiance, Ataulphus seems never to have wholly given up +the position of an ally of the Empire. His marriage with Placidia, +the daughter of the great Theodosius, was taken as the seal of +the union between Goth and Roman, and, had their son Theodosius +lived, a dynasty might have arisen uniting both claims. +But the career of Ataulphus was cut short at Barcelona in 415, +by his murder at the hands of another faction of the Goths. +The reign of Sigeric was momentary. Under Wallia in 418 a +more settled state of things was established. The Empire received +again, as the prize of Gothic victories, the Tarraconensis +in Spain, and Novempopulana and the Narbonensis in Gaul. +The “second Aquitaine,” with the sea-coast from the mouth +of the Garonne to the mouth of the Loire, became the West +Gothic kingdom of Toulouse. The dominion of the Goths was +now strictly Gaulish; their lasting Spanish dominion does not +yet begin.</p> + +<p>The reign of the first West Gothic Theodoric (419-451) shows +a shifting state of relations between the Roman and Gothic +powers; but, after defeats and successes both ways, the older +relation of alliance against common enemies was again established. +At last Goth and Roman had to join together against +the common enemy of Europe and Christendom, Attila the Hun. +But they met Gothic warriors in his army. By the terms of +their subjection to the Huns, the East Goths came to fight for +Attila against Christendom at Châlons, just as the Servians came +to fight for Bajazet against Christendom at Nicopolis. Theodoric +fell in the battle (451). After this momentary meeting, the +history of the East and West Goths again separates for a while. +The kingdom of Toulouse grew within Gaul at the expense of +the Empire, and in Spain at the expense of the Suevi. Under +Euric (466-485) the West Gothic power again became largely +a Spanish power. The kingdom of Toulouse took in nearly all +Gaul south of the Loire and west of the Rhône, with all Spain, +except the north-west corner, which was still held by the Suevi. +Provence alone remained to the Empire. The West Gothic +kings largely adopted Roman manners and culture; but, as +they still kept to their original Arian creed, their rule never +became thoroughly acceptable to their Catholic subjects. They +stood, therefore, at a great disadvantage when a new and aggressive +Catholic power appeared in Gaul through the conversion +of the Frank Clovis or Chlodwig. Toulouse was, as in days long +after, the seat of an heretical power, against which the forces +of northern Gaul marched as on a crusade. In 507 the West +Gothic king Alaric II. fell before the Frankish arms at Campus +Vogladensis, near Poitiers, and his kingdom, as a great power +north of the Alps, fell with him. That Spain and a fragment of +Gaul still remained to form a West Gothic kingdom was owing +to the intervention of the East Goths under the rule of the greatest +man in Gothic history.</p> + +<p>When the Hunnish power broke in pieces on the death of +Attila, the East Goths recovered their full independence. They +now entered into relations with the Empire, and were settled +on lands in Pannonia. During the greater part of the latter +half of the 5th century, the East Goths play in south-eastern +Europe nearly the same part which the West Goths played +in the century before. They are seen going to and fro, in every +conceivable relation of friendship and enmity with the Eastern +Roman power, till, just as the West Goths had done before them, +they pass from the East to the West. They are still ruled by +kings of the house of the Amali, and from that house there now +steps forward a great figure, famous alike in history and in +romance, in the person of Theodoric, son of Theodemir. Born +about 454, his childhood was spent at Constantinople as a +hostage, where he was carefully educated. The early part of +his life is taken up with various disputes, intrigues and wars +within the Eastern empire, in which he has as his rival another +Theodoric, son of Triarius, and surnamed Strabo. This older +but lesser Theodoric seems to have been the chief, not the king, +of that branch of the East Goths which had settled within the +Empire at an earlier time. Theodoric the Great, as he is sometimes +distinguished, is sometimes the friend, sometimes the +enemy, of the Empire. In the former case he is clothed with +various Roman titles and offices, as patrician and consul; but +in all cases alike he remains the national East Gothic king. It +was in both characters together that he set out in 488, by commission +from the emperor Zeno, to recover Italy from Odoacer. +By 493 Ravenna was taken; Odoacer was killed by Theodoric’s +own hand; and the East Gothic power was fully established +over Italy, Sicily, Dalmatia and the lands to the north of Italy. +In this war the history of the East and West Goths begins again +to unite, if we may accept the witness of one writer that Theodoric +was helped by West Gothic auxiliaries. The two branches +of the nation were soon brought much more closely together, +when, through the overthrow of the West Gothic kingdom of +Toulouse, the power of Theodoric was practically extended +over a large part of Gaul and over nearly the whole of Spain. +A time of confusion followed the fall of Alaric II., and, as that +prince was the son-in-law of Theodoric, the East Gothic king +stepped in as the guardian of his grandson Amalaric, and preserved +for him all his Spanish and a fragment of his Gaulish +dominion. Toulouse passed away to the Frank; but the Goth +kept Narbonne and its district, the land of Septimania—the +land which, as the last part of Gaul held by the Goths, kept +the name of <i>Gothia</i> for many ages. While Theodoric lived, +the West Gothic kingdom was practically united to his own +dominion. He seems also to have claimed a kind of protectorate +over the Teutonic powers generally, and indeed to have +practically exercised it, except in the case of the Franks.</p> + +<p>The East Gothic dominion was now again as great in extent +and far more splendid than it could have been in the time of +Ermanaric. But it was now of a wholly different character. +The dominion of Theodoric was not a barbarian but a civilized +power. His twofold position ran through everything. He was +at once national king of the Goths, and successor, though without +any imperial titles, of the Roman emperors of the West. The +two nations, differing in manners, language and religion, lived +side by side on the soil of Italy; each was ruled according to its +own law, by the prince who was, in his two separate characters, +the common sovereign of both. The picture of Theodoric’s +rule is drawn for us in the state papers drawn up in his name +and in the names of his successors by his Roman minister Cassiodorus. +The Goths seem to have been thick on the ground in +northern Italy; in the south they formed little more than +garrisons. In Theodoric’s theory the Goth was the armed protector +of the peaceful Roman; the Gothic king had the toil of +government, while the Roman consul had the honour. All the +forms of the Roman administration went on, and the Roman +polity and Roman culture had great influence on the Goths +themselves. The rule of the prince over two distinct nations +in the same land was necessarily despotic; the old Teutonic +freedom was necessarily lost. Such a system as that which +Theodoric established needed a Theodoric to carry it on. It +broke in pieces after his death.</p> + +<p>On the death of Theodoric (526) the East and West Goths +were again separated. The few instances in which they are +found acting together after this time are as scattered and +incidental as they were before. Amalaric succeeded to the +West Gothic kingdom in Spain and Septimania. Provence +was added to the dominion of the new East Gothic king Athalaric, +the grandson of Theodoric through his daughter Amalasuntha. +The weakness of the East Gothic position in Italy now showed +itself. The long wars of Justinian’s reign (535-555) recovered +Italy for the Empire, and the Gothic name died out on Italian +soil. The chance of forming a national state in Italy by the +union of Roman and Teutonic elements, such as those which +arose in Gaul, in Spain, and in parts of Italy under Lombard +rule, was thus lost. The East Gothic kingdom was destroyed +before Goths and Italians had at all mingled together. The war +of course made the distinction stronger; under the kings who +were chosen for the purposes of the war national Gothic feeling +had revived. The Goths were now again, if not a wandering +people, yet an armed host, no longer the protectors but the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>275</span> +enemies of the Roman people of Italy. The East Gothic dominion +and the East Gothic name wholly passed away. The nation +had followed Theodoric. It is only once or twice after his +expedition that we hear of Goths, or even of Gothic leaders, +m the eastern provinces. From the soil of Italy the nation +passed away almost without a trace, while the next Teutonic +conquerors stamped their name on the two ends of the land, +one of which keeps it to this day.</p> + +<p>The West Gothic kingdom lasted much longer, and came +much nearer to establishing itself as a national power in the +lands which it took in. But the difference of race and faith +between the Arian Goths and the Catholic Romans of Gaul and +Spain influenced the history of the West Gothic kingdom for +a long time. The Arian Goths ruled over Catholic subjects, +and were surrounded by Catholic neighbours. The Franks +were Catholics from their first conversion; the Suevi became +Catholics much earlier than the Goths. The African conquests +of Belisarius gave the Goths of Spain, instead of the Arian +Vandals, another Catholic neighbour in the form of the restored +Roman power. The Catholics everywhere preferred either +Roman, Suevian or Frankish rule to that of the heretical Goths; +even the unconquerable mountaineers of Cantabria seem for +a while to have received a Frankish governor. In some other +mountain districts the Roman inhabitants long maintained +their independence, and in 534 a large part of the south of Spain, +including the great cities of Cadiz, Cordova, Seville and New +Carthage, was, with the good will of its Roman inhabitants, +reunited to the Empire, which kept some points on the coast +as late as 624. That is to say, the same work which the Empire +was carrying on in Italy against the East Goths was at the same +moment carried on in Spain against the West Goths. But in +Italy the whole land was for a while won back, and the Gothic +power passed away for ever. In Spain the Gothic power outlived +the Roman power, but it outlived it only by itself becoming +in some measure Roman. The greatest period of the Gothic +power as such was in the reign of Leovigild (568-586). He +reunited the Gaulish and Spanish parts of the kingdom which +had been parted for a moment; he united the Suevian dominion +to his own; he overcame some of the independent districts, +and won back part of the recovered Roman province in southern +Spain. He further established the power of the crown over the +Gothic nobles, who were beginning to grow into territorial lords. +The next reign, that of his son Recared (586-601), was marked +by a change which took away the great hindrance which had +thus far stood in the way of any national union between +Goths and Romans. The king and the greater part of the +Gothic people embraced the Catholic faith. A vast degree of +influence now fell into the hands of the Catholic bishops; the +two nations began to unite; the Goths were gradually romanized +and the Gothic language began to go out of use. In short, the +Romance nation and the Romance speech of Spain began to +be formed. The Goths supplied the Teutonic infusion into the +Roman mass. The kingdom, however, still remained a Gothic +kingdom. “Gothic,” not “Roman” or “Spanish,” is its +formal title; only a single late instance of the use of the formula +“regnum Hispaniae” is known. In the first half of the 7th +century that name became for the first time geographically +applicable by the conquest of the still Roman coast of southern +Spain. The Empire was then engaged in the great struggle +with the Avars and Persians, and, now that the Gothic kings +were Catholic, the great objection to their rule on the part of +the Roman inhabitants was taken away. The Gothic nobility +still remained a distinct class, and held, along with the Catholic +prelacy, the right of choosing the king. Union with the Catholic +Church was accompanied by the introduction of the ecclesiastical +ceremony of anointing, a change decidedly favourable to +elective rule. The growth of those later ideas which tended +again to favour the hereditary doctrine had not time to grow +up in Spain before the Mahommedan conquest (711). The West +Gothic crown therefore remained elective till the end. The +modern Spanish nation is the growth of the long struggle with +the Mussulmans; but it has a direct connexion with the West +Gothic kingdom. We see at once that the Goths hold altogether +a different place in Spanish memory from that which they hold +in Italian memory. In Italy the Goth was but a momentary +invader and ruler; the Teutonic element in Italy comes from +other sources. In Spain the Goth supplies an important element +in the modern nation. And that element has been neither +forgotten nor despised. Part of the unconquered region of +northern Spain, the land of Asturia, kept for a while the name +of Gothia, as did the Gothic possessions in Gaul and in Crim. +The name of the people who played so great a part in all southern +Europe, and who actually ruled over so large a part of it has +now wholly passed away; but it is in Spain that its historical +impress is to be looked for.</p> + +<p>Of Gothic literature in the Gothic language we have the Bible +of Ulfilas, and some other religious writings and fragments +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gothic Language</a></span> below). Of Gothic legislation in Latin +we have the edict of Theodoric of the year 500, edited by F. +Bluhme in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>; and the books +of <i>Variae</i> of Cassiodorus may pass as a collection of the state +papers of Theodoric and his immediate successors. Among the +West Goths written laws had already been put forth by Euric. +The second Alaric (484-507) put forth a <i>Breviarium</i> of Roman +law for his Roman subjects; but the great collection of West +Gothic laws dates from the later days of the monarchy, being +put forth by King Recceswinth about 654. This code gave +occasion to some well-known comments by Montesquieu and +Gibbon, and has been discussed by Savigny (<i>Geschichte des +römischen Rechts</i>, ii. 65) and various other writers. They are +printed in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae, leges</i>, tome i. (1902). +Of special Gothic histories, besides that of Jordanes, already +so often quoted, there is the Gothic history of Isidore, archbishop +of Seville, a special source of the history of the West Gothic +kings down to Svinthala (621-631). But all the Latin and +Greek writers contemporary with the days of Gothic predominance +make their constant contributions. Not for special facts, but +for a general estimate, no writer is more instructive than Salvian +of Marseilles in the 5th century, whose work <i>De Gubernatione Dei</i> +is full of passages contrasting the vices of the Romans with the +virtues of the barbarians, especially of the Goths. In all such +pictures we must allow a good deal for exaggeration both ways, +but there must be a ground-work of truth. The chief virtues +which the Catholic presbyter praises in the Arian Goths are +their chastity, their piety according to their own creed, their +tolerance towards the Catholics under their rule, and their +general good treatment of their Roman subjects. He even +ventures to hope that such good people may be saved, notwithstanding +their heresy. All this must have had some groundwork +of truth in the 5th century, but it is not very wonderful +if the later West Goths of Spain had a good deal fallen away from +the doubtless somewhat ideal picture of Salvian.</p> +<div class="author">(E. A. F.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There is now an extensive literature on the Goths, and among the +principal works may be mentioned: T. Hodgkin, <i>Italy and her +Invaders</i> (Oxford, 1880-1899); J. Aschbach, <i>Geschichte der Westgoten</i> +(Frankfort, 1827); F. Dahn, <i>Die Könige der Germanen</i> (1861-1899); +E. von Wietersheim, <i>Geschichte der Völkerwanderung</i> (1880-1881); +R. Pallmann, <i>Die Geschichte der Völkerwanderung</i> (Gotha, +1863-1864); B. Rappaport, <i>Die Einfälle der Goten in das römische +Reich</i> (Leipzig, 1899), and K. Zeuss, <i>Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstämme</i> +(Munich, 1837). Other works which may be consulted are: +E. Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, edited by J. B. +Bury (1896-1900); H. H. Milman, <i>History of Latin Christianity</i> +(1867); J. B. Bury, <i>History of the Later Roman Empire</i> (1889); +P. Villari, <i>Le Invasioni barbariche in Italia</i> (Milan, 1901); and F. +Martroye, <i>L’Occident ŕ l’époque byzantine: Goths et Vandales</i> (Paris, +1903). There is a popular history of the Goths by H. Bradley in the +“Story of the Nations” series (London, 1888). For the laws see the +<i>Leges</i> in Band I. of the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica, leges</i> (1902). +A. Helfferich, <i>Entstehung und Geschichte des Westgotenrechts</i> (Berlin, +1858); F. Bluhme, <i>Zur Textkritik des Westgotenrechts</i> (1872); F. +Dahn, <i>Lex Visigothorum</i>. <i>Westgotische Studien</i> (Würzburg, 1874); +C. Rinaudo, <i>Leggi dei Visigote, studio</i> (Turin, 1878); and K. Zeumer, +“Geschichte der westgotischen Gesetzgebung” in the <i>Neues Archiv +der Gesellschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde</i>. See also the article +on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theodoric</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Gothic Language.</i>—Our knowledge of the Gothic language +is derived almost entirely from the fragments of a translation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276"></a>276</span> +of the Bible which is believed to have been made by the Arian +bishop Wulfila or Ulfilas (d. 383) for the Goths who dwelt on +the lower Danube. The MSS. which have come down to us +and which date from the period of Ostrogothic rule in Italy +(489-555) contain the Second Epistle to the Corinthians complete, +together with more or less considerable fragments of the four +Gospels and of all the other Pauline Epistles. The only remains +of the Old Testament are three short fragments of Ezra and +Nehemiah. There is also an incomplete commentary (<i>skeireins</i>) +on St John’s Gospel, a fragment of a calendar, and two charters +(from Naples and Arezzo, the latter now lost) which contain +some Gothic sentences. All these texts are written in a special +character, which is said to have been invented by Wulfila. It +is based chiefly on the uncial Greek alphabet, from which +indeed most of the letters are obviously derived, and several +orthographical peculiarities, <i>e.g.</i> the use of <i>ai</i> for <i>e</i> and <i>ei</i> for <i>ī</i> +reflect the Greek pronunciation of the period. Other letters, +however, have been taken over from the Runic and Latin +alphabets. Apart from the texts mentioned above, the only +remains of the Gothic language are the proper names and +occasional words which occur in Greek and Latin writings, +together with some notes, including the Gothic alphabet, in a +Salzburg MS. of the 10th century, and two short inscriptions +on a torque and a spear-head, discovered at Buzeo (Walachia) +and Kovel (Volhynia) respectively. The language itself, as +might be expected from the date of Wulfila’s translation, is +of a much more archaic type than that of any other Teutonic +writings which we possess, except a few of the earliest Northern +inscriptions. This may be seen, <i>e.g.</i> in the better preservation +of final and unaccented syllables and in the retention of the dual +and the middle (passive) voice in verbs. It would be quite +erroneous, however, to regard the Gothic fragments as representing +a type of language common to all Teutonic nations in the +4th century. Indeed the distinctive characteristics of the +language are very marked, and there is good reason for believing +that it differed considerably from the various northern and +western languages, whereas the differences among the latter +at this time were probably comparatively slight (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Teutonic +Languages</a></span>). On the other hand, it must not be supposed that +the language of the Goths stood quite isolated. Procopius +(<i>Vand.</i> i. 2) states distinctly that the Gothic language was +spoken not only by the Ostrogoths and Visigoths but also by the +Vandals and the Gepidae; and in the former case there is sufficient +evidence, chiefly from proper names, to prove that his statement +is not far from the truth. With regard to the Gepidae we have +less information; but since the Goths, according to Jordanes +(cap. 17), believed them to have been originally a branch of +their own nation, it is highly probable that the two languages +were at least closely related. Procopius elsewhere (<i>Vand.</i> i. +3; <i>Goth.</i> i. 1, iii. 2) speaks of the Rugii, Sciri and Alani as +Gothic nations. The fact that the two former were sprung +from the north-east of Germany renders it probable that they +had Gothic affinities, while the Alani, though non-Teutonic +in origin, may have become gothicized in the course of the +migration period. Some modern writers have included in the +same class the Burgundians, a nation which had apparently +come from the basin of the Oder, but the evidence at our disposal +on the whole hardly justifies the supposition that their language +retained a close affinity with Gothic.</p> + +<p>In the 4th and 5th centuries the Gothic language—using +the term in its widest sense—must have spread over the greater +part of Europe together with the north coast of Africa. It +disappeared, however, with surprising rapidity. There is no +evidence for its survival in Italy or Africa after the fall of the +Ostrogothic and Vandal kingdoms, while in Spain it is doubtful +whether the Visigoths retained their language until the Arabic +conquest. In central Europe it may have lingered somewhat +longer in view of the evidence of the Salzburg MS. mentioned +above. Possibly the information there given was derived from +southern Hungary or Transylvania where remains of the Gepidae +were to be found shortly before the Magyar invasion (889). +According to Walafridus Strabo (<i>de Reb. Eccles.</i> cap. 7) also +Gothic was still used in his time (the 9th century) in some +churches in the region of the lower Danube. Thenceforth the +language seems to have survived only among the Goths (<i>Goti +Tetraxitae</i>) of the Crimea, who are mentioned for the last time +by Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, an imperial envoy at Constantinople +about the middle of the 16th century. He collected a +number of words and phrases in use among them which show +clearly that their language, though not unaffected by Iranian +influence, was still essentially a form of Gothic.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. C. von der Gabelentz and J. Loebe, <i>Ulfilas</i> (Altenburg and +Leipzig, 1836-1846); E. Bernhardt, <i>Vulfila oder die gotische Bibel</i> +(Halle, 1875). For other works on the Gothic language see J. Wright, +<i>A Primer of the Gothic Language</i> (Oxford, 1892), p. 143 f. To the +references there given should be added: C. C. Uhlenbeck, <i>Etymologisches +Wörterbuch d. got. Sprache</i> (Amsterdam, 2nd ed. 1901); F. Kluge, +“Geschichte d. got. Sprache” in H. Paul’s <i>Grundriss d. germ. Philologie</i> +(2nd ed., vol. i., Strassburg, 1897); W. Streitberg, <i>Gotisches +Elementarbuch</i> (Heidelberg, 1897); Th. von Grienberger, <i>Beiträge zur +Geschichte d. deutschen Sprache u. Literatur</i>, xxi. 185 ff.; L. F. A. +Wimmer, <i>Die Runenschrift</i> (Berlin, 1887), p. 61 ff.; G. Stephens, +<i>Handbook to the Runic Monuments</i> (London, 1884), p. 203; F. Wrede, +<i>Über die Sprache der Wandalen</i> (Strassburg, 1886). For further +references see K. Zeuss, <i>Die Deutschen</i>, p. 432 f. (where earlier references +to the Crimean Goths are also given); F. Kluge, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 515 +ff.; and O. Bremer, <i>ib.</i> vol. iii., p. 822.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. M. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Geschichte der Völkerwanderung</i> (Gotha, 1863-1864).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOTLAND,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> an island in the Baltic Sea belonging to Sweden, +lying between 57° and 58° N., and having a length from S.S.W. +to N.N.E. of 75 m., a breadth not exceeding 30 m., and an area +of 1142 sq. m. The nearest point on the mainland is 50 m. +from the westernmost point of the island. With the island +Fĺrö, off the northern extremity, the Karlsöe, off the west coast, +and Götska Sandö, 25 m. N. by E., Gotland forms the administrative +district (<i>län</i>) of Gotland. The island is a level plateau +of Silurian limestone, rising gently eastward, of an average +height of 80 to 100 ft., with steep coasts fringed with tapering, +free-standing columns of limestone (<i>raukar</i>). A few low isolated +hills rise inland. The climate is temperate, and the soil, although +in parts dry and sterile, is mostly fertile. Former marshy moors +have been largely drained and cultivated. There are extensive +sand-dunes in the north. As usual in a limestone formation, +some of the streams have their courses partly below the surface, +and caverns are not infrequent. Less than half the total area +is under forest, the extent of which was formerly much greater. +Barley, rye, wheat and oats are grown, especially the first, which +is exported to the breweries on the mainland. The sugar-beet +is also produced and exported, and there are beet-sugar works +on the island. Sheep and cattle are kept; there is a government +sheep farm at Roma, and the cattle may be noted as belonging +principally to an old native breed, yellow and horned. Some +lime-burning, cement-making and sea-fishing are carried on. +The capital of the island is Visby, on the west coast. There are +over 80 m. of railways. Lines run from Visby N.E. to Tingstäde +and S. to Hofdhem, with branches from Roma to Klintehamn, +a small watering-place on the west coast, and to Slitehamn on +the east. Excepting along the coast the island has no scenic +attraction, but it is of the highest archaeological interest. Nearly +every village has its ruined church, and others occur where no +villages remain. The shrunken walled town of Visby was one +of the richest commercial centres of the Baltic from the 11th to +the 14th century, and its prosperity was shared by the whole +island. It retains ten churches besides the cathedral. The +massive towers of the village churches are often detached, and +doubtless served purposes of defence. The churches of Roma, +Hemse, with remarkable mural paintings, Othen and Lärbo +may be specially noted. Some contain fine stained glass, as at +Dalhem near Visby. The natives of Gotland speak a dialect +distinguished from that of any part of the Swedish mainland. +Pop. of <i>län</i> (1900) 52,781.</p> + +<p>Gotland was subject to Sweden before 890, and in 1030 was +christianized by St Olaf, king of Norway, when returning from +his exile at Kiev. He dedicated the first church in the island to +St Peter at Visby. At that time Visby had long been one of +the most important trading towns in the Baltic, and the chief +distributing centre of the oriental commerce which came to +Europe along the rivers of Russia. In the early years of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>277</span> +Hanseatic League, or about the middle of the 13th century, +it became the chief depôt for the produce of the eastern Baltic +countries, including, in a commercial sense, its daughter colony +(11th century or earlier) of Novgorod the Great. Although +Visby was an independent member of the Hanseatic League, +the influence of Lübeck was paramount in the city, and half +its governing body were men of German descent. Indeed, +Björkander endeavours to prove that the city was a German +(Hanseatic) foundation, dating principally from the middle +of the 12th century. However that may be, the importance of +Visby in the sea trade of the North is conclusively attested by +the famous code of maritime law which bears its name. This +<i>Waterrecht dat de Kooplüde en de Schippers gemakt hebben to +Visby</i> (“sea-law which the merchants and seamen have made +at Visby”) was a compilation based upon the Lübeck code, +the Oléron code and the Amsterdam code, and was first printed +in Low German in 1505, but in all probability had its origin about +1240, or not much later (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sea Laws</a></span>). By the middle of the the city was so +great that, according to an old ballad, “the Gotlanders weighed +out gold with stone weights and played with the choicest jewels. +The swine ate out of silver troughs, and the women spun with +distaffs of gold.” This fabled wealth was too strong a temptation +for the energetic Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark. In 1361 he +invaded the island, routed the defenders of Visby under the +city walls (a monolithic cross marks the burial-place of the +islanders who fell) and plundered the city. From this blow +it never recovered, its decay being, however, materially helped +by the fact that for the greater part of the next 150 years it was +the stronghold of successive freebooters or sea-rovers—first, +of the Hanseatic privateers called Vitalienbrödre or Viktualienbrüder, +who made it their stronghold during the last eight +years of the 14th century; then of the Teutonic Knights, whose +Grand Master drove out the “Victuals Brothers,” and kept the +island until it was redeemed by Queen Margaret. There too +Erik XIII. (the Pomeranian), after being driven out of Denmark +by his own subjects, established himself in 1437, and for a +dozen years waged piracy upon Danes and Swedes alike. After +him came Olaf and Ivar Thott, two Danish lords, who down to +the year 1487 terrorized the seas from their pirates’ stronghold +of Visby. Lastly, the Danish admiral Sören Norrby, the last +supporter of Christian I. of Denmark, when his master’s cause +was lost, waged a guerrilla war upon the Danish merchant ships +and others from the same convenient base. But this led to an +expedition by the men of Lübeck, who partly destroyed Visby +in 1525. By the peace of Stettin (1570) Gotland was confirmed +to the Danish crown, to which it had been given by Queen +Margaret. But at the peace of Brömsebro in 1645 it was at length +restored to Sweden, to which it has since belonged, except for +the three years 1676-1679, when it was forcibly occupied by the +Danes, and a few weeks in 1808, when the Russians landed a force.</p> + +<p>The extreme wealth of the Gotlanders naturally fostered a +spirit of independence, and their relations with Sweden were +curious. The island at one period paid an annual tribute of +60 marks of silver to Sweden, but it was clearly recognized that +it was paid by the desire of the Gotlanders, and not enforced +by Sweden. The pope recognized their independence, and it +was by their own free will that they came under the spiritual +charge of the bishop of Linköping. Their local government was +republican in form, and a popular assembly is indicated in the +written <i>Gotland Law</i>, which dates not later than the middle of +the 13th century. Sweden had no rights of objection to the +measures adopted by this body, and there was no Swedish +judge or other official in the island. Visby had a system of +government and rights independent of, and in some measure +opposed to, that of the rest of the island. It seems clear that +there were at one time two separate corporations, for the native +Gotlanders and the foreign traders respectively, and that +these were subsequently fused. The rights and status of native +Gotlanders were not enjoyed by foreigners as a whole—even +intermarriage was illegal—but Germans, on account of their +commercial pre-eminence in the island, were excepted.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. H. Bergman, <i>Gotland’s geografi och historia</i> (Stockholm, +1898) and <i>Gotländska skildringar och minnen</i> (Visby, 1902); A. T. +Snöbohm, <i>Gotlands land och folk</i> (Visby, 1897 et seq.); W. Moler, +<i>Bidrag till en Gotländsk bibliografi</i> (Stockholm, 1890); Hans Hildebrand, +<i>Visby och dess Minnesmärken</i> (Stockholm, 1892 et seq.); +A. Björkander, <i>Till Visby Stads Aeldsta Historia</i> (1898), where most +of the literature dealing with the subject is mentioned; but some of +the author’s arguments require criticism. For local government and +rights see K. Hegel, <i>Städter und Gilden im Mittelalter</i> (book iii. ch. +iii., Leipzig, 1891).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOTO ISLANDS<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Goto Retto</span>, <span class="sc">Gotto</span>], a group of islands +belonging to Japan, lying west of Kiushiu, in 33° N., 129° E. +The southern of the two principal islands, Fukae-shima, measures +17 m. by 13˝; the northern, Nakaori-shima, measures 23 m. by +7˝. These islands lie almost in the direct route of steamers plying +between Nagasaki and Shanghai, and are distant some 50 m. from +Nagasaki. Some dome-shaped hills command the old castle-town +of Fukae. The islands are highly cultivated; deer and +other game abound, and trout are plentiful in the mountain +streams. A majority of the inhabitants are Christians.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOTTER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1746-1797), German poet +and dramatist, was born on the 3rd of September 1746, at Gotha. +After the completion of his university career at Göttingen, he +was appointed second director of the Archive of his native town, +and subsequently went to Wetzlar, the seat of the imperial law +courts, as secretary to the Saxe-Coburg-Gotha legation. In +1768 he returned to Gotha as tutor to two young noblemen, and +here, together with H. C. Boie, he founded the famous <i>Göttinger +Musenalmanach</i>. In 1770 he was once more in Wetzlar, where +he belonged to Goethe’s circle of acquaintances. Four years +later he took up his permanent abode in Gotha, where he died on +the 18th of March 1797. Gotter was the chief representative of +French taste in the German literary life of his time. His own +poetry is elegant and polished, and in great measure free from the +trivialities of the Anacreontic lyric of the earlier generation of +imitators of French literature; but he was lacking in the imaginative +depth that characterizes the German poetic temperament. +His plays, of which <i>Merope</i> (1774), an adaptation in admirable +blank verse of the tragedies of Maffei and Voltaire, and <i>Medea</i> +(1775), a <i>melodrame</i>, are best known, were mostly based on +French originals and had considerable influence in counteracting +the formlessness and irregularity of the <i>Sturm und Drang</i> drama.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gutter’s collected <i>Gedichte</i> appeared in 2 vols. in 1787 and 1788; +a third volume (1802) contains his <i>Literarischer Nachlass</i>. See B. +Litzmann, <i>Schröder und Gotter</i> (1887), and R. Schlösser, <i>F. W. +Gotter, sein Leben und seine Werke</i> (1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> one of the chief German +poets of the middle ages. The dates of his birth and death +are alike unknown, but he was the contemporary of Hartmann +von Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach and Walther von der +Vogelweide, and his epic <i>Tristan</i> was written about the year +1210. In all probability he did not belong to the nobility, as +he is entitled <i>Meister</i>, never <i>Herr</i>, by his contemporaries; his +poem—the only work that can with any certainty be attributed +to him—bears witness to a learned education. The story of +<i>Tristan</i> had been evolved from its shadowy Celtic origins by the +French <i>trouvčres</i> of the early 12th century, and had already +found its way into Germany before the close of that century, +in the crude, unpolished version of Eilhart von Oberge. It +was Gottfried, however, who gave it its final form. His version +is based not on that of Chrétien de Troyes, but on that of a +<i>trouvčre</i> Thomas, who seems to have been more popular with +contemporaries. A comparison of the German epic with the +French original is, however, impossible, as Chrétien’s <i>Tristan</i> +is entirely lost, and of Thomas’s only a few fragments have come +down to us. The story centres in the fatal voyage which Tristan, +a vassal to the court of his uncle King Marke of Kurnewal +(Cornwall), makes to Ireland to bring back Isolde as the king’s +bride. On the return voyage Tristan and Isolde drink by +mistake a love potion, which binds them irrevocably to each other. +The epic resolves itself into a series of love intrigues in which +the two lovers ingeniously outwit the trusting king. They are +ultimately discovered, and Tristan flees to Normandy where +he marries another Isolde—“Isolde with the white hands”—without +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>278</span> +being able to forget the blond Isolde of Ireland. At this +point Gottfried’s narrative breaks off and to learn the close +of the story we have to turn to two minor poets of the time, +Ulrich von Türheim and Heinrich von Freiberg—the latter +much the superior—who have supplied the conclusion. After +further love adventures Tristan is fatally wounded by a poisoned +spear in Normandy; the “blond Isolde,” as the only person +who has power to cure him, is summoned from Cornwall. The +ship that brings her is to bear a white sail if she is on board, +a black one if not. Tristan’s wife, however, deceives him, +announcing that the sail is black, and when Isolde arrives, +she finds her lover dead. Marke at last learns the truth concerning +the love potion, and has the two lovers buried side by side +in Kurnewal.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to form an estimate of Gottfried’s independence +of his French source; but it seems clear that he followed closely +the narrative of events he found in Thomas. He has, however, +introduced into the story an astounding fineness of psychological +motive, which, to judge from a general comparison of the +Arthurian epic in both lands, is German rather than French; +he has spiritualized and deepened the narrative; he has, above +all, depicted with a variety and insight, unusual in medieval +literature, the effects of an overpowering passion. Yet, glowing +and seductive as Gottfried’s love-scenes are, they are never +for a moment disfigured by frivolous hints or innuendo; the +tragedy is unrolled with an earnestness that admits of no touch +of humour, and also, it may be added, with a freedom from +moralizing which was easier to attain in the 13th than in later +centuries. The mastery of style is no less conspicuous. Gottfried +had learned his best lessons from Hartmann von Aue, but he +was a more original and daring artificer of rhymes and rhythms +than that master; he delighted in the sheer music of words, +and indulged in antitheses and allegorical conceits to an extent +that proved fatal to his imitators. As far as beauty of expression +is concerned, Gottfried’s <i>Tristan</i> is the masterpiece of the German +court epic.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gottfried’s <i>Tristan</i> has been frequently edited: by H. F. Massman +(Leipzig, 1843); by R. Bechstein (2 vols., 3rd ed., Leipzig,1890-1891); +by W. Golther (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1889); by K. Marold +(1906). Translations into modern German have been made by H. +Kurz (Stuttgart, 1844); by K. Simrock (Leipzig, 1855); and, best +of all, by W. Hertz (Stuttgart, 1877). There is also an abbreviated +English translation by Jessie L. Weston (London, 1899). The +continuation of Ulrich von Türheim will be found in Massman’s +edition; that by Heinrich von Freiberg has been separately edited +by R. Bechstein (Leipzig, 1877). See also R. Heinzel, “Gottfrieds +von Strassburg Tristan und seine Quelle” in the <i>Zeit. für deut. Alt.</i> +xiv. (1869), pp. 272 ff.; W. Golther, <i>Die Sage von Tristan und +Isolde</i> (Munich, 1887); F. Piquet, <i>L’Originalité de Gottfried de +Strasbourg dans son počme de Tristan et Isolde</i> (Lille, 1905). K. +Immermann (<i>q.v.</i>) has written an epic of <i>Tristan und Isolde</i> (1840), +R. Wagner (<i>q.v.</i>) a musical drama (1865). Cp. R. Bechstein, <i>Tristan +und Isolde in der deutschen Dichtung der Neuzeit</i> (Leipzig, 1877).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÖTTINGEN,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Hanover, pleasantly situated at the west foot of the Hainberg +(1200 ft.), in the broad and fertile valley of the Leine, 67 m. S. +from Hanover, on the railway to Cassel. Pop. (1875) 17,057, +(1905) 34,030. It is traversed by the Leine canal, which separates +the Altstadt from the Neustadt and from Masch, and is surrounded +by ramparts, which are planted with lime-trees and form an +agreeable promenade. The streets in the older part of the town +are for the most part crooked and narrow, but the newer portions +are spaciously and regularly built. Apart from the Protestant +churches of St John, with twin towers, and of St James, with a +high tower (290 ft.), the medieval town hall, built in the 14th +century and restored in 1880, and the numerous university +buildings, Göttingen possesses few structures of any public +importance. There are several thriving industries, including, +besides the various branches of the publishing trade, the manufacture +of cloth and woollens and of mathematical and other +scientific instruments.</p> + +<p>The university, the famous Georgia Augusta, founded by +George II. in 1734 and opened in 1737, rapidly attained a leading +position, and in 1823 its students numbered 1547. Political +disturbances, in which both professors and students were implicated, +lowered the attendance to 860 in 1834. The expulsion +in 1837 of the famous seven professors—<i>Die Göttinger Sieben</i>—viz. +the Germanist, Wilhelm Eduard Albrecht (1800-1876); +the historian, Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann (1785-1860); +the orientalist, Georg Heinrich August Ewald (1803-1875); +the historian, Georg Gottfried Gervinus (1805-1875); the +physicist, Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1804-1891); and the philologists, +the brothers Jacob Ludwig Karl Grimm (1785-1863), +and Wilhelm Karl Grimm (1786-1859),—for protesting against +the revocation by King Ernest Augustus of Hanover of the +liberal constitution of 1833, further reduced the prosperity of +the university. The events of 1848, on the other hand, told +somewhat in its favour; and, since the annexation of Hanover in +1866, it has been carefully fostered by the Prussian government. +In 1903 its teaching staff numbered 121 and its students 1529. +The main university building lies on the Wilhelmsplatz, and, +adjoining, is the famous library of 500,000 vols, and 5300 MSS., +the richest collection of modern literature in Germany. There +is a good chemical laboratory as well as adequate zoological, +ethnographical and mineralogical collections, the most remarkable +being Blumenbach’s famous collection of skulls in the +anatomical institute. There are also a celebrated observatory, +long under the direction of Wilhelm Klinkerfues (1827-1884), +a botanical garden, an agricultural institute and various hospitals, +all connected with the university. Of the scientific societies +the most noted is the Royal Society of Sciences (<i>Königliche +Sozietät der Wissenschaften</i>) founded by Albrecht von Haller, +which is divided into three classes, the physical, the mathematical +and the historical-philological. It numbers about 80 members +and publishes the well-known <i>Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen</i>. +There are monuments in the town to the mathematicians K. F. +Gauss and W. E. Weber, and also to the poet G. A. Bürger.</p> + +<p>The earliest mention of a village of Goding or Gutingi occurs +in documents of about 950 <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The place received municipal +rights from the German king Otto IV. about 1210, and from +1286 to 1463 it was the seat of the princely house of Brunswick-Göttingen. +During the 14th century it held a high place among +the towns of the Hanseatic League. In 1531 it joined the +Reformation movement, and in the following century it suffered +considerably in the Thirty Years’ War, being taken by Tilly +in 1626, after a siege of 25 days, and recaptured by the +Saxons in 1632. After a century of decay, it was anew brought +into importance by the establishment of its university; and a +marked increase in its industrial and commercial prosperity +has again taken place in recent years. Towards the end of the +18th century Göttingen was the centre of a society of young +poets of the <i>Sturm und Drang</i> period of German literature, known +as the <i>Göttingen Dichterbund</i> or <i>Hainbund</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Germany</a></span>: +<i>Literature</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Freusdorff, <i>Göttingen in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart</i> (Göttingen, +1887); the <i>Urkundenbuch der Stadt Göttingen</i>, edited by G. +Schmidt, A. Hasselblatt and G. Kästner; Unger, <i>Göttingen und die +Georgia Augusta</i> (1861); and <i>Göttinger Professoren</i> (Gotha, 1872); +and O. Mejer, <i>Kulturgeschichtliche Bilder aus Göttingen</i> (1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÖTTLING, CARL WILHELM<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1793-1869), German classical +scholar, was born at Jena on the 19th of January 1793. +He studied at the universities of Jena and Berlin, took part +in the war against France in 1814, and finally settled down +in 1822 as professor at the university of his native town, where +he continued to reside till his death on the 20th of January +1869. In his early years Göttling devoted himself to German +literature, and published two works on the Nibelungen: <i>Über das +Geschichtliche im Nibelungenliede</i> (1814) and <i>Nibelungen und +Gibelinen</i> (1817). The greater part of his life, however, was +devoted to the study of classical literature, especially the elucidation +of Greek authors. The contents of his <i>Gesammelte Abhandlungen +aus dem klassischen Altertum</i> (1851-1863) and <i>Opuscula +Academica</i> (published in 1869 after his death) sufficiently indicate +the varied nature of his studies. He edited the <span class="grk" title="Technę">Τέχνη</span> (grammatical +manual) of Theodosius of Alexandria (1822), Aristotle’s +<i>Politics</i> (1824), and <i>Economics</i> (1830) and Hesiod (1831; 3rd ed. +by J. Flach, 1878). Mention may also be made of his <i>Allgemeine +Lehre vom Accent der griechischen Sprache</i> (1835), enlarged from a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span> +smaller work, which was translated into English (1831) as the +<i>Elements of Greek Accentuation</i>; and of his <i>Correspondence with +Goethe</i> (published 1880).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See memoirs by C. Nipperdey, his colleague at Jena (1869), G. +Lothholz (Stargard, 1876), K. Fischer (preface to the <i>Opuscula +Academica</i>), and C. Bursian in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, ix.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOTTSCHALK<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Godescalus</span>, <span class="sc">Gottescale</span>], (<i>c.</i> 808-867 ?), +German theologian, was born near Mainz, and was devoted +(<i>oblatus</i>) from infancy by his parents,—his father was a Saxon, +Count Bern,—to the monastic life. He was trained at the +monastery of Fulda, then under the abbot Hrabanus Maurus, and +became the friend of Walafrid Strabo and Loup of Ferričres. In +June 829, at the synod of Mainz, on the pretext that he had been +unduly constrained by his abbot, he sought and obtained his +liberty, withdrew first to Corbie, where he met Ratramnus, and +then to the monastery of Orbais in the diocese of Soissons. +There he studied St Augustine, with the result that he became an +enthusiastic believer in the doctrine of absolute predestination, in +one point going beyond his master—Gottschalk believing in a +predestination to condemnation as well as in a predestination to +salvation, while Augustine had contented himself with the +doctrine of preterition as complementary to the doctrine of election. +Between 835 and 840 Gottschalk was ordained priest, +without the knowledge of his bishop, by Rigbold, <i>chorepiscopus</i> of +Reims. Before 840, deserting his monastery, he went to Italy, +preached there his doctrine of double predestination, and entered +into relations with Notting, bishop of Verona, and Eberhard, +count of Friuli. Driven from Italy through the influence of +Hrabanus Maurus, now archbishop of Mainz, who wrote two +violent letters to Notting and Eberhard, he travelled through +Dalmatia, Pannonia and Norica, but continued preaching and +writing. In October 848 he presented to the synod at Mainz a +profession of faith and a refutation of the ideas expressed by +Hrabanus Maurus in his letter to Notting. He was convicted, +however, of heresy, beaten, obliged to swear that he would never +again enter the territory of Louis the German, and handed over +to Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, who sent him back to his +monastery at Orbais. The next year at a provincial council at +Quierzy, presided over by Charles the Bald, he attempted to +justify his ideas, but was again condemned as a heretic and +disturber of the public peace, was degraded from the priesthood, +whipped, obliged to burn his declaration of faith, and shut up in +the monastery of Hautvilliers. There Hincmar tried again to +induce him to retract. Gottschalk however continued to defend +his doctrine, writing to his friends and to the most eminent theologians +of France and Germany. A great controversy resulted. +Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, Wenilo of Sens, Ratramnus of +Corbie, Loup of Ferričres and Florus of Lyons wrote in his +favour. Hincmar wrote <i>De praedestinatione</i> and <i>De una non +trina deitate</i> against his views, but gained little aid from +Johannes Scotus Erigena, whom he had called in as an authority. +The question was discussed at the councils of Kiersy (853), of +Valence (855) and of Savonničres (859). Finally the pope +Nicolas I. took up the case, and summoned Hincmar to the +council of Metz (863). Hincmar either could not or would not +appear, but declared that Gottschalk might go to defend himself +before the pope. Nothing came of this, however, and when +Hincmar learned that Gottschalk had fallen ill, he forbade him +the sacraments or burial in consecrated ground unless he would +recant. This Gottschalk refused to do. He died on the 30th of +October between 866 and 870.</p> + +<p>Gottschalk was a vigorous and original thinker, but also of a +violent temperament, incapable of discipline or moderation in +his ideas as in his conduct. He was less an innovator than a +reactionary. Of his many works we have only the two professions +of faith (cf. Migne, <i>Patrologia Latina</i>, cxxi. c. 347 et seq.), +and some poems, edited by L. Traube in <i>Monumenta Germaniae +historica: Poëtae Latini aevi Carolini</i> (t. iii. 707-738). Some +fragments of his theological treatises have been preserved in the +writings of Hincmar, Erigena, Ratramnus and Loup of Ferričres.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>From the 17th century, when the Jansenists exalted Gottschalk, +much has been written on him. Mention may be made of two +recent studies, F. Picavet, “Les Discussions sur la liberté au temps +de Gottschalk, de Raban Maur, d’Hincmar, et de Jean Scot,” in +<i>Comptes rendus de l’acad. des sciences morales et politiques</i> (Paris, +1896); and A. Freystedt, “Studien zu Gottschalks Leben und +Lehre,” in <i>Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte</i> (1897), vol. xviii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOTTSCHALL, RUDOLF VON<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1823-1909), German man of +letters, was born at Breslau on the 30th of September 1823, the +son of a Prussian artillery officer. He received his early education +at the gymnasia in Mainz and Coburg, and subsequently at +Rastenburg in East Prussia. In 1841 he entered the university +of Königsberg as a student of law, but, in consequence of his +pronounced liberal opinions, was expelled. The academic +authorities at Breslau and Leipzig were not more tolerant +towards the young fire-eater, and it was only in Berlin that he +eventually found himself free to prosecute his studies. During +this period of unrest he issued <i>Lieder der Gegenwart</i> (1842) and +<i>Zensurflüchtlinge</i> (1843)—the poetical fruits of his political +enthusiasm. He completed his studies in Berlin, took the degree +of <i>doctor juris</i> in Königsberg, and endeavoured to obtain there the +<i>venia legendi</i>. His political views again stood in the way, and +forsaking the legal career, Gottschall now devoted himself entirely +to literature. He met with immediate success, and beginning as +dramaturge in Königsberg with <i>Der Blinde von Alcala</i> (1846) and +<i>Lord Byron in Italien</i> (1847) proceeded to Hamburg where he +occupied a similar position. In 1852 he married Marie, baroness +von Seherr-Thoss, and for the next few years lived in Silesia. +In 1862 he took over the editorship of a Posen newspaper, but in +1864 removed to Leipzig. Gottschall was raised, in 1877, by the +king of Prussia to the hereditary nobility with the prefix “von,” +having been previously made a <i>Geheimer Hofrat</i> by the grand duke +of Weimar. Down to 1887 Gottschall edited the <i>Brockhaus’sche +Blätter für litterarische Unterhaltung</i> and the monthly periodical +<i>Unsere Zeit</i>. He died at Leipzig on the 21st of March 1909.</p> + +<p>Gottschall’s prolific literary productions cover the fields of +poetry, novel-writing and literary criticism. Among his volumes +of lyric poetry are <i>Sebastopol</i> (1856), <i>Janus</i> (1873), <i>Bunte Blüten</i> +(1891). Among his epics, <i>Carlo Zeno</i> (1854), <i>Maja</i> (1864), dealing +with an episode in the Indian Mutiny, and <i>Merlins Wanderungen</i> +(1887). The comedy <i>Pitt und Fox</i> (1854), first produced +on the stage in Breslau, was never surpassed by the other lighter +pieces of the author, among which may be mentioned <i>Die Welt +des Schwindels</i> and <i>Der Spion von Rheinsberg</i>. The tragedies, +<i>Mazeppa</i>, <i>Catharine Howard</i>, <i>Amy Robsart</i> and <i>Der Götze von +Venedig</i>, were very successful; and the historical novels, <i>Im +Banne des schwarzen Adlers</i> (1875; 4th ed., 1884), <i>Die Erbschaft +des Blutes</i> (1881), <i>Die Tochter Rübezahls</i> (1889), and <i>Verkümmerte +Existenzen</i> (1892), enjoyed a high degree of popularity. As a +critic and historian of literature Gottschall has also done excellent +work. His <i>Die deutsche Nationalliteratur des 19. Jahrhunderts</i> +(1855; 7th ed., 1901-1902), and <i>Poetik</i> (1858; 6th ed., 1903) +command the respect of all students of literature.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gottschall’s collected <i>Dramatische Werke</i> appeared in 12 vols. in +1880 (2nd ed., 1884); he has also, in recent years, published many +volumes of collected essays and criticisms. See his autobiography, +<i>Aus meiner Jugend</i> (1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOTTSCHED, JOHANN CHRISTOPH<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1700-1766), German +author and critic, was born on the 2nd of February 1700, at +Judithenkirch near Königsberg, the son of a Lutheran clergyman. +He studied philosophy and history at the university of his native +town, but immediately on taking the degree of <i>Magister</i> in 1723, +fled to Leipzig in order to evade impressment in the Prussian +military service. Here he enjoyed the protection of J. B. +Mencke (1674-1732), who, under the name of “Philander von +der Linde,” was a well-known poet and also president of the +<i>Deutschübende poetische Gesellschaft</i> in Leipzig. Of this society +Gottsched was elected “Senior” in 1726, and in the next year +reorganized it under the title of the <i>Deutsche Gesellschaft</i>. In +1730 he was appointed extraordinary professor of poetry, and, +in 1734, ordinary professor of logic and metaphysics in the +university. He died at Leipzig on the 12th of December 1766.</p> + +<p>Gottsched’s chief work was his <i>Versuch einer kritischen +Dichtkunst für die Deutschen</i> (1730), the first systematic treatise +in German on the art of poetry from the standpoint of Boileau. +His <i>Ausführliche Redekunst</i> (1728) and his <i>Grundlegung einer</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>280</span> +<i>deutschen Sprachkunst</i> (1748) were of importance for the development +of German style and the purification of the language. +He wrote several plays, of which <i>Der sterbende Cato</i> (1732), an +adaptation of Addison’s tragedy and a French play on the same +theme, was long popular on the stage. In his <i>Deutsche Schaubühne</i> +(6 vols., 1740-1745), which contained mainly translations +from the French, he provided the German stage with a classical +repertory, and his bibliography of the German drama, <i>Nötiger +Vorrat zur Geschichte der deutschen dramatischen Dichtkunst</i> +(1757-1765), is still valuable. He was also the editor of several +journals devoted to literary criticism. As a critic, Gottsched +insisted on German literature being subordinated to the laws +of French classicism; he enunciated rules by which the playwright +must be bound, and abolished bombast and buffoonery +from the serious stage. While such reforms obviously afforded +a healthy corrective to the extravagance and want of taste +which were rampant in the German literature of the time, +Gottsched went too far. In 1740 he came into conflict with the +Swiss writers Johann Jakob Bodmer (<i>q.v.</i>) and Johann Jakob +Breitinger (1701-1776), who, under the influence of Addison +and contemporary Italian critics, demanded that the poetic +imagination should not be hampered by artificial rules; they +pointed to the great English poets, and especially to Milton. +Gottsched, although not blind to the beauties of the English +writers, clung the more tenaciously to his principle that poetry +must be the product of rules, and, in the fierce controversy +which for a time raged between Leipzig and Zürich, he was +inevitably defeated. His influence speedily declined, and +before his death his name became proverbial for pedantic +folly.</p> + +<p>His wife, Luise Adelgunde Victorie, née Kulmus (1713-1762), +in some respects her husband’s intellectual superior, was an +author of some reputation. She wrote several popular comedies, +of which <i>Das Testament</i> is the best, and translated the <i>Spectator</i> +(9 vols., 1730-1743), Pope’s <i>Rape of the Lock</i> (1744) and other +English and French works. After her death her husband edited +her <i>Sämtliche kleinere Gedichte</i> with a memoir (1763).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See T. W. Danzel, <i>Gottsched und seine Zeit</i> (Leipzig, 1848); J. +Crüger, Gottsched, <i>Bodmer, und Breitinger</i> (with selections from their +writings) (Stuttgart, 1884); F. Servaes, <i>Die Poetik Gottscheds und +der Schweizer</i> (Strassburg, 1887); E. Wolff, <i>Gottscheds Stellung im +deutschen Bildungsleben</i> (2 vols., Kiel, 1895-1897), and G. Waniek, +<i>Gottsched und die deutsche Literatur seiner Zeit</i> (Leipzig, 1897). On +Frau Gottsched, see P. Schlenther, <i>Frau Gottsched und die bürgerliche +Komödie</i> (Berlin, 1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GÖTZ, JOHANN NIKOLAUS<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1721-1781), German poet, was +born at Worms on the 9th of July 1721. He studied theology +at Halle (1739-1742), where he became intimate with the poets +Johann W. L. Gleim and Johann Peter Uz, acted for some years +as military chaplain, and afterwards filled various other ecclesiastical +offices. He died at Winterburg on the 4th of November +1781. The writings of Götz consist of a number of short lyrics +and several translations, of which the best is a rendering of +Anacreon. His original compositions are light, lively and +sparkling, and are animated rather by French wit than by +German depth of sentiment. The best known of his poems is +<i>Die Mädcheninsel</i>, an elegy which met with the warm approval +of Frederick the Great.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Götz’s <i>Vermischte Gedichte</i> were published with biography by +K. W. Ramler (Mannheim, 1785; new ed., 1807), and a collection of +his poems, dating from the years 1745-1765, has been edited by +C. Schüddekopf in the <i>Deutsche Literaturdenkmale des 18. und 19. +Jahrhunderts</i> (1893). See also <i>Briefe von und an J. N. Götz</i>, edited +by C. Schüddekopf (1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOUACHE,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a French word adapted from the Ital. <i>guazzo</i> +(probably in origin connected with “wash”), meaning literally +a “ford,” but used also for a method of painting in opaque +water-colour. The colours are mixed with or painted in a +vehicle of gum or honey, and whereas in true water-colours +the high lights are obtained by leaving blank the surface of the +paper or other material used, or by allowing it to show through +a translucent wash in “gouache,” these are obtained by white +or other light colour. “Gouache” is frequently used in miniature +painting.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOUDA<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Ter Gouwe</span>), a town of Holland, in the province +of South Holland, on the north side of the Gouwe at its confluence +with the Ysel, and a junction station 12˝ m. by rail N.E. of Rotterdam. +Pop. (1900) 22,303. Tramways connect it with Bodegraven +(5˝m. N.) on the old Rhine and with Oudewater (8 m. E.) on +the Ysel; and there is a regular steamboat service in various +directions, Amsterdam being reached by the canalized Gouwe; +Aar, Drecht and Amstel. The town of Gouda is laid out in a +fine open manner and, like other Dutch towns, is intersected by +numerous canals. On its outskirts pleasant walks and fine +trees have replaced the old fortifications. The Groote Markt +is the largest market-square in Holland. Among the numerous +churches belonging to various denominations, the first place must +be given to the Groote Kerk of St John. It was founded in 1485, +but rebuilt after a fire in 1552, and is remarkable for its dimensions +(345 ft. long and 150 ft. broad), for a large and celebrated organ, +and a splendid series of over forty stained-glass windows presented +by cities and princes and executed by various well-known artists, +including the brothers Dirk (d. <i>c.</i> 1577) and Wouter (d. <i>c.</i> 1590) +Crabeth, between the years 1555 and 1603 (see <i>Explanation +of the Famous and Renowned Glass Works, &c.</i>, Gouda, 1876, +reprinted from an older volume, 1718). Other noteworthy +buildings are the Gothic town hall, founded in 1449 and rebuilt +in 1690, and the weigh-house, built by Pieter Post of Haarlem +(1608-1669) and adorned with a fine relief by Barth. Eggers +(d. <i>c.</i> 1690). The museum of antiquities (1874) contains an +exquisite chalice of the year 1425 and some pictures and portraits +by Wouter Crabeth the younger, Corn. Ketel (a native of Gouda, +1548-1616) and Ferdinand Bol (1616-1680). Other buildings +are the orphanage, the hospital, a house of correction for women +and a music hall.</p> + +<p>In the time of the counts the wealth of Gouda was mainly +derived from brewing and cloth-weaving; but at a later date +the making of clay tobacco pipes became the staple trade, and, +although this industry has somewhat declined, the churchwarden +pipes of Gouda are still well known and largely manufactured. +In winter-time it is considered a feat to skate hither from +Rotterdam and elsewhere to buy such a pipe and return with +it in one’s mouth without its being broken. The mud from the +Ysel furnishes the material for large brick-works and potteries; +there are also a celebrated manufactory of stearine candles, a +yarn factory, an oil refinery and cigar factories. The transit +and shipping trade is considerable, and as one of the principal +markets of South Holland, the round, white Gouda cheeses are +known throughout Europe. Boskoop, 5 m. N. by W. of Gouda +on the Gouwe, is famous for its nursery gardens; and the little +old-world town of Oudewater as the birthplace of the famous +theologian Arminius in 1560. The town hall (1588) of Oudewater +contains a picture by Dirk Stoop (d. 1686), commemorating +the capture of the town by the Spaniards in 1575 and the +subsequent sack and massacre.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> <span class="correction" title="amended from muscial">musical</span> composer of the 16th century, +was born about 1510. The French and the Belgians claim him +as their countryman. In all probability he was born at Besançon, +for in his edition of the songs of Arcadelt, as well as in the mass +of 1554, he calls himself “natif de Besançon” and “Claudius +Godimellus Vescontinus.” This discountenances the theory of +Ambros that he was born at Vaison near Avignon. As to his +early education we know little or nothing, but the excellent +Latin in which some of his letters were written proves that, +in addition to his musical knowledge, he also acquired a good +classical training. It is supposed that he was in Rome in 1540 +at the head of a music-school, and that besides many other +celebrated musicians, Palestrina was amongst his pupils. About +the middle of the century he seems to have left Rome for Paris, +where, in conjunction with Jean Duchemin, he published, in +1555, a musical setting of Horace’s Odes. Infinitely more +important is another collection of vocal pieces, a setting of the +celebrated French version of the Psalms by Marot and Beza +published in 1565. It is written in four parts, the melody being +assigned to the tenor. The invention of the melodies was long +ascribed to Goudimel, but they have now definitely been proved +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>281</span> +to have originated in popular tunes found in the collections of +this period. Some of these tunes are still used by the French +Protestant Church. Others were adopted by the German +Lutherans, a German imitation of the French versions of the +Psalms in the same metres having been published at an early +date. Although the French version of the Psalms was at first +used by Catholics as well as Protestants, there is little doubt +that Goudimel had embraced the new faith. In Michel Brenet’s +Biographie (<i>Annales franc-cuntoises</i>, Besançon, 1898, P. Jacquin) +it is established that in Metz, where he was living in 1565, Goudimel +moved in Huguenot circles, and even figured as godfather +to the daughter of the president of Senneton. Seven years +later he fell a victim to religious fanaticism during the St +Bartholomew massacres at Lyons from the 27th to the 28th of +August 1572, his death, it is stated, being due to “les ennemis +de la gloire de Dieu et quelques méchants envieux de l’honneur +qu’il avait acquis.” Masses and motets belonging to his Roman +period are found in the Vatican library, and in the archives +of various churches in Rome; others were published. Thus +the work entitled <i>Missae tres a Claudio Goudimel praestantissimo +musico auctore, nunc primum in lucem editae</i>, contains one mass +by the learned editor himself, the other two being by Claudius +Sermisy and Jean Maillard respectively. Another collection, +<i>La Fleur des chansons des deux plus excellens musiciens de nostre +temps</i>, consists of part songs by Goudimel and Orlando di Lasso. +Burney gives in his history a motet of Goudimel’s <i>Domine quid +multiplicati sunt</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOUFFIER,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> the name of a great French family, which owned +the estate of Bonnivet in Poitou from the 14th century. <i>Guillaume +Gouffier</i>, chamberlain to Charles VII., was an inveterate +enemy of Jacques Cœur, obtaining his condemnation and afterwards +receiving his property (1491). He had a great number +of children, several of whom played a part in history. Artus, +seigneur de Boisy (<i>c.</i> 1475-1520) was entrusted with the education +of the young count of Angoulęme (Francis I.), and on the accession +of this prince to the throne as Francis I. became grand +master of the royal household, playing an important part in the +government; to him was given the task of negotiating the +treaty of Noyon in 1516; and shortly before his death the king +raised the estates of Roanne and Boisy to the rank of a duchy, +that of Roannais, in his favour. <span class="sc">Adrien Gouffier</span> (d. 1523) +was bishop of Coutances and Albi, and grand almoner of France. +<span class="sc">Guillaume Gouffier</span>, seigneur de Bonnivet, became admiral. +of France (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bonnivet</a></span>). <span class="sc">Claude Gouffier</span>, son of Artus, +was created comte de Maulevrier (1542) and marquis de Boisy +(1564).</p> + +<p>There were many branches of this family, the chief of them +being the dukes of Roannais, the counts of Caravas, the lords of +Crčvecœur and of Bonnivet, the marquises of Thois, of Brazeux, +and of Espagny. The name of Gouffier was adopted in the 18th +century by a branch of the house of Choiseul.</p> +<div class="author">(M. P.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOUGE, MARTIN<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1360-1444), surnamed <span class="sc">de Charpaigne</span>, +French chancellor, was born at Bourges about 1360. A canon +of Bourges, in 1402 he became treasurer to John, duke of Berri, +and in 1406 bishop of Chartres. He was arrested by John the +Fearless, duke of Burgundy, with the hapless Jean de Montaigu +(1349-1409) in 1409, but was soon released and then banished. +Attaching himself to the dauphin Louis, duke of Guienne, he +became his chancellor, the king’s ambassador in Brittany, and a +member of the grand council; and on the 13th of May 1415, +he was transferred from the see of Chartres to that of Clermont-Ferrand. +In May 1418, when the Burgundians re-entered Paris, +he only escaped death at their hands by taking refuge in the +Bastille. He then left Paris, but only to fall into the hands of +his enemy, the duke de la Trémoille, who imprisoned him in +the castle of Sully. Rescued by the dauphin Charles, he was +appointed chancellor of France on the 3rd of February 1422. +He endeavoured to reconcile Burgundy and France, was a party +to the selection of Arthur, earl of Richmond, as constable, but +had to resign his chancellorship in favour of Regnault of Chartres; +first from March 25th to August 6th 1425, and again when La +Trémoille had supplanted Richmond. After the fall of La +Trémoille in 1433 he returned to court, and exercised a powerful +influence over affairs of state almost till his death, which took +place at the castle of Beaulieu (Puy-de-Dôme) on the 25th or +26th of November 1444.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Hiver’s account in the <i>Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires +du Centre</i>, p. 267 (1869); and the <i>Nouvelle Biographie générale</i>, vol. +xxi.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOUGE<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (adopted from the Fr. <i>gouge</i>, derived from the Late +Lat. <i>gubia</i> or <i>gulbia</i>, in Ducange <i>gulbium</i>, an implement <i>ad +hortum excolendum</i>, and also <i>instrumentum ferreum in usu +fabrorum</i>; according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i> the word +is probably of Celtic origin, <i>gylf</i>, a beak, appearing in Welsh, +and <i>gilb</i>, a boring tool, in Cornish), a tool of the chisel type with +a curved blade, used for scooping a groove or channel in wood, +stone, &c. (see Tool). A similar instrument is used in surgery +for operations involving the excision of portions of bone. +“Gouge” is also used as the name of a bookbinder’s tool, for +impressing a curved line on the leather, and for the line so impressed. +In mining, a “gouge” is the layer of soft rock or earth +sometimes found in each side of a vein of coal or ore, which the +miner can scoop out with his pick, and thus attack the vein more +easily from the side. The verb “to gouge” is used in the sense +of scooping or forcing out.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOUGH, HUGH GOUGH,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> <span class="sc">Viscount</span> (1779-1869), British +field-marshal, a descendant of Francis Gough who was made +bishop of Limerick in 1626, was born at Woodstown, Limerick, +on the 3rd of November 1779. Having obtained a commission +in the army in August 1794, he served with the 78th Highlanders +at the Cape of Good Hope, taking part in the capture of Cape +Town and of the Dutch fleet in Saldanha Bay in 1796. His +next service was in the West Indies, where, with the 87th +(Royal Irish Fusiliers), he shared in the attack on Porto Rico, +the capture of Surinam, and the brigand war in St Lucia. In +1809 he was called to take part in the Peninsular War, and, +joining the army under Wellington, commanded his regiment as +major in the operations before Oporto, by which the town was +taken from the French. At Talavera he was severely wounded, +and had his horse shot under him. For his conduct on this +occasion he was afterwards promoted lieutenant-colonel, his +commission, on the recommendation of Wellington, being +antedated from the day of the duke’s despatch. He was thus +the first officer who ever received brevet rank for services +performed in the field at the head of a regiment. He was next +engaged at the battle of Barrosa, at which his regiment captured +a French eagle. At the defence of Tarifa the post of danger +was assigned to him, and he compelled the enemy to raise the +siege. At Vitoria, where Gough again distinguished himself, +his regiment captured the baton of Marshal Jourdan. He was +again severely wounded at Nivelle, and was soon after created a +knight of St Charles by the king of Spain. At the close of the +war he returned home and enjoyed a respite of some years from +active service. He next took command of a regiment stationed +in the south of Ireland, discharging at the same time the duties +of a magistrate during a period of agitation. Gough was promoted +major-general in 1830. Seven years later he was sent to +India to take command of the Mysore division of the army. +But not long after his arrival in India the difficulties which led +to the first Chinese war made the presence of an energetic general +on the scene indispensable, and Gough was appointed commander-in-chief +of the British forces in China. This post he held during +all the operations of the war; and by his great achievements +and numerous victories in the face of immense difficulties, he +at length enabled the English plenipotentiary, Sir H. Pottinger, +to dictate peace on his own terms. After the conclusion of the +treaty of Nanking in August 1842 the British forces were withdrawn; +and before the close of the year Gough, who had been +made a G.C.B, in the previous year for his services in the capture +of the Canton forts, was created a baronet. In August 1843 he +was appointed commander-in-chief of the British forces in India, +and in December he took the command in person against the +Mahrattas, and defeated them at Maharajpur, capturing more +than fifty guns. In 1845 occurred the rupture with the Sikhs, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282"></a>282</span> +who crossed the Sutlej in large numbers, and Sir Hugh Gough +conducted the operations against them, being well supported +by Lord Hardinge, the governor-general, who volunteered to +serve under him. Successes in the hard-fought battles of +Mudki and Ferozeshah were succeeded by the victory of +Sobraon, and shortly afterwards the Sikhs sued for peace at +Lahore. The services of Sir Hugh Gough were rewarded by +his elevation to the peerage of the United Kingdom as Baron +Gough (April 1846). The war broke out again in 1848, and +again Lord Gough took the field; but the result of the battle +of Chillianwalla being equivocal, he was superseded by the +home authorities in favour of Sir Charles Napier; before the +news of the supersession arrived Lord Gough had finally crushed +the Sikhs in the battle of Gujarat (February 1849). His tactics +during the Sikh wars were the subject of an embittered controversy +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sikh Wars</a></span>). Lord Gough now returned to England, +was raised to a viscountcy, and for the third time received the +thanks of both Houses of Parliament. A pension of Ł2000 per +annum was granted to him by parliament, and an equal pension +by the East India Company. He did not again see active service. +In 1854 he was appointed colonel of the Royal Horse Guards, +and two years later he was sent to the Crimea to invest Marshal +Pélissier and other officers with the insignia of the Bath. Honours +were multiplied upon him during his latter years. He was made +a knight of St Patrick, being the first knight of the order who +did not hold an Irish peerage, was sworn a privy councillor, +was named a G.C.S.I., and in November 1862 was made field-marshal. +He was twice married, and left children by both his +wives. He died on the 2nd of March 1869.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. S. Rait, <i>Lord Gough</i> (1903); and Sir W. Lee Warner, <i>Lord +Dalhousie</i> (1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOUGH, JOHN BARTHOLOMEW<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1817-1886), American +temperance orator, was born at Sandgate, Kent, England, on +the 22nd of August 1817. He was educated by his mother, +a schoolmistress, and at the age of twelve was sent to the United +States to seek his fortune. He lived for two years with family +friends on a farm in western New York, and then entered a +book-bindery in New York City to learn the trade. There in +1833 his mother joined him, but after her death in 1835 he fell +in with dissolute companions, and became a confirmed drunkard. +He lost his position, and for several years supported himself +as a ballad singer and story-teller in the cheap theatres and +concert-halls of New York and other eastern cities. Even this +means of livelihood was being closed to him, when in Worcester, +Massachusetts, in 1842 he was induced to sign a temperance +pledge. After several lapses and a terrific struggle, he determined +to devote his life to lecturing in behalf of temperance reform. +Gifted with remarkable powers of pathos and of description, +he was successful from the start, and was soon known and sought +after throughout the entire country, his appeals, which were +directly personal and emotional, being attended with extraordinary +responses. He continued his work until the end of his +life, made several tours of England, where his American success +was repeated, and died at his work, being stricken with apoplexy +on the lecture platform at Frankford, Pennsylvania, where he +passed away two days later, on the 18th of February 1886. +He published an <i>Autobiography</i> (1846); <i>Orations</i> (1854); <i>Temperance +Addresses</i> (1870); <i>Temperance Lectures</i> (1879); and <i>Sunlight +and Shadow, or Gleanings from My Life Work</i> (1880).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOUGH, RICHARD<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1735-1809), English antiquary, was born +in London on the 21st of October 1735. His father was a wealthy +M.P. and director of the East India Company. Gough was a +precocious child, and at twelve had translated from the French +a history of the Bible, which his mother printed for private +circulation. When fifteen he translated Abbé Fleury’s work on +the Israelites; and at sixteen he published an elaborate work +entitled <i>Atlas Renovatus, or Geography modernized</i>. In 1752 +he entered Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where he began +his work on British topography, published in 1768. Leaving +Cambridge in 1756, he began a series of antiquarian excursions +in various parts of Great Britain. In 1773 he began an edition +in English of Camden’s <i>Britannia</i>, which appeared in 1789. +Meantime he published, in 1786, the first volume of his splendid +work, the <i>Sepulchral Monuments of Great Britain, applied to +illustrate the history of families, manners, habits, and arts at the +different periods from the Norman Conquest to the Seventeenth +Century</i>. This volume, which contained the first four centuries, +was followed in 1796 by a second volume containing the 15th +century, and an introduction to the second volume appeared +in 1799. Gough was chosen a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries +of London in 1767, and from 1771 to 1791 he was its director. +He was elected F.R.S. in 1775. He died at Enfield on the 20th +of February 1809. His books and manuscripts relating to +Anglo-Saxon and northern literature, all his collections in the +department of British topography, and a large number of his +drawings and engravings of other archaeological remains, were +bequeathed to the university of Oxford.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among the minor works of Gough are <i>An Account of the Bedford +Missal</i> (in MS.); <i>A Catalogue of the Coins of Canute, King of +Denmark</i> (1777); <i>History of Pleshy in Essex</i> (1803); <i>An Account of +the Coins of the Seleucidae, Kings of Syria</i> (1804); and “History of the +Society of Antiquaries of London,” prefixed to their <i>Archaeologia</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOUJET, CLAUDE PIERRE<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1697-1767), French abbé and +littérateur, was born in Paris on the 19th of October 1697. +He studied at the College of the Jesuits, and at the Collčge +Mazarin, but he nevertheless became a strong Jansenist. In +1705 he assumed the ecclesiastical habit, in 1719 entered the +order of Oratorians, and soon afterwards was named canon +of St Jacques l’Hôpital. On account of his extreme Jansenist +opinions he suffered considerable persecution from the Jesuits, +and several of his works were suppressed at their instigation. +In his latter years his health began to fail, and he lost his +eyesight. Poverty compelled him to sell his library, a sacrifice +which hastened his death, which took place at Paris on the +1st of February 1767.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>He is the author of <i>Supplément au dictionnaire de Moréri</i> (1735), +and a <i>Nouveau Supplément</i> to a subsequent edition of the work; +he collaborated in <i>Bibliothčque française, ou histoire littéraire de +la France</i> (18 vols., Paris, 1740-1759); and in the <i>Vies des saints</i> +(7 vols., 1730); he also wrote <i>Mémoires historiques et littéraires sur +le collčge royal de France</i> (1758); <i>Histoire des Inquisitions</i> (Paris, +1752); and supervised an edition of Richelet’s <i>Dictionnaire</i>, of +which he has also given an abridgment. He helped the abbé Fabre +in his continuation of Fleury’s <i>Histoire ecclésiastique</i>.</p> + +<p>See <i>Mémoires hist. et litt. de l’abbé Goujet</i> (1767).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOUJON, JEAN<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1520-<i>c.</i> 1566), French sculptor of the +16th century. Although some evidence has been offered in +favour of the date 1520 (<i>Archives de l’art français</i>, iii. 350), +the time and place of his birth are still uncertain. The +first mention of his name occurs in the accounts of the church +of St Maclou at Rouen in the year 1540, and in the following +year he was employed at the cathedral of the same town, where +he added to the tomb of Cardinal d’Amboise a statue of his +nephew Georges, afterwards removed, and possibly carved +portions of the tomb of Louis de Brezé, executed some time after +1545. On leaving Rouen, Goujon was employed by Pierre +Lescot, the celebrated architect of the Louvre, on the restorations +of St-Germain l’Auxerrois; the building accounts—some of +which for the years 1542-1544 were discovered by M. de Laborde +on a piece of parchment binding—specify as his work, not only +the carvings of the pulpit (Louvre), but also a Notre Dame de +Piété, now lost. In 1547 appeared Martin’s French translation +of Vitruvius, the illustrations of which were due, the translator +tells us in his “Dedication to the King,” to Goujon, “nagučres +architecte de Monseigneur le Connétable, et maintenant un des +vôtres.” We learn from this statement not only that Goujon +had been taken into the royal service on the accession of Henry +II., but also that he had been previously employed under Bullant +on the château of Écouen. Between 1547 and 1549 he was +employed in the decoration of the Loggia ordered from Lescot +for the entry of Henry II. into Paris, which took place on the +16th of June 1549. Lescot’s edifice was reconstructed at the +end of the 18th century by Bernard Poyet into the Fontaine +des Innocents, this being a considerable variation of the original +design. At the Louvre, Goujon, under the direction of Lescot, +executed the carvings of the south-west angle of the court, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>283</span> +reliefs of the Escalier Henri II., and the Tribune des Cariatides, +for which he received 737 livres on the 5th of September 1550. +Between 1548 and 1554 rose the château d’Anet, in the embellishment +of which Goujon was associated with Philibert Delorme +in the service of Diana of Poitiers. Unfortunately the building +accounts of Anet have disappeared, but Goujon executed a +vast number of other works of equal importance, destroyed or +lost in the great Revolution. In 1555 his name appears again +in the Louvre accounts, and continues to do so every succeeding +year up to 1562, when all trace of him is lost. In the course of +this year an attempt was made to turn out of the royal employment +all those who were suspected of Huguenot tendencies. +Goujon has always been claimed as a Reformer; it is consequently +possible that he was one of the victims of this attack. We should +therefore probably ascribe the work attributed to him in the +Hôtel Carnavalet (<i>in situ</i>), together with much else executed +in various parts of Paris—but now dispersed or destroyed—to +a period intervening between the date of his dismissal from +the Louvre and his death, which is computed to have taken +place between 1564 and 1568, probably at Bologna. The +researches of M. Tomaso Sandonnini (see <i>Gazette des Beaux Arts</i>, +2<span class="sp">e</span> période, vol. xxxi.) have finally disposed of the supposition, +long entertained, that Goujon died during the St Bartholomew +massacre in 1572.</p> + +<p><i>List of authentic works of Jean Goujon</i>: Two marble columns +supporting the organ of the church of St Maclou (Rouen) on +right and left of porch on entering; left-hand gate of the church +of St Maclou; bas-reliefs for decoration of screen of St Germain +l’Auxerrois (now in Louvre); “Victory” over chimney-piece +of Salle des Gardes at Écouen; altar at Chantilly; illustrations +for Jean Martin’s translation of Vitruvius; bas-reliefs and +sculptural decoration of Fontaine des Innocents; bas-reliefs +adorning entrance of Hôtel Carnavalet, also series of satyrs’ +heads on keystones of arcade of courtyard; fountain of Diana +from Anet (now in Louvre); internal decoration of chapel at +Anet; portico of Anet (now in courtyard of École des Beaux +Arts); bust of Diane de Poiçtiers (now at Versailles); Tribune +of Caryatides in the Louvre; decoration of “Escalier Henri +II.,” Louvre; œils de bœuf and decoration of Henri II. façade, +Louvre; groups for pediments of façade now placed over +entrance to Egyptian and Assyrian collections, Louvre.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. A. Pottier, <i>Œuvres de Goujon</i> (1844); Reginald Lister, +<i>Jean Goujon</i> (London, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOUJON, JEAN MARIE CLAUDE ALEXANDRE<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1766-1795), +French publicist and statesman, was born at Bourg on the +13th of April 1766, the son of a postmaster. The boy went +early to sea, and saw fighting when he was twelve years old; +in 1790 he settled at Meudon, and began to make good his lack +of education. As procureur-général-syndic of the department +of Seine-et-Oise, in August, 1792, he had to supply the inhabitants +with food, and fulfilled his difficult functions with energy and +tact. In the Convention, which he entered on the death of +Hérault de Séchelles, he took his seat on the benches of the +Mountain. He conducted a mission to the armies of the Rhine +and the Moselle with creditable moderation, and was a consistent +advocate of peace within the republic. Nevertheless, +he was a determined opponent of the counter-revolution, which +he denounced in the Jacobin Club and from the Mountain +after his recall to Paris, following on the revolution of the 9th +Thermidor (July 27, 1794). He was one of those who protested +against the readmission of Louvet and other survivors of the +Girondin party to the Convention in March 1795; and, when +the populace invaded the legislature on the 1st Prairial (May +20, 1795) and compelled the deputies to legislate in accordance +with their desires, he proposed the immediate establishment +of a special commission which should assure the execution of +the proposed changes and assume the functions of the various +committees. The failure of the insurrection involved the fall +of those deputies who had supported the demands of the populace. +Before the close of the sitting, Goujon, with Romme, Duroi, +Duquesnoy, Bourbotte, Soubrany and others were put under +arrest by their colleagues, and on their way to the château +of Taureau in Brittany had a narrow escape from a mob at +Avranches. They were brought back to Paris for trial before +a military commission on the 17th of June, and, though no proof +of their complicity in organizing the insurrection could be found—they +were, in fact, with the exception of Goujon and Bourbotte, +strangers to one another—they were condemned. In accordance +with a pre-arranged plan, they attempted suicide on the staircase +leading from the court-room with a knife which Goujon +had successfully concealed. Romme, Goujon and Duquesnoy +succeeded, but the other three merely inflicted wounds which +did not prevent their being taken immediately to the guillotine. +With their deaths the Mountain ceased to exist as a party.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Claretie, <i>Les Derniers Montagnards, histoire de l’insurrection +de Prairial an III d’aprčs les documents</i> (1867); <i>Défense du représentant +du peuple Goujon</i> (Paris, no date), with the letters and a hymn +written by Goujon during his imprisonment. For other documents +see Maurice Tourneux (Paris, 1890, vol. i., pp. 422-425).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOULBURN, EDWARD MEYRICK<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1818-1897), English +churchman, son of Mr Serjeant Goulburn, M.P., recorder of +Leicester, and nephew of the Right Hon. Henry Goulburn, +chancellor of the exchequer in the ministries of Sir Robert Peel +and the duke of Wellington, was born in London on the 11th of +February 1818, and was educated at Eton and at Balliol College, +Oxford. In 1839 he became fellow and tutor of Merton, and in +1841 and 1843 was ordained deacon and priest respectively. +For some years he held the living of Holywell, Oxford, and was +chaplain to Samuel Wilberforce, bishop of the diocese. In +1849 he succeeded Tait as headmaster of Rugby, but in 1857 +he resigned, and accepted the charge of Quebec Chapel, Marylebone. +In 1858 he became a prebendary of St Paul’s, and in +1859 vicar of St John’s, Paddington. In 1866 he was made +dean of Norwich, and in that office exercised a long and marked +influence on church life. A strong Conservative and a churchman +of traditional orthodoxy, he was a keen antagonist of “higher +criticism” and of all forms of rationalism. His <i>Thoughts on +Personal Religion</i> (1862) and <i>The Pursuit of Holiness</i> were +well received; and he wrote the <i>Life</i> (1892) of his friend Dean +Burgon, with whose doctrinal views he was substantially in +agreement. He resigned the deanery in 1889, and died at +Tunbridge Wells on the 3rd of May 1897.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life</i> by B. Compton (1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOULBURN, HENRY<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1784-1856), English statesman, was +born in London on the 19th of March 1784 and was educated at +Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1808 he became member of +parliament for Horsham; in 1810 he was appointed under-secretary +for home affairs and two and a half years later he was +made under-secretary for war and the colonies. Still retaining +office in the Tory government he became a privy councillor in +1821, and just afterwards was appointed chief secretary to the +lord-lieutenant of Ireland, a position which he held until April +1827. Here although frequently denounced as an Orangeman, +his period of office was on the whole a successful one, and in +1823 he managed to pass the Irish Tithe Composition Bill. In +January 1828 he was made chancellor of the exchequer under +the duke of Wellington; like his leader he disliked Roman +Catholic emancipation, which he voted against in 1828. In the +domain of finance Goulburn’s chief achievements were to reduce +the rate of interest on part of the national debt, and to allow +any one to sell beer upon payment of a small annual fee, a complete +change of policy with regard to the drink traffic. Leaving +office with Wellington in November 1830, Goulburn was home +secretary under Sir Robert Peel for four months in 1835, and +when this statesman returned to office in September 1841 he +became chancellor of the exchequer for the second time. Although +Peel himself did some of the chancellor’s work, Goulburn was +responsible for a further reduction in the rate of interest on the +national debt, and he aided his chief in the struggle which ended +in the repeal of the corn laws. With his colleagues he left office +in June 1846. After representing Horsham in the House of +Commons for over four years Goulburn was successively member +for St Germans, for West Looe, and for the city of Armagh. In +May 1831 he was elected for Cambridge University, and he +retained this seat until his death on the 12th of January 1856 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>284</span> +at Betchworth House, Dorking. Goulburn was one of Peel’s +firmest supporters and most intimate friends. His eldest son, +Henry (1813-1843), was senior classic and second wrangler +at Cambridge in 1835.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See S. Walpole, <i>History of England</i> (1878-1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOULBURN,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> a city of Argyle county, New South Wales, +Australia, 134 m. S.W. of Sydney by the Great Southern railway. +Pop. (1901) 10,618. It lies in a productive agricultural district, +at an altitude of 2129 ft., and is a place of great importance, +being the chief depot of the inland trade of the southern part +of the state. There are Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals. +Manufactures of boots and shoes, flour and beer, and tanning +are important. The municipality was created in 1859; and +Goulburn became a city in 1864.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOULD, AUGUSTUS ADDISON<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1805-1866), American +conchologist, was born at New Ipswich, New Hampshire, on the +23rd of April 1805, graduated at Harvard College in 1825, and +took his degree of doctor of medicine in 1830. Thrown from +boyhood on his own exertions, it was only by industry, perseverance +and self-denial that he obtained the means to pursue +his studies. Establishing himself in Boston, he devoted himself +to the practice of medicine, and finally rose to high professional +rank and social position. He became president of the Massachusetts +Medical Society, and was employed in editing the vital +statistics of the state. As a conchologist his reputation is world-wide, +and he was one of the pioneers of the science in America. +His writings fill many pages of the publications of the Boston +Society of Natural History (see vol. xi. p. 197 for a list) and +other periodicals. He published with L. Agassiz the <i>Principles +of Zoology</i> (2nd ed. 1851); he edited the <i>Terrestrial and Air-breathing +Mollusks</i> (1851-1855) of Amos Binney (1803-1847); he +translated Lamarck’s <i>Genera of Shells</i>. The two most important +monuments to his scientific work, however, are <i>Mollusca and +Shells</i> (vol. xii., 1852) of the United States exploring expedition +(1838-1842) under Lieutenant Charles Wilkes (1833), published by +the government, and the <i>Report on the Invertebrata</i> published by +order of the legislature of Massachusetts in 1841. A second +edition of the latter work was authorized in 1865, and published +in 1870 after the author’s death, which took place at Boston +on the 15th of September 1866. Gould was a corresponding +member of all the prominent American scientific societies, and +of many of those of Europe, including the London Royal Society.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOULD, BENJAMIN APTHORP<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1824-1896), American +astronomer, a son of Benjamin Apthorp Gould (1787-1859), +principal of the Boston Latin school, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, +on the 27th of September 1824. Having graduated +at Harvard College in 1844, he studied mathematics and astronomy +under C. F. Gauss at Göttingen, and returned to +America in 1848. From 1852 to 1867 he was in charge of the +longitude department of the United States coast survey; he +developed and organized the service, was one of the first to +determine longitudes by telegraphic means, and employed the +Atlantic cable in 1866 to establish longitude-relations between +Europe and America. The <i>Astronomical Journal</i> was founded +by Gould in 1849; and its publication, suspended in 1861, +was resumed by him in 1885. From 1855 to 1859 he acted as +director of the Dudley observatory at Albany, New York; +and published in 1859 a discussion of the places and proper +motions of circumpolar stars to be used as standards by the +United States coast survey. Appointed in 1862 actuary to +the United States sanitary commission, he issued in 1869 an +important volume of <i>Military and Anthropological Statistics</i>. +He fitted up in 1864 a private observatory at Cambridge, Mass.; +but undertook in 1868, on behalf of the Argentine republic, +to organize a national observatory at Cordoba; began to observe +there with four assistants in 1870, and completed in 1874 his +<i>Uranometria Argentina</i> (published 1879) for which he received +in 1883 the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. +This was followed by a zone-catalogue of 73,160 stars (1884), and +a general catalogue (1885) compiled from meridian observations +of 32,448 stars. Gould’s measurements of L. M. Rutherfurd’s +photographs of the Pleiades in 1866 entitle him to rank as a +pioneer in the use of the camera as an instrument of precision; +and he secured at Cordoba 1400 negatives of southern star-clusters, +the reduction of which occupied the closing years of +his life. He returned in 1885 to his home at Cambridge, where +he died on the 26th of November 1896.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Astronomical Journal</i>, No. 389; <i>Observatory</i>, xx. 70 (same +notice abridged); <i>Science</i> (Dec. 18, 1896, S. C. Chandler); <i>Astrophysical +Journal</i>, v. 50; <i>Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society</i>, lvii. +218.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOULD, SIR FRANCIS CARRUTHERS<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1844-  ), English +caricaturist and politician, was born in Barnstaple on the 2nd +of December 1844. Although in early youth he showed great +love of drawing, he began life in a bank and then joined the +London Stock Exchange, where he constantly sketched the +members and illustrated important events in the financial +world; many of these drawings were reproduced by lithography +and published for private circulation. In 1879 he began the +regular illustration of the Christmas numbers of <i>Truth</i>, and in +1887 he became a contributor to the <i>Pall Mall Gazette</i>, transferring +his allegiance to the <i>Westminster Gazette</i> on its foundation +and subsequently acting as assistant editor. Among his independent +publications are <i>Who killed Cock Robin?</i> (1897), <i>Tales +told in the Zoo</i> (1900), two volumes of <i>Froissart’s Modern +Chronicles, told and pictured by F. C. Gould</i> (1902 and 1903), +and <i>Picture Politics</i>—a periodical reprint of his <i>Westminster +Gazette</i> cartoons, one of the most noteworthy implements of +political warfare in the armoury of the Liberal party. Frequently +grafting his ideas on to subjects taken freely from <i>Uncle Remus</i>, +<i>Alice in Wonderland</i>, and the works of Dickens and Shakespeare, +Sir F. C. Gould used these literary vehicles with extraordinary +dexterity and point, but with a satire that was not unkind and +with a vigour from which bitterness, virulence and cynicism +were notably absent. He was knighted in 1906.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOULD, JAY<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (1836-1892), American financier, was born in +Roxbury, Delaware county, New York, on the 27th of May 1836. +He was brought up on his father’s farm, studied at Hobart +Academy, and though he left school in his sixteenth year, devoted +himself assiduously thereafter to private study, chiefly of mathematics +and surveying, at the same time keeping books for a +blacksmith for his board. For a short time he worked for his +father in the hardware business; in 1852-1856 he worked as a +surveyor in preparing maps of Ulster, Albany and Delaware +counties in New York, of Lake and Geauga counties in Ohio, +and of Oakland county in Michigan, and of a projected +railway line between Newburgh and Syracuse, N.Y. An ardent +anti-renter in his boyhood and youth, he wrote <i>A History of +Delaware County and the Border Wars of New York, containing +a Sketch of the Early Settlements in the County, and A History +of the Late Anti-Rent Difficulties in Delaware</i> (Roxbury, 1856). +He then engaged in the lumber and tanning business in western +New York, and in banking at Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. In +1863 he married Miss Helen Day Miller, and through her father, +Daniel S. Miller, he was appointed manager of the Rensselaer +& Saratoga railway, which he bought up when it was in a very +bad condition, and skilfully reorganized; in the same way he +bought and reorganized the Rutland & Washington railway, +from which he ultimately realized a large profit. In 1859 he +removed to New York City, where he became a broker in railway +stocks, and in 1868 he was elected president of the Erie railway, of +which by shrewd strategy he and James Fisk, Jr. (<i>q.v.</i>), had gained +control in July of that year. The management of the road under +his control, and especially the sale of $5,000,000 of fraudulent +stock in 1868-1870, led to litigation begun by English bondholders, +and Gould was forced out of the company in March +1872 and compelled to restore securities valued at about +$7,500,000. It was during his control of the Erie that he and +Fisk entered into a league with the Tweed Ring, they admitted +Tweed to the directorate of the Erie, and Tweed in turn arranged +favourable legislation for them at Albany. With Tweed, Gould +was cartooned by Nast in 1869. In October 1871 Gould was the +chief bondsman of Tweed when the latter was held in $1,000,000 +bail. With Fisk in August 1869 he began to buy gold in a daring +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>285</span> +attempt to “corner” the market, his hope being that, with the +advance in price of gold, wheat would advance to such a price +that western farmers would sell, and there would be a consequent +great movement of breadstuffs from West to East, which would +result in increased freight business for the Erie road. His +speculations in gold, during which he attempted through President +Grant’s brother-in-law, A. H. Corbin, to influence the president +and his secretary General Horace Porter, culminated in the panic +of “Black Friday,” on the 24th of September 1869, when the +price of gold fell from 162 to 135.</p> + +<p>Gould gained control of the Union Pacific, from which in +1883 he withdrew after realizing a large profit. Buying up the +stock of the Missouri Pacific he built up, by means of consolidations, +reorganizations, and the construction of branch lines, +the “Gould System” of railways in the south-western states. +In 1880 he was in virtual control of 10,000 miles of railway, about +one-ninth of the railway mileage of the United States at that +time. Besides, he obtained a controlling interest in the Western +Union Telegraph Company, and after 1881 in the elevated +railways in New York City, and was intimately connected with +many of the largest railway financial operations in the United +States for the twenty years following 1868. He died of consumption +and of mental strain on the 2nd of December 1892, his +fortune at that time being estimated at $72,000,000; all of +this he left to his own family.</p> + +<p>His eldest son, <span class="sc">George Jay Gould</span> (b. 1864), was prominent +also as an owner and manager of railways, and became president +of the Little Rock & Fort Smith railway (1888), the St Louis, +Iron Mountain & Southern railway (1893), the International +& Great Northern railway (1893), the Missouri Pacific railway +(1893), the Texas & Pacific railway (1893), and the Manhattan +Railway Company (1892); he was also vice-president and +director of the Western Union Telegraph Company. It was +under his control that the Wabash system became transcontinental +and secured an Atlantic port at Baltimore; and it was +he who brought about a friendly alliance between the Gould +and the Rockefeller interests.</p> + +<p>The eldest daughter, <span class="sc">Helen Miller Gould</span> (b. 1868), became +widely known as a philanthropist, and particularly for her +generous gifts to American army hospitals in the war with Spain +in 1898 and for her many contributions to New York University, +to which she gave $250,000 for a library in 1895 and $100,000 +for a Hall of Fame in 1900.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANÇOIS<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1818-1893), French composer, +was born in Paris on the 17th of June 1818, the son of +F. L. Gounod, a talented painter. He entered the Paris Conservatoire +in 1836, studied under Reicha, Halévy and Lesueur, +and won the “Grand Prix de Rome” in 1839. While residing +in the Eternal City he devoted much of his time to the study +of sacred music, notably to the works of Palestrina and Bach. +In 1843 he went to Vienna, where a “requiem” of his composition +was performed. On his return to Paris he tried in vain to +find a publisher for some songs he had written in Rome. Having +become organist to the chapel of the “Missions Étrangčres,” +he turned his thoughts and mind to religious music. At that +time he even contemplated the idea of entering into holy +orders. His thoughts were, however, turned to more mundane +matters when, through the intervention of Madame Viardot, +the celebrated singer, he received a commission to compose an +opera on a text by Émile Augier for the Académie Nationale +de Musique. <i>Sapho</i>, the work in question, was produced in +1851, and if its success was not very great, it at least sufficed to +bring the composer’s name to the fore. Some critics appeared +to consider this work as evidence of a fresh departure in the +style of dramatic music, and Adolphe Adam, the composer, +who was also a musical critic, attributed to Gounod the wish +to revive the system of musical declamation invented by Gluck. +The fact was that <i>Sapho</i> differed in some respects from the +operatic works of the period, and was to a certain extent in +advance of the times. When it was revived at the Paris Opéra +in 1884, several additions were made by the composer to the +original score, not altogether to its advantage, and <i>Sapho</i> once +more failed to attract the public. Gounod’s second dramatic +attempt was again in connexion with a classical subject, and +consisted in some choruses written for <i>Ulysse</i>, a tragedy by +Ponsard, played at the Théâtre Français in 1852, when the +orchestra was conducted by Offenbach. The composer’s next +opera, <i>La Nonne sanglante</i>, given at the Paris Opéra in 1854, +was a failure.</p> + +<p>Goethe’s <i>Faust</i> had for years exercised a strong fascination +over Gounod, and he at last determined to turn it to operatic +account. The performance at a Paris theatre of a drama on +the same subject delayed the production of his opera for a time. +In the meanwhile he wrote in a few months the music for an +operatic version of Moličre’s comedy, <i>Le Médecin malgré lui</i>, +which was produced at the Théâtre Lyrique in 1858. Berlioz well +described this charming little work when he wrote of it, “Everything +is pretty, piquant, fluent, in this ‘opéra comique’; there is +nothing superfluous and nothing wanting.” The first performance +of <i>Faust</i> took place at the Théâtre Lyrique on the 19th +of March 1859. Goethe’s masterpiece had already been utilized +for operatic purposes by various composers, the most celebrated +of whom was Spohr. The subject had also inspired Schumann, +Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner, to mention only a few, and the enormous +success of Gounod’s opera did not deter Boito from writing his +<i>Mefistofele</i>. <i>Faust</i> is without doubt the most popular French +opera of the second half of the 19th century. Its success has been +universal, and nowhere has it achieved greater vogue than in +the land of Goethe. For years it remained the recognized type +of modern French opera. At the time of its production in Paris +it was scarcely appreciated according to its merits. Its style +was too novel, and its luscious harmonies did not altogether +suit the palates of those dilettanti who still looked upon Rossini +as the incarnation of music. Times have indeed changed, and +French composers have followed the road opened by Gounod, +and have further developed the form of the lyrical drama, +adopting the theories of Wagner in a manner suitable to their +national temperament. Although in its original version <i>Faust</i> +contained spoken dialogue, and was divided into set pieces +according to custom, yet it differed greatly from the operas of +the past. Gounod had not studied the works of German masters +such as Mendelssohn and Schumann in vain, and although +his own style is eminently Gallic, yet it cannot be denied that +much of its charm emanates from a certain poetic sentimentality +which seems to have a Teutonic origin. Certainly no music +such as his had previously been produced by any French composer. +Auber was a gay trifler, scattering his bright effusions +with absolute <i>insouciance</i>, teeming with melodious ideas, but +lacking depth. Berlioz, a musical Titan, wrestled against fate +with a superhuman energy, and, Jove-like, subjugated his +hearers with his thunderbolts. It was, however, reserved for +Gounod to introduce <i>la note tendre</i>, to sing the tender passion +in accents soft and languorous. The musical language employed +in <i>Faust</i> was new and fascinating, and it was soon to be +adopted by many other French composers, certain of its idioms +thereby becoming hackneyed. Gounod’s opera was given in +London in 1863, when its success, at first doubtful, became +enormous, and it was heard concurrently at Covent Garden +and Her Majesty’s theatres. Since then it has never lost its +popularity.</p> + +<p>Although the success of <i>Faust</i> in Paris was at first not so +great as might have been expected, yet it gradually increased +and set the seal on Gounod’s fame. The fortunate composer +now experienced no difficulty in finding an outlet for his works, +and the succeeding decade is a specially important one in his +career. The opera from his pen which came after Faust was +<i>Philémon et Baucis</i>, a setting of the mythological tale in which +the composer followed the traditions of the Opéra Comique, +employing spoken dialogue, while not abdicating the individuality +of his own style. This work was produced at the +Théâtre Lyrique in 1860. It has repeatedly been heard in +London. <i>La Reine de Saba</i>, a four-act opera, produced at the +Grand Opéra on the 28th of February 1862, was altogether +a far more ambitious work. For some reason it did not meet +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>286</span> +with success, although the score contains some of Gounod’s +choicest inspirations, notably the well-known air, “Lend me +your aid.” <i>La Reine de Saba</i> was adapted for the English stage +under the name of <i>Irene</i>. The non-success of this work proved +a great disappointment to Gounod, who, however, set to work +again, and this time with better results, <i>Mireille</i>, the fruit of his +labours, being given for the first time at the Théâtre Lyrique +on the 19th of March 1864. Founded upon the <i>Mireio</i> of the +Provençal poet Mistral, <i>Mireille</i> contains much charming and +characteristic music. The libretto seems to have militated against +its success, and although several revivals have taken place and +various modifications and alterations have been made in the score, +yet <i>Mireille</i> has never enjoyed a very great vogue. Certain +portions of this opera have, however, been popularized in the +concert-room. <i>La Colombe</i>, a little opera in two acts without pretension, +deserves mention here. It was originally heard at Baden +in 1860, and subsequently at the Opéra Comique. A suavely +melodious <i>entr’acte</i> from this little work has survived and been +repeatedly performed.</p> + +<p>Animated with the desire to give a pendant to his <i>Faust</i>, +Gounod now sought for inspiration from Shakespeare, and +turned his attention to <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>. Here, indeed, was a +subject particularly well calculated to appeal to a composer +who had so eminently qualified himself to be considered the +musician of the tender passion. The operatic version of the +Shakespearean tragedy was produced at the Théâtre Lyrique on +the 27th of April 1867. It is generally considered as being the +composer’s second best opera. Some people have even placed +it on the same level as <i>Faust</i>, but this verdict has not found +general acceptance. Gounod himself is stated to have expressed +his opinion of the relative value of the two operas enigmatically +by saying, “<i>Faust</i> is the oldest, but I was younger; <i>Roméo</i> +is the youngest, but I was older.” The luscious strains wedded +to the love scenes, if at times somewhat cloying, are generally +in accord with the situations, often irresistibly fascinating, +while always absolutely individual. The success of <i>Roméo</i> +in Paris was great from the outset, and eventually this work +was transferred to the Grand Opéra, after having for some time +formed part of the répertoire of the Opéra Comique. In London +it was not until the part of Romeo was sung by Jean de +Reszke that this opera obtained any real hold upon the English +public.</p> + +<p>After having so successfully sought for inspiration from +Moličre, Goethe and Shakespeare, Gounod now turned to another +famous dramatist, and selected Pierre Corneille’s <i>Polyeucte</i> +as the subject of his next opera. Some years were, however, +to elapse before this work was given to the public. The Franco-German +War had broken out, and Gounod was compelled to +take refuge in London, where he composed the “biblical elegy” +<i>Gallia</i> for the inauguration of the Royal Albert Hall. During +his stay in London Gounod composed a great deal and wrote a +number of songs to English words, many of which have attained +an enduring popularity, such as “Maid of Athens,” “There +is a green hill far away,” “Oh that we two were maying,” +“The fountain mingles with the river.” His sojourn in London +was not altogether pleasant, as he was embroiled in lawsuits +with publishers. On Gounod’s return to Paris he hurriedly +set to music an operatic version of Alfred de Vigny’s <i>Cinq-Mars</i>, +which was given at the Opéra Comique on the 5th of April 1877 +(and in London in 1900), without obtaining much success. +<i>Polyeucte</i>, his much-cherished work, appeared at the Grand +Opéra the following year on the 7th of October, and did not meet +with a better fate. Neither was Gounod more fortunate with +<i>Le Tribut de Zamora</i>, his last opera, which, given on the same +stage in 1881, speedily vanished, never to reappear. In his +later dramatic works he had, unfortunately, made no attempt +to keep up with the times, preferring to revert to old-fashioned +methods.</p> + +<p>The genius of the great composer was, however, destined to +assert itself in another field—that of sacred music. His friend +Camille Saint-Saëns, in a volume entitled <i>Portraits et Souvenirs</i>, +writes:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gounod did not cease all his life to write for the church, to +accumulate masses and motetts; but it was at the commencement +of his career, in the <i>Messe de Sainte Cécile</i>, and at the end, in the +oratorios <i>The Redemption and Mors et vita</i>, that he rose highest.</p> +</div> + +<p>Saint-Saëns, indeed, has formulated the opinion that the three +above-mentioned works will survive all the master’s operas. +Among the many masses composed by Gounod at the outset +of his career, the best is the <i>Messe de Sainte Cécile</i>, written in +1855. He also wrote the <i>Messe du Sacré Cœur</i> (1876) and the +<i>Messe ŕ la mémoire de Jeanne d’Arc</i> (1887). This last work +offers certain peculiarities, being written for solos, chorus, +organ, eight trumpets, three trombones, and harps. In style +it has a certain affinity with Palestrina. <i>The Redemption</i>, which +seems to have acquired a permanent footing in Great Britain, +was produced at the Birmingham Festival of 1882. It was +styled a sacred trilogy, and was dedicated to Queen Victoria. +The score is prefixed by a commentary written by the composer, +in which the scope of the oratorio is explained. It cannot be +said that Gounod has altogether risen to the magnitude of his +task. The music of <i>The Redemption</i> bears the unmistakable +imprint of the composer’s hand, and contains many beautiful +thoughts, but the work in its entirety is not exempt from +monotony. <i>Mors et vita</i>, a sacred trilogy dedicated to Pope +Leo XIII., was also produced for the first time in Birmingham +at the Festival of 1885. This work is divided into three parts, +“Mors,” “Judicium,” “Vita.” The first consists of a Requiem, +the second depicts the Judgment, the third Eternal Life. +Although quite equal, if not superior to <i>The Redemption</i>, <i>Mors +et vita</i> has not obtained similar success.</p> + +<p>Gounod was a great worker, an indefatigable writer, and it +would occupy too much space to attempt even an incomplete +catalogue of his compositions. Besides the works already +mentioned may be named two symphonies which were played +during the ’fifties, but have long since fallen into neglect. +Symphonic music was not Gounod’s forte, and the French master +evidently recognized the fact, for he made no further attempts +in this style. The incidental music he wrote to the dramas <i>Les +Deux Reines</i> and <i>Jeanne d’Arc</i> must not be forgotten. He also +attempted to set Moličre’s comedy, <i>Georges Dandin</i>, to music, +keeping to the original prose. This work has never been brought +out. Gounod composed a large number of songs, many of which +are very beautiful. One of the vocal pieces that have contributed +most to his popularity is the celebrated <i>Meditation on +the First Prelude of Bach</i>, more widely known as the <i>Ave Maria</i>. +The idea of fitting a melody to the Prelude of Bach was original, +and it must be admitted that in this case the experiment was +successful.</p> + +<p>Gounod died at St Cloud on the 18th of October 1893. His +influence on French music was immense, though during the +last years of the 19th century it was rather counterbalanced +by that of Wagner. Whatever may be the verdict of posterity, +it is unlikely that the quality of individuality will be denied +to Gounod. To be the composer of <i>Faust</i> is alone a sufficient +title to lasting fame.</p> +<div class="author">(A. He.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:279px; height:439px" src="images/img287.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">Photographed from specimens in the British +Museum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Group of Gourds.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p>1-5. Various forms of bottle gourd, <i>Lagenaria vulgaris</i>.</p> +<p>6. Giant gourd, <i>Cucurbita maxima</i>.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">GOURD,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a name given to various plants of the order <i>Cucurbitaceae</i>, +especially those belonging to the genus <i>Cucurbita</i>, +monoecious trailing herbs of annual duration, with long succulent +stems furnished with tendrils, and large, rough, palmately-lobed +leaves; the flowers are generally large and of a bright yellow +or orange colour, the barren ones with the stamens united; +the fertile are followed by the large succulent fruit that gives +the gourds their chief economic value. Many varieties of +<i>Cucurbita</i> are under cultivation in tropical and temperate +climates, especially in southern Asia; but it is extremely +difficult to refer them to definite specific groups, on account of +the facility with which they hybridize; while it is very doubtful +whether any of the original forms now exist in the wild state. +Charles Naudin, who made a careful and interesting series of +observations upon this genus, came to the conclusion that all +varieties known in European gardens might be referred to six +original species; probably three, or at most four, have furnished +the edible kinds in ordinary cultivation. Adopting the specific +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>287</span> +names usually given to the more familiar forms, the most important +of the gourds, from an economic point of view, is perhaps +<i>C. maxima</i>, the <i>Potiron Jaune</i> of the French, the red and yellow +gourd of British gardeners (fig. 6), the spheroidal fruit of which +is remarkable for its enormous size: the colour of the somewhat +rough rind varies from white to bright yellow, while in some kinds +it remains green; the fleshy interior is of a deep yellow or +orange tint. This valuable gourd is grown extensively in southern +Asia and Europe. In Turkey and Asia Minor it yields, at some +periods of the year, an important article of diet to the people; +immense quantities are sold in the markets of Constantinople, +where in the winter the heaps of one variety with a white rind +are described as resembling mounds of snowballs. The yellow +kind attains occasionally a weight of upwards of 240 ℔. It +grows well in Central Europe and the United States, while in +the south of England it will produce its gigantic fruit in perfection +in hot summers. The yellow flesh of this gourd and its numerous +varieties yields a considerable amount of nutriment, and is the +more valuable as the fruit can be kept, even in warm climates, for +a long time. In France and in the East it is much used in soups +and ragouts, while simply boiled it forms a substitute for other +table vegetables; the taste has been compared to that of a young +carrot. In some countries the larger kinds are employed as +cattle food. The seeds yield by expression a large quantity +of a bland oil, which is used for the same purposes as that of +the poppy and olive. The “mammoth” gourds of English and +American gardeners (known in America as squashes) belong +to this species. The pumpkin (summer squash of America) +is <i>Cucurbita Pepo</i>. Some of the varieties of <i>C. maxima</i> and +Pepo contain a considerable quantity of sugar, amounting in +the sweetest kinds to 4 or 5%, and in the hot plains of Hungary +efforts have been made to make use of them as a commercial +source of sugar. The young shoots of both these large gourds +may be given to cattle, and admit of being eaten as a green +vegetable when boiled. The vegetable marrow is a variety +(<i>ovifera</i>) of <i>C. Pepo</i>. Many smaller gourds are cultivated in +India and other hot climates, and some have been introduced +into English gardens, rather for the beauty of their fruit and +foliage than for their esculent +qualities. Among these +is <i>C. Pepo</i> var. <i>aurantia</i>, +the orange gourd, bearing a +spheroidal fruit, like a large +orange in form and colour; +in Britain it is generally +too bitter to be palatable, +though applied to culinary +purposes in Turkey and the +Levant. <i>C. Pepo</i> var. <i>pyriformis</i> +and var. <i>verrucosa</i>, +the warted gourds, are +likewise occasionally eaten, +especially in the immature +state; and <i>C. moschata</i> +(musk melon) is very extensively +cultivated throughout +India by the natives, the +yellow flesh being cooked +and eaten.</p> + +<p>The bottle-gourds are +placed in a separate genus, +<i>Lagenaria</i>, chiefly differing +from <i>Cucurbita</i> in the anthers +being free instead of +adherent. The bottle-gourd +properly so-called, <i>L. vulgaris</i>, +is a climbing plant with downy, heart-shaped leaves and +beautiful white flowers: the remarkable fruit (figs. 1-5) first begins +to grow in the form of an elongated cylinder, but gradually widens +towards the extremity, until, when ripe, it resembles a flask +with a narrow neck and large rounded bulb; it sometimes +attains a length of 7 ft. When ripe, the pulp is removed from +the neck, and the interior cleared by leaving water standing +in it; the woody rind that remains is used as a bottle: or the +lower part is cut off and cleared out, forming a basin-like vessel +applied to the same domestic purposes as the calabash (<i>Crescentia</i>) +of the West Indies: the smaller varieties, divided lengthwise, +form spoons. The ripe fruit is apt to be bitter and cathartic, +but while immature it is eaten by the Arabs and Turks. When +about the size of a small cucumber, it is stuffed with rice and +minced meat, flavoured with pepper, onions, &c., and then boiled, +forming a favourite dish with Eastern epicures. The elongated +snake-gourds of India and China (<i>Trichosanthes</i>) are used in +curries and stews.</p> + +<p>All the true gourds have a tendency to secrete the cathartic +principle <i>colocynthin</i>, and in many varieties of <i>Cucurbita</i> and the +allied genera it is often elaborated to such an extent as to +render them unwholesome, or even poisonous. The seeds of +several species therefore possess some anthelmintic properties; +those of the common pumpkin are frequently administered +in America as a vermifuge.</p> + +<p>The cultivation of gourds began far beyond the dawn of history, +and the esculent species have become so modified by culture +that the original plants from which they have descended can +no longer be traced. The abundance of varieties in India would +seem to indicate that part of Asia as the birthplace of the present +edible forms; but some appear to have been cultivated in all +the hotter regions of that continent, and in North Africa, from +the earliest ages, while the Romans were familiar with at least +certain kinds of <i>Cucurbita</i>, and with the bottle-gourd. <i>Cucurbita +Pepo</i>, the source of many of the American forms, is probably +a native of that continent.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Most of the annual gourds may be grown successfully in Britain. +They are usually raised in hotbeds or under frames, and planted out +in rich soil in the early summer as soon as the nights become warm. +The more ornamental kinds may be trained over trellis-work, a +favourite mode of displaying them in the East; but the situation +must be sheltered and sunny. Even <i>Lagenaria</i> will sometimes produce +fine fruit when so treated in the southern counties.</p> + +<p>For an account of these cultivations in England see paper by Mr +J. W. Odell, “Gourds and Cucurbits,” in <i>Journ. Royal Hort. Soc.</i> +xxix. 450 (1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOURGAUD, GASPAR,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1783-1852), French soldier, +was born at Versailles on the 14th of September 1783; his father +was a musician of the royal chapel. At school he showed talent +in mathematical studies and accordingly entered the artillery. +In 1802 he became junior lieutenant, and thereafter served +with credit in the campaigns of 1803-1805, being wounded at +Austerlitz. He was present at the siege of Saragossa in 1808, +but returned to service in Central Europe and took part in nearly +all the battles of the Danubian campaign of 1809. In 1811 +he was chosen to inspect and report on the fortifications of +Danzig. Thereafter he became one of the ordnance officers +attached to the emperor, whom he followed closely through +the Russian campaign of 1812; he was one of the first to enter +the Kremlin and discovered there a quantity of gunpowder +which might have been used for the destruction of Napoleon. +For his services in this campaign he received the title of baron, +and became first ordnance officer. In the campaign of 1813 +in Saxony he further evinced his courage and prowess, especially +at Leipzig and Hanau; but it was in the first battle of 1814, +near to Brienne, that he rendered the most signal service by +killing the leader of a small band of Cossacks who were riding +furiously towards Napoleon’s tent. Wounded at the battle of +Montmirail, he yet recovered in time to share in several of the +conflicts which followed, distinguishing himself especially at +Laon and Reims. Though enrolled among the royal guards of +Louis XVIII. in the summer of 1814, he yet embraced the cause +of Napoleon during the Hundred Days (1815), was named general +and aide-de-camp by the emperor, and fought at Waterloo.</p> + +<p>After the second abdication of the emperor (June 22nd, 1815) +Gourgaud retired with him and a few other companions to +Rochefort. It was to him that Napoleon entrusted the letter +of appeal to the prince regent for an asylum in England. Gourgaud +set off in H.M.S. “Slaney,” but was not allowed to land +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a>288</span> +in England. He determined to share Napoleon’s exile and +sailed with him on H.M.S. “Northumberland” to St Helena. +The ship’s secretary, John R. Glover, has left an entertaining +account of some of Gourgaud’s gasconnades at table. His +extreme sensitiveness and vanity soon brought him into collision +with Las Cases and Montholon at Longwood. The former he +styles in his journal a “Jesuit” and a scribbler who went thither +in order to become famous. With Montholon, his senior in rank, +the friction became so acute that he challenged him to a duel, +for which he suffered a sharp rebuke from Napoleon. Tiring +of the life at Longwood and the many slights which he suffered +from Napoleon, he desired to depart, but before he could sail +he spent two months with Colonel Basil Jackson, whose account +of him throws much light on his character, as also on the “policy” +adopted by the exiles at Longwood. In England he was gained +over by members of the Opposition and thereafter made common +cause with O’Meara and other detractors of Sir Hudson Lowe, +for whose character he had expressed high esteem to Basil Jackson. +He soon published his <i>Campagne de 1815</i>, in the preparation +of which he had had some help from Napoleon; but Gourgaud’s +<i>Journal de Ste-Hélčne</i> was not destined to be published till +the year 1899. Entering the arena of letters, he wrote, or collaborated +in, two well-known critiques. The first was a censure of +Count P. de Ségur’s work on the campaign of 1812, with the +result that he fought a duel with that officer and wounded him. +He also sharply criticized Sir Walter Scott’s <i>Life of Napoleon</i>. +He returned to active service in the army in 1830; and in 1840 +proceeded with others to St Helena to bring back the remains +of Napoleon to France. He became a deputy to the Legislative +Assembly in 1849; he died in 1852.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gourgaud’s works are <i>La Campagne de 1815</i> (London and Paris, +1818); <i>Napoléon et la Grande Armée en Russie; examen critique de +l’ouvrage de M. le comte P. de Ségur</i> (Paris, 1824); <i>Réfutation de la +vie de Napoléon par Sir Walter Scott</i> (Paris, 1827). He collaborated +with Montholon in the work entitled <i>Mémoires pour servir ŕ l’histoire +de France sous Napoléon</i> (Paris, 1822-1823), and with Belliard and +others in the work entitled <i>Bourrienne et ses erreurs</i> (2 vols., Paris, +1830); but his most important work is the <i>Journal inédit de Ste-Hélčne</i> +(2 vols., Paris, 1899), which is a remarkably naďf and life-like +record of the life at Longwood. See, too, <i>Notes and Reminiscences of +a Staff Officer</i>, by Basil Jackson (London, 1904), and the bibliography +to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lowe, Sir Hudson</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Hl. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOURKO, JOSEPH VLADIMIROVICH,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1828-1901), +Russian general, was born, of Lithuanian extraction, on the +15th of November 1828. He was educated in the imperial +corps of pages, entered the hussars of the imperial bodyguard +as sub-lieutenant in 1846, became captain in 1857, adjutant +to the emperor in 1860, colonel in 1861, commander of the 4th +Hussar regiment of Mariupol in 1866, and major-general of the +emperor’s suite in 1867. He subsequently commanded the +grenadier regiment, and in 1873 the 1st brigade, 2nd division, +of the cavalry of the guard. Although he took part in the +Crimean War, being stationed at Belbek, his claim to distinction +is due to his services in the Turkish war of 1877. He led the van +of the Russian invasion, took Trnovo on the 7th July, crossed +the Balkans by the Hain Bogaz pass, debouching near Hainkioi, +and, notwithstanding considerable resistance, captured Uflani, +Maglish and Kazanlyk; on the 18th of July he attacked Shipka, +which was evacuated by the Turks on the following day. Thus +within sixteen days of crossing the Danube Gourko had secured +three Balkan passes and created a panic at Constantinople. +He then made a series of successful reconnaissances of the +Tunja valley, cut the railway in two places, occupied Stara +Zagora (Turkish, Eski Zagra) and Nova Zagora (Yeni Zagra), +checked the advance of Suleiman’s army, and returned again +over the Balkans. In October he was appointed commander of +the allied cavalry, and attacked the Plevna line of communication +to Orkhanie with a large mixed force, captured Gorni-Dubnik, +Telische and Vratza, and, in the middle of November, Orkhanie +itself. Plevna was isolated, and after its fall in December +Gourko led the way amidst snow and ice over the Balkans to +the fertile valley beyond, totally defeated Suleiman, and occupied +Sophia, Philippopolis and Adrianople, the armistice at the +end of January 1878 stopping further operations (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Russo-Turkish +Wars</a></span>). Gourko was made a count, and decorated +with the 2nd class of St George and other orders. In 1879-1880 +he was governor of St Petersburg, and from 1883 to 1894 governor-general +of Poland. He died on the 29th of January 1901.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOURMET,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a French term for one who takes a refined and +critical, or even merely theoretical pleasure in good cooking +and the delights of the table. The word has not the disparaging +sense attached to the Fr. <i>gourmand</i>, to whom the practical +pleasure of good eating is the chief end. The O. Fr. <i>groumet</i> +or <i>gromet</i> meant a servant, or shop-boy, especially one employed +in a wine-seller’s shop, hence an expert taster of wines, from +which the modern usage has developed. The etymology of +gourmet is obscure; it may be ultimately connected with the +English “groom” (<i>q.v.</i>). The origin of <i>gourmand</i> is unknown. +In English, in the form “grummet,” the word was early applied +to a cabin or ship’s boy. Ships of the Cinque Ports were obliged +to carry one “grummet”; thus in a charter of 1229 (quoted +in the <i>New English Dictionary</i>) it is laid down <i>servitia inde +debita Domino Regi, xxi. naves, et in qualibet nave xxi. homines, +cum uno gartione qui dicitur gromet</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOUROCK,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a police burgh and watering-place of Renfrewshire, +Scotland, on the southern shore of the Firth of Clyde, +3ź m. W. by N. of Greenock by the Caledonian railway. Pop. +(1901) 5261. It is partly situated on a fine bay affording good +anchorage, for which it is largely resorted to by the numerous +yacht clubs of the Clyde. The extension of the railway from +Greenock (in 1889) to the commodious pier, with a tunnel 1<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> m. +long, the longest in Scotland, affords great facilities for travel +to the ports of the Firth, the sea lochs on the southern Highland +coast and the Crinan Canal. The eminence called Barrhill +(480 ft. high) divides the town into two parts, the eastern known +as Kempoch, the western as Ashton. Near Kempoch point is +a monolith of mica-schist, 6 ft. high, called “Granny Kempoch,” +which the superstitious of other days regarded as possessing +influence over the winds, and which was the scene, in 1662, of +certain rites that led to the celebrants being burned as witches. +Gamble Institute (named after the founder) contains halls, +recreation rooms, a public library and baths. It is said that +Gourock was the first place on the Clyde where herrings were +cured. There is tramway communication with Greenock and +Ashton. About 3 m. S.W. there stands on the shore the familiar +beacon of the Cloch. Gourock became a burgh of barony in 1694.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOURVILLE, JEAN HERAULD<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1625-1703), French adventurer, +was born at La Rochefoucauld. At the age of eighteen +he entered the house of La Rochefoucauld as a servant, and in +1646 became secretary to François de la Rochefoucauld, author +of the <i>Maximes</i>. Resourceful and quick-witted, he rendered +services to his master during the Fronde, in his intrigues with +the parliament, the court or the princes. In these negotiations +he made the acquaintance of Condé, whom he wished to help +to escape from the château of Vincennes; of Mazarin, for whom +he negotiated the reconciliation with the princes; and of Nicolas +Fouquet. After the Fronde he engaged in financial affairs, +thanks to Fouquet. In 1658 he farmed the <i>taille</i> in Guienne. +He bought depreciated <i>rentes</i> and had them raised to their +nominal value by the treasury; he extorted gifts from the +financiers for his protection, being Fouquet’s confidant in many +operations of which he shared the profits. In three years he +accumulated an enormous fortune, still further increased by his +unfailing good fortune at cards, playing even with the king. +He was involved in the trial of Fouquet, and in April 1663 was +condemned to death for peculation and embezzlement of public +funds; but escaping, was executed in effigy. He sent a valet +one night to take the effigy down from the gallows in the court +of the Palais de Justice, and then fled the country. He remained +five years abroad, being excepted in 1665 from the +amnesty accorded by Louis XIV. to the condemned financiers. +Having returned secretly to France, he entered the service of +Condé, who, unable to meet his creditors, had need of a clever +manager to put his affairs in order. In this way he was able to +reappear at court, to assist at the campaigns of the war with +Holland, and to offer himself for all the delicate negotiations +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>289</span> +for his master or the king. He received diplomatic missions in +Germany, in Holland, and especially in Spain, though it was +only in 1694, that he was freed from the condemnation pronounced +against him by the chamber of justice. From 1696 +he fell ill and withdrew to his estate, where he dictated to his +secretary, in four months and a half, his <i>Mémoires</i>, an important +source for the history of his time. In spite of several errors, +introduced purposely, they give a clear idea of the life and morals +of a financier of the age of Fouquet, and throw light on certain +points of the diplomatic history. They were first published in +1724.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There is a modern edition, with notes, an introduction and appendix, +by Lecestre (Paris, 1894-1895, 2 vols.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOUT,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> the name rather vaguely given, in medicine, to a +constitutional disorder which manifests itself by inflammation +of the joints, with sometimes deposition of urates of soda, and +also by morbid changes in various important organs. The +term gout, which was first used about the end of the 13th +century, is derived through the Fr. <i>goutte</i> from the Lat. <i>gutta</i>, +a drop, in allusion to the old pathological doctrine of the dropping +of a morbid material from the blood within the joints. The +disease was known and described by the ancient Greek physicians +under various terms, which, however, appear to have been +applied by them alike to rheumatism and gout. The general +term <i>arthritis</i> (<span class="grk" title="arthron">ἄρθρον</span>, a joint) was employed when many joints +were the seat of inflammation; while in those instances where +the disease was limited to one part the terms used bore reference +to such locality; hence <i>podagra</i> (<span class="grk" title="podagra">ποδάγρα</span>, from <span class="grk" title="pous">πούς</span>, the foot, +and <span class="grk" title="hagra">ἅγρα</span>, a seizure), <i>chiragra</i> (<span class="grk" title="cheir">χείρ</span>, the hand), <i>gonagra</i> (<span class="grk" title="gonu">γόνυ</span>, +the knee), &c.</p> + +<p>Hippocrates in his <i>Aphorisms</i> speaks of gout as occurring +most commonly in spring and autumn, and mentions the fact +that women are less liable to it than men. He also gives directions +as to treatment. Celsus gives a similar account of the disease. +Galen regarded gout as an unnatural accumulation of humours +in a part, and the chalk-stones as the concretions of these, and +he attributed the disease to over-indulgence and luxury. Gout +is alluded to in the works of Ovid and Pliny, and Seneca, in his +95th epistle, mentions the prevalence of gout among the Roman +ladies of his day as one of the results of their high living and +debauchery. Lucian, in his <i>Tragopodagra</i>, gives an amusing +account of the remedies employed for the cure of gout.</p> + +<p>In all times this disease has engaged a large share of the attention +of physicians, from its wide prevalence and from the amount +of suffering which it entails. Sydenham, the famous English +physician of the 17th century, wrote an important treatise on +the subject, and his description of the gouty paroxysm, all the +more vivid from his having himself been afflicted with the disease +for thirty-four years, is still quoted by writers as the most +graphic and exhaustive account of the symptomatology of gout. +Subsequently Cullen, recognizing gout as capable of manifesting +itself in various ways, divided the disease into <i>regular gout</i>, +which affects the joints only, and <i>irregular gout</i>, where the gouty +disposition exhibits itself in other forms; and the latter variety +he subdivided into <i>atonic gout</i>, where the most prominent +symptoms are throughout referable to the stomach and alimentary +canal; <i>retrocedent gout</i>, where the inflammatory attack +suddenly disappears from an affected joint and serious disturbance +takes place in some internal organ, generally the stomach +or heart; and <i>misplaced gout</i>, where from the first the disease +does not appear externally, but reveals itself by an inflammatory +attack of some internal part. Dr Garrod, one of the most +eminent authorities on gout, adopted a division somewhat +similar to, though simpler than that of Cullen, namely, <i>regular +gout</i>, which affects the joints alone, and is either acute or chronic, +and <i>irregular gout</i>, affecting non-articular tissues, or disturbing +the functions of various organs.</p> + +<p>It is often stated that the attack of gout comes on without +any previous warning; but, while this is true in many instances, +the reverse is probably as frequently the case, and the premonitory +symptoms, especially in those who have previously +suffered from the disease, may be sufficiently precise to indicate +the impending seizure. Among the more common of these +may be mentioned marked disorders of the digestive organs, +with a feeble and capricious appetite, flatulence and pain after +eating, and uneasiness in the right side in the region of the liver. +A remarkable tendency to gnashing of the teeth is sometimes +observed. This symptom was first noticed by Dr Graves, +who connected it with irritation in the urinary organs, which +also is present as one of the premonitory indications of the +gouty attack. Various forms of nervous disturbance also present +themselves in the form of general discomfort, extreme irritability +of temper, and various perverted sensations, such as that of +numbness and coldness in the limbs. These symptoms may +persist for many days and then undergo amelioration immediately +before the impending paroxysm. On the night of the attack +the patient retires to rest apparently well, but about two or three +o’clock in the morning awakes with a painful feeling in the foot, +most commonly in the ball of the great toe, but it may be in +the instep or heel, or in the thumb. With the pain there often +occurs a distinct shivering followed by feverishness. The pain +soon becomes of the most agonizing character: in the words +of Sydenham, “now it is a violent stretching and tearing of the +ligaments, now it is a gnawing pain, and now a pressure and +tightening; so exquisite and lively meanwhile is the part +affected that it cannot bear the weight of the bedclothes, nor +the jar of a person walking in the room.”</p> + +<p>When the affected part is examined it is found to be swollen +and of a deep red hue. The superjacent skin is tense and glistening, +and the surrounding veins are more or less distended. After +a few hours there is a remission of the pain, slight perspiration +takes place, and the patient may fall asleep. The pain may +continue moderate during the day but returns as night advances, +and the patient goes through a similar experience of suffering +to that of the previous night, followed with a like abatement +towards morning. These nocturnal exacerbations occur with +greater or less severity during the continuance of the attack, +which generally lasts for a week or ten days. As the symptoms +decline the swelling and tenderness of the affected joint abate, +but the skin over it pits on pressure for a time, and with this +there is often associated slight desquamation of the cuticle. +During the attacks there is much constitutional disturbance. +The patient is restless and extremely irritable, and suffers from +cramp in the limbs and from dyspepsia, thirst and constipation. +The urine is scanty and high-coloured, with a copious deposit, +consisting chiefly of urates. During the continuance of the +symptoms the inflammation may leave the one foot and affect +the other, or both may suffer at the same time. After the attack +is over the patient feels quite well and fancies himself better +than he had been for a long time before; hence the once popular +notion that a fit of the gout was capable of removing all other +ailments. Any such idea, however, is sadly belied in the experience +of most sufferers from this disease. It is rare that the +first is the only attack of gout, and another is apt to occur within +a year, although by care and treatment it may be warded off. +The disease, however, undoubtedly tends to take a firmer hold +on the constitution and to return. In the earlier recurrences +the same joints as were formerly the seat of the gouty inflammation +suffer again, but in course of time others become implicated, +until in advanced cases scarcely any articulation +escapes, and the disease thus becomes chronic. It is to be noticed +that when gout assumes this form the frequently recurring attacks +are usually attended with less pain than the earlier ones, but +their disastrous effects are evidenced alike by the disturbance +of various important organs, especially the stomach, liver, +kidneys and heart, and by the remarkable changes which take +place in the joints from the formation of the so-called chalk-stones +or tophi. These deposits, which are highly characteristic +of gout, appear at first to take place in the form of a semifluid +material, consisting for the most part of urate of soda, which +gradually becomes more dense, and ultimately quite hard. +When any quantity of this is deposited in the structures of a +joint the effect is to produce stiffening, and, as deposits appear +to take place to a greater or less amount in connexion with every +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>290</span> +attack, permanent thickening and deformity of the parts is apt +to be the consequence. The extent of this depends, of course, +on the amount of the deposits, which, however, would seem +to be in no necessary relation to the severity of the attack, being +in some cases even of chronic gout so slight as to be barely +appreciable externally, but on the other hand occasionally +causing great enlargement of the joints, and fixing them in a +flexed or extended position which renders them entirely useless. +Dr Garrod describes the appearance of a hand in an extreme +case of this kind, and likens its shape to a bundle of French +carrots with their heads forward, the nails corresponding to the +stalks. Any of the joints may be thus affected, but most +commonly those of the hands and feet. The deposits take place +in other structures besides those of joints, such as along the course +of tendons, underneath the skin and periosteum, in the sclerotic +coat of the eye, and especially on the cartilages of the external +ear. When largely deposited in joints an abscess sometimes +forms, the skin gives way, and the concretion is exposed. Sir +Thomas Watson quotes a case of this kind where the patient +when playing at cards was accustomed to chalk the score of the +game upon the table with his gouty knuckles.</p> + +<p>The recognition of what is termed irregular gout is less easy +than that form above described, where the disease gives abundant +external evidence of its presence; but that other parts than +joints suffer from gouty attacks is beyond question. The diagnosis +may often be made in cases where in an attack of ordinary +gout the disease suddenly leaves the affected joints and some +new series of symptoms arises. It has been often observed when +cold has been applied to an inflamed joint that the pain and +inflammation in the part ceased, but that some sudden and +alarming seizure referable to the stomach, brain, heart or lungs +supervened. Such attacks, which correspond to what is termed +by Cullen retrocedent gout, often terminate favourably, more +especially if the disease again returns to the joints. Further, +the gouty nature of some long-continued internal or cutaneous +disorder may be rendered apparent by its disappearance on the +outbreak of the paroxysm in the joints. Gout, when of long +standing, is often found associated with degenerative changes in +the heart and large arteries, the liver, and especially the kidneys, +which are apt to assume the contracted granular condition +characteristic of one of the forms of Bright’s disease. A variety +of urinary calculus—the uric acid—formed by concretions of +this substance in the kidneys is a not unfrequent occurrence +in connexion with gout; hence the well-known association of +this disease and gravel.</p> + +<p>The pathology of gout is discussed in the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metabolic +Diseases</a></span>. Many points, however, still remain unexplained. +As remarked by Trousseau, “the production in excess of uric +acid and urates is a pathological phenomenon inherent like all +others in the disease; and like all the others it is dominated +by a specific cause, which we know only by its effects, and which +we term the gouty diathesis.” This subject of diathesis (habit, +or organic predisposition of individuals), which is regarded as an +essential element in the pathology of gout, naturally suggests +the question as to whether, besides being inherited, such a +peculiarity may also be acquired, and this leads to a consideration +of the causes which are recognized as influential in favouring +the occurrence of this disease.</p> + +<p>It is beyond dispute that gout is in a marked degree hereditary, +fully more than half the number of cases being, according to +Sir C. Scudamore and Dr Garrod, of this character. But it is +no less certain that there are habits and modes of life the observance +of which may induce the disease even where no hereditary +tendencies can be traced, and the avoidance of which may, on +the other hand, go far towards weakening or neutralizing the +influence of inherited liability. Gout is said to affect the sedentary +more readily than the active. If, however, inadequate exercise +be combined with a luxurious manner of living, with habitual +over-indulgence in animal food and rich dishes, and especially +in alcoholic beverages, then undoubtedly the chief factors in the +production of the disease are present.</p> + +<p>Much has been written upon the relative influence of various +forms of alcoholic drinks in promoting the development of gout. +It is generally stated that fermented are more injurious than +distilled liquors, and that, in particular, the stronger wines, +such as port, sherry and madeira, are much more potent in their +gout-producing action than the lighter class of wines, such as +hock, moselle, &c., while malt liquors are fully as hurtful as strong +wines. It seems quite as probable, however, that over-indulgence +in any form of alcohol, when associated with the other conditions +already adverted to, will have very much the same effect in +developing gout. The comparative absence of gout in countries +where spirituous liquors are chiefly used, such as Scotland, is +cited as showing their relatively slight effect in encouraging +that disease; but it is to be noticed that in such countries there +is on the whole a less marked tendency to excess in the other +pleasures of the table, which in no degree less than alcohol are +chargeable with inducing the gouty habit. Gout is not a common +disease among the poor and labouring classes, and when it does +occur may often be connected even in them with errors in living. +It is not very rare to meet gout in butlers, coachmen, &c., who +are apt to live luxuriously while leading comparatively easy lives.</p> + +<p>Gout, it must ever be borne in mind, may also affect persons who +observe the strictest temperance in living, and whose only excesses +are in the direction of over-work, either physical or intellectual. +Many of the great names in history in all times have had their +existence embittered by this malady, and have died from its +effects. The influence of hereditary tendency may often be +traced in such instances, and is doubtless called into activity +by the depressing consequences of over-work. It may, notwithstanding, +be affirmed as generally true that those who lead regular +lives, and are moderate in the use of animal food and alcoholic +drinks, or still better abstain from the latter altogether, are +less likely to be the victims of gout even where an undoubted +inherited tendency exists.</p> + +<p>Gout is more common in mature age than in the earlier years +of life, the greatest number of cases in one decennial period being +between the ages of thirty and forty, next between twenty and +thirty, and thirdly between forty and fifty. It may occasionally +affect very young persons; such cases are generally regarded as +hereditary, but, so far as diet is concerned, it has to be remembered +that their home life has probably been a predisposing cause. +After middle life gout rarely appears for the first time. Women +are much less the subjects of gout than men, apparently from +their less exposure to the influences (excepting, of course, that +of heredity) which tend to develop the disease, and doubtless +also from the differing circumstances of their physical constitution. +It most frequently appears in females after the cessation +of the menses. Persons exposed to the influence of lead poisoning, +such as plumbers, painters, &c., are apt to suffer from gout; +and it would seem that impregnation of the system with this +metal markedly interferes with the uric acid excreting function +of the kidneys.</p> + +<p>Attacks of gout are readily excited in those predisposed to +the disease. Exposure to cold, disorders of digestion, fatigue, +and irritation or injuries of particular joints will often precipitate +the gouty paroxysm.</p> + +<p>With respect to the treatment of gout the greatest variety +of opinion has prevailed and practice been pursued, from the +numerous quaint nostrums detailed by Lucian to the “expectant” +or do-nothing system recommended by Sydenham. But gout, +although, as has been shown, a malady of a most severe and +intractable character, may nevertheless be successfully dealt +with by appropriate medicinal and hygienic measures. The +general plan of treatment can be here only briefly indicated. +During the acute attack the affected part should be kept at +perfect rest, and have applied to it warm opiate fomentations +or poultices, or, what answers quite as well, be enveloped in +cotton wool covered in with oil silk. The diet of the patient +should be light, without animal food or stimulants. The administration +of some simple laxative will be of service, as well as the +free use of alkaline diuretics, such as the bicarbonate or acetate +of potash. The medicinal agent most relied on for the relief +of pain is colchicum, which manifestly exercises a powerful +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>291</span> +action on the disease. This drug (<i>Colchicum autumnale</i>), which +is believed to correspond to the hermodactyl of the ancients, +has proved of such efficacy in modifying the attacks that, as +observed by Dr Garrod, “we may safely assert that colchicum +possesses as specific a control over the gouty inflammation as +cinchona barks or their alkaloids over intermittent fever.” +It is usually administered in the form of the wine in doses of +10 to 30 drops every four or six hours, or in pill as the acetous +extract (gr. ˝-gr. i.). The effect of colchicum in subduing the +pain of gout is generally so prompt and marked that it is unnecessary +to have recourse to opiates; but its action requires +to be carefully watched by the physician from its well-known +nauseating and depressing consequences, which, should they +appear, render the suspension of the drug necessary. Otherwise +the remedy may be continued in gradually diminishing doses +for some days after the disappearance of the gouty inflammation. +Should gout give evidence of its presence in an irregular form +by attacking internal organs, besides the medicinal treatment +above mentioned, the use of frictions and mustard applications +to the joints is indicated with the view of exciting its appearance +there. When gout has become chronic, colchicum, although of +less service than in acute gout, is yet valuable, particularly +when the inflammatory attacks recur. More benefit, however, +appears to be derived from potassium iodide, guaiacum, the +alkalis potash and lithia, and from the administration of aspirin +and sodium salicylate. Salicylate of menthol is an effective +local application, painted on and covered with a gutta-percha +bandage. Lithia was strongly recommended by Dr Garrod from +its solvent action upon the urates. It is usually administered +in the form of the carbonate (gr. v., freely diluted).</p> + +<p>The treatment and regimen to be employed in the intervals +of the gouty attacks are of the highest importance. These +bear reference for the most part to the habits and mode of life +of the patient. Restriction must be laid upon the amount and +quality of the food, and equally, or still more, upon the alcoholic +stimulants. “The instances,” says Sir Thomas Watson, “are +not few of men of good sense, and masters of themselves, who, +being warned by one visitation of the gout, have thenceforward +resolutely abstained from rich living and from wine and strong +drinks of all kinds, and who have been rewarded for their prudence +and self-denial by complete immunity from any return of the +disease, or upon whom, at any rate, its future assaults have been +few and feeble.” The same eminent authority adds: “I am +sure it is worth any <i>young</i> man’s while, who has had the gout, +to become a teetotaller.” By those more advanced in life +who, from long continued habit, are unable entirely to relinquish +the use of stimulants, the strictest possible temperance must +be observed. Regular but moderate exercise in the form of +walking or riding, in the case of those who lead sedentary lives, +is of great advantage, and all over-work, either physical or mental, +should be avoided. <i>Fatiguez la bęte, et reposez la tęte</i> is the maxim +of an experienced French doctor (Dr Debout d’Estrées of Contrexéville). +Unfortunately the complete carrying out of such +directions, even by those who feel their importance, is too often +rendered difficult or impossible by circumstances of occupation +and otherwise, and at most only an approximation can be made. +Certain mineral waters and baths (such as those of Vichy, +Royat, Contrexéville, &c.) are of undoubted value in cases of +gout and arthritis. The particular place must in each case be +determined by the physician, and special caution must be +observed in recommending this plan of treatment in persons +whose gout is complicated by organic disease of any kind.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Dr Alexander Haig’s “uric acid free diet” has found many adherents. +His view as regards the pathology is that in gouty persons +the blood is less alkaline than in normal, and therefore less able to +hold in solution uric acid or its salts, which are retained in the joints. +Assuming gout to be a poisoning by animal food (meat, fish, eggs), +and by tea, coffee, cocoa and other vegetable alkaloid-containing substances, +he recommends an average daily diet excluding these, and +containing 24 oz. of breadstuffs (toast, bread, biscuits and puddings) +together with 24 oz. of fruit and vegetables (excluding peas, beans, +lentils, mushrooms and asparagus); 8 oz. of the breadstuffs may be +replaced by 21 oz. of milk or 2 oz. of cheese, butter and oil being taken +as required, so that it is not strictly a vegetarian diet.</p> + +<p>Precisely the opposite view as to diet has recently been put forward +by Professor A. Robin of the Hôpital Beaujon, who says serious +mistakes are made in ordering patients to abstain from red meats +and take light food, fish, eggs, &c. The common object in view is the +diminished output of uric acid. This output is chiefly obtained from +food rich in nucleins and in collagenous matters, <i>i.e.</i> young white +meats, eggs, &c. Consequently the gouty subject ought to restrict +himself to the consumption of red meat, beef and mutton, and leave +out of his dietary all white meat and internal organs. He should +take little hydrocarbons and sugars, and be moderate in fats. +Vegetarian diet he regards as a mistake, likewise milk diet, as they +tend to weaken the patient. To prevent the formation of uric acid +Robin prescribes quinic acid combined with formine or urotropine.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOUTHIČRE, PIERRE<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1740-1806), French metal worker, +was born at Troyes and went to Paris at an early age as the +pupil of Martin Cour. During his brilliant career he executed +a vast quantity of metal work of the utmost variety, the best of +which was unsurpassed by any of his rivals in that great art +period. It was long believed that he received many commissions +for furniture from the court of Louis XVI., and especially from +Marie Antoinette, but recent searches suggest that his work for +the queen was confined to bronzes. Gouthičre can, however, well +bear this loss, nor will his reputation suffer should those critics +ultimately be justified who believe that many of the furniture +mounts attributed to him were from the hand of Thomire. But +if he did not work for the court he unquestionably produced +many of the most splendid belongings of the duc d’Aumont, +the duchesse de Mazarin and Mme du Barry. Indeed the +custom of the beautiful mistress of Louis XV. brought about +the financial ruin of the great artist, who accomplished more +than any other man for the fame of her château of Louveciennes. +When the collection of the duc d’Aumont was sold by auction +in Paris in 1782 so many objects mounted by Gouthičre were +bought for Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette that it is not +difficult to perceive the basis of the belief that they were actually +made for the court. The duc’s sale catalogue is, however, in +existence, with the names of the purchasers and the prices +realized. The auction was almost an apotheosis of Gouthičre. +The precious lacquer cabinets, the chandeliers and candelabra, +the tables and cabinets in marquetry, the columns and vases +in porphyry, jasper and choice marbles, the porcelains of China +and Japan were nearly all mounted in bronze by him. More +than fifty of these pieces bore Gouthičre’s signature. The duc +d’Aumont’s cabinet represented the high-water mark of the +chaser’s art, and the great prices which were paid for Gouthičre’s +work at this sale are the most conclusive criterion of the value +set upon his achievement in his own day. Thus Marie Antoinette +paid 12,000 livres for a red jasper bowl or <i>brűle-parfums</i> mounted +by him, which was then already famous. Curiously enough +it commanded only one-tenth of that price at the Fournier sale +in 1831; but in 1865, when the marquis of Hertford bought +it at the prince de Beauvais’s sale, it fetched 31,900 francs. It +is now in the Wallace Collection, which contains the finest and +most representative gathering of Gouthičre’s undoubted work. +The mounts of gilt bronze, cast and elaborately chased, show +satyrs’ heads, from which hang festoons of vine leaves, while +within the feet a serpent is coiled to spring. A smaller cup is one +of the treasures of the Louvre. There too is a bronze clock, +signed by “Gouthičre, <i>cizileur et doreur du Roy ŕ Paris</i>,” dated +1771, with a river god, a water nymph symbolizing the Rhône +and its tributary the Durance, and a female figure typifying the +city of Avignon. Not all of Gouthičre’s work is of the highest +quality, and much of what he executed was from the designs +of others. At his best his delicacy, refinement and finish are +exceedingly delightful—in his great moments he ranks with +the highest alike as artist and as craftsman. The tone of soft +dead gold which is found on some of his mounts he is believed +to have invented, but indeed the gilding of all his superlative +work possesses a remarkable quality. This charm of tone is +admirably seen in the bronzes and candelabra which he executed +for the chimney-piece of Marie Antoinette’s boudoir at Fontainebleau. +He continued to embellish Louveciennes for Madame +du Barry until the Revolution, and then the guillotine came for +her and absolute ruin for him. When her property was seized +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>292</span> +she owed him 756,000 livres, of which he never received a sol, +despite repeated applications to the administrators. “<i>Réduit +ŕ solliciter une place ŕ l’hospice, il mourut dans la misčre.</i>” So +it was stated in a lawsuit brought by his sons against du Barry’s +heirs.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOUVION SAINT-CYR, LAURENT,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1764-1830), +French marshal, was born at Toul on the 13th of April 1764. +At the age of eighteen he went to Rome with the view of prosecuting +the study of painting, but although he continued his +artistic studies after his return to Paris in 1784 he never definitely +adopted the profession of a painter. In 1792 he was chosen +a captain in a volunteer battalion, and served on the staff of +General Custine. Promotion rapidly followed, and in the course +of two years he had become a general of division. In 1796 he +commanded the centre division of Moreau’s army in the campaign +of the Rhine, and by coolness and sagacity greatly aided him +in the celebrated retreat from Bavaria to the Rhine. In 1798 +he succeeded Masséna in the command of the army of Italy. +In the following year he commanded the left wing of Jourdan’s +army in Germany; but when Jourdan was succeeded by Masséna, +he joined the army of Moreau in Italy, where he distinguished +himself in face of the great difficulties that followed the defeat +of Novi. When Moreau, in 1800, was appointed to the command +of the army of the Rhine, Gouvion St-Cyr was named his principal +lieutenant, and on the 9th of May gained a victory over General +Kray at Biberach. He was not, however, on good terms with +his commander and retired to France after the first operations +of the campaign. In 1801 he was sent to Spain to command +the army intended for the invasion of Portugal, and was named +grand officer of the Legion of Honour. When a treaty of peace +was shortly afterwards concluded with Portugal, he succeeded +Lucien Bonaparte as ambassador at Madrid. In 1803 he was +appointed to the command of an army corps in Italy, in 1805 +he served with distinction under Masséna, and in 1806 was +engaged in the campaign in southern Italy. He took part in +the Prussian and Polish campaigns of 1807, and in 1808, in which +year he was made a count, he commanded an army corps in +Catalonia; but, not wishing to comply with certain orders +he received from Paris (for which see Oman, <i>Peninsular War</i>, +vol. iii.), he resigned his command and remained in disgrace +till 1811. He was still a general of division, having been excluded +from the first list of marshals owing to his action in refusing +to influence the troops in favour of the establishment of the +Empire. On the opening of the Russian campaign he received +command of an army corps, and on the 18th of August 1812 +obtained a victory over the Russians at Polotsk, in recognition +of which he was created a marshal of France. He received a +severe wound in one of the actions during the general retreat. +St-Cyr distinguished himself at the battle of Dresden (August +26-27, 1813), and in the defence of that place against the Allies +after the battle of Leipzig, capitulating only on the 11th of +November, when Napoleon had retreated to the Rhine. On +the restoration of the Bourbons he was created a peer of France, +and in July 1815 was appointed war minister, but resigned his +office in the November following. In June 1817 he was appointed +minister of marine, and in September following again resumed +the duties of war minister, which he continued to discharge +till November 1819. During this time he effected many reforms, +particularly in respect of measures tending to make the army +a national rather than a dynastic force. He exerted himself +also to safeguard the rights of the old soldiers of the Empire, +organized the general staff and revised the code of military law +and the pension regulations. He was made a marquess in 1817. +He died at Hyčres (Var) on the 17th of March 1830. Gouvion +St-Cyr would doubtless have obtained better opportunities of +acquiring distinction had he shown himself more blindly devoted +to the interests of Napoleon, but Napoleon paid him the high +compliment of referring to his “military genius,” and entrusted +him with independent commands in secondary theatres of war. +It is doubtful, however, if he possessed energy commensurate +with his skill, and in Napoleon’s modern conception of war, +as three parts moral to one technical, there was more need for +the services of a bold leader of troops whose “doctrine”—to +use the modern phrase—predisposed him to self-sacrificing and +vigorous action, than for a <i>savant</i> in the art of war of the type of +St-Cyr. Contemporary opinion, as reflected by Marbot, did +justice to his “commanding talents,” but remarked the indolence +which was the outward sign of the vague complexity of a mind +that had passed beyond the simplicity of mediocrity without +attaining the simplicity of genius.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>He was the author of the following works, all of the highest +value: <i>Journal des opérations de l’armée de Catalogne en 1808 et +1809</i> (Paris, 1821); <i>Mémoires sur les campagnes des armées de Rhin +et de Rhin-et-Moselle de 1794 ŕ 1797</i> (Paris, 1829); and <i>Mémoires +pour servir ŕ l’histoire militaire sous le Directoire, le Consulat, et +l’Empire</i> (1831).</p> + +<p>See Gay de Vernon’s <i>Vie de Gouvion Saint-Cyr</i> (1857).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOVAN,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire, Scotland. +It lies on the south bank of the Clyde in actual contact with +Glasgow, and in a parish of the same name which includes a large +part of the city on both sides of the river. Pop. (1891) 61,589; +(1901) 76,532. Govan remained little more than a village till +1860, when the growth of shipbuilding and allied trades gave +its development an enormous impetus. Among its public buildings +are the municipal chambers, combination fever hospital, +Samaritan hospital and reception houses for the poor. Elder +Park (40 acres) presented to the burgh in 1885 contains a statue +of John Elder (1824-1869), the pioneer shipbuilder, the husband +of the donor. A statue of Sir William Pearce (1833-1888), +another well-known Govan shipbuilder, once M.P. for the burgh, +stands at Govan Cross. The Govan lunacy board opened in +1896 an asylum near Paisley. Govan is supplied with Glasgow +gas and water, and its tramways are leased by the Glasgow +corporation; but it has an electric light installation of its own, +and performs all other municipal functions quite independently +of the city, annexation to which it has always strenuously +resisted. Prince’s Dock lies within its bounds and the shipbuilding +yards have turned out many famous ironclads and +liners. Besides shipbuilding its other industries are match-making, +silk-weaving, hair-working, copper-working, tube-making, +weaving, and the manufacture of locomotives and +electrical apparatus. The town forms the greater part of the +Govan division of Lanarkshire, which returns one member to +parliament.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOVERNMENT<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>governement</i>, mod. <i>gouvernement</i>, +O. Fr. <i>governer</i>, mod. <i>gouverner</i>, from Lat. <i>gubernare</i>, to steer a +ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="kubernan">κυβερνᾶν</span>), in its widest sense, the +ruling power in a political society. In every society of men there +is a determinate body (whether consisting of one individual +or a few or many individuals) whose commands the rest of the +community are bound to obey. This sovereign body is what in +more popular phrase is termed the government of the country, +and the varieties which may exist in its constitution are known +as forms of government. For the opposite theory of a community +with “no government,” see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anarchism</a></span>.</p> + +<p>How did government come into existence? Various answers +to this question have at times been given, which may be distinguished +broadly into three classes. The first class would +comprehend the legendary accounts which nations have given +in primitive times of their own forms of government. These +are always attributed to the mind of a single lawgiver. The +government of Sparta was the invention of Lycurgus. Solon, +Moses, Numa and Alfred in like manner shaped the government +of their respective nations. There was no curiosity about the +institutions of other nations—about the origin of governments +in general; and each nation was perfectly ready to accept the +traditional <span class="grk" title="nomothetai">νομοθέται</span> of any other.</p> + +<p>The second may be called the logical or metaphysical account +of the origin of government. It contained no overt reference +to any particular form of government, whatever its covert +references may have been. It answered the question, how +government in general came into existence; and it answered +it by a logical analysis of the elements of society. The phenomenon +to be accounted for being government and laws, it abstracted +government and laws, and contemplated mankind as existing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>293</span> +without them. The characteristic feature of this kind of speculation +is that it reflects how contemporary men would behave +if all government were removed, and infers that men must have +behaved so before government came into existence. Society +without government resolves itself into a number of individuals +each following his own aims, and therefore, in the days before +government, each man followed his own aims. It is easy to see +how this kind of reasoning should lead to very different views +of the nature of the supposed original state. With Hobbes, +it is a state of war, and government is the result of an agreement +among men to keep the peace. With Locke, it is a state of +liberty and equality,—it is not a state of war; it is governed +by its own law,—the law of nature, which is the same thing +as the law of reason. The state of nature is brought to an end +by the voluntary agreement of individuals to surrender their +natural liberty and submit themselves to one supreme government. +In the words of Locke, “Men being by nature all free, +equal and independent, no one can be put out of this estate +and subjected to the political power of another without his own +consent. The only way whereby any one divests himself of his +natural liberty, and puts on the <i>bonds of civil society</i>, is by agreeing +with other men to join and unite into a community” (<i>On +Civil Government</i>, c. viii.). Locke boldly defends his theory +as founded on historical fact, and it is amusing to compare his +demonstration of the baselessness of Sir R. Filmer’s speculations +with the scanty and doubtful examples which he accepts as the +foundation of his own. But in general the various forms of the +hypothesis eliminate the question of time altogether. The +original contract from which government sprang is likewise the +subsisting contract on which civil society continues to be based. +The historical weakness of the theory was probably always +recognized. Its logical inadequacy was conclusively demonstrated +by John Austin. But it still clings to speculations on +the principles of government.</p> + +<p>The “social compact” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rousseau</a></span>) is the most famous +of the metaphysical explanations of government. It has had +the largest history, the widest influence and the most complete +development. To the same class belong the various forms of +the theory that governments exist by divine appointment. +Of all that has been written about the divine right of kings, a +great deal must be set down to the mere flatteries of courtiers +and ecclesiastics. But there remains a genuine belief that men +are bound to obey their rulers because their rulers have been +appointed by God. Like the social compact, the theory of +divine appointment avoided the question of historical fact.</p> + +<p>The application of the historical method to the phenomena +of society has changed the aspect of the question and robbed it +of its political interest. The student of the history of society has +no formula to express the law by which government is born. All +that he can do is to trace governmental forms through various +stages of social development. The more complex and the larger +the society, the more distinct is the separation between the +governing part and the rest, and the more elaborate is the +subdivision of functions in the government. The primitive +type of ruler is king, judge, priest and general. At the same +time, his way of life differs little from that of his followers and +subjects. The metaphysical theories were so far right in imputing +greater equality of social conditions to more primitive times. +Increase of bulk brings with it a more complex social organization. +War tends to develop the strength of the governmental organization; +peace relaxes it. All societies of men exhibit the germs +of government; but there would appear to be races of men so +low that they cannot be said to live together in society at all. +Modern investigations have illustrated very fully the importance +of the family (<i>q.v.</i>) in primitive societies, and the belief in a +common descent has much to do with the social cohesion of a +tribe. The government of a tribe resembles the government of a +household; the head of the family is the ruler. But we cannot +affirm that political government has its origin in family government, +or that there may not have been states of society in +which government of some sort existed while the family did +not.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">I. Forms of Government</p> + +<p><i>Three Standard Forms.</i>—Political writers from the time of +Aristotle have been singularly unanimous in their classification +of the forms of government. There are three ways in which +states may be governed. They may be governed by one man, +or by a number of men, small in proportion to the whole number +of men in the state, or by a number large in proportion to the +whole number of men in the state. The government may be +a monarchy, an aristocracy or a democracy. The same terms +are used by John Austin as were used by Aristotle, and in very +nearly the same sense. The determining quality in governments +in both writers, and it may safely be said in all intermediate +writers, is the numerical relation between the constituent +members of the government and the population of the state. +There were, of course, enormous differences between the state-systems +present to the mind of the Greek philosopher and the +English jurist. Aristotle was thinking of the small independent +states of Greece, Austin of the great peoples of modern Europe. +The unit of government in the one case was a city, in the other +a nation. This difference is of itself enough to invalidate all +generalization founded on the common terminology. But on +one point there is a complete parallel between the politics of +Aristotle and the politics of Austin. The Greek cities were to +the rest of the world very much what European nations and +European colonies are to the rest of the world now. They were +the only communities in which the governed visibly took some +share in the work of government. Outside the European system, +as outside the Greek system, we have only the stereotyped +uniformity of despotism, whether savage or civilized. The +question of forms of government, therefore, belongs characteristically +to the European races. The virtues and defects of +monarchy, aristocracy and democracy are the virtues and +defects manifested by the historical governments of Europe. +The generality of the language used by political writers must +not blind us to the fact that they are thinking only of a comparatively +small portion of mankind.</p> + +<p><i>Greek Politics.</i>—Aristotle divides governments according to +two principles. In all states the governing power seeks either +its own advantage or the advantage of the whole state, and +the government is bad or good accordingly. In all states the +governing power is one man, or a few men or many men. Hence +six varieties of government, three of which are bad and three +good. Each excellent form has a corresponding depraved form, +thus:—</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>The good government of one (Monarchy) corresponds to the +depraved form (Tyranny).</p> + +<p>The good government of few (Aristocracy) corresponds to +the depraved form (Oligarchy).</p> + +<p>The good government of many (Commonwealth) corresponds +to the depraved form (Democracy).</p> +</div> + +<p>The fault of the depraved forms is that the governors act +unjustly where their own interests are concerned. The worst +of the depraved forms is tyranny, the next oligarchy and the +least bad democracy.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Each of the three leading types exhibits +a number of varieties. Thus in monarchy we have the heroic, +the barbaric, the elective dictatorship, the Lacedemonian +(hereditary generalship, <span class="grk" title="stratęgia">στρατηγία</span>), and absolute monarchy. +So democracy and oligarchy exhibit four corresponding varieties. +The best type of democracy is that of a community mainly +agricultural, whose citizens, therefore, have not leisure for +political affairs, and allow the law to rule. The best oligarchy +is that in which a considerable number of small proprietors +have the power; here, too, the laws prevail. The worst +democracy consists of a larger citizen class having leisure for +politics; and the worst oligarchy is that of a small number of +very rich and influential men. In both the sphere of law is +reduced to a minimum. A good government is one in which +as much as possible is left to the laws, and as little as possible +to the will of the governor.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>294</span></p> + +<p>The <i>Politics</i> of Aristotle, from which these principles are +taken, presents a striking picture of the variety and activity +of political life in the free communities of Greece. The king and +council of heroic times had disappeared, and self-government +in some form or other was the general rule. It is to be noticed, +however, that the governments of Greece were essentially +unstable. The political philosophers could lay down the law +of development by which one form of government gives birth +to another. Aristotle devotes a large portion of his work to +the consideration of the causes of revolutions. The dread of +tyranny was kept alive by the facility with which an over-powerful +and unscrupulous citizen could seize the whole machinery +of government. Communities oscillated between some form of +oligarchy and some form of democracy. The security of each +was constantly imperilled by the conspiracies of the opposing +factions. Hence, although political life exhibits that exuberant +variety of form and expression which characterizes all the intellectual +products of Greece, it lacks the quality of persistent +progress. Then there was no approximation to a national +government, even of the federal type. The varying confederacies +and hegemonies are the nearest approach to anything of the kind. +What kind of national government would ultimately have arisen +if Greece had not been crushed it is needless to conjecture; +the true interest of Greek politics lies in the fact that the free +citizens were, in the strictest sense of the word, self-governed. +Each citizen took his turn at the common business of the state. +He spoke his own views in the agora, and from time to time +in his own person acted as magistrate or judge. Citizenship +in Athens was a liberal education, such as it never can be made +under any representative system.</p> + +<p><i>The Government of Rome.</i>—During the whole period of freedom +the government of Rome was, in theory at least, municipal +self-government. Each citizen had a right to vote laws in his +own person in the comitia of the centuries or the tribes. The +administrative powers of government were, however, in the hands +of a bureaucratic assembly, recruited from the holders of high +public office. The senate represented capacity and experience +rather than rank and wealth. Without some such instrument +the city government of Rome could never have made the conquest +of the world. The gradual extension of the citizenship to other +Italians changed the character of Roman government. The +distant citizens could not come to the voting booths; the device +of representation was not discovered; and the comitia fell into +the power of the town voters. In the last stage of the Roman +republic, the inhabitants of one town wielded the resources of +a world-wide empire. We can imagine what would be the effect +of leaving to the people of London or Paris the supreme control +of the British empire or of France,—irresistible temptation, +inevitable corruption. The rabble of the capital learn to live +on the rest of the empire.<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The favour of the effeminate masters +of the world is purchased by <i>panem et circenses</i>. That capable +officers and victorious armies should long be content to serve +such masters was impossible. A conspiracy of generals placed +itself at the head of affairs, and the most capable of them made +himself sole master. Under Caesar, Augustus and Tiberius, +the Roman people became habituated to a new form of government, +which is best described by the name of Caesarism. The +outward forms of republican government remained, but one +man united in his own person all the leading offices, and used +them to give a seemingly legal title to what was essentially +military despotism. There is no more interesting constitutional +study than the chapters in which Tacitus traces the growth +of the new system under the subtle and dissimulating intellect +of Tiberius. The new Roman empire was as full of fictions as +the English constitution of the present day. The master of the +world posed as the humble servant of a menial senate. Deprecating +the outward symbols of sovereignty, he was satisfied with +the modest powers of a consul or a tribunus plebis. The reign +of Tiberius, little capable as he was by personal character of +captivating the favour of the multitude, did more for imperialism +than was done by his more famous predecessors. Henceforward +free government all over the world lay crushed beneath the +military despotism of Rome. Caesarism remained true to the +character imposed upon it by its origin. The Caesar was an +elective not an hereditary king. The real foundation of his +power was the army, and the army in course of time openly +assumed the right of nominating the sovereign. The characteristic +weakness of the Roman empire was the uncertainty of the +succession. The nomination of a Caesar in the lifetime of the +emperor was an ineffective remedy. Rival emperors were +elected by different armies; and nothing less than the force +of arms could decide the question between them.</p> + +<p><i>Modern Governments.</i>—<i>Feudalism.</i>—The Roman empire bequeathed +to modern Europe the theory of universal dominion. +The nationalities which grew up after its fall arranged themselves +on the basis of territorial sovereignty. Leaving out of account +the free municipalities of the middle ages, the problem of government +had now to be solved, not for small urban communities, +but for large territorial nations. The medieval form of government +was feudal. One common type pervaded all the relations +of life. The relation of king and lord was like the relation between +lord and vassal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feudalism</a></span>). The bond between them +was the tenure of land. In England there had been, before +the Norman Conquest, an approximation to a feudal system. +In the earlier English constitution, the most striking features +were the power of the witan, and the common property of the +nation in a large portion of the soil. The steady development +of the power of the king kept pace with the aggregation of the +English tribes under one king. The conception that the land +belonged primarily to the people gave way to the conception +that everything belonged primarily to the king.<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The Norman +Conquest imposed on England the already highly developed +feudalism of France, and out of this feudalism the free governments +of modern Europe have grown. One or two of the leading +steps in this process may be indicated here. The first, and +perhaps the most important, was the device of representation. +For an account of its origin, and for instances of its use in England +before its application to politics, we must be content to refer +to Stubbs’s <i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. ii. The problem of combining +a large area of sovereignty with some degree of self-government, +which had proved fatal to ancient commonwealths, +was henceforward solved. From that time some form of representation +has been deemed essential to every constitution +professing, however remotely, to be free.</p> + +<p>The connexion between representation and the feudal system +of estates must be shortly noticed. The feudal theory gave the +king a limited right to military service and to certain aids, both +of which were utterly inadequate to meet the expenses of the +government, especially in time of war. The king therefore +had to get contributions from his people, and he consulted +them in their respective orders. The three estates were simply +the three natural divisions of the people, and Stubbs has pointed +out that, in the occasional treaties between a necessitous king +and the order of merchants or lawyers, we have examples of +inchoate estates or sub-estates of the realm. The right of representation +was thus in its origin a right to consent to taxation. +The pure theory of feudalism had from the beginning been +broken by William the Conqueror causing all free-holders to +take an oath of direct allegiance to himself. The institution of +parliaments, and the association of the king’s smaller +tenants <i>in capite</i> with other commoners, still further removed the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>295</span> +government from the purely feudal type in which the mesne lord +stands between the inferior vassal and the king.</p> + +<p><i>Parliamentary Government.</i>—<i>The English System.</i>—The right +of the commons to share the power of the king and lords in +legislation, the exclusive right of the commons to impose taxes, +the disappearance of the clergy as a separate order, were all +important steps in the movement towards popular government. +The extinction of the old feudal nobility in the dynastic wars of +the 15th century simplified the question by leaving the crown +face to face with parliament. The immediate result was no +doubt an increase in the power of the crown, which probably +never stood higher than it did in the reigns of Henry VIII. and +Elizabeth; but even these powerful monarchs were studious +in their regard for parliamentary conventionalities. After a +long period of speculative controversy and civil war, the settlement +of 1688 established limited monarchy as the government +of England. Since that time the external form of government +has remained unchanged, and, so far as legal description goes, +the constitution of William III. might be taken for the same +system as that which still exists. The silent changes have, +however, been enormous. The most striking of these, and that +which has produced the most salient features of the English +system, is the growth of cabinet government. Intimately connected +with this is the rise of the two great historical parties of +English politics. The normal state of government in England +is that the cabinet of the day shall represent that which is, for +the time, the stronger of the two. Before the Revolution the +king’s ministers had begun to act as a united body; but even +after the Revolution the union was still feeble and fluctuating, +and each individual minister was bound to the others only by +the tie of common service to the king. Under the Hanoverian +sovereigns the ministry became consolidated, the position of +the cabinet became definite, and its dependence on parliament, +and more particularly on the House of Commons, was established. +Ministers were chosen exclusively from one house or the other, +and they assumed complete responsibility for every act done +in the name of the crown. The simplicity of English politics +has divided parliament into the representatives of two parties, +and the party in opposition has been steadied by the consciousness +that it, too, has constitutional functions of high importance, +because at any moment it may be called to provide a ministry. +Criticism is sobered by being made responsible. Along with +this movement went the withdrawal of the personal action of +the sovereign in politics. No king has attempted to veto a +bill since the Scottish Militia Bill was vetoed by Queen Anne. +No ministry has been dismissed by the sovereign since 1834. +Whatever the power of the sovereign may be, it is unquestionably +limited to his personal influence over his ministers. And it +must be remembered that since the Reform Act of 1832 ministers +have become, in practice, responsible ultimately, not to parliament, +but to the House of Commons. Apart, therefore, from +democratic changes due to a wider suffrage, we find that the +House of Commons, as a body, gradually made itself the centre +of the government. Since the area of the constitution has been +enlarged, it may be doubted whether the orthodox descriptions +of the government any longer apply. The earlier constitutional +writers, such as Blackstone and J. L. Delolme, regard it as a +wonderful compound of the three standard forms,—monarchy, +aristocracy and democracy. Each has its place, and each acts +as a check upon the others. Hume, discussing the question +“Whether the British government inclines more to absolute +monarchy or to a republic,” decides in favour of the former +alternative. “The tide has run long and with some rapidity +to the side of popular government, and is just beginning to +turn toward monarchy.” And he gives it as his own opinion +that absolute monarchy would be the easiest death, the true +euthanasia of the British constitution. These views of the +English government in the 18th century may be contrasted +with Bagehot’s sketch of the modern government as a working +instrument.<a name="fa4f" id="fa4f" href="#ft4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Leading Features of Parliamentary Government.</i>—The parliamentary +government developed by England out of feudal +materials has been deliberately accepted as the type of constitutional +government all over the world. Its leading features are +popular representation more or less extensive, a bicameral +legislature, and a cabinet or consolidated ministry. In connexion +with all of these, numberless questions of the highest practical +importance have arisen, the bare enumeration of which would +surpass the limits of our space. We shall confine ourselves to +a few very general considerations.</p> + +<p><i>The Two Chambers.</i>—First, as to the double chamber. This, +which is perhaps more accidental than any other portion of +the British system, has been the most widely imitated. In most +European countries, in the British colonies, in the United +States Congress, and in the separate states of the Union,<a name="fa5f" id="fa5f" href="#ft5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a> there +are two houses of legislature. This result has been brought +about partly by natural imitation of the accepted type of free +government, partly from a conviction that the second chamber +will moderate the democratic tendencies of the first. But the +elements of the British original cannot be reproduced to order +under different conditions. There have, indeed, been a few +attempts to imitate the special character of hereditary nobility +attaching to the British House of Lords. In some countries, +where the feudal tradition is still strong (<i>e.g.</i> Prussia, Austria, +Hungary), the hereditary element in the upper chambers has +survived as truly representative of actual social and economic +relations. But where these social conditions do not obtain +(<i>e.g.</i> in France after the Revolution) the attempt to establish +an hereditary peerage on the British model has always failed. +For the peculiar solidarity between the British nobility and the +general mass of the people, the outcome of special conditions +and tendencies, is a result beyond the power of constitution-makers +to attain. The British system too, after its own way, +has for a long period worked without any serious collision +between the Houses,—the standing and obvious danger of the +bicameral system. The actual ministers of the day must possess +the confidence of the House of Commons; they need not—in fact +they often do not—possess the confidence of the House of Lords. +It is only in legislation that the Lower House really shares its +powers with the Upper; and (apart from any such change in +the constitution as was suggested in 1907 by Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman) +the constitution possesses, in the unlimited power +of nominating peers, a well-understood last resource should +the House of Lords persist in refusing important measures +demanded by the representatives of the people. In the United +Kingdom it is well understood that the real sovereignty lies +with the people (the electorate), and the House of Lords +recognizes the principle that it must accept a measure when the +popular will has been clearly expressed. In all but measures +of first-class importance, however, the House of Lords is a real +second chamber, and in these there is little danger of a collision +between the Houses. There is the widest possible difference +between the British and any other second chamber. In the +United States the Senate (constituted on the system of equal +representation of states) is the more important of the two +Houses, and the only one whose control of the executive can be +compared to that exercised by the British House of Commons.</p> + +<p>The real strength of popular government in England lies in +the ultimate supremacy of the House of Commons. That +supremacy had been acquired, perhaps to its full extent, before +the extension of the suffrage made the constituencies democratic. +Foreign imitators, it may be observed, have been more ready to +accept a wide basis of representation than to confer real power +on the representative body. In all the monarchical countries +of Europe, however unrestricted the right of suffrage may be, +the real victory of constitutional government has yet to be won. +Where the suffrage means little or nothing, there is little or no +reason for guarding it against abuse. The independence of the +executive in the United States brings that country, from one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>296</span> +point of view, more near to the state system of the continent +of Europe than to that of the United Kingdom. The people +make a more complete surrender of power to the government +(State or Federal) than is done in England.</p> + +<p><i>Cabinet Government.</i>—The peculiar functions of the English +cabinet are not easily matched in any foreign system. They are +a mystery even to most educated Englishmen. The cabinet +(<i>q.v.</i>) is much more than a body consisting of chiefs of departments. +It is the inner council of the empire, the arbiter of +national policy, foreign or domestic, the sovereign in commission. +The whole power of the House of Commons is concentrated in +its hands. At the same time, it has no place whatever in the +legal constitution. Its numbers and its constitution are not +fixed even by any rule of practice. It keeps no record of its +proceedings. The relations of an individual minister to the +cabinet, and of the cabinet to its head and creator, the premier, +are things known only to the initiated. With the doubtful +exception of France, no other system of government presents +us with anything like its equivalent. In the United States, +as in the European monarchies, we have a council of ministers +surrounding the chief of the state.</p> + +<p><i>Change of Power in the English System.</i>—One of the most +difficult problems of government is how to provide for the +devolution of political power, and perhaps no other question +is so generally and justly applied as the test of a working constitution. +If the transmission works smoothly, the constitution, +whatever may be its other defects, may at least be pronounced +stable. It would be tedious to enumerate all the contrivances +which this problem has suggested to political societies. Here, +as usual, oriental despotism stands at the bottom of the scale. +When sovereign power is imputed to one family, and the law +of succession fails to designate exclusively the individual entitled +to succeed, assassination becomes almost a necessary measure +of precaution. The prince whom chance or intrigue has promoted +to the throne of a father or an uncle must make himself +safe from his relatives and competitors. Hence the scenes +which shock the European conscience when “Amurath an +Amurath succeeds.” The strong monarchical governments +of Europe have been saved from this evil by an indisputable +law of succession, which marks out from his infancy the next +successor to the throne. The king names his ministers, and the +law names the king. In popular or constitutional governments +far more elaborate precautions are required. It is one of the real +merits of the English constitution that it has solved this +problem—in a roundabout way perhaps, after its fashion—but with perfect +success. The ostensible seat of power is the throne, and +down to a time not long distant the demise of the crown suspended +all the other powers of the state. In point of fact, however, the +real change of power occurs on a change of ministry. The constitutional +practice of the 19th century settled, beyond the +reach of controversy, the occasions on which a ministry is bound +to retire. It must resign or dissolve when it is defeated<a name="fa6f" id="fa6f" href="#ft6f"><span class="sp">6</span></a> in the +House of Commons, and if after a dissolution it is beaten again, +it must resign without alternative. It may resign if it thinks its +majority in the House of Commons not sufficiently large. The +dormant functions of the crown now come into existence. It +receives back political power from the old ministry in order to +transmit it to the new. When the new ministry is to be formed, +and how it is to be formed, is also clearly settled by established +practice. The outgoing premier names his successor by recommending +the king to consult him; and that successor must be +the recognized leader of his successful rivals. All this is a +matter of custom, not of law; and it is doubtful if any two +authorities could agree in describing the custom in language +of precision. In theory the monarch may send for any one +he pleases, and charge him with the formation of a government; +but the ability to form a government restricts this liberty to +the recognized head of a party, subject to there being such an +individual. It is certain that the intervention of the crown +facilitates the transfer of power from one party to another, by +giving it the appearance of a mere change of servants. The +real disturbance is that caused by the appeal to the electors. +A general election is always a struggle between the great political +parties for the possession of the powers of government. It +may be noted that modern practice goes far to establish the rule +that a ministry beaten at the hustings should resign at once +without waiting for a formal defeat in the House of Commons.</p> + +<p>The English custom makes the ministry dependent on the will +of the House of Commons; and, on the other hand, the House +of Commons itself is dependent on the will of the ministry. In +the last result both depend on the will of the constituencies, +as expressed at the general election. There is no fixity in either +direction in the tenure of a ministry. It may be challenged at +any moment, and it lasts until it is challenged and beaten. And +that there should be a ministry and a House of Commons in +harmony with each other but out of harmony with the people is +rendered all but impossible by the law and the practice as to +the duration of parliaments.</p> + +<p><i>Change of Power in the United States.</i>—The United States +offers a very different solution of the problem. The American +president is at once king and prime minister; and there is no +titular superior to act as a conduit-pipe between him and his +successor. His crown is rigidly fixed; he can be removed only +by the difficult method of impeachment. No hostile vote +on matters of legislation can affect his position. But the end of +his term is known from the first day of his government; and +almost before he begins to reign the political forces of the country +are shaping out a new struggle for the succession. Further, a +change of government in America means a considerable change +in the administrative staff (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Civil Service</a></span>). The commotion +caused by a presidential election in the United States +is thus infinitely greater and more prolonged than that caused +by a general election in England. A change of power in England +affects comparatively few personal interests, and absorbs the +attention of the country for a comparatively short space of time. +In the United States it is long foreseen and elaborately prepared +for, and when it comes it involves the personal fortunes of large +numbers of citizens. And yet the British constitution is more +democratic than the American, in the sense that the popular +will can more speedily be brought to bear upon the government.</p> + +<p><i>Change of Power in France.</i>—The established practice of +England and America may be compared with the constitutionalism +of France. Here the problem presents different conditions. +The head of the state is neither a premier of the English, nor +a president of the American type. He is served by a prime +minister and a cabinet, who, like an English ministry, hold office +on the condition of parliamentary confidence; but he holds +office himself on the same terms, and is, in fact, a minister like +the others. So far as the transmission of power from cabinet +to cabinet is concerned, he discharges the functions of an English +king. But the transmission of power between himself and his +successor is protected by no constitutional devices whatever, +and experience would seem to show that no such devices are +really necessary. Other European countries professing constitutional +government appear to follow the English practice. +The Swiss republic is so peculiarly situated that it is hardly fair to +compare it with any other. But it is interesting to note that, +while the rulers of the states are elected annually, the same +persons are generally re-elected.</p> + +<p><i>The Relation between Government and Laws.</i>—It might be +supposed that, if any general proposition could be established +about government, it would be one establishing some constant +relation between the form of a government and the character +of the laws which it enforces. The technical language of the +English school of jurists is certainly of a kind to encourage such +a supposition. The entire body of law in force in a country +at any moment is regarded as existing solely by the fiat of the +governing power. There is no maxim more entirely in the spirit +of this jurisprudence than the following:—“The real legislator +is not he by whom the law was first ordained, but he by whose +will it continues to be law.” The whole of the vast repertory +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>297</span> +of rules which make up the law of England—the rules of practice +in the courts, the local customs of a county or a manor, the +principles formulated by the sagacity of generations of judges, +equally with the statutes for the year, are conceived of by the +school of Austin as created by the will of the sovereign and the +two Houses of Parliament, or so much of them as would now +satisfy the definition of sovereignty. It would be out of place +to examine here the difficulties which embarrass this definition, +but the statement we have made carries on its face a demonstration +of its own falsity in fact. There is probably no government +in the world of which it could be said that it might change at +will the substantive laws of the country and still remain a +government. However well it may suit the purposes of analytical +jurisprudence to define a law as a command set by sovereign to +subject, we must not forget that this is only a definition, and that +the assumption it rests upon is, to the student of society, anything +but a universal fact. From his point of view the cause of +a particular law is not one but many, and of the many the deliberate +will of a legislator may not be one. Sir Henry Maine has +illustrated this point by the case of the great tax-gathering +empires of the east, in which the absolute master of millions +of men never dreams of making anything in the nature of a law +at all. This view is no doubt as strange to the English statesman +as to the English jurist. The most conspicuous work of government +in his view is that of parliamentary legislation. For a +large portion of the year the attention of the whole people is +bent on the operations of a body of men who are constantly +engaged in making new laws. It is natural, therefore, to think +of law as a factitious thing, made and unmade by the people +who happen for the time being to constitute parliament. It is +forgotten how small a proportion the laws actually devised by +parliament are of the law actually prevailing in the land. No +European country has undergone so many changes in the form +of government as France. It is surprising how little effect these +political revolutions have had on the body of French law. +The change from empire to republic is not marked by greater +legislative effects than the change from a Conservative to a +Liberal ministry in England would be.</p> + +<p>These reflections should make us cautious in accepting any +general proposition about forms of government and the spirit +of their laws. We must remember, also, that the classification +of governments according to the numerical proportion between +governors and governed supplies but a small basis for generalization. +What parallel can be drawn between a small town, in which +half the population are slaves, and every freeman has a direct +voice in the government, and a great modern state, in which +there is not a single slave, while freemen exercise their sovereign +powers at long intervals, and through the action of delegates +and representatives? Propositions as vague as those of Montesquieu +may indeed be asserted with more or less plausibility. +But to take any leading head of positive law, and to say that +monarchies treat it in one way, aristocracies and democracies +in another, is a different matter.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">II. Sphere of Government</p> + +<p>The action of the state, or sovereign power, or government +in a civilized community shapes itself into the threefold functions +of legislation, judicature and administration. The two first +are perfectly well-defined, and the last includes all the kinds +of state action not included in the other two. It is with reference +to legislation and administration that the line of permissible +state-action requires to be drawn. There is no doubt about the +province of the judicature, and that function of government +may therefore be dismissed with a very few observations.</p> + +<p>The complete separation of the three functions marks a +high point of social organization. In simple societies the same +officers discharge all the duties which we divide between the +legislator, the administrator and the judge. The acts themselves +are not consciously recognized as being of different kinds. +The evolution of all the parts of a highly complex government +from one original is illustrated in a striking way by the history +of English institutions. All the conspicuous parts of the modern +government, however little they may resemble each other now, +can be followed back without a break to their common origin. +Parliament, the cabinet, the privy council, the courts of law, +all carry us back to the same <i>nidus</i> in the council of the feudal +king.</p> + +<p><i>Judicature.</i>—The business of judicature, requiring as it does +the possession of a high degree of technical skill and knowledge, +is generally entrusted by the sovereign body or people to a +separate and independent class of functionaries. In England +the appellate jurisdiction of the House of Lords still maintains +in theory the connexion between the supreme legislative and the +supreme judicial functions. In some states of the American Union +certain judicial functions of the upper house were for a time maintained +after the example of the English constitution as it existed +when the states were founded. In England there is also still +a considerable amount of judicial work in which the people takes +its share. The inferior magistracies, except in populous places, +are in the hands of private persons. And by the jury system +the ascertainment of fact has been committed in very large +measure to persons selected indiscriminately from the mass +of the people, subject to a small property qualification. But +the higher functions of the judicature are exercised by persons +whom the law has jealously fenced off from external interference +and control. The independence of the bench distinguishes the +English system from every other. It was established in principle +as a barrier against monarchical power, and hence has become +one of the traditional ensigns of popular government. In many +of the American states the spirit of democracy has demanded +the subjection of the judiciary to popular control. The judges +are elected directly by the people, and hold office for a short +term, instead of being appointed, as in England, by the responsible +executive, and removable only by a vote of the two Houses. +At the same time the constitution of the United States has +assigned to the supreme court of the Union a perfectly unique +position. The supreme court is the guardian of the constitution +(as are the state courts of the constitution of the states: see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">United States</a></span>). It has to judge whether a measure passed +by the legislative powers is not void by reason of being unconstitutional, +and it may therefore have to veto the deliberate +resolutions of both Houses of Congress and the president. It +is admitted that this singular experiment in government has been +completely justified by its success.</p> + +<p><i>Limits of State Interference in Legislation and Administration.</i>—The +question of the limits of state action does not arise with +reference to the judiciary. The enforcement of the laws is a +duty which the sovereign power must of absolute necessity +take upon itself. But to what conduct of the citizens the laws +shall extend is the most perplexing of all political questions. +The correlative question with regard to the executive would +be what works of public convenience should the state undertake +through its own servants. The whole question of the sphere +of government may be stated in these two questions: What +should the state do for its citizens? and How far should the +state interfere with the action of its citizens? These questions +are the direct outcome of modern popular government; they +are equally unknown to the small democracies of ancient times +and to despotic governments at all times. Accordingly ancient +political philosophy, rich as it is in all kinds of suggestions, +has very little to say that has any bearing on the sphere of +government. The conception that the power of the state can +be and ought to be limited belongs to the times of “government +by discussion,” to use Bagehot’s expression,—to the time when +the sovereign number is divided by class interests, and when +the action of the majority has to be carried out in the face of +strong minorities, capable of making themselves heard. Aristotle +does indeed dwell on one aspect of the question. He would +limit the action of the government in the sense of leaving as little +as possible to the personal will of the governors, whether one +or many. His maxim is that the law should reign. But that the +sphere of law itself should be restricted, otherwise than by +general principles of morality, is a consideration wholly foreign +to ancient philosophy. The state is conceived as acting like +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>298</span> +a just man, and justice in the state is the same thing as justice +in the individual. The Greek institutions which the philosophers +are unanimous in commending are precisely those which the most +state-ridden nations of modern times would agree in repudiating. +The exhaustive discussion of all political measures, which for +over two centuries has been a fixed habit of English public life, +has of itself established the principle that there are assignable +limits to the action of the state. Not that the limits ever have +been assigned in terms, but popular sentiment has more or +less vaguely fenced off departments of conduct as sacred from +the interference of the law. Phrases like “the liberty of the +subject,” the “sanctity of private property,” “an Englishman’s +house is his castle,” “the rights of conscience,” are the commonplaces +of political discussion, and tell the state, “Thus far shalt +thou go and no further.”</p> + +<p>The two contrasting policies are those of <i>laissez-faire</i> (let +alone) and Protection, or individualism and state-socialism, +the one a policy of non-interference with the free play of social +forces, the other of their regulation for the benefit of the community. +The <i>laissez-faire</i> theory was prominently upheld by +John Stuart Mill, whose essay on <i>Liberty</i>, together with the +concluding chapters of his treatise on <i>Political Economy</i>, gives +a tolerably complete view of the principles of government. +There is a general presumption against the interference of government, +which is only to be overcome by very strong evidence +of necessity. Governmental action is generally less effective +than voluntary action. The necessary duties of government +are so burdensome, that to increase them destroys its efficiency. +Its powers are already so great that individual freedom is +constantly in danger. As a general rule, nothing which can be +done by the voluntary agency of individuals should be left to +the state. Each man is the best judge of his own interests. +But, on the other hand, when the thing itself is admitted to +be useful or necessary, and it cannot be effected by voluntary +agency, or when it is of such a nature that the consumer cannot +be considered capable of judging of the quality supplied, then +Mill would allow the state to interpose. Thus the education +of children, and even of adults, would fairly come within the +province of the state. Mill even goes so far as to admit that, +where a restriction of the hours of labour, or the establishment +of a periodical holiday, is proved to be beneficial to labourers +as a class, but cannot be carried out voluntarily on account of +the refusal of individuals to co-operate, government may justifiably +compel them to co-operate. Still further, Mill would desire +to see some control exercised by the government over the operations +of those voluntary associations which, consisting of large +numbers of shareholders, necessarily leave their affairs in the +hands of one or a few persons. In short, Mill’s general rule +against state action admits of many important exceptions, +founded on no principle less vague than that of public expediency. +The essay on <i>Liberty</i> is mainly concerned with freedom of +individual character, and its arguments apply to control exercised, +not only by the state, but by society in the form of public opinion. +The leading principle is that of Humboldt, “the absolute and +essential importance of human development in its richest +diversity.” Humboldt broadly excluded education, religion +and morals from the action, direct and indirect, of the state. +Mill, as we have seen, conceives education to be within the province +of the state, but he would confine its action to compelling +parents to educate their children.</p> + +<p>The most thoroughgoing opponent of state action, however, +is Herbert Spencer. In his <i>Social Statics</i>, published in 1850, +he holds it to be the essential duty of government to <i>protect</i>—to +maintain men’s rights to life, to personal liberty and to +property; and the theory that the government ought to undertake +other offices besides that of protector he regards as an +untenable theory. Each man has a right to the fullest exercise +of all his faculties, compatible with the same right in others. +This is the fundamental law of equal freedom, which it is the +duty and the only duty of the state to enforce. If the state +goes beyond this duty, it becomes, not a protector, but an +aggressor. Thus all state regulations of commerce, all religious +establishments, all government relief of the poor, all state +systems of education and of sanitary superintendence, even +the state currency and the post-office, stand condemned, not +only as ineffective for their respective purposes, but as involving +violations of man’s natural liberty.</p> + +<p>The tendency of modern legislation is more a question of +political practice than of political theory. In some cases state +interference has been abolished or greatly limited. These cases +are mainly two—in matters of opinion (especially religious +opinion), and in matters of contract.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The mere enumeration of the individual instances would occupy a +formidable amount of space. The reader is referred to such articles +as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">England, Church of</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Establishment</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marriage</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oath</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Catholic Church</a></span>, &c., and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Company</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Contract</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Partnership</a></span>, &c. In other cases the state has interfered for the +protection and assistance of definite classes of persons. For example, +the education and protection of children (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Children, Law Relating +to</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Education</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Technical Education</a></span>); the regulation +of factory labour and dangerous employment (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Labour Legislation</a></span>); +improved conditions of health (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adulteration</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Housing</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Public Health, Law of</a></span>, &c.); coercion for moral purposes +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bet and Betting</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Criminal Law</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gaming and Wagering</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liquor Laws</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lotteries</a></span>, &c.). Under numerous other headings +in this work the evolution of existing forms of government is discussed; +see also the bibliographical note to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Constitution +and Constitutional Law</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Aristotle elsewhere speaks of the error of those who think that +any one of the depraved forms is better than any other.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> None of the free states of Greece ever made extensive or permanent +conquests; but the tribute sometimes paid by one state to +another (as by the Aeginetans to the Athenians) was a manifest source +of corruption. Compare the remarks of Hume (<i>Essays</i>, part i. 3, <i>That +Politics may be reduced to a Science</i>), “free governments are the most +ruinous and oppressive for their provinces.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Ultimately, in the theory of English law, the king may be said to +have become the universal successor of the people. Some of the +peculiarities of the prerogative rights seem to be explainable only +on this view, <i>e.g.</i> the curious distinction between wrecks come to +land and wrecks still on water. The common right to wreckage was +no doubt the origin of the prerogative right to the former. Every +ancient common right has come to be a right of the crown or a right +held of the crown by a vassal.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4f" id="ft4f" href="#fa4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See Bagehot’s <i>English Constitution</i>; or, for a more recent +analysis, Sidney Low’s <i>Governance of England</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5f" id="ft5f" href="#fa5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> For an account of the double chamber system in the state legislatures +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">United States</a></span>: <i>Constitution and Government</i>, and also +S. G. Fisher, <i>The Evolution of the Constitution</i> (Philadelphia, 1897).</p> + +<p><a name="ft6f" id="ft6f" href="#fa6f"><span class="fn">6</span></a> A government “defeat” may, of course, not really represent a +hostile vote in exceptional cases, and in some instances a government +has obtained a reversal of the vote and has <i>not</i> resigned.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOVERNOR<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>gouverneur</i>, from <i>gouverner</i>, O. Fr. +<i>governer</i>, Lat. <i>gubernare</i>, to steer a ship, to direct, guide), in +general, one who governs or exercises authority; specifically, +an official appointed to govern a district, province, town, &c. +In British colonies or dependencies the representative of the +crown is termed a governor. Colonial governors are classed +as governors-general, governors and lieutenant-governors, +according to the status of the colony or group of colonies over +which they preside. Their powers vary according to the position +which they occupy. In all cases they represent the authority +of the crown. In the United States (<i>q.v.</i>) the official at the +head of every state government is called a governor.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOW, NIEL<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1727-1807), Scottish musician of humble parentage, +famous as a violinist and player of reels, but more so for +the part he played in preserving the old melodies of Scotland. +His compositions, and those of his four sons, Nathaniel, the +most famous (1763-1831), William (1751-1791), Andrew (1760-1803), +and John (1764-1826), formed the “Gow Collection,” +comprising various volumes edited by Niel and his sons, a +valuable repository of Scottish traditional airs. The most important +of Niel’s sons was Nathaniel, who is remembered as +the author of the well-known “Caller Herrin,” taken from the +fishwives’ cry, a tune to which words were afterwards written +by Lady Nairne. Nathaniel’s son, <span class="sc">Niel Gow</span> junior (1795-1823), +was the author of the famous songs “Flora Macdonald’s Lament” +and “Cam’ ye by Athol.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOWER, JOHN<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (d. 1408), English poet, died at an advanced +age in 1408, so that he may be presumed to have been born +about 1330. He belonged to a good Kentish family, but the +suggestion of Sir Harris Nicolas that the poet is to be identified +with a John Gower who was at one time possessed of the manor +of Kentwell is open to serious objections. There is no evidence +that he ever lived as a country gentleman, but he was undoubtedly +possessed of some wealth, and we know that he was the owner +of the manors of Feltwell in Suffolk and Moulton in Norfolk. +In a document of 1382 he is called an “Esquier de Kent,” and +he was certainly not in holy orders. That he was acquainted +with Chaucer we know, first because Chaucer in leaving England +for Italy in 1378 appointed Gower and another to represent +him in his absence, secondly because Chaucer addressed his +<i>Troilus and Criseide</i> to Gower and Strode (whom he addresses +as “moral Gower” and “philosophical Strode”) for criticism +and correction, and thirdly because of the lines in the first edition +of Gower’s <i>Confessio amantis</i>, “And gret wel Chaucer whan ye +mete,” &c. There is no sufficient ground for the suggestion, +based partly on the subsequent omission of these lines and +partly on the humorous reference of Chaucer to Gower’s <i>Confessio +amantis</i> in the introduction to the <i>Man of Law’s Tale</i>, that the +friendship was broken by a quarrel. From his Latin poem +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>299</span> +<i>Vox clamantis</i> we know that he was deeply and painfully +interested in the peasants’ rising of 1381; and by the alterations +which the author made in successive revisions of this work +we can trace a gradually increasing sense of disappointment in +the youthful king, whom he at first acquits of all responsibility +for the state of the kingdom on account of his tender age. That +he became personally known to the king we learn from his +own statement in the first edition of the <i>Confessio amantis</i>, +where he says that he met the king upon the river, was invited +to enter the royal barge, and in the conversation which followed +received the suggestion which led him to write his principal +English poem. At the same time we know, especially from the +later revisions of the <i>Confessio amantis</i>, that he was a great +admirer of the king’s brilliant cousin, Henry of Lancaster, +afterwards Henry IV., whom he came eventually to regard as a +possible saviour of society from the misgovernment of Richard II. +We have a record that in 1393 he received a collar from his +favourite political hero, and it is to be observed that the +effigy upon Gower’s tomb is wearing a collar of SS. with the +swan badge which was used by Henry.</p> + +<p>The first edition of the <i>Confessio amantis</i> is dated 1390, and +this contains, at least in some copies, a secondary dedication +to the then earl of Derby. The later form, in which Henry +became the sole object of the dedication, is of the year 1393. +Gower’s political opinions are still more strongly expressed in +the <i>Cronica tripartita</i>.</p> + +<p>In 1398 he was married to Agnes Groundolf, and from the +special licence granted by the bishop of Winchester for the +celebration of this marriage in John Gower’s private oratory +we gather that he was then living in lodgings assigned to him +within the priory of St Mary Overy, and perhaps also that he +was too infirm to be married in the parish church. It is probable +that this was not his first marriage, for there are indications +in his early French poem that he had a wife at the time when +that was written. His will is dated the 15th of August 1408, +and his death took place very soon after this. He had been +blind for some years before his death. A magnificent tomb +with a recumbent effigy was erected over his grave in the chapel +of St John the Baptist within the church of the priory, now +St Saviour’s, Southwark, and this is still to be seen, though not +quite in its original state or place. From the inscription on the +tomb, as well as from other indications, it appears that he was a +considerable benefactor of the priory and contributed largely +to the rebuilding of the church.</p> + +<p>The effigy on Gower’s tomb rests its head upon a pile of three +folio volumes entitled <i>Speculum meditantis</i>, <i>Vox clamantis</i> +and <i>Confessio amantis</i>. These are his three principal works. +The first of these was long supposed to have perished, but a copy +of it was discovered in the year 1895 under the title <i>Mirour +de l’omme</i>. It is a French poem of about 30,000 lines in twelve-line +stanzas, and under the form of an allegory of the human soul +describes the seven deadly sins and their opposing virtues, and +then the various estates of man and the vices incident to each, +concluding with a narrative of the life of the Virgin Mary, and +with praise of her as the means of reconciliation between God +and man. The work is extremely tedious for the most part, +but shows considerable command over the language and a great +facility in metrical expression.</p> + +<p>Gower’s next work was the <i>Vox clamantis</i> in Latin elegiac +verse, in which the author takes occasion from the peasants’ +insurrection of 1381 to deal again with the faults of the various +classes of society. In the earlier portion the insurrection itself +is described in a rather vivid manner, though under the form +of an allegory: the remainder contains much the same material +as we have already seen in that part of the French poem where +the classes of society are described. Gower’s Latin verse is +very fair, as judged by the medieval standard, but in this book +he has borrowed very freely from Ovid, Alexander Neckam, +Peter de Riga and others.</p> + +<p>Gower’s chief claim, however, to reputation as a poet rests +upon his English work, the <i>Confessio amantis</i>, in which he +displays in his native language a real gift as a story-teller. He +is himself the lover of his poem, in spite of his advancing years, +and he makes his confession to Genius, the priest of Venus, +under the usual headings supplied by the seven deadly sins. +These with their several branches are successively described, +and the nature of them illustrated by tales, which are directed +to the illustration both of the general nature of the sin, and of the +particular form which it may take in a lover. Finally he receives +at once his absolution, and his dismissal from the service of +Venus, for which his age renders him unfit. The idea is ingenious, +and there is often much quaintness of fancy in the application +of moral ideas to the relations of the lover and his mistress. +The tales are drawn from very various sources and are often +extremely well told. The metre is the short couplet, and it is +extremely smooth and regular. The great fault of the <i>Confessio +amantis</i> is the extent of its digressions, especially in the fifth +and seventh books.</p> + +<p>Gower also wrote in 1397 a short series of French ballades +on the virtue of the married state (<i>Traitié pour essampler les +amantz mariés</i>), and after the accession of Henry IV. he produced +the <i>Cronica tripartita</i>, a partisan account in Latin leonine +hexameters of the events of the last twelve years of the reign +of Richard II. About the same time he addressed an English +poem in seven-line stanzas to Henry IV. (<i>In Praise of Peace</i>), +and dedicated to the king a series of French ballades (<i>Cinkante +Balades</i>), which deal with the conventional topics of love, but +are often graceful and even poetical in expression. Several +occasional Latin pieces also belong to the later years of his +life.</p> + +<p>On the whole Gower must be admitted to have had considerable +literary powers; and though not a man of genius, and by +no means to be compared with Chaucer, yet he did good service +in helping to establish the standard literary language, which at +the end of the 14th century took the place of the Middle English +dialects. The <i>Confessio amantis</i> was long regarded as a classic +of the language, and Gower and Chaucer were often mentioned +side by side as the fathers of English poetry.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A complete edition of Gower’s works in four volumes, edited by +G. C. Macaulay, was published in 1899-1902, the first volume containing +the French works, the second and third the English, and the +fourth the Latin, with a biography. Before this the <i>Confessio +amantis</i> had been published in the following editions: Caxton (1483); +Berthelette (1532 and 1554); Chalmers, <i>British Poets</i> (1810); Reinhold +Pauli (1857); H. Morley (1889, incomplete). The two series +of French ballades and the <i>Praise of Peace</i> were printed for the +Roxburghe Club in 1818, and the <i>Vox clamantis</i> and <i>Cronica +tripartita</i> were edited by H. O. Coxe for the Roxburghe Club in +1850. The <i>Cronica tripartita</i>, the <i>Praise of Peace</i> and some of the +minor Latin poems were printed in Wright’s <i>Political Poems</i> (Rolls +series, 14). The <i>Praise of Peace</i> appeared in the early folio editions +of Chaucer, and has been edited also by Dr Skeat in his <i>Chaucerian +and other Pieces</i>. Reference may be made to Todd’s <i>Illustrations of +the Lives and Writings of Gower and Chaucer</i>; the article (by Sir +H. Nicolas) in the <i>Retrospective Review</i> for 1828; <i>Observations on the +Language of Chaucer and Gower</i>, by F. J. Child; H. Morley’s English +Writers, iv.; Ten Brink’s <i>History of Early English Literature</i>, ii.; and +Courthope’s <i>History of English Poetry</i>, i.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. C. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOWER<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span>, a seigniory and district in the county of Glamorgan, +lying between the rivers Tawe and Loughor and between +Breconshire and the sea, its length from the Breconshire border +to Worm’s Head being 28 m., and its breadth about 8 m. It +corresponds to the ancient commote of Gower (in Welsh <i>Gwyr</i>) +which in early Welsh times was grouped with two other commotes +stretching westwards to the Towy and so formed part of the +principality of Ystrad Tywi. Its early association with the +country to the west instead of with Glamorgan is perpetuated by +its continued inclusion in the diocese of St Davids, its two rural +deaneries, West and East Gower, being in the archdeaconry +of Carmarthen. What is meant by Gower in modern popular +usage, however, is only the peninsular part or “English Gower” +(that is the Welsh <i>Bro-wyr</i>, as distinct from <i>Gwyr</i> proper), +roughly corresponding to the hundred of Swansea and lying +mainly to the south of a line drawn from Swansea to Loughor.</p> + +<p>The numerous limestone caves of the coast are noted for their +immense deposits of animal remains, but their traces of man are +far scantier, those found in Bacon Hole and in Paviland cave +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>300</span> +being the most important. In the Roman period the river Tawe, +or the great morass between it and the Neath, probably formed +the boundary between the Silures and the Goidelic population +to the west. The latter, reinforced perhaps from Ireland, +continued to be the dominant race in Gower till their conquest +or partial expulsion in the 4th century by the sons of Cunedda +who introduced a Brythonic element into the district. Centuries +later Scandinavian rovers raided the coasts, leaving traces of +their more or less temporary occupation in such place-names +as Burry Holms, Worms Head and Swansea, and probably +also in some cliff earthworks. About the year 1100 the conquest +of Gower was undertaken by Henry de Newburgh, first earl of +Warwick, with the assistance of Maurice de Londres and others. +His followers, who were mostly Englishmen from the marches +and Somersetshire with perhaps a sprinkling of Flemings, settled +for the most part on the southern side of the peninsula, leaving +the Welsh inhabitants of the northern half of Gower practically +undisturbed. These invaders were probably reinforced a little +later by a small detachment of the larger colony of Flemings +which settled in south Pembrokeshire. Moated mounds, which +in some cases developed into castles, were built for the protection +of the various manors into which the district was parcelled out, +the castles of Swansea and Loughor being ascribed to the earl +of Warwick and that of Oystermouth to Maurice de Londres. +These were repeatedly attacked and burnt by the Welsh during +the 12th and 13th centuries, notably by Griffith ap Rhys in +1113, by his son the Lord Rhys in 1189, by his grandsons acting +in concert with Llewelyn the Great in 1215, and by the last +Prince Llewelyn in 1257. With the Norman conquest the feudal +system was introduced, and the manors were held <i>in capite</i> +of the lord by the tenure of castle-guard of the castle of Swansea, +the <i>caput baroniae</i>.</p> + +<p>About 1189 the lordship passed from the Warwick family +to the crown and was granted in 1203 by King John to William +de Braose, in whose family it remained for over 120 years except +for three short intervals when it was held for a second time by +King John (1211-1215), by Llewelyn the Great (1216-1223), +and the Despensers (<i>c.</i> 1323-1326). In 1208 the Welsh and +English inhabitants who had frequent cause to complain of +their treatment, received each a charter, in similar terms, from +King John, who also visited the town of Swansea in 1210 and +in 1215 granted its merchants liberal privileges. In 1283 +a number of de Braose’s tenants—unquestionably Welshmen—left +Gower for the royal lordship of Carmarthen, declaring that +they would live under the king rather than under a lord marcher. +In the following year the king visited de Braose at Oystermouth +Castle, which seems to have been made the lord’s chief residence, +after the destruction of Swansea Castle by Llewelyn. Later +on the king’s officers of the newly organized county of Carmarthen +repeatedly claimed jurisdiction over Gower, thereby endeavouring +to reduce its status from that of a lordship marcher with +semi-regal jurisdiction, into that of an ordinary constituent of +the new county. De Braose resisted the claim and organized the +English part of his lordship on the lines of a county palatine, +with its own <i>comitatus</i> and chancery held in Swansea Castle, +the sheriff and chancellor being appointed by himself. The +inhabitants, who had no right of appeal to the crown against +their lord or the decisions of his court, petitioned the king, +who in 1305 appointed a special commission to enquire into +their alleged grievances, but in the following year the de Braose +of the time, probably in alarm, conceded liberal privileges both +to the burgesses of Swansea and to the English and Welsh +inhabitants of his “county” of English Gower. He was the +last lord seignior to live within the seigniory, which passed from +him to his son-in-law John de Mowbray. Other troubles befell +the de Braose barons and their successors in title, for their right +to the lordship was contested by the Beauchamps, representatives +of the earlier earls of Warwick, in prolonged litigation +carried on intermittently from 1278 to 1396, the Beauchamps +being actually in possession from 1354, when a decision was +given in their favour, till its reversal in 1396. It then reverted +to the Mowbrays and was held by them until the 4th duke of +Norfolk exchanged it in 1489, for lands in England, with William +Herbert, earl of Pembroke. The latter’s granddaughter brought +it to her husband Charles Somerset, who in 1506 was granted +her father’s subtitle of Baron Herbert of Chepstow, Raglan and +Gower, and from him the lordship has descended to the present +lord, the duke of Beaufort.</p> + +<p>Gower was made subject to the ordinary law of England by +its inclusion in 1535 in the county of Glamorgan as then reorganized; +its chancery, which from about the beginning of +the 14th century had been located at Oystermouth Castle, came +to an end, but though the Welsh acts of 1535 and 1542 purported +to abolish the rights and privileges of the lords marchers as +conquerors, yet some of these, possibly from being regarded as +private rights, have survived into modern times. For instance, +the seignior maintained a franchise gaol in Swansea Castle till +1858, when it was abolished by act of parliament, the appointment +of coroner for Gower is still vested in him, all writs are +executed by the lord’s officers instead of by the officers of the +sheriff for the county, and the lord’s rights to the foreshore, +treasure trove, felon’s goods and wrecks are undiminished.</p> + +<p>The characteristically English part of Gower lies to the south +and south-west of its central ridge of Cefn y Bryn. It was this +part that was declared by Professor Freeman to be “more Teutonic +than Kent itself.” The seaside fringe lying between this +area and the town of Swansea, as well as the extreme north-west +of the peninsula, also became anglicized at a comparatively +early date, though the place-names and the names of the inhabitants +are still mainly Welsh. The present line of demarcation +between the two languages is one drawn from Swansea +in a W.N.W. direction to Llanrhidian on the north coast. It +has remained practically the same for several centuries, and is +likely to continue so, as it very nearly coincides with the southern +outcrop of the coal measures, the industrial population to +the north being Welsh-speaking, the agriculturists to the south +being English. In 1901 the Gower rural district (which includes +the Welsh-speaking industrial parish of Llanrhidian, with about +three-sevenths of the total population) had 64.5% of the population +above three years of age that spoke English only, 5.2% +that spoke Welsh only, the remainder being bilinguals, as compared +with 17% speaking English only, 17.7% speaking Welsh only +and the rest bilinguals in the Swansea rural district, and 7% +speaking English only, 55.2% speaking Welsh only and the rest +bilinguals in the Pontardawe rural district, the last two districts +constituting Welsh Gower.</p> + +<p>More than one-fourth of the whole area of Gower is unenclosed +common land, of which in English Gower fully one-half is +apparently capable of cultivation. Besides the demesne manors +of the lord seignior, six in number, there are some twelve mesne +manors and fees belonging to the Penrice estate, and nearly +twenty more belonging to various other owners. The tenure is +customary freehold, though in some cases described as copyhold, +and in the ecclesiastical manor of Bishopston, descent is by +borough English. The holdings are on the whole probably smaller +in size than in any other area of corresponding extent in Wales, +and agriculture is still in a backward state.</p> + +<p>In the Arthurian romances Gower appears in the form of +Goire as the island home of the dead, a view which probably +sprang up among the Celts of Cornwall, to whom the peninsula +would appear as an island. It is also surmised by Sir John Rhys +that Malory’s Brandegore (<i>i.e.</i> Brân of Gower) represents the +Celtic god of the other world (Rhys, <i>Arthurian Legend</i>, 160, +329 et seq.). On Cefn Bryn, almost in the centre of the peninsula, +is a cromlech with a large capstone known as Arthur’s Stone. +The unusually large number of cairns on this hill, given as eighty +by Sir Gardner Wilkinson, suggests that this part of Gower +was a favourite burial-place in early British times.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Rev. J. D. Davies, <i>A History of West Gower</i> (4 vols., 1877-1894); +Col. W. Ll-Morgan, <i>An Antiquarian Survey of East Gower</i> +(1899); an article (probably by Professor Freeman) entitled +“Anglia Trans-Walliana” in the <i>Saturday Review</i> for May 20, +1876; “The Signory of Gower” by G. T. Clark in <i>Archaeologia +Cambrensis</i> for 1893-1894; <i>The Surveys of Gower and Kilvey</i>, ed. by +Baker and Grant-Francis (1861-1870).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. Ll. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>301</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">GOWN,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> properly the term for a loose outer garment formerly +worn by either sex but now generally for that worn by women. +While “dress” is the usual English word, except in such combinations +as “tea-gown,” “dressing-gown” and the like, where +the original loose flowing nature of the “gown” is referred to, +“gown” is the common American word. “Gown” comes from +the O. Fr. <i>goune</i> or <i>gonne</i>. The word appears in various Romanic +languages, cf. Ital. <i>gonna</i>. The medieval Lat. <i>gunna</i> is used of +a garment of skin or fur. A Celtic origin has been usually +adopted, but the Irish, Gaelic and Manx words are taken from +the English. Outside the ordinary use of the word, “gown” +is the name for the distinctive robes worn by holders of particular +offices or by members of particular professions or of universities, +&c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Robes</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOWRIE, JOHN RUTHVEN,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> <span class="sc">3rd Earl of</span> (<i>c.</i> 1577-1600), +Scottish conspirator, was the second son of William, 4th Lord +Ruthven and 1st earl of Gowrie (cr. 1581), by his wife Dorothea, +daughter of Henry Stewart, 2nd Lord Methven. The Ruthven +family was of ancient Scottish descent, and had owned extensive +estates in the time of William the Lion; the Ruthven peerage +dated from the year 1488. The 1st earl of Gowrie (? 1541-1584), +and his father, Patrick, 3rd Lord Ruthven (<i>c.</i> 1520-1566), had +both been concerned in the murder of Rizzio in 1566; and +both took an active part on the side of the Kirk in the constant +intrigues and factions among the Scottish nobility of the period. +The former had been the custodian of Mary, queen of Scots, +during her imprisonment in Loch Leven, where, according to +the queen, he had pestered her with amorous attentions; he +had also been the chief actor in the plot known as the “raid of +Ruthven” when King James VI. was treacherously seized +while a guest at the castle of Ruthven in 1582, and kept under +restraint for several months while the earl remained at the head +of the government. Though pardoned for this conspiracy he +continued to plot against the king in conjunction with the earls +of Mar and Angus; and he was executed for high treason on +the 2nd of May 1584; his friends complaining that the confession +on which he was convicted of treason was obtained by a promise +of pardon from the king. His eldest son, William, 2nd earl of +Gowrie, only survived till 1588, the family dignities and estates, +which had been forfeited, having been restored to him in 1586.</p> + +<p>When, therefore, John Ruthven succeeded to the earldom +while still a child, he inherited along with his vast estates family +traditions of treason and intrigue. There was also a popular +belief, though without foundation, that there was Tudor blood +in his veins; and Burnet afterwards asserted that Gowrie +stood next in succession to the crown of England after King +James VI. Like his father and grandfather before him, the +young earl attached himself to the party of the reforming +preachers, who procured his election in 1592 as provost of +Perth, a post that was almost hereditary in the Ruthven family. +He received an excellent education at the grammar school of +Perth and the university of Edinburgh, where he was in the +summer of 1593, about the time when his mother, and his sister +the countess of Atholl, aided Bothwell in forcing himself sword +in hand into the king’s bedchamber in Holyrood Palace. A +few months later Gowrie joined with Atholl and Montrose in +offering to serve Queen Elizabeth, then almost openly hostile +to the Scottish king; and it is probable that he had also relations +with the rebellious Bothwell. Gowrie had thus been already +deeply engaged in treasonable conspiracy when, in August +1594, he proceeded to Italy with his tutor, William Rhynd, to +study at the university of Padua. On his way home in 1599 +he remained for some months at Geneva with the reformer +Theodore Beza; and at Paris he made acquaintance with the +English ambassador, who reported him to Cecil as devoted to +Elizabeth’s service, and a nobleman “of whom there may be +exceeding use made.” In Paris he may also at this time have +had further communication with the exiled Bothwell; in London +he was received with marked favour by Queen Elizabeth and her +ministers.</p> + +<p>These circumstances owe their importance to the light they +throw on the obscurity of the celebrated “Gowrie conspiracy,” +which resulted in the slaughter of the earl and his brother by +attendants of King James at Gowrie House, Perth, a few weeks +<span class="sidenote">The Gowrie conspiracy.</span> +after Gowrie’s return to Scotland in May 1600. This +event ranks among the unsolved enigmas of history. +The mystery is caused by the improbabilities inherent in +any of the alternative hypotheses suggested to account +for the unquestionable facts of the occurrence; the discrepancies +in the evidence produced at the time; the apparent lack of +forethought or plan on the part of the chief actors, whichever +hypothesis be adopted, as well as the thoughtless folly of their +actual procedure; and the insufficiency of motive, whoever +the guilty parties may have been. The solutions of the mystery +that have been suggested are three in number: first, that +Gowrie and his brother had concocted a plot to murder, or +more probably to kidnap King James, and that they lured him +to Gowrie House for this purpose; secondly, that James paid +a surprise visit to Gowrie House with the intention, which he +carried out, of slaughtering the two Ruthvens; and thirdly, +that the tragedy was the outcome of an unpremeditated brawl +following high words between the king and the earl, or his +brother. To understand the relative probabilities of these +hypotheses regard must be had to the condition of Scotland in +the year 1600 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scotland</a></span>: <i>History</i>). Here it can only be +recalled that plots to capture the person of the sovereign for the +purpose of coercing his actions were of frequent occurrence, +more than one of which had been successful, and in several of +which the Ruthven family had themselves taken an active +part; that the relations between England and Scotland were +at this time more than usually strained, and that the young +earl of Gowrie was reckoned in London among the adherents +of Elizabeth; that the Kirk party, being at variance with +James, looked upon Gowrie as an hereditary partisan of their +cause, and had recently sent an agent to Paris to recall him +to Scotland as their leader; that Gowrie was believed to be +James’s rival for the succession to the English crown. Moreover, +as regards the question of motive it is to be observed, on the +one hand, that the Ruthvens believed Gowrie’s father to have +been treacherously done to death, and his widow insulted by +the king’s favourite minister; while, on the other, James was +indebted in a large sum of money to the earl of Gowrie’s estate, +and popular gossip credited either Gowrie or his brother, Alexander +Ruthven, with being the lover of the queen. Although +the evidence on these points, and on every minute circumstance +connected with the tragedy itself, has been exhaustively examined +by historians of the Gowrie conspiracy, it cannot be asserted +that the mystery has been entirely dispelled; but, while it is +improbable that complete certainty will ever be arrived at as +to whether the guilt lay with James or with the Ruthven brothers, +the most modern research in the light of materials inaccessible +or overlooked till the 20th century, points pretty clearly to the +conclusion that there was a genuine conspiracy by Gowrie and +his brother to kidnap the king. If this be the true solution, +it follows that King James was innocent of the blood of the +Ruthvens; and it raises the presumption that his own account +of the occurrence was, in spite of the glaring improbabilities +which it involved, substantially true.</p> + +<p>The facts as related by James and other witnesses were, in +outline, as follows. On the 5th of August 1600 the king rose +early to hunt in the neighbourhood of Falkland Palace, about +14 m. from Perth. Just as he was setting forth in company +with the duke of Lennox, the earl of Mar, Sir Thomas Erskine +and others, he was accosted by Alexander Ruthven (known +as the master of Ruthven), a younger brother of the earl of +Gowrie, who had ridden from Perth that morning to inform +the king that he had met on the previous day a man in possession +of a pitcher full of foreign gold coins, whom he had secretly +locked up in a room at Gowrie House. Ruthven urged the king +to ride to Perth to examine this man for himself and to take +possession of the treasure. After some hesitation James gave +credit to the story, suspecting that the possessor of the coins +was one of the numerous Catholic agents at that time moving +about Scotland in disguise. Without giving a positive reply to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302"></a>302</span> +Alexander Ruthven, James started to hunt; but later in the +morning he called Ruthven to him and said he would ride to +Perth when the hunting was over. Ruthven then despatched a +servant, Henderson, by whom he had been accompanied from +Perth in the early morning, to tell Gowrie that the king was coming +to Gowrie House. This messenger gave the information to +Gowrie about ten o’clock in the morning. Meanwhile Alexander +Ruthven was urging the king to lose no time, requesting him +to keep the matter secret from his courtiers, and to bring to +Gowrie House as small a retinue as possible. James, with a +train of some fifteen persons, arrived at Gowrie House about +one o’clock, Alexander Ruthven having spurred forward for +a mile or so to announce the king’s approach. But notwithstanding +Henderson’s warning some three hours earlier, Gowrie had +made no preparations for the king’s entertainment, thus giving +the impression of having been taken by surprise. After a +meagre repast, for which he was kept waiting an hour, James, +forbidding his retainers to follow him, went with Alexander +Ruthven up the main staircase and passed through two chambers +and two doors, both of which Ruthven locked behind them, +into a turret-room at the angle of the house, with windows +looking on the courtyard and the street. Here James expected +to find the mysterious prisoner with the foreign gold. He found +instead an armed man, who, as appeared later, was none other +than Gowrie’s servant, Henderson. Alexander Ruthven immediately +put on his hat, and drawing Henderson’s dagger, presented +it to the king’s breast with threats of instant death if James +opened a window or called for help. An allusion by Ruthven +to the execution of his father, the 1st earl of Gowrie, drew +from James a reproof of Ruthven’s ingratitude for various +benefits conferred on his family. Ruthven then uncovered his +head, declaring that James’s life should be safe if he remained +quiet; then, committing the king to the custody of Henderson, +he left the turret—ostensibly to consult Gowrie—and locked the +door behind him. While Ruthven was absent the king questioned +Henderson, who professed ignorance of any plot and of the +purpose for which he had been placed in the turret; he also +at James’s request opened one of the windows, and was about +to open the other when Ruthven returned. Whether or not +Alexander had seen his brother is uncertain. But Gowrie had +meantime spread the report below that the king had taken horse +and had ridden away; and the royal retinue were seeking +their horses to follow him. Alexander, on re-entering the turret, +attempted to bind James’s hands; a struggle ensued, in the +course of which the king was seen at the window by some of his +followers below in the street, who also heard him cry “treason” +and call for help to the earl of Mar. Gowrie affected not to hear +these cries, but kept asking what was the matter. Lennox, +Mar and most of the other lords and gentlemen ran up the main +<span class="sidenote">The slaughter of the Ruthvens.</span> +staircase to the king’s help, but were stopped by the +locked door, which they spent some time in trying +to batter down. John Ramsay (afterwards earl of +Holdernesse), noticing a small dark stairway leading +directly to the inner chamber adjoining the turret, ran up it +and found the king struggling at grips with Ruthven. Drawing +his dagger, Ramsay wounded Ruthven, who was then pushed +down the stairway by the king. Sir Thomas Erskine, summoned +by Ramsay, now followed up the small stairs with Dr +Hugh Herries, and these two coming upon the wounded Ruthven +despatched him with their swords. Gowrie, entering the courtyard +with his stabler Thomas Cranstoun and seeing his brother’s +body, rushed up the staircase after Erskine and Herries, followed +by Cranstoun and others of his retainers; and in the melée +Gowrie was killed. Some commotion was caused in the town by +the noise of these proceedings; but it quickly subsided, though +the king did not deem it safe to return to Falkland for some +hours.</p> + +<p>The tragedy caused intense excitement throughout Scotland, +and the investigation of the circumstances was followed with +much interest in England also, where all the details were reported +to Elizabeth’s ministers. The preachers of the Kirk, whose +influence in Scotland was too extensive for the king to neglect, +were only with the greatest difficulty persuaded to accept +James’s account of the occurrence, although he voluntarily +submitted himself to cross-examination by one of their number. +Their belief, and that of their partisans, influenced no doubt +by political hostility to James, was that the king had invented +the story of a conspiracy by Gowrie to cover his own design +to extirpate the Ruthven family. James gave some colour to +this belief, which has not been entirely abandoned, by the relentless +severity with which he pursued the two younger, and +unquestionably innocent, brothers of the earl. Great efforts +were made by the government to prove the complicity of others +in the plot. One noted and dissolute conspirator, Sir Robert +Logan of Restalrig, was posthumously convicted of having been +privy to the Gowrie conspiracy on the evidence of certain letters +produced by a notary, George Sprot, who swore they had been +written by Logan to Gowrie and others. These letters, which +are still in existence, were in fact forged by Sprot in imitation +of Logan’s handwriting; but the researches of Andrew Lang +<span class="sidenote">The Sprot forgeries.</span> +have shown cause for suspecting that the most important +of them was either copied by Sprot from a +genuine original by Logan, or that it embodied the +substance of such a letter. If this be correct, it would +appear that the conveyance of the king to Fast Castle, Logan’s +impregnable fortress on the coast of Berwickshire, was part +of the plot; and it supplies, at all events, an additional +piece of evidence to prove the genuineness of the Gowrie +conspiracy.</p> + +<p>Gowrie’s two younger brothers, William and Patrick Ruthven, +fled to England; and after the accession of James to the English +throne William escaped abroad, but Patrick was taken and +imprisoned for nineteen years in the Tower of London. Released +in 1622, Patrick Ruthven resided first at Cambridge and afterwards +in Somersetshire, being granted a small pension by the +crown. He married Elizabeth Woodford, widow of the 1st +Lord Gerrard, by whom he had two sons and a daughter, Mary; +the latter entered the service of Queen Henrietta Maria, and +married the famous painter van Dyck, who painted several +portraits of her. Patrick died in poverty in a cell in the King’s +Bench in 1652, being buried as “Lord Ruthven.” His son, +Patrick, presented a petition to Oliver Cromwell in 1656, in +which, after reciting that the parliament of Scotland in 1641 +had restored his father to the barony of Ruthven, he prayed +that his “extreme poverty” might be relieved by the bounty +of the Protector.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Andrew Lang, <i>James VI. and the Gowrie Mystery</i> (London, +1902), and the authorities there cited; Robert Pitcairn, <i>Criminal +Trials in Scotland</i> (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1833); David Moysie, <i>Memoirs +of the Affairs of Scotland, 1577-1603</i> (Edinburgh, 1830); Louis A. +Barbé, <i>The Tragedy of Gowrie House</i> (London, 1887); Andrew +Bisset, <i>Essays on Historical Truth</i> (London, 1871); David Calderwood, +<i>History of the Kirk of Scotland</i> (8 vols., Edinburgh, 1842-1849); +P. F. Tytler, <i>History of Scotland</i> (9 vols., Edinburgh, 1828-1843); +John Hill Burton, <i>History of Scotland</i> (7 vols., Edinburgh, +1867-1870). W. A. Craigie has edited as <i>Skotlands Rimur</i> some +Icelandic ballads relating to the Gowrie conspiracy. He has also +printed the Danish translation of the official account of the conspiracy, +which was published at Copenhagen in 1601.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOWRIE,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> a belt of fertile alluvial land (<i>Scotice</i>, “carse”) +of Perthshire, Scotland. Occupying the northern shore of the +Firth of Tay, it has a generally north-easterly trend and extends +from the eastern boundaries of Perth city to the confines of +Dundee. It measures 15 m. in length, its breadth from the river +towards the base of the Sidlaw Hills varying from 2 to 4 m. +Probably it is a raised beach, submerged until a comparatively +recent period. Although it contained much bog land and stagnant +water as late as the 18th century, it has since been drained and +cultivated, and is now one of the most productive tracts in +Perthshire. The district is noteworthy for the number of its +castles and mansions, almost wholly residential, among which +may be mentioned Kinfauns Castle, Inchyra House, Pitfour +Castle, Errol Park, Megginch Castle, dating from 1575; Fingask +Castle, Kinnaird Castle, erected in the 15th century and occupied +by James VI. in 1617; Rossie Priory, the seat of Lord Kinnaird; +and Huntly Castle, built by the 3rd earl of Kinghorne.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>303</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">GOYA,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> a river town and port of Corrientes, Argentine Republic, +the commercial centre of the south-western departments of the +province and chief town of a department of the same name, +on a <i>riacho</i> or side channel of the Paraná about 5 m. from the +main channel and about 120 m. S. of the city of Corrientes. +Pop. (1905, est.) 7000. The town is built on low ground which +is subject to inundations in very wet weather, but its streets +are broad and the general appearance of its edifices is good. +Among its public buildings is a handsome parish church and a +national normal school. The productions of the neighbourhood +are chiefly pastoral, and its exports include cattle, hides, wool and +oranges. Goya had an export of crudely-made cheese long before +the modern cheese factories of the Argentine Republic came into +existence. The place dates from 1807, and had its origin, it is +said, in the trade established there by a ship captain and his +wife Gregoria or Goya, who supplied passing vessels with beef.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOYANNA,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Goiana</span>, a city of Brazil in the N.E. angle of +the state of Pernambuco, about 65 m. N. of the city of Pernambuco. +Pop.(1890) 15,436. It is built on a fertile plain between +the rivers Tracunhaem and Capibaribe-mirim near their junction +to form the Goyanna river, and is 15 m. from the coast. It is +surrounded by, and is the commercial centre for, one of the +richest agricultural districts of the state, which produces sugar, +rum, coffee, tobacco, cotton, cattle, hides and castor oil. The +Goyanna river is navigable for small vessels nearly up to the +city, but its entrance is partly obstructed and difficult. Goyanna +is one of the oldest towns of the state, and was occupied by the +Dutch from 1636 to 1654. It has several old-style churches, +an orphans’ asylum, hospital and some small industries.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1746-1828), Spanish +painter, was born in 1746 at Fuendetodos, a small Aragonese +village near Saragossa. At an early age he commenced his +artistic career under the direction of José Luzan Martinez, who +had studied painting at Naples under Mastroleo. It is clear that +the accuracy in drawing Luzan is said to have acquired by +diligent study of the best Italian masters did not much influence +his erratic pupil. Goya, a true son of his province, was bold, +capricious, headstrong and obstinate. He took a prominent +part on more than one occasion in those rival religious processions +at Saragossa which often ended in unseemly frays; and his +friends were led in consequence to despatch him in his nineteenth +year to Madrid, where, prior to his departure for Rome, his mode +of life appears to have been anything but that of a quiet orderly +citizen. Being a good musician, and gifted with a voice, he +sallied forth nightly, serenading the caged beauties of the capital, +with whom he seems to have been a very general favourite.</p> + +<p>Lacking the necessary royal patronage, and probably scandalizing +by his mode of life the sedate court officials, he did not receive—perhaps +did not seek—the usual honorarium accorded to those +students who visited Rome for the purpose of study. Finding +<span class="correction" title="amended from in">it</span> convenient to retire for a time from Madrid, he decided to +visit Rome at his own cost; and being without resources he joined +a “quadrilla” of bull-fighters, passing from town to town until +he reached the shores of the Mediterranean. We next hear of +him reaching Rome, broken in health and financially bankrupt. +In 1772 he was awarded the second prize in a competition +initiated by the academy of Parma, styling himself “pupil to +Bayeu, painter to the king of Spain.” Compelled to quit Rome +somewhat suddenly, he appears again in Madrid in 1775, the +husband of Bayeu’s daughter, and father of a son. About this +time he appears to have visited his parents at Fuendetodos, +no doubt noting much which later on he utilized in his genre +works. On returning to Madrid he commenced painting canvases +for the tapestry factory of Santa Barbara, in which the king +took much interest. Between 1776 and 1780 he appears to have +supplied thirty examples, receiving about Ł1200 for them. +Soon after the revolution of 1868, an official was appointed to +take an inventory of all works of art belonging to the nation, +and in one of the cellars of the Madrid palace were discovered +forty-three of these works of Goya on rolls forgotten and neglected +(see <i>Los Tapices de Goya; por Cruzado Villaamil, Madrid</i>, 1870).</p> + +<p>His originality and talent were soon recognized by Mengs, +the king’s painter, and royal favour naturally followed. His +career now becomes intimately connected with the court life +of his time. He was commissioned by the king to design a +series of frescoes for the church of St Anthony of Florida, Madrid, +and he also produced works for Saragossa, Valencia and Toledo. +Ecclesiastical art was not his forte, and although he cannot +be said to have failed in any of his work, his fame was not +enhanced by his religious subjects.</p> + +<p>In portraiture, without doubt, Goya excelled: his portraits +are evidently life-like and unexaggerated, and he disdained +flattery. He worked rapidly, and during his long stay at Madrid +painted, amongst many others, the portraits of four sovereigns +of Spain—Charles III. and IV., Ferdinand VII. and “King +Joseph.” The duke of Wellington also sat to him; but on his +making some remark which raised the artist’s choler, Goya +seized a plaster cast and hurled it at the head of the duke. There +are extant two pencil sketches of Wellington, one in the British +Museum, the other in a private collection. One of his best +portraits is that of the lovely Andalusian duchess of Alva. +He now became the spoiled child of fortune, and acquired, at +any rate externally, much of the polish of court manners. He +still worked industriously upon his own lines, and, while there +is a stiffness almost ungainly in the pose of some of his portraits, +the stern individuality is always preserved.</p> + +<p>Including the designs for tapestry, Goya’s genre works are +numerous and varied, both in style and feeling, from his Watteau-like +“Al Fresco Breakfast,” “Romeria de San Isidro,” to the +“Curate feeding the Devil’s Lamp,” the “Meson del Gallo,” +and the painfully realistic massacre of the “Dos de Mayo” +(1808). Goya’s versatility is proverbial; in his hands the +pencil, brush and graver are equally powerful. Some of his +crayon sketches of scenes in the bull ring are full of force and +character, slight but full of meaning. He was in his thirty-second +year when he commenced his etchings from Velasquez, whose +influence may, however, be traced in his work at an earlier date. +A careful examination of some of the drawings made for these +etchings indicates a steadiness of purpose not usually discovered +in Goya’s craft as draughtsman. He is much more widely known +by his etchings than his oils; the latter necessarily must be +sought in public and private collections, principally in Spain, +while the former are known and prized in every capital of Europe. +The etched collections by which Goya is best known include +“Los Caprichos,” which have a satirical meaning known only to +the few; they are bold, weird and full of force. “Los Proverbios” +are also supposed to have some hidden intention. “Los +Desastres de la Guerra” may fairly claim to depict Spain during +the French invasion. In the bull-fight series Goya is evidently +at home; he was a skilled master of the barbarous art, and no +doubt every sketch is true to nature, and from life.</p> + +<p>Goya retired from Madrid, desiring probably during his latter +years to escape the trying climate of that capital. He died at +Bordeaux on the 16th of April 1828, and a monument has been +erected there over his remains. From the deaths of Velasquez +and Murillo to the advent of Fortuny, Goya’s name is the only +important one found in the history of Spanish art.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also the lives by Paul Lefort (1877), and Yriarte (1867).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOYÁZ,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> an inland state of Brazil, bounded by Matto Grosso +and Pará on the W., Maranhăo, Bahia and Minas Geraes on the +E., and Minas Geraes and Matto Grosso on the S. Pop. (1890) +227,572; (1900) 255,284, including many half-civilized Indians +and many half-breeds. Area, 288,549 sq. m. The outline of +the state is that of a roughly-shaped wedge with the thin edge +extending northward between and up to the junction of the +rivers Araguaya and Upper Tocantins, and its length is nearly +15° of latitude. The state lies wholly within the great Brazilian +plateau region, but its surface is much broken towards the N. +by the deeply eroded valleys of the Araguaya and Upper +Tocantins rivers and their tributaries. The general slope of +the plateau is toward the N., and the drainage of the state is +chiefly through the above-named rivers—the principal tributaries +of the Araguaya being the Grande and Vermelho, and of the +Upper Tocantins, the Manoel Alves Grande, Somno, Paranan +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>304</span> +and Maranhăo. A considerable part of southern Goyáz, however, +slopes southward and the drainage is through numerous small +streams flowing into the Paranahyba, a large tributary of the +Paraná. The general elevation of the plateau is estimated to +be about 2700 ft., and the highest elevation was reported in +1892 to be the Serra dos Pyreneos (5250 ft.). Crossing the +state N.N.E. to S.S.W. there is a well-defined chain of mountains, +of which the Pyreneos, Santa Rita and Santa Martha ranges +form parts, but their elevation above the plateau is not great. +The surface of the plateau is generally open campo and scrubby +arboreal growth called <i>caatingas</i>, but the streams are generally +bordered with forest, especially in the deeper valleys. Towards +the N. the forest becomes denser and of the character of the +Amazon Valley. The climate of the plateau is usually described +as temperate, but it is essentially sub-tropical. The valley regions +are tropical, and malarial fevers are common. The cultivation +of the soil is limited to local needs, except in the production of +tobacco, which is exported to neighbouring states. The open +campos afford good pasturage, and live stock is largely exported. +Gold-mining has been carried on in a primitive manner for more +than two centuries, but the output has never been large and no +very rich mines have been discovered. Diamonds have been +found, but only to a very limited extent. There is a considerable +export of quartz crystal, commercially known as “Brazilian +pebbles,” used in optical work. Although the northern and +southern extremities of Goyáz lie within two great river systems—the +Tocantins and Paraná—the upper courses of which are +navigable, both of them are obstructed by falls. The only +outlet for the state has been by means of mule trains to the +railway termini of Săo Paulo and Minas Geraes, pending the +extension of railways from both of those states, one entering +Goyáz by way of Catalăo, near the southern boundary, and the +other at some point further N.</p> + +<p>The capital of the state is <span class="sc">Goyáz</span>, or Villa-Boa de Goyáz, a +mining town on the Rio Vermelho, a tributary of the Araguaya +rising on the northern slopes of the Serra de Santa Rita. Pop. +(1890) 6807. Gold was discovered here in 1682 by Bartholomeu +Bueno, the first European explorer of this region, and the +settlement founded by him was called Santa Anna, which is +still the name of the parish. The site of the town is a barren, +rocky mountain valley, 1900 ft. above sea-level, in which the +heat is most oppressive at times and the nights are unpleasantly +cold. Goyáz is the see of a bishopric founded in 1826, and +possesses a small cathedral and some churches.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOYEN, JAN JOSEPHSZOON VAN<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1596-1656), Dutch +painter, was born at Leiden on the 13th of January 1596, learned +painting under several masters at Leiden and Haarlem, married +in 1618 and settled at the Hague about 1631. He was one of +the first to emancipate himself from the traditions of minute +imitation embodied in the works of Breughel and Savery. +Though he preserved the dun scale of tone peculiar to those +painters, he studied atmospheric effects in black and white with +considerable skill. He had much influence on Dutch art. He +formed Solomon Ruysdael and Pieter Potter, forced attention +from Rembrandt, and bequeathed some of his precepts to Pieter +de Molyn, Coelenbier, Saftleven, van der Kabel and even +Berghem. His life at the Hague for twenty-five years was very +prosperous, and he rose in 1640 to be president of his gild. A +friend of van Dyck and Bartholomew van der Helst, he sat +to both these artists for his likeness. His daughter Margaret +married Jan Steen, and he had steady patrons in the stadtholder +Frederick Henry, and the chiefs of the municipality of the +Hague. He died at the Hague in 1656, possessed of land and +houses to the amount of 15,000 florins.</p> + +<p>Between 1610 and 1616 van Goyen wandered from one school +to the other. He was first apprenticed to Isaak Swanenburgh; +he then passed through the workshops of de Man, Klok and +de Hoorn. In 1616 he took a decisive step and joined Esaias +van der Velde at Haarlem; amongst his earlier pictures, some +of 1621 (Berlin Museum) and 1623 (Brunswick Gallery) show +the influence of Esaias very perceptibly. The landscape is +minute. Details of branching and foliage are given, and the +figures are important in relation to the distances. After 1625 +these peculiarities gradually disappear. Atmospheric effect in +landscapes of cool tints varying from grey green to pearl or brown +and yellow dun is the principal object which van Goyen holds +in view, and he succeeds admirably in light skies with drifting +misty cloud, and downs with cottages and scanty shrubbery +or stunted trees. Neglecting all detail of foliage he now works +in a thin diluted medium, laying on rubbings as of sepia or +Indian ink, and finishing without loss of transparence or lucidity. +Throwing his foreground into darkness, he casts alternate light +and shade upon the more distant planes, and realizes most +pleasing views of large expanse. In buildings and water, with +shipping near the banks, he sometimes has the strength if not +the colour of Albert Cuyp. The defect of his work is chiefly +want of solidity. But even this had its charm for van Goyen’s +contemporaries, and some time elapsed before Cuyp, who +imitated him, restricted his method of transparent tinting to +the foliage of foreground trees.</p> + +<p>Van Goyen’s pictures are comparatively rare in English collections, +but his work is seen to advantage abroad, and chiefly +at the Louvre, and in Berlin, Gotha, Vienna, Munich and +Augsburg. Twenty-eight of his works were exhibited together +at Vienna in 1873. Though he visited France once or twice, +van Goyen chiefly confined himself to the scenery of Holland +and the Rhine. Nine times from 1633 to 1655 he painted views +of Dordrecht. Nimeguen was one of his favourite resorts. +But he was also fond of Haarlem and Amsterdam, and he did +not neglect Arnheim or Utrecht. One of his largest pieces is +a view of the Hague, executed in 1651 for the municipality, and +now in the town collection of that city. Most of his panels +represent reaches of the Rhine, the Waal and the Maese. But +he sometimes sketched the downs of Scheveningen, or the sea +at the mouth of the Rhine and Scheldt; and he liked to depict +the calm inshore, and rarely ventured upon seas stirred by more +than a curling breeze or the swell of a coming squall. He often +painted winter scenes, with ice and skaters and sledges, in the +style familiar to Isaac van Ostade. There are numerous varieties +of these subjects in the master’s works from 1621 to 1653. One +historical picture has been assigned to van Goyen—the “Embarkation +of Charles II.” in the Bute collection. But this canvas +was executed after van Goyen’s death. When he tried this +form of art he properly mistrusted his own powers. But he +produced little in partnership with his contemporaries, and we +can only except the “Watering-place” in the gallery of Vienna, +where the landscape is enlivened with horses and cattle by +Philip Wouvermans. Even Jan Steen, who was his son-in-law, +only painted figures for one of his pictures, and it is probable +that this piece was completed after van Goyen’s death. More +than 250 of van Goyen’s pictures are known and accessible. +Of this number little more than 70 are undated. None exist +without the full name or monogram, and yet there is no painter +whose hand it is easier to trace without the help of these +adjuncts. An etcher, but a poor one, van Goyen has only +bequeathed to us two very rare plates.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOZLAN, LÉON<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1806-1866), French novelist and play-writer, +was born on the 1st of September 1806, at Marseilles. +When he was still a boy, his father, who had made a large +fortune as a ship-broker, met with a series of misfortunes, and +Léon, before completing his education, had to go to sea in order +to earn a living. In 1828 we find him in Paris, determined to +run the risks of literary life. His townsman, Joseph Méry, +who was then making himself famous by his political satires, +introduced him to several newspapers, and Gozlan’s brilliant +articles in the <i>Figaro</i> did much harm to the already tottering +government of Charles X. His first novel was <i>Les Mémoires +d’un apothicaire</i> (1828), and this was followed by numberless +others, among which may be mentioned <i>Washington Levert +et Socrate Leblanc</i> (1838), <i>Le Notaire de Chantilly</i> (1836), <i>Aristide +Froissart</i> (1843) (one of the most curious and celebrated of his +productions), <i>Les Nuits du Pčre Lachaise</i> (1846), <i>Le Tapis vert</i> +(1855), <i>La Folle du logis</i> (1857), <i>Les Émotions de Polydore Marasquin</i> +(1857), &c. His best-known works for the theatre +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>305</span> +are—<i>La Pluie et le beau temps</i> (1861), and <i>Une Tempęte dans un +verre d’eau</i> (1850), two curtain-raisers which have kept the +stage; <i>Le Lion empaillé</i> (1848), <i>La Queue du chien d’Alcibiade</i> +(1849), <i>Louise de Nanteuil</i> (1854), <i>Le Gâteau des reines</i> (1855), +<i>Les Paniers de la comtesse</i> (1852); and he adapted several of +his own novels to the stage. Gozlan also wrote a romantic +and picturesque description of the old manors and mansions +of his country entitled <i>Les Châteaux de France</i> (2 vols., 1844), +originally published (1836) as <i>Les Tourelles</i>, which has some +archaeological value, and a biographical essay on Balzac (<i>Balzac +chez lui</i>, 1862). He was made a member of the Legion of +Honour in 1846, and in 1859 an officer of that order. Gozlan +died on the 14th of September 1866, in Paris.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also P. Audebrand, <i>Léon Gozlan</i> (1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOZO<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Gozzo</span>), an island of the Maltese group in the Mediterranean +Sea, second in size to Malta. It lies N.W. and 3ź m. +from the nearest point of Malta, is of oval form, 8ž m. in length +and 4˝ m. in extreme breadth, and has an area of nearly 25 m. +Its chief town, Victoria, formerly called Rabato (pop. in 1901, +5057) stands near the middle of the island on one of a cluster +of steep conical hills, 3˝ m. from the port of Migiarro Bay, +on the south-east shore, below Fort Chambray. The character +of the island is similar to that of Malta. The estimated population +in 1907 was 21,911.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOZZI, CARLO,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1722-1806), Italian dramatist, +was descended from an old Venetian family, and was born at +Venice in March 1722. Compelled by the embarrassed condition +of his father’s affairs to procure the means of self-support, he, +at the age of sixteen, joined the army in Dalmatia; but three +years afterwards he returned to Venice, where he soon made +a reputation for himself as the wittiest member of the Granelleschi +society, to which the publication of several satirical +pieces had gained him admission. This society, nominally +devoted to conviviality and wit, had also serious literary aims, +and was especially zealous to preserve the Tuscan literature +pure and untainted by foreign influences. The displacement +of the old Italian comedy by the dramas of Pietro Chiari (1700-1788) +and Goldoni, founded on French models, threatened defeat +to all their efforts; and in 1757 Gozzi came to the rescue by +publishing a satirical poem, <i>Tartana degli influssi per l’ anno +bisestile</i>, and in 1761 by his comedy, <i>Fiaba dell’ amore delle tre +melarancie</i>, a parody of the manner of the two obnoxious poets, +founded on a fairy tale. For its representation he obtained +the services of the Sacchi company of players, who, on account +of the popularity of the comedies of Chiari and Goldoni—which +afforded no scope for the display of their peculiar talents—had +been left without employment; and as their satirical powers +were thus sharpened by personal enmity, the play met with +extraordinary success. Struck by the effect produced on the +audience by the introduction of the supernatural or mythical +element, which he had merely used as a convenient medium +for his satirical purposes, Gozzi now produced a series of dramatic +pieces based on fairy tales, which for a period obtained great +popularity, but after the breaking up of the Sacchi company +were completely disregarded. They have, however, obtained +high praise from Goethe, Schlegel, Madame de Staël and Sismondi; +and one of them, <i>Re Turandote</i>, was translated by +Schiller. In his later years Gozzi set himself to the production +of tragedies in which the comic element was largely introduced; +but as this innovation proved unacceptable to the critics he had +recourse to the Spanish drama, from which he obtained models +for various pieces, which, however, met with only equivocal +success. He died on the 4th of April 1806.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His collected works were published under his own superintendence, +at Venice, in 1792, in 10 volumes; and his dramatic works, +translated into German by Werthes, were published at Bern in +1795. See Gozzi’s work, <i>Memorie inutili della vita di Carlo Gozzi</i> +(3 vols., Venice, 1797), translated into French by Paul de Musset +(1848), and into English by J. A. Symonds (1889); F. Horn, <i>Über +Gozzis dramatische Poesie</i> (Venice, 1803); Gherardini, <i>Vita di Gasp. +Gozzi</i> (1821); “Charles Gozzi,” by Paul de Musset, in the <i>Revue +des deux mondes</i> for 15th November 1844; Magrini, <i>Carlo Gozzi +e la fiabe: saggi storici, biografici, e critici</i> (Cremona, 1876), and the +same author’s book on Gozzi’s life and times (Benevento, 1883).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOZZI, GASPARO,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1713-1786), eldest brother of +Carlo Gozzi, was born on the 4th of December 1713. In 1739 +he married the poetess Luise Bergalli, and she undertook the +management of the theatre of Sant’ Angelo, Venice, he supplying +the performers with dramas chiefly translated from the French. +The speculation proved unfortunate, but meantime he had +attained a high reputation for his contributions to the <i>Gazzetta +Veneta</i>, and he soon came to be known as one of the ablest +critics and purest and most elegant stylists in Italy. For a +considerable period he was censor of the press in Venice, and in +1774 he was appointed to reorganize the university system at +Padua. He died at Padua on the 26th of December 1786.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal writings are <i>Osservatore Veneto periodico</i> (1761), on +the model of the English <i>Spectator</i>, and distinguished by its high +moral tone and its light and pleasant satire; <i>Lettere famigliari</i> +(1755), a collection of short racy pieces in prose and verse, on subjects +of general interest; <i>Sermoni</i>, poems in blank verse after the manner +of Horace; <i>Il Mondo morale</i> (1760), a personification of human +passions with inwoven dialogues in the style of Lucian; and <i>Giudizio +degli antichi poeti sopra la moderna censura di Dante</i> (1755), a defence +of the great poet against the attacks of Bettinelli. He also translated +various works from the French and English, including Marmontel’s +<i>Tales</i> and Pope’s <i>Essay on Criticism</i>. His collected works +were published at Venice, 1794-1798, in 12 volumes, and several +editions have appeared since.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GOZZOLI, BENOZZO,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> Italian painter, was born in Florence +in 1424, or perhaps 1420, and in the early part of his career +assisted Fra Angelico, whom he followed to Rome and worked +with at Orvieto. In Rome he executed in Santa Maria in +Aracoeli a fresco of “St Anthony and Two Angels.” In 1449 +he left Angelico, and went to Montefalco, near Foligno in Umbria. +In S. Fortunate, near Montefalco, he painted a “Madonna and +Child with Saints and Angels,” and three other works. One of +these, the altar-piece representing “St Thomas receiving the +Girdle of the Virgin,” is now in the Lateran Museum, and +shows the affinity of Gozzoli’s early style to Angelico’s. He +next painted in the monastery of S. Francesco, Montefalco, +filling the choir with a triple course of subjects from the life +of the saint, with various accessories, including heads of Dante, +Petrarch and Giotto. This work was completed in 1452, and +is still marked by the style of Angelico, crossed here and there +with a more distinctly Giottesque influence. In the same church, +in the chapel of St Jerome, is a fresco by Gozzoli of the Virgin +and Saints, the Crucifixion and other subjects. He remained +at Montefalco (with an interval at Viterbo) probably till 1456, +employing Mesastris as assistant. Thence he went to Perugia, +and painted in a church a “Virgin and Saints,” now in the local +academy, and soon afterwards to his native Florence, the headquarters +of art. By the end of 1459 he had nearly finished +his important labour in the chapel of the Palazzo Riccardi, the +“Journey of the Magi to Bethlehem,” and, in the tribune of +this chapel, a composition of “Angels in a Paradise.” His +picture in the National Gallery, London, a “Virgin and Child +with Saints,” 1461, belongs also to the period of his Florentine +sojourn. Another small picture in the same gallery, the “Rape +of Helen,” is of dubious authenticity. In 1464 Gozzoli left +Florence for S. Gimignano, where he executed some extensive +works; in the church of S. Agostino, a composition of St +Sebastian protecting the City from the Plague of this same +year, 1464; over the entire choir of the church, a triple course +of scenes from the legends of St Augustine, from the time of +his entering the school of Tegaste on to his burial, seventeen +chief subjects, with some accessories; in the Pieve di S. +Gimignano, the “Martyrdom of Sebastian,” and other subjects, +and some further works in the city and its vicinity. Here his +style combined something of Lippo Lippi with its original +elements, and he received co-operation from Giusto d’Andrea. +He stayed in this city till 1467, and then began, in the Campo +Santo of Pisa, from 1469, the vast series of mural paintings +with which his name is specially identified. There are twenty-four +subjects from the Old Testament, from the “Invention of +Wine by Noah” to the “Visit of the Queen of Sheba to Solomon.” +He contracted to paint three subjects per year for about ten +ducats each—a sum which may be regarded as equivalent to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>306</span> +Ł100 at the present day. It appears, however, that this contract +was not strictly adhered to, for the actual rate of painting was +only three pictures in two years. Perhaps the great multitude +of figures and accessories was accepted as a set-off against the +slower rate of production. By January 1470 he had executed +the fresco of “Noah and his Family,”—followed by the “Curse +of Ham,” the “Building of the Tower of Babel” (which contains +portraits of Cosmo de’ Medici, the young Lorenzo Politian and +others), the “Destruction of Sodom,” the “Victory of Abraham,” +the “Marriages of Rebecca and of Rachel,” the “Life of Moses,” +&c. In the Cappella Ammannati, facing a gate of the Campo +Santo, he painted also an “Adoration of the Magi,” wherein +appears a portrait of himself. All this enormous mass of work, +in which Gozzoli was probably assisted by Zanobi Macchiavelli, +was performed, in addition to several other pictures during his +stay in Pisa (we need only specify the “Glory of St Thomas +Aquinas,” now in the Louvre), in sixteen years, lasting up to +1485. This is the latest date which can with certainty be +assigned to any work from his hand, although he is known to +have been alive up to 1498. In 1478 the Pisan authorities had +given him, as a token of their regard, a tomb in the Campo +Santo. He had likewise a house of his own in Pisa, and houses +and land in Florence. In rectitude of life he is said to have been +worthy of his first master, Fra Angelico.</p> + +<p>The art of Gozzoli does not rival that of his greatest contemporaries +either in elevation or in strength, but is pre-eminently +attractive by its sense of what is rich, winning, lively and +abundant in the aspects of men and things. His landscapes, +thronged with birds and quadrupeds, especially dogs, are more +varied, circumstantial and alluring than those of any predecessor; +his compositions are crowded with figures, more characteristically +true when happily and gracefully occupied than when the demands +of the subject require tragic or dramatic intensity, or turmoil +of action; his colour is bright, vivacious and festive. Gozzoli’s +genius was, on the whole, more versatile and assimilative than +vigorously original; his drawing not free from considerable +imperfections, especially in the extremities and articulations, +and in the perspective of his gorgeously-schemed buildings. +In fresco-painting he used the methods of tempera, and the decay +of his works has been severe in proportion. Of his untiring +industry the recital of his labours and the number of works +produced are the most forcible attestation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Vasari, Crowe and Cavalcaselle, and the other ordinary authorities, +can be consulted as to the career of Gozzoli. A separate +<i>Life</i> of him, by H. Stokes, was published in 1903 in Newnes’s Art +library.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAAFF REINET,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> a town of South Africa, 185 m. by rail +N.W. by N. of Port Elizabeth. Pop. (1904) 10,083, of whom +4055 were whites. The town lies 2463 ft. above the sea and is +built on the banks of the Sunday river, which rises a little farther +north on the southern slopes of the Sneeuwberg, and here +ramifies into several channels. The Dutch church is a handsome +stone building with seating accommodation for 1500 people. The +college is an educational centre of some importance; it was +rebuilt in 1906. Graaff Reinet is a flourishing market for +agricultural produce, the district being noted for its mohair +industry, its orchards and vineyards.</p> + +<p>The town was founded by the Cape Dutch in 1786, being named +after the then governor of Cape Colony, C. J. van de Graaff, +and his wife. In 1795 the burghers, smarting under the exactions +of the Dutch East India Company proclaimed a republic. +Similar action was taken by the burghers of Swellendam. Before +the authorities at Cape Town could take decisive measures +against the rebels, they were themselves compelled to capitulate +to the British. The burghers having endeavoured, unsuccessfully, +to get aid from a French warship at Algoa Bay surrendered to +Colonel (afterwards General Sir) J. O. Vandeleur. In January +1799 Marthinus Prinsloo, the leader of the republicans in 1795, +again rebelled, but surrendered in April following. Prinsloo +and nineteen others were imprisoned in Cape Town castle. +After trial, Prinsloo and another commandant were sentenced +to death and others to banishment. The sentences were not +carried out and the prisoners were released, March 1803, on the +retrocession of the Cape to Holland. In 1801 there had been +another revolt in Graaff Reinet, but owing to the conciliatory +measures of General F. Dundas (acting governor of the Cape) +peace was soon restored. It was this district, where a republican +government in South Africa was first proclaimed, which furnished +large numbers of the voortrekkers in 1835-1842. It remains a +strong Dutch centre.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. C. Voight, <i>Fifty Years of the History of the Republic in +South Africa 1795-1845</i>, vol. i. (London, 1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRABBE, CHRISTIAN DIETRICH<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1801-1836), German +dramatist, was born at Detmold on the 11th of December 1801. +Entering the university of Leipzig in 1819 as a student of law, +he continued the reckless habits which he had begun at Detmold, +and neglected his studies. Being introduced into literary +circles, he conceived the idea of becoming an actor and wrote +the drama <i>Herzog Theodor von Gothland</i> (1822). This, though +showing considerable literary talent, lacks artistic form, and +is morally repulsive. Ludwig Tieck, while encouraging the +young author, pointed out its faults, and tried to reform Grabbe +himself. In 1822 Grabbe removed to Berlin University, and in +1824 passed his advocate’s examination. He now settled in his +native town as a lawyer and in 1827 was appointed a <i>Militärauditeur</i>. +In 1833 he married, but in consequence of his drunken +habits was dismissed from his office, and, separating from his +wife, visited Düsseldorf, where he was kindly received by Karl +Immermann. After a serious quarrel with the latter, he returned +to Detmold, where, as a result of his excesses, he died on the 12th +of September 1836.</p> + +<p>Grabbe had real poetical gifts, and many of his dramas contain +fine passages and a wealth of original ideas. They largely +reflect his own life and character, and are characterized by +cynicism and indelicacy. Their construction also is defective +and little suited to the requirements of the stage. The boldly +conceived <i>Don Juan und Faust</i> (1829) and the historical dramas +<i>Friedrich Barbarossa</i> (1829), <i>Heinrich VI.</i> (1830), and <i>Napoleon +oder die Hundert Tage</i> (1831), the last of which places the battle +of Waterloo upon the stage, are his best works. Among others +are the unfinished tragedies <i>Marius and Sulla</i> (continued by +Erich Korn, Berlin, 1890); and <i>Hannibal</i> (1835, supplemented +and edited by C. Spielmann, Halle, 1901); and the patriotic +<i>Hermannsschlacht</i> or the battle between Arminius and Varus +(posthumously published with a biographical notice, by E. +Duller, 1838).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Grabbe’s works have been edited by O. Blumenthal (4 vols., +1875), and E. Grisebach (4 vols., 1902). For further notices of his +life, see K. Ziegler, <i>Grabbes Leben und Charakter</i> (1855); O. +Blumenthal, <i>Beiträge zur Kenntnis Grabbes</i> (1875); C. A. Piper, +<i>Grabbe</i> (1898), and A. Ploch, <i>Grabbes Stellung in der deutschen Literatur</i> +(1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRABE, JOHN ERNEST<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1666-1711), Anglican divine, was +born on the 10th of July 1666, at Königsberg, where his father, +Martin Sylvester Grabe, was professor of theology and history. +In his theological studies Grabe succeeded in persuading himself +of the schismatical character of the Reformation, and accordingly +he presented to the consistory of Samland in Prussia a memorial +in which he compared the position of the evangelical Protestant +churches with that of the Novatians and other ancient schismatics. +He had resolved to join the Church of Rome when a +commission of Lutheran divines pointed out flaws in his written +argument and called his attention to the English Church as +apparently possessing that apostolic succession and manifesting +that fidelity to ancient institutions which he desired. He +came to England, settled in Oxford, was ordained in 1700, and +became chaplain of Christ Church. His inclination was towards +the party of the nonjurors. The learned labours to which the +remainder of his life was devoted were rewarded with an Oxford +degree and a royal pension. He died on the 3rd of November +1711, and in 1726 a monument was erected to him by Edward +Harley, earl of Oxford, in Westminster Abbey. He was buried +in St Pancras Church, London.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Some account of Grabe’s life is given in R. Nelson’s <i>Life of George +Bull</i>, and by George Hickes in a discourse prefixed to the pamphlet +against W. Whiston’s <i>Collection of Testimonies against the True</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>307</span> +<i>Deity of the Son and of the Holy Ghost</i>. His works, which show him +to have been learned and laborious but somewhat deficient in +critical acumen, include a <i>Spicilegium SS. Patrum et haereticorum</i> +(1698-1699), which was designed to cover the first three centuries +of the Christian church, but was not continued beyond the close of +the second. A second edition of this work was published in 1714. +He brought out an edition of Justin Martyr’s <i>Apologia prima</i> (1700), +of Irenaeus, <i>Adversus omnes haereses</i> (1702), of the Septuagint, +and of Bishop Bull’s Latin works (1703). His edition of the Septuagint +was based on the <i>Codex Alexandrinus</i>; it appeared in 4 volumes +(1707-1720), and was completed by Francis Lee and by George +Wigan.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRACCHUS,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> in ancient Rome, the name of a plebeian family +of the Sempronian gens. Its most distinguished representatives +were the famous tribunes of the people, Tiberius and Gaius +Sempronius Gracchus, (4) and (5) below, usually called simply +“the Gracchi.”</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus</span>, consul in 238 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +carried on successful operations against the Ligurian mountaineers, +and, at the conclusion of the Carthaginian mercenary war, +was in command of the fleet which at the invitation of the +insurgents took possession of the island of Sardinia.</p> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus</span>, probably the son of +(1), distinguished himself during the second Punic war. Consul +in 215, he defeated the Capuans who had entered into an alliance +with Hannibal, and in 214 gained a signal success over Hanno +near Beneventum, chiefly owing to the <i>volones</i> (slave-volunteers), +to whom he had promised freedom in the event of victory. In +213 Gracchus was consul a second time and carried on the war +in Lucania; in the following year, while advancing northward +to reinforce the consuls in their attack on Capua, he was betrayed +into the hands of the Carthaginian Mago by a Lucanian of rank, +who had formerly supported the Roman cause and was connected +with Gracchus himself by ties of hospitality. Gracchus fell +fighting bravely; his body was sent to Hannibal, who accorded +him a splendid burial.</p> + +<p>3. <span class="sc">Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus</span> (<i>c.</i> 210-151 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), +father of the tribunes, and husband of Cornelia, the daughter +of the elder Scipio Africanus, was possibly the son of a Publius +Sempronius Gracchus who was tribune in 189. Although a +determined political opponent of the two Scipios (Asiaticus +and Africanus), as tribune in 187 he interfered on their behalf +when they were accused of having accepted bribes from the king +of Syria after the war. In 185 he was a member of the commission +sent to Macedonia to investigate the complaints made by Eumenes +II. of Pergamum against Philip V. of Macedon. In his curule +aedileship (182) he celebrated the games on so magnificent a scale +that the burdens imposed upon the Italian and extra-Italian +communities led to the official interference of the senate. In +181 he went as praetor to Hither Spain, and, after gaining +signal successes in the field, applied himself to the pacification +of the country. His strict sense of justice and sympathetic +attitude won the respect and affection of the inhabitants; the +land had rest for a quarter of a century. When consul in 177, +he was occupied in putting down a revolt in Sardinia, and brought +back so many prisoners that <i>Sardi venales</i> (Sardinians for sale) +became a proverbial expression for a drug in the market. In +169 Gracchus was censor, and both he and his colleague (C. +Claudius Pulcher) showed themselves determined opponents +of the capitalists. They deeply offended the equestrian order +by forbidding any contractor who had obtained contracts under +the previous censors to make fresh offers. Gracchus stringently +enforced the limitation of the freedmen to the four city tribes, +which completely destroyed their influence in the comitia. In +165 and 161 he went as ambassador to several Asiatic princes, +with whom he established friendly relations. Amongst the +places visited by him was Rhodes, where he delivered a speech +in Greek, which he afterwards published. In 163 he was again +consul.</p> + +<p>4. <span class="sc">Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus</span> (163-133 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), son of +(3), was the elder of the two great reformers. He and his brother +were brought up by their mother Cornelia, assisted by the +rhetorician Diophanes of Mytilene and the Stoic Blossius of +Cumae. In 147 he served under his brother-in-law the younger +Scipio in Africa during the last Punic war, and was the first +to mount the walls in the attack on Carthage. When quaestor +in 137, he accompanied the consul C. Hostilius Mancinus to +Spain. During the Numantine war the Roman army was saved +from annihilation only by the efforts of Tiberius, with whom +alone the Numantines consented to treat, out of respect for the +memory of his father. The senate refused to ratify the agreement; +Mancinus was handed over to the enemy as a sign that +it was annulled, and only personal popularity saved Tiberius +himself from punishment. In 133 he was tribune, and championed +the impoverished farmer class and the lower orders. +His proposals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agrarian Laws</a></span>) met with violent opposition, +and were not carried until he had, illegally and unconstitutionally, +secured the deposition of his fellow-tribune, M. Octavius, who +had been persuaded by the optimates to veto them. The senate +put every obstacle in the way of the three commissioners appointed +to carry out the provisions of the law, and Tiberius, in +view of the bitter enmity he had aroused, saw that it was necessary +to strengthen his hold on the popular favour. The legacy to +the Roman people of the kingdom and treasures of Attalus III. +of Pergamum gave him an opportunity. He proposed that the +money realized by the sale of the treasures should be divided, +for the purchase of implements and stock, amongst those to +whom assignments of land had been made under the new law. +He is also said to have brought forward measures for shortening +the period of military service, for extending the right of appeal +from the <i>judices</i> to the people, for abolishing the exclusive +privilege of the senators to act as jurymen, and even for admitting +the Italian allies to citizenship. To strengthen his position +further, Tiberius offered himself for re-election as tribune for the +following year. The senate declared that it was illegal to hold +this office for two consecutive years; but Tiberius treated this +objection with contempt. To win the sympathy of the people, +he appeared in mourning, and appealed for protection for his +wife and children, and whenever he left his house he was accompanied +by a bodyguard of 3000 men, chiefly consisting of the +city rabble. The meeting of the tribes for the election of tribunes +broke up in disorder on two successive days, without any result +being attained, although on both occasions the first divisions +voted in favour of Tiberius. A rumour reached the senate that +he was aiming at supreme power, that he had touched his head +with his hand, a sign that he was asking for a crown. An appeal +to the consul P. Mucius Scaevola to order him to be put to death +at once having failed, P. Scipio Nasica exclaimed that Scaevola +was acting treacherously towards the state, and called upon +those who agreed with him to take up arms and follow him. +During the riot that followed, Tiberius attempted to escape, +but stumbled on the slope of the Capitol and was beaten to death +with the end of a bench. At night his body, with those of 300 +others, was thrown into the Tiber. The aristocracy boldly +assumed the responsibility for what had occurred, and set up a +commission to inquire into the case of the partisans of Tiberius, +many of whom were banished and others put to death. Even +the moderate Scaevola subsequently maintained that Nasica +was justified in his action; and it was reported that Scipio, +when he heard at Numantia of his brother-in-law’s death, +repeated the line of Homer—“So perish all who do the like +again.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Livy, <i>Epit.</i> 58; Appian, <i>Bell. civ.</i> i. 9-17; Plutarch, <i>Tiberius +Gracchus</i>; Vell. Pat. ii. 2, 3.</p> +</div> + +<p>5. <span class="sc">Gaius Sempronius Gracchus</span> (153-121 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), younger +brother of (4), was a man of greater abilities, bolder and more +passionate, although possessed of considerable powers of self-control, +and a vigorous and impressive orator. When twenty +years of age he was appointed one of the commissioners to +carry out the distribution of land under the provisions of his +brother’s agrarian law. At the time of Tiberius’s death, Gaius +was serving under his brother-in-law Scipio in Spain, but +probably returned to Rome in the following year (132). In +131 he supported the bill of C. Papirius Carbo, the object of +which was to make it legal for a tribune to offer himself as candidate +for the office in two consecutive years, and thus to remove +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>308</span> +one of the chief obstacles that had hampered Tiberius. The bill +was then rejected, but appears to have subsequently passed in +a modified form, as Gaius himself was re-elected without any +disturbance. Possibly, however, his re-election was illegal, +and he had only succeeded where his brother had failed. For +the next few years nothing is heard of Gaius. Public opinion +pointed him out as the man to avenge his brother’s death and +carry out his plans, and the aristocratic party, warned by the +example of Tiberius, were anxious to keep him away from Rome. +In 126 Gaius accompanied the consul L. Aurelius Orestes as +quaestor to Sardinia, then in a state of revolt. Here he made +himself so popular that the senate in alarm prolonged the +command of Orestes, in order that Gaius might be obliged to +remain there in his capacity of quaestor. But he returned to +Rome without the permission of the senate, and, when called +to account by the censors, defended himself so successfully +that he was acquitted of having acted illegally. The disappointed +aristocrats then brought him to trial on the charge of being +implicated in the revolt of Fregellae, and in other ways unsuccessfully +endeavoured to undermine his influence. Gaius then +decided to act; against the wishes of his mother he became +a candidate for the tribuneship, and, in spite of the determined +opposition of the aristocracy, he was elected for the year 123, +although only fourth on the list. The legislative proposals<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +brought forward by him had for their object:—the punishment +of his brother’s enemies; the relief of distress and the +attachment to himself of the city populace; the diminution +of the power of the senate and the increase of that of the <i>equites</i>; +the amelioration of the political status of the Italians and +provincials.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A law was passed that no Roman citizen should be tried in +a matter affecting his life or political status unless the people had +previously given its assent. This was specially aimed at Popilius +Laenas, who had taken an active part in the prosecution of the +adherents of Tiberius. Another law enacted that any magistrate +who had been deprived of office by decree of the people should be +incapacitated from holding office again. This was directed against +M. Octavius, who had been illegally deprived of his tribunate +through Tiberius. This unfair and vindictive measure was withdrawn +at the earnest request of Cornelia.</p> + +<p>He revived his brother’s agrarian law, which, although it +had not been repealed, had fallen into abeyance. By his <i>Lex +Frumentaria</i> every citizen resident in Rome was entitled to a certain +amount of corn at about half the usual price; as the distribution +only applied to those living in the capital, the natural result was +that the poorer country citizens flocked into Rome and swelled the +number of Gaius’s supporters. No citizen was to be obliged to +serve in the army before the commencement of his eighteenth year, +and his military outfit was to be supplied by the state, instead of +being deducted from his pay. Gaius also proposed the establishment +of colonies in Italy (at Tarentum and Capua), and sent out to the +site of Carthage 6000 colonists to found the new city of Junonia, +the inhabitants of which were to possess the rights of Roman +citizens; this was the first attempt at over-sea colonization. A new +system of roads was constructed which afforded easier access to +Rome. Having thus gained over the city proletariat, in order +to secure a majority in the comitia by its aid, Gaius did away with +the system of voting in the comitia centuriata, whereby the five +property classes in each tribe gave their votes one after another, +and introduced promiscuous voting in an order fixed by lot.</p> + +<p>The judices in the standing commissions for the trial of particular +offences (the most important of which was that dealing +with the trial of provincial magistrates for extortion, <i>de repetundis</i>) +were in future to be chosen from the equites (<i>q.v.</i>), not as hitherto +from the senate. The taxes of the new province of Asia were to be +let out by the censors to Roman <i>publicani</i> (who belonged to the +equestrian order), who paid down a lump sum for the right of +collecting them. It is obvious that this afforded the equites extensive +opportunities for money-making and extortion, while the +alteration in the appointment of the judices gave them the same +practical immunity and perpetuated the old abuses, with the difference +that it was no longer senators, but equites, who could look +forward with confidence to being leniently dealt with by men +belonging to their own order; Gaius also expected that this moneyed +aristocracy, which had taken the part of the senate against Tiberius, +would now support him against it. It was enacted that the provinces +to be assigned to the consuls, should be determined before, +instead of after their election; and the consuls themselves had to +settle, by lot or other arrangement, which province each of them +would take.<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> +</div> + +<p>These measures raised Gaius to the height of his popularity, +and during the year of his first tribuneship he may be considered +the absolute ruler of Rome. He was chosen tribune for the second +time for the year 122. To this period is probably to be assigned +his proposal that the franchise should be given to all the Latin +communities and that the status of the Latins should be conferred +upon the Italian allies. In 125 M. Fulvius Flaccus had +brought forward a similar measure, but he was got out of the way +by the senate, who sent him to fight in Gaul. This proposal, +more statesmanlike than any of the others, was naturally opposed +by the aristocratic party, and lessened Gaius’s popularity +amongst his own supporters, who viewed with disfavour the +prospect of an increase in the number of Roman citizens. The +senate put up M. Livius Drusus to outbid him, and his absence +from Rome while superintending the organization of the newly-founded +colony, Junonia-Carthago, was taken advantage of by +his enemies to weaken his influence. On his return he found his +popularity diminished. He failed to secure the tribuneship +for the third time, and his bitter enemy L. Opimius was elected +consul. The latter at once decided to propose the abandonment +of the new colony, which was to occupy the site cursed by +Scipio, while its foundation had been attended by unmistakable +manifestations of the wrath of the gods. On the day when the +matter was to be put to the vote, a lictor named Antyllius, who +had insulted the supporters of Gaius, was stabbed to death. +This gave his opponents the desired opportunity. Gaius was +declared a public enemy, and the consuls were invested with +dictatorial powers. The Gracchans, who had taken up their +position in the temple of Diana on the Aventine, offered little +resistance to the attack ordered by Opimius. Gaius managed +to escape across the Tiber, where his dead body was found on +the following day in the grove of Furrina by the side of that +of a slave, who had probably slain his master and then himself. +The property of the Gracchans was confiscated, and a temple +of Concord erected in the Forum from the proceeds. Beneath +the inscription recording the occasion on which the temple had +been built some one during the night wrote the words: “The +work of Discord makes the temple of Concord.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—See Livy, <i>Epit.</i> 60; Appian, <i>Bell. Civ.</i> i. 21; +Plutarch, <i>Gaius Gracchus</i>; Orosius v. 12; Aulus Gellius x. 3, +xi. 10. For an account of the two tribunes see Mommsen, <i>Hist. +of Rome</i> (Eng. trans.), bk. iv., chs. 2 and 3; C. Neumann, <i>Geschichte +Roms während des Verfalles der Republik</i> (1881); A. H. J. Greenidge, +<i>History of Rome</i> (1904); E. Meyer, <i>Untersuchungen zur Geschichte +der Gracchen</i> (1894); G. E. Underhill, Plutarch’s <i>Lives of the Gracchi</i> +(1892); W. Warde Fowler in <i>English Historical Review</i> (1905), +pp. 209 and 417; Long, <i>Decline of the Roman Republic</i>, chs. 10-13, +17-19, containing a careful examination of the ancient authorities; +G. F. Hertzberg in Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine Encyclopädie</i>; +C. W. Oman, <i>Seven Roman Statesmen of the later Republic</i> (1902); +T. Lau, <i>Die Gracchen und ihre Zeit</i> (1854). The exhaustive monograph +by C. W. Nitzsch, <i>Die Gracchen und ihre nächsten Vorgänger</i> +(1847), also contains an account of the other members of the family, +with full references to ancient authorities in the notes.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. F.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> These measures cannot be arranged in any definite chronological +order, nor can it be decided which belong to his first, which to his +second tribuneship. See W. Warde Fowler in <i>Eng. Hist. Review</i>, +1905. pp. 209 sqq., 417 sqq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It is suggested by W. Warde Fowler that Gracchus proposed +to add a certain number of <i>equites</i> to the senate, thereby increasing +it to 900, but the plan was never carried out.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1848-  ), English cricketer, +was born at Downend, Gloucestershire, on the 18th of July +1848. He found himself in an atmosphere charged with cricket, +his father (Henry Mills Grace) and his uncle (Alfred Pocock) +being as enthusiastic over the game as his elder brothers, Henry, +Alfred and Edward Mills; indeed, in E. M. Grace the family +name first became famous. A younger brother, George Frederick, +also added to the cricket reputation of the family. “W. G.” +witnessed his first great match when he was hardly six years +old, the occasion being a game between W. Clarke’s All-England +Eleven and twenty-two of West Gloucestershire. He was +endowed by nature with a splendid physique as well as with +powers of self-restraint and determination. At the acme of his +career he stood full 6 ft. 2 in., being powerfully proportioned, +loose yet strong of limb. A non-smoker, and very moderate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>309</span> +in all matters, he kept himself in condition all the year round, +shooting, hunting or running with the beagles as soon as the +cricket season was over. He was also a fine runner, 440 yds. +over 20 hurdles being his best distance; and it may be quoted +as proof of his stamina that on the 30th of July 1866 he scored +224 not out for England <i>v.</i> Surrey, and two days later won a +race in the National and Olympian Association meeting at the +Crystal Palace. The title of “champion” was well earned by +one who for thirty-six years (1865-1900 inclusive) was actively +engaged in first-class cricket. In each of these years he was +invited to represent the Gentlemen in their matches against the +Players, and, when an Australian eleven visited England, to +play for the mother country. As late as 1899 he played in the +first of the five international contests; in 1900 he played against +the players at the Oval, scoring 58 and 3. At fifty-three he +scored nearly 1300 runs in first-class cricket, made 100 runs and +over on three different occasions and could claim an average +of 42 runs. Moreover, his greatest triumphs were achieved +when only the very best cricket grounds received serious attention; +when, as some consider, bowling was maintained at a higher +standard and when all hits had to be run out. He, with his two +brothers, E. M. and G. F., assisted by some fine amateurs, made +Gloucestershire in one season a first-class county; and it was +he who first enabled the amateurs of England to meet the paid +players on equal terms and to beat them. There was hardly a +“record” connected with the game which did not stand to his +credit. Grace was one of the finest fieldsmen in England, in his +earlier days generally taking long-leg and cover-point, in later +times generally standing point. He was, at his best, a fine +thrower, fast runner and safe “catch.” As a bowler he was +long in the first flight, originally bowling fast, but in later times +adopting a slower and more tricky style, frequently very effective. +By profession he was a medical man. In later years he became +secretary and manager of the London County Cricket Club. +He was married in 1873 to Miss Agnes Day, and one of his sons +played for two years in the Cambridge eleven. He was the +recipient of two national testimonials: the first, amounting to +Ł1500, being presented to him in the form of a clock and a +cheque at Lord’s ground by Lord Charles Russell on the 22nd +of July 1879; the second, collected by the M.C.C., the county +of Gloucestershire, the <i>Daily Telegraph</i> and the <i>Sportsman</i>, +amounted to about Ł10,000, and was presented to him in 1896. +He visited Australia in 1873-1874 (captain), and in 1891-1892 +with Lord Sheffield’s Eleven (captain); the United States and +Canada in 1872, with R. A. Fitzgerald’s team.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Dr Grace played his first great match in 1863, when, being only +fifteen years of age, he scored 32 against the All-England Eleven +and the bowling of Jackson, Tarrant and Tinley; but the scores +which first made his name prominent were made in 1864, viz. +170 and 56 not out for the South Wales Club against the Gentlemen +of Sussex. It was in 1865 that he first took an active part in first-class +cricket, being then 6 ft. in height, and 11 stone in weight, +and playing twice for the Gentlemen <i>v.</i> the Players, but his selection +was mainly due to his bowling powers, the best exposition of which +was his aggregate of 13 wickets for 84 runs for the Gentlemen of +the South <i>v.</i> the Players of the South. His highest score was 400 +not out, made in July 1876 against twenty-two of Grimsby; but +on three occasions he was twice dismissed without scoring in matches +against odds, a fate that never befell him in important cricket. +In first-class matches his highest score was 344, made for the M.C.C. +v. Kent at Canterbury, in August 1876; two days later he made +177 for Gloucestershire <i>v.</i> Notts, and two days after this 318 not +out for Gloucestershire <i>v.</i> Yorkshire, the two last-named opposing +counties being possessed of exceptionally strong bowling; thus in +three consecutive innings Grace scored 839 runs, and was only got +out twice. His 344 was the third highest individual score made in +a big match in England up to the end of 1901. He also scored 301 +for Gloucestershire <i>v.</i> Sussex at Bristol, in August 1896. He made +over 200 runs on ten occasions, the most notable perhaps being in +1871, when he performed the feat twice, each time in benefit matches, +and each time in the second innings, having been each time got out +in the first over of the first innings. He scored over 100 runs on +121 occasions, the hundredth score being 288, made at Bristol for +Gloucestershire <i>v.</i> Somersetshire in 1895. He made every figure +from 0 to 100, on one occasion “closing” the innings when he had +made 93, the only total he had never made between these limits. +In 1871 he made ten “centuries,” ranging from 268 to 116. In the +matches between the Gentlemen and Players he scored “three +figures” fifteen times, and at every place where these matches have +been played. He made over 100 in each of his “first appearances” +at Oxford and Cambridge. Three times he made over 100 in each +innings of the same match, viz. at Canterbury, in 1868, for South v. +North of the Thames, 130 and 102 not out; at Clifton, in 1887, +for Gloucestershire <i>v.</i> Kent, 101 and 103 not out; and at Clifton, +in 1888, for Gloucestershire <i>v.</i> Yorkshire, 148 and 153. In 1869, +playing at the Oval for the Gentlemen of the South <i>v.</i> the Players +of the South, Grace and B. B. Cooper put on 283 runs for the first +wicket, Grace scoring 180 and Cooper 101. In 1886 Grace and +Scotton put on 170 runs for the first wicket of England <i>v.</i> Australia; +this occurred at the Oval in August, and Grace’s total score was +170. In consecutive innings against the Players from 1871 to 1873 +he scored 217, 77 and 112, 117, 163, 158 and 70. He only twice scored +over 100 in a big match in Australia, nor did he ever make 200 at +Lord’s, his highest being 196 for the M.C.C. <i>v.</i> Cambridge University +in 1894. His highest aggregates were 2739 (1871), 2622 (1876), +2346 (1895), 2139 (1873), 2135 (1896) and 2062 (1887). He scored +three successive centuries in first-class cricket in 1871, 1872, 1873, +1874 and 1876. Playing against Kent at Gravesend in 1895, he +was batting, bowling or fielding during the whole time the game +was in progress, his scores being 257 and 73 not out. He scored +over 1000 runs and took over 100 wickets in seven different seasons, +viz. in 1874, 1665 runs and 129 wickets; in 1875, 1498 runs, 192 +wickets; in 1876, 2622 runs, 124 wickets; in 1877, 1474 runs, 179 +wickets; in 1878, 1151 runs, 153 wickets; in 1885, 1688 runs, +118 wickets; in 1886, 1846 runs, 122 wickets. He never captured +200 wickets in a season, his highest record being 192 in 1875. Playing +against Oxford University in 1886, he took all the wickets in +the first innings, at a cost of 49 runs. In 1895 he not only made +his hundredth century, but actually scored 1000 runs in the month +of May alone, his chief scores in that month being 103, 288, 256, 73 +and 169, he being then forty-seven years old. He also made during +that year scores of 125, 119, 118, 104 and 103 not out, his aggregate +for the year being 2346 and his average 51; his innings of 118 +was made against the Players (at Lord’s), the chief bowlers being +Richardson, Mold, Peel and Attewell; he scored level with his +partner, A. E. Stoddart (his junior by fifteen years), the pair making +151 before a wicket fell, Grace making in all 118 out of 241. This +may fairly be considered one of his most wonderful years. In 1898 +the match between Gentlemen <i>v.</i> Players was, as a special compliment, +arranged by the M.C.C. committee to take place on his birthday, +and he celebrated the event by scoring 43 and 31 not out, +though handicapped by lameness and an injured hand. In twenty-six +different seasons he scored over 1000 runs, in three of these +years being the only man to do so and five times being one out of +two.</p> + +<p>During the thirty-six years up to and including 1900 he scored +nearly 51,000 runs, with an average of 43; and in bowling he took +more than 2800 wickets, at an average cost of about 20 runs per +wicket. He made his highest aggregate (2739 runs) and had his +highest average (78) in 1871; his average for the decade 1868-1877 +was 57 runs. His style as a batsman was more commanding than +graceful, but as to its soundness and efficacy there were never +two opinions; the severest criticism ever passed upon his powers +was to the effect that he did not play slow bowling quite as well +as fast.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. J. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRACE<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (Fr. <i>grâce</i>, Lat. <i>gratia</i>, from <i>gratus</i>, beloved, pleasing; +formed from the root <i>cra-</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="chas-">χασ</span>- cf. <span class="grk" title="chairô, charma, charis">χαίρω, χάρμα, χάρις</span>), +a word of many shades of meaning, but always connoting the +idea of favour, whether that in which one stands to others +or that which one shows to others. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> +groups the meanings of the word under three main heads: +(1) Pleasing quality, gracefulness, (2) favour, goodwill, (3) +gratitude, thanks.</p> + +<p>It is in the second general sense of “favour bestowed” that +the word has its most important connotations. In this sense +it means something given by superior authority as a concession +made of favour and goodwill, not as an obligation or of right. +Thus, a concession may be made by a sovereign or other public +authority “by way of grace.” Previous to the Revolution of +1688 such concessions on the part of the crown were known in +constitutional law as “Graces.” “Letters of Grace” (<i>gratiae, +gratiosa rescripta</i>) is the name given to papal rescripts granting +special privileges, indulgences, exemptions and the like. In +the language of the universities the word still survives in a +shadow of this sense. The word “grace” was originally a +dispensation granted by the congregation of the university, +or by one of the faculties, from some statutable conditions required +for a degree. In the English universities these conditions +ceased to be enforced, and the “grace” thus became an essential +preliminary to any degree; so that the word has acquired the +meaning of (<i>a</i>) the licence granted by congregation to take a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>310</span> +degree, (<i>b</i>) other decrees of the governing body (originally dispensations +from statutes), all such degrees being called “graces” +at Cambridge, (<i>c</i>) the permission which a candidate for a degree +must obtain from his college or hall.</p> + +<p>To this general sense of exceptional favour belong the uses +of the word in such phrases as “do me this grace,” “to be in +some one’s good graces” and certain meanings of “the grace of +God.” The style “by the grace of God,” borne by the king of +Great Britain and Ireland among other sovereigns, though, +as implying the principle of “legitimacy,” it has been since the +Revolution sometimes qualified on the continent by the addition +of “and the will of the people,” means in effect no more than the +“by Divine Providence,” which is the style borne by archbishops. +To the same general sense of exceptional favour belong the +phrases implying the concession of a right to delay in fulfilling +certain obligations, <i>e.g.</i> “a fortnight’s grace.” In law the “days +of grace” are the period allowed for the payment of a bill of +exchange, after the term for which it has been drawn (in England +three days), or for the payment of an insurance premium, &c. +In religious language the “Day of Grace” is the period still +open to the sinner in which to repent. In the sense of clemency +or mercy, too, “grace” is still, though rarely used: “an Act +of Grace” is a formal pardon or a free and general pardon granted +by act of parliament. Since to grant favours is the prerogative +of the great, “Your Grace,” “His Grace,” &c., became dutiful +paraphrases for the simple “you” and “he.” Formerly used +in the royal address (“the King’s Grace,” &c.), the style is in +England now confined to dukes and archbishops, though the +style of “his most gracious majesty” is still used. In Germany +the equivalent, <i>Euer Gnaden</i>, is the style of princes who are not +<i>Durchlaucht</i> (<i>i.e.</i> Serene Highness), and is often used as a polite +address to any superior.</p> + +<p>In the language of theology, though in the English Bible the +word is used in several of the above senses, “grace” (Gr. <span class="grk" title="charis">χάρις</span>) +has special meanings. Above all, it signifies the spontaneous, +unmerited activity of the Divine Love in the salvation of sinners, +and the Divine influence operating in man for his regeneration +and sanctification. Those thus regenerated and sanctified are +said to be in a “state of grace.” In the New Testament grace +is the forgiving mercy of God, as opposed to any human merit +(Rom. xi. 6; Eph. ii. 5; Col. i. 6, &c.); it is applied also to +certain gifts of God freely bestowed, <i>e.g.</i> miracles, tongues, &c. +(Rom. xv. 15; 1 Cor. xv. 10; Eph. iii. 8, &c.), to the Christian +virtues, gifts of God also, <i>e.g.</i> charity, holiness, &c. (2 Cor. +viii. 7; 2 Pet. iii. 18). It is also used of the Gospel generally, +as opposed to the Law (John i. 17; Rom. vi. 14; 1 Pet. v. 12, +&c.); connected with this is the use of the term “year of grace” +for a year of the Christian era.</p> + +<p>The word “grace” is the central subject of three great +theological controversies: (1) that of the nature of human +depravity and regeneration (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pelagius</a></span>), (2) that of the +relation between grace and free-will (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calvin, John</a></span>, and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arminius, Jacobus</a></span>), (3) that of the “means of grace” between +Catholics and Protestants, <i>i.e.</i> whether the efficacy of the +sacraments as channels of the Divine grace is <i>ex opere operato</i> +or dependent on the faith of the recipient.</p> + +<p>In the third general sense, of thanks for favours bestowed, +“grace” survives as the name for the thanksgiving before or +after meals. The word was originally used in the plural, and +“to do, give, render, yield graces” was said, in the general +sense of the French <i>rendre grâces</i> or Latin <i>gratias agere</i>, of any +giving thanks. The close, and finally exclusive, association +of the phrase “to say grace” with thanksgiving at meals was +possibly due to the formula “Gratias Deo agamus” (“let us +give thanks to God”) with which the ceremony began in monastic +refectories. The custom of saying grace, which obtained in +pre-Christian times among the Jews, Greeks and Romans, and +was adopted universally by Christian peoples, is probably less +widespread in private houses than it used to be. It is, however, +still maintained at public dinners and also in schools, colleges +and institutions generally. Such graces are generally in Latin +and of great antiquity: they are sometimes short, <i>e.g.</i> “Laus +Deo,” “Benedictus benedicat,” and sometimes, as at the +Oxford and Cambridge colleges, of considerable length. In +some countries grace has sunk to a polite formula; in Germany, +<i>e.g.</i> it is usual before and after meals to bow to one’s neighbours +and say “Gesegnete Malzeit!” (May your meal be blessed), +a phrase often reduced in practice to “Malzeit” simply.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRACES, THE,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Charites">Χάριτες</span>, Lat. <i>Gratiae</i>), in Greek mythology, +the personification of grace and charm, both in nature and in +moral action. The transition from a single goddess, Charis, to +a number or group of Charites, is marked in Homer. In the +<i>Iliad</i> one Charis is the wife of Hephaestus, another the promised +wife of Sleep, while the plural Charites often occurs. The Charites +are usually described as three in number—Aglaia (brightness), +Euphrosyne (joyfulness), Thalia (bloom)—daughters of Zeus +and Hera (or Eurynome, daughter of Oceanus), or of Helios +and Aegle; in Sparta, however, only two were known, Cleta +(noise) and Phaënna (light), as at Athens Auxo (increase) and +Hegemone (queen). They are the friends of the Muses, with +whom they live on Mount Olympus, and the companions of +Aphrodite, of Peitho, the goddess of persuasion, and of Hermes, +the god of eloquence, to each of whom charm is an indispensable +adjunct. The need of their assistance to the artist is indicated +by the union of Hephaestus and Charis. The most ancient +seat of their cult was Orchomenus in Boeotia, where their oldest +images, in the form of stones fallen from heaven, were set up +in their temple. Their worship was said to have been instituted +by Eteocles, whose three daughters fell into a well while dancing +in their honour. At Orchomenus nightly dances took place, +and the festival Charitesia, accompanied by musical contests, +was celebrated; in Paros their worship was celebrated without +music or garlands, since it was there that Minos, while sacrificing +to the Charites, received the news of the death of his son +Androgeus; at Messene they were revered together with the +Eumenides; at Athens, their rites, kept secret from the profane, +were held at the entrance to the Acropolis. It was by Auxo, +Hegemone and Agraulos, the daughter of Cecrops, that young +Athenians, on first receiving their spear and shield, took the +oath to defend their country. In works of art the Charites were +represented in early times as beautiful maidens of slender form, +hand in hand or embracing one another and wearing drapery; +later, the conception predominated of three naked figures +gracefully intertwined. Their attributes were the myrtle, the +rose and musical instruments. In Rome the Graces were +never the objects of special religious reverence, but were described +and represented by poets and artists in accordance with Greek +models.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. H. Krause, <i>Musen, Gratien, Horen, und Nymphen</i> (1871), +and the articles by Stoll and Furtwängler in Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der +Mythologie</i>, and by S. Gsell in Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire +des antiquités</i>, with the bibliography.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRACIÁN Y MORALES, BALTASAR<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (1601-1658), Spanish +prose writer, was born at Calatayud (Aragon) on the 8th of +January 1601. Little is known of his personal history except +that on May 14, 1619, he entered the Society of Jesus, and that +ultimately he became rector of the Jesuit college at Tarazona, +where he died on the 6th of December, 1658. His principal +works are <i>El Héroe</i> (1630), which describes in apophthegmatic +phrases the qualities of the ideal man; the <i>Arte de ingenio, +tratado de la Agudeza</i> (1642), republished six years afterwards +under the title of <i>Agudeza, y arte de ingenio</i> (1648), a system +of rhetoric in which the principles of <i>conceptismo</i> as opposed +to culteranismo are inculcated; <i>El Discreto</i> (1645), a delineation +of the typical courtier; <i>El Oráculo manual y arte de prudencia</i> +(1647), a system of rules for the conduct of life; and <i>El Criticón</i> +(1651-1653-1657), an ingenious philosophical allegory of human +existence. The only publication which bears Gracián’s name is +<i>El Comulgatorio</i> (1655); his more important books were issued +under the pseudonym of Lorenzo Gracián (possibly a brother +of the writer) or under the anagram of Gracian de Marlones. +Gracián was punished for publishing without his superior’s +permission <i>El Criticón</i> (in which Defoe is alleged to have found +the germ of <i>Robinson Crusoe</i>); but no objection was taken to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>311</span> +its substance. He has been excessively praised by Schopenhauer, +whose appreciation of the author induced him to translate the +<i>Oráculo manual</i>, and he has been unduly depreciated by Ticknor +and others. He is an acute thinker and observer, misled by his +systematic misanthropy and by his fantastic literary theories.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Karl Borinski, <i>Baltasar Gracián und die Hoflitteratur in +Deutschland</i> (Halle, 1894); Benedetto Croce, <i>I Trattatisti italiani del +“concettismo” e Baltasar Gracián</i> (Napoli, 1899); Narciso José +Lińán y Heredia, <i>Baltasar Gracián</i> (Madrid, 1902). Schopenhauer +and Joseph Jacobs have respectively translated the <i>Oráculo manual</i> +into German and English.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRACKLE<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Gracculus</i> or <i>Graculus</i>), a word much used in +ornithology, generally in a vague sense, though restricted to +members of the families <i>Sturnidae</i> belonging to the Old World +and <i>Icteridae</i> belonging to the New. Of the former those to which +it has been most commonly applied are the species known as +mynas, mainas, and minors of India and the adjacent countries, +and especially the <i>Gracula religiosa</i> of Linnaeus, who, according +to Jerdon and others, was probably led to confer this epithet +upon it by confounding it with the <i>Sturnus</i> or <i>Acridotheres +tristis</i>,<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> which is regarded by the Hindus as sacred to Ram Deo, +one of their deities, while the true <i>Gracula religiosa</i> does not +seem to be anywhere held in veneration. This last is about 10 in. +in length, clothed in a plumage of glossy black, with purple +and green reflections, and a conspicuous patch of white on the +quill-feathers of the wings. The bill is orange and the legs +yellow, but the bird’s most characteristic feature is afforded +by the curious wattles of bright yellow, which, beginning behind +the eyes, run backwards in form of a lappet on each side, and then +return in a narrow stripe to the top of the head. Beneath each +eye also is a bare patch of the same colour. This species is +common in southern India, and is represented farther to the +north, in Ceylon, Burma, and some of the Malay Islands by +cognate forms. They are all frugivorous, and, being easily +tamed and learning to pronounce words very distinctly, are +favourite cage-birds.<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:427px; height:423px" src="images/img311.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><i>Gracula religiosa.</i></td></tr></table> + +<p>In America the name Grackle has been applied to several +species of the genera <i>Scolecophagus</i> and <i>Quiscalus</i>, though these +are more commonly called in the United States and Canada +“blackbirds,” and some of them “boat-tails.” They all belong +to the family <i>Icteridae</i>. The best known of these are the rusty +grackle, <i>S. ferrugineus</i>, which is found in almost the whole of +North America, and <i>Q. purpureus</i>, the purple grackle or crow-blackbird, +of more limited range, for though abundant in most +parts to the east of the Rocky Mountains, it seems not to appear +on the Pacific side. There is also Brewer’s or the blue-headed +grackle, <i>S. cyanocephalus</i>, which has a more western range, not +occurring to the eastward of Kansas and Minnesota. A fourth +species, <i>Q. major</i>, inhabits the Atlantic States as far north as +North Carolina. All these birds are of exceedingly omnivorous +habit, and though destroying large numbers of pernicious +insects are in many places held in bad repute from the mischief +they do to the corn-crops.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> By some writers the birds of the genera <i>Acridotheres</i> and <i>Temenuchus</i> +are considered to be the true mynas, and the species of <i>Gracula</i> +are called “hill mynas” by way of distinction.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For a valuable monograph on the various species of <i>Gracula</i> and +its allies see Professor Schlegel’s “Bijdrage tot de Kennis von het +Geschlacht Beo’” (<i>Nederlandsch Tijdschrift voor de Dierkunde</i> i. 1-9).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRADISCA,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> a town of Austria, in the province of Görz and +Gradisca, 10 m. S.W. of Görz by rail. Pop. (1900) 3843, mostly +Italians. It is situated on the right bank of the Isonzo and was +formerly a strongly fortified place. Its principal industry is silk +spinning. Gradisca originally formed part of the margraviate +of Friuli, came under the patriarchate of Aquileia in 1028, +and in 1420 to Venice. Between 1471 and 1481 Gradisca was +fortified by the Venetians, but in 1511 they surrendered it to +the emperor Maximilian I. In 1647 Gradisca and its territory, +including Aquileia and forty-three smaller places, were erected +into a separate countship in favour of Johann Anton von +Eggenberg, duke of Krumau. On the extinction of his line +in 1717, it reverted to Austria, and was completely incorporated +with Görz in 1754. The name was revived by the +constitution of 1861, which established the crownland of Görz +and Gradisca.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRADO,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; +11 m. W. by N. of the city of Oviedo, on the river Cubia, a +left-hand tributary of the Nalon. Pop. (1900) 17,125. Grado +is built in the midst of a mountainous, well-wooded and fertile +region. It has some trade in timber, live stock, cider and +agricultural produce. The nearest railway station is that of the +Fabrica de Trubia, a royal cannon-foundry and small-arms +factory, 5 m. S.E.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRADUAL<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (Med. Lat. <i>gradualis</i>, of or belonging to steps or +degrees; <i>gradus</i>, step), advancing or taking place by degrees +or step by step; hence used of a slow progress or a gentle declivity +or slope, opposed to steep or precipitous. As a substantive, +“gradual” (Med. Lat. <i>graduale</i> or <i>gradale</i>) is used of +a service book or antiphonal of the Roman Catholic Church +containing certain antiphons, called “graduals,” sung at the +service of the Mass after the reading or singing of the Epistle. +This antiphon received the name either because it was sung +on the steps of the altar or while the deacon was mounting the +steps of the ambo for the reading or singing of the Gospel. For +the so-called Gradual Psalms, cxx.-cxxxiv., the “songs of +degrees,” LXX. <span class="grk" title="ôdę ana bathmôn">ᾠδὴ ἀνὰ βαθμῶν</span>, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psalms, Book of</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRADUATE<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (Med. Lat. <i>graduare</i>, to admit to an academical +degree, <i>gradus</i>), in Great Britain a verb now only used in the +academical sense intransitively, <i>i.e.</i> “to take or proceed to a +university degree,” and figuratively of acquiring knowledge of, +or proficiency in, anything. The original transitive sense of +“to confer or admit to a degree” is, however, still preserved in +America, where the word is, moreover, not strictly confined to +university degrees, but is used also of those successfully completing +a course of study at any educational establishment. +As a substantive, a “graduate” (Med. Lat. <i>graduatus</i>) is one +who has taken a degree in a university. Those who have +matriculated at a university, but not yet taken a degree, are +known as “undergraduates.” The word “student,” used of +undergraduates <i>e.g.</i> in Scottish universities, is never applied +generally to those of the English and Irish universities. At +Oxford the only “students” are the “senior students” (<i>i.e.</i> +fellows) and “junior students” (<i>i.e.</i> undergraduates on the +foundation, or “scholars”) of Christ Church. The verb “to +graduate” is also used of dividing anything into degrees or parts +in accordance with a given scale. For the scientific application +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Graduation</a></span> below. It may also mean “to arrange in +gradations” or “to adjust or apportion according to a given +scale.” Thus by “a graduated income-tax” is meant the +system by which the percentage paid differs according to the +amount of income on a pre-arranged scale.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>312</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">GRADUATION<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Graduate</a></span>), the art of dividing straight +scales, circular arcs or whole circumferences into any required +number of equal parts. It is the most important and difficult +part of the work of the mathematical instrument maker, and is +required in the construction of most physical, astronomical, +nautical and surveying instruments.</p> + +<p>The art was first practised by clockmakers for cutting the +teeth of their wheels at regular intervals; but so long as it was +confined to them no particular delicacy or accurate nicety in +its performance was required. This only arose when astronomy +began to be seriously studied, and the exact position of the +heavenly bodies to be determined, which created the necessity +for strictly accurate means of measuring linear and angular +magnitudes. Then it was seen that graduation was an art which +required special talents and training, and the best artists gave +great attention to the perfecting of astronomical instruments. +Of these may be named Abraham Sharp (1651-1742), John +Bird (1709-1776), John Smeaton (1724-1792), Jesse Ramsden +(1735-1800), John Troughton, Edward Troughton (1753-1835), +William Simms (1793-1860) and Andrew Ross.</p> + +<p>The first graduated instrument must have been done by the +hand and eye alone, whether it was in the form of a straight-edge +with equal divisions, or a screw or a divided plate; but, +once in the possession of one such divided instrument, it was a +comparatively easy matter to employ it as a standard. Hence +graduation divides itself into two distinct branches, <i>original +graduation</i> and <i>copying</i>, which latter may be done either by the +hand or by a machine called a dividing engine. Graduation +may therefore be treated under the three heads of <i>original +graduation</i>, <i>copying</i> and <i>machine graduation</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Original Graduation.</i>—In regard to the graduation of straight +scales elementary geometry provides the means of dividing +a straight line into any number of equal parts by the method +of continual bisection; but the practical realization of the +geometrical construction is so difficult as to render the method +untrustworthy. This method, which employs the common +diagonal scale, was used in dividing a quadrant of 3 ft. radius, +which belonged to Napier of Merchiston, and which only read +to minutes—a result, according to Thomson and Tait (<i>Nat. +Phil.</i>), “giving no greater accuracy than is now attainable by +the pocket sextants of Troughton and Simms, the radius of +whose arc is little more than an inch.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The original graduation of a straight line is done either by the +method of continual bisection or by stepping. In continual bisection +the entire length of the line is first laid down. Then, as nearly as +possible, half that distance is taken in the beam-compass and marked +off by faint arcs from each end of the line. Should these marks +coincide the exact middle point of the line is obtained. If not, as +will almost always be the case, the distance between the marks is +carefully bisected by hand with the aid of a magnifying glass. The +same process is again applied to the halves thus obtained, and so on +in succession, dividing the line into parts represented by 2, 4, 8, 16, +&c. till the desired divisions are reached. In the method of stepping +the smallest division required is first taken, as accurately as possible, +by spring dividers, and that distance is then laid off, by successive +steps, from one end of the line. In this method, any error at starting +will be multiplied at each division by the number of that division. +Errors so made are usually adjusted by the dots being put either +back or forward a little by means of the dividing punch guided by a +magnifying glass. This is an extremely tedious process, as the dots, +when so altered several times, are apt to get insufferably large and +shapeless.</p> +</div> + +<p>The division of circular arcs is essentially the same in principle +as the graduation of straight lines.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first example of note is the 8-ft. mural circle which was +graduated by George Graham (1673-1751) for Greenwich Observatory +in 1725. In this two concentric arcs of radii 96.85 and +95.8 in. respectively were first described by the beam-compass. On +the inner of these the arc of 90° was to be divided into degrees and +12th parts of a degree, while the same on the outer was to be divided +into 96 equal parts and these again into 16th parts. The reason for +adopting the latter was that, 96 and 16 being both powers of 2, the +divisions could be got at by continual bisection alone, which, in +Graham’s opinion, who first employed it, is the only accurate +method, and would thus serve as a check upon the accuracy of the +divisions of the outer arc. With the same distance on the beam-compass +as was used to describe the inner arc, laid off from 0°, +the point 60° was at once determined. With the points 0° and 60° +as centres successively, and a distance on the beam-compass very +nearly bisecting the arc of 60°, two slight marks were made on the +arc; the distance between these marks was divided by the hand +aided by a lens, and this gave the point 30°. The chord of 60° +laid off from the point 30° gave the point 90°, and the quadrant +was now divided into three equal parts. Each of these parts was +similarly bisected, and the resulting divisions again trisected, giving +18 parts of 5° each. Each of these quinquesected gave degrees, the +12th parts of which were arrived at by bisecting and trisecting as +before. The outer arc was divided by continual bisection alone, +and a table was constructed by which the readings of the one arc +could be converted into those of the other. After the dots indicating +the required divisions were obtained, either straight strokes +all directed towards the centre were drawn through them by the +dividing knife, or sometimes small arcs were drawn through them +by the beam-compass having its fixed point somewhere on the line +which was a tangent to the quadrantal arc at the point where a +division was to be marked.</p> + +<p>The next important example of graduation was done by Bird in +1767. His quadrant, which was also 8-ft. radius, was divided +into degrees and 12th parts of a degree. He employed the method +of continual bisection aided by chords taken from an exact scale of +equal parts, which could read to .001 of an inch, and which he had +previously graduated by continual bisections. With the beam-compass +an arc of radius 95.938 in. was first drawn. From this +radius the chords of 30°, 15°, 10° 20′, 4° 40′ and 42° 40′ were computed, +and each of them by means of the scale of equal parts laid +off on a separate beam-compass to be ready. The radius laid off +from 0° gave the point 60°; by the chord of 30° the arc of 60° was +bisected; from the point 30° the radius laid off gave the point 90°; +the chord of 15° laid off backwards from 90° gave the point 75°; +from 75° was laid off forwards the chord of 10° 20′; and from 90° +was laid off backwards the chord of 4° 40′; and these were found to +coincide in the point 85° 20′. Now 85° 20′ being = 5′ × 1024 = +5′ × 2<span class="sp">10</span>, the final divisions of 85° 20′ were found by continual bisections. +For the remainder of the quadrant beyond 85° 20’, +containing 56 divisions of 5′ each, the chord of 64 such divisions +was laid off from the point 85° 40′, and the corresponding arc +divided by continual bisections as before. There was thus a severe +check upon the accuracy of the points already found, viz. 15°, 30°, +60°, 75°, 90°, which, however, were found to coincide with the +corresponding points obtained by continual bisections. The short +lines through the dots were drawn in the way already mentioned.</p> + +<p>The next eminent artists in original graduation are the brothers +John and Edward Troughton. The former was the first to devise a +means of graduating the quadrant by continual bisection without +the aid of such a scale of equal parts as was used by Bird. His +method was as follows: The radius of the quadrant laid off from +0° gave the point 60°. This arc bisected and the half laid off from +60° gave the point 90°. The arc between 60° and 90° bisected gave +75°; the arc between 75° and 90° bisected gave the point 82° 30’, +and the arc between 82° 30′ and 90° bisected gave the point 86° 15’. +Further, the arc between 82° 30′ and 86° 15′ trisected, and two-thirds +of it taken beyond 82° 30′, gave the point 85°, while the arc +between 85° and 86° 15′ also trisected, and one-third part laid off +beyond 85°, gave the point 85° 25′. Lastly, the arc between 85° +and 85° 25′ being quinquesected, and four-fifths taken beyond 85°, +gave 85° 20′, which as before is = 5′ × 2<span class="sp">10</span>, and so can be finally +divided by continual bisection.</p> + +<p>The method of original graduation discovered by Edward Troughton +is fully described in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> for 1809, as +employed by himself to divide a meridian circle of 4 ft. radius. The +circle was first accurately turned both on its face and its inner and +outer edges. A roller was next provided, of such diameter that it +revolved 16 times on its own axis while made to roll once round +the outer edge of the circle. This roller, made movable on pivots, +was attached to a frame-work, which could be slid freely, yet tightly, +along the circle, the roller meanwhile revolving, by means of frictional +contact, on the outer edge. The roller was also, after having been +properly adjusted as to size, divided as accurately as possible into +16 equal parts by lines parallel to its axis. While the frame carrying +the roller was moved once round along the circle, the points of +contact of the roller-divisions with the circle were accurately observed +by two microscopes attached to the frame, one of which +(which we shall call H) commanded the ring on the circle near its +edge, which was to receive the divisions and the other viewed the +roller-divisions. The points of contact thus ascertained were marked +with faint dots, and the meridian circle thereby divided into 256 +very nearly equal parts.</p> + +<p>The next part of the operation was to find out and tabulate the +errors of these dots, which are called <i>apparent</i> errors, in consequence +of the error of each dot being ascertained on the supposition +that its neighbours are all correct. For this purpose two microscopes +(which we shall call A and B) were taken, with cross wires +and micrometer adjustments, consisting of a screw and head divided +into 100 divisions, 50 of which read in the one and 50 in the opposite +direction. These microscopes were fixed so that their cross-wires +respectively bisected the dots 0 and 128, which were supposed to +be diametrically opposite. The circle was now turned half-way +round on its axis, so that dot 128 coincided with the wire of A, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span> +and, should dot 0 be found to coincide with B, then the two dots +were 180° apart. If not, the cross wire of B was moved till it coincided +with dot 0, and the number of divisions of the micrometer +head noted. Half this number gave clearly the error of dot 128, +and it was tabulated + or − according as the arcual distance between +0 and 128 was found to exceed or fall short of the remaining part +of the circumference. The microscope B was now shifted, A remaining +opposite dot 0 as before, till its wire bisected dot 64, and, +by giving the circle one quarter of a turn on its axis, the difference +of the arcs between dots 0 and 64 and between 64 and 128 was +obtained. The half of this difference gave the apparent error of +dot 64, which was tabulated with its proper sign. With the microscope +A still in the same position the error of dot 192 was obtained, +and in the same way by shifting B to dot 32 the errors of dots 32, +96, 160 and 224 were successively ascertained. In this way the +apparent errors of all the 256 dots were tabulated.</p> + +<p>From this table of apparent errors a table of <i>real</i> errors was +drawn up by employing the following formula:—</p> + +<p class="center">˝ (x<span class="su">a</span> + x<span class="su">c</span>) + z = the real error of dot b,</p> + +<p class="noind">where x<span class="su">a</span> is the real error of dot a, x<span class="su">c</span> the real error of dot c, and z +the apparent error of dot b midway between a and c. Having got +the real errors of any two dots, the table of apparent errors gives +the means of finding the real errors of all the other dots.</p> + +<p>The last part of Troughton’s process was to employ them to cut +the final divisions of the circle, which were to be spaces of 5′ each. +Now the mean interval between any two dots is 360°/256 = 5′ × 16<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>, +and hence, in the final division, this interval must be divided into +16<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> equal parts. To accomplish this a small instrument, called a +subdividing sector, was provided. It was formed of thin brass and +had a radius about four times that of the roller, but made adjustable +as to length. The sector was placed concentrically on the axis, +and rested on the upper end of the roller. It turned by frictional +adhesion along with the roller, but was sufficiently loose to allow +of its being moved back by hand to any position without affecting +the roller. While the roller passes over an angular space equal to +the mean interval between two dots, any point of the sector must +pass over 16 times that interval, that is to say, over an angle represented +by 360° × 16/256 = 22° 30′. This interval was therefore +divided by 16<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>, and a space equal to 16 of the parts taken. This was +laid off on the arc of the sector and divided into 16 equal parts, each +equal to 1° 20′; and, to provide for the necessary <span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>ths of a division, +there was laid off at each end of the sector, and beyond the 16 +equal parts, two of these parts each subdivided into 8 equal parts. +A microscope with cross wires, which we shall call I, was placed on +the main frame, so as to command a view of the sector divisions, +just as the microscope H viewed the final divisions of the circle. +Before the first or zero mark was cut, the zero of the sector was +brought under I and then the division cut at the point on the circle +indicated by H, which also coincided with the dot 0. The frame +was then slipped along the circle by the slow screw motion provided +for the purpose, till the first sector-division, by the action of the +roller, was brought under I. The second mark was then cut on the +circle at the point indicated by H. That the marks thus obtained +are 5′ apart is evident when we reflect that the distance between +them must be <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span>th of a division on the section which by construction +is 1° 20′. In this way the first 16 divisions were cut; but before +cutting the 17th it was necessary to adjust the micrometer wires +of H to the real error of dot 1, as indicated by the table, and bring +back the sector, not to zero, but to <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>th short of zero. Starting +from this position the divisions between dots 1 and 2 were filled in, +and then H was adjusted to the real error of dot 2, and the sector +brought back to its proper division before commencing the third +course. Proceeding in this manner through the whole circle, the +microscope H was finally found with its wire at zero, and the sector +with its 16th division under its microscope indicating that the +circle had been accurately divided.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Copying.</i>—In graduation by copying the pattern must be +either an accurately divided straight scale, or an accurately +divided circle, commonly called a <i>dividing plate</i>.</p> + +<p>In copying a straight scale the pattern and scale to be divided, +usually called the work, are first fixed side by side, with their +upper faces in the same plane. The dividing square, which closely +resembles an ordinary joiner’s square, is then laid across both, +and the point of the dividing knife dropped into the zero division +of the pattern. The square is now moved up close to the point +of the knife; and, while it is held firmly in this position by the +left hand, the first division on the work is made by drawing the +knife along the edge of the square with the right hand.</p> + +<p>It frequently happens that the divisions required on a scale +are either greater or less than those on the pattern. To meet +this case, and still use the same pattern, the work must be fixed +at a certain angle of inclination with the pattern. This angle +is found in the following way. Take the exact ratio of a division +on the pattern to the required division on the scale. Call this +ratio α. Then, if the required divisions are longer than those +of the pattern, the angle is cos<span class="sp">−1</span> α, but, if shorter, the angle is +sec<span class="sp">−1</span> α. In the former case two operations are required before +the divisions are cut: first, the square is laid on the pattern, +and the corresponding divisions merely notched very faintly +on the edge of the work; and, secondly, the square is applied +to the work and the final divisions drawn opposite each faint +notch. In the second case, that is, when the angle is +sec<span class="sp">−1</span> α, the +dividing square is applied to the work, and the divisions cut +when the edge of the square coincides with the end of each +division on the pattern.</p> + +<p>In copying circles use is made of the dividing plate. This +is a circular plate of brass, of 36 in. or more in diameter, carefully +graduated near its outer edge. It is turned quite flat, and has +a steel pin fixed in its centre, and at right angles to its plane. +For guiding the dividing knife an instrument called an index +is employed. This is a straight bar of thin steel of length equal +to the radius of the plate. A piece of metal, having a <b>V</b> notch +with its angle a right angle, is riveted to one end of the bar in +such a position that the vertex of the notch is exactly in a line +with the edge of the steel bar. In this way, when the index is +laid on the plate, with the notch grasping the central pin, the +straight edge of the steel bar lies exactly along a radius. The +work to be graduated is laid flat on the dividing plate, and fixed +by two clamps in a position exactly concentric with it. The +index is now laid on, with its edge coinciding with any required +division on the dividing plate, and the corresponding division +on the work is cut by drawing the dividing knife along the +straight edge of the index.</p> + +<p><i>Machine Graduation.</i>—The first dividing engine was probably +that of Henry Hindley of York, constructed in 1740, and chiefly +used by him for cutting the teeth of clock wheels. This was +followed shortly after by an engine devised by the duc de +Chaulnes; but the first notable engine was that made by Ramsden, +of which an account was published by the Board of Longitude +in 1777. He was rewarded by that board with a sum of Ł300, +and a further sum of Ł315 was given to him on condition that he +would divide, at a certain fixed rate, the instruments of other +makers. The essential principles of Ramsden’s machine have +been repeated in almost all succeeding engines for dividing +circles.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Ramsden’s machine consisted of a large brass prate 45 in. in diameter, +carefully turned and movable on a vertical axis. The edge +of the plate was ratched with 2160 teeth, into which a tangent +screw worked, by means of which the plate could be made to turn +through any required angle. Thus six turns of the screw moved +the plate through 1°, and <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">60</span>th of a turn through <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">360</span>th of a degree. +On the axis of the tangent screw was placed a cylinder having a +spiral groove cut on its surface. A ratchet-wheel containing 60 +teeth was attached to this cylinder, and was so arranged that, when +the cylinder moved in one direction, it carried the tangent screw +with it, and so turned the plate, but when it moved in the opposite +direction, it left the tangent screw, and with it the plate, stationary. +Round the spiral groove of the cylinder a catgut band was wound, +one end of which was attached to a treadle and the other to a counterpoise +weight. When the treadle was depressed the tangent screw +turned round, and when the pressure was removed it returned, in +obedience to the weight, to its former position without affecting +the screw. Provision was also made whereby certain stops could be +placed in the way of the screw, which only allowed it the requisite +amount of turning. The work to be divided was firmly fixed on the +plate, and made concentric with it. The divisions were cut, while +the screw was stationary, by means of a dividing knife attached to +a swing frame, which allowed it to have only a radial motion. In +this way the artist could divide very rapidly by alternately depressing +the treadle and working the dividing knife.</p> +</div> + +<p>Ramsden also constructed a linear dividing engine on essentially +the same principle. If we imagine the rim of the circular +plate with its notches stretched out into a straight line and made +movable in a straight slot, the screw, treadle, &c., remaining +as before, we get a very good idea of the linear engine.</p> + +<p>In 1793 Edward Troughton finished a circular dividing +engine, of which the plate was smaller than in Ramsden’s, and +which differed considerably in simplifying matters of detail. +The plate was originally divided by Troughton’s own method, +already described, and the divisions so obtained were employed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>314</span> +to ratch the edge of the plate for receiving the tangent screw +with great accuracy. Andrew Ross (<i>Trans. Soc. Arts</i>, 1830-1831) +constructed a dividing machine which differs considerably +from those of Ramsden and Troughton.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The essential point of difference is that, in Ross’s engine, the +tangent screw does not turn the engine plate; that is done by an +independent apparatus, and the function of the tangent screw is +only to stop the plate after it has passed through the required +angular interval between two divisions on the work to be graduated. +Round the circumference of the plate are fixed 48 projections which +just look as if the circumference had been divided into as many +deep and somewhat peculiarly shaped notches or teeth. Through +each of these teeth a hole is bored parallel to the plane of the plate +and also to a tangent to its circumference. Into these holes are +screwed steel screws with capstan heads and flat ends. The tangent +screw consists only of a single turn of a large square thread which +works in the teeth or notches of the plate. This thread is pierced +by 90 equally distant holes, all parallel to the axis of the screw, +and at the same distance from it. Into each of these holes is inserted +a steel screw exactly similar to those in the teeth, but with +its end rounded. It is the rounded and flat ends of these sets of +screws coming together that stop the engine plate at the desired +position, and the exact point can be nicely adjusted by suitably +turning the screws.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:485px; height:474px" src="images/img314.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Dividing Engine.</td></tr></table> + +<p>A description is given of a dividing engine made by William +Simms in the <i>Memoirs of the Astronomical Society</i>, 1843. Simms +became convinced that to copy upon smaller circles the divisions +which had been put upon a large plate with very great accuracy +was not only more expeditious but more exact than original +graduation. His machine involved essentially the same principle +as Troughton’s. The accompanying figure is taken by +permission.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The plate A is 46 in. in diameter, and is composed of gun-metal +cast in one solid piece. It has two sets of 5’ divisions—one very +faint on an inlaid ring of silver, and the other stronger on the gun-metal. +These were put on by original graduation, mainly on the +plan of Edward Troughton. One very great improvement in this +engine is that the axis B is tubular, as seen at C. The object of this +hollow is to receive the axis of the circle to be divided, so that it +can be fixed flat to the plate by the clamps E, without having first +to be detached from the axis and other parts to which it has already +been carefully fitted. This obviates the necessity for resetting, +which can hardly be done without some error. D is the tangent +screw, and F the frame carrying it, which turns on carefully polished +steel pivots. The screw is pressed against the edge of the plate +by a spiral spring acting under the end of the lever G, and by screwing +the lever down the screw can be altogether removed from contact +with the plate. The edge of the plate is ratched by 4320 teeth which +were cut opposite the original division by a circular cutter attached +to the screw frame. H is the spiral barrel round which the catgut +band is wound, one end of which is attached to the crank L on the +end of the axis J and the other to a counterpoise weight not seen. +On the other end of J is another crank inclined to L and carrying a +band and counterpoise weight seen at K. The object of this weight +is to balance the former and give steadiness to the motion. On the +axis J is seen a pair of bevelled wheels which move the rod I, which, +by another pair of bevelled wheels attached to the box N, gives +motion to the axis M, on the end of which is an eccentric for moving +the bent lever O, which actuates the bar carrying the cutter. Between +the eccentric and the point of the screw P is an undulating +plate by which long divisions can be cut. The cutting apparatus +is supported upon the two parallel rails which can be elevated or +depressed at pleasure by the nuts Q. Also the cutting apparatus +can be moved forward or backward upon these rails to suit circles +of different diameters. The box N is movable upon the bar R, and +the rod I is adjustable as to length by having a kind of telescope +joint. The engine is self-acting, and can be driven either by hand +or by a steam-engine or other motive power. It can be thrown in +or out of gear at once by a handle seen at S.</p> +</div> + +<p>Mention may be made of Donkin’s linear dividing engine, +in which a compensating arrangement is employed whereby +great accuracy is obtained notwithstanding the inequalities of +the screw used to advance the cutting tool. Dividing engines +have also been made by Reichenbach, Repsold and others in +Germany, Gambey in Paris and by several other astronomical +instrument-makers. A machine constructed by E. R. Watts +& Son is described by G. T. McCaw, in the <i>Monthly Not. R. A. S.</i>, +January 1909.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">References</span>.—Bird, <i>Method of dividing Astronomical Instruments</i> +(London, 1767); Duc de Chaulnes, <i>Nouvelle Méthode pour diviser +les instruments de mathématique et d’astronomie</i> (1768); Ramsden, +<i>Description of an Engine for dividing Mathematical Instruments</i> +(London, 1777); Troughton’s memoir, <i>Phil. Trans.</i> (1809); <i>Memoirs +of the Royal Astronomical Society</i>, v. 325, viii. 141, ix. 17, 35. +See also J. E. Watkins, “On the Ramsden Machine,” <i>Smithsonian +Rep.</i> (1890), p. 721; and L. Ambronn, <i>Astronomische Instrumentenkunde</i> +(1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Bl.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRADUS<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Gradus ad Parnassum</span> (a step to Parnassus), +a Latin (or Greek) dictionary, in which the quantities of the +vowels of the words are marked. Synonyms, epithets and +poetical expressions and extracts are also included under the +more important headings, the whole being intended as an aid +for students in Greek and Latin verse composition. The first +Latin gradus was compiled in 1702 by the Jesuit Paul Aler +(1656-1727), a famous schoolmaster. There is a Latin gradus +by C. D. Yonge (1850); English-Latin by A. C. Ainger and +H. G. Wintle (1890); Greek by J. Brasse (1828) and E. Maltby +(1815), bishop of Durham.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAETZ, HEINRICH<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1817-1891), the foremost Jewish +historian of modern times, was born in Posen in 1817 and died +at Munich in 1891. He received a desultory education, and +was largely self-taught. An important stage in his development +was the period of three years that he spent at Oldenburg as +assistant and pupil of S. R. Hirsch, whose enlightened orthodoxy +was for a time very attractive to Graetz. Later on Graetz +proceeded to Breslau, where he matriculated in 1842. Breslau +was then becoming the headquarters of Abraham Geiger, the +leader of Jewish reform. Graetz was repelled by Geiger’s +attitude, and though he subsequently took radical views of the +Bible and tradition (which made him an opponent of Hirsch), +Graetz remained a life-long foe to reform. He contended for +freedom of thought; he had no desire to fight for freedom +of ritual practice. He momentarily thought of entering the +rabbinate, but he was unsuited to that career. For some years +he supported himself as a tutor. He had previously won repute +by his published essays, but in 1853 the publication of the +fourth volume of his history of the Jews made him famous. This +fourth volume (the first to be published) dealt with the Talmud. +It was a brilliant resuscitation of the past. Graetz’s skill in +piecing together detached fragments of information, his vast +learning and extraordinary critical acumen, were equalled by +his vivid power of presenting personalities. No Jewish book +of the 19th century produced such a sensation as this, and +Graetz won at a bound the position he still occupies as recognized +master of Jewish history. His <i>Geschichte der Juden</i>, +begun in 1853, was completed in 1875; new editions of the +several volumes were frequent. The work has been translated +into many languages; it appeared in English in five volumes +in 1891-1895. The <i>History</i> is defective in its lack of objectivity; +Graetz’s judgments are sometimes biassed, and in particular he +lacks sympathy with mysticism. But the history is a work +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>315</span> +of genius. Simultaneously with the publication of vol. iv. +Graetz was appointed on the staff of the new Breslau Seminary, +of which the first director was Z. Frankel. Graetz passed the +remainder of his life in this office; in 1869 he was created professor +by the government, and also lectured at the Breslau +University. Graetz attained considerable repute as a biblical +critic. He was the author of many bold conjectures as to the +date of Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther and other biblical books. +His critical edition of the Psalms (1882-1883) was his chief contribution +to biblical exegesis, but after his death Professor +Bacher edited Graetz’s <i>Emendationes</i> to many parts of the +Hebrew scriptures.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A full bibliography of Graetz’s works is given in the <i>Jewish +Quarterly Review</i>, iv. 194; a memoir of Graetz is also to be found +there. Another full memoir was prefixed to the “index” volume +of the <i>History</i> in the American re-issue of the English translation +in six volumes (Philadelphia, 1898).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(I. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAEVIUS<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (properly <span class="sc">Gräve</span> or <span class="sc">Greffe</span>), <b>JOHANN GEORG</b> +(1632-1703). German classical scholar and critic, was born at +Naumburg, Saxony, on the 29th of January 1632. He was +originally intended for the law, but having made the acquaintance +of J. F. Gronovius during a casual visit to Deventer, under his +influence he abandoned jurisprudence for philology. He completed +his studies under D. Heinsius at Leiden, and under the +Protestant theologians A. Morus and D. Blondel at Amsterdam. +During his residence in Amsterdam, under Blondel’s influence +he abandoned Lutheranism and joined the Reformed Church; +and in 1656 he was called by the elector of Brandenburg to +the chair of rhetoric in the university of Duisburg. Two years +afterwards, on the recommendation of Gronovius, he was chosen +to succeed that scholar at Deventer; in 1662 he was translated +to the university of Utrecht, where he occupied first the chair +of rhetoric, and from 1667 until his death (January 11th, 1703) +that of history and politics. Graevius enjoyed a very high +reputation as a teacher, and his lecture-room was crowded +by pupils, many of them of distinguished rank, from all parts +of the civilized world. He was honoured with special recognition +by Louis XIV., and was a particular favourite of William III. +of England, who made him historiographer royal.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His two most important works are the <i>Thesaurus antiquitatum +Romanarum</i> (1694-1699, in 12 volumes), and the <i>Thesaurus antiquitatum +et historiarum Italiae</i> published after his death, and +continued by the elder Burmann (1704-1725). His editions of the +classics, although they marked a distinct advance in scholarship, +arc now for the most part superseded. They include Hesiod (1667), +Lucian, <i>Pseudosophista</i> (1668), Justin, <i>Historiae Philippicae</i> (1669), +Suetonius (1672), Catullus, Tibullus et Propertius (1680), and +several of the works of Cicero (his best production). He also edited +many of the writings of contemporary scholars. The <i>Oratio funebris</i> +by P. Burmann (1703) contains an exhaustive list of the works +of this scholar; see also P. H. Külb in Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine +Encyklopädie</i>, and J. E. Sandys, <i>History of Classical Scholarship</i>, ii. +(1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAF, ARTURO<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1848-  ), Italian poet, of German extraction, +was born at Athens. He was educated at Naples +University and became a lecturer on Italian literature in Rome, +till in 1882 he was appointed professor at Turin. He was one +of the founders of the <i>Giornale della letteratura italiana</i>, and his +publications include valuable prose criticism; but he is best +known as a poet. His various volumes of verse—<i>Poesie e +novelle</i> (1874), <i>Dopo il tramonto versi</i> (1893), &c.—give him a +high place among the recent lyrical writers of his country.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAF, KARL HEINRICH<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1815-1869), German Old Testament +scholar and orientalist, was born at Mülhausen in Alsace +on the 28th of February 1815. He studied Biblical exegesis +and oriental languages at the university of Strassburg under +E. Reuss, and, after holding various teaching posts, was made +instructor in French and Hebrew at the Landesschule of Meissen, +receiving in 1852 the title of professor. He died on the 16th of +July 1869. Graf was one of the chief founders of Old Testament +criticism. In his principal work, <i>Die geschichtlichen Bücher +des Alten Testaments</i> (1866), he sought to show that the priestly +legislation of Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers is of later origin +than the book of Deuteronomy. He still, however, held the +accepted view, that the Elohistic narratives formed part of the +<i>Grundschrift</i> and therefore belonged to the oldest portions of +the Pentateuch. The reasons urged against the contention that +the priestly legislation and the Elohistic narratives were separated +by a space of 500 years were so strong as to induce Graf, +in an essay, “Die sogenannte Grundschrift des Pentateuchs,” +published shortly before his death, to regard the whole <i>Grundschrift</i> +as post-exilic and as the latest portion of the Pentateuch. +The idea had already been expressed by E. Reuss, but since +Graf was the first to introduce it into Germany, the theory, +as developed by Julius Wellhausen, has been called the Graf-Wellhausen +hypothesis.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Graf also wrote, <i>Der Segen Moses Deut. 33</i> (1857) and <i>Der Prophet +Jeremia erklärt</i> (1862). See T. K. Cheyne, <i>Founders of Old Testament +Criticism</i> (1893); and Otto Pfleiderer’s book translated into English +by J. F. Smith as <i>Development of Theology</i> (1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRÄFE, ALBRECHT VON<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1828-1870), German oculist, son +of Karl Ferdinand von Gräfe, was born at Berlin on the 22nd +of May 1828. At an early age he manifested a preference for the +study of mathematics, but this was gradually superseded by an +interest in natural science, which led him ultimately to the study +of medicine. After prosecuting his studies at Berlin, Vienna, +Prague, Paris, London, Dublin and Edinburgh, and devoting +special attention to ophthalmology he, in 1850, began practice +as an oculist in Berlin, where he founded a private institution +for the treatment of the eyes, which became the model of many +similar ones in Germany and Switzerland. In 1853 he was +appointed teacher of ophthalmology in Berlin university; in +1858 he became extraordinary professor, and in 1866 ordinary +professor. Gräfe contributed largely to the progress of the +science of ophthalmology, especially by the establishment in +1855 of his <i>Archiv für Ophthalmologie</i>, in which he had Ferdinand +Arlt (1812-1887) and F. C. Donders (1818-1889) as collaborators. +Perhaps his two most important discoveries were his method +of treating glaucoma and his new operation for cataract. He +was also regarded as an authority in diseases of the nerves +and brain. He died at Berlin on the 20th of July 1870.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Ein Wort der Erinnerung an Albrecht von Gräfe</i> (Halle, 1870) +by his cousin, Alfred Gräfe (1830-1899), also a distinguished ophthalmologist, +and the author of <i>Das Sehen der Schielenden</i> (Wiesbaden, +1897); and E. Michaelis, <i>Albrecht von Gräfe. Sein Leben und +Wirken</i> (Berlin, 1877).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAFE, HEINRICH<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1802-1868), German educationist, was +born at Buttstädt in Saxe-Weimar on the 3rd of May 1802. +He studied mathematics and theology at Jena, and in 1823 +obtained a curacy in the town church of Weimar. He was +transferred to Jena as rector of the town school in 1825; in 1840 +he was also appointed extraordinary professor of the science +of education (Pädagogik) in that university; and in 1842 he +became head of the <i>Bürgerschule</i> (middle class school) in Cassel. +After reorganizing the schools of the town, he became director +of the new <i>Realschule</i> in 1843; and, devoting himself to the +interests of educational reform in electoral Hesse, he became +in 1849 a member of the school commission, and also entered +the house of representatives, where he made himself somewhat +formidable as an agitator. In 1852 for having been implicated +in the September riots and in the movement against the unpopular +minister Hassenpflug, who had dissolved the school commission, +he was condemned to three years’ imprisonment, a sentence +afterwards reduced to one of twelve months. On his release he +withdrew to Geneva, where he engaged in educational work +till 1855, when he was appointed director of the school of industry +at Bremen. He died in that city on the 21st of July 1868.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides being the author of many text-books and occasional +papers on educational subjects, he wrote <i>Das Rechisverhältnis der +Volksschule von innen und aussen</i> (1829); <i>Die Schulreform</i> (1834); +<i>Schule und Unterricht</i> (1839); <i>Allgemeine Pädagogik</i> (1845); <i>Die +deutsche Volksschule</i> (1847). Together with Naumann, he also edited +the <i>Archiv für das praktische Volksschulwesen</i> (1828-1835).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRÄFE, KARL FERDINAND VON<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1787-1840), German +surgeon, was born at Warsaw on the 8th of March 1787. He +studied medicine at Halle and Leipzig, and after obtaining +licence from the Leipzig university, he was in 1807 appointed +private physician to Duke Alexius of Anhalt-Bernburg. In +1811 he became professor of surgery and director of the surgical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316"></a>316</span> +clinic at Berlin, and during the war with Napoleon he was superintendent +of the military hospitals. When peace was concluded +in 1815, he resumed his professorial duties. He was also appointed +physician to the general staff of the army, and he became a +director of the Friedrich Wilhelm Institute and of the Medico-Chirurgical +Academy. He died suddenly on the 4th of July 1840 +at Hanover, whither he had been called to operate on the eyes +of the crown prince. Gräfe did much to advance the practice +of surgery in Germany, especially in the treatment of wounds. +He improved the rhinoplastic process, and its revival was chiefly +due to him. His lectures at the university of Berlin attracted +students from all parts of Europe.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following are his principal works: <i>Normen für die Ablösung +grosser Gliedmassen</i> (Berlin, 1812); <i>Rhinoplastik</i> (1818); <i>Neue Beiträge +zur Kunst Theile des Angesichts organisch zu ersetzen</i> (1821); +<i>Die epidemisch-kontagiöse Augenblennorrhoë Ägyptens in den +europäischen Befreiungsheeren</i> (1824); and <i>Jahresberichte über das +klinisch-chirurgisch-augenärztliche Institut der Universität zu Berlin</i> +(1817-1834). He also edited, with Ph. von Walther, the <i>Journal +für Chirurgie und Augenheilkunde</i>. See E. Michaelis, <i>Karl Ferdinand +von Gräfe in seiner 30 jährigen Wirken für Staat und Wissenschaft</i> +(Berlin, 1840).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAFFITO<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span>, plural <i>graffiti</i>, the Italian word meaning “scribbling” +or “scratchings” (<i>graffiare</i>, to scribble, Gr. <span class="grk" title="graphein">γράφειν</span>), +adopted by archaeologists as a general term for the casual +writings, rude drawings and markings on ancient buildings, +in distinction from the more formal or deliberate writings known +as “inscriptions.” These “graffiti,” either scratched on stone +or plaster by a sharp instrument such as a nail, or, more rarely, +written in red chalk or black charcoal, are found in great abundance, +<i>e.g.</i> on the monuments of ancient Egypt. The best-known +“graffiti” are those in Pompeii and in the catacombs and elsewhere +in Rome. They have been collected by R. Garrucci +(<i>Graffiti di Pompei</i>, Paris, 1856), and L. Correra (“Graffiti di +Roma” in <i>Bolletino della commissione municipale archaeologica</i>, +Rome, 1893; see also <i>Corp. Ins. Lat.</i> iv., Berlin, 1871). +The subject matter of these scribblings is much the same as +that of the similar scrawls made to-day by boys, street idlers +and the casual “tripper.” The schoolboy of Pompeii wrote out +lists of nouns and verbs, alphabets and lines from Virgil for +memorizing, lovers wrote the names of their beloved, “sportsmen” +scribbled the names of horses they had been “tipped,” +and wrote those of their favourite gladiators. Personal abuse +is frequent, and rude caricatures are found, such as that of one +Peregrinus with an enormous nose, or of Naso or Nasso with +hardly any. Aulus Vettius Firmus writes up his election address +and appeals to the <i>pilicrepi</i> or ball-players for their votes for +him as aedile. Lines of poetry, chiefly suited for lovers in dejection +or triumph, are popular, and Ovid and Propertius appear +to be favourites. Apparently private owners of property felt +the nuisance of the defacement of their walls, and at Rome +near the <i>Porta Portuensis</i> has been found an inscription begging +people not to scribble (<i>scariphare</i>) on the walls.</p> + +<p>Graffiti are of some importance to the palaeographer and to +the philologist as illustrating the forms and corruptions of the +various alphabets and languages used by the people, and occasionally +guide the archaeologist to the date of the building on which +they appear, but they are chiefly valuable for the light they +throw on the everyday life of the “man in the street” of the +period, and for the intimate details of customs and institutions +which no literature or formal inscriptions can give. The graffiti +dealing with the gladiatorial shows at Pompeii are in this respect +particularly noteworthy; the rude drawings such as that of +the <i>secutor</i> caught in the net of the <i>retiarius</i> and lying entirely +at his mercy, give a more vivid picture of what the incidents +of these shows were like than any account in words (see Garrucci, +<i>op. cit.</i>, Pls. x.-xiv.; A. Mau, <i>Pompeii in Leben und Kunst</i>, 2nd +ed., 1908, ch. xxx.). In 1866 in the Trastevere quarter of Rome, +near the church of S. Crisogono, was discovered the guardhouse +(<i>excubitorium</i>) of the seventh cohort of the city police (<i>vigiles</i>), +the walls being covered by the scribblings of the guards, illustrating +in detail the daily routine, the hardships and dangers, and +the feelings of the men towards their officers (W. Henzen, +“L’ Escubitorio della Settima coorte dei Vigili” in <i>Bull. Inst.</i> +1867, and <i>Annali Inst.</i>, 1874; see also R. Lanciani, <i>Ancient +Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries</i>, 230, and <i>Ruins and +Excavations of Ancient Rome</i>, 1897, 548). The most famous +graffito yet discovered is that generally accepted as representing +a caricature of Christ upon the cross, found on the walls of the +Domus Gelotiana on the Palatine in 1857, and now preserved +in the Kircherian Museum of the Collegio Romano. Deeply +scratched in the wall is a figure of a man clad in the short <i>tunica</i> +with one hand upraised in salutation to another figure, with +the head of an ass, or possibly a horse, hanging on a cross; +beneath is written in rude Greek letters “Anaxamenos worships +(his) god.” It has been suggested that this represents an +adherent of some Gnostic sect worshipping one of the animal-headed +deities of Egypt (see Ferd. Becker, <i>Das Spottcrucifix +der römischen Kaiserpaläste</i>, Breslau, 1866; F. X. Kraus, <i>Das +Spottcrucifix vom Palatin</i>, Freiburg in Breisgau, 1872; and +Visconti and Lanciani, <i>Guida del Palatino</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There is an interesting article, with many quotations of graffiti, +in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, October 1859, vol. cx.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. We.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAFLY, CHARLES<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1862-  ), American sculptor, was +born at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 3rd of December +1862. He was a pupil of the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy +of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and of Henri M. Chapu and Jean +Dampt, and the École des Beaux Arts, Paris. He received an +Honorable Mention in the Paris Salon of 1891 for his “Mauvais +Présage,” now at the Detroit Museum of Fine Arts, a gold medal +at the Paris Exposition, in 1900, and medals at Chicago, 1893, +Atlanta, 1895, and Philadelphia (the gold Medal of Honor, +Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts), 1899. In 1892 he +became instructor in sculpture at the Pennsylvania Academy +of the Fine Arts, also filling the same chair at the Drexel Institute, +Philadelphia. He was elected a full member of the National +Academy of Design in 1905. His better-known works include: +“General Reynolds,” Fairmount Park, Philadelphia; “Fountain +of Man” (made for the Pan-American Exposition at +Buffalo); “From Generation to Generation”; “Symbol of +Life”; “Vulture of War,” and many portrait busts.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRÄFRATH,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> a town in Rhenish Prussia, on the Itterbach, +14 m. E. of Düsseldorf on the railway Hilden-Vohwinkel. Pop. +(1905) 9030. It has a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical +churches, and there was an abbey here from 1185 to 1803. The +principal industries are iron and steel, while weaving is carried +on in the town.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAFT<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (a modified form of the earlier “graff,” through +the French from the Late Lat. <i>graphium</i>, a stylus or pencil), +a small branch, shoot or “scion,” transferred from one plant or +tree to another, the “stock,” and inserted in it so that the two +unite (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horticulture</a></span>). The name was adopted from the +resemblance in shape of the “graft” to a pencil. The transfer +of living tissue from one portion of an organism to another part +of the same or different organism where it adheres and grows +is also known as “grafting,” and is frequently practised in +modern surgery. The word is applied, in carpentry, to an +attachment of the ends of timbers, and, as a nautical term, to +the “whipping” or “pointing” of a rope’s end with fine twine +to prevent unravelling. “Graft” is used as a slang term, in +England, for a “piece of hard work.” In American usage +Webster’s <i>Dictionary</i> (ed. 1904) defines the word as “the act of +any one, especially an official or public employé, by which he +procures money surreptitiously by virtue of his office or position; +also the surreptitious gain thus procured.” It is thus a word +embracing blackmail and illicit commission. The origin of the +English use of the word is probably an obsolete word “graft,” +a portion of earth thrown up by a spade, from the Teutonic root +meaning “to dig,” seen in German <i>graben</i>, and English “grave.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAFTON, DUKES OF.<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> The English dukes of Grafton are +descended from <span class="sc">Henry Fitzroy</span> (1663-1690), the natural son +of Charles II. by Barbara Villiers (countess of Castlemaine and +duchess of Cleveland). In 1672 he was married to the daughter +and heiress of the earl of Arlington and created earl of Euston; +in 1675 he was created duke of Grafton. He was brought +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>317</span> +up as a sailor, and saw military service at the siege of Luxemburg +in 1684. At James II.’s coronation he was lord high constable. +In the rebellion of the duke of Monmouth he commanded the +royal troops in Somersetshire; but later he acted with Churchill +(duke of Marlborough), and joined William of Orange against +the king. He died of a wound received at the storming of Cork, +while leading William’s forces, being succeeded as 2nd duke +by his son Charles (1682-1757).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Augustus Henry Fitzroy</span>, 3rd duke of Grafton (1735-1811), +one of the leading politicians of his time, was the grandson of the +2nd duke, and was educated at Westminster and Cambridge. He +first became known in politics as an opponent of Lord Bute; in +1765 he was secretary of state under the marquis of Rockingham; +but he retired next year, and Pitt (becoming earl of Chatham) +formed a ministry in which Grafton was first lord of the treasury +(1766) but only nominally prime minister. Chatham’s illness +at the end of 1767 resulted in Grafton becoming the effective +leader, but political differences and the attacks of “Junius” +led to his resignation in January 1770. He became lord privy +seal in Lord North’s ministry (1771) but resigned in 1775, being +in favour of conciliatory action towards the American colonists. +In the Rockingham ministry of 1782 he was again lord privy +seal. In later years he was a prominent Unitarian.</p> + +<p>Besides his successor, the 4th duke (1760-1844), and numerous +other children, he was the father of General Lord Charles Fitzroy +(1764-1829), whose sons Sir Charles Fitzroy (1798-1858), +governor of New South Wales, and Robert Fitzroy (<i>q.v.</i>), the +hydrographer, were notable men. The 4th duke’s son, who +succeeded as 5th duke, was father of the 6th and 7th dukes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The 3rd duke left in manuscript a <i>Memoir</i> of his public career, +of which extracts have been printed in Stanhope’s <i>History</i>, Walpole’s +<i>Memories of George III.</i> (Appendix, vol. iv.), and Campbell’s <i>Lives +of the Chancellors</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAFTON, RICHARD<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (d. 1572). English printer and chronicler, +was probably born about 1513. He received the freedom +of the Grocers’ Company in 1534. Miles Coverdale’s version +of the Bible had first been printed in 1535. Grafton was early +brought into touch with the leaders of religious reform, and in +1537 he undertook, in conjunction with Edward Whitchurch, +to produce a modified version of Coverdale’s text, generally +known as Matthew’s Bible (Antwerp, 1537). He went to Paris +to reprint Coverdale’s revised edition (1538). There Whitchurch +and he began to print the folio known as the Great Bible by +special licence obtained by Henry VIII. from the French government. +Suddenly, however, the work was officially stopped and +the presses seized. Grafton fled, but Thomas Cromwell eventually +bought the presses and type, and the printing was completed +in England. The Great Bible was reprinted several times under +his direction, the last occasion being 1553. In 1544 Grafton +and Whitchurch secured the exclusive right of printing church +service books, and on the accession of Edward VI. he was +appointed king’s printer, an office which he retained throughout +the reign. In this capacity he produced <i>The Booke of the Common +Praier and Administracion of the Sacramentes, and other Rites +and Ceremonies of the Churche: after the Use of the Churche of +Englande</i> (1549 fol.), and <i>Actes of Parliament</i> (1552 and 1553). +In 1553 he printed Lady Jane Grey’s proclamation and signed +himself the queen’s printer. For this he was imprisoned for a +short time, and he seems thereafter to have retired from active +business. His historical works include a continuation (1543) +of Hardyng’s Chronicle from the beginning of the reign of Edward +IV. down to Grafton’s own times. He is said to have taken +considerable liberties with the original, and may practically be +regarded as responsible for the whole work. He printed in 1548 +Edward Hall’s <i>Union of the ... Families of Lancastre and +Yorke</i>, adding the history of the years from 1532 to 1547. After +he retired from the printing business he published <i>An Abridgement +of the Chronicles of England</i> (1562), <i>Manuell of the Chronicles +of England</i> (1565), <i>Chronicle at large and meere Historye of the +Affayres of England</i> (1568). In these books he chiefly adapted +the work of his predecessors, but in some cases he gives detailed +accounts of contemporary events. His name frequently appears +in the records of St Bartholomew’s and Christ’s hospitals, and +in 1553 he was treasurer-general of the hospitals of King Edward’s +foundation. In 1553-1554 and 1556-1557 he represented the +City in Parliament, and in 1562-1563 he sat for Coventry.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An elaborate account of Grafton was written in 1901 by Mr J. A. +Kingdon under the auspices of the Grocers’ Company, with the title +<i>Richard Grafton, Citizen and Grocer of London, &c.</i>, in continuation +of <i>Incidents in the Lives of T. Poyntz and R. Grafton</i> (1895). His +<i>Chronicle at large</i> was reprinted by Sir Henry Ellis in 1809.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAFTON,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> a city of Clarence county, New South Wales, +lying on both sides of the Clarence river, at a distance of 45 m. +from its mouth, 342 m. N.E. of Sydney by sea. Pop. (1901) +4174, South Grafton, 976. The two sections, North Grafton +and South Grafton, form separate municipalities. The river +is navigable from the sea to the town for ships of moderate +burden, and for small vessels to a point 35 m. beyond it. The +entrance to the river has been artificially improved. Grafton +is the seat of the Anglican joint-bishopric of Grafton and Armidale, +and of a Roman Catholic bishopric created in 1888, both of which +have fine cathedrals. Dairy-farming and sugar-growing are +important industries, and there are several sugar-mills in the +neighbourhood; great numbers of horses, also, are bred for the +Indian and colonial markets. Tobacco, cereals and fruits are +also grown. Grafton has a large shipping trade with Sydney. +There is rail-connexion with Brisbane, &c. The city became a +municipality in 1859.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAFTON,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> a township in the S.E. part of Worcester county, +Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop. (1905) 5052; (1910) 5705. It is +served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford, and the +Boston & Albany railways, and by interurban electric lines. +The township contains several villages (including Grafton, North +Grafton, Saundersville, Fisherville and Farnumsville); the +principal village, Grafton, is about 7 m. S.E. of Worcester. The +villages are residential suburbs of Worcester, and attract many +summer residents. In the village of Grafton there is a public +library. There is ample water power from the Blackstone +river and its tributaries, and among the manufactures of Grafton +are cotton-goods, boots and shoes, &c. Within what is now +Grafton stood the Nipmuck Indian village of Hassanamesit. +John Eliot, the “apostle to the Indians,” visited it soon after +1651, and organized the third of his bands of “praying Indians” +there; in 1671 he established a church for them, the second of +the kind in New England, and also a school. In 1654 the Massachusetts +General Court granted to the Indians, for their exclusive +use, a tract of about 4 sq. m., of which they remained the sole +proprietors until 1718, when they sold a small farm to Elisha +Johnson, the first permanent white settler in the neighbourhood. +In 1728 a group of residents of Marlboro, Sudbury, Concord and +Stowe, with the permission of the General Court, bought from the +Indians 7500 acres of their lands, and agreed to establish forty +English families on the tract within three years, and to maintain +a church and school of which the Indians should have free use. +The township was incorporated in 1735, and was named in honour +of the 2nd duke of Grafton. The last of the pure-blooded +Indians died about 1825.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAFTON,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Taylor county, West +Virginia, U.S.A., on Tygart river, about 100 m. by rail S.E. of +Wheeling. Pop. (1890) 3159; (1900) 5650, including 226 foreign-born +and 162 negroes; (1910) 7563. It is served by four divisions +of the Baltimore & Ohio railway, which maintains extensive car +shops here. The city is about 1000 ft. above sea-level. It has +a small national cemetery, and about 4 m. W., at Pruntytown, +is the West Virginia Reform School. Grafton is situated near +large coal-fields, and is supplied with natural gas. Among its +manufactures are machine-shop and foundry products, window +glass and pressed glass ware, and grist mill and planing-mill +products. The first settlement was made about 1852, and +Grafton was incorporated in 1856 and chartered as a city in +1899. In 1903 the population and area of the city were increased +by the annexation of the town of Fetterman (pop. in 1900, 796), +of Beaumont (unincorporated), and of other territory.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAHAM, SIR GERALD<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (1831-1899), British general, was +born on the 27th of June 1831 at Acton, Middlesex. He was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318"></a>318</span> +educated at Dresden and Woolwich Academy, and entered the +Royal Engineers in 1850. He served with distinction through +the Russian War of 1854 to 1856, was present at the battles of +the Alma and Inkerman, was twice wounded in the trenches +before Sevastopol, and was awarded the Victoria Cross for +gallantry at the attack on the Redan and for devoted heroism +on numerous occasions. He also received the Legion of Honour, +and was promoted to a brevet majority. In the China War of +1860 he took part in the actions of Sin-ho and Tang-ku, the +storming of the Taku Forts, where he was severely wounded, +and the entry into Peking (brevet lieutenant-colonelcy and C.B.). +Promoted colonel in 1869, he was employed in routine duties +until 1877, when he was appointed assistant-director of works +for barracks at the war office, a position he held until his promotion +to major-general in 1881. In command of the advanced +force in Egypt in 1882, he bore the brunt of the fighting, was +present at the action of Magfar, commanded at the first battle +of Kassassin, took part in the second, and led his brigade at +Tell-el-Kebir. For his services in the campaign he received the +K.C.B. and thanks of parliament. In 1884 he commanded the +expedition to the eastern Sudan, and fought the successful +battles of El Teb and Tamai. On his return home he received +the thanks of parliament and was made a lieutenant-general +for distinguished service in the field. In 1885 he commanded +the Suakin expedition, defeated the Arabs at Hashin and +Tamai, and advanced the railway from Suakin to Otao, when the +expedition was withdrawn (thanks of parliament and G.C.M.G.). +In 1896 he was made G.C.B., and in 1899 colonel-commandant +Royal Engineers. He died on the 17th of December 1899. +He published in 1875 a translation of Goetze’s <i>Operations of +the German Engineers in 1870-1871</i>, and in 1887 <i>Last Words +with Gordon</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT GEORGE,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> Bart. (1792-1861), +British statesman, son of a baronet, was born at Naworth, +Cumberland, on the 1st of June 1792, and was educated at +Westminster and Oxford. Shortly after quitting the university, +while making the “grand tour” abroad, he became private +secretary to the British minister in Sicily. Returning to England +in 1818 he was elected to parliament as member for Hull in the +Whig interest; but he was unseated at the election of 1820. +In 1824 he succeeded to the baronetcy; and in 1826 he re-entered +parliament as representative for Carlisle, a seat which he soon +exchanged for the county of Cumberland. In the same year +he published a pamphlet entitled “Corn and Currency,” which +brought him into prominence as a man of advanced Liberal +opinions; and he became one of the most energetic advocates +in parliament of the Reform Bill. On the formation of Earl +Grey’s administration he received the post of first lord of the +admiralty, with a seat in the cabinet. From 1832 to 1837 he +sat for the eastern division of the county of Cumberland. Dissensions +on the Irish Church question led to his withdrawal +from the ministry in 1834, and ultimately to his joining the +Conservative party. Rejected by his former constituents in +1837, he was in 1838 elected for Pembroke, and in 1841 for +Dorchester. In the latter year he took office under Sir Robert +Peel as secretary of state for the home department, a post he +retained until 1846. As home secretary he incurred considerable +odium in Scotland, by his unconciliating policy on the church +question prior to the “disruption” of 1843; and in 1844 the +detention and opening of letters at the post-office by his warrant +raised a storm of public indignation, which was hardly allayed +by the favourable report of a parliamentary committee of +investigation. From 1846 to 1852 he was out of office; but in +the latter year he joined Lord Aberdeen’s cabinet as first lord +of the admiralty, in which capacity he acted also for a short +time in the Palmerston ministry of 1855. The appointment of +a select committee of inquiry into the conduct of the Russian +war ultimately led to his withdrawal from official life. He +continued as a private member to exercise a considerable influence +on parliamentary opinion. He died at Netherby, +Cumberland, on the 25th of October 1861.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Life</i>, by C. S. Parker, was published in 1907.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAHAM, SYLVESTER<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1794-1851), American dietarian, +was born in Suffield, Connecticut, in 1794. He studied at Amherst +College, and was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in 1826, +but he seems to have preached but little. He became an ardent +advocate of temperance reform and of vegetarianism, having +persuaded himself that a flesh diet was the cause of abnormal +cravings. His last years were spent in retirement and he died +at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the 11th of September +1851. His name is now remembered because of his advocacy +of unbolted (Graham) flour, and as the originator of “Graham +bread.” But his reform was much broader than this. He urged, +primarily, physiological education, and in his <i>Science of Human +Life</i> (1836; republished, with biographical memoir, 1858) +furnished an exhaustive text-book on the subject. He had +carefully planned a complete regimen including many details +besides a strict diet. A Temperance (or Graham) Boarding +House was opened in New York City about 1832 by Mrs Asenath +Nicholson, who published <i>Nature’s Own Book</i> (2nd ed., 1835) +giving Graham’s rules for boarders; and in Boston a Graham +House was opened in 1837 at 23 Brattle Street.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There were many Grahamites at Brook Farm, and the American +Physiological Society published in Boston in 1837 and 1838 a weekly +called <i>The Graham Journal of Health and Longevity, designed to +illustrate by facts and sustain by reason and principles the science of +human life as taught by Sylvester Graham</i>, edited by David Campbell. +Graham wrote <i>Essay on Cholera</i> (1832); <i>The Esculapian Tablets +of the Nineteenth Century</i> (1834); <i>Lectures to Young Men on Chastity</i> +(2nd ed., 1837); and <i>Bread and Bread Making</i>; and projected a +work designed to show that his system was not counter to the +Holy Scriptures.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAHAM, THOMAS<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1805-1869), British chemist, born at +Glasgow on the 20th of December 1805, was the son of a merchant +of that city. In 1819 he entered the university of Glasgow with +the intention of becoming a minister of the Established Church. +But under the influence of Thomas Thomson (1773-1852), +the professor of chemistry, he developed a taste for experimental +science and especially for molecular physics, a subject which +formed his main preoccupation throughout his life. After +graduating in 1824, he spent two years in the laboratory of +Professor T. C. Hope at Edinburgh, and on returning to Glasgow +gave lessons in mathematics, and subsequently chemistry, +until the year 1829, when he was appointed lecturer in the +Mechanics’ Institute. In 1830 he succeeded Dr Andrew Ure +(1778-1857) as professor of chemistry in the Andersonian Institution, +and in 1837, on the death of Dr Edward Turner, he was +transferred to the chair of chemistry in University College, +London. There he remained till 1855, when he succeeded Sir +John Herschel as Master of the Mint, a post he held until his +death on the 16th of September 1869. The onerous duties +his work at the Mint entailed severely tried his energies, and +in quitting a purely scientific career he was subjected to the +cares of official life, for which he was not fitted by temperament. +The researches, however, which he conducted between 1861 +and 1869 were as brilliant as any of those in which he engaged. +Graham was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1836, +and a corresponding member of the Institute of France in 1847, +while Oxford made him a D. C. L. in 1855. He took a leading part +in the foundation of the London Chemical and the Cavendish +societies, and served as first president of both, in 1841 and 1846. +Towards the close of his life the presidency of the Royal Society +was offered him, but his failing health caused him to decline +the honour.</p> + +<p>Graham’s work is remarkable at once for its originality and +for the simplicity of the methods employed obtaining most +important results. He communicated papers to the Philosophical +Society of Glasgow before the work of that society was recorded +in <i>Transactions</i>, but his first published paper, “On the Absorption +of Gases by Liquids,” appeared in the <i>Annals of Philosophy</i> +for 1826. The subject with which his name is most prominently +associated is the diffusion of gases. In his first paper on this +subject (1829) he thus summarizes the knowledge experiment +had afforded as to the laws which regulate the movement of +gases. “Fruitful as the miscibility of gases has been in interesting +speculations, the experimental information we possess +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>319</span> +on the subject amounts to little more than the well-established +fact that gases of a different nature when brought into contact +do not arrange themselves according to their density, but they +spontaneously diffuse through each other so as to remain in an +intimate state of mixture for any length of time.” For the +fissured jar of J. W. Döbereiner he substituted a glass tube +closed by a plug of plaster of Paris, and with this simple appliance +he developed the law now known by his name “that +the diffusion rate of gases is inversely as the square root of their +density.” (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diffusion</a></span>.) He further studied the passage +of gases by transpiration through fine tubes, and by effusion +through a minute hole in a platinum disk, and was enabled to show +that gas may enter a vacuum in three different ways: (1) by the +molecular movement of diffusion, in virtue of which a gas penetrates +through the pores of a disk of compressed graphite; (2) +by effusion through an orifice of sensible dimensions in a platinum +disk the relative times of the effusion of gases in mass being +similar to those of the molecular diffusion, although a gas is +usually carried by the former kind of impulse with a velocity +many thousand times as great as is demonstrable by the latter; +and (3) by the peculiar rate of passage due to transpiration through +fine tubes, in which the ratios appear to be in direct relation with +no other known property of the same gases—thus hydrogen has +exactly double the transpiration rate of nitrogen, the relation of +those gases as to density being as 1 : 14. He subsequently +examined the passage of gases through septa or partitions of india-rubber, +unglazed earthenware and plates of metals such as +palladium, and proved that gases pass through these septa +neither by diffusion nor effusion nor by transpiration, but in virtue +of a selective absorption which the septa appear to exert on the +gases in contact with them. By this means (“atmolysis”) he +was enabled partially to separate oxygen from air.</p> + +<p>His early work on the movements of gases led him to examine +the spontaneous movements of liquids, and as a result of the +experiments he divided bodies into two classes—crystalloids, +such as common salt, and colloids, of which gum-arabic is a type—the +former having high and the latter low diffusibility. He +also proved that the process of liquid diffusion causes partial +decomposition of certain chemical compounds, the potassium +sulphate, for instance, being separated from the aluminium +sulphate in alum by the higher diffusibility of the former salt. +He also extended his work on the transpiration of gases to liquids, +adopting the method of manipulation devised by J. L. M. Poiseuille. +He found that dilution with water does not effect proportionate +alteration in the transpiration velocities of different +liquids, and a certain determinable degree of dilution retards +the transpiration velocity.</p> + +<p>With regard to Graham’s more purely chemical work, in 1833 +he showed that phosphoric anhydride and water form three +distinct acids, and he thus established the existence of polybasic +acids, in each of which one or more equivalents of hydrogen are +replaceable by certain metals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Acid</a></span>). In 1835 he published +the results of an examination of the properties of water of crystallization +as a constituent of salts. Not the least interesting +part of this inquiry was the discovery of certain definite salts with +alcohol analogous to hydrates, to which the name of alcoholates +was given. A brief paper entitled “Speculative Ideas on the +Constitution of Matter” (1863) possesses special interest in connexion +with work done since his death, because in it he expressed +the view that the various kinds of matter now recognized +as different elementary substances may possess one and the same +ultimate or atomic molecule in different conditions of movement.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Graham’s <i>Elements of Chemistry</i>, first published in 1833, went +through several editions, and appeared also in German, remodelled +under J. Otto’s direction. His <i>Chemical and Physical Researches</i> +were collected by Dr James Young and Dr Angus Smith, and +printed “for presentation only” at Edinburgh in 1876, Dr Smith +contributing to the volume a valuable preface and analysis of its +contents. See also T. E. Thorpe, <i>Essays in Historical Chemistry</i> +(1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAHAME, JAMES<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (1765-1811), Scottish poet, was born in +Glasgow on the 22nd of April 1765, the son of a successful +lawyer. After completing his literary course at Glasgow university, +Grahame went in 1784 to Edinburgh, where he qualified +as writer to the signet, and subsequently for the Scottish bar, +of which he was elected a member in 1795. But his preferences +had always been for the Church, and when he was forty-four +he took Anglican orders, and became a curate first at Shipton, +Gloucestershire, and then at Sedgefield, Durham. His works +include a dramatic poem, <i>Mary Queen of Scots</i> (1801), <i>The +Sabbath</i> (1804), <i>British Georgics</i> (1804), <i>The Birds of Scotland</i> +(1806), and <i>Poems on the Abolition of the Slave Trade</i> (1810). +His principal work, <i>The Sabbath</i>, a sacred and descriptive poem +in blank verse, is characterized by devotional feeling and by +happy delineation of Scottish scenery. In the notes to his poems +he expresses enlightened views on popular education, the criminal +law and other public questions. He was emphatically a friend +of humanity—a philanthropist as well as a poet. He died in +Glasgow on the 14th of September 1811.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAHAM’S DYKE<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Sheugh</span> = trench), a local name for the +Roman fortified frontier, consisting of rampart, forts and road, +which ran across the narrow isthmus of Scotland from the Forth +to the Clyde (about 36 m.), and formed from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 140 till about +185 the northern frontier of Roman Britain. The name is +locally explained as recording a victorious assault on the defences +by one Robert Graham and his men; it has also been connected +with the Grampian Hills and the Latin surveying term <i>groma</i>. +But, as is shown by its earliest recorded spelling, Grymisdyke +(Fordun, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1385), it is the same as the term Grim’s Ditch which +occurs several times in England in connexion with early ramparts—for +example, near Wallingford in south Oxfordshire or between +Berkhampstead (Herts) and Bradenham (Bucks). Grim seems +to be a Teutonic god or devil, who might be credited with the +wish to build earthworks in unreasonably short periods of time. +By antiquaries the Graham’s Dyke is usually styled the Wall +of Pius or the Antonine Vallum, after the emperor Antoninus +Pius, in whose reign it was constructed. See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Britain</a></span>: +<i>Roman</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(F. J. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAHAM’S TOWN,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> a city of South Africa, the administrative +centre for the eastern part of the Cape province, 106 m. by rail +N.E. of Port Elizabeth and 43 m. by rail N.N.W. of Port Alfred. +Pop. (1904) 13,887, of whom 7283 were whites and 1837 were +electors. The town is built in a basin of the grassy hills forming +the spurs of the Zuurberg, 1760 ft. above sea-level. It is a +pleasant place of residence, has a remarkably healthy climate, +and is regarded as the most English-like town in the Cape. The +streets are broad, and most of them lined with trees. In the +High Street are the law courts, the Anglican cathedral of St +George, built from designs by Sir Gilbert Scott, and Commemoration +Chapel, the chief place of worship of the Wesleyans, erected +by the British emigrants of 1820. The Roman Catholic cathedral +of St Patrick, a Gothic building, is to the left of the High Street. +The town hall, also in the Gothic style, has a square clock tower +built on arches over the pavement. Graham’s Town is one +of the chief educational centres in the Cape province. Besides +the public schools and the Rhodes University College (which +in 1904 took over part of the work carried on since 1855 by St +Andrew’s College), scholastic institutions are maintained by +religious bodies. The town possesses two large hospitals, which +receive patients from all parts of South Africa, and the government +bacteriological institute. It is the centre of trade for an +extensive pastoral and agricultural district. Owing to the sour +quality of the herbage in the surrounding <i>zuurveld</i>, stock-breeding +and wool-growing have been, however, to some extent replaced +by ostrich-farming, for which industry Graham’s Town is the +most important entrepôt. Dairy farming is much practised in +the neighbourhood.</p> + +<p>In 1812 the site of the town was chosen as the headquarters +of the British troops engaged in protecting the frontier of Cape +Colony from the inroads of the Kaffirs, and it was named after +Colonel John Graham (1778-1821), then commanding the forces. +(Graham had commanded the light infantry battalion at the +taking of the Cape by the British in the action of the 6th of +January 1806. He also took part in campaigns in Italy and +Holland during the Napoleonic wars.) In 1819 an attempt was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id="page320"></a>320</span> +made by the Kaffirs to surprise Graham’s Town, and 10,000 +men attacked it, but they were repulsed by the garrison, which +numbered not more than 320 men, infantry and artillery, under +Lieut.-Colonel (afterwards General Sir) Thomas Willshire. In +1822 the town was chosen as the headquarters of the 4000 +British immigrants who had reached Cape Colony in 1820. It +has maintained its position as the most important inland town +of the eastern part of the Cape province. In 1864 the Cape +parliament met in Graham’s Town, the only instance of the +legislature sitting elsewhere than in Cape Town. It is governed +by a municipality. The rateable value in 1906 was Ł891,536 +and the rate levied 2˝d. in the pound.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See T. Sheffield, <i>The Story of the Settlement ...</i> (2nd ed., +Graham’s Town, 1884); C. T. Campbell, <i>British South Africa ... with +notices of some of the British Settlers of 1820</i> (London, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAIL, THE HOLY,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> the famous talisman of Arthurian +romance, the object of quest on the part of the knights of the +Round Table. It is mainly, if not wholly, known to English +readers through the medium of Malory’s translation of the +French <i>Quęte du Saint Graal</i>, where it is the cup or chalice of the +Last Supper, in which the blood which flowed from the wounds +of the crucified Saviour has been miraculously preserved. +Students of the original romances are aware that there is in these +texts an extraordinary diversity of statement as to the nature +and origin of the Grail, and that it is extremely difficult to +determine the precise value of these differing versions.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Broadly +speaking the Grail romances have been divided into two main +classes: (1) those dealing with the search for the Grail, the +<i>Quest</i>, and (2) those relating to its early history. These latter +appear to be dependent on the former, for whereas we may +have a <i>Quest</i> romance without any insistence on the previous +history of the Grail, that history is never found without some +allusion to the hero who is destined to bring the quest to its +successful termination. The <i>Quest</i> versions again fall into three +distinct classes, differentiated by the personality of the hero +who is respectively Gawain, Perceval or Galahad. The most +important and interesting group is that connected with Perceval, +and he was regarded as the original Grail hero, Gawain being, +as it were, his understudy. Recent discoveries, however, point +to a different conclusion, and indicate that the <i>Gawain</i> stories +represent an early tradition, and that we must seek in them +rather than in the <i>Perceval</i> versions for indications as to the +ultimate origin of the Grail.</p> + +<p>The character of this talisman or relic varies greatly, as will +be seen from the following summary.</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Gawain</span>, included in the continuation to Chrétien’s <i>Perceval</i> +by Wauchier de Denain, and attributed to Bleheris the Welshman, +who is probably identical with the Bledhericus of Giraldus +Cambrensis, and considerably earlier than Chrétien de Troyes. +Here the Grail is a food-providing, self-acting talisman, the precise +nature of which is not specified; it is designated as the +“rich” Grail, and serves the king and his court <i>sans serjant +et sans seneschal</i>, the butlers providing the guests with wine. +In another version, given at an earlier point of the same continuation, +but apparently deriving from a later source, the +Grail is borne in procession by a weeping maiden, and is called +the “holy” Grail, but no details as to its history or character +are given. In a third version, that of <i>Diu Crône</i>, a long and confused +romance, the origin of which has not been determined, +the Grail appears as a reliquary, in which the Host is presented +to the king, who once a year partakes alike of it and of the blood +which flows from the lance. Another account is given in the +prose <i>Lancelot</i>, but here Gawain has been deposed from his +post as first hero of the court, and, as is to be expected from the +treatment meted out to him in this romance, the visit ends +in his complete discomfiture. The Grail is here surrounded with +the atmosphere of awe and reverence familiar to us through the +<i>Quęte</i>, and is regarded as the chalice of the Last Supper. These +are the <i>Gawain</i> versions.</p> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Perceval.</span>—The most important <i>Perceval</i> text is the +<i>Conte del Grael</i>, or <i>Perceval le Galois</i> of Chrétien de Troyes. +Here the Grail is wrought of gold richly set with precious stones; +it is carried in solemn procession, and the light issuing from it +extinguishes that of the candles. What it is is not explained, +but inasmuch as it is the vehicle in which is conveyed the Host +on which the father of the Fisher king depends for nutriment, +it seems not improbable that here, as in <i>Diu Crône</i>, it is to be +understood as a reliquary. In the <i>Parzival</i> of Wolfram von +Eschenbach, the ultimate source of which is identical with that +of Chrétien, on the contrary, the Grail is represented as a precious +stone, brought to earth by angels, and committed to the guardianship +of the Grail king and his descendants. It is guarded by a +body of chosen knights, or templars, and acts alike as a life and +youth preserving talisman—no man may die within eight days +of beholding it, and the maiden who bears it retains perennial +youth—and an oracle choosing its own servants, and indicating +whom the Grail king shall wed. The sole link with the Christian +tradition is the statement that its virtue is renewed every Good +Friday by the agency of a dove from heaven. The discrepancy +between this and the other Grail romances is most startling.</p> + +<p>In the short prose romance known as the “Didot” <i>Perceval</i> +we have, for the first time, the whole history of the relic logically +set forth. The <i>Perceval</i> forms the third and concluding section of +a group of short romances, the two preceding being the <i>Joseph +of Arimathea</i> and the <i>Merlin</i>. In the first we have the precise +history of the Grail, how it was the dish of the Last Supper, +confided by our Lord to the care of Joseph, whom he miraculously +visited in the prison to which he had been committed by the +Jews. It was subsequently given by Joseph to his brother-in-law +Brons, whose grandson Perceval is destined to be the final +winner and guardian of the relic. The <i>Merlin</i> forms the connecting +thread between this definitely ecclesiastical romance and +the chivalric atmosphere of Arthur’s court; and finally, in the +<i>Perceval</i>, the hero, son of Alain and grandson to Brons, is warned +by Merlin of the quest which awaits him and which he achieves +after various adventures.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Perlesvaus</i> the Grail is the same, but the working out of +the scheme is much more complex; a son of Joseph of Arimathea, +Josephe, is introduced, and we find a spiritual knighthood similar +to that used so effectively in the <i>Parzival</i>.</p> + +<p>3. <span class="sc">Galahad.</span>—The <i>Quęte du Saint Graal</i>, the only romance +of which Galahad is the hero, is dependent on and a completion +of the <i>Lancelot</i> development of the Arthurian cycle. Lancelot, +as lover of Guinevere, could not be permitted to achieve so +spiritual an emprise, yet as leading knight of Arthur’s court it +was impossible to allow him to be surpassed by another. Hence +the invention of Galahad, son to Lancelot by the Grail king’s +daughter; predestined by his lineage to achieve the quest, +foredoomed, the quest achieved, to vanish, a sacrifice to his +father’s fame, which, enhanced by connexion with the Grail-winner, +could not risk eclipse by his presence. Here the Grail, +the chalice of the Last Supper, is at the same time, as in the +<i>Gawain</i> stories, self-acting and food-supplying.</p> + +<p>The last three romances unite, it will be seen, the quest and +the early history. Introductory to the Galahad quest, and dealing +only with the early history, is the <i>Grand Saint Graal</i>, a work +of interminable length, based upon the <i>Joseph of Arimathea</i>, +which has undergone numerous revisions and amplifications: +its precise relation to the <i>Lancelot</i>, with which it has now much +matter in common, is not easy to determine.</p> + +<p>To be classed also under the head of early history are certain +interpolations in the MSS. of the <i>Perceval</i>, where we find the +<i>Joseph</i> tradition, but in a somewhat different form, <i>e.g.</i> he is +said to have caused the Grail to be made for the purpose of receiving +the holy blood. With this account is also connected the +legend of the <i>Volto Santo</i> of Lucca, a crucifix said to have been +carved by Nicodemus. In the conclusion to Chrétien’s poem, +composed by Manessier some fifty years later, the Grail is said +to have <i>followed</i> Joseph to Britain, how, is not explained. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id="page321"></a>321</span> +Another continuation by Gerbert, interpolated between those of +Wauchier and Manessier, relates how the Grail was brought +to Britain by Perceval’s mother in the companionship of Joseph.</p> + +<p>It will be seen that with the exception of the <i>Grand Saint +Graal</i>, which has now been practically converted into an introduction +to the <i>Quęte</i>, no two versions agree with each other; indeed, +with the exception of the oldest <i>Gawain-Grail</i> visit, that due to +Bleheris, they do not agree with themselves, but all show, +more or less, the influence of different and discordant versions. +Why should the vessel of the Last Supper, jealously guarded at +Castle Corbenic, visit Arthur’s court independently? Why +does a sacred relic provide purely material food? What connexion +can there be between a precious stone, a <i>baetylus</i>, as Dr Hagen +has convincingly shown, and Good Friday? These, and such +questions as these, suggest themselves at every turn.</p> + +<p>Numerous attempts have been made to solve these problems, +and to construct a theory of the origin of the Grail story, but so +far the difficulty has been to find an hypothesis which would +admit of the practically simultaneous existence of apparently +contradictory features. At one time considered as an introduction +from the East, the theory of the Grail as an Oriental talisman +has now been discarded, and the expert opinion of the day may +be said to fall into two groups: (1) those who hold the Grail +to have been from the first a purely Christian vessel which has +accidentally, and in a manner never clearly explained, acquired +certain folk-lore characteristics; and (2) those who hold, on the +contrary, that the Grail is <i>aborigine</i> folk-lore and Celtic, and +that the Christian development is a later and accidental rather +than an essential feature of the story. The first view is set forth +in the work of Professor Birch-Hirschfeld, the second in that of +Mr Alfred Nutt, the two constituting the only <i>travaux d’ensemble</i> +which have yet appeared on the subject. It now seems probable +that both are in a measure correct, and that the ultimate solution +will be recognized to lie in a blending of two originally independent +streams of tradition. The researches of Professor +Mannhardt in Germany and of J. G. Frazer in England have +amply demonstrated the enduring influence exercised on popular +thought and custom by certain primitive forms of vegetation +worship, of which the most noteworthy example is the so-called +mysteries of Adonis. Here the ordinary processes of nature +and progression of the seasons were symbolized under the figure +of the death and resuscitation of the god. These rites are found +all over the world, and in his monumental work, <i>The Golden +Bough</i>, Dr Frazer has traced a host of extant beliefs and practices +to this source. The earliest form of the Grail story, the <i>Gawain</i>-Bleheris +version, exhibits a marked affinity with the characteristic +features of the Adonis or Tammuz worship; we have a castle +on the sea-shore, a dead body on a bier, the identity of which is +never revealed, mourned over with solemn rites; a wasted +country, whose desolation is mysteriously connected with the +dead man, and which is restored to fruitfulness when the quester +asks the meaning of the marvels he beholds (the two features +of the weeping women and the wasted land being retained in +versions where they have no significance); finally the mysterious +food-providing, self-acting talisman of a common feast—one +and all of these features may be explained as survivals of the +Adonis ritual. Professor Martin long since suggested that a key +to the problems of the Arthurian cycle was to be found in a nature +myth: Professor Rhys regards Arthur as an agricultural hero; +Dr Lewis Mott has pointed out the correspondence between the +so-called Round Table sites and the ritual of nature worship; but +it is only with the discovery of the existence of Bleheris as reputed +authority for Arthurian tradition, and the consequent recognition +that the Grail story connected with his name is the earliest +form of the legend, that we have secured a solid basis for such +theories.</p> + +<p>With regard to the religious form of the story, recent research +has again aided us—we know now that a legend similar in all +respects to the Joseph of Arimathea Grail story was widely +current at least a century before our earliest Grail texts. The +story with Nicodemus as protagonist is told of the <i>Saint-Sang</i> +relic at Fécamp; and, as stated already, a similar origin is +ascribed to the <i>Volto Santo</i> at Lucca. In this latter case the +legend professes to date from the 8th century, and scholars who +have examined the texts in their present form consider that there +may be solid ground for this attribution. It is thus demonstrable +that the material for our Grail legend, in its present form, +existed long anterior to any extant text, and there is no improbability +in holding that a confused tradition of pagan mysteries +which had assumed the form of a popular folk-tale, became +finally Christianized by combination with an equally popular +ecclesiastical legend, the point of contact being the vessel of the +common ritual feast. Nor can there be much doubt that in this +process of combination the Fécamp legend played an important +rôle. The best and fullest of the <i>Perceval</i> MSS. refer to a book +written at Fécamp as source for certain <i>Perceval</i> adventures. +What this book was we do not know, but in face of the fact that +certain special Fécamp relics, silver knives, appear in the Grail +procession of the <i>Parzival</i>, it seems most probable that it was a +<i>Perceval</i>-Grail story. The relations between the famous Benedictine +abbey and the English court both before and after the +Conquest were of an intimate character. Legends of the part +played by Joseph of Arimathea in the conversion of Britain are +closely connected with Glastonbury, the monks of which foundation +showed, in the 12th century, considerable literary activity, +and it seems a by no means improbable hypothesis that the +present form of the Grail legend may be due to a monk of Glastonbury +elaborating ideas borrowed from Fécamp. This much is +certain, that between the <i>Saint-Sang</i> of Fécamp, the <i>Volto Santo</i> +of Lucca, and the Grail tradition, there exists a connecting link, +the precise nature of which has yet to be determined. The two +former were popular objects of pilgrimage; was the third +originally intended to serve the same purpose by attracting +attention to the reputed burial-place of the apostle of the Grail, +Joseph of Arimathea?</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—For the Gawain Grail visits see the Potvin +edition of the <i>Perceval</i>, which, however, only gives the Bleheris +version; the second visit is found in the best and most complete +MSS., such as 12,576 and 12,577 (<i>Fonds français</i>) of the Paris library. +<i>Diu Crône</i>, edited by Scholl (Stuttgart, 1852). vol. vi. of <i>Arthurian +Romances</i> (Nutt), gives a translation of the Bleheris, <i>Diu Crône</i> +and <i>Prose Lancelot</i> visits.</p> + +<p>The <i>Conte del Graal</i>, or <i>Perceval</i>, is only accessible in the edition +of M. Potvin (6 vols., 1866-1871). The Mons MS., from which this +has been printed, has proved to be an exceedingly poor and untrustworthy +text. <i>Parzival</i>, by Wolfram von Eschenbach, has been +frequently and well edited; the edition by Bartsch (1875-1877), +in <i>Deutsche Classiker des Mittelalters</i>, contains full notes and a +glossary. Suitable for the more advanced student are those by K. +Lachmann (1891), Leitzmann (1902-1903) and E. Martin (1903). +There are modern German translations by Simrock (very close to +the original) and Hertz (excellent notes). English translation with +notes and appendices by J. L. Weston. “Didot” <i>Perceval</i>, ed. +Hucher, <i>Le Saint Graal</i> (1875-1878), vol. i. <i>Perlesvaus</i> was printed +by Potvin, under the title of <i>Perceval le Gallois</i>, in vol. i. of the +edition above referred to; a Welsh version from the Hengwert MS. +was published with translation by Canon R. Williams (2 vols., +1876-1892). Under the title of <i>The High History of the Holy Grail</i> +a fine version was published by Dr Sebastian Evans in the Temple +Classics (2 vols., 1898). The <i>Grand Saint Graal</i> was published by +Hucher as given above; this edition includes the <i>Joseph of Arimathea</i>. +A 15th century metrical English adaptation by one Henry Lovelich, +was printed by Dr Furnivall for the Roxburghe Club 1861-1863; +a new edition was undertaken for the Early English Text Society. +<i>Quęte du Saint Graal</i> can best be studied in Malory’s somewhat +abridged translation, books xiii.-xviii. of the <i>Morte Arthur</i>. It +has also been printed by Dr Furnivall for the Roxburghe Club, +from a MS. in the British Museum. Neither of these texts is, +however, very good, and the student who can decipher old Dutch +would do well to read it in the metrical translation published by +Joenckbloet, <i>Roman van Lanceloet</i>, as the original here was considerably +fuller.</p> + +<p>For general treatment of the subject see <i>Legend of Sir Perceval</i>, +by J. L. Weston, Grimm Library, vol. xvii. (1906); <i>Studies on the +Legend of the Holy Grail</i>, by A. Nutt (1888), and a more concise +treatment of the subject by the same writer in No. 14 of <i>Popular +Studies</i> (1902); Professor Birch-Hirschfeld’s <i>Die Sage vom Gral</i> +(1877). The late Professor Heinzel’s <i>Die alt-französischen Gral-Romane</i> +contains a mass of valuable matter, but is very confused +and ill-arranged. For the Fécamp legend see Leroux de Lincey’s +<i>Essai sur l’abbaye de Fescamp</i> (1840); for the <i>Volto Santo</i> and +kindred legends, Ernest von Dobschütz, <i>Christus-Bilder</i> (Leipzig, +1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. L. W.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The etymology of the O. Fr. <i>graal</i> or <i>greal</i>, of which “grail” +is an adaptation, has been much discussed. The Low Lat. original, +<i>gradale</i> or <i>grasale</i>, a flat dish or platter, has generally been taken to +represent a diminutive <i>cratella</i> of <i>crater</i>, bowl, or a lost <i>cratale</i>, +formed from the same word (see W. W. Skeat, Preface to <i>Joseph +of Arimathie</i>, Early Eng. Text Soc).—<span class="sc">Ed.</span></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page322" id="page322"></a>322</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">GRAIN<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (derived through the French from Lat. <i>granum</i>, seed, +from an Aryan root meaning “to wear down,” which also appears +in the common Teutonic word “corn”), a word particularly +applied to the seed, in botanical language the “fruit,” of cereals, +and hence applied, as a collective term to cereal plants generally, +to which, in English, the term “corn” is also applied (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grain Trade</a></span>). Apart from this, the chief meaning, the word +is used of the malt refuse of brewing and distilling, and of many +hard rounded small particles, resembling the seeds of plants, +such as “grains” of sand, salt, gold, gunpowder, &c. “Grain” +is also the name of the smallest unit of weight, both in the +United Kingdom and the United States of America. Its origin +is supposed to be the weight of a grain of wheat, dried and +gathered from the middle of the ear. The troy grain = 1/5760 +of a ℔, the avoirdupois grain = 1/7000 of a ℔. In diamond +weighing the grain = ź of the carat, = .7925 of the troy +grain. The word “grains” was early used, as also in French, +of the small seed-like insects supposed formerly to be the +berries of trees, from which a scarlet dye was extracted (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cochineal</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kermes</a></span>). From the Fr. <i>en graine</i>, literally in +dye, comes the French verb <i>engrainer</i>, Eng. “engrain” or +“ingrain,” meaning to dye in any fast colour. From the further +use of “grain” for the texture of substances, such as wood, +meat, &c., “engrained” or “ingrained” means ineradicable, +impregnated, dyed through and through. The “grain” of +leather is the side of a skin showing the fibre after the hair has +been removed. The imitating in paint of the grain of different +kinds of woods is known as “graining” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Painter-Work</a></span>). +“Grain,” or more commonly in the plural “grains,” construed +as a singular, is the name of an instrument with two or more +barbed prongs, used for spearing fish. This word is Scandinavian +in origin, and is connected with Dan. <i>green</i>, Swed. <i>gren</i>, branch, +and means the fork of a tree, of the body, or the prongs of a fork, +&c. It is not connected with “groin,” the inguinal parts of the +body, which in its earliest forms appears as <i>grynde</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAINS OF PARADISE,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> <span class="sc">Guinea Grains</span>, or <span class="sc">Melegueta +Pepper</span> (Ger. <i>Paradieskörner</i>, Fr. <i>graines de Paradis</i>, <i>maniguette</i>), +the seeds of <i>Amomum Melegueta</i>, a reed-like plant of the +natural order <i>Zingiberaceae</i>. It is a native of tropical western +Africa, and of Prince’s and St Thomas’s islands in the Gulf of +Guinea, is cultivated in other tropical countries, and may with +ease be grown in hothouses in temperate climates. The plant +has a branched horizontal rhizome; smooth, nearly sessile, +narrowly lanceolate-oblong alternate leaves; large, white, pale +pink or purplish flowers; and an ovate-oblong fruit, ensheathed +in bracts, which is of a scarlet colour when fresh, and reaches +under cultivation a length of 5 in. The seeds are contained in +the acid pulp of the fruit, are commonly wedge-shaped and +bluntly angular, are about 1ź lines in diameter and have a glossy +dark-brown husk, with a conical light-coloured membranous +caruncle at the base and a white kernel. They contain, according +to Flückiger and Hanbury, 0.3% of a faintly yellowish +neutral essential oil, having an aromatic, not acrid taste, and +a specific gravity at 15.5° C of 0.825, and giving on analysis the +formula C<span class="su">20</span>H<span class="su">32</span>O, or C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">16</span> + C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">16</span>O; also 5.83% of an +intensely pungent, viscid, brown resin.</p> + +<p>Grains of paradise were formerly officinal in British pharmacopoeias, +and in the 13th and succeeding centuries were used +as a drug and a spice, the wine known as hippocras being +flavoured with them and with ginger and cinnamon. In 1629 +they were employed among the ingredients of the twenty-four +herring pies which were the ancient fee-favour of the city of +Norwich, ordained to be carried to court by the lord of the +manor of Carleton (Johnston and Church, <i>Chem. of Common +Life</i>, p. 355, 1879). Grains of paradise were anciently brought +overland from West Africa to the Mediterranean ports of the +Barbary states, to be shipped for Italy. They are now exported +almost exclusively from the Gold Coast. Grains of paradise are +to some extent used illegally to give a fictitious strength to malt +liquors, gin and cordials. By 56 Geo. III. c. 58, no brewer or +dealer in beer shall have in his possession or use grains of paradise, +under a penalty of Ł200 for each offence; and no druggist shall +sell the same to a brewer under a penalty of Ł500. They are, +however, devoid of any injurious physiological action, and are +much esteemed as a spice by the natives of Guinea.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bentley and Trimen, <i>Medicinal Plants</i>, tab. 268; Lanessan, +<i>Hist. des Drogues</i>, pp. 456-460 (1878).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAIN TRADE.<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> The complexity of the conditions of life +in the 20th century may be well illustrated from the grain trade +of the world. The ordinary bread sold in Great Britain represents, +for example, produce of nearly every country in the world +outside the tropics.</p> + +<p>Wheat has been cultivated from remote antiquity. In a +wild state it is practically unknown. It is alleged to have been +found growing wild between the Euphrates and the +Tigris; but the discovery has never been authenticated, +<span class="sidenote">General considerations.</span> +and, unless the plant be sedulously cared for, the species +dies out in a surprisingly short space of time. Modern +experiments in cross-fertilization in Lancashire by the Garton +Brothers have evolved the most extraordinary “sports,” showing, +it is claimed, that the plant has probably passed through stages +of which until the present day there had been no conception. +The tales that grains of wheat found in the cerements of Egyptian +mummies have been planted and come to maturity are no longer +credited, for the vital principle in the wheat berry is extremely +evanescent; indeed, it is doubtful whether wheat twenty years +old is capable of reproduction. The Garton artificial fertilization +experiments have shown endless deviations from the ordinary +type, ranging from minute seeds with a closely adhering husk +to big berries almost as large as sloes and about as worthless. +It is conjectured that the wheat plant, as now known, is a +degenerate form of something much finer which flourished +thousands of years ago, and that possibly it may be restored +to its pristine excellence, yielding an increase twice or thrice +as large as it now does, thus postponing to a distant period the +famine doom prophesied by Sir W. Crookes in his presidential +address to the British Association in 1898. Wheat well repays +careful attention; contrast the produce of a carelessly tilled +Russian or Indian field and the bountiful yield on a good Lincolnshire +farm, the former with its average yield of 8 bushels, the +latter with its 50 bushels per acre; or compare the quality, +as regards the quantity and flavour of the flour from a fine +sample of British wheat, such as is on sale at almost every +agricultural show in Great Britain, with the produce of an +Egyptian or Syrian field; the difference is so great as to cause +one to doubt whether the berries are of the same species.</p> + +<p>It may be stated roundly that an average quartern loaf in +Great Britain is made from wheat grown in the following countries +in the proportions named:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb f80">U.S.A.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80">U.K.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80">Russia.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80">Argentina.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80">British<br />India.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80">Canada.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80">Rumania-<br />Bulgaria.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80">Australia.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80">Other<br />Countries.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Oz.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Oz.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">26</td> <td class="tcc rb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">9</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb" colspan="9">Or expressed in percentages as follows:—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">40</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">20</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>For details connected with grain and its handling see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agriculture</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Corn Laws</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Granaries</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flour</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baking</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wheat</a></span>, &c.</p> + +<p>Wheat occupies of all cereals the widest region of any food-stuff. +Rice, which shares with millet the distinction of being +the principal food-stuff of the greatest number of human beings, +is not grown nearly as widely as is wheat, the staple food of the +white races. Wheat grows as far south as Patagonia, and as +far north as the edge of the Arctic Circle; it flourishes throughout +Europe, and across the whole of northern Asia and in Japan; +it is cultivated in Persia, and raised largely in India, as far south +as the Nizam’s dominions. It is grown over nearly the whole of +North America. In Canada a very fine wheat crop was raised +in the autumn of 1898 as far north as the mission at Fort +Providence, on the Mackenzie river, in a latitude above 62°—or +less than 200 m. south of the latitude of Dawson City—the +period between seed-time and harvest having been ninety-one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323"></a>323</span> +days. In Africa it was an article of commerce in the days of +Jacob, whose son Joseph may be said to have run the first and +only successful “corner” in wheat. For many centuries +Egypt was famous as a wheat raiser; it was a cargo of wheat +from Alexandria which St Paul helped to jettison on one of his +shipwrecks, as was also, in all probability, that of the “ship of +Alexandria whose sign was Castor and Pollux,” named in the +same narrative. General Gordon is quoted as having stated +that the Sudan if properly settled would be capable of feeding +the whole of Europe. Along the north coast of Africa are areas +which, if properly irrigated, as was done in the days of Carthage, +could produce enough wheat to feed half of the Caucasian race. +For instance, the vilayet of Tripoli, with an area of 400,000 sq. m., +or three times the extent of Great Britain and Ireland, according +to the opinion of a British consul, could raise millions of acres of +wheat. The cereal flourishes on all the high plateaus of South +Africa, from Cape Town to the Zambezi. Land is being extensively +put under wheat in the pampas of South America and +in the prairies of Siberia.</p> + +<p>In the raising of the standard of farming to an English level +the volume of the world’s crop would be trebled, another fact +which Sir William Crookes seems to have overlooked. The +experiments of the late Sir J. B. Lawes in Hertfordshire have +proved that the natural fruitfulness of the wheat plant can be +increased threefold by the application of the proper fertilizer. +The results of these experiments will be found in a compendium +issued from the Rothamsted Agricultural Experimental Station.</p> + +<p>It is by no means, however, the wheat which yields the greatest +number of bushels per acre which is the most valuable from a +miller’s standpoint, for the thinness of the bran and the fineness +and strength of the flour are with him important considerations, +too often overlooked by the farmer when buying his seed. +Nevertheless it is the deficient quantity of the wheat raised in +the British Islands, and not the quality of the grain, which has +been the cause of so much anxiety to economists and statesmen.</p> + +<p>Sir J. Caird, writing in the year 1880, expressed the opinion +that arable land in Great Britain would always command a +substantial rent of at least 30s. per acre. His figures +were based on the assumption that wheat was imported +<span class="sidenote">Freight rates.</span> +duty free. He calculated that the cost of carriage from +abroad of wheat, or the equivalent of the product of an acre of +good wheat land in Great Britain, would not be less than 30s. +per ton. But freights had come down by 1900 to half the rates +predicated by Caird; indeed, during a portion of the interval they +ruled very close to zero, as far as steamer freights from America +were concerned. In 1900 an all-round freight rate for wheat +might be taken at 15s. <i>per ton</i> (a ton representing approximately +the produce of an acre of good wheat land in England), say from +10s. for Atlantic American and Russian, to 30s. for Pacific +American and Australian; about midway between these two +extremes we find Indian and Argentine, the greatest bulk +coming at about the 15s. rate. Inferior land bearing less than +4˝ quarters per acre would not be protected to the same extent, +and moreover, seeing that a portion of the British wheat crop +has to stand a charge as heavy for land carriage across a county +as that borne by foreign wheat across a continent or an ocean, +the protection is not nearly so substantial as Caird would make +out. The compilation showing the changes in the rates of charges +for the railway and other transportation services issued by the +Division of Statistics, Department of Agriculture, U.S.A. +(Miscellaneous series, Bulletin No. 15, 1898), is a valuable +reference book. From its pages are culled the following facts +relating to the changes in the rates of freight up to the year +1897.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In Table 3 the average rates per ton per mile in cents +are shown since 1846. For the Fitchburg Railroad the rate for +that year was 4.523 cents per ton per mile, since when a great +and almost continuous fall has been taking place, until in 1897, +the latest year given, the rate had declined to .870 of a cent per +ton per mile. The railway which shows the greatest fall is the +Chesapeake & Ohio, for the charge has fallen from over 7 cents +in 1862 and 1863 to .419 of a cent in 1897, whereas the Erie rates +have fallen only from 1.948 in 1852 to .609 in 1897. Putting +the rates of the twelve returning railways together, we find the +average freight in the two years 1859-1860 was 3.006 cents per +ton per mile, and that in 1896-1897 the average rate had fallen +to .797 of a cent per ton per mile. This difference is very large +compared with the smallness of the unit. Coming to the rates +on grain, we find (in Table 23) a record for the forty years 1858-1897 +of the charge on wheat from Chicago to New York, via +all rail from 1858, and via lake and rail since 1868, the authority +being the secretary of the Chicago Board of Trade. From 1858 +to 1862 the rate varied between 42.37 and 34.80 cents per bushel +for the whole trip of roundly 1000 m., the average rate in the +quinquennium being 38.43. In the five years immediately prior +to the time at which Sir J. Caird expressed the opinion that the +cost of carriage from abroad would always protect the British +grower, the average all-rail freight from Chicago to New York +was 17.76 cents, while the summer rate (partly by water) was +13.17 cents. These rates in 1897, the last year shown on the +table, had fallen to 12.50 and 7.42 respectively. The rates have +been as follows in quinquennial periods, via all rail:—</p> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>Chicago to New York in Cents per Bushel.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">1858-<br />1862.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1863-<br />1867.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1868-<br />1872.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1873-<br />1877.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1878-<br />1882.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1883-<br />1887.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1888-<br />1892.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1893-<br />1897.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">38.43</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">31.42</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">27.91</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">21.29</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16.77</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14.67</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14.52</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">12.88</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Calculating roundly a cent as equal to a halfpenny, and eight +bushels to the quarter, the above would appear in English +currency as follows:—</p> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>Chicago to New York in Shillings and Pence per Quarter.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1858-<br />1862.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1863-<br />1867.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1868-<br />1872.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1873-<br />1877.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1878-<br />1882.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1883-<br />1887.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1888-<br />1892.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1893-<br />1897.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb bb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">8</td> <td class="tcc bb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcc bb">9</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcc bb">7</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1</td> <td class="tcc bb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">7</td> <td class="tcc bb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10˝</td> <td class="tcc bb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10</td> <td class="tcc bb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Another table (No. 38) shows the average rates from Chicago +to New York by lakes, canal and river. These in their quinquennial +periods are given for the season as follows:—</p> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>In Cents per Bushel of</i> 60 ℔.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">1857-1861.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1876-1880.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1893-1897.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">22.15</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10.47</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.92</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>In Shillings and Pence per Quarter of</i> 480 ℔.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1857-1861.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1876-1880.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1893-1897.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb bb">7</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4</td> <td class="tcc bb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcc bb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">7</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>In Shillings and Pence per Ton of</i> 2240 ℔.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1857-1861.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1876-1880.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1893-1897.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td> <td class="tcc">s.</td> <td class="tcc rb">d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb bb">34</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcc bb">16</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6</td> <td class="tcc bb">7</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>This latter mode is the cheapest by which grain can be carried +to the eastern seaboard from the American prairies, and it can +now be done at a cost of 7s. 6d. per ton. The ocean freight has +to be added before the grain can be delivered free on the quay +at Liverpool. A rate from New York to Liverpool of 2˝d. +per bushel, or 7s. 10d. per ton, a low rate, reached in Dec. 1900, +is yet sufficiently high, it is claimed, to leave a profit; indeed, +there have frequently been times when the rate was as low as 1d. +per bushel, or 3s. 1d. per ton; and in periods of great trade +depression wheat is carried from New York to Liverpool as +ballast, being paid for by the ship-owner. Another route worked +more cheaply than formerly is that by river, from the centre of +the winter wheat belt, say at St Louis, to New Orleans, and thence +by steamer to Liverpool. The river rate has fallen below five +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id="page324"></a>324</span> +cents per bushel, or 7s. per ton, 2240 ℔. In Table No. 71 the +cost of transportation is compared year by year with the export +price of the two leading cereals in the States as follows:—</p> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>Wheat and Corn—Export Prices and Transportation Rates compared.</i></p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb f80" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80" colspan="3">Wheat.</td> <td class="tccm allb f80" colspan="3">Corn.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb f80">Export<br />Price per<br />Bushel.</td> + <td class="tccm allb f80">Rate, Chicago<br />to New York<br />by Lake<br />and Canal,<br />per Bushel.</td> + <td class="tccm allb f80">Number<br />of Bushels<br />carried<br />for Price<br />of One<br />Bushel.</td> + <td class="tccm allb f80">Export<br />Price per<br />Bushel.</td> + <td class="tccm allb f80">Rate, Chicago<br />to New York<br />by Lake<br />and Canal,<br />per Bushel.</td> + <td class="tccm allb f80">Number<br />of Bushels<br />carried<br />for Price<br />of One<br />Bushel.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Cents.</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Cents.</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1867</td> <td class="tcr rb">$0.92</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.95</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.77</td> <td class="tcr rb">$0.72</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.58</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.94</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1868</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.36</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.23</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.38</td> <td class="tcr rb">.84.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.57</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1869</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.05</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.20</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.10</td> <td class="tcr rb">.72.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.98</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.86</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1870</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.12</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.85</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.54</td> <td class="tcr rb">.80.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.78</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.84</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1871</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.18</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.75</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.65</td> <td class="tcr rb">.67.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.53</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1872</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.31</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.55</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.08</td> <td class="tcr rb">.61.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.62</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1873</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.15</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.89</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.81</td> <td class="tcr rb">.54.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.39</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.53</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1874</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.29</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.75</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.12</td> <td class="tcr rb">.64.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.29</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.73</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1875</td> <td class="tcr rb">.97</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.90</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.80</td> <td class="tcr rb">.73.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.93</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.26</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1876</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.11</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.63</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.86</td> <td class="tcr rb">.60.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.93</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1877</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.12</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.76</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.41</td> <td class="tcr rb">.56.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.41</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.95</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1878</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.33</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.10</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.62</td> <td class="tcr rb">.55.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.27</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.75</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1879</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.07</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.60</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.22</td> <td class="tcr rb">.47.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.43</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.52</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.25</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.27</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.19</td> <td class="tcr rb">.54.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.14</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.87</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1881</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.11</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.19</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.55</td> <td class="tcr rb">.55.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.26</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1882</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.19</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.89</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.08</td> <td class="tcr rb">.66.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.23</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.24</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1883</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.13</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.37</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.50</td> <td class="tcr rb">.68.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.66</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.93</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1884</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.07</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.31</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.96</td> <td class="tcr rb">.61.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.64</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.83</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1885</td> <td class="tcr rb">.86</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.87</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.65</td> <td class="tcr rb">.54.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.38</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.04</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1886</td> <td class="tcr rb">.87</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.71</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.99</td> <td class="tcr rb">.49.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.98</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.24</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1887</td> <td class="tcr rb">.89</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.51</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.46</td> <td class="tcr rb">.47.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.88</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.08</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1888</td> <td class="tcr rb">.85</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.93</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.33</td> <td class="tcr rb">.55.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.41</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.17</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1889</td> <td class="tcr rb">.90</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.89</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.06</td> <td class="tcr rb">.47.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.19</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.66</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">.83</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.86</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.16</td> <td class="tcr rb">.41.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.10</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcr rb">.93</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.96</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.60</td> <td class="tcr rb">.57.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.36</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.71</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1892</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.03</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.61</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.36</td> <td class="tcr rb">.55  </td> <td class="tcr rb">5.03</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.93</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1893</td> <td class="tcr rb">.80</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.31</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.68</td> <td class="tcr rb">.53  </td> <td class="tcr rb">5.71</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.28</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1894</td> <td class="tcr rb">.67</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.44</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.09</td> <td class="tcr rb">.46  </td> <td class="tcr rb">3.99</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.53</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">.58</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.11</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.11</td> <td class="tcr rb">.53  </td> <td class="tcr rb">3.71</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.29</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcr rb">.65</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.38</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.08</td> <td class="tcr rb">.38  </td> <td class="tcr rb">4.94</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.69</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1897</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.75</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4.35</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">17.24</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.31  </td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3.79</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8.18</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The farmers of the United States have now to meet a greatly +increased output from Canada—the cost of transport from that +country to England being much the same as from the United +States. So much improved is the position of the farmer in North +America compared with what it was about 1870, that the transport +companies in 1901 carried 17ź bushels of his grain to the +seaboard in exchange for the value of one bushel, whereas in +1867 he had to give up one bushel in every six in return for the +service. As regards the British farmer, it does not appear as if +he had improved his position; for he has to send his wheat to +greater distances, owing to the collapse of many country millers +or their removal to the seaboard, while railway rates have fallen +only to a very small extent; again the farmer’s wheat is worth +only half of what it was formerly; it may be said that the British +farmer has to give up one bushel in nine to the railway company +for the purpose of transportation, whereas in the ’seventies he +gave up one in eighteen only. Enough has been said to prove +that the advantage of position claimed for the British farmer +by Caird was somewhat illusory. Speaking broadly, the Kansas +or Minnesota farmer’s wheat does not have to pay for carriage +to Liverpool more than 2s. 6d. to 7s. 6d. per ton in excess of the +rate paid by a Yorkshire farmer; this, it will be admitted, does +not go very far towards enabling the latter to pay rent, tithes +and rates and taxes.</p> + +<p>The subject of the rates of ocean carriage at different periods +requires consideration if a proper understanding of the working +of the foreign grain trade is to be obtained. Only a very small +proportion of the decline in the price of wheat since 1880 is due +to cheapened transport rates; for while the mileage rate has +been falling, the length of haulage has been extending, until +in 1900 the principal wheat fields of America were 2000 m. +farther from the eastern seaboard than was the case in 1870, +and consequently, notwithstanding the fall in the mileage rate +of 50 to 75%, it still costs the United Kingdom nearly as much +to have its quota of foreign wheat fetched from abroad as it did +then. The difference in the cost of the operation is shown in +the following tabular statement, both the cost in the aggregate +on a year’s imports and the cost per quarter:—</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p class="pt1"><i>Quantity of Wheat and Wheaten Flour (as wheat) imported into the +United Kingdom from various sources during the calendar year +1900, together with the average rate of freight.</i></p></div> + +<p class="center">1900.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Countries of Origin.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Quantities.<br />Qrs. 480 ℔</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Ocean Freight<br />to United<br />Kingdom.<br />Per 480 ℔.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Total Cost<br />of Ocean<br />Carriage.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">s.   d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Ł</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Atlantic America</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,171,100</td> <td class="tcc rb">2   3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,257,100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">South Russia</td> <td class="tcr rb">569,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">2   2</td> <td class="tcr rb">62,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pacific America</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,389,900</td> <td class="tcc rb">8   1</td> <td class="tcr rb">966,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Canada</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,877,100</td> <td class="tcc rb">2   8</td> <td class="tcr rb">250,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rumania</td> <td class="tcr rb">176,400</td> <td class="tcc rb">2   6</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Argentina and Uruguay</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,322,300</td> <td class="tcc rb">4   10</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,045,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">251,900</td> <td class="tcc rb">1   3</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bulgaria and Rumelia</td> <td class="tcr rb">30,600</td> <td class="tcc rb">2   6</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">India</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,200</td> <td class="tcc rb">4   0</td> <td class="tcr rb">400</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Austria-Hungary</td> <td class="tcr rb">389,300</td> <td class="tcc rb">1   9</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chile</td> <td class="tcr rb">600</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">North Russia</td> <td class="tcr rb">462,700</td> <td class="tcc rb">1   6</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">438,700</td> <td class="tcc rb">1   6</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Australasia</td> <td class="tcr rb">883,900</td> <td class="tcc rb">6   5</td> <td class="tcr rb">284,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Minor Countries</td> <td class="tcr rb">225,100</td> <td class="tcc rb">2   6</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,000</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">23,190,800</td> <td class="tcc allb">Average 3s. 6d.</td> <td class="tcr allb">Ł4,036,500</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Comparing these figures with a similar statement for the year +1872, the most remote year for which similar facts are available, +it will be found that the actual total cost per quarter for ocean +carriage has not much decreased.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p class="pt1"><i>Quantity of Wheat and Wheaten Flour (as wheat) imported into the +United Kingdom from various sources during the calendar year +1872, together with the average rate of freight.</i></p></div> + +<p class="center">1872.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Countries of Origin.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Quantities.<br />Qrs.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Ocean Freight<br />to United<br />Kingdom.<br />Per qr.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Total Cost<br />of Carriage.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">s.   d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Ł</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">South Russia</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,678,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">8   6</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,563,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,030,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">6   6</td> <td class="tcr rb">659,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">910,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">2   0</td> <td class="tcr rb">91,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">660,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">3   0</td> <td class="tcr rb">99,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Egypt</td> <td class="tcr rb">536,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">4   6</td> <td class="tcr rb">120,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">North Russia</td> <td class="tcr rb">490,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">2   0</td> <td class="tcr rb">49,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Canada</td> <td class="tcr rb">400,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">7   6</td> <td class="tcr rb">150,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chile</td> <td class="tcr rb">330,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">12   0</td> <td class="tcr rb">198,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Turkey</td> <td class="tcr rb">195,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">7   6</td> <td class="tcr rb">72,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spain</td> <td class="tcr rb">130,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">3   6</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Scandinavia</td> <td class="tcr rb">160,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">2   0</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,000</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total, Chief Countries</td> <td class="tcr allb">9,519,000</td> <td class="tcc allb">Average 6s. 5d.</td> <td class="tcr allb">Ł3,040,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>N.B.—A trifling quantity of Californian and Australian wheat +was imported in the period in question, but the Board of Trade +records do not distinguish the quantities, therefore they cannot +be given. The freight in that year from those countries averaged +about 13s. per quarter.</p> +</div> + +<p>The exact difference between the average freight for the years +1872 and 1900 amounts to about 2s. 11d. per quarter (480 ℔), +a trifle in comparison with the actual fall in the price of wheat +during the same years.</p> + +<p>The following data bearing upon the subject, for selected +periods, are partly taken from the <i>Corn Trade Year-Book</i>:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">United Kingdom<br />Annual Imports.<br />Wheat and Flour.<br />Qrs.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Ocean Freight<br />to United<br />ingdom.<br />Per qr.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Aggregate Cost<br />of Carriage.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">s.   d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Ł</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1872</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 9,469,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">6   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,040,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1882</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,850,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">7   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">5,420,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1894</td> <td class="tcc rb">16,229,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">3   9</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,041,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">25,197,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">3   0</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,825,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">23,431,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">2   9</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,258,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">23,196,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3   6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4,036,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id="page325"></a>325</span></p> + +<p>In passing, it may be pointed out that for a period of four years, +from 1871 to 1874, the price of wheat averaged 56s. per quarter +(or 7s. per bushel), with the charge for ocean carriage at 6s. 5d. +per quarter, whereas in 1901 wheat was sold in England at 28s. +(or 3s. 6d. per bushel), and the charge for ocean carriage was +3s. 6d. per quarter; the ocean transport companies carried eight +bushels of wheat across the seas in 1901 for the value of one +bushel, or exactly at the same ratio as in 1872.</p> + +<p>The contrast between the case of railway freight and ocean +freight is to be explained by the greater length of the present +ocean voyage, which now extends to 10,000 miles in the case of +Europe’s importation of white wheat from the Pacific Coast of +the United States and Australia, in contrast with the short +voyage from the Black Sea or across the English Channel or +German Ocean. It is largely due to the overlooking of this phase +of the question that an American statistician has fallen into the +error of stating that about 16s. per quarter of the fall in the price +of wheat, which happened between 1880 and 1894, is attributable +to the lessened cost of transport.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt1 center sc">Wheat Prices</p> + +<p>The following figures show the fluctuations from year to year +of English wheat, chiefly according to a record published by Mr T. +Smith, Melford, the period covered being from 1656 to 1905:</p> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>Price per Quarter</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb tb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb2 tb">s.   d.</td> <td class="tcc rb tb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb2 tb">s.   d.</td> <td class="tcc rb tb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb2 tb">s.   d.</td> <td class="tcc rb tb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb2 tb">s.   d.</td> <td class="tcc rb tb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb tb">s.   d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1656</td> <td class="tcc rb2">38   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1706</td> <td class="tcc rb2">23   1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1756</td> <td class="tcc rb2">40   1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1806</td> <td class="tcc rb2">79   1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1856</td> <td class="tcc rb">69   2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1657</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1707</td> <td class="tcc rb2">25   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1757</td> <td class="tcc rb2">53   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1807</td> <td class="tcc rb2">75   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1857</td> <td class="tcc rb">56   4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1658</td> <td class="tcc rb2">57   9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1708</td> <td class="tcc rb2">36   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1758</td> <td class="tcc rb2">44   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1808</td> <td class="tcc rb2">84   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1858</td> <td class="tcc rb">44   2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1659</td> <td class="tcc rb2">58   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1709</td> <td class="tcc rb2">69   9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1759</td> <td class="tcc rb2">35   3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1809</td> <td class="tcc rb2">97   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1859</td> <td class="tcc rb">43   9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1660</td> <td class="tcc rb2">50   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1710</td> <td class="tcc rb2">69   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1760</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1810</td> <td class="tcc rb2">106   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1860</td> <td class="tcc rb">53   3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1661</td> <td class="tcc rb2">62   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1711</td> <td class="tcc rb2">48   0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1761</td> <td class="tcc rb2">26   9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1811</td> <td class="tcc rb2">95   3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1861</td> <td class="tcc rb">55   4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1662</td> <td class="tcc rb2">65   9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1712</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1762</td> <td class="tcc rb2">34   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1812</td> <td class="tcc rb2">126   6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1862</td> <td class="tcc rb">55   5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1663</td> <td class="tcc rb2">50   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1713</td> <td class="tcc rb2">45   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1763</td> <td class="tcc rb2">36   1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1813</td> <td class="tcc rb2">109   9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1863</td> <td class="tcc rb">44   9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1664</td> <td class="tcc rb2">36   0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1714</td> <td class="tcc rb2">44   9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1764</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1814</td> <td class="tcc rb2">74   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1864</td> <td class="tcc rb">40   2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1665</td> <td class="tcc rb2">43   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1715</td> <td class="tcc rb2">38   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1765</td> <td class="tcc rb2">48   0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1815</td> <td class="tcc rb2">65   7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1865</td> <td class="tcc rb">41   10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1666</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32   0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1716</td> <td class="tcc rb2">42   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1766</td> <td class="tcc rb2">43   1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1816</td> <td class="tcc rb2">78   6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1866</td> <td class="tcc rb">49   11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1667</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32   0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1717</td> <td class="tcc rb2">40   7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1767</td> <td class="tcc rb2">57   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1817</td> <td class="tcc rb2">96   11</td> <td class="tcc rb">1867</td> <td class="tcc rb">64   5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1668</td> <td class="tcc rb2">35   6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1718</td> <td class="tcc rb2">34   6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1768</td> <td class="tcc rb2">53   9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1818</td> <td class="tcc rb2">86   3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1868</td> <td class="tcc rb">63   9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1669</td> <td class="tcc rb2">39   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1719</td> <td class="tcc rb2">31   1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1769</td> <td class="tcc rb2">40   7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1819</td> <td class="tcc rb2">74   6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1869</td> <td class="tcc rb">48   2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1670</td> <td class="tcc rb2">37   0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1720</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1770</td> <td class="tcc rb2">43   6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1820</td> <td class="tcc rb2">67   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1870</td> <td class="tcc rb">46   11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1671</td> <td class="tcc rb2">37   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1721</td> <td class="tcc rb2">33   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1771</td> <td class="tcc rb2">47   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1821</td> <td class="tcc rb2">56   1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1871</td> <td class="tcc rb">56   8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1672</td> <td class="tcc rb2">36   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1722</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32   0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1772</td> <td class="tcc rb2">50   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1822</td> <td class="tcc rb2">44   7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1872</td> <td class="tcc rb">57   0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1673</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1723</td> <td class="tcc rb2">30   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1773</td> <td class="tcc rb2">51   0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1823</td> <td class="tcc rb2">53   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1873</td> <td class="tcc rb">58   8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1674</td> <td class="tcc rb2">61   0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1724</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1774</td> <td class="tcc rb2">52   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1824</td> <td class="tcc rb2">63   11</td> <td class="tcc rb">1874</td> <td class="tcc rb">55   9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1675</td> <td class="tcc rb2">57   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1725</td> <td class="tcc rb2">43   1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1775</td> <td class="tcc rb2">48   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1825</td> <td class="tcc rb2">68   6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1875</td> <td class="tcc rb">45   2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1676</td> <td class="tcc rb2">33   9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1726</td> <td class="tcc rb2">40   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1776</td> <td class="tcc rb2">38   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1826</td> <td class="tcc rb2">58   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1876</td> <td class="tcc rb">46   2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1677</td> <td class="tcc rb2">37   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1727</td> <td class="tcc rb2">37   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1777</td> <td class="tcc rb2">45   6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1827</td> <td class="tcc rb2">60   6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1877</td> <td class="tcc rb">56   9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1678</td> <td class="tcc rb2">52   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1728</td> <td class="tcc rb2">48   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1778</td> <td class="tcc rb2">42   0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1828</td> <td class="tcc rb2">60   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1878</td> <td class="tcc rb">46   5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1679</td> <td class="tcc rb2">53   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1729</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41   7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1779</td> <td class="tcc rb2">33   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1829</td> <td class="tcc rb2">66   3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1879</td> <td class="tcc rb">43   10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1680</td> <td class="tcc rb2">40   0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1730</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1780</td> <td class="tcc rb2">35   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1830</td> <td class="tcc rb2">64   3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">44   4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1681</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1731</td> <td class="tcc rb2">29   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1781</td> <td class="tcc rb2">44   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1831</td> <td class="tcc rb2">66   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1881</td> <td class="tcc rb">45   4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1682</td> <td class="tcc rb2">39   1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1732</td> <td class="tcc rb2">23   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1782</td> <td class="tcc rb2">47   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1832</td> <td class="tcc rb2">58   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1882</td> <td class="tcc rb">45   1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1683</td> <td class="tcc rb2">35   6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1733</td> <td class="tcc rb2">25   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1783</td> <td class="tcc rb2">52   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1833</td> <td class="tcc rb2">52   11</td> <td class="tcc rb">1883</td> <td class="tcc rb">41   7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1684</td> <td class="tcc rb2">39   1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1734</td> <td class="tcc rb2">34   6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1784</td> <td class="tcc rb2">48   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1834</td> <td class="tcc rb2">46   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1884</td> <td class="tcc rb">35   8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1685</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1735</td> <td class="tcc rb2">38   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1785</td> <td class="tcc rb2">51   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1835</td> <td class="tcc rb2">49   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1885</td> <td class="tcc rb">32   10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1686</td> <td class="tcc rb2">30   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1736</td> <td class="tcc rb2">35   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1786</td> <td class="tcc rb2">38   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1836</td> <td class="tcc rb2">48   6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1886</td> <td class="tcc rb">31   0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1687</td> <td class="tcc rb2">22   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1737</td> <td class="tcc rb2">33   9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1787</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1837</td> <td class="tcc rb2">55   0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1887</td> <td class="tcc rb">32   6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1688</td> <td class="tcc rb2">40   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1738</td> <td class="tcc rb2">31   6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1788</td> <td class="tcc rb2">45   0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1838</td> <td class="tcc rb2">64   7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1888</td> <td class="tcc rb">31   10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1689</td> <td class="tcc rb2">26   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1739</td> <td class="tcc rb2">34   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1789</td> <td class="tcc rb2">51   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1839</td> <td class="tcc rb2">70   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1889</td> <td class="tcc rb">29   9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1690</td> <td class="tcc rb2">30   9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1740</td> <td class="tcc rb2">45   1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1790</td> <td class="tcc rb2">54   9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1840</td> <td class="tcc rb2">66   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">31   11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1691</td> <td class="tcc rb2">30   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1741</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1791</td> <td class="tcc rb2">48   7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1841</td> <td class="tcc rb2">64   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">37   0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1692</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1742</td> <td class="tcc rb2">30   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1792</td> <td class="tcc rb2">43   0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1842</td> <td class="tcc rb2">57   3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1892</td> <td class="tcc rb">30   3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1693</td> <td class="tcc rb2">60   1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1743</td> <td class="tcc rb2">22   1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1793</td> <td class="tcc rb2">49   3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1843</td> <td class="tcc rb2">50   1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1893</td> <td class="tcc rb">26   4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1694</td> <td class="tcc rb2">56   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1744</td> <td class="tcc rb2">22   1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1794</td> <td class="tcc rb2">52   3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1844</td> <td class="tcc rb2">51   3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1894</td> <td class="tcc rb">22   10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1695</td> <td class="tcc rb2">47   1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1745</td> <td class="tcc rb2">24   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1795</td> <td class="tcc rb2">75   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1845</td> <td class="tcc rb2">50   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">23   1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1696</td> <td class="tcc rb2">63   1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1746</td> <td class="tcc rb2">34   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1796</td> <td class="tcc rb2">78   7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1846</td> <td class="tcc rb2">54   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">26   2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1697</td> <td class="tcc rb2">53   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1747</td> <td class="tcc rb2">30   11</td> <td class="tcc rb">1797</td> <td class="tcc rb2">53   9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1847</td> <td class="tcc rb2">69   9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1897</td> <td class="tcc rb">30   2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1698</td> <td class="tcc rb2">60   9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1748</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1798</td> <td class="tcc rb2">51   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1848</td> <td class="tcc rb2">50   6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">34   0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1699</td> <td class="tcc rb2">56   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1749</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1799</td> <td class="tcc rb2">69   0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1849</td> <td class="tcc rb2">44   3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">25   8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1700</td> <td class="tcc rb2">35   6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1750</td> <td class="tcc rb2">28   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1800</td> <td class="tcc rb2">113   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1850</td> <td class="tcc rb2">40   3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">26   11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1701</td> <td class="tcc rb2">33   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1751</td> <td class="tcc rb2">34   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1801</td> <td class="tcc rb2">119   6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1851</td> <td class="tcc rb2">38   6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">26   9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1702</td> <td class="tcc rb2">26   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1752</td> <td class="tcc rb2">37   2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1802</td> <td class="tcc rb2">69   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1852</td> <td class="tcc rb2">40   9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">28   1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1703</td> <td class="tcc rb2">32   0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1753</td> <td class="tcc rb2">39   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1803</td> <td class="tcc rb2">58   10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1853</td> <td class="tcc rb2">53   3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">26   9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1704</td> <td class="tcc rb2">41   4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1754</td> <td class="tcc rb2">30   9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1804</td> <td class="tcc rb2">62   3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1854</td> <td class="tcc rb2">72   5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">28   4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1705</td> <td class="tcc rb2">26   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1755</td> <td class="tcc rb2">30   1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1805</td> <td class="tcc rb2">89   9</td> <td class="tcc rb">1855</td> <td class="tcc rb2">74   8</td> <td class="tcc rb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb">29   8</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm lb tb bb cl f80">Average<br />50<br />years</td> <td class="tccm rb2 tb bb">42   10</td> <td class="tb bb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb2 tb bb">36   0</td> <td class="tb bb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb2 tb bb">51   9</td> <td class="tb bb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb2 tb bb">65   10</td> <td class="tb bb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb tb bb">*42   7</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="10">* Average for 46 years only.</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>Thus, whatever the cause of the decline in the price of wheat +may be, it cannot be attributed solely to the fall in the rate of +rail or ocean freights. Incidental charges are lower than they +were in 1870; handling charges, brokers’ commissions and +insurance premiums have been in many instances reduced, but +all these economies when combined only amount to about 2s. +per quarter. Now if we add together all these savings in the +rate of rail and ocean freights and incidental expenses, we arrive +at an aggregate economy of 8s. per quarter, or not one-third +of the actual difference between the average price of wheat +in 1872 and 1900. To what the remaining difference was due +it is difficult to say with certitude; there are some who argue +that the tendency of prices to fall is inherent, and that the +constant whittling away of intermediaries’ profits is sufficient +explanation, while bi-metallists have maintained that the +phenomenon is clearly to be traced to the action of the German +government in demonetizing silver in 1872.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Valuable information will also be found in Bulletin No. 38 +(1905), “Crop Export Movement and Port Facilities on the Atlantic +and Gulf Coasts”; in Bulletin No. 49 (1907), “Cost of Hauling +Crops from Farms to Shipping Points”; and in Bulletin No. 69 +(1908), “European Grain Trade.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAM,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Chick-pea</span>, called also Egyptian pea, or Bengal +gram (from Port. <i>grăo</i>, formerly <i>gram</i>, Lat. <i>granum</i>, Hindi +<i>Chanā</i>, Bengali <i>Chholā</i>, Ital. <i>cece</i>, Span. <i>garbanzo</i>), the +<i>Cicer arietinum</i> of Linnaeus, so named from the resemblance +of its seed to a ram’s head. It is a member of the natural order +Leguminosae, largely cultivated as a pulse-food in the south of +Europe, Egypt and western Asia as far as India, but is not known +undoubtedly wild. The plant is an annual herb with flexuose +branches, and alternately arranged pinnately compound leaves, +with small, oval, serrated leaflets and small eared stipules. The +flowers are borne singly in the leaf-axils on a stalk about half +the length of the leaf and jointed and bent in the middle; the +corolla is blue-purple. The inflated pod, 1 to 1˝ in. long, contains +two roundish seeds. It was cultivated by the Greeks in Homer’s +time under the name <i>erebinthos</i>, and is also referred to by +Dioscorides as <i>krios</i> from the resemblance of the pea to the head +of a ram. The Romans called it <i>cicer</i>, from which is derived +the modern names given to it in the south of Europe. Names, +more or less allied to one another, are in vogue among the peoples +of the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea, Armenia and Persia, and there +is a Sanskrit name and several others analogous or different in +modern Indian languages. The plant has been cultivated in +Egypt from the beginning of the Christian era, but there is no +proof that it was known to the ancient Egyptians. Alphonse de +Candolle (<i>Origin of Cultivated Plants</i>, p. 325) suggests that the +plant originally grew wild in the countries to the south of the +Caucasus and to the north of Persia. “The western Aryans +(Pelasgians, Hellenes) perhaps introduced the plant into southern +Europe, where, however, there is some probability that it was +also indigenous. The western Aryans carried it to India.” Gram +is largely cultivated in the East, where the seeds are eaten raw +or cooked in various ways, both in their ripe and unripe condition, +and when roasted and ground subserve the same purposes as +ordinary flour. In Europe the seeds are used as an ingredient +in soups. They contain, in 100 parts without husks, nitrogenous +substances 22.7, fat 3.76, starch 63.18, mineral matters 2.6 +parts, with water (Forbes Watson, quoted in Parkes’s <i>Hygiene</i>). +The liquid which exudes from the glandular hairs clothing the +leaves and stems of the plant, more especially during the cold +season when the seeds ripen, contains a notable proportion of +oxalic acid. In Mysore the dew containing it is collected by +means of cloths spread on the plant over night, and is used in +domestic medicine. The steam of water in which the fresh plant +is immersed is in the Deccan resorted to by the Portuguese +for the treatment of dysmenorrhoea. The seed of <i>Phaseolus +Mungo</i>, or green gram (Hind. and Beng. <i>moong</i>), a form of which +plant with black seeds (<i>P. Max</i> of Roxburgh) is termed black +gram, is an important article of diet among the labouring classes +in India. The meal is an excellent substitute for soap, and is +stated by Elliot to be an invariable concomitant of the Hindu +bath. A variety, var. <i>radiatus</i> (<i>P. Roxburghii</i>, W. and Arn., +or <i>P. radiatus</i>, Roxb.) (vern. <i>urid</i>, <i>māshkalāi</i>), also known as +green gram, is perhaps the most esteemed of the leguminous +plants of India, where the meal of its seed enters into the composition +of the more delicate cakes and dishes. Horse gram, +<i>Dolichos biflorus</i> (vern. <i>kulthi</i>), which supplies in Madras +the place of the chick-pea, affords seed which, when boiled, is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>326</span> +extensively employed as a food for horses and cattle in South +India, where also it is eaten in curries.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. Elliot, “On the Farinaceous Grains and the various kinds +of Pulses used in Southern India,” <i>Edin. New Phil. Journ.</i> xvi. +(1862) 16 sq.; H. Drury, <i>The Useful Plants of India</i> (1873); +U. C. Dutt, <i>Materia Medica of the Hindus</i> (Calcutta, 1877); G. Watt, +<i>Dictionary of the Economic Products of India</i> (1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAMMAR<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>grammatica</i>, sc. <i>ars</i>; Gr. <span class="grk" title="gramma">γράμμα</span>, +letter, from <span class="grk" title="graphein">γράφειν</span>, to write). By the grammar of a language is +meant either the relations borne by the words of a sentence +and by sentences themselves one to another, or the systematized +exposition of these. The exposition may be, and frequently is, +incorrect; but it always presupposes the existence of certain +customary uses of words when in combination. In what follows, +therefore, grammar will be generally employed in its primary +sense, as denoting the mode in which words are connected in +order to express a complete thought, or, as it is termed in logic, +a proposition.</p> + +<p>The object of language is to convey thought, and so long +as this object is attained the machinery for attaining it +is of comparatively slight importance. The way in +which we combine our words and sentences matters +<span class="sidenote">Scope of grammar.</span> +little, provided that our meaning is clear to others. +The expressions “horseflesh” and “flesh of a horse” +are equally intelligible to an Englishman and therefore are +equally recognized by English grammar. The Chinese manner +of denoting a genitive is by placing the defining word before +that which it defines, as in <i>koue jin</i>, “man of the kingdom,” +literally “kingdom man,” and the only reason why it would be +incorrect in French or Italian is that such a combination would +be unintelligible to a Frenchman or an Italian. Hence it is +evident that the grammatical correctness or incorrectness of an +expression depends upon its intelligibility, that is to say, upon +the ordinary use and custom of a particular language. Whatever +is so unfamiliar as not to be generally understood is also ungrammatical. +In other words, it is contrary to the habit of a +language, as determined by common usage and consent.</p> + +<p>In this way we can explain how it happens that the grammar +of a cultivated dialect and that of a local dialect in the same +country so frequently disagree. Thus, in the dialect of West +Somerset, <i>thee</i> is the nominative of the second personal pronoun, +while in cultivated English the plural accusative <i>you</i> (A.-S. +<i>eow</i>) has come to represent a nominative singular. Both +are grammatically correct within the sphere of their respective +dialects, but no further. <i>You</i> would be as ungrammatical in +West Somerset as <i>thee</i> is in classical English; and both <i>you</i> and +<i>thee</i>, as nominatives singular, would have been equally ungrammatical +in Early English. Grammatical propriety is nothing +more than the established usage of a particular body of speakers +at a particular time in their history.</p> + +<p>It follows from this that the grammar of a people changes, +like its pronunciation, from age to age. Anglo-Saxon or Early +English grammar is not the grammar of Modern English, any +more than Latin grammar is the grammar of modern Italian; +and to defend an unusual construction or inflexion on the ground +that it once existed in literary Anglo-Saxon is as wrong as to +import a peculiarity of some local dialect into the grammar +of the cultivated speech. It further follows that different +languages will have different grammars, and that the differences +will be more or less according to the nearer or remoter relationship +of the languages themselves and the modes of thought +of those who speak them. Consequently, to force the grammatical +framework of one language upon another is to misconceive +the whole nature of the latter and seriously to mislead +the learner. Chinese grammar, for instance, can never be understood +until we discard, not only the terminology of European +grammar, but the very conceptions which underlie it, while +the polysynthetic idioms of America defy all attempts to discover +in them “the parts of speech” and the various grammatical +ideas which occupy so large a place in our school-grammars. +The endeavour to find the distinctions of Latin grammar in that +of English has only resulted in grotesque errors, and a total +misapprehension of the usage of the English language.</p> + +<p>It is to the Latin grammarians—or, more correctly, to the +Greek grammarians, upon whose labours those of the Latin +writers were based—that we owe the classification of +the subjects with which grammar is commonly supposed +<span class="sidenote">Subdivision of grammar.</span> +to deal. The grammar of Dionysius Thrax, +which he wrote for Roman schoolboys in the time +of Pompey, has formed the starting-point for the innumerable +school-grammars which have since seen the light, and +suggested that division of the matter treated of which they have +followed. He defines grammar as a practical acquaintance with +the language of literary men, and as divided into six parts—accentuation +and phonology, explanation of figurative expressions, +definition, etymology, general rules of flexion and critical +canons. Of these, phonology and accentuation, or prosody, +can properly be included in grammar only in so far as the +construction of a sentence and the grammatical meaning of a +word are determined by accent or letter-change; the accentual +difference in English, for example, between <i>íncense</i> and <i>incénse</i> +belongs to the province of grammar, since it indicates a difference +between noun and verb; and the changes of vowel in the Semitic +languages, by which various nominal and verbal forms are +distinguished from one another, constitute a very important +part of their grammatical machinery. But where accent and +pronunciation do not serve to express the relations of words +in a sentence, they fall into the domain of phonology, not of +grammar. The explanation of figurative expressions, again, +must be left to the rhetorician, and definition to the lexicographer; +the grammarian has no more to do with them than he has with +the canons of criticism.</p> + +<p>In fact, the old subdivision of grammar, inherited from the +grammarians of Rome and Alexandria, must be given up and +a new one put in its place. What grammar really deals with +are all those contrivances whereby the relations of words and +sentences are pointed out. Sometimes it is position, sometimes +phonetic symbolization, sometimes composition, sometimes +flexion, sometimes the use of auxiliaries, which enables the +speaker to combine his words in such a way that they shall be +intelligible to another. Grammar may accordingly be divided +into the three departments of composition or “word-building,” +syntax and accidence, by which is meant an exposition of the +means adopted by language for expressing the relations of +grammar when recourse is not had to composition or simple +position.</p> + +<p>A systematized exposition of grammar may be intended for +the purely practical purpose of teaching the mechanism of a +foreign language. In this case all that is necessary +is a correct and complete statement of the facts. But +<span class="sidenote">Modes of treatment.</span> +a correct and complete statement of the facts is by no +means so easy a matter as might appear at first sight. +The facts will be distorted by a false theory in regard to them, +while they will certainly not be presented in a complete form if +the grammarian is ignorant of the true theory they presuppose. +The Semitic verb, for example, remains unintelligible so long +as the explanation of its forms is sought in the conjugation of +the Aryan verb, since it has no tenses in the Aryan sense of the +word, but denotes relation and not time.</p> + +<p>A good practical grammar of a language, therefore, should be +based on a correct appreciation of the facts which it expounds, +and a correct appreciation of the facts is only possible where +they are examined and co-ordinated in accordance with the +scientific method. A practical grammar ought, wherever it is +possible, to be preceded by a scientific grammar.</p> + +<p>Comparison is the instrument with which science works, and +a scientific grammar, accordingly, is one in which the comparative +method has been applied to the relations of speech. If we would +understand the origin and real nature of grammatical forms, +and of the relations which they represent, we must compare them +with similar forms in kindred dialects and languages, as well +as with the forms under which they appeared themselves at an +earlier period of their history. We shall thus have a comparative +grammar and an historical grammar, the latter being devoted +to tracing the history of grammatical forms and usages in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327"></a>327</span> +same language. Of course, an historical grammar is only +possible where a succession of written records exists; where +a language possesses no older literature we must be content +with a comparative grammar only, and look to cognate idioms +to throw light upon its grammatical peculiarities. In this case +we have frequently to leave whole forms unexplained, or at +most conjecturally interpreted, since the machinery by means of +which the relations of grammar are symbolized is often changed +so completely during the growth of a language as to cause its +earlier shape and character to be unrecognizable. Moreover, +our area of comparison must be as wide as possible; where we +have but two or three languages to compare, we are in danger +of building up conclusions on insufficient evidence. The grammatical +errors of the classical philologists of the 18th century +were in great measure due to the fact that their area of comparison +was confined to Latin and Greek.</p> + +<p>The historical grammar of a single language or dialect, which +traces the grammatical forms and usages of the language as far +back as documentary evidence allows, affords material to the +comparative grammarian, whose task it is to compare the +grammatical forms and usages of an allied group of tongues +and thereby reduce them to their earliest forms and senses. +The work thus carried out by the comparative grammarian +within a particular family of languages is made use of by universal +grammar, the object of which is to determine the ideas that underlie +all grammar whatsoever, as distinct from those that are +peculiar to special families of speech. Universal grammar is +sometimes known as “the metaphysics of language,” and it +has to decide such questions as the nature of gender or of the +verb, the true purport of the genitive relation, or the origin of +grammar itself. Such questions, it is clear, can only be answered +by comparing the results gained by the comparative treatment +of the grammars of various groups of language. What historical +grammar is to comparative grammar, comparative grammar is +to universal grammar.</p> + +<p>Universal grammar, as founded on the results of the scientific +study of speech, is thus essentially different from that “universal +grammar” so much in vogue at the beginning of the +19th century, which consisted of a series of a priori +<span class="sidenote">Universal grammar.</span> +assumptions based on the peculiarities of European +grammar and illustrated from the same source. But universal +grammar, as conceived by modern science, is as yet in its infancy; +its materials are still in the process of being collected. The +comparative grammar of the Indo-European languages is alone +in an advanced state, those of the Semitic idioms, of the Finno-Ugrian +tongues and of the Bantu dialects of southern Africa +are still in a backward condition; and the other families of +speech existing in the world, with the exception of the Malayo-Polynesian +and the Sonorian of North America, have not as yet +been treated scientifically. Chinese, it is true, possesses an +historical grammar, and Van Eys, in his comparative grammar +of Basque, endeavoured to solve the problems of that interesting +language by a comparison of its various dialects; but in both +cases the area of comparison is too small for more than a limited +success to be attainable. Instead of attempting the questions +of universal grammar, therefore, it will be better to confine our +attention to three points—the fundamental differences in the +grammatical conceptions of different groups of languages, the +main results of a scientific investigation of Indo-European +grammar, and the light thrown by comparative philology upon +the grammar of our own tongue.</p> + +<p>The proposition or sentence is the unit and starting-point of +speech, and grammar, as we have seen, consists in the relations +of its several parts one to another, together with the +expression of them. These relations may be regarded +<span class="sidenote">Differences in grammar of unallied languages.</span> +from various points of view. In the polysynthetic +languages of America the sentence is conceived as a +whole, not composed of independent words, but, like +the thought which it expresses, one and indivisible. What we +should denote by a series of words is consequently denoted by a +single long compound—<i>kuligatchis</i> in Delaware, for instance, +signifying “give me your pretty little paw,” and <i>aglekkigiartorasuarnipok</i> +in Eskimo, “he goes away hastily and exerts himself +to write.” Individual words can be, and often are, extracted +from the sentence; but in this case they stand, as it were, +outside it, being represented by a pronoun within the sentence +itself. Thus, in Mexican, we can say not only <i>ni-sotsi-temoa</i>, “I +look for flowers,” but also <i>ni-k-temoa sotsitl</i>, where the interpolated +guttural is the objective pronoun. As a necessary result +of this conception of the sentence the American languages +possess no true verb, each act being expressed as a whole by a +single word. In Cherokee, for example, while there is no verb +signifying “to wash” in the abstract, no less than thirteen +words are used to signify every conceivable mode and object of +washing. In the incorporating languages, again, of which +Basque may be taken as a type, the object cannot be conceived +except as contained in the verbal action. Hence every verbal +form embodies an objective pronoun, even though the object +may be separately expressed. If we pass to an isolating language +like Chinese, we find the exact converse of that which meets us +in the polysynthetic tongues. Here each proposition or thought +is analysed into its several elements, and these are set over +against one another as so many independent words. The +relations of grammar are consequently denoted by position, the +particular position of two or more words determining the relation +they bear to each other. The analysis of the sentence has not +been carried so far in agglutinative languages like Turkish. +In these the relations of grammar are represented by individual +words, which, however, are subordinated to the words expressing +the main ideas intended to be in relation to one another. The +defining words, or indices of grammatical relations, are, in a +large number of instances, placed after the words which they +define; in some cases, however, as, for example, in the Bantu +languages of southern Africa, the relation is conceived from +the opposite point of view, the defining words being prefixed. +The inflexional languages call in the aid of a new principle. +The relations of grammar are denoted symbolically either +by a change of vowel or by a change of termination, more +rarely by a change at the beginning of a word. Each +idea, together with the relation which it bears to the other +ideas of a proposition, is thus represented by a single word; +that is to say, the ideas which make up the elements of a +sentence are not conceived severally and independently, as in +Chinese, but as always having a certain connexion with one +another. Inflexional languages, however, tend to become +analytical by the logical separation of the flexion from the idea +to which it is attached, though the primitive point of view is +never altogether discarded, and traces of flexion remain even in +English and Persian. In fact, there is no example of a language +which has wholly forsaken the conception of the sentence and +the relation of its elements with which it started, although each +class of languages occasionally trespasses on the grammatical +usages of the others. In language, as elsewhere in nature, there +are no sharp lines of division, no sudden leaps; species passes +insensibly into species, class into class. At the same time the +several types of speech—polysynthetic, isolating, agglutinative +and inflexional—remain clear and fixed; and even where two +languages belong to the same general type, as, for instance, an +Indo-European and a Semitic language in the inflexional group, +or a Bantu and a Turkish language in the agglutinative group, +we find no certain example of grammatical interchange. A mixed +grammar, in which the grammatical procedure of two distinct +families of speech is intermingled, is almost, if not altogether, +unknown.</p> + +<p>It is obvious, therefore, that grammar constitutes the surest +and most important basis for a classification of languages. +Words may be borrowed freely by one dialect from another, or, +though originally unrelated, may, by the action of phonetic +decay, come to assume the same forms, while the limited number +of articulate sounds and conceptions out of which language was +first developed, and the similarity of the circumstances by which +the first speakers were everywhere surrounded, naturally produce +a resemblance between the roots of many unconnected tongues. +Where, however, the fundamental conceptions of grammar and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id="page328"></a>328</span> +the machinery by which they are expressed are the same, we +may have no hesitation in inferring a common origin.</p> + +<p>The main results of scientific inquiry into the origin and +primitive meaning of the forms of Indo-European grammar +may be summed up as follows. We start with stems +or themes, by which are meant words of two or +<span class="sidenote">Forms of Indo-European grammar.</span> +more syllables which terminate in a limited number +of sounds. These stems can be classed in groups of +two kinds, one in which the groups consist of stems of similar +meanings and similar initial syllables, and another in which +the final syllables alone coincide. In the first case we have +what are termed roots, the simplest elements into which +words can be decomposed; in the second case stems proper, +which may be described as consisting of suffixes attached to +roots. Roots, therefore, are merely the materials out of which +speech can be made, the embodiments of isolated conceptions +with which the lexicographer alone has to deal, whereas stems +present us with words already combined in a sentence and +embodying the relations of grammar. If we would rightly +understand primitive Indo-European grammar, we must conceive +it as having been expressed or implied in the suffixes of the stems, +and in the order according to which the stems were arranged in +a sentence. In other words, the relations of grammar were +denoted partly by juxtaposition or syntax, partly by the suffixes +of stems.</p> + +<p>These suffixes were probably at first unmeaning, or rather +clothed with vague significations, which changed according to +the place occupied in the sentence by the stem to which they +were joined. Gradually this vagueness of signification disappeared, +and particular suffixes came to be set apart to represent +particular relations of grammar. What had hitherto been +expressed by mere position now attached itself to the terminations +or suffixes of stems, which accordingly became full-grown words. +Some of the suffixes denoted purely grammatical ideas, that is +to say, were flexions; others were classificatory, serving to +distinguish nouns from verbs, presents from aorists, objects +from agents and the like; while others, again, remained unmeaning +adjuncts of the root. This origin of the flexions explains +the otherwise strange fact that the same suffix may symbolize +wholly different grammatical relations. In Latin, for instance, +the context and dictionary will alone tell us that <i>mus-as</i> is the +accusative plural of a noun, and <i>am-as</i> the second person singular +of a verb, or that <i>mus-a</i> is the nominative singular of a feminine +substantive, <i>bon-a</i> the accusative plural of a neuter adjective. +In short, the flexions were originally merely the terminations of +stems which were adapted to express the various relations of +words to each other in a sentence, as these gradually presented +themselves to the consciousness and were extracted from what +had been previously implied by position. Necessarily, the same +suffix might be used sometimes in a classificatory, sometimes in a +flexional sense, and sometimes without any definite sense at all. +In the Greek dative-locative <span class="grk" title="pod-es-si">πόδ-εσ-σι</span>, for example, the suffix +<span class="grk" title="-es">-ες</span> is classificatory; in the nominative <span class="grk" title="pod-es">πόδ-ες</span> it is flexional.</p> + +<p>When a particular termination or suffix once acquired a +special sense, it would be separated in thought from the stem to +which it belonged, and attached in the same sense to other stems +and other terminations. Thus in modern English we can attach +the suffix -ize to almost any word whatsoever, in order to give +the latter a transitive meaning, and the Gr. <span class="grk" title="podessi">πόδεσσι</span>, quoted +above, really contains no less than three suffixes, <span class="grk" title="-es">-ες</span>, <span class="grk" title="-su">-συ</span> and +<span class="grk" title="-i">-ι</span>, the last two both denoting the locative, and coalescing, +through <span class="grk" title="swi">σϝι</span>, into a single syllable <span class="grk" title="-si">-σι</span>. The latter instance shows +us how two or more suffixes denoting exactly the same idea may +be tacked on one to another, if the original force and signification +of the first of them comes to be forgotten. Thus, in O. Eng. +<i>sang-estre</i> was the feminine of <i>sang-ere</i>, “singer,” but the meaning +of the termination has so entirely died out of the memory that +we have to add the Romanic <i>-ess</i> to it if we would still distinguish +it from the masculine <i>singer</i>. A familiar example of the way +in which the full sense of the exponent of a grammatical idea +fades from the mind and has to be supplied by a new exponent +is afforded by the use of expletives in conversational English +to denote the superlative. “Very warm” expresses little more +than the positive, and to represent the intensity of his feelings +the Englishman has recourse to such expressions as “awfully +warm” like the Ger. “schrecklich warm.”</p> + +<p>Such words as “very,” “awfully,” “schrecklich,” illustrate +a second mode in which Indo-European grammar has found +means of expression. Words may lose their true signification +and become the mere exponents of grammatical ideas. Professor +Earle divides all words into <i>presentive</i> and <i>symbolic</i>, the former +denoting objects and conceptions, the latter the relations which +exist between these. Symbolic words, therefore, are what the +Chinese grammarians call “empty words”—words, that is, which +have been divested of their proper signification and serve a grammatical +purpose only. Many of the classificatory and some of +the flexional suffixes of Indo-European speech can be shown +to have had this origin. Thus the suffix <i>tar</i>, which denotes +names of kinship and agency, seems to come from the same root +as the Lat. <i>terminus</i> and <i>trans</i>, our <i>through</i>, the Sans. <i>tar-āmi</i>, +“I pass over,” and to have primarily signified “one that goes +through” a thing. Thus, too, the Eng. <i>head</i> or <i>hood</i>, in words +like <i>godhead</i> and <i>brotherhood</i>, is the A.-S. <i>hâd</i>, “character” +or “rank”; <i>dom</i>, in kingdom, the A.-S. <i>dôm</i>, “judgment”; +and <i>lock</i> or <i>ledge</i>, in <i>wedlock</i> and <i>knowledge</i>, the A.-S. <i>lâc</i>, “sport” +or “gift.” In all these cases the “empty words,” after first +losing every trace of their original significance, have followed +the general analogy of the language and assumed the form and +functions of the suffixes with which they had been confused.</p> + +<p>A third mode of representing the relations of grammar is +by the symbolic use of vowels and diphthongs. In Greek, for +instance, the distinction between the reduplicated present <span class="grk" title="didômi">δίδωμι</span> +and the reduplicated perfect <span class="grk" title="dedôka">δέδωκα</span> is indicated by a distinction +of vowel, and in primitive Aryan grammar the vowel <i>â</i> seems +to have been set apart to denote the subjunctive mood just as +<i>ya</i> or <i>i</i> was set apart to denote the potential. So, too, according +to M. Hovelacque, the change of <i>a</i> into <i>i</i> or <i>u</i> in the parent Indo-European +symbolized a change of meaning from passive to active. +This symbolic use of the vowels, which is the purest application +of the principle of flexion, is far less extensively carried out in +the Indo-European than in the Semitic languages. The Semitic +family of speech is therefore a much more characteristic type of +the inflexional languages than is the Indo-European.</p> + +<p>The primitive Indo-European noun possessed at least eight +cases—nominative, accusative, vocative, instrumental, dative, +genitive, ablative and locative. M. Bergaigne has attempted +to show that the first three of these, the “strong cases” as +they are termed, are really abstracts formed by the suffixes +<i>-as</i> (<i>-s</i>), <i>-an, -m, -t, -i, -â</i> and <i>-ya</i> (<i>-i</i>), the plural being nothing +more than an abstract singular, as may be readily seen by +comparing words like the Gr. <span class="grk" title="epo-s">ἔπο-ς</span>, and <span class="grk" title="ope-s">ὄπε-ς</span>, which mean +precisely the same. The remaining “weak” cases, formed by +the suffixes <i>-sma, -sya, -syâ, -yâ, -i, -an, -t, -bhi, -su, -i, -a</i> and <i>-â</i>, +are really adjectives and adverbs. No distinction, for example, +can be drawn between “a cup of gold” and “a golden cup,” +and the instrumental, the dative, the ablative and the locative +are, when closely examined, merely adverbs attached to a verb. +The terminations of the strong cases do not displace the accent +of the stem to which they are suffixed; the suffixes of the weak +cases, on the other hand, generally draw the accent upon +themselves.</p> + +<p>According to Hübschmann, the nominative, accusative and +genitive cases are purely grammatical, distinguished from one +another through the exigencies of the sentence only, whereas +the locative, ablative and instrumental have a logical origin and +determine the logical relation which the three other cases bear +to each other and the verb. The nature of the dative is left +undecided. The locative primarily denotes rest in a place, the +ablative motion from a place, and the instrumental the means or +concomitance of an action. The dative Hübschmann regards +as “the case of the participant object.” Like Hübschmann, +Holzweissig divides the cases into two classes—the one grammatical +and the other logical; and his analysis of their primitive +meaning is the same as that of Hübschmann, except as regards +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329"></a>329</span> +the dative, the primary sense of which he thinks to have been +motion towards a place. This is also the view of Delbrück, who +makes it denote tendency towards an object. Delbrück, however, +holds that the primary sense of the ablative was that of +separation, the instrumental originally indicating concomitance, +while there was a double locative, one used like the ablative +absolute in Latin, the other being a locative of the object.</p> + +<p>The dual was older than the plural, and after the development +of the latter survived as a merely useless encumbrance, of which +most of the Indo-European languages contrived in time to get +rid. There are still many savage idioms in which the conception +of plurality has not advanced beyond that of duality. In the +Bushman dialects, for instance, the plural, or rather that which +is more than one, is expressed by repeating the word; thus <i>tu</i> +is “mouth,” <i>tutu</i> “mouths.” It may be shown that most of +the suffixes of the Indo-European dual are the longer and more +primitive forms of those of the plural which have grown out of +them by the help of phonetic decay. The plural of the weak cases, +on the other hand (the accusative alone excepted), was identical +with the singular of abstract nouns; so far as both form and +meaning are concerned, no distinction can be drawn between +<span class="grk" title="opes">ὄπες</span> and <span class="grk" title="epos">ἔπος</span>. Similarly, <i>humanity</i> and <i>men</i> signify one and +the same thing, and the use of English words like <i>sheep</i> or <i>fish</i> +for both singular and plural shows to what an extent our appreciation +of number is determined by the context rather than by the +form of the noun. The so-called “broken plurals” of Arabic +and Ethiopic are really singular collectives employed to denote +the plural.</p> + +<p>Gender is the product partly of analogy, partly of phonetic +decay. In many languages, such as Eskimo and Choctaw, its +place is taken by a division of objects into animate and inanimate, +while in other languages they are separated into rational and +irrational. There are many indications that the parent Indo-European +in an early stage of its existence had no signs of gender +at all. The terminations of the names of <i>father</i> and <i>mother</i>, +<i>pater</i> and <i>mater</i>, for example, are exactly the same, and in Latin +and Greek many diphthongal stems, as well as stems in <i>i</i> or <i>ya</i> and u (like <span class="grk" title="naus">ναῦς</span> and <span class="grk" title="nekus">νέκυς</span>, <span class="grk" title="polis">πόλις</span> and <span class="grk" title="lis">λῖς</span>), may be indifferently +masculine and feminine. Even stems in <i>o</i> and <i>a</i> (of the second +and first declensions), though the first are generally masculine +and the second generally feminine, by no means invariably +maintain the rule; and feminines like <i>humus</i> and <span class="grk" title="hodos">ὁδός</span>, or +masculines like <i>advena</i> and <span class="grk" title="politęs">πολίτης</span>, show that there was a time +when these stems also indicated no particular gender, but owed +their subsequent adaptation, the one to mark the masculine +and the other to mark the feminine, to the influence of analogy. +The idea of gender was first suggested by the difference between +man and woman, male and female, and, as in so many languages +at the present day, was represented not by any outward sign +but by the meaning of the words themselves. When once arrived +at, the conception of gender was extended to other objects besides +those to which it properly belonged. The primitive Indo-European +did not distinguish between subject and object, but +personified objects by ascribing to them the motives and powers +of living beings. Accordingly they were referred to by different +pronouns, one class denoting the masculine and another class +the feminine, and the distinction that existed between these two +classes of pronouns was after a time transferred to the nouns. +As soon as the preponderant number of stems in <i>o</i> in daily use +had come to be regarded as masculine on account of their meaning, +other stems in <i>o</i>, whatever might be their signification, +were made to follow the general analogy and were similarly +classed as masculines. In the same way, the suffix <i>i</i> or <i>ya</i> +acquired a feminine sense, and was set apart to represent the +feminine gender. Unlike the Semites, the Indo-Europeans were +not satisfied with these two genders, masculine and feminine. +As soon as object and subject, patient and agent, were clearly +distinguished from each other, there arose a need for a third +gender, which should be neither masculine nor feminine, but +denote things without life. This third gender was fittingly +expressed either by the objective case used as a nominative (<i>e.g.</i> +<i>regnum</i>), or by a stem without any case ending at all (<i>e.g.</i> <i>virus</i>).</p> + +<p>The adverbial meaning of so many of the cases explains the +readiness with which they became crystallized into adverbs and +prepositions. An adverb is the attribute of an attribute—“the +rose smells sweetly,” for example, being resolvable into “the +rose has the attribute of scent with the further attribute of +sweetness.” In our own language <i>once</i>, <i>twice</i>, <i>needs</i>, are all +genitives; <i>seldom</i> is a dative. The Latin and Greek <i>humi</i> and +<span class="grk" title="chamai">χαμαί</span> are locatives, <i>facillime</i> (<i>facillumed</i>) and <span class="grk" title="eutychôs">εὐτυχῶς</span> ablatives, +<span class="grk" title="pantę">πάντη</span> and <span class="grk" title="hama">ἄμα</span> instrumentals, <span class="grk" title="paros">πάρος</span>, <span class="grk" title="hexęs">ἑξῆς</span> and <span class="grk" title="tęlou">τηλοῦ</span> genitives. +The frequency with which particular cases of particular nouns +were used in a specifically attributive sense caused them to +become, as it were, petrified, the other cases of the nouns in +question passing out of use, and the original force of those that +were retained being gradually forgotten. Prepositions are +adverbs employed to define nouns instead of verbs and adjectives. +Their appearance in the Indo-European languages is comparatively +late, and the Homeric poems allow us to trace their growth +in Greek. The adverb, originally intended to define the verb, +came to be construed with the noun, and the government of +the case with which it was construed was accordingly transferred +from the verb to the noun. Thus when we read in the <i>Odyssey</i>(iv. 43), <span class="grk" title="autous d eisęgon theion domon">αὐτοὺς δ᾽ εἰσῆγον θεῖον δόμον</span>, we see that <span class="grk" title="eis">εἰς</span> is still an +adverb, and that the accusative is governed by the verb; it is +quite otherwise, however, with a line like <span class="grk" title="Atreidęs de gerontas +aolleas ęgen Achaiôn es klisięn">Ἀτρείδης δὲ γέροντας ἀολλέας ἦγεν Ἀχαιῶν ἐς κλισίην</span> (<i>Il.</i> i. 89) where the adverb has +passed into a preposition. The same process of transformation +is still going on in English, where we can say indifferently, +“What are you looking at?” using “at” as an adverb, and +governing the pronoun by the verb, and “At what are you +looking?” where “at” has become a preposition. With the +growth and increase of prepositions the need of the case-endings +diminished, and in some languages the latter disappeared +altogether.</p> + +<p>Like prepositions, conjunctions also are primarily adverbs +used in a demonstrative and relative sense. Hence most of the +conjunctions are petrified cases of pronouns. The relation +between two sentences was originally expressed by simply setting +them side by side, afterwards by employing a demonstrative +at the beginning of the second clause to refer to the whole preceding +one. The relative pronoun can be shown to have been +in the first instance a demonstrative; indeed, we can still use +<i>that</i> in English in a relative sense. Since the demonstrative +at the beginning of the second clause represented the first clause, +and was consequently an attribute of the second, it had to stand +in some case, and this case became a conjunction. How closely +allied the adverb and the conjunction are may be seen from +Greek and Latin, where <span class="grk" title="hôs">ὡς</span> or <i>quum</i> can be used as either the one +or the other. Our own <i>and</i>, it may be observed, has probably +the same root as the Greek locative adverb <span class="grk" title="eti">ἔτι</span>, and originally +signified “going further.”</p> + +<p>Another form of adverb is the infinitive, the adverbial force +of which appears clearly in such a phrase as “A wonderful thing +to see.” Various cases, such as the locative, the dative or the +instrumental, are employed in Vedic Sanskrit in the sense of +the infinitive, besides the bare stem or neuter formed by the +suffixes <i>man</i> and <i>van</i>. In Greek the neuter stem and the dative +case were alone retained for the purpose. The first is found in +infinitives like <span class="grk" title="domen">δόμεν</span> and <span class="grk" title="ferein">φέρειν</span> (for an earlier <span class="grk" title="fere-wen">φερε-ϝεν</span>), the +second in the infinitives in <span class="grk" title="-ai">-αι</span>. Thus the Gr. <span class="grk" title="dounai">δοῦναι</span> answers +letter for letter to the Vedic dative <i>dāvāne</i>, “to give,” and the +form <span class="grk" title="pseudesthai">ψεύδεσθαι</span> is explained by the Vedic <i>vayodhai</i>, for <i>vayās-dhai</i>, +literally “to do living,” <i>dhai</i> being the dative of a noun from +the root <i>dhā</i>, “to place” or “do.” When the form <span class="grk" title="pseudesthai">ψεύδεσθαι</span> +had once come into existence, analogy was ready to create such +false imitations as <span class="grk" title="grapsasthai">γράψασθαι</span> or <span class="grk" title="graphthęsesthai">γραφθήσεσθαι</span>. The Latin +infinitive in <i>-re</i> for <i>-se</i> has the same origin, <i>amare</i>, for instance, +being the dative of an old stem <i>amas</i>. In <i>fieri</i> for <i>fierei</i> or <i>fiesei</i>, +from the same root as our English <i>be</i>, the original length of the +final syllable is preserved. The suffix in <i>-um</i> is an accusative, like +the corresponding infinitive of classical Sanskrit. This origin +of the infinitive explains the Latin construction of the accusative +and infinitive. When the Roman said, “Miror te ad me nihil +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page330" id="page330"></a>330</span> +scribere,” all that he meant at first was, “I wonder at you for +writing nothing to me,” where the infinitive was merely a dative +case used adverbially.</p> + +<p>The history of the infinitive makes it clear how little distinction +must have been felt at the outset between the noun and the verb. +Indeed, the growth of the verb was a slow process. There was a +time in the history of Indo-European speech when it had not as +yet risen to the consciousness of the speaker, and in the period +when the noun did not possess a plural there was as yet also no +verb. The attachment of the first and second personal pronouns, +or of suffixes resembling them, to certain stems, was the first +stage in the development of the latter. Like the Semitic verb, +the Indo-European verb seems primarily to have denoted relation +only, and to have been attached as an attribute to the subject. +The idea of time, however, was soon put into it, and two tenses +were created, the one expressing a present or continuous action, the +other an aoristic or momentary one. The distinction of sense was +symbolized by a distinction of pronunciation, the root-syllable +of the aorist being an abbreviated form of that of the present. +This abbreviation was due to a change in the position of the accent +(which was shifted from the stem-syllable to the termination), +and this change again was probably occasioned by the prefixing +of the so-called augment to the aorist, which survived into historical +times only in Sanskrit, Zend and Greek, and the origin of +which is still a mystery. The weight of the first syllable in the +aorist further caused the person-endings to be shortened, and so +two sets of person-endings, usually termed primary and secondary, +sprang into existence. By reduplicating the root-syllable of +the present tense a perfect was formed; but originally no distinction +was made between present and perfect, and Greek verbs +like <span class="grk" title="didômi">δίδωμι</span> and <span class="grk" title="hękô">ἣκω</span> are memorials of a time when the difference +between “I am come” and “I have come” was not yet felt. +Reduplication was further adapted to the expression of intensity +and desire (in the so-called intensive and desiderative forms). +By the side of the aorist stood the imperfect, which differed +from the aorist, so far as outward form was concerned, only +in possessing the longer and more original stem of the present. +Indeed, as Benfey first saw, the aorist itself was primitively +an imperfect, and the distinction between aorist and imperfect +is not older than the period when the stem-syllables of +certain imperfects were shortened through the influence of the +accent, and this differentiation of forms appropriated to denote +a difference between the sense of the aorist and the imperfect +which was beginning to be felt. After the analogy of the imperfect, +a pluperfect was created out of the perfect by prefixing +the augment (of which the Greek <span class="grk" title="ememękon">ἐμέμηκον</span> is an illustration); +though the pluperfect, too, was originally an imperfect formed +from the reduplicated present.</p> + +<p>Besides time, mood was also expressed by the primitive +Indo-European verb, recourse being had to symbolization for +the purpose. The imperative was represented by the bare stem, +like the vocative, the accent being drawn back to the first +syllable, though other modes of denoting it soon came into +vogue. Possibility was symbolized by the attachment of +the suffix <i>-ya</i> to the stem, probability by the attachment of +<i>-a</i> and <i>-ā</i>, and in this way the optative and conjunctive moods +first arose. The creation of a future by the help of the suffix +<i>-sya</i> seems to belong to the same period in the history of the +verb. This suffix is probably identical with that used to form +a large class of adjectives and genitives (like the Greek <span class="grk" title="hippoio">ἵπποιο</span> +for <span class="grk" title="hipposio">ἱπποσιο</span>); in this case future time will have been regarded +as an attribute of the subject, no distinction being drawn, for +instance, between “rising sun” and “the sun will rise.” It +is possible, however, that the auxiliary verb <i>as</i>, “to be,” enters +into the composition of the future; if so, the future will be +the product of the second stage in the development of the Indo-European +verb when new forms were created by means of +composition. The sigmatic or first aorist is in favour of this +view, as it certainly belongs to the age of Indo-European unity, +and may be a compound of the verbal stem with the auxiliary <i>as</i>.</p> + +<p>After the separation of the Indo-European languages, composition +was largely employed in the formation of new tenses. +Thus in Latin we have perfects like <i>scrip-si</i> and <i>ama-vi</i>, formed +by the help of the auxiliaries <i>as</i> (<i>sum</i>) and <i>fuo</i>, while such forms +as <i>amaveram</i> (<i>amavi-eram</i>) or <i>amarem</i> (<i>ama-sem</i>) bear their +origin on their face. So, too, the future in Latin and Old Celtic +(<i>amabo</i>, Irish <i>carub</i>) is based upon the substantive verb <i>fuo</i>, +“to be,” and the English preterite in <i>-ed</i> goes back to a suffixed +<i>did</i>, the reduplicated perfect of <i>do</i>. New tenses and moods, +however, were created by the aid of suffixes as well as by the +aid of composition, or rather were formed from nouns whose +stems terminated in the suffixes in question. Thus in Greek +we have aorists and perfects in <span class="grk" title="-ka">-κα</span>, and the characteristics of +the two passive aorists, <i>ye</i> and <i>the</i>, are more probably the suffixes +of nominal stems than the roots of the two verbs <i>ya</i>, “to go,” +and <i>dhâ</i>, “to place,” as Bopp supposed. How late some of these +new formations were may be seen in Greek, where the Homeric +poems are still ignorant of the weak future passive, the optative +future, and the aspirated perfect, and where the strong future +passive occurs but once and the desiderative but twice. On +the other hand, many of the older tenses were disused and lost. +In classical Sanskrit, for instance, of the modal aorist forms +the precative and benedictive almost alone remain, while the +pluperfect, of which Delbrück has found traces in the Veda, +has wholly disappeared.</p> + +<p>The passive voice did not exist in the parent Indo-European +speech. No need for it had arisen, since such a sentence as “I +am pleased” could be as well represented by “This pleases me,” +or “I please myself.” It was long before the speaker was able +to imagine an action without an object, and when he did so, +it was a neuter or substantival rather than a passive verb that +he formed. The passive, in fact, grew out of the middle or +reflexive, and, except in the two aorists, continued to be represented +by the middle in Greek. So, too, in Latin the second +person plural is really the middle participle with <i>estis</i> understood, +and the whole class of deponent or reflexive verbs proves that +the characteristic <i>r</i> which Latin shares with Celtic could have +had at the outset no passive force.</p> + +<p>Much light has been thrown on the character and construction +of the primitive Indo-European sentence by comparative syntax. +In contradistinction to Semitic, where the defining word follows +that which is defined, the Indo-European languages place that +which is defined after that which defines it; and Bergaigne +has made it clear that the original order of the sentence was +(1) object, (2) verb, and (3) subject. Greater complication of +thought and its expression, the connexion of sentences by the +aid of conjunctions, and rhetorical inversion caused that dislocation +of the original order of the sentence which reaches its +culminating point in the involved periods of Latin literature. +Our own language still remains true, however, to the syntax +of the parent Indo-European when it sets both adjective and +genitive before the nouns which they define. In course of time +a distinction came to be made between an attribute used as a +mere qualificative and an attribute used predicatively, and +this distinction was expressed by placing the predicate in opposition +to the subject and accordingly after it. The opposition +was of itself sufficient to indicate the logical copula or substantive +verb; indeed, the word which afterwards commonly +stood for the latter at first signified “existence,” and it was only +through the wear and tear of time that a phrase like <i>Deus bonus +est</i>, “God exists as good,” came to mean simply “God is good.” +It is needless to observe that neither of the two articles was +known to the parent Indo-European; indeed, the definite article, +which is merely a decayed demonstrative pronoun, has not yet +been developed in several of the languages of the Indo-European +family.</p> + +<p>We must now glance briefly at the results of a scientific investigation +of English grammar and the modifications they +necessitate in our conception of it. The idea that +the free use of speech is tied down by the rules of +<span class="sidenote">Investigation of English grammar.</span> +the grammarian must first be given up; all that the +grammarian can do is to formulate the current uses +of his time, which are determined by habit and custom, +and are accordingly in a perpetual state of flux. We must next +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331"></a>331</span> +get rid of the notion that English grammar should be modelled +after that of ancient Rome; until we do so we shall never +understand even the elementary principles upon which it is +based. We cannot speak of declensions, since English has no +genders except in the pronouns of the third person, and no +cases except the genitive and a few faint traces of an old dative. +Its verbal conjugation is essentially different from that of an +inflexional language like Latin, and cannot be compressed into +the same categories. In English the syntax has been enlarged +at the expense of the accidence; position has taken the place +of forms. To speak of an adjective “agreeing” with its substantive +is as misleading as to speak of a verb “governing” +a case. In fact, the distinction between noun and adjective +is inapplicable to English grammar, and should be replaced +by a distinction between objective and attributive words. In +a phrase like “this is a cannon,” <i>cannon</i> is objective; in a phrase +like “a cannon-ball,” it is attributive; and to call it a substantive +in the one case and an adjective in the other is only +to introduce confusion. With the exception of the nominative, +the various forms of the noun are all attributive; there is no +difference, for example, between “doing a thing” and “doing +badly.” Apart from the personal pronouns, the accusative +of the classical languages can be represented only by position; +but if we were to say that a noun which follows a verb is in the +accusative case we should have to define “king” as an accusative +in such sentences as “he became king” or “he is king.” In +conversational English “it is me” is as correct as “c’est moi” +in French, or “det er mig” in Danish; the literary “it is I” +is due to the influence of classical grammar. The combination +of noun or pronoun and preposition results in a compound +attribute. As for the verb, Sweet has well said that “the really +characteristic feature of the English finite verb is its inability +to stand alone without a pronominal prefix.” Thus “dream” +by itself is a noun; “I dream” is a verb. The place of the +pronominal prefix may be taken by a noun, though both poetry +and vulgar English frequently insert the pronoun even when +the noun precedes. The number of inflected verbal forms is +but small, being confined to the third person singular and the +special forms of the preterite and past participle, though the +latter may with more justice be regarded as belonging to the +province of the lexicographer rather than to that of the grammarian. +The inflected subjunctive (<i>be, were, save</i> in “God save +the King,” &c.) is rapidly disappearing. New inflected forms, +however, are coming into existence; at all events, we have +as good a right to consider <i>wont, shant, cant</i> new inflected forms +as the French <i>aimerai</i> (<i>amare habeo</i>), <i>aimerais</i> (<i>amare habebam</i>). +If the ordinary grammars are correct in treating forms like +“I am loving,” “I was loving,” “I did love,” as separate +tenses, they are strangely inconsistent in omitting to notice +the equally important emphatic form “I do love” or the negative +form “I do not love” (“I don’t love”), as well as the semi-inflexional +“I’ll love,” “he’s loving.” It is true that these +latter contracted forms are heard only in conversation and not +seen in books; but the grammar of a language, it must be +remembered, is made by those who speak it and not by the +printers.</p> + +<p>Our school grammars are the inheritance we have received +from Greece and Rome. The necessities of rhetoric obliged the +Sophists to investigate the structure of the Greek +language, and to them was accordingly due the first +<span class="sidenote">History of formal grammar.</span> +analysis of Greek grammar. Protagoras distinguished +the three genders and the verbal moods, while Prodicus +busied himself with the definition of synonyms. Aristotle, +taking the side of Democritus, who had held that the meaning +of words is put into them by the speaker, and that there is no +necessary connexion between sound and sense, laid down that +words “symbolize” objects according to the will of those who +use them, and added to the <span class="grk" title="onoma">ὄνομα</span> or “noun,” and the <span class="grk" title="rhęma">ῥῆμα</span> or +“verb,” the <span class="grk" title="sundesmos">σύνδεσμος</span> or “particle.” He also introduced the +term <span class="grk" title="ptôsis">πτῶσις</span>, “case,” to denote any flexion whatsoever. He +further divided nouns into simple and compound, invented for +the neuter another name than that given by Protagoras, and +starting from the termination of the nominative singular, endeavoured +to ascertain the rules for indicating a difference of +gender. Aristotle was followed by the Stoics, who separated the +<span class="grk" title="arthron">ἄρθρον</span> or “article” from the particles, determined a fifth part +of speech, <span class="grk" title="pandektęs">πανδέκτης</span> or “adverb,” confined the term “case” +to the flexions of the nouns, distinguishing the four principal +cases by names, and divided the verb into its tenses, moods +and classes. Meanwhile the Alexandrian critics were studying +the language of Homer and the Attic writers, and comparing +it with the language of their own day, the result being a minute +examination of the facts and rules of grammar. Two schools of +grammarians sprang up—the Analogists, headed by Aristarchus, +who held that a strict law of analogy existed between idea +and word, and refused to admit exceptions to the grammatical +rules they laid down, and the Anomalists, who denied general +rules of any kind, except in so far as they were consecrated by +custom. Foremost among the Anomalists was Crates of Mallos, +the leader of the Pergamenian school, to whom we owe the first +formal Greek grammar and collection of the grammatical facts +obtained by the labours of the Alexandrian critics, as well as an +attempt to reform Greek orthography. The immediate cause +of this grammar seems to have been a comparison of Latin with +Greek, Crates having lectured on the subject while ambassador +of Attalus at Rome in 159 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The zeal with which the Romans +threw themselves into the study of Greek resulted in the school +grammar of Dionysius Thrax, a pupil of Aristarchus, which he +published at Rome in the time of Pompey and which is still +in existence. Latin grammars were soon modelled upon it, +and the attempt to translate the technical terms of the Greek +grammarians into Latin was productive of numerous blunders +which have been perpetuated to our own day. Thus <i>tenues</i> +is a mistranslation of the <span class="grk" title="psila">ψιλά</span>, “unaspirated”; <i>genetivus</i> +of <span class="grk" title="genikę">γενική</span>, the case “of the genus”; <i>accusativus</i> of <span class="grk" title="aitiatikę">αἰτιατική</span>, +the case “of the object”; <i>infinitivus</i> of <span class="grk" title="aparemphatos">ἀπαρέμφατος</span>, “without +a secondary meaning” of tense or person. New names were +coined to denote forms possessed by Latin and not by Greek; +<i>ablative</i>, for instance, was invented by Julius Caesar, who also +wrote a treatise <i>De analogia</i>. By the 2nd century of the Christian +era the dispute between the Anomalists and the Analogists was +finally settled, analogy being recognized as the principle that +underlies language, though every rule admits of exceptions. +Two eminent grammarians of Alexandria, Apollonius Dyscolus +and his son Herodian, summed up the labours and controversies +of their predecessors, and upon their works were based the Latin +grammar composed by Aelius Donatus in the 4th century, and +the eighteen books on grammar compiled by Priscian in the age +of Justinian. The grammar of Donatus dominated the schools +of the middle ages, and, along with the productions of Priscian, +formed the type and source of the Latin and Greek school-grammars +of modern Europe.</p> + +<p>A few words remain to be said, in conclusion, on the bearing +of a scientific study of grammar upon the practical task of +teaching and learning foreign languages. The grammar +of a language is not to be confined within the rules +<span class="sidenote">Learning of grammar of foreign languages.</span> +laid down by grammarians, much less is it the creation +of grammarians, and consequently the usual mode +of making the pupil learn by heart certain fixed rules +and paradigms not only gives a false idea of what grammar +really is, but also throws obstacles in the way of acquiring it. +The unit of speech is the sentence; and it is with the sentence +therefore, and not with lists of words and forms, that the pupil +should begin. When once a sufficient number of sentences has +been, so to speak, assimilated, it will be easy to analyse them +into their component parts, to show the relations that these +bear to one another, and to indicate the nature and varieties of +the latter. In this way the learner will be prevented from +regarding grammar as a piece of dead mechanism or a Chinese +puzzle, of which the parts must be fitted together in accordance +with certain artificial rules, and will realize that it is a living +organism which has a history and a reason of its own. The +method of nature and science alike is analytic; and if we would +learn a foreign language properly we must learn it as we did +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332"></a>332</span> +our mother-tongue, by first mastering the expression of a complete +thought and then breaking up this expression into its +several elements.</p> +<div class="author">(A. H. S.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Philology</a></span>, and articles on the various languages. Also +Steinthal, <i>Charakteristik der hauptsächlichsten Typen des Sprachbaues</i> +(Berlin, 1860); Schleicher, <i>Compendium of the Comparative +Grammar of the Indo-European Languages</i>, translated by H. Bendall +(London, 1874); Pezzi, <i>Aryan Philology according to the most recent +Researches</i>, translated by E. S. Roberts (London, 1879); Sayce, +<i>Introduction to the Science of Language</i> (London, 1879); Lersch, <i>Die +Sprachphilosophie der Alten</i> (Bonn, 1838-1841); Steinthal, <i>Geschichte +der Sprachwissenschaft bei den Griechen und Römern mit besonderer +Rücksicht auf die Logik</i> (Berlin, 1863, 2nd ed. 1890); Delbrück, +<i>Ablativ localis instrumentalis im Altindischen, Lateinischen, Griechischen, +und Deutschen</i> (Berlin, 1864); Jolly, <i>Ein Kapitel vergleichender +Syntax</i> (Munich, 1873); Hübschmann, <i>Zur Casuslehre</i> +(Munich, 1875); Holzweissig, <i>Wahrheit und Irrthum der localistischen +Casustheorie</i> (Leipzig, 1877); Draeger, <i>Historische Syntax der +lateinischen Sprache</i> (Leipzig, 1874-1876); Sweet, <i>Words, Logic, +and Grammar</i> (London, 1876); P. Giles, <i>Manual of Comp. Philology</i> +(1901); C. Abel, <i>Ägypt.-indo-eur. Sprachverwandschaft</i> (1903); +Brugmann and Delbrück, <i>Grundriss d. vergl. Gram. d. indogerm. Spr.</i> +(1886-1900); Fritz Mauthner, <i>Beiträge <span class="correction" title="amended from zur">zu</span> einer Kritik der Sprache</i> +vol. iii. (1902); T. G. Tucker, <i>Introd. to a Nat. Hist. of Language</i> +(1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAMMICHELE,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> a town of Sicily, in the province of Catania, +55 m. S.W. of it by rail and 31 m. direct. Pop. (1901) 15,075. +It was built in 1693, after the destruction by an earthquake +of the old town of Occhialŕ to the north; the latter, on account of +the similarity of name, is generally identified with Echetla, a +frontier city between Syracusan and Carthaginian territory +in the time of Hiero II., which appears to have been originally +a Sicel city in which Greek civilization prevailed from the 5th +century onwards. To the east of Grammichele a cave shrine +of Demeter, with fine votive terra-cottas, has been discovered.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Mon. Lincei</i>, vii. (1897), 201; <i>Not. degli scavi</i> (1902), 223.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAMMONT<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (the Flemish name <i>Gheeraardsbergen</i> more +clearly reveals its etymology <i>Gerardi-mons</i>), a town in East +Flanders, Belgium, near the meeting point with the provinces of +Brabant and Hainaut. It is on the Dender almost due south +of Alost, and is chiefly famous because the charter of Grammont +given by Baldwin VI., count of Flanders, in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1068 was the first +of its kind. This charter has been styled “the most ancient +written monument of civil and criminal laws in Flanders.” The +modern town is a busy industrial centre. Pop. (1904) 12,835.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAMONT, ANTOINE AGÉNOR ALFRED,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duc de</span>, <span class="sc">Duc de +Guiche</span>, <span class="sc">Prince de Bidache</span> (1819-1880), French diplomatist +and statesman, was born at Paris on the 14th of August 1819, of +one of the most illustrious families of the old <i>noblesse</i>, a cadet +branch of the viscounts of Aure, which took its name from +the seigniory of Gramont in Navarre. His grandfather, Antoine +Louis Marie, duc de Gramont (1755-1836), had emigrated during +the Revolution, and his father, Antoine Héraclius Genevičve +Agénor (1789-1855), duc de Gramont and de Guiche, fought under +the British flag in the Peninsular War, became a lieutenant-general +in the French army in 1823, and in 1830 accompanied +Charles X. to Scotland. The younger generation, however, +were Bonapartist in sympathy; Gramont’s cousin Antoine +Louis Raymond, comte de Gramont (1787-1825), though also +the son of an <i>émigré</i>, served with distinction in Napoleon’s +armies, while Antoine Agénor, duc de Gramont, owed his career +to his early friendship for Louis Napoleon.</p> + +<p>Educated at the École Polytechnique, Gramont early gave +up the army for diplomacy. It was not, however, till after the +<i>coup d’état</i> of the 2nd of December 1851, which made Louis +Napoleon supreme in France, that he became conspicuous as +a diplomat. He was successively minister plenipotentiary at +Cassel and Stuttgart (1852), at Turin (1853), ambassador at +Rome (1857) and at Vienna (1861). On the 15th of May 1870 +he was appointed minister of foreign affairs in the Ollivier +cabinet, and was thus largely, though not entirely, responsible +for the bungling of the negotiations between France and Prussia +arising out of the candidature of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern +for the throne of Spain, which led to the disastrous war of +1870-71. The exact share of Gramont in this responsibility has +been the subject of much controversy. The last word may be +said to have been uttered by M. Émile Ollivier himself in his +<i>L’Empire libéral</i> (tome xii., 1909, <i>passim</i>). The famous declaration +read by Gramont in the Chamber on the 6th of July, the +“threat with the hand on the sword-hilt,” as Bismarck called +it, was the joint work of the whole cabinet; the original draft +presented by Gramont was judged to be too “elliptical” in its +conclusion and not sufficiently vigorous; the reference to a +revival of the empire of Charles V. was suggested by Ollivier; +the paragraph asserting that France would not allow a foreign +power to disturb to her own detriment the actual equilibrium +of Europe was inserted by the emperor. So far, then, as this +declaration is concerned, it is clear that Gramont’s <span class="correction" title="amended from responsiblity">responsibility</span> +must be shared with his sovereign and his colleagues (Ollivier +<i>op. cit.</i> xii. 107; see also the two <i>projets de déclaration</i> given +on p. 570). It is clear, however that he did not share the +“passion” of his colleagues for “peace with honour,” clear +also that he wholly misread the intentions of the European +powers in the event of war. That he reckoned upon the active +alliance of Austria was due, according to M. Ollivier, to the fact +that for nine years he had been a <i>persona grata</i> in the aristocratic +society of Vienna, where the necessity for revenging the humiliation +of 1866 was an article of faith. This confidence made him +less disposed than many of his colleagues to make the best of the +renunciation of the candidature made, on behalf of his son, +by the prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. It was Gramont +who pointed out to the emperor, on the evening of the 12th, +the dubious circumstances of the act of renunciation, and on +the same night, without informing M. Ollivier, despatched to +Benedetti at Ems the fatal telegram demanding the king of +Prussia’s guarantee that the candidature would not be revived. +The supreme responsibility for this act must rest with the +emperor, “who imposed it by an exercise of personal power on +the only one of his ministers who could have lent himself to such +a forgetfulness of the safeguards of a parliamentary régime.” +As for Gramont, he had “no conception of the exigencies of +this régime; he remained an ambassador accustomed to obey +the orders of his sovereign; in all good faith he had no idea that +this was not correct, and that, himself a parliamentary minister, +he had associated himself with an act destructive of the authority +of parliament.”<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> “On his part,” adds M. Ollivier, “it was the +result only of obedience, not of warlike premeditation” (<i>op. cit.</i> +p. 262). The apology may be taken for what it is worth. To +France and to the world Gramont was responsible for the policy +which put his country definitely into the wrong in the eyes of +Europe, and enabled Bismarck to administer to her the “slap +in the face” (<i>soufflet</i>)—as Gramont called it in the Chamber—by +means of the mutilated “Ems telegram,” which was the +immediate cause of the French declaration of war on the 15th.</p> + +<p>After the defeat of Weissenburg (August 4) Gramont resigned +office with the rest of the Ollivier ministry (August 9), and after +the revolution of September he went to England, returning after +the war to Paris, where he died on the 18th of January 1880. +His marriage in 1848 with Miss Mackinnon, a Scottish lady, +remained without issue. During his retirement he published +various apologies for his policy in 1870, notably <i>La France et +la Prusse avant la guerre</i> (Paris, 1872).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides M. Ollivier’s work quoted in the text, see L. Thouvenel, +<i>Le Secret de l’empereur, correspondance ... échangée entre M. +Thouvenel, le duc de Gramont, et le général comte de Flahaut 1860-1863</i> +(2nd ed., 2 vols., 1889). A small pamphlet containing his +<i>Souvenirs 1848-1850</i> was published in 1901 by his brother Antoine +Léon Philibert Auguste de Gramont, duc de Lesparre.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Compare with this Bismarck’s remarks to Hohenlohe (Hohenlohe, +<i>Denkwürdigkeiten</i>, ii. 71): “When Gramont was made minister, +Bismarck said to Benedetti that this indicated that the emperor +was meditating something evil, otherwise he would not have made +so stupid a person minister. Benedetti replied that the emperor +knew too little of him, whereupon Bismarck said that the emperor +had once described Gramont to him as ‘un ancien bellâtre.’”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAMONT, PHILIBERT,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1621-1707), the subject +of the famous <i>Memoirs</i>, came of a noble Gascón family, said +to have been of Basque origin. His grandmother, Diane +d’Andouins, comtesse de Gramont, was “la belle Corisande,” +one of the mistresses of Henry IV. The grandson assumed that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id="page333"></a>333</span> +his father Antoine II. de Gramont, viceroy of Navarre, was the +son of Henry IV., and regretted that he had not claimed the +privileges of royal birth. Philibert de Gramont was the son of +Antoine II. by his second marriage with Claude de Montmorency, +and was born in 1621, probably at the family seat of Bidache. +He was destined for the church, and was educated at the <i>collčge</i> +of Pau, in Béarn. He refused the ecclesiastical life, however, +and joined the army of Prince Thomas of Savoy, then besieging +Trino in Piedmont. He afterwards served under his elder +half-brother, Antoine, marshal de Gramont, and the prince +of Condé. He was present at Fribourg and Nordlingen, and +also served with distinction in Spain and Flanders in 1647 and +1648. He favoured Condé’s party at the beginning of the +Fronde, but changed sides before he was too severely compromised. +In spite of his record in the army he never received +any important commission either military or diplomatic, perhaps +because of an incurable levity in his outlook, He was, however, +made a governor of the Pays d’Aunis and lieutenant of Béarn. +During the Commonwealth he visited England, and in 1662 +he was exiled from Paris for paying court to Mademoiselle de la +Motte Houdancourt, one of the king’s mistresses. He went to +London, where he found at the court of Charles II. an atmosphere +congenial to his talents for intrigue, gallantry and pleasure. +He married in London, under pressure from her two brothers, +Elizabeth Hamilton, the sister of his future biographer. She +was one of the great beauties of the English court, and was, +according to her brother’s optimistic account, able to fix the +count’s affections. She was a woman of considerable wit, and +held her own at the court of Louis XIV., but her husband pursued +his gallant exploits to the close of a long life, being, said Ninon +de l’Enclos, the only old man who could affect the follies of +youth without being ridiculous. In 1664 he was allowed to +return to France. He revisited England in 1670 in connexion +with the sale of Dunkirk, and again in 1671 and 1676. In 1688 +he was sent by Louis XIV. to congratulate James II. on the +birth of an heir. From all these small diplomatic missions he +succeeded in obtaining considerable profits, being destitute +of scruples whenever money was in question. At the age of +seventy-five he had a dangerous illness, during which he became +reconciled to the church. His penitence does not seem to have +survived his recovery. He was eighty years old when he supplied +his brother-in-law, Anthony Hamilton (<i>q.v.</i>), with the materials +for his <i>Mémoires</i>. Hamilton said that they had been dictated +to him, but there is no doubt that he was the real author. The +account of Gramont’s early career was doubtless provided by +himself, but Hamilton was probably more familiar with the +history of the court of Charles II., which forms the most interesting +section of the book. Moreover Gramont, though he had a +reputation for wit, was no writer, and there is no reason to +suppose that he was capable of producing a work which remains +a masterpiece of style and of witty portraiture. When the +<i>Mémoires</i> were finished it is said that Gramont sold the MS. +for 1500 francs, and kept most of the money himself. Fontenelle, +then censor of the press, refused to license the book from considerations +of respect to the strange old man, whose gambling, +cheating and meannesses were so ruthlessly exposed. But +Gramont himself appealed to the chancellor and the prohibition +was removed. He died on the 10th of January 1707, and the +<i>Mémoires</i> appeared six years later.</p> + +<p>Hamilton was far superior to the comte de Gramont, but he +relates the story of his hero without comment, and no condemnation +of the prevalent code of morals is allowed to appear, unless +in an occasional touch of irony. The portrait is drawn with +such skill that the count, in spite of his biographer’s candour, +imposes by his grand air on the reader much as he appears to +have done on his contemporaries. The book is the most entertaining +of contemporary memoirs, and in no other book is there a +description so vivid, truthful, and graceful of the licentious court +of Charles II. There are other and less flattering accounts of +the count. His scandalous tongue knew no restraint, and he +was a privileged person who was allowed to state even the most +unpleasing truths to Louis XIV. Saint-Simon in his memoirs +describes the relief that was felt at court when the old man’s +death was announced.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Mémoires de la vie du comte de Grammont contenant particuličrement +l’histoire amoureuse de la cour d’Angleterre sous le rčgne de Charles II</i> +was printed in Holland with the inscription Cologne, 1713. Other +editions followed in 1715 and 1716. <i>Memoirs of the Life of Count de +Grammont ... translated out of the French by Mr</i> [<i>Abel</i>] <i>Boyer</i> +(1714), was supplemented by a “compleat key” in 1719. The +<i>Mémoires</i> “augmentées de notes et d’éclaircissemens” was edited +by Horace Walpole in 1772. In 1793 appeared in London an edition +adorned with portraits engraved after originals in the royal collection. +An English edition by Sir Walter Scott was published by +H. G. Bohn (1846), and this with additions was reprinted in 1889, +1890, 1896, &c. Among other modern editions are an excellent one +in the <i>Bibliothčque Charpentier</i> edited by M. Gustave Brunet (1859); +<i>Mémoires ...</i> (Paris, 1888) with etchings by L. Boisson after C. +Delort and an introduction by H. Gausseron; <i>Memoirs ...</i> +(1889), edited by Mr H. Vizetelly; and <i>Memoirs ...</i> (1903), +edited by Mr Gordon Goodwin.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAMOPHONE<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (an invented word, formed on an inversion +of “phonogram”; <span class="grk" title="phônę">φωνή</span>, sound, <span class="grk" title="gramma">γράμμα</span>, letter), an instrument +for recording and reproducing sounds. It depends on the same +general principles as the phonograph (<i>q.v.</i>), but it differs in +certain details of construction, especially in having the sound-record +cut spirally on a flat disk instead of round a cylinder.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAMPIANS, THE<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span>, a mass of mountains in central Scotland. +Owing to the number of ramifications and ridges it is difficult +to assign their precise limits, but they may be described as +occupying the area between a line drawn from Dumbartonshire +to the North Sea at Stonehaven, and the valley of the Spey or +even Glenmore (the Caledonian Canal). Their trend is from +south-west to north-east, the southern face forming the natural +division between the Lowlands and Highlands. They lie in the +shires of Argyll, Dumbarton, Stirling, Perth, Forfar, Kincardine, +Aberdeen, Banff and Inverness. Among the highest summits +are Ben Nevis, Ben Macdhui, and Cairngorms, Ben Lawers, Ben +More, Ben Alder, Ben Cruachan and Ben Lomond. The principal +rivers flowing from the watershed northward are the Findhorn, +Spey, Don, Dee and their tributaries, and southward the South +Esk, Tay and Forth with their affluents. On the north the mass +is wild and rugged; on the south the slope is often gentle, affording +excellent pasture in many places, but both sections contain +some of the finest deer-forests in Scotland. They are crossed +by the Highland, West Highland and Callander to Oban railways, +and present some of the finest scenery in the kingdom. The +rocks consist chiefly of granite, gneiss, schists, quartzite, porphyry +and diorite. Their fastnesses were originally inhabited by the +northern Picts, the Caledonians who, under Galgacus, were +defeated by Agricola in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 84 at Mons Graupius—the false +reading of which, Grampius, has been perpetuated in the name +of the mountains—the site of which has not been ascertained. +Some authorities place it at Ardoch; others near the junction +of the Tay and Isla, or at Dalginross near Comrie; while some, +contending for a position nearer the east coast, refer it to a site +in west Forfarshire or to Raedykes near Stonehaven.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAMPOUND<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span>, a small market town in the mid-parliamentary +division of Cornwall, England, 9 m. E.N.E. of Truro, and 2 m. +from its station (Grampound Road) on the Great Western +railway. It is situated on the river Fal, and has some industry +in tanning. It retains an ancient town hall; there is a good +market cross; and in the neighbourhood, along the Fal, are +several early earthworks.</p> + +<p>Grampound (Ponsmure, Graundpont, Grauntpount, Graundpond) +and the hundred, manor and vill of Tibeste were formerly +so closely associated that in 1400 the former is found styled the +vill of Grauntpond called Tibeste. At the time of the Domesday +Survey Tibeste was amongst the most valuable of the manors +granted to the count of Mortain. The burgensic character of +Ponsmure first appears in 1299. Thirty-five years later John +of Eltham granted to the burgesses the whole town of Grauntpount. +This grant was confirmed in 1378 when its extent and +jurisdiction were defined. It was provided that the hundred +court of Powdershire should always be held there and two fairs at +the feasts of St Peter in Cathedra and St Barnabas, both of +which are still held, and a Tuesday market (now held on Friday) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334"></a>334</span> +and that it should be a free borough rendering a yearly rent to +the earl of Cornwall. Two members were summoned to parliament +by Edward VI. in 1553. The electors consisted of an +indefinite number of freemen, about 50 in all, indirectly nominated +by the mayor and corporation, which existed by prescription. +The venality of the electors became notorious. In 1780 Ł3000 +was paid for a seat: in 1812 each supporter of one of the +candidates received Ł100. The defeat of this candidate in 1818 +led to a parliamentary inquiry which disclosed a system of +wholesale corruption, and in 1821 the borough was disfranchised. +A former woollen trade is extinct.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAMPUS<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (<i>Orca gladiator</i>, or <i>Orca orca</i>), a cetacean belonging +to the <i>Delphinidae</i> or dolphin family, characterized by its rounded +head without distinct beak, high dorsal fin and large conical +teeth. The upper parts are nearly uniform glossy black, and +the under parts white, with a strip of the same colour over +each eye. The O. Fr. word was <i>grapois</i>, <i>graspeis</i> or <i>craspeis</i>, +from Med. Lat. <i>crassus piscis</i>, fat fish. This was adapted into +English as <i>grapeys</i>, <i>graspeys</i>, &c., and in the 16th century becomes +<i>grannie pose</i> as if from <i>grand poisson</i>. The final corruption to +“grampus” appears in the 18th century and was probably +nautical in origin. The animal is also known as the “killer,” +in allusion to its ferocity in attacking its prey, which consists +largely of seals, porpoises and the smaller dolphins. Its fierceness +is only equalled by its voracity, which is such that in a +specimen measuring 21 ft. in length, the remains of thirteen +seals and thirteen porpoises were found, in a more or less digested +state, while the animal appeared to have been choked in the +endeavour to swallow another seal, the skin of which was found +entangled in its teeth. These cetaceans sometimes hunt in packs +or schools, and commit great havoc among the belugas or white +whales, which occasionally throw themselves ashore to escape +their persecutors. The grampus is an inhabitant of northern +seas, occurring on the shores of Greenland, and having been +caught, although rarely, as far south as the Mediterranean. +There are numerous instances of its capture on the British coasts. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cetacea</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANADA, LUIS DE<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (1504-1588), Spanish preacher and +ascetic writer, born of poor parents named Sarriá at Granada. +He lost his father at an early age and his widowed mother was +supported by the charity of the Dominicans. A child of the +Alhambra, he entered the service of the alcalde as page, and, +his ability being discovered, received his education with the +sons of the house. When nineteen he entered the Dominican +convent and in 1525 took the vows; and, with the leave of his +prior, shared his daily allowance of food with his mother. He +was sent to Valladolid to continue his studies and then was +appointed procurator at Granada. Seven years after he was +elected prior of the convent of Scala Caeli in the mountains of +Cordova, which after eight years he succeeded in restoring from +its ruinous state, and there he began his work as a zealous +reformer. His preaching gifts were developed by the orator +Juan de Avila, and he became one of the most famous of Spanish +preachers. He was invited to Portugal in 1555 and became +provincial of his order, declining the offer of the archbishopric +of Braga but accepting the position of confessor and counsellor +to Catherine, the queen regent. At the expiration of his tenure +of the provincialship, he retired to the Dominican convent at +Lisbon, where he lived till his death on the last day of 1588. +Aiming, both in his sermons and ascetical writings, at development +of the religious view, the danger of the times as he saw it +was not so much in the Protestant reformation, which was an +outside influence, but in the direction that religion had taken +among the masses. He held that in Spain the Catholic faith +was not understood by the people, and that their ignorance was +the pressing danger. He fell under the suspicion of the Inquisition; +his mystical teaching was said to be heretical, and +his most famous book, the <i>Guia de Peccadores</i>, still a favourite +treatise and one that has been translated into nearly every +European tongue, was put on the Index of the Spanish Inquisition, +together with his book on prayer, in 1559. His great +opponent was the restless and ambitious Melchior Cano, who +stigmatized the second book as containing grave errors smacking +of the heresy of the Alumbrados and manifestly contradicting +Catholic faith and teaching. But in 1576 the prohibition was +removed and the works of Luis de Granada, so prized by St +Francis de Sales, have never lost their value. The friend of St +Teresa, St Peter of Alcantara, and of all the noble minds of Spain +of his day, no one among the three hundred Spanish mystics +excels Luis de Granada in the beauty of a didactic style, variety +of illustration and soberness of statement.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The last collected edition of his works is that published in 9 vols. +at Antwerp in 1578. A biography by L. Monoz, <i>La Vida y virtudes +de Luis de Granada</i> (Madrid, 1639); a study of his system by P. +Rousselot in <i>Mystiques espagnoles</i> (Paris, 1867); Ticknor, <i>History +of Spanish Literature</i> (vol. iii.), and Fitzmaurice Kelly, <i>History +of Spanish Literature</i>, pp. 200-202 (London, 1898), may also be +consulted.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANADA<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span>, the capital of the department of Granada, +Nicaragua; 32 m. by rail S.E. of Managua, the capital of the +republic. Pop. (1900) about 25,000. Granada is built on the +north-western shore of Lake Nicaragua, of which it is the principal +port. Its houses are of the usual central American type, constructed +of adobe, rarely more than one storey high, and surrounded +by courtyards with ornamental gateways. The suburbs, +scattered over a large area, consist chiefly of cane huts occupied +by Indians and half-castes. There are several ancient churches +and convents, in one of which the interior of the chancel roof +is inlaid with mother-of-pearl. An electric tramway connects the +railway station and the adjacent wharves with the market, +about 1 m. distant. Ice, cigars, hats, boots and shoes are +manufactured, but the characteristic local industry is the production +of “Panama chains,” ornaments made of thin gold wire. +In the neighbourhood there are large cocoa plantations; and the +city has a thriving trade in cocoa, coffee, hides, cotton, native +tobacco and indigo.</p> + +<p>Granada was founded in 1523 by Francisco Fernandez de +Córdoba. It became one of the wealthiest of central American +cities, although it had always a keen commercial rival in Leon, +which now surpasses it in size and importance. In the 17th +century it was often raided by buccaneers, notably in 1606, +when it was completely sacked. In 1855 it was captured and +partly burned by the adventurer William Walker (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Central +America</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANADA<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span>, a maritime province of southern Spain, formed +in 1833 of districts belonging to Andalusia, and coinciding with +the central parts of the ancient kingdom of Granada. Pop. +(1900) 492,460; area, 4928 sq. m. Granada is bounded on the +N. by Cordova, Jaen and Albacete, E. by Murcia and Almería, +S. by the Mediterranean Sea, and W. by Malaga. It includes the +western and loftier portion of the Sierra Nevada (<i>q.v.</i>), a vast +ridge rising parallel to the sea and attaining its greatest altitudes +in the Cerro de Mulhacen (11,421 ft.) and Picacho de la Veleta +(11,148), which overlook the city of Granada. Lesser ranges, +such as the Sierras of Parapanda, Alhama, Almijara or Harana, +adjoin the main ridge. From this central watershed the three +principal rivers of the province take their rise, viz.: the Guadiana +Menor, which, flowing past Guadix in a northerly direction, falls +into the Guadalquivir in the neighbourhood of Ubeda; the +Genil which, after traversing the Vega, or Plain of Granada, leaves +the province a little to the westward of Loja and joins the Guadalquivir +between Cordova and Seville; and the Rio Grande or +Guadalféo, which falls into the Mediterranean at Motril. The +coast is little indented and none of its three harbours, Almuńécar, +Albuńol and Motril, ranks high in commercial importance. +The climate in the lower valleys and the narrow fringe along the +coast is warm, but on the higher grounds of the interior is +somewhat severe; and the vegetation varies accordingly from +the subtropical to the alpine. The soil of the plains is very +productive, and that of the Vega of Granada is considered the +richest in the whole peninsula; from the days of the Moors it +has been systematically irrigated, and it continues to yield in +great abundance and in good quality wheat, barley, maize, wine, +oil, sugar, flax, cotton, silk and almost every variety of fruit. +In the mountains immediately surrounding the city of Granada +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id="page335"></a>335</span> +occur many kinds of alabaster, some very fine; there are also +quantities of jasper and other precious stones. Mineral waters +chiefly chalybeate and sulphurous, are abundant, the most +important springs being those of Alhama, which have a temperature +of 112° F. There are valuable iron mines, and small +quantities of zinc, lead and mercury are obtained. The cane +and beet sugar industries, for which there are factories at Loja, +at Motril, and in the Vega, developed rapidly after the loss of +the Spanish West Indies and the Philippine Islands in 1898, +with the consequent decrease in competition. There are also +tanneries, foundries and manufactories of woollen, linen, cotton, +and rough frieze stuffs, cards, soap, spirits, gunpowder and +machinery. Apart from the great highways traversing the province, +which are excellent, the roads are few and ill-kept. The +railway from Madrid enters the province on the north and +bifurcates north-west of Guadix; one branch going eastward +to Almería, the other westward to Loja, Malaga and Algeciras. +Baza is the terminus of a railway from Lorca. The chief towns +include Granada, the capital (pop. 1900, 75,900) with Alhama +de Granada (7697), Baza (12,770), Guadix (12,652), Loja (19,143), +Montefrío (10,725), and Motril (18,528). These are described in +separate articles. Other towns with upwards of 7000 inhabitants +are Albuńol (8646), Almuńécar (8022), Cúllar de Baza (8007), +Huéscar (7763), Illora (9496) and Puebla de Don Fadrique +(7420). The history of the ancient kingdom is inseparable from +that of the city of Granada (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANADA,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> the capital of the province, and formerly of the +kingdom of Granada, in southern Spain; on the Madrid-Granada-Algeciras +railway. Pop. (1900) 75,900. Granada is magnificently +situated, 2195 ft. above the sea, on the north-western +slope of the Sierra Nevada, overlooking the fertile lowlands +known as the Vega de Granada on the west and overshadowed +by the peaks of Veleta (11,148 ft.) and Mulhacen (11,421 ft.) on +the south-east. The southern limit of the city is the river Genil, +the Roman <i>Singilis</i> and Moorish <i>Shenil</i>, a swift stream flowing +westward from the Sierra Nevada, with a considerable volume +of water in summer, when the snows have thawed. Its tributary +the Darro, the Roman <i>Salon</i> and Moorish <i>Hadarro</i>, enters +Granada on the east, flows for upwards of a mile from east to +west, and then turns sharply southward to join the main river, +which is spanned by a bridge just above the point of confluence. +The waters of the Darro are much reduced by irrigation works +along its lower course, and within the city it has been canalized +and partly covered with a roof.</p> + +<p>Granada comprises three main divisions, the Antequeruela, +the Albaicin (or Albaycin), and Granada properly so-called. +The first division, founded by refugees from Antequera in 1410, +consists of the districts enclosed by the Darro, besides a small +area on its right, or western bank. It is bounded on the east +by the gardens and hill of the Alhambra (<i>q.v.</i>), the most celebrated +of all the monuments left by the Moors. The Albaicin (Moorish +<i>Rabad al Bayazin</i>, “Falconers’ Quarter”) lies north-west of +the Antequeruela. Its name is sometimes associated with that +of Baeza, since, according to one tradition, it was colonized by +citizens of Baeza, who fled hither in 1246, after the capture +of their town by the Christians. It was long the favourite +abode of the Moorish nobles, but is now mainly inhabited by +gipsies and artisans. Granada, properly so-called, is north +of the Antequeruela, and west of the Albaicin. The origin of +its name is obscure; it has been sometimes, though with little +probability, derived from <i>granada</i>, a pomegranate, in allusion +to the abundance of pomegranate trees in the neighbourhood. +A pomegranate appears on the city arms. The Moors, however, +called Granada <i>Karnattah</i> or <i>Karnattah-al-Yahud</i>, and possibly +the name is composed of the Arabic words <i>kurn</i>, “a hill,” and +<i>nattah</i>, “stranger,”—the “city” or “hill of strangers.”</p> + +<p>Although the city has been to some extent modernized, the +architecture of its more ancient quarters has many Moorish +characteristics. The streets are, as a rule, ill-lighted, ill-paved +and irregular; but there are several fine squares and avenues, +such as the Bibarrambla, where tournaments were held by the +Moors; the spacious Plaza del Trionfo, adjoining the bull-ring, +on the north; the Alameda, planted with plane trees, and the +Paseo del Salon. The business centre of the city is the Puerta +Real, a square named after a gate now demolished.</p> + +<p>Granada is the see of an archbishop. Its cathedral, which +commemorates the reconquest of southern Spain from the Moors, +is a somewhat heavy classical building, begun in 1529 by Diego +de Siloe, and only finished in 1703. It is profusely ornamented +with jasper and coloured marbles, and surmounted by a dome. +The interior contains many paintings and sculptures by Alonso +Cano (1601-1667), the architect of the fine west façade, and other +artists. In one of the numerous chapels, known as the Chapel +Royal (<i>Capilla Real</i>), is the monument of Philip I. of Castile +(1478-1506), and his queen Joanna; with the tomb of Ferdinand +and Isabella, the first rulers of united Spain (1452-1516). The +church of Santa Maria (1705-1759), which may be regarded as +an annexe of the cathedral, occupies the site of the chief +mosque of Granada. This was used as a church until 1661. +Santa Ana (1541) also replaced a mosque; Nuestra Seńora de +las Angustias (1664-1671) is noteworthy for its fine towers, and +the rich decoration of its high altar. The convent of San +Geronimo (or Jeronimo), founded in 1492 by Ferdinand and +Isabella, was converted into barracks in 1810; its church contains +the tomb of the famous captain Gonsalvo or Gonzalo de Cordova +(1453-1515). The Cartuja, or Carthusian monastery north of +the city, was built in 1516 on Gonzalo’s estate, and in his memory. +It contains several fine paintings, and an interesting church of +the 17th and 18th centuries.</p> + +<p>After the Alhambra, and such adjacent buildings as the +Generalife and Torres Bermejas, which are more fitly described +in connexion with it, the principal Moorish antiquities of Granada +are the 13th-century villa known as the Cuarto Real de San +Domingo, admirably preserved, and surrounded by beautiful +gardens; the Alcázar de Genil, built in the middle of the 14th +century as a palace for the Moorish queens; and the Casa del +Cabildo, a university of the same period, converted into a warehouse +in the 19th century. Few Spanish cities possess a greater +number of educational and charitable establishments. The +university was founded by Charles V. in 1531, and transferred +to its present buildings in 1769. It is attended by about 600 +students. In 1900, the primary schools of Granada numbered +22, in addition to an ecclesiastical seminary, a training-school +for teachers, schools of art and jurisprudence, and museums of +art and archaeology. There were twelve hospitals and orphanages +for both sexes, including a leper hospital in one of the convents. +Granada has an active trade in the agricultural produce of the +Vega, and manufactures liqueurs, soap, paper and coarse linen +and woollen fabrics. Silk-weaving was once extensively +carried on, and large quantities of silk were exported to Italy, +France, Germany and even America, but this industry died +during the 19th century.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The identity of Granada with the Iberian city of +<i>Iliberris</i> or <i>Iliberri</i>, which afterwards became a flourishing +Roman colony, has never been fully established; but Roman +tombs, coins, inscriptions, &c., have been discovered in the +neighbourhood. With the rest of Andalusia, as a result of the +great invasion from the north in the 5th century, Granada fell +to the lot of the Vandals. Under the caliphs of Cordova, onwards +from the 8th century, it rapidly gained in importance, and +ultimately became the seat of a provincial government, which, +after the fall of the Omayyad dynasty in 1031, or, according to +some authorities, 1038, ranked with Seville, Jaen and others +as an independent principality. The family of the Zeri, Ziri +or Zeiri maintained itself as the ruling dynasty until 1090; +it was then displaced by the Almohades, who were in turn +overthrown by the Almoravides, in 1154. The dominion of +the Almoravides continued unbroken, save for an interval of +one year (1160-1161), until 1229. From 1229 to 1238 Granada +formed part of the kingdom of Murcia; but in the last-named +year it passed into the hands of Abu Abdullah Mahommed Ibn +Al Ahmar, prince of Jaen and founder of the dynasty of the +Nasrides. Al Ahmar was deprived of Jaen in 1246, but united +Granada, Almería and Malaga under his sceptre, and, as the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>336</span> +fervour of the Christian crusade against the Moors had temporarily +abated, he made peace with Castile, and even aided the Christians +to vanquish the Moslem princes of Seville. At the same time +he offered asylum to refugees from Valencia, Murcia and other +territories in which the Moors had been overcome. Al Ahmar +and his successors ruled over Granada until 1492, in an unbroken +line of twenty-five sovereigns who maintained their independence +partly by force, and partly by payment of tribute to their stronger +neighbours. Their encouragement of commerce—notably the +silk trade with Italy—rendered Granada the wealthiest of +Spanish cities; their patronage of art, literature and science +attracted many learned Moslems, such as the historian Ibn +Khaldun and the geographer Ibn Batuta, to their court, and +resulted in a brilliant civilization, of which the Alhambra is +the supreme monument.</p> + +<p>The kingdom of Granada, which outlasted all the other +Moorish states in Spain, fell at last through dynastic rivalries +and a harem intrigue. The two noble families of the Zegri and +the Beni Serraj (better known in history and legend as the +<i>Abencerrages</i>) encroached greatly upon the royal prerogatives +during the middle years of the 15th century. A crisis arose +in 1462, when an endeavour to control the Abencerrages resulted +in the dethronement of Abu Nasr Saad, and the accession of his +son, Muley Abu’l Hassan, whose name is preserved in that of +Mulhacen, the loftiest peak of the Sierra Nevada, and in a score +of legends. Muley Hassan weakened his position by resigning +Malaga to his brother Ez Zagal, and incurred the enmity of +his first wife Aisha by marrying a beautiful Spanish slave, +Isabella de Solis, who had adopted the creed of Islam and taken +the name of Zorayah, “morning star.” Aisha or Ayesha, who +thus saw her sons Abu Abdullah Mahommed (Boabdil) and Yusuf +in danger of being supplanted, appealed to the Abencerrages, +whose leaders, according to tradition, paid for their sympathy +with their lives (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alhambra</a></span>). In 1482 Boabdil succeeded +in deposing his father, who fled to Malaga, but the gradual +advance of the Christians under Ferdinand and Isabella forced +him to resign the task of defence into the more warlike hands +of Muley Hassan and Ez Zagal (1483-1486). In 1491 after the +loss of these leaders, the Moors were decisively beaten; Boabdil, +who had already been twice captured and liberated by the +Spaniards, was compelled to sign away his kingdom; and on +the 2nd of January 1492 the Spanish army entered Granada, +and the Moorish power in Spain was ended. The campaign +had aroused intense interest throughout Christendom; when +the news reached London a special thanksgiving service was held +in St Paul’s Cathedral by order of Henry VII.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANADILLA<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span>, the name applied to <i>Passiflora quadrangularis</i>, +Linn., a plant of the natural order <i>Passifloreae</i>, a native of +tropical America, having smooth, cordate, ovate or acuminate +leaves; petioles bearing from 4 to 6 glands; an emetic and +narcotic root; scented flowers; and a large, oblong fruit, +containing numerous seeds, imbedded in a subacid edible pulp. +The granadilla is sometimes grown in British hothouses. The +fruits of several other species of <i>Passiflora</i> are eaten. <i>P. +laurifolia</i> is the “water lemon,” and <i>P. maliformis</i> the “sweet +calabash” of the West Indies.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANARIES<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span>. From ancient times grain has been stored in +greater or lesser bulk. The ancient Egyptians made a practice +of preserving grain in years of plenty against years of scarcity, +and probably Joseph only carried out on a large scale an habitual +practice. The climate of Egypt being very dry, grain could be +stored in pits for a long time without sensible loss of quality. +The silo pit, as it has been termed, has been a favourite way of +storing grain from time immemorial in all oriental lands. In +Turkey and Persia usurers used to buy up wheat or barley when +comparatively cheap, and store it in hidden pits against seasons +of dearth. Probably that custom is not yet dead. In Malta +a relatively large stock of wheat is always preserved in some +hundreds of pits (silos) cut in the rock. A single silo will store +from 60 to 80 tons of wheat, which, with proper precautions, +will keep in good condition for four years or more. The silos +are shaped like a cylinder resting on a truncated cone, and +surmounted by the same figure. The mouth of the pit is round +and small and covered by a stone slab, and the inside is lined +with barley straw and kept very dry. Samples are occasionally +taken from the wheat as from the hold of a ship, and at any +signs of fermentation the granary is cleared and the wheat +turned over, but such is the dryness of these silos that little +trouble of this kind is experienced.</p> + +<p>Towards the close of the 19th century warehouses specially +intended for holding grain began to multiply in Great Britain, +but America is the home of great granaries, known there as +elevators. There are climatic difficulties in the way of storing +grain in Great Britain on a large scale, but these difficulties +have been largely overcome. To preserve grain in good condition +it must be kept as much as possible from moisture and heat. +New grain when brought into a warehouse has a tendency to +sweat, and in this condition will easily heat. If the heating is +allowed to continue the quality of the grain suffers. An effectual +remedy is to turn out the grain in layers, not too thick, on a +floor, and to keep turning it over so as to aerate it thoroughly. +Grain can thus be conditioned for storage in silos. There is +reason to think that grain in a sound and dry condition can be +better stored in bins or dry pits than in the open air; from a +series of experiments carried out on behalf of the French government +it would seem that grain exposed to the air is decomposed +at 3˝ times the rate of grain stored in silo or other bins.</p> + +<p>In comparing the grain-storage system of Great Britain with +that of North America it must be borne in mind that whereas +Great Britain raises a comparatively small amount of grain, +which is more or less rapidly consumed, grain-growing is one of +the greatest industries of the United States and of Canada. +The enormous surplus of wheat and maize produced in America +can only be profitably dealt with by such a system of storage +as has grown up there since the middle of the 19th century. +The American farmer can store his wheat or maize at a moderate +rate, and can get an advance on his warrant if he is in need of +money. A holder of wheat in Chicago can withdraw a similar +grade of wheat from a New York elevator.</p> + +<p>Modern granaries are all built on much the same plan. The +mechanical equipment for receiving and discharging grain is +very similar in all modern warehouses. A granary is usually +erected on a quay at which large vessels can lie and discharge. +On the land side railway sidings connect the warehouse with +the chief lines in its district; accessibility to a canal is an advantage. +Ships are usually cleared by bucket elevators which are +dipped into the cargo, though in some cases pneumatic elevators +are substituted (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conveyors</a></span>). A travelling band with throw-off +carriage will speedily distribute a heavy load of grain. +Band conveyors serve equally well for charging or discharging +the bins. Bins are invariably provided with hopper bottoms, +and any bin can be effectively cleared by the band, which runs +underneath, either in a cellar or in a specially constructed +tunnel. All granaries should be provided with a sufficient +plant of cleaning machinery to take from the grain impurities +as would be likely to be detrimental to its storing qualities. +Chief among such machines are the warehouse separators +which work by sieves and air currents (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flour and Flour +Manufacture</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The typical grain warehouse is furnished with a number of +chambers for grain storage which are known as silos, and may +be built of wood, brick, iron or ferro-concrete. Wood silos +are usually square, made of flat strips of wood nailed one on top +of the other, and so overlapping each other at the corners that +alternately a longitudinal and a transverse batten extends +past the corner. The gaps are filled by short pieces of timber +securely nailed, and the whole silo wall is thus solid. This type +of bin was formerly in great favour, but it has certain drawbacks, +such as the possibility of dry rot, while weevils are apt +to harbour in the interstices unless lime washing is practised. +Bricks and cement are good materials for constructing silos +of hexagonal form, but necessitate deep foundations and substantial +walls. Iron silos of circular form are used to some +extent in Great Britain, but are more common in North and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id="page337"></a>337</span> +South America. In their case the walls are much thinner than +with any other material, but the condensation against the inner +wall in wet weather is a drawback in damp climates. Cylindrical +tank silos have also been made of fire-proof tiles. Ferro-concrete +silos have been built on both the Monier and the Hennebique +systems. In the earlier type the bin was made of an iron or +steel framework filled in with concrete, but more recent structures +are composed entirely of steel rods embedded in cement. +Granaries built of this material have the great advantage, if +properly constructed, of being free from any risk of failure even +in case of uneven expansion of the material. With brick silos +collapses through pressure of the stored material are not unknown.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:856px; height:424px" src="images/img337.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>One of the largest and most complete grain elevators or warehouses +in the world belongs to the Canadian Northern Railway +Company, and was erected at Port Arthur, Canada, in +1901-1904. It has a total storage capacity of 7,000,000 +<span class="sidenote">Port Arthur, Canada.</span> +bushels, or 875,000 qrs. of 480 ℔. The range of buildings +and bins forms an oblong, and consists of two storage +houses, B and C, placed between two working or receiving houses +A and D (fig. 1). The receiving houses are fed by railway sidings. +House A, for example, has two sidings, one running through it and +the other beside it. Each siding serves five receiving pits, and a +receiving elevator of 10,000 ℔ capacity per minute, or 60,000 +bushels per hour, can draw grain from either of two pits. Five +elevators of 12,000 bushels per hour on the other side of the house +serve five warehouse separators, and all the grain received or discharged +is weighed, there being ten sets of automatic scales in the +upper part of the house, known as the cupola. The hopper of each +weigher can take a charge of 1400 bushels (84,000 ℔). Grain can +be conveyed either vertically or horizontally to any part of the +house, into any of the bins in the annex B, or into any truck or lake +steamer. This house is constructed of timber and roofed with +corrugated iron. The conveyor belts are 36 in. wide; those at the +top of the house are provided with throw-off carriages. The dust +from the cleaning machinery is carefully collected and spouted to +the furnace under the boiler house, where it is consumed. The +cylindrical silo bins in the storage houses consist of hollow tiles of +burned clay which, it is claimed, are fire-proof. The tiles are laid +on end and are about 12 in. by 12 in. and from 4 in. to 6 in. in thickness +according to the size of the bin. Each alternate course consists +of grooved blocks of channel tile forming a continuous groove or +belt round the bin. This groove receives a steel band acting as a +tension member and resisting the lateral pressure of the grain. +The steel bands once in position, the groove is completely filled with +cement grout by which the steel is encased and protected. Usually +the bottoms of the bins are furnished with self-discharging hoppers +of weak cinder or gravel concrete finished with cement mortar. +For the foundation or supporting floor reinforced concrete is frequently +used. The tiles already described are faced with tiles ˝ to +1 in. thick, which are laid solid in cement mortar covering the whole +exterior of the bin. Any damage to the facing tiles can easily be +repaired since they can be removed and replaced without affecting +the main bin walls. It is claimed that these facers constitute the +best possible protection against fire. A steel framework, covered +with tiles, crowns these circular bins and contains the conveyors +and spouts which are used to fill the bins. Five tunnels in the +concrete bedding that supports the bins carry the belt conveyors +which bring back the grain to the working house for cleaning or +shipment. There are altogether in each of the storage houses 80 +circular bins, each 21 ft. in diameter, and so grouped as to form +63 smaller interspace bins, or 143 bins in all. Each bin will store +grain in a column 85 ft. deep, and the whole group has a capacity +of 2,500,000 bushels. These bins were all constructed by the Barnett +& Record Company of Minneapolis, Minnesota, U.S.A., in accordance +with the Johnson & Record patent system of fire-proof +tile grain storage construction. In case one of the working houses +is attacked by fire the fire-proof storage houses protect not only +their own contents but also the other working house, and in the +event of its disablement or destruction the remaining one can be +easily connected with both the storage houses and handle their +contents.</p> + +<p>Circular tank silos have not been extensively adopted in Great +Britain, but a typical silo tank installation exists at the Walmsley +& Smith flour mills which stand beside the Devonshire dock at +Barrow-in-Furness. There four circular bins, built of riveted steel +<span class="sidenote">Barrow-in-Furness.</span> +plates, stand in a group on a quadrangle close to the mill warehouse. +A covered gantry, through which passes a band conveyor, +runs from the mill warehouse to the working silo house +which stands in the central space amid the four steel +tanks. The tanks are 70 ft. high, with a diameter of 45 ft., +and rest on foundations of concrete and steel. Each has a +separate conical roof and they are flat-bottomed, the grain resting +directly on the steel and concrete foundation bed. As the load of +the full tank is very heavy its even distribution on the bed is considered +a point of importance. Each tank can hold about 2500 tons +of wheat, which gives a total storage capacity for the four bins of +over 45,000 qrs. of 480 ℔. Attached to the mill warehouse is a skip +elevator with a discharging capacity of 75 tons an hour. The grain +is cleared by this elevator from the hold or holds of the vessel to be +unloaded, and is delivered to the basement of the warehouse. Thence +it is elevated to an upper storey and passed through an automatic +weigher capable of taking a charge of 1 ton. From the weighing +machine it can be taken, with or without a preliminary cleaning, +to any floor of the warehouse, which has a total storing capacity +of 8000 tons, or it can be carried by the band conveyor through the +gantry to the working house of the silo installation and distributed +to any one of the four tank silos. There is also a connexion by a +band conveyor running through a covered gantry into the mill, +which stands immediately in the rear. It is perfectly easy to turn +over the contents of any tank into any other tank. The whole +intake and wheat handling plant is moved by two electro-motors of +35 H.P. each, one installed in the warehouse and the other in the +silo working house. Steel silo tanks have the advantage of storing +a heavy stock of wheat at comparatively small capital outlay. +On an average an ordinary silo bin will not hold more than 500 to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id="page338"></a>338</span> +1000 qrs., but each of the bins at Barrow will contain 2500 tons or +over 1100 qrs. The steel construction also reduces the risk of fire +and consequently lessens the fire premium.</p> + +<p>The important granaries at the Liverpool docks date from 1868, +but have since been brought up to modern requirements. The +<span class="sidenote">Liverpool.</span> +warehouses on the Waterloo docks have an aggregate +storage area of 11ž acres, while the sister warehouses on +the Birkenhead side, which stand on the margin of the great float, +have an area of 11 acres. The total capacity of these warehouses +is about 200,000 qrs.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:849px; height:579px" src="images/img338.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The grain warehouse of the Manchester docks at Trafford wharf +is locally known as the grain elevator, because it was built to a +great extent on the model of an American elevator. +Some of the mechanical equipment was supplied by a +<span class="sidenote">Manchester.</span> +Chicago firm. The total capacity is 1,500,000 bushels or +40,000 tons of grain, which is stored in 226 separate bins. The +granary proper stands about 340 ft. from the side of the dock, but +is directly connected with the receiving tower, which rises at the +water’s edge, by a band conveyor protected by a gantry. The +main building is 448 ft. long by 80 ft. wide; the whole of the superstructure +was constructed of wood with an external casing of brickwork +and tiles. The receiving tower is fitted with a bucket elevator +capable, within fairly wide limits, of adjustment to the level of the +hold to be unloaded. The elevator has the large unloading capacity +of 350 tons per hour, assuming it to be working in a full hold. It +is supplemented by a pneumatic elevator (Duckham system) which +can raise 200 tons per hour and is used chiefly in dealing with parcels +of grain or in clearing grain out of holds which the ordinary elevator +cannot reach. The power required to work the large elevator as +well as the various band conveyors is supplied by two sets of horizontal +Corliss compound engines of 500 H.P. jointly, which are fed +by two Galloway boilers working at 100 ℔ pressure. The pneumatic +elevator is driven by two sets of triple expansion vertical engines +of 600 H.P. fed by three boilers working at a pressure of 160 ℔. +The grain received in the tower is automatically weighed. From +the receiving tower the grain is conveyed into the warehouse where +it is at once elevated to the top of a central tower, and is thence +distributed to any of the bins by band conveyors in the usual way. +The mechanical equipment of this warehouse is very complete, +and the following several operations can be simultaneously effected: +discharging grain from vessels in the dock at the rate of 350 tons +per hour; weighing in the tower; conveying grain into the warehouse +and distributing it into any of the 226 bins; moving grain +from bin to bin either for aerating or delivery, and simultaneously +weighing in bulk at the rate of 500 tons per hour; sacking grain, +weighing and loading the sacks into 40 railway trucks and 10 carts +simultaneously; loading grain from the warehouse into barges or +coasting craft at the rate of 150 tons per hour in bulk or of 250 sacks +per hour. This warehouse is equipped with a dryer of American +construction, which can deal with 50 tons of damp grain at one time, +and is connected with the whole bin system so that grain can be +readily moved from any bin to the dryer or conversely.</p> + +<p>A grain warehouse at the Victoria docks, London, belonging to the +London and India Docks Company (fig. 2) has a storing capacity +of about 25,000 qrs. or 200,000 bushels. It is over +100 ft. high, and is built on the American plan of interlaced +<span class="sidenote">London.</span> +timbers resting on iron columns. The walls are externally cased +with steel plates. The grain is stored in 56 silos, most of which are +about 10 ft. square by 50 ft. deep. The intake plant has a capacity +of 100 tons of wheat an hour, and includes +six automatic grain scales, each +of which can weigh off one sack at a +time. The main delivery floor of the +warehouse is at a convenient height +above the ground level. Portable +automatic weighing machines can be +placed under any bin. The whole of +the plant is driven by electric motors, +one being allotted to each machine.</p> + +<p>The transit silos of the London Grain +Elevator Company, also at the Victoria +docks, consist of four complete and independent +installations standing on +three tongues of land which project +into the water (figs. 2 and 3). Each +silo house is furnished with eight bins, +each of which, 12 ft. square by 80 ft. +deep, has a capacity of 1000 qrs. +of grain. A kind of well in the middle +of each silo house contains the necessary +elevators, staircases, &c. The silo +bins in each granary are erected on a +massive cast iron tank forming a sort +of cellar, which rests on a concrete +foundation 6 ft. thick. The base of +the tank is 30 ft. below the water level. +The silos are formed of wooden battens +nailed one on top of the other, the +pieces interlacing. Rolled steel girders +resting on cast iron columns support +the silos. To ensure a clean discharge +the hopper bottoms were designed so +as to avoid joints and thus to be +free from rivets or similar protuberances. +The exterior of each silo house is covered with corrugated +iron, and the same material is used for the roofing. No +conveyors serve the silo bins, as the elevators which rise above the +tops of the silos can feed any one of them by gravity. There are +three delivery elevators to each granary, one with a capacity of +120 tons and the other two of 100 tons each an hour. Each silo +house is served by a large elevator with a capacity of 120 tons per +hour, which discharges into the elevator well inside the house. +The delivery elevators discharge into a receiving shed in which +there is a large hopper feeding six automatic weighing machines. +Each charge as it is weighed empties itself automatically into sacks, +which are then ready for loading. Each pair of warehouses is provided +with a conveyor band 308 ft. long, used either for carrying +sacks from the weighing sheds to railway trucks or for carrying +grain in bulk to barges or trucks. Each silo house has an identical +mechanical equipment apart from the delivery band it shares with +its fellow warehouse. All operations in connexion with the silo +houses are effected under cover. The silos are normally fed by a +fleet of twenty-six of Philip’s patent self-discharging lighters. These +craft are hopper-bottomed and fitted with band conveyors of the +ordinary type, running between the double keelson of the lighter and +delivering into an elevator erected at the stern of the lighter. By +this means little trimming is required after the barge, which holds +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page339" id="page339"></a>339</span> +about 200 tons of grain, has been cleared. Ocean steamers of such +draft as to preclude their entry into any of the up river docks are +cleared at Tilbury by these lighters. It is said that grain loaded +at Tilbury into these lighters can be delivered from the transit silos +to railway trucks or barges in about six hours. The total storage +capacity of the silos amounts to 32,000 qrs. The motive power is +furnished by 14 gas engines of a total capacity of 366 H.P.</p> + +<p>Two of the largest granaries on the continent of Europe are +situated at the mouth of the Danube, at Braila and Galatz, in +Rumania, and serve for both the reception and discharge +of grain. At the edge of the quay on which these warehouses +<span class="sidenote">Rumania.</span> +are built there are rails with a gauge of 11˝ ft., upon which +run two mechanical loading and unloading appliances. The first +consists of a telescopic elevator which raises the grain and delivers +it to one of the two band conveyors at the head of the apparatus. +Each of these bands feeds automatic weighing machines with an +hourly capacity of 75 tons. From these weighers the grain is either +discharged through a manhole in the ground to a band conveyor +running in a tunnel parallel to the quay wall, or it is raised by a +second elevator (part of the same unloading apparatus), set at an +inclined angle, which delivers at a sufficient height to load railway +trucks on the siding running parallel to the quay. A turning gear +is provided so as to reverse, if required, the operation of the whole +apparatus, that the portion overhanging the water can be turned +to the land side. The unloading capacity is 150 tons of grain per +hour. If it be desired to load a ship the telescopic elevator has +only to be turned round and dipped into any one of 15 wells, which +can be filled up with grain from the land side. The capacity of +each granary is 233,333 qrs.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:848px; height:227px" src="images/img339.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Many large granaries have been built, in which grain is stored +on open floors, in bulk or in sacks. A notable instance is the warehouse +of the city of Stuttgart. This is a structure of +seven floors, including a basement and entresol. An +<span class="sidenote">Stuttgart.</span> +engine house accommodates two gas engines as well as an +hydraulic installation for the lifts. The grain is received by an +elevator from the railway trucks, and is delivered to a weighing +machine from which it is carried by a second elevator to the top +storey, where it is fed to a band running the length of the building. +A system of pipes runs from floor to floor, and by means of the +band conveyor with its movable throw-off carriage grain can be +shot to any floor. A second band conveyor is installed in the +entresol floor, and serves to convey grain either to the elevator, +if it is desired to elevate it to the top floor, or to the loading shed. +A second elevator runs through the centre of the building, and is +provided with a spout by means of which grain can be delivered +into the hopper feeding the cleaning machine, whence the grain +passes into a second hopper under which is an automatic weigher; +directly under this weigher the grain is sacked.</p> + +<p>A good example of a grain warehouse on the combined silo bin +and floor storage system is afforded by the granary at Mannheim +on the Rhine, which has the storage capacity of 2100 +tons. The building is 370 ft. in length, 78 ft. wide and +<span class="sidenote">Mannheim.</span> +78 ft. high, and by means of transverse walls it is divided into three +sections; of these one contains silos, in another section grain is +stored on open floors, while the third, which is situated between +the other two, is the grain-cleaning department. This granary +stands by the quay side, and a ship elevator of great capacity, +which serves the cleaning department, can rapidly clear any ship +or barge beneath. The central or screening house section contains +machinery specially designed for cleaning barley as well as wheat. +The barley plant has a capacity of 5 tons per hour. There are four +main elevators in this warehouse, while two more serve the screen +house. The usual band conveyors fitted with throw-off carriages +are provided, and are supplemented by an elaborate system of pipes +which receive grain from the elevators and bands and distribute +it at any required point. The plant is operated by electric motors. +If desired the floors of the non-silo section can be utilized for storing +other goods than grain, and to this end a lift with a capacity of 1 +ton runs from the basement to the top storey. The combined +capacity of the elevators and conveyors is 100 tons of grain per hour. +The mechanical equipment is so complete that four distinct operations +are claimed as possible. A ship may be unloaded into silos +or into the granary floors, and may simultaneously be loaded either +from silos or floors with different kinds of grain. Again, a cargo may +be discharged either into silos or upon the floors, and simultaneously +the grain may be cleaned. Grain may also be cleared from a vessel, +mixed with other grain already received, and then distributed to +any desired point. With equal facility grain may be cleaned, blended +with other varieties, re-stored in any section of the granary, and +transferred from one ship to another.</p> + +<p>A granary with special features of interest, erected on the quay +at Dortmund, Germany, by a co-operative society, is built of brick +on a base of hewn stone, with beams and supports of +timber. It is 78 ft. high and consists of seven floors, +<span class="sidenote">Dortmund.</span> +including basement and attic. Here again there are two sections, +the larger being devoted to the storage of grain in low bins, while +the smaller section consists of an ordinary silo house. Grain in +sacks may be stored in the basement of the larger section which has +a capacity of 1675 tons as compared with 825 tons in the silo department. +Thus the total storage capacity is 2500 tons. In the silo +house the bins, constructed of planks nailed one over the other, are +of varying size and are capable of storing grain to a depth of 42 to +47 ft. Some of the bins have been specially adapted for receiving +damp grain by being provided internally with transverse wooden +arms which form square or lozenge-shaped sections. The object of +this arrangement is to break up and aerate the stored grain. The +arms are of triangular section and are slightly hollowed at the base +so as to bring a current of air into direct contact with the grain. +The air can be warmed if necessary. The other and larger section of +the granary is provided with 105 bins of moderate height arranged +in groups of 21 on the five floors between the basement and attic. +On the intermediate floors and the bottom floor each bin lies exactly +under the bin above. Grain is not stored in these bins to a greater +depth than 5 ft. The bins are fitted with removable side walls, +and damp grain is only stored in certain bins aerated for half the +area of their side walls through a wire mesh. The arrangements +for distributing grain in this warehouse are very complete. The +uncleaned grain is taken by the receiving elevator, with a lifting +capacity of 20 tons per hour, to a warehouse separator, whence it is +passed through an automatic weigher and is then either sacked or +spouted to the main elevator (capacity 25 tons per hour) and elevated +to the attic. From the head of this main elevator the grain +can either be fed to a bin in one or other of the main granary floors, +or shot to one of the bins in the silo house. In the attic the grain is +carried by a spout and belt conveyor to one or other of the turntables, +as the appliances may be termed, which serve to distribute +through spouts the grain to any one of the floor or silo bins. Alternatively, +the grain may be shot into the basement and there fed +back into the main elevator by a band conveyor. In this way the +grain may be turned over as often as it is deemed necessary. At +the bottom of each bin are four apertures connected by spouts, +both with the bin below and with the central vertical pipe which +passes down through the centre of each group of bins. To regulate +the course of the grain from bin to bin or from bin to central pipe, +the connecting spouts are fitted with valves of ingenious yet simple +construction which deflect the grain in any desired direction, so +that the contents of two or more bins may be blended, or grain +may be transferred from a bin on one floor to a bin on a lower +floor, missing the bin on the floor between. The valves are controlled +by chains from the basement.</p> + +<p>With reference to the floor bins used at Dortmund, it may be +observed that there are granaries built on a similar principle in the +United Kingdom. It is probable that bins of moderate height are +more suitable for storing grain containing a considerable amount of +moisture than deep silos, whether made of wood, ferro-concrete or +other material. For one thing floor bins of the Dortmund pattern +can be more effectually aerated than deep silos. German wheat +has many characteristics in common with British, and, especially +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page340" id="page340"></a>340</span> +in north Germany, is not infrequently harvested in a more or less +damp condition. In the United Kingdom, Messrs Spencer & Co., of +Melksham, have erected several granaries on the floor-bin principle, +and have adopted an ingenious system of “telescopic” spouting, +by means of which grain may be discharged from one bin to another +or at any desired point. This spouting can be applied to bins +either with level floors or with hoppered bottoms, if they are arranged +one above the other on the different floors, and is so constructed that +an opening can be effected at certain points by simply sliding +upwards a section of the spout.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>National Granaries.</i>—Wheat forms the staple food of a large +proportion of the population of the British Isles, and of the total +amount consumed about four-fifths is sea-borne. The stocks +normally held in the country being limited, serious consequences +might result from any interruption of the supply, such as might +occur were Great Britain involved in war with a power or powers +commanding a strong fleet. To meet this contingency it has +been suggested that the State should establish granaries containing +a national reserve of wheat for use in emergency, or should +adopt measures calculated to induce merchants, millers, &c., to +hold larger stocks than at present and to stimulate the production +of home-grown wheat.</p> + +<p>Stocks of wheat (and of flour expressed in its equivalent weight +of wheat) are held by merchants, millers and farmers. Merchants’ +stocks are kept in granaries at ports of importation +and are known as first-hand stocks. Stocks of wheat +<span class="sidenote">Amount of stocks.</span> +and flour in the hands of millers and of flour held by +bakers are termed second-hand stocks, while farmers’ stocks only +consist of native wheat. Periodical returns are generally made +of first-hand or port stocks, nor should a wide margin of error be +possible in the case of farmers’ stocks, but second-hand stocks are +more difficult to gauge. Since the last decade of the 19th century +the storage capacity of British mills has considerably increased. +As the number of small mills has diminished the capacity of the +bigger ones has increased, and proportionately their warehousing +accommodation has been enlarged. At the present time first-hand +stocks tend to diminish because a larger proportion of millers’ +holdings are in mill granaries and silo houses. The immense +preponderance of steamers over sailing vessels in the grain trade +has also had the effect of greatly diminishing stocks. With his +cargo or parcel on a steamer a corn merchant can tell almost to a +day when it will be due. In fact foreign wheat owned by British +merchants is to a great extent stored in foreign granaries in +preference to British warehouses. The merchant’s risk is thereby +lessened to a certain extent. When his wheat has been brought +into a British port, to send it farther afield means extra expense. +But wheat in an American or Argentine elevator may be ordered +wherever the best price can be obtained for it. Options or +“futures,” too, have helped to restrict the size of wheat stocks +in the United Kingdom. A merchant buys a cargo of wheat on +passage for arrival at a definite time, and, lest the market value +of grain should have depreciated by the time it arrives, he sells +an option against it. In this way he hedges his deal, the option +serving as insurance against loss. This is why the British corn +trade finds it less risky to limit purchases to bare needs, protecting +itself by option deals, than to store large quantities which may +depreciate and involve their owners in loss.</p> + +<p>Varying estimates have been made of the number of weeks’ +supply of breadstuffs (wheat and flour) held by millers at various +seasons of the year. A table compiled by the secretary of the +National Association of British and Irish Millers from returns +for 1902 made by 170 milling firms showed 4.7, 4.9, 4.9 and +5 weeks’ supply at the end of March, June, September and +December respectively. These 170 mills were said to represent +46% of the milling capacity of the United Kingdom, and claimed +to have ground 12,000,000 qrs. out of 25,349,000 qrs. milled in +1902. These were obviously large mills; it is probable that the +other mills would not have shown anything like such a proportion +of stock of either raw or finished material. A fair estimate of the +stocks normally held by millers and bakers throughout the +United Kingdom would be about four weeks’ supply. First-hand +stocks vary considerably, but the limits are definite, ranging from +1,000,000 to 3,500,000 qrs., the latter being a high figure. The +tendency is for first-hand stocks to decline, but two weeks’ supply +must be a minimum. Farmers’ stocks necessarily vary with the +size of the crop and the period of the year; they will range from +9 or 10 weeks on the 1st of September to a half week on the 1st of +August. Taking all the stocks together, it is very exceptional +for the stock of breadstuffs to fall below 7 weeks’ supply. Between +the cereal years 1893-1894 and 1903-1904, a period of +570 weeks, the stocks of all kinds fell below 7 weeks’ supply in +only 9 weeks; of these 9 weeks 7 were between the beginning of +June and the end of August 1898. This was immediately after +the Leiter collapse. In seven of these eleven years there is no +instance of stocks falling below 8 weeks’ supply. In 21 out of +these 570 weeks and in 39 weeks during the same period stocks +dropped below 7˝ and 8 weeks’ supply respectively. Roughly +speaking the stock of wheat available for bread-making varies +from a two to four months’ supply and is at times well above +the latter figure.</p> + +<p>The formation of a national reserve of wheat, to be held at +the disposal of the state in case of urgent need during war, is +beset by many practical difficulties. The father of +the scheme was probably <i>The Miller</i>, a well-known +<span class="sidenote">National reserve.</span> +trade journal. In March and April 1886 two articles +appeared in that paper under the heading “Years of Plenty +and State Granaries,” in which it was urged that to meet the +risk of hostile cruisers interrupting the supplies it would be +desirable to lay up in granaries on British soil and under government +control a stock of wheat sufficient for 12 or alternatively +6 months’ consumption. This was to be national property, not +to be touched except when the fortune of war sent up the price +of wheat to a famine level or caused severe distress. The State +holding this large stock—a year’s supply of foreign grain would +have meant at least 15,000,000 qrs., and have cost about +Ł25,000,000 exclusive of warehousing—was in peace time to sell +no wheat except when it became necessary to part with stock +as a precautionary measure. In that case the wheat sold was to +be replaced by the same amount of new grain. The idea was +to provide the country with a supply of wheat until sufficient +wheat-growing soil could be broken up to make it practically +self-sufficing in respect of wheat. The original suggestion fell +quite flat. Two years later Captain Warren, R.N., read a paper +on “Great Britain’s Corn Supplies in War,” before the London +Chamber of Commerce, and accepted national granaries as the +only practicable safeguard against what appeared to him a great +peril. The representatives of the shipping interest opposed the +scheme, probably because it appeared to them likely to divert +the public from insisting on an all-powerful navy. The corn +trade opposed the project on account of its great practical +difficulties. But constant contraction of the British wheat +acreage kept the question alive, and during the earlier half of the +’nineties it was a favourite theme with agriculturists. Some +influential members of parliament pressed the matter on the +government, who, acting, no doubt, on the advice of their military +and naval experts, refused either a royal commission or a departmental +committee. While the then technical advisers of the +government were divided on the advisability of establishing +national granaries as a defensive measure, the balance of expert +opinion was adverse to the scheme. Lord Wolseley, then +commander-in-chief, publicly stigmatized the theory that Great +Britain might in war be starved into submission as “unmitigated +humbug.”</p> + +<p>In spite of official discouragement the agitation continued, +and early in 1897 the council of the Central and Associated +Chambers of Agriculture, at the suggestion to a +great extent of Mr R. A. Yerburgh, M.P., nominated +<span class="sidenote">Yerburgh committee.</span> +a committee to examine the question of national +wheat stores. This committee held thirteen sittings +and examined fifty-four witnesses. Its report, which was +published (L. G. Newman & Co., 12 Finsbury Square, London, +E.C.) with minutes of the evidence taken, practically recommended +that a national reserve of wheat on the lines already +sketched should be formed and administered by the State, and +that the government should be strongly urged to obtain the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id="page341"></a>341</span> +appointment of a royal commission, comprising representatives +of agriculture, the corn trade, shipping, and the army and navy, +to conduct an exhaustive inquiry into the whole subject of the +national food-supply in case of war. This recommendation was +ultimately carried into effect, but not till nearly five years had +elapsed. Of two schemes for national granaries put before the +Yerburgh committee, one was formulated by Mr Seth Taylor, +a London miller and corn merchant, who reckoned that a store +of 10,000,000 qrs. of wheat might be accumulated at an average +cost of 40s. per qr.—this was in the Leiter year of high prices—and +distributed in six specially constructed granaries to be +erected at London, Liverpool, Hull, Bristol, Glasgow and +Dublin. The cost of the granaries was put at Ł7,500,000. Mr +Taylor’s scheme, all charges included, such as 2˝% interest on +capital, cost of storage (at 6d. per qr.), and 2s. per qr. for cost +of replacing wheat, involved an annual expenditure of Ł1,250,000. +The Yerburgh committee also considered a proposal to stimulate +the home supply of wheat by offering a bounty to farmers for +every quarter of wheat grown. This proposal has taken different +shapes; some have suggested that a bounty should be given +on every acre of land covered with wheat, while others would +only allow the bounty on wheat raised and kept in good condition +up to a certain date, say the beginning of the following harvest. +It is obvious that a bounty on the area of land covered by +wheat, irrespective of yield, would be a premium on poor farming, +and might divert to wheat-growing land unsuitable for that +purpose. The suggestion to pay a bounty of say 3s. to 5s. per qr. +for all wheat grown and stacked for a certain time stands on a +different basis; it is conceivable that a bounty of 5s. might +expand the British production of wheat from say 7,000,000 to +9,000,000 qrs., which would mean that a bounty of Ł2,250,000 +per annum, plus costs of administration, had secured an extra +home production of 2,000,000 qrs. Whether such a price would +be worth paying is another matter; the Yerburgh committee’s +conclusion was decidedly in the negative. It has also been +suggested that the State might subsidize millers to the extent +of 2s. 6d. per sack of 280 ℔. per annum on condition that each +maintained a minimum supply of two months’ flour. This may +be taken to mean that for keeping a special stock of flour over +and above his usual output a miller would be entitled to an +annual subsidy of 2s. 6d. per sack. An extra stock of 10,000,000 +sacks might be thus kept up at an annual cost of Ł1,250,000, +plus the expenditure of administration, which would probably +be heavy. With regard to this suggestion, it is very probable +that a few large mills which have plenty of warehouse accommodation +and depots all over the country would be ready to +keep up a permanent extra stock of 100,000 sacks. Thus a mill +of 10,000 sacks’ capacity per week, which habitually maintains +a total stock of 50,000 sacks, might bring up its stock to 150,000 +sacks. Such a mill, being a good customer to railways, could +get from them the storage it required for little or nothing. But +the bulk of the mills have no such advantages. They have little +or no spare warehousing room, and are not accustomed to keep +any stock, sending their flour out almost as fast as it is milled. +It is doubtful therefore if a bounty of 2s. 6d. per sack would +have the desired effect of keeping up a stock of 10,000,000 sacks, +sufficient for two to three months’ bread consumption.</p> + +<p>The controversy reached a climax in the royal commission +appointed in 1903, to which was also referred the importation +of raw material in war time. Its report appeared in +1905. To the question whether the unquestioned +<span class="sidenote">Royal commission, 1903-1905.</span> +dependence of the United Kingdom on an uninterrupted +supply of sea-borne breadstuffs renders it advisable or +not to maintain at all times a six months’ stock of wheat and +flour, it returned no decided answer, or perhaps it would be +more correct to say that the commission was hopelessly divided. +The main report was distinctly optimistic so far as the liability +of the country to harass and distress at the hands of a hostile +naval power or combination of powers was concerned. But +there were several dissentients, and there was hardly any +portion of the report in chief which did not provoke some +reservation or another. That a maritime war would cause +freights and insurance to rise in a high degree was freely admitted, +and it was also admitted that the price of bread must also rise +very appreciably. But, provided the navy did not break down, +the risk of starvation was dismissed. Therefore all the proposals +for providing national granaries or inducing merchants and +millers to carry bigger stocks were put aside as unpractical and +unnecessary. The commission was, however, inclined to consider +more favourably a suggestion for providing free storage for +wheat at the expense of the State. The idea was that if the State +would subsidize any large granary company to the extent of 6d. +or 5d. per qr., grain now warehoused in foreign lands would be +attracted to the British Isles. But on the whole the commission +held that the main effect of the scheme would be to saddle the +government with the rent of all grain stored in public warehouses +in the United Kingdom without materially increasing stocks. +The proposal to offer bounties to farmers to hold stocks for a +longer period and to grow more wheat met with equally little +favour.</p> + +<p>To sum up the advantages of national granaries, assuming +any sort of disaster to the navy, the possession of a reserve +of even six months’ wheat-supply in addition to ordinary stocks +would prevent panic prices. On the other hand, the difficulties +in the way of forming and administering such a reserve are very +great. The world grows no great surplus of wheat, and to form +a six months’, much more a twelve months’, stock would be +the work of years. The government in buying up the wheat +would have to go carefully if they would avoid sending up +prices with a rush. They would have to buy dearly, and when +they let go a certain amount of stock they would be bound to +sell cheaply. A stock once formed might be held by the State +with little or no disturbance of the corn market, although the +existence of such an emergency stock would hardly encourage +British farmers to grow more wheat. The cost of erecting, +equipping and keeping in good order the necessary warehouses +would be, probably, much heavier than the most liberal estimate +hitherto made by advocates of national granaries.</p> +<div class="author">(G. F. Z.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANBY, JOHN MANNERS,<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquess of</span> (1721-1770), +British soldier, was the eldest son of the third duke of Rutland. +He was born in 1721 and educated at Eton and Trinity College, +Cambridge, and was returned as member of parliament for +Grantham in 1741. Four years later he received a commission +as colonel of a regiment raised by the Rutland interest in and +about Leicester to assist in quelling the Highland revolt of 1745. +This corps never got beyond Newcastle, but young Granby +went to the front as a volunteer on the duke of Cumberland’s +staff, and saw active service in the last stages of the insurrection. +Very soon his regiment was disbanded. He continued in parliament, +combining with it military duties, making the campaign +of Flanders (1747). Promoted major-general in 1755, three +years later he was appointed colonel of the Royal Horse Guards +(Blues). Meanwhile he had married the daughter of the duke +of Somerset, and in 1754 had begun his parliamentary connexion +with Cambridgeshire, for which county he sat until his death. +The same year that saw Granby made colonel of the Blues, +saw also the despatch of a considerable British contingent to +Germany. Minden was Granby’s first great battle. At the head +of the Blues he was one of the cavalry leaders halted at the +critical moment by Sackville, and when in consequence that +officer was sent home in disgrace, Lieut.-General Lord +Granby succeeded to the command of the British contingent +in Ferdinand’s army, having 32,000 men under his orders at +the beginning of 1760. In the remaining campaigns of the Seven +Years’ War the English contingent was more conspicuous by its +conduct than the Prussians themselves. On the 31st of July +1760 Granby brilliantly stormed Warburg at the head of the +British cavalry, capturing 1500 men and ten pieces of artillery. +A year later (15th of July 1761) the British defended the heights +of Vellinghausen with what Ferdinand himself styled “indescribable +bravery.” In the last campaign, at Gravenstein und +Wilhelmsthal, Homburg and Cassel, Granby’s men bore the brunt +of the fighting and earned the greatest share of the glory.</p> + +<p>Returning to England in 1763 the marquess found himself +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page342" id="page342"></a>342</span> +the popular hero of the war. It is said that couriers awaited +his arrival at all the home ports to offer him the choice of the +Ordnance or the Horse Guards. His appointment to the Ordnance +bore the date of the 1st of July 1763, and three years later he +became commander-in-chief. In this position he was attacked +by “Junius,” and a heated discussion arose, as the writer had +taken the greatest pains in assailing the most popular member +of the Grafton ministry. In 1770 Granby, worn out by political +and financial trouble, resigned all his offices, except the colonelcy +of the Blues. He died at Scarborough on the 18th of October +1770. He had been made a privy councillor in 1760, lord +lieutenant of Derbyshire in 1762, and LL.D. of Cambridge in +1769.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Two portraits of Granby were painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, +one of which is now in the National Gallery. His contemporary +popularity is indicated by the number of inns and public-houses +which took his name and had his portrait as sign-board.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAN CHACO,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> an extensive region in the heart of South +America belonging to the La Plata basin, stretching from 20° +to 29° S. lat., and divided between the republics of Argentine, +Bolivia and Paraguay, with a small district of south-western +Matto Grosso (Brazil). Its area is estimated at from 250,000 +to 425,000 sq. m., but the true Chaco region probably does not +exceed 300,000 sq. m. The greater part is covered with marshes, +lagoons and dense tropical jungle and forest, and is still unexplored. +On its southern and western borders there are extensive +tracts of open woodland, intermingled with grassy plains, +while on the northern side in Bolivia are large areas of open +country subject to inundations in the rainy season. In general +terms the Gran Chaco may be described as a great plain sloping +gently to the S.E., traversed in the same direction by two great +rivers, the Pilcomayo and Bermejo, whose sluggish courses are +not navigable because of sand-banks, barriers of overturned trees +and floating vegetation, and confusing channels. This excludes +that part of eastern Bolivia belonging to the Amazon basin, +which is sometimes described as part of the Chaco. The greater +part of its territory is occupied by nomadic tribes of Indians, +some of whom are still unsubdued, while others, like the Matacos, +are sometimes to be found on neighbouring sugar estates and +estancias as labourers during the busy season. The forest wealth +of the Chaco region is incalculable and apparently inexhaustible, +consisting of a great variety of palms and valuable cabinet +woods, building timber, &c. Its extensive tracts of “quebracho +Colorado” (<i>Loxopterygium Lorentzii</i>) are of very great value +because of its use in tanning leather. Both the wood and its +extract are largely exported. Civilization is slowly gaining +footholds in this region along the southern and eastern borders.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (alternatively called the +War of the League of Augsburg), the third<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of the great aggressive +wars waged by Louis XIV. of France against Spain, the Empire, +Great Britain, Holland and other states. The two earlier wars, +which are redeemed from oblivion by the fact that in them +three great captains, Turenne, Condé and Montecucculi, played +leading parts, are described in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dutch Wars</a></span>. In +the third war the leading figures are: Henri de Montmorency-Boutteville, +duke of Luxemburg, the former aide-de-camp of +Condé and heir to his daring method of warfare; William of +Orange, who had fought against both Condé and Luxemburg +in the earlier wars, and was now king of England; Vauban, +the founder of the sciences of fortification and siegecraft, and +Catinat, the follower of Turenne’s cautious and systematic +strategy, who was the first commoner to receive high command +in the army of Louis XIV. But as soldiers, these men—except +Vauban—are overshadowed by the great figures of the preceding +generation, and except for a half-dozen outstanding episodes, +the war of 1689-97 was an affair of positions and manœuvres.</p> + +<p>It was within these years that the art and practice of war +began to crystallize into the form called “linear” in its strategic +and tactical aspect, and “cabinet-war” in its political and moral +aspect. In the Dutch wars, and in the minor wars that preceded +the formation of the League of Augsburg, there were +still survivals of the loose organization, violence and wasteful +barbarity typical of the Thirty Years’ War; and even in the +War of the Grand Alliance (in its earlier years) occasional +brutalities and devastations showed that the old spirit died hard. +But outrages that would have been borne in dumb misery in +the old days now provoked loud indignation, and when the +fierce Louvois disappeared from the scene it became generally +understood that barbarity was impolitic, not only as alienating +popular sympathies, but also as rendering operations a physical +impossibility for want of supplies.</p> + +<p>Thus in 1700, so far from terrorizing the country people +into submission, armies systematically conciliated them by +paying cash and bringing trade into the country. +Formerly, wars had been fought to compel a people +<span class="sidenote">Character of the war.</span> +to abjure their faith or to change sides in some +personal or dynastic quarrel. But since 1648 this had no +longer been the case. The Peace of Westphalia established +the general relationship of kings, priests and peoples on a basis +that was not really shaken until the French Revolution, and +in the intervening hundred and forty years the peoples at large, +except at the highest and gravest moments (as in Germany in +1689, France In 1709 and Prussia in 1757) held aloof from active +participation in politics and war. This was the beginning of +the theory that war was an affair of the regular forces only, +and that intervention in it by the civil population was a punishable +offence. Thus wars became the business of the professional +soldiers in the king’s own service, and the scarcity and costliness +of these soldiers combined with the purely political character +of the quarrels that arose to reduce a campaign from an “intense +and passionate drama” to a humdrum affair, to which only +rarely a few men of genius imparted some degree of vigour, and +which in the main was an attempt to gain small ends by a small +expenditure of force and with the minimum of risk. As between +a prince and his subjects there were still quarrels that stirred +the average man—the Dragonnades, for instance, or the English +Revolution—but foreign wars were “a stronger form of diplomatic +notes,” as Clausewitz called them, and were waged with +the object of adding a codicil to the treaty of peace that had +closed the last incident.</p> + +<p>Other causes contributed to stifle the former ardour of war. +Campaigns were no longer conducted by armies of ten to thirty +thousand men. Large regular armies had come into fashion, +and, as Guibert points out, instead of small armies charged with +grand operations we find grand armies charged with small +operations. The average general, under the prevailing conditions +of supply and armament, was not equal to the task of commanding +such armies. Any real concentration of the great forces that +Louis XIV. had created was therefore out of the question, and +the field armies split into six or eight independent fractions, +each charged with operations on a particular theatre of war. +From such a policy nothing remotely resembling the crushing +of a great power could be expected to be gained. The one +tangible asset, in view of future peace negotiations, was therefore +a fortress, and it was on the preservation or capture of fortresses +that operations in all these wars chiefly turned. The idea of +the decisive battle for its own sake, as a settlement of the quarrel, +was far distant; for, strictly speaking, there was no quarrel, +and to use up highly trained and exceedingly expensive soldiers +in gaining by brute force an advantage that might equally well +be obtained by chicanery was regarded as foolish.</p> + +<p>The fortress was, moreover, of immediate as well as contingent +value to a state at war. A century of constant warfare had +impoverished middle Europe, and armies had to spread over a +large area if they desired to “live on the country.” This was +dangerous in the face of the enemy (cf. the Peninsular War), +and it was also uneconomical. The only way to prevent the +country people from sending their produce into the fortresses +for safety was to announce beforehand that cash would be paid, +at a high rate, for whatever the army needed. But even promises +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id="page343"></a>343</span> +rarely brought this about, and to live at all, whether on supplies +brought up from the home country and stored in magazines +(which had to be guarded) or on local resources, an army had +as a rule to maintain or to capture a large fortress. Sieges, +therefore, and manœuvres are the features of this form of war, +wherein armies progressed not with the giant strides of modern +war, but in a succession of short hops from one foothold to the +next. This was the procedure of the average commander, and +even when a more intense spirit of conflict was evoked by the +Luxemburgs and Marlboroughs it was but momentary and +spasmodic.</p> + +<p>The general character of the war being borne in mind, nine-tenths +of its marches and manœuvres can be almost “taken as +read”; the remaining tenth, the exceptional and abnormal +part of it, alone possesses an interest for modern readers.</p> + +<p>In pursuance of a new aggressive policy in Germany Louis XIV. +sent his troops, as a diplomatic menace rather than for conquest, +into that country in the autumn of 1688. Some of their raiding +parties plundered the country as far south as Augsburg, for the +political intent of their advance suggested terrorism rather than +conciliation as the best method. The league of Augsburg at +once took up the challenge, and the addition of new members +(Treaty of Vienna, May 1689) converted it into the “Grand +Alliance” of Spain, Holland, Sweden, Savoy and certain Italian +states, Great Britain, the emperor, the elector of Brandenburg, +&c.</p> + +<p>“Those who condemned the king for raising up so many +enemies, admired him for having so fully prepared to defend +himself and even to forestall them,” says Voltaire. Louvois +had in fact completed the work of organizing the French army +on a regular and permanent basis, and had made it not merely +the best, but also by far the most numerous in Europe, for Louis +disposed in 1688 of no fewer than 375,000 soldiers and 60,000 +sailors. The infantry was uniformed and drilled, and the socket +bayonet and the flint-lock musket had been introduced. The +only relic of the old armament was the pike, which was retained +for one-quarter of the foot, though it had been discarded by the +Imperialists in the course of the Turkish wars described below. +The first artillery regiment was created in 1684, to replace the +former semi-civilian organization by a body of artillerymen +susceptible of uniform training and amenable to discipline +and orders.</p> + +<p>In 1689 Louis had six armies on foot. That in Germany, +which had executed the raid of the previous autumn, was not +in a position to resist the principal army of the coalition +so far from support. Louvois therefore ordered it +<span class="sidenote">Devastation of the Palatinate, 1689.</span> +to lay waste the Palatinate, and the devastation of +the country around Heidelberg, Mannheim, Spires, +Oppenheim and Worms was pitilessly and methodically carried +into effect in January and February. There had been devastations +in previous wars, even the high-minded Turenne had +used the argument of fire and sword to terrify a population +or a prince, while the whole story of the last ten years of the +great war had been one of incendiary armies leaving traces +of their passage that it took a century to remove. But here the +devastation was a purely military measure, executed systematically +over a given strategic front for no other purpose than to +delay the advance of the enemy’s army. It differed from the +method of Turenne or Cromwell in that the sufferers were not +those people whom it was the purpose of the war to reduce to +submission, but others who had no interest in the quarrel. It +differed from Wellington’s laying waste of Portugal in 1810 in +that it was not done for the defence of the Palatinate against +a national enemy, but because the Palatinate was where it was. +The feudal theory that every subject of a prince at war was an +armed vassal, and therefore an enemy of the prince’s enemy, +had in practice been obsolete for two centuries past; by 1690 +the organization of war, its causes, its methods and its instruments +had passed out of touch with the people at large, and it +had become thoroughly understood that the army alone was +concerned with the army’s business. Thus it was that this +devastation excited universal reprobation; and that, in the words +of a modern French writer, the “idea of Germany came to +birth in the flames of the Palatinate.”</p> + +<p>As a military measure this crime was, moreover, quite unprofitable; +for it became impossible for Marshal Duras, the French +commander, to hold out on the east side of the middle Rhine, +and he could think of nothing better to do than to go farther +south and to ravage Baden and the Breisgau, which was not +even a military necessity. The grand army of the Allies, coming +farther north, was practically unopposed. Charles of Lorraine +and the elector of Bavaria—lately comrades in the Turkish war +(see below)—invested Mainz, the elector of Brandenburg Bonn. +The latter, following the evil precedent of his enemies, shelled +the town uselessly instead of making a breach in its walls and +overpowering its French garrison, an incident not calculated +to advance the nascent idea of German unity. Mainz, valiantly +defended by Nicolas du Blé, marquis d’Uxelles, had to surrender +on the 8th of September. The governor of Bonn, baron d’Asfeld, +not in the least intimidated by the bombardment, held out till +the army that had taken Mainz reinforced the elector of Brandenburg, +and then, rejecting the hard terms of surrender offered +him by the latter, he fell in resisting a last assault on the 12th +of October. Only 850 men out of his 6000 were left to surrender +on the 16th, and the duke of Lorraine, less truculent than the +elector, escorted them safely to Thionville. Boufflers, with +another of Louis’s armies, operated from Luxemburg (captured +by the French in 1684 and since held) and Trarbach towards the +Rhine, but in spite of a minor victory at Kochheim on the 21st +of August, he was unable to relieve either Mainz or Bonn.</p> + +<p>In the Low Countries the French marshal d’Humičres, being +in superior force, had obtained <i>special permission</i> to offer battle +to the Allies. Leaving the garrison of Lille and Tournay to +amuse the Spaniards, he hurried from Maubeuge to oppose the +Dutch, who from Namur had advanced slowly on Philippeville. +Coming upon their army (which was commanded by the prince +of Waldeck) in position behind the river Heure, with an advanced +post in the little walled town of Walcourt, he flung his advanced +guard against the bridge and fortifications of this place to clear +the way for his deployment beyond the river Heure (27th +August). After wasting a thousand brave men in this attempt, +he drew back. For a few days the two armies remained face +to face, cannonading one another at intervals, but no further +fighting occurred. Humičres returned to the region of the +Scheldt fortresses, and Waldeck to Brussels. For the others +of Louis’ six armies the year’s campaign passed off quite +uneventfully.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Simultaneously with these operations, the Jacobite cause was +being fought to an issue in Ireland. War began early in 1689 with +desultory engagements between the Orangemen of the +north and the Irish regular army, most of which the earl +<span class="sidenote">The war in Ireland, 1689-1691.</span> +of Tyrconnel had induced to declare for King James. +The northern struggle after a time condensed itself into +the defence of Derry and Enniskillen. The siege of the former +place, begun by James himself and carried on by the French +general Rosen, lasted 105 days. In marked contrast to the sieges +of the continent, this was resisted by the townsmen themselves, +under the leadership of the clergyman George Walker. But the +relieving force (consisting of two frigates, a supply ship and a force +under Major-general Percy Kirke) was dilatory, and it was not +until the defenders were in the last extremity that Kirke actually +broke through the blockade (July 31st). Enniskillen was less +closely invested, and its inhabitants, organized by Colonel Wolseley +and other officers sent by Kirke, actually kept the open field and +defeated the Jacobites at Newtown Butler (July 31st). A few days +later the Jacobite army withdrew from the north. But it was long +before an adequate army could be sent over from England to deal +with it. Marshal Schomberg (<i>q.v.</i>), one of the most distinguished +soldiers of the time, who had been expelled from the French service +as a Huguenot, was indeed sent over in August, but the army he +brought, some 10,000 strong, was composed of raw recruits, and +when it was assembled in camp at Dundalk to be trained for its +work, it was quickly ruined by an epidemic of fever. But James +failed to take advantage of his opportunity to renew the war in the +north, and the relics of Schomberg’s army wintered in security, +covered by the Enniskillen troops. In the spring of 1690, however, +more troops, this time experienced regiments from Holland, Denmark +and Brandenburg, were sent, and in June, Schomberg in Ireland and +Major-general Scravemore in Chester having thoroughly organized +and equipped the field army, King William assumed the command +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>344</span> +himself. Five days after his arrival he began his advance from +Loughbrickland near Newry, and on the 1st of July he engaged +James’s main army on the river Boyne, close to Drogheda. Schomberg +was killed and William himself wounded, but the Irish army +was routed.</p> + +<p>No stand was made by the defeated party either in the Dublin +or in the Waterford district. Lauzun, the commander of the French +auxiliary corps in James’s army, and Tyrconnel both discountenanced +any attempt to defend Limerick, where the Jacobite forces +had reassembled; but Patrick Sarsfield (earl of Lucan), as the +spokesman of the younger and more ardent of the Irish officers, +pleaded for its retention. He was left, therefore, to hold Limerick, +while Tyrconnel and Lauzun moved northward into Galway. Here, +as in the north, the quarrel enlisted the active sympathies of the +people against the invader, and Sarsfield not only surprised and +destroyed the artillery train of William’s army, but repulsed every +assault made on the walls that Lauzun had said “could be battered +down by rotten apples.” William gave up the siege on the 30th +of August. The failure was, however, compensated in a measure by +the arrival in Ireland of an expedition under Lord Marlborough, +which captured Cork and Kinsale, and next year (1691) the Jacobite +cause was finally crushed by William’s general Ginckell (afterwards +earl of Athlone) in the battle of Aughrim in Galway (July 12th), +in which St Ruth, the French commander, was killed and the +Jacobite army dissipated. Ginckell, following up his victory, besieged +Limerick afresh. Tyrconnel died of apoplexy while organizing +the defence, and this time the town was invested by sea as well as +by land. After six weeks’ resistance the defenders offered to +capitulate, and with the signing of the treaty of Limerick on the +1st of October the Irish war came to an end. Sarsfield and the +most energetic of King James’s supporters retired to France and +were there formed into the famous “Irish brigade.” Sarsfield was +killed at the battle of Neerwinden two years later.</p> +</div> + +<p>The campaign of 1690 on the continent of Europe is marked +by two battles, one of which, Luxemburg’s victory of Fleurus, +belongs to the category of the world’s great battles. It is +described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fleurus</a></span>, and the present article only deals +summarily with the conditions in which it was fought. These, +though they in fact led to an encounter that could, in itself, +fairly be called decisive, were in closer accord with the general +spirit of the war than was the decision that arose out of them.</p> + +<p>Luxemburg had a powerful enemy in Louvois, and he had +consequently been allotted only an insignificant part in the first +campaign. But after the disasters of 1689 Louis re-arranged +the commands on the north-east frontier so as to allow Humičres, +Luxemburg and Boufflers to combine for united action. “I +will take care that Louvois plays fair,” Louis said to the duke +when he gave him his letters of service. Though apparently +Luxemburg was not authorized to order such a combination +himself, as senior officer he would automatically take command +if it came about. The whole force available was probably close +on 100,000, but not half of these were present at the decisive +battle, though Luxemburg certainly practised the utmost +“economy of force” as this was understood in those days (see +also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neerwinden</a></span>). On the remaining theatres of war, the +dauphin, assisted by the duc de Lorge, held the middle Rhine, +and Catinat the Alps, while other forces were in Roussillon, &c., +as before. Catinat’s operations are briefly described below. +Those of the others need no description, for though the Allies +formed a plan for a grand concentric advance on Paris, the +preliminaries to this advance were so numerous and so closely +interdependent that on the most favourable estimate the winter +would necessarily find the Allied armies many leagues short of +Paris. In fact, the Rhine offensive collapsed when Charles of +Lorraine died (17th April), and the reconquest of his lost duchy +ceased to be a direct object of the war.</p> + +<p>Luxemburg began operations by drawing in from the Sambre +country, where he had hitherto been stationed, to the Scheldt +and “eating up” the country between Oudenarde +and Ghent in the face of a Spanish army concentrated +<span class="sidenote">Fleurus, 1690.</span> +at the latter place (15th May-12th June). He then +left Humičres with a containing force in the Scheldt region and +hurried back to the Sambre to interpose between the Allied +army under Waldeck and the fortress of Dinant which Waldeck +was credited with the intention of besieging. His march from +Tournay to Gerpinnes was counted a model of skill—the <i>locus +classicus</i> for the maxim that ruled till the advent of Napoleon—“march +always in the order in which you encamp, or purpose +to encamp, or fight.” For four days the army marched across +country in close order, covered in all directions by reconnoitring +cavalry and advanced, flank and rear guards. Under these +conditions eleven miles a day was practically forced marching, +and on arriving at Jeumont-sur-Sambre the army was given +three days’ rest. Then followed a few leisurely marches in the +direction of Charleroi, during which a detachment of Boufflers’s +army came in, and the cavalry explored the country to the north. +On news of the enemy’s army being at Trazegnies, Luxemburg +hurried across a ford of the Sambre above Charleroi, but this +proved to be a detachment only, and soon information came +in that Waldeck was encamped near Fleurus. Thereupon +Luxemburg, without consulting his subordinate generals, took +his army to Velaine. He knew that the enemy was marking +time till the troops of Liége and the Brandenburgers from the +Rhine were near enough to co-operate in the Dinant enterprise, +and he was determined to fight a battle at once. From Velaine, +therefore, on the morning of the 1st of July, the army moved +forward to Fleurus and there won one of the most brilliant +victories in the history of the Royal army. But Luxemburg +was not allowed to pursue his advantage. He was ordered to +hold his army in readiness to besiege either Namur, Mons, +Charleroi or Ath, according as later orders dictated; and to +send back the borrowed regiments to Boufflers, who was being +pressed back by the Brandenburg and Liége troops. Thus +Waldeck reformed his army in peace at Brussels, where William +III. of England soon afterwards assumed command of the +Allied forces in the Netherlands, and Luxemburg and the other +marshals stood fast for the rest of the campaign, being forbidden +to advance until Catinat—in Italy—should have won a battle.</p> + +<p>In this quarter the armed neutrality of the duke of Savoy +had long disquieted the French court. His personal connexions +with the imperial family and his resentment against +Louvois, who had on some occasion treated him with +<span class="sidenote">Staffarda.</span> +his usual patronizing arrogance, inclined him to join the +Allies, while on the other hand he could hope for extensions +of his scanty territory only by siding with Louis. In view of +this doubtful condition of affairs the French army under Catinat +had for some time been maintained on the Alpine frontier, and +in the summer of 1690 Louis XIV. sent an ultimatum to Victor +Amadeus to compel him to take one side or the other actively +and openly. The result was that Victor Emmanuel threw in +his lot with the Allies and obtained help from the Spaniards +and Austrians in the Milanese. Catinat thereupon advanced +into Piedmont, and won, principally by virtue of his own watchfulness +and the high efficiency of his troops, the important victory +of Staffarda (August 18th, 1690). This did not, however, enable +him to overrun Piedmont, and as the duke was soon reinforced, +he had to be content with the methodical conquest of a few +frontier districts. On the side of Spain, a small French army +under the duc de Noailles passed into Catalonia and there lived +at the enemy’s expense for the duration of the campaign.</p> + +<p>In these theatres of war, and on the Rhine, where the disunion +of the German princes prevented vigorous action, the following +year, 1691, was uneventful. But in the Netherlands there +were a siege, a war of manœuvres and a cavalry combat, each +in its way somewhat remarkable. The siege was that of Mons, +which was, like many sieges in the former wars, conducted with +much pomp by Louis XIV. himself, with Boufflers and Vauban +under him. On the surrender of the place, which was hastened +by red-hot shot (April 8th), Louis returned to Versailles and +divided his army between Boufflers and Luxemburg, the former +of whom departed to the Meuse. There he attempted by bombardment +to enforce the surrender of Liége, but had to desist when +the elector of Brandenburg threatened Dinant. The principal +armies on either side faced one another under the command +respectively of William III. and of Luxemburg. The Allies +were first concentrated to the south of Namur, and Luxemburg +hurried thither, but neither party found any tempting opportunity +for battle, and when the cavalry had consumed all the forage +available in the district, the two armies edged away gradually +towards Flanders. The war of manœuvre continued, with a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id="page345"></a>345</span> +slight balance of advantage on Luxemburg’s side, until September, +when William returned to England, leaving Waldeck in command +of the Allied army, with orders to distribute it in winter quarters +amongst the garrison towns. This gave the momentary opportunity +for which Luxemburg had been watching, and at Leuze +(20th Sept.) he fell upon the cavalry of Waldeck’s rearguard +and drove it back in disorder with heavy losses until the pursuit +was checked by the Allied infantry.</p> + +<p>In 1692<a name="fa2l" id="fa2l" href="#ft2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> the Rhine campaign was no more decisive than +before, although Lorge made a successful raid into Württemberg +in September and foraged his cavalry in German territory till +the approach of winter. The Spanish campaign was unimportant, +but on the Alpine side the Allies under the duke of Savoy drove +back Catinat into Dauphiné, which they ravaged with fire and +sword. But the French peasantry were quicker to take arms +than the Germans, and, inspired by the local gentry—amongst +whom figured the heroine, Philis de la Tour du Pin (1645-1708), +daughter of the marquis de la Charce—they beset every road +with such success that the small regular army of the invaders +was powerless. Brought practically to a standstill, the Allies +soon consumed the provisions that could be gathered in, and +then, fearing lest the snow should close the passes behind them, +they retreated.</p> + +<p>In the Low Countries the campaign as before began with a +great siege. Louis and Vauban invested Namur on the 26th +of May. The place was defended by the prince de +Barbançon (who had been governor of Luxemburg +<span class="sidenote">Siege of Namur, 1692.</span> +when that place was besieged in 1684) and Coehoorn +(<i>q.v.</i>), Vauban’s rival in the science of fortification. +Luxemburg, with a small army, manœuvred to cover the siege +against William III.’s army at Louvain. The place fell on the +5th of June,<a name="fa3l" id="fa3l" href="#ft3l"><span class="sp">3</span></a> after a very few days of Vauban’s “regular” +attack, but the citadel held out until the 23rd. Then, as before, +Louis returned to Versailles, giving injunctions to Luxemburg +to “preserve the strong places and the country, while opposing +the enemy’s enterprises and subsisting the army at his expense.” +This negative policy, contrary to expectation, led to a hard-fought +battle. William, employing a common device, announced +his intention of retaking Namur, but set his army in motion +for Flanders and the sea-coast fortresses held by the French. +Luxemburg, warned in time, hurried towards the Scheldt, and +the two armies were soon face to face again, Luxemburg about +<span class="sidenote">Steenkirk.</span> +Steenkirk, William in front of Hal. William then +formed the plan of surprising Luxemburg’s right +wing before it could be supported by the rest of his army, +relying chiefly on false information that a detected spy +at his headquarters was forced to send, to mislead the duke. +But Luxemburg had the material protection of a widespread +net of outposts as well as a secret service, and although ill in +bed when William’s advance was reported, he shook off his +apathy, mounted his horse and, enabled by his outpost reports +to divine his opponent’s plan, he met it (3rd August) by a swift +concentration of his army, against which the Allies, whose +advance and deployment had been mismanaged, were powerless +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Steenkirk</a></span>). In this almost accidental battle both sides +suffered enormous losses, and neither attempted to bring about, +or even to risk, a second resultless trial of strength. Boufflers’s +army returned to the Sambre and Luxemburg and William +established themselves for the rest of the season at Lessines +and Ninove respectively, 13 m. apart. After both armies +had broken up into their winter quarters, Louis ordered +Boufflers to attempt the capture of Charleroi. But a bombardment +failed to intimidate the garrison, and when the Allies +began to re-assemble, the attempt was given up (19th-21st Oct.). +This failure was, however, compensated by the siege and capture +of Furnes (28th Dec. 1692-7th Jan. 1693).</p> + +<p>In 1693, the culminating point of the war was reached. It +began, as mentioned above, with a winter enterprise that at +least indicated the aggressive spirit of the French generals. +The king promoted his admiral, Tourville, and Catinat, the +<i>roturier</i>, to the marshalship, and founded the military order of +St Louis on the 10th of April. The grand army in the Netherlands +this year numbered 120,000, to oppose whom William III. had +only some 40,000 at hand. But at the very beginning of operations +Louis, after reviewing this large force at Gembloux, broke +it up, in order to send 30,000 under the dauphin to Germany, +where Lorge had captured Heidelberg and seemed able, if reinforced, +to overrun south Germany. But the imperial general +Prince Louis of Baden took up a position near Heilbronn so +strong that the dauphin and Lorge did not venture to attack +him. Thus King Louis sacrificed a reality to a dream, and for +the third time lost the opportunity, for which he always longed, +of commanding in chief in a great battle. He himself, to judge +by his letter to Monsieur on the 8th of June, regarded his action +as a sacrifice of personal dreams to tangible realities. And, +before the event falsified predictions, there was much to be said +for the course he took, which accorded better with the prevailing +system of war than a Fleurus or a Neerwinden. In this system +of war the rival armies, as armies, were almost in a state of +equilibrium, and more was to be expected from an army dealing +with something dissimilar to itself—a fortress or a patch of land +or a convoy—than from its collision with another army of equal +force.</p> + +<p>Thus Luxemburg obtained his last and greatest opportunity. +He was still superior in numbers, but William at Louvain had +the advantage of position. The former, authorized +by his master this year +<span class="sidenote">Neerwinden.</span> +“<i>non seulement d’empęcher les +ennemis de rien entreprendre, mais d’emporter quelques +avantages sur eux</i>,” threatened Liége, drew William over to its +defence and then advanced to attack him. The Allies, however, +retired to another position, between the Great and Little Geete +rivers, and there, in a strongly entrenched position around +Neerwinden, they were attacked by Luxemburg on the 29th of +July. The long and doubtful battle, one of the greatest victories +ever won by the French army, is briefly described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neerwinden</a></span>. +It ended in a brilliant victory for the assailant, but +Luxemburg’s exhausted army did not pursue; William was as +unshaken and determined as ever; and the campaign closed, +not with a treaty of peace, but with a few manœuvres which, +by inducing William to believe in an attack on Ath, enabled +Luxemburg to besiege and capture Charleroi (October).</p> + +<p>Neerwinden was not the only French victory of the year. +Catinat, advancing from Fenestrelle and Susa to the relief of +Pinerolo (Pignerol), which the duke of Savoy was +besieging, took up a position in formal order of battle +<span class="sidenote">Marsaglia.</span> +north of the village of Marsaglia. Here on the 4th of +October the duke of Savoy attacked him with his whole army, +front to front. But the greatly superior regimental efficiency +of the French, and Catinat’s minute attention to details<a name="fa4l" id="fa4l" href="#ft4l"><span class="sp">4</span></a> in +arraying them, gave the new marshal a victory that was a not +unworthy pendant to Neerwinden. The Piedmontese and their +allies lost, it is said, 10,000 killed, wounded and prisoners, as +against Catinat’s 1800. But here, too, the results were trifling, +and this year of victory is remembered chiefly as the year in +which “people perished of want to the accompaniment of +<i>Te Deums</i>.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1694 (late in the season owing to the prevailing distress and +famine) Louis opened a fresh campaign in the Netherlands. The +armies were larger and more ineffective than ever, and William +offered no further opportunities to his formidable opponent. In +September, after inducing William to desist from his intention of +besieging Dunkirk by appearing on his flank with a mass of cavalry,<a name="fa5l" id="fa5l" href="#ft5l"><span class="sp">5</span></a> +which had ridden from the Meuse, 100 m., in 4 days, Luxemburg +gave up his command. He died on the 4th of January following, +and with him the tradition of the Condé school of warfare disappeared +from Europe. In Catalonia the marshal de Noailles won +a victory (27th May) over the Spaniards at the ford of the Ter +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346"></a>346</span> +(Torroella, 5 m. above the mouth of the river), and in consequence +captured a number of walled towns.</p> + +<p>In 1695 William found Marshal Villeroi a far less formidable +opponent than Luxemburg had been, and easily succeeded in +keeping him in Flanders while a corps of the Allies invested +Namur. Coehoorn directed the siege-works, and +<span class="sidenote">Later campaigns of the war.</span> +Boufflers the defence. Gradually, as in 1692, the defenders +were dislodged from the town, the citadel +outworks and the citadel itself, the last being assaulted with +success by the “British grenadiers,” as the song commemorates, +on the 30th of August. Boufflers was rewarded for his sixty-seven +days’ defence by the grade of marshal.</p> + +<p>By 1696 necessity had compelled Louis to renounce his vague +and indefinite offensive policy, and he now frankly restricted his +efforts to the maintenance of what he had won in the preceding +campaigns. In this new policy he met with much success. +Boufflers, Lorge, Noailles and even the incompetent Villeroi held +the field in their various spheres of operations without allowing the +Allies to inflict any material injury, and also (by having recourse +again to the policy of living by plunder) preserving French soil +from the burden of their own maintenance. In this, as before, they +were powerfully assisted by the disunion and divided counsels of +their heterogeneous enemies. In Piedmont, Catinat crowned his +work by making peace and alliance with the duke of Savoy, and +the two late enemies having joined forces captured one of the +fortresses of the Milanese. The last campaign was in 1697. Catinat +and Vauban besieged Ath. This siege was perhaps the most regular +and methodical of the great engineer’s career. It lasted 23 days +and cost the assailants only 50 men. King William did not stir +from his entrenched position at Brussels, nor did Villeroi dare to +attack him there. Lastly, in August 1697 Vendôme, Noailles’ +successor, captured Barcelona. The peace of Ryswijk, signed on +the 30th of October, closed this war by practically restoring the +<i>status quo ante</i>; but neither the ambitions of Louis nor the Grand +Alliance that opposed them ceased to have force, and three years +later the struggle began anew (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spanish Succession, War of the</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Concurrently with these campaigns, the emperor had been engaged +in a much more serious war on his eastern marches against +the old enemy, the Turks. This war arose in 1682 out +of internal disturbances in Hungary. The campaign of +<span class="sidenote">Austro-Turkish wars, 1682-1699.</span> +the following year is memorable for all time as the last +great wave of Turkish invasion. Mahommed IV. advanced +from Belgrade in May, with 200,000 men, drove +back the small imperial army of Prince Charles of Lorraine, +and early in July invested Vienna itself. The two months’ defence +of Vienna by Count Rüdiger Starhemberg (1635-1701) and the +brilliant victory of the relieving army led by John Sobieski, king of +Poland, and Prince Charles on the 12th of September 1683, were +events which, besides their intrinsic importance, possess the romantic +interest of an old knightly crusade against the heathen.</p> + +<p>But the course of the war, after the tide of invasion had ebbed, +differed little from the wars of contemporary western Europe. +Turkey figured rather as a factor in the balance of power than as +the “infidel,” and although the battles and sieges in Hungary were +characterized by the bitter personal hostility of Christian to Turk +which had no counterpart in the West, the war as a whole was as +methodical and tedious as any Rhine or Low Countries campaign. +In 1684 Charles of Lorraine gained a victory at Waitzen on the 27th +of June and another at Eperies on the 18th of September, and +unsuccessfully besieged Budapest.</p> + +<p>In 1685 the Germans were uniformly successful, though a victory +at Gran (August 16th) and the storming of Neuhaüsel (August 19th) +were the only outstanding incidents. In 1686 Charles, assisted by +the elector Max Emanuel of Bavaria, besieged and stormed Budapest +(Sept. 2nd). In 1687 they followed up their success by a great +victory at Mohacz (Aug. 12th). In 1688 the Austrians advanced +still further, took Belgrade, threatened Widin and entered Bosnia. +The margrave Louis of Baden, who afterward became one of the +most celebrated of the methodical generals of the day, won a victory +at Derbent on the 5th of September 1688, and next year, in spite of +the outbreak of a general European war, he managed to win another +battle at Nisch (Sept. 24th), to capture Widin (Oct. 14th) and to +advance to the Balkans, but in 1690, more troops having to be +withdrawn for the European war, the imperialist generals lost +Nisch, Widin and Belgrade one after the other. There was, however, +no repetition of the scenes of 1683, for in 1691 Louis won the battle +of Szlankamen (Aug. 19th). After two more desultory if successful +campaigns he was called to serve in western Europe, and for three +years more the war dragged on without result, until in 1697 the +young Prince Eugene was appointed to command the imperialists +and won a great and decisive victory at Zenta on the Theiss (Sept. +11th). This induced a last general advance of the Germans eastward, +which was definitively successful and brought about the +peace of Carlowitz (January 1699).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. F. A.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Naval Operations</p> + +<p>The naval side of the war waged by the powers of western +Europe from 1689 to 1697, to reduce the predominance of King +Louis XIV., was not marked by any very conspicuous exhibition +of energy or capacity, but it was singularly decisive in its results. +At the beginning of the struggle the French fleet kept the sea +in face of the united fleets of Great Britain and Holland. It +displayed even in 1690 a marked superiority over them. Before +the struggle ended it had been fairly driven into port, and though +its failure was to a great extent due to the exhaustion of the +French finances, yet the inability of the French admirals to +make a proper use of their fleets, and the incapacity of the king’s +ministers to direct the efforts of his naval officers to the most +effective aims, were largely responsible for the result.</p> + +<p>When the war began in 1689, the British Admiralty was still +suffering from the disorders of the reign of King Charles II., +which had been only in part corrected during the short reign of +James II. The first squadrons were sent out late and in insufficient +strength. The Dutch, crushed by the obligation to +maintain a great army, found an increasing difficulty in preparing +their fleet for action early. Louis XIV., a despotic monarch, +with as yet unexhausted resources, had it within his power to +strike first. The opportunity offered him was a very tempting +one. Ireland was still loyal to King James II., and would therefore +have afforded an admirable basis of operations to a French +fleet. No serious attempt was made to profit by the advantage +thus presented. In March 1689 King James was landed and +reinforcements were prepared for him at Brest. A British +squadron under the command of Arthur Herbert (afterwards +Lord Torrington), sent to intercept them, reached the French +port too late, and on returning to the coast of Ireland sighted +the convoy off the Old Head of Kinsale on the 10th of May. +The French admiral Chateaurenault held on to Bantry Bay, +and an indecisive encounter took place on the 11th of May. +The troops and stores for King James were successfully landed. +Then both admirals, the British and the French, returned home, +and neither in that nor in the following year was any serious +effort made by the French to gain command of the sea between +Ireland and England. On the contrary, a great French fleet +entered the Channel, and gained a success over the combined +British and Dutch fleets on the 10th of July 1690 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Beachy +Head, Battle of</a></span>), which was not followed up by vigorous +action. In the meantime King William III. passed over to +Ireland and won the battle of the Boyne. During the following +year, while the cause of King James was being finally ruined +in Ireland, the main French fleet was cruising in the Bay of +Biscay, principally for the purpose of avoiding battle. During +the whole of 1689, 1690 and 1691, British squadrons were active +on the Irish coast. One raised the siege of Londonderry in July +1689, and another convoyed the first British forces sent over +under the duke of Schomberg. Immediately after Beachy +Head in 1690, a part of the Channel fleet carried out an expedition +under the earl (afterwards duke) of Marlborough, which took +Cork and reduced a large part of the south of the island. In +1691 the French did little more than help to carry away the +wreckage of their allies and their own detachments. In 1692 +a vigorous but tardy attempt was made to employ their fleet +to cover an invasion of England (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">La Hogue, Battle of</a></span>). +It ended in defeat, and the allies remained masters of the Channel. +The defeat of La Hogue did not do so much harm to the naval +power of King Louis as has sometimes been supposed. In the +next year, 1693, he was able to strike a severe blow at the Allies. +The important Mediterranean trade of Great Britain and +Holland, called for convenience the Smyrna convoy, having +been delayed during the previous year, anxious measures were +taken to see it safe on its road in 1693. But the arrangements +of the allied governments and admirals were not good. They +made no effort to blockade Brest, nor did they take effective steps +to discover whether or not the French fleet had left the port. +The convoy was seen beyond the Scilly Isles by the main fleet. +But as the French admiral Tourville had left Brest for the Straits +of Gibraltar with a powerful force and had been joined by a +squadron from Toulon, the whole convoy was scattered or taken +by him, in the latter days of June, near Lagos. But though +this success was a very fair equivalent for the defeat at La +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page347" id="page347"></a>347</span> +Hogue, it was the last serious effort made by the navy of Louis +XIV. in this war. Want of money compelled him to lay his +fleet up. The allies were now free to make full use of their own, +to harass the French coast, to intercept French commerce, and +to co-operate with the armies acting against France. Some of +the operations undertaken by them were more remarkable for +the violence of the effort than for the magnitude of the results. +The numerous bombardments of French Channel ports, and the +attempts to destroy St Malo, the great nursery of the active +French privateers, by infernal machines, did little harm. A +British attack on Brest in June 1694 was beaten off with heavy +loss. The scheme had been betrayed by Jacobite correspondents. +Yet the inability of the French king to avert these enterprises +showed the weakness of his navy and the limitations of his power. +The protection of British and Dutch commerce was never complete, +for the French privateers were active to the end. But +French commerce was wholly ruined.</p> + +<p>It was the misfortune of the allies that their co-operation +with armies was largely with the forces of a power so languid +and so bankrupt as Spain. Yet the series of operations directed +by Russel in the Mediterranean throughout 1694 and 1695 +demonstrated the superiority of the allied fleet, and checked +the advance of the French in Catalonia. Contemporary with +the campaigns in Europe was a long series of cruises against the +French in the West Indies, undertaken by the British navy, +with more or less help from the Dutch and a little feeble assistance +from the Spaniards. They began with the cruise of Captain +Lawrence Wright in 1690-1691, and ended with that of Admiral +Nevil in 1696-1697. It cannot be said that they attained to any +very honourable achievement, or even did much to weaken the +French hold on their possessions in the West Indies and North +America. Some, and notably the attack made on Quebec by +Sir William Phips in 1690, with a force raised in the British +colonies, ended in defeat. None of them was so triumphant +as the plunder of Cartagena in South America by the Frenchman +Pointis, in 1697, at the head of a semi-piratical force. Too often +there was absolute misconduct. In the buccaneering and piratical +atmosphere of the West Indies, the naval officers of the day, +who were still infected with the corruption of the reign of Charles +II., and who calculated on distance from home to secure them +immunity, sank nearly to the level of pirates and buccaneers. +The indifference of the age to the laws of health, and its ignorance +of them, caused the ravages of disease to be frightful. In the +case of Admiral Nevil’s squadron, the admiral himself and all +his captains except one, died during the cruise, and the ships +were unmanned. Yet it was their own vices which caused +these expeditions to fail, and not the strength of the French +defence. When the war ended, the navy of King Louis XIV. +had disappeared from the sea.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Burchett, <i>Memoirs of Transactions at Sea during the War +with France, 1688-1697</i> (London, 1703); Lediard, <i>Naval History</i> +(London, 1735), particularly valuable for the quotations in his +notes. For the West Indian voyages, Tronde, <i>Batailles navales de +la France</i> (Paris, 1867); De Yonghe, <i>Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche +Zeewezen</i> (Haarlem, 1860).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The name “Grand Alliance” is applied to the coalition against +Louis XIV. begun by the League of Augsburg. This coalition not +only waged the war dealt with in the present article, but (with only +slight modifications and with practically unbroken continuity) the +war of the Spanish Succession (<i>q.v.</i>) that followed.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2l" id="ft2l" href="#fa2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Louvois died in July 1691.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3l" id="ft3l" href="#fa3l"><span class="fn">3</span></a> A few days before this the great naval reverse of La Hogue put +an end to the projects of invading England hitherto entertained at +Versailles.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4l" id="ft4l" href="#fa4l"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Marsaglia is, if not the first, at any rate, one of the first, instances +of a bayonet charge by a long deployed line of infantry.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5l" id="ft5l" href="#fa5l"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Hussars figured here for the first time in western Europe. A +regiment of them had been raised in 1692 from deserters from the +Austrian service.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAND CANARY<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (Gran Canaria), an island in the Atlantic +Ocean, forming part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary +Islands (<i>q.v.</i>). Pop. (1900) 127,471; area 523 sq. m. Grand +Canary, the most fertile island of the group, is nearly circular +in shape, with a diameter of 24 m. and a circumference of 75 m. +The interior is a mass of mountain with ravines radiating to +the shore. Its highest peak, Los Pexos, is 6400 ft. Large +tracts are covered with native pine (<i>P. canariensis</i>). There are +several mineral springs on the island. Las Palmas (pop. 44,517), +the capital, is described in a separate article. Telde (8978), +the second place in the island, stands on a plain, surrounded +by palm trees. At Atalaya, a short distance from Las Palmas, +the making of earthenware vessels employs some hundreds +of people, who inhabit holes made in the tufa.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAND CANYON,<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> a profound gorge in the north-west corner +of Arizona, in the south-western part of the United States of +America, carved in the plateau region by the Colorado river. +Of it Captain Dutton says: “Those who have long and carefully +studied the Grand Canyon of the Colorado do not hesitate for +a moment to pronounce it by far the most sublime of all +earthly spectacles”; and this is also the verdict of many who +have only viewed it in one or two of its parts.</p> + +<p>The Colorado river is made by the junction of two large streams, +the Green and Grand, fed by the rains and snows of the Rocky +Mountains. It has a length of about 2000 m. and a drainage +area of 255,000 sq. m., emptying into the head of the Gulf of +California. In its course the Colorado passes through a mountain +section; then a plateau section; and finally a desert lowland +section which extends to its mouth. It is in the plateau section +that the Grand Canyon is situated. Here the surface of the +country lies from 5000 to 9000 ft. above sea-level, being a tableland +region of buttes and mesas diversified by lava intrusions, +flows and cinder cones. The region consists in the main of +stratified rocks bodily uplifted in a nearly horizontal position, +though profoundly faulted here and there, and with some +moderate folding. For a thousand miles the river has cut a +series of canyons, bearing different names, which reach their +culmination in the Marble Canyon, 66 m. long, and the contiguous +Grand Canyon which extends for a distance of 217 m. farther +down stream, making a total length of continuous canyon from +2000 to 6000 ft. in depth, for a distance of 283 m., the longest +and deepest canyon in the world. This huge gash in the earth +is the work of the Colorado river, with accompanying weathering, +through long ages; and the river is still engaged in deepening +it as it rushes along the canyon bottom.</p> + +<p>The higher parts of the enclosing plateau have sufficient +rainfall for forests, whose growth is also made possible in part +by the cool climate and consequently retarded evaporation; +but the less elevated portions have an arid climate, while the +climate in the canyon bottom is that of the true desert. Thus +the canyon is really in a desert region, as is shown by the fact +that only two living streams enter the river for a distance of +500 m. from the Green river to the lower end of the Grand +Canyon; and only one, the Kanab Creek, enters the Grand +Canyon itself. This, moreover, is dry during most of the year. +In spite of this lack of tributaries, a large volume of water flows +through the canyon at all seasons of the year, some coming +from the scattered tributaries, some from springs, but most +from the rains and snows of the distant mountains about the +headwaters. Owing to enclosure between steeply rising canyon +walls, evaporation is retarded, thus increasing the possibility +of the long journey of the water from the mountains to the sea +across a vast stretch of arid land.</p> + +<p>The river in the canyon varies from a few feet to an unknown +depth, and at times of flood has a greatly increased volume. +The river varies in width from 50 ft. in some of the narrow +Granite Gorges, where it bathes both rock walls, to 500 or 600 +ft. in more open places. In the 283 m. of the Marble and Grand +Canyons, the river falls 2330 ft., and at one point has a fall of +210 ft. in 10 m. The current velocity varies from 3 to 20 or +more miles per hour, being increased in places by low falls and +rapids; but there are no high falls below the junction of the +Green and Grand.</p> + +<p>Besides the canyons of the main river, there are a multitude +of lateral canyons occupied by streams at intervals of heavy +rain. As Powell says, the region “is a composite of thousands, +and tens of thousands of gorges.” There are “thousands of +gorges like that below Niagara Falls, and there are a thousand +Yosemites.” The largest of all, the Grand Canyon, has an +average depth of 4000 ft. and a width of 4˝ to 12 m. For a +long distance, where crossing the Kaibab plateau, the depth +is 6000 ft. For much of the distance there is an inner narrower +gorge sunk in the bottom of a broad outer canyon. The narrow +gorge is in some places no more than 3500 ft. wide at the top. +To illustrate the depth of the Grand Canyon, Powell writes: +“Pluck up Mount Washington (6293 ft. high) by the roots to +the level of the sea, and drop it head first into the Grand Canyon, +and the dam will not force its waters over the wall.”</p> + +<p>While there are notable differences in the Grand Canyon +from point to point, the main elements are much alike throughout +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id="page348"></a>348</span> +its length and are due to the succession of rock strata revealed +in the canyon walls. At the base, for some 800 ft., there is a +complex of crystalline rocks of early geological age, consisting +of gneiss, schist, slate and other rocks, greatly plicated and +traversed by dikes and granite intrusions. This is an ancient +mountain mass, which has been greatly denuded. On it rest +a series of durable quartzite beds inclined to the horizontal, +forming about 800 ft. more of the lower canyon wall. On this +come first 500 ft. of greenish sandstones and then 700 ft. of +bedded sandstone and limestone strata, some massive and some +thin, which on weathering form a series of alcoves. These beds, +like those above, are in nearly horizontal position. Above this +comes 1600 ft. of limestone—often a beautiful marble, as in the +Marble Canyon, but in the Grand Canyon stained a brilliant +red by iron oxide washed from overlying beds. Above this +“red wall” are 800 ft. of grey and bright red sandstone beds +looking “like vast ribbons of landscape.” At the top of the +canyon is 1000 ft. of limestone with gypsum and chert, noted +for the pinnacles and towers which denudation has developed. +It is these different rock beds, with their various colours, and +the differences in the effect of weathering upon them, that give +the great variety and grandeur to the canyon scenery. There +are towers and turrets, pinnacles and alcoves, cliffs, ledges, +crags and moderate talus slopes, each with its characteristic +colour and form according to the set of strata in which it lies. +The main river has cleft the plateau in a huge gash; innumerable +side gorges have cut it to right and left; and weathering has +etched out the cliffs and crags and helped to paint it in the gaudy +colour bands that stretch before the eye. There is grandeur +here and weirdness in abundance, but beauty is lacking. Powell +puts the case graphically when he writes: “A wall of homogeneous +granite like that in the Yosemite is but a naked wall, +whether it be 1000 or 5000 ft. high. Hundreds and thousands of +feet mean nothing to the eye when they stand in a meaningless +front. A mountain covered by pure snow 10,000 ft. high has +but little more effect on the imagination than a mountain of +snow 1000 ft. high—it is but more of the same thing; but a +façade of seven systems of rock has its sublimity multiplied +sevenfold.”</p> + +<p>To the ordinary person most of the Grand Canyon is at +present inaccessible, for, as Powell states, “a year scarcely +suffices to see it all”; and “it is a region more difficult to +traverse than the Alps or the Himalayas.” But a part of the +canyon is now easily accessible to tourists. A trail leads from +the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé railway at Flagstaff, Arizona; +and a branch line of the railway extends from Williams, Arizona, +to a hotel on the very brink of the canyon. The plateau, which +in places bears an open forest, mainly of pine, varies in elevation, +but is for the most part a series of fairly level terrace tops with +steep faces, with mesas and buttes here and there, and, especially +near the huge extinct volcano of San Francisco mountain, +with much evidence of former volcanic activity, including +numerous cinder cones. The traveller comes abruptly to the +edge of the canyon, at whose bottom, over a mile below, is seen +the silvery thread of water where the muddy torrent rushes +along on its never-ceasing task of sawing its way into the depths +of the earth. Opposite rise the highly coloured and terraced +slopes of the other canyon wall, whose crest is fully 12 m. distant.</p> + +<p>Down by the river are the folded rocks of an ancient mountain +system, formed before vertebrate life appeared on the earth, +then worn to an almost level condition through untold ages of +slow denudation. Slowly, then, the mountains sank beneath the +level of the sea, and in the Carboniferous Period—about the +time of the formation of the coal-beds—sediments began to +bury the ancient mountains. This lasted through other untold +ages until the Tertiary Period—through much of the Palaeozoic +and all of the Mesozoic time—and a total of from 12,000 to 16,000 +ft. of sediments were deposited. Since then erosion has been +dominant, and the river has eaten its way down to, and into, +the deeply buried mountains, opening the strata for us to read, +like the pages of a book. In some parts of the plateau region as +much as 30,000 ft. of rock have been stripped away, and over +an area of 200,000 sq. m. an average of over 6000 ft. has been +removed.</p> + +<p>The Grand Canyon was probably discovered by G. L. de Cardenas +in 1540, but for 329 years the inaccessibility of the region +prevented its exploration. Various people visited parts of it +or made reports regarding it; and the Ives Expedition of 1858 +contains a report upon the canyon written by Prof. J. S. Newberry. +But it was not until 1869 that the first real exploration +of the Grand Canyon was made. In that year Major J. W. +Powell, with five associates (three left the party in the Grand +Canyon), made the complete journey by boat from the junction +of the Green and Grand rivers to the lower end of the Grand +Canyon. This hazardous journey ranks as one of the most +daring and remarkable explorations ever undertaken in North +America; and Powell’s descriptions of the expedition are +among the most fascinating accounts of travel relating to the +continent. Powell made another expedition in 1871, but did +not go the whole length of the canyon. The government survey +conducted by Lieut. George M. Wheeler also explored parts +of the canyon, and C. E. Dutton carried on extensive +studies of the canyon and the contiguous plateau region. +In 1890 Robert B. Stanton, with six associates, went through +the canyon in boats, making a survey to determine the +feasibility of building a railway along its base. Two other +parties, one in 1896 (Nat. Galloway and William Richmond) +the other in 1897 (George F. Flavell and companion), have +made the journey through the canyon. So far as there is +record these are the only four parties that have ever made +the complete journey through the Grand Canyon. It has +sometimes been said that James White made the passage of +the canyon before Powell did; but this story rests upon no +real basis.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For accounts of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado see J. W. +Powell, <i>Explorations of the Colorado River of the West and its Tributaries</i> +(Washington, 1875); J. W. Powell, <i>Canyons of the Colorado</i> +(Meadville, Pa., 1895); F. S. Dellenbaugh, <i>The Romance of the +Colorado River</i> (New York, 1902); Capt. C. E. Dutton, <i>Tertiary +History of the Grand Canyon District, with Atlas</i> (Washington, 1882), +being Monograph No. 2, U.S. Geological Survey. See also the excellent +topographic map of the Grand Canyon prepared by F. E. Matthes +and published by the U.S. Geological Survey.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. S. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAND-DUKE<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (Fr. <i>grand-duc</i>, Ital. <i>granduca</i>, Ger. <i>Grossherzog</i>), +a title borne by princes ranking between king and duke. +The dignity was first bestowed in 1567 by Pope Pius V. on Duke +Cosimo I. of Florence, his son Francis obtaining the emperor’s +confirmation in 1576; and the predicate “Royal Highness” +was added in 1699. In 1806 Napoleon created his brother-in-law +Joachim Murat, grand-duke of Berg, and in the same year the +title was assumed by the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, the +elector of Baden, and the new ruler of the secularized bishopric +of Würzburg (formerly Ferdinand III., grand-duke of Tuscany) +on joining the Confederation of the Rhine. At the present time, +according to the decision of the Congress of Vienna, the title is +borne by the sovereigns of Luxemburg, Saxe-Weimar (grand-duke +of Saxony), Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, +and Oldenburg (since 1829), as well as by those of Hesse-Darmstadt +and Baden. The emperor of Austria includes among his +titles those of grand-duke of Cracow and Tuscany, and the king +of Prussia those of grand-duke of the Lower Rhine and Posen. +The title is also retained by the dispossessed Habsburg-Lorraine +dynasty of Tuscany.</p> + +<p>Grand-duke is also the conventional English equivalent of +the Russian <i>velíkiy knyaz</i>, more properly “grand-prince” (Ger. +Grossfürst), at one time the title of the rulers of Russia, who, +as the eldest born of the house of Rurik, exercised overlordship +over the <i>udyelniye knyazi</i> or local princes. On the partition of +the inheritance of Rurik, the eldest of each branch assumed +the title of grand-prince. Under the domination of the Golden +Horde the right to bestow the title <i>velíkiy knyaz</i> was reserved by +the Tatar Khan, who gave it to the prince of Moskow. In +Lithuania this title also symbolized a similar overlordship, and +it passed to the kings of Poland on the union of Lithuania with +the Polish republic. The style of the emperor of Russia now +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id="page349"></a>349</span> +includes the titles of grand-duke (<i>velíkiy knyaz</i>) of Smolensk, +Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia and Finland. Until 1886 this +title grand-duke or grand-duchess, with the style “Imperial +Highness,” was borne by all descendants of the imperial house. +It is now confined to the sons and daughters, brothers and sisters, +and male grandchildren of the emperor. The other members of +the imperial house bear the title of prince (<i>knyaz</i>) and princess +(<i>knyaginya</i>, if married, <i>knyazhna</i>, if unmarried) with the style of +“Highness.” The emperor of Austria, as king of Hungary, +also bears this title as “grand-duke” of Transylvania, which +was erected into a “grand-princedom” (Grossfürstentum) in +1765 by Maria Theresa.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANDEE<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (Span. <i>Grande</i>), a title of honour borne by the +highest class of the Spanish nobility. It would appear to have +been originally assumed by the most important nobles to distinguish +them from the mass of the <i>ricos hombres</i>, or great barons +of the realm. It was thus, as Selden points out, not a general +term denoting a class, but “an additional dignity not only to +all dukes, but to some marquesses and condes also” (<i>Titles of +Honor</i>, ed. 1672, p. 478). It formerly implied certain privileges; +notably that of sitting covered in the royal presence. Until +the time of Ferdinand and Isabella, when the power of the +territorial nobles was broken, the grandees had also certain more +important rights, <i>e.g.</i> freedom from taxation, immunity from +arrest save at the king’s express command, and even—in certain +cases—the right to renounce their allegiance and make war on +the king. Their number and privileges were further restricted +by Charles I. (the emperor Charles V.), who reserved to the +crown the right to bestow the title. The grandees of Spain were +further divided into three classes: (1) those who spoke to the +king and received his reply with their heads covered; (2) those +who addressed him uncovered, but put on their hats to hear his +answer; (3) those who awaited the permission of the king before +covering themselves. All grandees were addressed by the king +as “my cousin” (<i>mi primo</i>), whereas ordinary nobles were +only qualified as “my kinsman” (<i>mi pariente</i>). The title of +“grandee,” abolished under King Joseph Bonaparte, was revived +in 1834, when by the <i>Estatudo real</i> grandees were given precedence +in the Chamber of Peers. The designation is now, however, +purely titular, and implies neither privilege nor power.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAND FORKS,<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> a city in the Boundary district of British +Columbia; situated at the junction of the north and south forks +of the Kettle river, 2 m. N. of the international boundary. Pop. +(1908) about 2500. It is in a good agricultural district, but +owes its importance largely to the erection here of the extensive +smelting plant of the Granby Consolidated Company, which +smelts the ores obtained from the various parts of the Boundary +country, but chiefly those from the Knob Hill and Old Ironsides +mines. The Canadian Pacific railway, as well as the Great +Northern railway, runs to Grand Forks, which thus has excellent +railway communication with the south and east.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAND FORKS,<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Grand Forks +county, North Dakota, U.S.A., at the junction of the Red river +(of the North) and Red Lake river (whence its name), about +80 m. N. of Fargo. Pop. (1900) 7652, of whom 2781 were +foreign-born; (1905) 10,127; (1910) 27,888. It is served by the +Northern Pacific and the Great Northern railways, and has a +considerable river traffic, the Red river (when dredged) having a +channel 60 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep at low water below Grand +Forks. At University, a small suburb, is the University of +North Dakota (co-educational; opened 1884). Affiliated with +it is Wesley College (Methodist Episcopal), now at Grand Forks +(with a campus adjoining that of the University), but formerly +the Red River Valley University at Wahpeton, North Dakota. +In 1907-1908 the University had 57 instructors and 861 students; +its library had 25,000 bound volumes and 5000 pamphlets. At +Grand Forks, also, are St Bernard’s Ursuline Academy (Roman +Catholic) and Grand Forks College (Lutheran). Among the +city’s principal buildings are the public library, the Federal +building and a Y.M.C.A. building. As the centre of the great +wheat valley of the Red river, it has a busy trade in wheat, flour +and agricultural machinery and implements, as well as large +jobbing interests. There are railway car-shops here, and among +the manufactures are crackers, brooms, bricks and tiles and +cement. The municipality owns its water-works and an electric +lighting plant for street lighting. In 1801 John Cameron (d. 1804) +erected a temporary trading post for the North-West Fur +Company on the site of the present city; it afterwards became +a trading post of the Hudson’s Bay Company. The first permanent +settlement was made in 1871, and Grand Forks was +reached by the Northern Pacific and chartered as a city in 1881.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAND HAVEN,<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of +Ottawa county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan, at the +mouth of Grand river, 30 m. W. by N. of Grand Rapids and +78 m. E. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1900) 4743, of whom 1277 were +foreign-born; (1904) 5239; (1910) 5856. It is served by the +Grand Trunk and the Pčre Marquette railways, and by steamboat +lines to Chicago, Milwaukee and other lake ports, and is connected +with Grand Rapids and Muskegon by an electric line. The +city manufactures pianos, refrigerators, printing presses and +leather; is a centre for the shipment of fruit and celery; and +has valuable fisheries near—fresh, salt and smoked fish, especially +whitefish, are shipped in considerable quantities. Grand Haven +is the port of entry for the Customs District of Michigan, and has +a small export and import trade. The municipality owns and +operates its water-works and electric-lighting plant. A trading +post was established here about 1821 by an agent of the American +Fur Company, but the permanent settlement of the city did not +begin until 1834. Grand Haven was laid out as a town in 1836, +and was chartered as a city in 1867.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANDIER, URBAN<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (1590-1634), priest of the church of +Sainte Croix at Loudun in the department of Vienne, France, was +accused of witchcraft in 1632 by some hysterical novices of +the Carmelite Convent, where the trial, protracted for two +years, was held. Grandier was found guilty and burnt alive +at Loudun on the 18th of August 1634.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAND ISLAND,<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Hall county, +Nebraska, U.S.A., on the Platte river, about 154 m. W. by S. +of Omaha. Pop. (1900) 7554 (1339 foreign-born); (1910) 10,326. +It is served by the Union Pacific, the Chicago, Burlington & +Quincy, and the St Joseph & Grand Island railways, being the +western terminus of the last-named line and a southern terminus +of a branch of the Union Pacific. The city is situated on a slope +skirting the broad, level bottom-lands of the Platte river, in the +midst of a fertile farming region. Grand Island College (Baptist; +co-educational) was established in 1892 and the Grand Island +Business and Normal College in 1890; and the city is the seat +of a state Sailors’ and Soldiers’ Home, established in 1888. +Grand Island has a large wholesale trade in groceries, fruits, &c.; +is an important horse-market, and has large stock-yards. There +are shops of the Union Pacific in the city, and among its manufactures +are beet-sugar—Grand Island is in one of the principal +beet-sugar-growing districts of the state—brooms, wire fences, +confectionery and canned corn. The most important industry +of the county is the raising and feeding of sheep and <span class="correction" title="amended from neat">meat</span> cattle. +A “Grand Island” was founded in 1857, and was named from +a large island (nearly 50 m. long) in the Platte opposite its site; +but the present city was laid out by the Union Pacific in 1866. +It was chartered as a city in 1873.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANDMONTINES,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> a religious order founded by St Stephen +of Thiers in Auvergne towards the end of the 11th century. +St Stephen was so impressed by the lives of the hermits whom he +saw in Calabria that he desired to introduce the same manner +of life into his native country. He was ordained, and in 1073 +obtained the pope’s permission to establish an order. He +betook himself to Auvergne, and in the desert of Muret, near +Limoges, he made himself a hut of branches of trees and lived +there for some time in complete solitude. A few disciples +gathered round him, and a community was formed. The rule +was not reduced to writing until after Stephen’s death, 1124. +The life was eremitical and very severe in regard to silence, +diet and bodily austerities; it was modelled after the rule of +the Camaldolese, but various regulations were adopted from +the Augustinian canons. The superior was called the “Corrector.” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id="page350"></a>350</span> +About 1150 the hermits, being compelled to leave Muret, settled +in the neighbouring desert of Grandmont, whence the order +derived its name. Louis VII. founded a house at Vincennes +near Paris, and the order had a great vogue in France, as many +as sixty houses being established by 1170, but it seems never to +have found favour out of France; it had, however, a couple of +cells in England up to the middle of the 15th century. The +system of lay brothers was introduced on a large scale, and the +management of the temporals was in great measure left in their +hands; the arrangement did not work well, and the quarrels +between the lay brothers and the choir monks were a constant +source of weakness. Later centuries witnessed mitigations and +reforms in the life, and at last the order came to an end just +before the French Revolution. There were two or three convents of +Grandmontine nuns. The order played no great part in history.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Helyot, <i>Hist. des ordres religieux</i> (1714), vii. cc. 54, 55; Max +Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i> (1896). i. § 31; and the +art. in Wetzer and Welte, <i>Kirchenlexicon</i> (ed. 2), and in Herzog, +<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 3).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAND RAPIDS,<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Kent county, +Michigan, U.S.A., at the head of navigation on the Grand river, +about 30 m. from Lake Michigan and 145 m. W.N.W. of Detroit. +Pop. (1890) 60,278; (1900) 87,565, of whom 23,896 were +foreign-born and 604 were negroes; (1910 census) 112,571. +Of the foreign-born population in 1900, 11,137 were Hollanders; +3318 English-Canadians; 3253 Germans; 1137 Irish; 1060 from +German Poland; and 1026 from England. Grand Rapids is +served by the Michigan Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan +Southern, the Grand Trunk, the Pčre Marquette and the Grand +Rapids & Indiana railways, and by electric interurban railways. +The valley here is about 2 m. wide, with a range of hills on +either side, and about midway between these hills the river flows +over a limestone bed, falling about 18 ft. in 1 m. Factories and +mills line both banks, but the business blocks are nearly all +along the foot of the E. range of hills; the finest residences +command picturesque views from the hills farther back, the +residences on the W. side being less pretentious and standing +on bottom-lands. The principal business thoroughfares are +Canal, Monroe and Division streets. Among the important +buildings are the United States Government building (Grand +Rapids is the seat of the southern division of the Federal judicial +district of western Michigan), the County Court house, the city +hall, the public library (presented by Martin A. Ryerson of +Chicago), the Manufacturer’s building, the <i>Evening Press</i> +building, the Michigan Trust building and several handsome +churches. The principal charitable institutions are the municipal +Tuberculosis Sanatorium; the city hospital; the Union Benevolent +Association, which maintains a home and hospital for the +indigent, together with a training school for nurses; Saint +John’s orphan asylum (under the superintendence of the +Dominican Sisters); Saint Mary’s hospital (in charge of the +Sisters of Mercy); Butterworth hospital (with a training school +for nurses); the Woman’s Home and Hospital, maintained +largely by the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union; the +Aldrich Memorial Deaconess’ Home; the D. A. Blodgett +Memorial Children’s Home, and the Michigan Masonic Home. +About 1 m. N. of the city, overlooking the river, is the Michigan +Soldiers’ Home, with accommodation for 500. On the E. +limits of the city is Reed’s Lake, a popular resort during the +summer season. The city is the see of Roman Catholic and +Protestant Episcopal bishops. In 1907-1908, through the +efforts of a committee of the Board of Trade, interest was aroused +in the improvement of the city, appropriations were made for +a “city plan,” and flood walls were completed for the protection +of the lower parts of the city from inundation. The large +quantities of fruit, cereals and vegetables from the surrounding +country, and ample facilities for transportation by rail and by +the river, which is navigable from below the rapids to its mouth, +make the commerce and trade of Grand Rapids very important. +The manufacturing interests are greatly promoted by the fine +water-power, and as a furniture centre the city has a world-wide +reputation—the value of the furniture manufactured within its +limits in 1904 amounted to $9,409,097, about 5.5% of the value +of all furniture manufactured in the United States. Grand +Rapids manufactures carpet sweepers—a large proportion of +the whole world’s product,—flour and grist mill products, +foundry and machine-shop products, planing-mill products, +school seats, wood-working tools, fly paper, calcined plaster, +barrels, kegs, carriages, wagons, agricultural implements and +bricks and tile. The total factory product in 1904 was valued +at $31,032,589, an increase of 39.6% in four years.</p> + +<p>On the site of Grand Rapids there was for a long time a large +Ottawa Indian village, and for the conversion of the Indians a +Baptist mission was established in 1824. Two years later a trading +post joined the mission, in 1833 a saw mill was built, and for +the next few years the growth was rapid. The settlement was +organized as a town in 1834, was incorporated as a village in 1838, +and was chartered as a city in 1850, the city charter being revised +in 1857, 1871, 1877 and 1905.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAND RAPIDS,<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Wood county, +Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both sides of the Wisconsin river, about +137 m. N.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1900) 4493, of whom 1073 +were foreign-born; (1905) 6157; (1910) 6521. It is served +by the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the Green Bay & +Western, the Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee +& St Paul railways. It is a railway and distributing +centre, and has manufactories of lumber, sash, doors and blinds, +hubs and spokes, woodenware, paper, wood-pulp, furniture and +flour. The public buildings include a post office, court house, city +hall, city hospital and the T. B. Scott Free Public Library (1892). +The city owns and operates its water-works; the electric-lighting +and telephone companies are co-operative. Grand Rapids was +first chartered as a city in 1869. That part of Grand Rapids on +the west bank of the Wisconsin river was formerly the city of +Centralia (pop. in 1890, 1435); it was annexed in 1900.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANDSON<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Grandsee</i>), a town in the Swiss canton of +Vaud, near the south-western end of the Lake of Neuchâtel, +and by rail 20 m. S.W. of Neuchâtel and 3 m. N. of Yverdon. +Its population in 1900 was 1771, mainly French-speaking and +Protestant. Its ancient castle was long the home of a noted race +of barons, while in the very old church (once belonging to a +Benedictine monastery) there are a number of Roman columns, +&c., from Avenches and Yverdon. It has now a tobacco factory. +Its lords were vassals of the house of Savoy, till in 1475 the castle +was taken by the Swiss at the beginning of their war with Charles +the Bold, duke of Burgundy, whose ally was the duchess of Savoy. +It was retaken by Charles in February 1476, and the garrison +put to death. The Swiss hastened to revenge this deed, and in +a famous battle (2nd March 1476) defeated Charles with great +loss, capturing much booty. The scene of the battle was between +Concise and Corcelles, north-east of the town, and is marked by +several columns, perhaps ancient menhirs. Grandson was thenceforward +till 1798 ruled in common by Berne and Fribourg, and +then was given to the canton du Léman, which in 1803 became +that of Vaud.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Chabloz, <i>La Bataille de Grandson</i> (Lausanne, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANET, FRANÇOIS MARIUS<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (1777-1849), French painter, +was born at Aix in Provence, on the 17th of December 1777; his +father was a small builder. The boy’s strong desires led his +parents to place him—after some preliminary teaching from +a passing Italian artist—in a free school of art directed by +M. Constantin, a landscape painter of some reputation. In 1793 +Granet followed the volunteers of Aix to the siege of Toulon, +at the close of which he obtained employment as a decorator in +the arsenal. Whilst a lad he had, at Aix, made the acquaintance +of the young comte de Forbin, and upon his invitation Granet, +in the year 1797, went to Paris. De Forbin was one of the +pupils of David, and Granet entered the same studio. Later he +got possession of a cell in the convent of Capuchins, which, +having served for a manufactory of assignats during the Revolution, +was afterwards inhabited almost exclusively by artists. +In the changing lights and shadows of the corridors of the +Capuchins, Granet found the materials for that one picture to +the painting of which, with varying success, he devoted his life. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351"></a>351</span> +In 1802 he left Paris for Rome, where he remained until 1819, +when he returned to Paris, bringing with him besides various +other works one of fourteen repetitions of his celebrated Chœur +des Capucins, executed in 1811. The figures of the monks +celebrating mass are taken in this subject as a substantive part +of the architectural effect, and this is the case with all Granet’s +works, even with those in which the figure subject would seem +to assert its importance, and its historical or romantic interest. +“Stella painting a Madonna on his Prison Wall,” 1810 (Leuchtenberg +collection); “Sodoma ŕ l’hôpital,” 1815 (Louvre); +“Basilique basse de St François d’Assise,” 1823 (Louvre); +“Rachat de prisonniers,” 1831 (Louvre); “Mort de Poussin,” +1834 (Villa Demidoff, Florence), are among his principal works; +all are marked by the same peculiarities, everything is sacrificed +to tone. In 1819 Louis Philippe decorated Granet, and afterwards +named him Chevalier de l’Ordre St Michel, and Conservateur +des tableaux de Versailles (1826). He became member of +the institute in 1830; but in spite of these honours, and the +ties which bound him to M. de Forbin, then director of the Louvre, +Granet constantly returned to Rome. After 1848 he retired to +Aix, immediately lost his wife, and died himself on the 21st of +November 1849. He bequeathed to his native town the greater +part of his fortune and all his collections, now exhibited in the +Musée, together with a very fine portrait of the donor painted +by Ingres in 1811.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANGE<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (through the A.-Fr. <i>graunge</i>, from the Med. Lat. +<i>granea</i>, a place for storing grain, <i>granum</i>), properly a granary +or barn. In the middle ages a “grange” was a detached portion +of a manor with farm-houses and barns belonging to a lord or to +a religious house; in it the crops could be conveniently stored for +the purpose of collecting rent or tithe. Thus, such barns are often +known as “tithe-barns.” In many cases a chapel was included +among the buildings or stood apart as a separate edifice. The +word is still used as a name for a superior kind of farm-house, +or for a country-house which has farm-buildings and agricultural +land attached to it.</p> + +<p>Architecturally considered, the “grange” was usually a long +building with high wooden roof, sometimes divided by posts or +columns into a sort of nave and aisles, and with walls strongly +buttressed. Sometimes these granges were of very great extent; +one at St Leonards, Hampshire, was originally 225 ft. long by +75 ft. wide, and a still larger one (303 ft. long) existed at Chertsey. +Ancient granges, or tithe-barns, still exist at Glastonbury, +Bradford-on-Avon, St Mary’s Abbey, York, and at Coxwold. +A fine example at Peterborough was pulled down at the end of +the 19th century. In France there are many examples in stone of +the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries; some divided into a central +and two side aisles by arcades in stone. Externally granges are +noticeable on account of their great roofs and the slight elevation +of the eaves, from 8 to 10 ft. only in height. In the 15th century +they were sometimes protected by moats and towers. At +Ardennes in Normandy, where the grange was 154 ft. long; +Vauclerc near Laon, Picardy, 246 ft. long and in two storeys; +at Perričres, St Vigor, near Bayeux, and Ouilly near Falaise, all +in Normandy; and at St Martin-au-Bois (Oise) are a series of +fine examples. Attached to the abbey of Longchamps, near +Paris, is one of the best-preserved granges in France, with walls +in stone and internally divided into three aisles in oak timber +of extremely fine construction.</p> + +<p>In the social economic movement in the United States of +America, which began in 1867 and was known as the “Farmers’ +Movement,” “grange” was adopted as the name for a local +chapter of the Order of the Patrons of Husbandry, and the movement +is thus often known as the “Grangers’ Movement” (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Farmers’ Movement</a></span>). There are a National Grange at Washington, +supervising the local divisions, and state granges in +most states.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANGEMOUTH,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> a police burgh and seaport of Stirlingshire, +Scotland. Pop. (1901) 8386. It is situated on the south shore +of the estuary of the Forth, at the mouth of the Carron and also +of Grange Burn, a right-hand tributary of the Carron, 3 m. N.E. +of Falkirk by the North British and Caledonian railways. It +is the terminus of the Forth and Clyde Canal, from the opening +of which (1789) its history may be dated. The principal buildings +are the town hall (in the Greek style), public hall, public institute +and free library, and there is a public park presented by the +marquess of Zetland. Since 1810, when it became a head port, it +has gradually attained the position of the chief port of the Forth +west of Leith. The first dock (opened in 1846), the second +(1859) and the third (1882) cover an area of 28 acres, with timber +ponds of 44 acres and a total quayage of 2500 yards. New +docks, 93 acres in extent, with an entrance from the firth, were +opened in 1905 at a cost of more than Ł1,000,000. The works +rendered it necessary to divert the influx of the Grange from the +Carron to the Forth. Timber, pig-iron and iron ore are the leading +imports, and coal, produce and iron the chief exports. The +industries include shipbuilding, rope and sail making and iron +founding. There is regular steamer communication with London, +Christiania, Hamburg, Rotterdam and Amsterdam. Experiments +in steam navigation were carried out in 1802 with the +“Charlotte Dundas” on the Forth and Clyde Canal at Grangemouth. +Kersa House adjoining the town on the S.W. is a seat +of the marquess of Zetland.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANGER, JAMES<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (1723-1776), English clergyman and print-collector, +was born in Dorset in 1723. He went to Oxford, +and then entered holy orders, becoming vicar of Shiplake; but +apart from his hobby of portrait-collecting, which resulted in +the principal work associated with his name, and the publication +of some sermons, his life was uneventful. Yet a new word was +added to the language—“to grangerize”—on account of him. +In 1769 he published in two quarto volumes a <i>Biographical +History of England</i> “consisting of characters dispersed in different +classes, and adapted to a methodical catalogue of engraved +British heads”; this was “intended as an essay towards reducing +our biography to a system, and a help to the knowledge +of portraits.” The work was supplemented in later editions by +Granger, and still further editions were brought out by the Rev. +Mark Noble, with additions from Granger’s materials. Blank +leaves were left for the filling in of engraved portraits for extra +illustration of the text, and it became a favourite pursuit to +discover such illustrations and insert them in a <i>Granger</i>, so that +“grangerizing” became a term for such an extra-illustration +of any work, especially with cuts taken from other books. The +immediate result of the appearance of Granger’s own work was +the rise in value of books containing portraits, which were cut out +and inserted in collector’s copies.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANITE<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> (adapted from the Ital. <i>granito</i>, grained; Lat. +<i>granum</i>, grain), the group designation for a family of igneous +rocks whose essential characteristics are that they are of acid +composition (containing high percentages of silica), consist +principally of quartz and felspar, with some mica, hornblende +or augite, and are of holocrystalline or “granitoid” structure. +In popular usage the term is given to almost any crystalline rock +which resembles granite in appearance or properties. Thus +syenites, diorites, gabbros, diabases, porphyries, gneiss, and even +limestones and dolomites, are bought and sold daily as “granites.” +True granites are common rocks, especially among the older +strata of the earth’s crust. They have great variety in colour +and general appearance, some being white or grey, while others +are pink, greenish or yellow: this depends mainly on the state +of preservation of their felspars, which are their most abundant +minerals, and partly also on the relative proportion in which +they contain biotite and other dark coloured silicates. Many +granites have large rounded or angular crystals of felspar (Shap +granite, many Cornish granites), well seen on polished faces. +Others show an elementary foliation or banding (<i>e.g.</i> Aberdeen +granite). Rounded or oval dark patches frequently appear in +the granitic matrix of many Cornish rocks of this group.</p> + +<p>In the field granite usually occurs in great masses, covering +wide areas. These are generally elliptical or nearly circular +and may be 20 m. in diameter or more. In the same district +separate areas or “bosses” of granite may be found, all having +much in common in their mineralogical and structural features, +and such groups have probably all proceeded from the same +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id="page352"></a>352</span> +focus or deep-seated source. Towards their margins these +granite outcrops often show modifications by which they pass into +diorite or syenite, &c.; they may also be finer grained (like +porphyries) or rich in tourmaline, or intersected by many veins of +pegmatite. From the main granite dikes or veins often run out +into the surrounding rocks, thus proving that the granite is +intrusive and has forced its way upwards by splitting apart the +strata among which it lies. Further evidence of this is afforded +by the alteration which the granite has produced through a zone +which varies from a few yards to a mile or more in breadth +around it. In the vicinity of intrusive granites slates become +converted into hornfelses containing biotite, chiastolite or +andalusite, sillimanite and a variety of other minerals; limestones +recrystallize as marbles, and all rocks, according to their +composition, are more or less profoundly modified in such a way +as to prove that they have been raised to a high temperature by +proximity to the molten intrusive mass. Where exposed in +cliffs and other natural sections many granites have a rudely +columnar appearance. Others weather into large cuboidal +blocks which may produce structures resembling cyclopean +masonry. The tors of the west of England are of this nature. +These differences depend on the disposition of the joint cracks +which traverse the rock and are opened up by the action of +frost and weathering.</p> + +<p>The majority of granites are so coarse in grain that their +principal component minerals may be identified in the hand +specimens by the unaided eye. The felspar is pearly, white +or pink, with smooth cleaved surfaces; the quartz is usually +transparent, glassy with rough irregular fractures; the micas +appear as shining black or white flakes. Very coarse granites +are called pegmatite or giant granite, while very fine granites +are known as microgranites (though the latter term has also been +applied to certain porphyries). Many granites show pearly +scales of white mica; others contain dark green or black hornblende +in small prisms. Reddish grains of sphene or of garnet +are occasionally visible. In the tourmaline granites prisms of +black schorl occur either singly or in stellate groups. The +parallel banded structures of many granites, which may be +original or due to crushing, connect these rocks with the granite +gneisses or orthogneisses.</p> + +<p>Under the microscope the felspar is mainly orthoclase with +perthite or microcline, while a small amount of plagioclase +(ranging from oligoclase to albite) is practically never absent. +These minerals are often clouded by a deposit of fine mica and +kaolin, due to weathering. The quartz is transparent, irregular +in form, destitute of cleavage, and is filled with very small +cavities which contain a fluid, a mobile bubble and sometimes +a minute crystal. The micas, brown and white, are often in +parallel growth. The hornblende of granites is usually pale +green in section, the augite and enstatite nearly colourless. +Tourmaline may be brown, yellow or blue, and often the same +crystal shows zones of different colours. Apatite, zircon and +iron oxides, in small crystals, are always present. Among the +less common accessories may be mentioned pinkish garnets; +andalusite in small pleochroic crystals; colourless grains of +topaz; six-sided compound crystals of cordierite, which weather +to dark green pinite; blue-black hornblende (riebeckite), beryl, +tinstone, orthite and pyrites.</p> + +<p>The sequence of crystallization in the granites is of a normal +type, and may be ascertained by observing the perfection with +which the different minerals have crystallized and the order in +which they enclose one another. Zircon, apatite and iron oxides +are the first; their crystals are small, very perfect and nearly +free from enclosures; they are followed by hornblende and +biotite; if muscovite is present it succeeds the brown mica. +Of the felspars the plagioclase separates first and forms well-shaped +crystals of which the central parts may be more basic +than the outer zones. Last come orthoclase, quartz, microcline +and micropegmatite, which fill up the irregular spaces left +between the earlier minerals. Exceptions to this sequence are +unusual; sometimes the first of the felspars have preceded the +hornblende or biotite which may envelop them in ophitic manner. +An earlier generation of felspar, and occasionally also of quartz, +may be represented by large and perfect crystals of these minerals +giving the rock a porphyritic character.</p> + +<p>Many granites have suffered modification by the action of +vapours emitted during cooling. Hydrofluoric and boric +emanations exert a profound influence on granitic rocks; their +felspar is resolved into aggregates of kaolin, muscovite and +quartz; tourmaline appears, largely replacing the brown mica; +topaz also is not uncommon. In this way the rotten granite or +china stone, used in pottery, originates; and over considerable +areas kaolin replaces the felspar and forms valuable sources of +china clay. Veins of quartz, tourmaline and chlorite may +traverse the granite, containing tinstone often in workable +quantities. These veins are the principal sources of tin in Cornwall, +but the same changes may appear in the body of the +granite without being restricted to veins, and tinstone occurs +also as an original constituent of some granite pegmatites.</p> + +<p>Granites may also be modified by crushing. Their crystals +tend to lose their original forms and to break into mosaics of +interlocking grains. The latter structure is very well seen in the +quartz, which is a brittle mineral under stress. White mica +develops in the felspars. The larger crystals are converted into +lenticular or elliptical “augen,” which may be shattered throughout +or may have a peripheral seam of small detached granules +surrounding a still undisintegrated core. Streaks of “granulitic” +or pulverized material wind irregularly through the rock, +giving it a roughly foliated character.</p> + +<p>The interesting structural variation of granite in which there +are spheroidal masses surrounded by a granitic matrix is known +as “orbicular granite.” The spheroids range from a fraction +of an inch to a foot in diameter, and may have a felspar crystal +at the centre. Around this there may be several zones, alternately +lighter and darker in colour, consisting of the essential minerals +of the rock in different proportions. Radiate arrangement is +sometimes visible in the crystals of the whole or part of the +spheroid. Spheroidal granites of this sort are found in Sweden, +Finland, Ireland, &c. In other cases the spheroids are simply +dark rounded lumps of biotite, in fine scales. These are probably +due to the adhesion of the biotite crystals to one another as +they separated from the rock magma at an early stage in its +crystallization. The Rapakiwi granites of Finland have many +round or ovoidal felspar crystals scattered through a granitic +matrix. These larger felspars have no crystalline outlines and +consist of orthoclase or microcline surrounded by borders of +white oligoclase. Often they enclose dark crystals of biotite +and hornblende, arranged zonally. Many of these granites +contain tourmaline, fluorite and monazite. In most granite +masses, especially near their contacts with the surrounding rocks, +it is common to find enclosures of altered sedimentary or igneous +materials which are more or less dissolved and permeated by +the granitic magma.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chemical composition of a few granites from different parts +of the world is given below:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">SiO<span class="su">2</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">FeO.</td> <td class="tcc allb">MgO.</td> <td class="tcc allb">CaO.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Na<span class="su">2</span>O.</td> <td class="tcc allb">K<span class="su">2</span>O.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">I.</td> <td class="tcc rb">74.69</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.21</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.16</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.48</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.18</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.64</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">II.</td> <td class="tcc rb">71.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.18</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.96</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.45</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.88</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.10</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.51</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.49</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">III.</td> <td class="tcc rb">72.93</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.87</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.94</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.79</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.51</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.74</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.68</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.74</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">IV.</td> <td class="tcc rb">76.12</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.18</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.21</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.72</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.12</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.54</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.55</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">V.</td> <td class="tcc rb">73.90</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.65</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.42</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.14</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.23</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.53</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.99</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">VI.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">68.87</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">16.62</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.43</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.72</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.60</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.71</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.80</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6.48</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>I. Carn Brea, Cornwall (Phillips); II. Mazaruni, Brit. Guiana +(Harrison); III. Rödö, near Alnö, Vesternorrland, Sweden (Holmquist); +IV. Abruzzen, a group of hills in the Riesengebirge (Milch); +V. Pikes Peak, Colorado (Matthews); VI. Wilson’s Creek, near +Omeo, Victoria (Howitt).</p> + +<p>Only the most important components are shown in the table, +but all granites contain also small amounts of zirconia, titanium +oxide, phosphoric acid, sulphur, oxides of barium, strontium, +manganese and water. These are in all cases less than 1%, and +usually much less than this, except the water, which may be 2 or +3% in weathered rocks. From the chemical composition it may be +computed that granites contain, on an average, 35 to 55% of quartz, +20 to 30% of orthoclase, 20 to 30% of plagioclase felspar (including +the albite of microperthite) and 5 to 10% of ferromagnesian +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id="page353"></a>353</span> +silicates and minor accessories such as apatite, zircon, sphene and +iron oxides. The aplites, pegmatites, graphic granites and muscovite +granites are usually richest in silica, while with increase of biotite +and hornblende, augite and enstatite the analyses show the presence +of more magnesia, iron and lime.</p> + +<p>In the weathering of granite the quartz suffers little change; +the felspar passes into dull cloudy, soft aggregates of kaolin, muscovite +and secondary quartz, while chlorite, quartz and calcite +replace the biotite, hornblende and augite. The rock often assumes +a rusty brown colour from the liberation of the oxides of iron, and +the decomposed mass is friable and can easily be dug with a spade; +where the granite has been cut by joint planes not too close together +weathering proceeds from their surfaces and large rounded blocks +may be left embedded in rotted materials. The amount of water +in the rock increases and part of the alkalis is carried away in +solution; they form valuable sources of mineral food to plants. +The chemical changes are shown by the following analyses:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">H<span class="su">2</span>O.</td> <td class="tcc allb">SiO<span class="su">2</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">TiO<span class="su">2</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">FeO.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>.</td> <td class="tcc allb">CaO.</td> <td class="tcc allb">MgO.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Na<span class="su">2</span>O.</td> <td class="tcc allb">K<span class="su">2</span>O.</td> <td class="tcc allb">P<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">I.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.22</td> <td class="tcc rb">69.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">n.d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.60</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.21</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.44</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.70</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.67</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">II.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.27</td> <td class="tcc rb">66.82</td> <td class="tcc rb">n.d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.62</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.69</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.88</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.13</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.76</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.44</td> <td class="tcc rb">n.d.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">III.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.70</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">65.69</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.31</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15.23</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.39</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.63</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.64</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.12</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.00</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.06</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Analyses of I., fresh grey granite; II. brown moderately firm +granite; III. residual sand, produced by the weathering of the +same mass (anal. G. P. Merrill).</p> +</div> + +<p>The differences are surprisingly small and are principally +an increase in the water and a diminution in the amount of +alkalis and lime together with the oxidation of the ferrous +oxide.</p> +<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAN SASSO D’ITALIA<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (“Great Rock of Italy”), a mountain +of the Abruzzi, Italy, the culminating point of the Apennines, +9560 ft. in height. In formation it resembles the limestone Alps +of Tirol and there are on its elevated plateaus a number of <i>doline</i> +or funnel-shaped depressions into which the melted snow and +the rain sink. The summit is covered with snow for the greater +part of the year. Seen from the Adriatic, Monte Corno, as it is +sometimes called, from its resemblance to a horn, affords a +magnificent spectacle; the Alpine region beneath its summit +is still the home of the wild boar, and here and there are dense +woods of beech and pine. The group has numerous other lofty +peaks, of which the chief are the Pizzo d’Intermesole (8680 ft.), +the Corno Piccolo (8650 ft.), the Pizzo Cefalone (8307 ft.) and +the Monte della Portella (7835 ft.). The most convenient +starting-point for the ascent is Assergi, 10 m. N.E. of Aquila, +at the S. foot of the Gran Sasso. The Italian Alpine Club has +erected a hut S.W. of the principal summit, and has published a +special guidebook (E. Abbate, <i>Guida al Gran Sasso d’ Italia</i>, +Rome, 1888). The view from the summit extends to the +Tyrrhenian Sea on the west and the mountains of Dalmatia on +the east in clear weather. The ascent was first made in 1794 +by Orazio Delfico from the Teramo side. In Assergi is the +interesting church of Sta. Maria Assunta, dating from 1150, +with later alterations (see Gavini, in <i>L’ Arte</i>, 1901, 316, 391).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER,<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> 8th Bart. (1826-1884), British +scholar and educationalist, was born in New York on the 13th of +September 1826. After a childhood spent in the West Indies, +he was educated at Harrow and Oxford. He entered Oxford +as scholar of Balliol, and subsequently held a fellowship at Oriel +from 1849 to 1860. He made a special study of the Aristotelian +philosophy, and in 1857 published an edition of the <i>Ethics</i> +(4th ed. 1885) which became a standard text-book at Oxford. +In 1855 he was one of the examiners for the Indian Civil Service, +and in 1856 a public examiner in classics at Oxford. In the +latter year he succeeded to the baronetcy. In 1859 he went to +Madras with Sir Charles Trevelyan, and was appointed inspector +of schools; the next year he removed to Bombay, to fill the post +of Professor of History and Political Economy in the Elphinstone +College. Of this he became Principal in 1862; and, a year +later, vice-chancellor of Bombay University, a post he held from +1863 to 1865 and again from 1865 to 1868. In 1865 he took upon +himself also the duties of Director of Public Instruction for +Bombay Presidency. In 1868 he was appointed a member of +the Legislative Council. In the same year, upon the death of +Sir David Brewster, he was appointed Principal of Edinburgh +University, which had conferred an honorary LL.D. degree upon +him in 1865. From that time till his death (which occurred in +Edinburgh on the 30th of November 1884) his energies were +entirely devoted to the well-being of the University. The +institution of the medical school in the University was almost +solely due to his initiative; and the Tercentenary Festival, +celebrated in 1884, was the result of his wisely directed enthusiasm. +In that year he published <i>The Story of the University of +Edinburgh during its First Three Hundred Years</i>. He was +created Hon. D.C.L. of Oxford in 1880, and an honorary fellow +of Oriel College in 1882.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANT, ANNE<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (1755-1838), Scottish writer, generally known +as Mrs Grant of Laggan, was born in Glasgow, on the 21st of +February 1755. Her childhood was spent in America, her father, +Duncan MacVicar, being an army officer on +service there. In 1768 the family returned +to Scotland, and in 1779 Anne married +James Grant, an army chaplain, who was +also minister of the parish of Laggan, near +Fort Augustus, Inverness, where her father +was barrack-master. On her husband’s death in 1801 she +was left with a large family and a small income. In 1802 she +published by subscription a volume of <i>Original Poems, with +some Translations from the Gaelic</i>, which was favourably received. +In 1806 her <i>Letters from the Mountains</i>, with their spirited description +of Highland scenery and legends, awakened much interest. +Her other works are <i>Memoirs of an American Lady, with Sketches +of Manners and Scenery in America as they existed previous to +the Revolution</i> (1808), containing reminiscences of her childhood; +<i>Essays on the Superstitions of the Highlanders of Scotland</i> (1811); +and <i>Eighteen Hundred and Thirteen, a Poem</i> (1814). In 1810 +she went to live in Edinburgh. For the last twelve years of her +life she received a pension from government. She died on the +7th of November 1838.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Memoir and Correspondence of Mrs Grant of Laggan, edited +by her son J. P. Grant</i> (3 vols., 1844).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANT, CHARLES<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> (1746-1823), British politician, was born +at Aldourie, Inverness-shire, on the 16th of April 1746, the day +on which his father, Alexander Grant, was killed whilst fighting +for the Jacobites at Culloden. When a young man Charles +went to India, where he became secretary, and later a member +of the board of trade. He returned to Scotland in 1790, and in +1802 was elected to parliament as member for the county of +Inverness. In the House of Commons his chief interests were in +Indian affairs, and he was especially vigorous in his hostility +to the policy of the Marquess Wellesley. In 1805 he was chosen +chairman of the directors of the East India Company and he +retired from parliament in 1818. A friend of William Wilberforce, +Grant was a prominent member of the evangelical party in the +Church of England; he was a generous supporter of the church’s +missionary undertakings. He was largely responsible for the +establishment of the East India college, which was afterwards +erected at Haileybury. He died in London on the 31st of October +1823. His eldest son, Charles, was created a peer in 1835 as +Baron Glenelg.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Henry Morris, <i>Life of Charles Grant</i> (1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANT, SIR FRANCIS<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (1803-1878), English portrait-painter, +fourth son of Francis Grant of Kilgraston, Perthshire, was born +at Edinburgh in 1803. He was educated for the bar, but at the +age of twenty-four he began at Edinburgh systematically to +study the practice of art. On completing a course of instruction +he removed to London, and as early as 1843 exhibited at the +Royal Academy. At the beginning of his career he utilized his +sporting experiences by painting groups of huntsmen, horses +and hounds, such as the “Meet of H.M. Staghounds” and the +“Melton Hunt”; but his position in society gradually made +him a fashionable portrait-painter. In drapery he had the taste +of a connoisseur, and rendered the minutest details of costume +with felicitous accuracy. In female portraiture he achieved +considerable success, although rather in depicting the high-born +graces and external characteristics than the true personality. +Among his portraits of this class may be mentioned Lady +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>354</span> +Glenlyon, the marchioness of Waterford, Lady Rodney and Mrs +Beauclerk. In his portraits of generals and sportsmen he +proved himself more equal to his subjects than in those of statesmen +and men of letters. He painted many of the principal +celebrities of the time, including Scott, Macaulay, Lockhart, +Disraeli, Hardinge, Gough, Derby, Palmerston and Russell, his +brother Sir J. Hope Grant and his friend Sir Edwin Landseer. +From the first his career was rapidly prosperous. In 1842 he +was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1851 an +Academician; and in 1866 he was chosen to succeed Sir C. +Eastlake in the post of president, for which his chief recommendations +were his social distinction, tact, urbanity and +friendly and liberal consideration of his brother artists. Shortly +after his election as president he was knighted, and in 1870 the +degree of D.C.L. was conferred upon him by the university of +Oxford. He died on the 5th of October 1878.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANT, GEORGE MONRO<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> (1835-1902), principal of Queen’s +University, Kingston, Ontario, was born in Nova Scotia in 1835. +He was educated at Glasgow university, where he had a brilliant +academic career; and having entered the ministry of the +Presbyterian Church, he returned to Canada and obtained a +pastoral charge in Halifax, Nova Scotia, which he held from +1863 to 1877. He quickly gained a high reputation as a preacher +and as an eloquent speaker on political subjects. When Canada +was confederated in 1867 Nova Scotia was the province most +strongly opposed to federal union. Grant threw the whole +weight of his great influence in favour of confederation, and his +oratory played an important part in securing the success of +the movement. When the consolidation of the Dominion by +means of railway construction was under discussion in 1872, +Grant travelled from the Atlantic to the Pacific with the engineers +who surveyed the route of the Canadian Pacific railway, and his +book <i>Ocean to Ocean</i> (1873) was one of the first things that opened +the eyes of Canadians to the value of the immense heritage +they enjoyed. He never lost an opportunity, whether in the +pulpit or on the platform, of pressing on his hearers that the +greatest future for Canada lay in unity with the rest of the +British Empire; and his broad statesman-like judgment made him +an authority which politicians of all parties were glad to consult. +In 1877 Grant was appointed principal of Queen’s University, +Kingston, Ontario, which through his exertions and influence +expanded from a small denominational college into a large and +influential educational centre; and he attracted to it an exceptionally +able body of professors whose influence in speculation +and research was widely felt during the quarter of a century that +he remained at its head. In 1888 he visited Australia, New +Zealand and South Africa, the effect of this experience being to +strengthen still further the Imperialism which was the guiding +principle of his political opinions. On the outbreak of the South +African War in 1899 Grant was at first disposed to be hostile +to the policy of Lord Salisbury and Mr Chamberlain; but his +eyes were soon opened to the real nature of President Kruger’s +government, and he enthusiastically welcomed and supported the +national feeling which sent men from the outlying portions of the +Empire to assist in upholding British supremacy in South Africa. +Grant did not live to see the conclusion of peace, his death occurring +at Kingston on the 10th of May 1902. At the time of his +death <i>The Times</i> observed that “it is acknowledged on all hands +that in him the Dominion has lost one of the ablest men that it +has yet produced.” He was the author of a number of works, of +which the most notable besides <i>Ocean to Ocean</i> are, <i>Advantages of +Imperial Federation</i> (1889), <i>Our National Objects and Aims</i> (1890), +<i>Religions of the World in Relation to Christianity</i> (1894) and +volumes of sermons and lectures. Grant married in 1872 Jessie, +daughter of William Lawson of Halifax.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANT, JAMES<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (1822-1887), British novelist, was born in +Edinburgh on the 1st of August 1822. His father, John Grant, was +a captain in the 92nd Gordon Highlanders and had served through +the Peninsular War. For several years James Grant was in Newfoundland +with his father, but in 1839 he returned to England, +and entered the 62nd Foot as an ensign. In 1843 he resigned +his commission and devoted himself to writing, first magazine +articles, but soon a profusion of novels, full of vivacity and +incident, and dealing mainly with military scenes and characters. +His best stories, perhaps, were <i>The Romance of War</i> (his first, +1845), <i>Bothwell</i> (1851), <i>Frank Hilton; or, The Queen’s Own</i> (1855), +<i>The Phantom Regiment</i> and <i>Harry Ogilvie</i> (1856), <i>Lucy Arden</i> +(1858), <i>The White Cockade</i> (1867), <i>Only an Ensign</i> (1871), <i>Shall +I Win Her?</i> (1874), <i>Playing with Fire</i> (1887). Grant also wrote +<i>British Battles on Land and Sea</i> (1873-1875) and valuable books +on Scottish history. Permanent value attaches to his great +work, in three volumes, on <i>Old and New Edinburgh</i> (1880). +He was the founder and energetic promoter of the National +Association for the Vindication of Scottish Rights. In 1875 he +became a Roman Catholic. He died on the 5th of May 1887.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (1827-1892), Scottish explorer +of eastern equatorial Africa, was born at Nairn, where his father +was the parish minister, on the 11th of April 1827. He was +educated at the grammar school and Marischal College, Aberdeen, +and in 1846 joined the Indian army. He saw active service in the +Sikh War (1848-49), served throughout the mutiny of 1857, +and was wounded in the operations for the relief of Lucknow. +He returned to England in 1858, and in 1860 joined J. H. Speke +(<i>q.v.</i>) in the memorable expedition which solved the problem of +the Nile sources. The expedition left Zanzibar in October 1860 +and reached Gondokoro, where the travellers were again in touch +with civilization, in February 1863. Speke was the leader, but +Grant carried out several investigations independently and made +valuable botanical collections. He acted throughout in absolute +loyalty to his comrade. In 1864 he published, as supplementary +to Speke’s account of their journey, <i>A Walk across Africa</i>, in +which he dealt particularly with “the ordinary life and pursuits, +the habits and feelings of the natives” and the economic value +of the countries traversed. In 1864 he was awarded the patron’s +medal of the Royal Geographical Society, and in 1866 given the +Companionship of the Bath in recognition of his services in +the expedition. He served in the intelligence department of the +Abyssinian expedition of 1868; for this he was made C.S.I. and +received the Abyssinian medal. At the close of the war he retired +from the army with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He had +married in 1865, and he now settled down at Nairn, where he +died on the 11th of February 1892. He made contributions to +the journals of various learned societies, the most notable being +the “Botany of the Speke and Grant Expedition” in vol. xxix. +of the <i>Transactions of the Linnaean Society</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (1808-1875), English general, +fifth and youngest son of Francis Grant of Kilgraston, Perthshire, +and brother of Sir Francis Grant, P.R.A., was born on the 22nd +of July 1808. He entered the army in 1826 as cornet in the 9th +Lancers, and became lieutenant in 1828 and captain in 1835. +In 1842 he was brigade-major to Lord Saltoun in the Chinese War, +and specially distinguished himself at the capture of Chin-Kiang, +after which he received the rank of major and the C.B. In the +first Sikh War of 1845-46 he took part in the battle of Sobraon; +and in the Punjab campaign of 1848-49 he commanded +the 9th Lancers, and won high reputation in the battles of +Chillianwalla and Guzerat (Gujarat). He was promoted brevet +lieutenant-colonel and shortly afterwards to the same substantive +rank. In 1854 he became brevet-colonel, and in 1856 brigadier +of cavalry. He took a leading part in the suppression of the +Indian mutiny of 1857, holding for some time the command +of the cavalry division, and afterwards of a movable column of +horse and foot. After rendering valuable service in the operations +before Delhi and in the final assault on the city, he directed the +victorious march of the cavalry and horse artillery despatched in +the direction of Cawnpore to open up communication with the +commander-in-chief Sir Colin Campbell, whom he met near the +Alambagh, and who raised him to the rank of brigadier-general, +and placed the whole force under his command during what +remained of the perilous march to Lucknow for the relief of the +residency. After the retirement towards Cawnpore he greatly +aided in effecting there the total rout of the rebel troops, by +making a detour which threatened their rear; and following in +pursuit with a flying column, he defeated them with the loss of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355"></a>355</span> +nearly all their guns at Serai Ghat. He also took part in the +operations connected with the recapture of Lucknow, shortly +after which he was promoted to the rank of major-general, +and appointed to the command of the force employed for the final +pacification of India, a position in which his unwearied energy, +and his vigilance and caution united to high personal daring, +rendered very valuable service. Before the work of pacification +was quite completed he was created K.C.B. In 1859 he was +appointed, with the local rank of lieutenant-general, to the command +of the British land forces in the united French and British +expedition against China. The object of the campaign was +accomplished within three months of the landing of the forces at +Pei-tang (1st of August 1860). The Taku Forts had been carried +by assault, the Chinese defeated three times in the open and +Peking occupied. For his conduct in this, which has been called +the “most successful and the best carried out of England’s +little wars,” he received the thanks of parliament and was +gazetted G.C.B. In 1861 he was made lieutenant-general and +appointed commander-in-chief of the army of Madras; on his +return to England in 1865 he was made quartermaster-general +at headquarters; and in 1870 he was transferred to the command +of the camp at Aldershot, where he took a leading part in the +reform of the educational and training systems of the forces, +which followed the Franco-German War. The introduction of +annual army manœuvres was largely due to Sir Hope Grant. +In 1872 he was gazetted general. He died in London on the +7th of March 1875.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Incidents in the Sepoy War of 1857-58, compiled from the Private +Journal of General Sir Hope Grant, K.C.B., together with some explanatory +chapters by Capt. H. Knollys, Royal Artillery</i>, was published +in 1873, and <i>Incidents in the China War of 1860</i> appeared posthumously +under the same editorship in 1875.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANT, SIR PATRICK<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (1804-1895), British field marshal, was +the second son of Major John Grant, 97th Foot, of Auchterblair, +Inverness-shire, where he was born on the 11th of September +1804. He entered the Bengal native infantry as ensign in 1820, +and became captain in 1832. He served in Oudh from 1834 to +1838, and raised the Hariana Light Infantry. Employed in the +adjutant-general’s department of the Bengal army from 1838 +until 1854, he became adjutant-general in 1846. He served +under Sir Hugh Gough at the battle of Maharajpur in 1843, +winning a brevet majority, was adjutant-general of the army +at the battles of Moodkee in 1845 (twice severely wounded), +and of Ferozshah and Sobraon in 1846, receiving the C.B. and the +brevet rank of lieutenant-colonel. He took part in the battles +of Chillianwalla and Gujarat in 1849, gaining further promotion, +and was appointed aide-de-camp to the queen. He served also +in Kohat in 1851 under Sir Charles Napier. Promoted major-general +in 1854, he was commander-in-chief of the Madras army +from 1856 to 1861. He was made K.C.B. in 1857, and on General +Anson’s death was summoned to Calcutta to take supreme +command of the army in India. From Calcutta he directed +the operations against the mutineers, sending forces under +Havelock and Outram for the relief of Cawnpore and Lucknow, +until the arrival of Sir Colin Campbell from England as commander-in-chief, +when he returned to Madras. On leaving +India in 1861 he was decorated with the G.C.B. He was promoted +lieutenant-general in 1862, was governor of Malta from 1867 to +1872, was made G.C.M.G. in 1868, promoted general in 1870, +field marshal in 1883 and colonel of the Royal Horse Guards +and gold-stick-in-waiting to the queen in 1885. He married as +his second wife, in 1844, Frances Maria, daughter of Sir Hugh +(afterwards Lord) Gough. He was governor of the Royal +Hospital, Chelsea, from 1874 until his death there on the 28th +of March 1895.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANT, ROBERT<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> (1814-1892), British astronomer, was born +at Grantown, Scotland, on the 17th of June 1814. At the age +of thirteen the promise of a brilliant career was clouded by a +prolonged illness of such a serious character as to incapacitate +him from all school-work for six years. At twenty, however, +his health greatly improved, and he set himself resolutely, without +assistance, to repair his earlier disadvantages by the diligent +study of Greek, Latin, Italian and mathematics. Astronomy +also occupied his attention, and it was stimulated by the return +of Halley’s comet in 1835, as well as by his success in observing +the annular eclipse of the sun of the 15th of May 1836. After +a short course at King’s College, Aberdeen, he obtained in 1841 +employment in his brother’s counting-house in London. During +this period the idea occurred to him of writing a history of +physical astronomy. Before definitely beginning the work he +had to search, amongst other records, those of the French +Academy, and for that purpose took up his residence in Paris +in 1845, supporting himself by giving lessons in English. He +returned to London in 1847. <i>The History of Physical Astronomy +from the Earliest Ages to the Middle of the Nineteenth Century</i> was +first published in parts in <i>The Library of Useful Knowledge</i>, but +after the issue of the ninth part this mode of publication was +discontinued, and the work appeared as a whole in 1852. The +main object of the work is, in the author’s words, “to exhibit +a view of the labours of successive inquirers in establishing a +knowledge of the mechanical principles which regulate the +movements of the celestial bodies, and in explaining the various +phenomena relative to their physical constitution which observation +with the telescope has disclosed.” The lucidity and completeness +with which a great variety of abstruse subjects were treated, +the extent of research and the maturity of judgment it displayed, +were the more remarkable, when it is remembered that this was +the first published work of one who enjoyed no special opportunities, +either for acquiring materials, or for discussing with +others engaged in similar pursuits the subjects it treats of. +The book at once took a leading place in astronomical literature, +and earned for its author in 1856 the award of the Royal +Astronomical Society’s gold medal. In 1859 he succeeded John +Pringle Nichol as professor of astronomy in the University of +Glasgow. From time to time he contributed astronomical +papers to the <i>Monthly Notices, Astronomische Nachrichten, +Comptes rendus</i> and other scientific serials; but his principal +work at Glasgow consisted in determining the places of a large +number of stars with the Ertel transit-circle of the Observatory. +The results of these labours, extending over twenty-one years, +are contained in the <i>Glasgow Catalogue of 6415 Stars</i>, published +in 1883. This was followed in 1892 by the <i>Second Glasgow +Catalogue of 2156 Stars</i>, published a few weeks after his death, +which took place on the 24th of October 1892.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society</i>, liii., 210 (E. Dunkin); +<i>Nature</i>, Nov. 10, 1892; <i>The Times</i>, Nov. 2, 1892; <i>Roy. Society’s +Catalogue of Scient. Papers</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. A. R.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (1822-1885), American soldier, +and eighteenth president of the United States, was born at +Point Pleasant, Ohio, on the 27th of April 1822. He was a +descendant of Matthew Grant, a Scotchman, who settled in +Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1630. His earlier years were +spent in helping his father, Jesse R. Grant, upon his farm in +Ohio. In 1839 he was appointed to a place in the military +academy at West Point, and it was then that his name assumed +the form by which it is generally known. He was christened +Hiram, after an ancestor, with Ulysses for a middle name. +As he was usually called by his middle name, the congressman +who recommended him for West Point supposed it to be his +first name, and added thereto the name of his mother’s family, +Simpson. Grant was the best horseman of his class, and took +a respectable place in mathematics, but at his graduation in +1843 he only ranked twenty-first in a class of thirty-nine. In +September 1845 he went with his regiment to join the forces of +General Taylor in Mexico; there he took part in the battles of +Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma and Monterey, and, after his transfer +to General Scott’s army, which he joined in March 1847, served +at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Churubusco, Molino del Rey and at +the storming of Chapultepec. He was breveted first lieutenant +for gallantry at Molino del Rey and captain for gallantry at +Chapultepec. In August 1848, after the close of the war, he +married Julia T. Dent (1826-1902), and was for a while stationed +in California and Oregon, but in 1854 he resigned his commission. +His reputation in the service had suffered from allegations of +intemperate drinking, which, whether well founded or not, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page356" id="page356"></a>356</span> +certainly impaired his usefulness as a soldier. For the next +six years he lived in St Louis, Missouri, earning a scanty subsistence +by farming and dealings in real estate. In 1860 he removed +to Galena, Illinois, and became a clerk in a leather store kept +by his father. At that time his earning capacity seems not to +have exceeded $800 a year, and he was regarded by his friends +as a broken and disappointed man. He was living at Galena +at the outbreak of hostilities between the North and South.</p> + +<p>[For the history of the Civil War, and of Grant’s battles and +campaigns, the reader is referred to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American Civil +War</a></span>. To the “call to arms” of 1861 Grant promptly +responded. After some delay he was commissioned +<span class="sidenote">Grant’s Civil War career.</span> +colonel of the 21st Illinois regiment and soon afterwards +brigadier-general. He was shortly assigned to +a territorial command on the Mississippi, and first won distinction +by his energy in seizing, on his own responsibility, the important +point of Paducah, Kentucky, situated at the confluence of +the two great waterways of the Tennessee and the Ohio (6th +Sept. 1861). On the 7th of November he fought his first +battle as a commander, that of Belmont (Missouri), which, if +it failed to achieve any material result, certainly showed him +to be a capable and skilful leader. Early in 1862 he was entrusted +by General H. W. Halleck with the command of a large +force to clear the lower reaches of the Cumberland and the +Tennessee, and, whatever criticism may be passed on the general +strategy of the campaign, Grant himself, by his able and +energetic work, thoroughly deserved the credit of his brilliant +success of Fort Donelson, where 15,000 Confederates were forced +to capitulate. Grant and his division commanders were promoted +to the rank of major-general U.S.V. soon afterwards, +but Grant’s own fortunes suffered a temporary eclipse owing to a +disagreement with Halleck. When, after being virtually under +arrest, he rejoined his army, it was concentrated about Savannah +on the Tennessee, preparing for a campaign towards Corinth, +Miss. On the 6th of April 1862 a furious assault on Grant’s +camps brought on the battle of Shiloh (<i>q.v.</i>). After two days’ +desperate fighting the Confederates withdrew before the combined +attack of the Army of the Tennessee under Grant and the +Army of the Ohio under Buell. But the Army of the Tennessee +had been on the verge of annihilation on the evening of the first +day, and Grant’s leadership throughout was by no means equal +to the emergency, though he displayed his usual personal +bravery and resolution. In the grand advance of Halleck’s +armies which followed Shiloh, Grant was relieved of all important +duties by his assignment as second in command of the whole +force, and was thought by the army at large to be in disgrace. +But Halleck soon went to Washington as general-in-chief, and +Grant took command of his old army and of Rosecrans’ Army +of the Mississippi. Two victories (Iuka and Corinth) were won +in the autumn of 1862, but the credit of both fell to Rosecrans, +who commanded in the field, and the nadir of Grant’s military +fortunes was reached when the first advance on Vicksburg (<i>q.v.</i>), +planned on an unsound basis, and complicated by a series of +political intrigues (which had also caused the adoption of the +original scheme), collapsed after the minor reverses of Holly +Springs and Chickasaw Bayou (December 1862).</p> + +<p>It is fair to assume that Grant would have followed other +unsuccessful generals into retirement, had he not shown that, +whatever his mistakes or failures, and whether he was or was +not sober and temperate in his habits, he possessed the iron +determination and energy which in the eyes of Lincoln and +Stanton,<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and of the whole Northern people, was the first requisite +of their generals. He remained then with his army near Vicksburg, +trying one plan after another without result, until at last +after months of almost hopeless work his perseverance was +crowned with success—a success directly consequent upon a +strange and bizarre campaign of ten weeks, in which his daring +and vigour were more conspicuous than ever before. On the +4th of July 1863 the great fortress surrendered with 29,491 men, +this being one of the most important victories won by the Union +arms in the whole war. Grant was at once made a major-general +in the regular army. A few months later the great reverse of +Chickamauga created an alarm in the North commensurate with +the elation that had been felt at the double victory of Vicksburg +and Gettysburg, and Grant was at once ordered to Chattanooga, +to decide the fate of the Army of the Cumberland in a second +battle. Four armies were placed under his command, and +three of these concentrated at Chattanooga. On the 25th of +November 1863 a great three-days’ battle ended with the +crushing defeat of the Confederates, who from this day had no +foothold in the centre and west.</p> + +<p>After this, in preparation for a grand combined effort of all +the Union forces, Grant was placed in supreme command, and +the rank of lieutenant-general revived for him (March 1864). +Grant’s headquarters henceforth accompanied the Army of the +Potomac, and the lieutenant-general directed the campaign in +Virginia. This, with Grant’s driving energy infused into the +best army that the Union possessed, resolved itself into a +series, almost uninterrupted, of terrible battles. Tactically the +Confederates were almost always victorious, strategically, Grant, +disposing of greatly superior forces, pressed back Lee and the +Army of Northern Virginia to the lines of Richmond and Petersburg, +while above all, in pursuance of his explicit policy of +“attrition,” the Federal leader used his men with a merciless +energy that has few, if any, parallels in modern history. At +Cold Harbor six thousand men fell in one useless assault lasting +an hour, and after two months the Union armies lay before +Richmond and Petersburg indeed, but had lost no fewer than +72,000 men. But Grant was unshaken in his determination. +“I purpose to fight it out on this line, if it takes all summer,” +was his message from the battlefield of Spottsylvania to the +chief of staff at Washington. Through many weary months he +never relaxed his hold on Lee’s army, and, in spite of repeated +partial reverses, that would have been defeats for his predecessors, +he gradually wore down his gallant adversary. The terrible +cost of these operations did not check him: only on one occasion +of grave peril were any troops sent from his lines to serve elsewhere, +and he drew to himself the bulk of the men whom the +Union government was recruiting by thousands for the final +effort. Meanwhile all the other campaigns had been closely +supervised by Grant, preoccupied though he was with the +operations against his own adversary. At a critical moment +he actually left the Virginian armies to their own commanders, +and started to take personal command in a threatened quarter, +and throughout he was in close touch with Sherman and Thomas, +who conducted the campaigns on the south-east and the centre. +That he succeeded in the efficient exercise of the chief command +of armies of a total strength of over one million men, operating +many hundreds of miles apart from each other, while at the +same time he watched and manœuvred against a great captain +and a veteran army in one field of the war, must be the greatest +proof of Grant’s powers as a general. In the end complete success +rewarded the sacrifices and efforts of the Federals on every theatre +of war; in Virginia, where Grant was in personal control, the +merciless policy of attrition wore down Lee’s army until a mere +remnant was left for the final surrender.</p> + +<p>Grant had thus brought the great struggle to an end, and was +universally regarded as the saviour of the Union. A careful +study of the history of the war thoroughly bears out the popular +view. There were soldiers more accomplished, as was McClellan, +more brilliant, as was Rosecrans, and more exact, as was Buell, +but it would be difficult to prove that these generals, or indeed +any others in the service, could have accomplished the task +which Grant brought to complete success. Nor must it be supposed +that Grant learned little from three years’ campaigning +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357"></a>357</span> +in high command. There is less in common than is often supposed +between the buoyant energy that led Grant to Shiloh and the +grim plodding determination that led him to Vicksburg and +to Appomattox. Shiloh revealed to Grant the intensity of the +struggle, and after that battle, appreciating to the full the +material and moral factors with which he had to deal, he gradually +trained his military character on those lines which alone could +conduce to ultimate success. Singleness of purpose, and relentless +vigour in the execution of the purpose, were the qualities +necessary to the conduct of the vast enterprise of subduing the +Confederacy. Grant possessed or acquired both to such a degree +that he proved fully equal to the emergency. If in technical +finesse he was surpassed by many of his predecessors and his +subordinates, he had the most important qualities of a great +captain, courage that rose higher with each obstacle, and the +clear judgment to distinguish the essential from the minor +issues in war.—(C. F. A.)]</p> + +<p class="pt1">After the assassination of President Lincoln a disposition was +shown by his successor, Andrew Johnson, to deal severely with +the Confederate leaders, and it was understood that indictments +for treason were to be brought against General Lee and others. +Grant, however, insisted that the United States government +was bound by the terms accorded to Lee and his army at +Appomattox. He went so far as to threaten to resign his commission +if the president disregarded his protest. This energetic +action on Grant’s part saved the United States from a foul +stain upon its escutcheon. In July 1866 the grade of general was +created, for the first time since the organization of the government, +and Grant was promoted to that position. In the following +year he became involved in the deadly quarrel between +President Johnson and Congress. To tie the president’s hands +Congress had passed the Tenure of Office Act, forbidding the +president to remove any cabinet officer without the consent of +the Senate; but in August 1867 President Johnson suspended +Secretary Stanton and appointed Grant secretary of war <i>ad +interim</i> until the pleasure of the Senate should be ascertained. +Grant accepted the appointment under protest, and held it +until the following January, when the Senate refused to confirm +the president’s action, and Secretary Stanton resumed his +office. President Johnson was much disgusted at the readiness +with which Grant turned over the office to Stanton, and a bitter +controversy ensued between Johnson and Grant. Hitherto +Grant had taken little part in politics. The only vote which +he had ever cast for a presidential candidate was in 1856 for +<span class="sidenote">Presidency, 1868.</span> +James Buchanan; and leading Democrats, so late as +the beginning of 1868, hoped to make him their candidate +in the election of that year; but the effect of +the controversy with President Johnson was to bring +Grant forward as the candidate of the Republican party. At the +convention in Chicago on the 20th of May 1868 he was unanimously +nominated on the first ballot. The Democratic party +nominated the one available Democrat who had the smallest +chance of beating him—Horatio Seymour, lately governor of +New York, an excellent statesman, but at that time hopeless +as a candidate because of his attitude during the war. The +result of the contest was at no time in doubt; Grant received +214 electoral votes and Seymour 80.</p> + +<p>The most important domestic event of Grant’s first term as +president was the adoption of the fifteenth amendment to the +Constitution on the 30th of March 1870, providing that suffrage +throughout the United States should not be restricted on account +of race, colour or previous condition of servitude. The most +important event in foreign policy was the treaty with Great +Britain of the 8th of May 1871, commonly known as the Treaty +of Washington, whereby several controversies between the +United States and Great Britain, including the bitter questions +as to damage inflicted upon the United States by the “Alabama” +and other Confederate cruisers built and equipped in England, +were referred to arbitration. In 1869 the government of Santo +Domingo (or the Dominican Republic) expressed a wish for +annexation by the United States, and such a step was favoured +by Grant, but a treaty negotiated with this end in view failed +to obtain the requisite two-thirds vote in the Senate. In May +1872 something was done towards alleviating the odious Reconstruction +laws for dragooning the South, which had been passed +by Congress in spite of the vetoes of President Johnson. The +Amnesty Bill restored civil rights to all persons in the South, +save from 300 to 500 who had held high positions under the +Confederacy. As early as 1870 President Grant recommended +measures of civil service reform, and succeeded in obtaining an +act authorizing him to appoint a Civil Service commission. +A commission was created, but owing to the hostility of the +politicians in Congress it accomplished little. During the fifty +years since Crawford’s Tenure of Office Act was passed in 1820, +the country had been growing more and more familiar with the +spectacle of corruption in high places. The evil rose to alarming +proportions during Grant’s presidency, partly because of the +immense extension of the civil service, partly because of the +growing tendency to alliance between spoilsmen and the persons +benefited by protective tariffs, and partly because the public +attention was still so much absorbed in Southern affairs that little +energy was left for curbing rascality in the North. The scandals, +indeed, were rife in Washington, and affected persons in close +relations with the president. Grant was ill-fitted for coping +with the difficulties of such a situation. Along with high intellectual +powers in certain directions, he had a simplicity of +nature charming in itself, but often calculated to render him +the easy prey of sharpers. He found it almost impossible to +believe that anything could be wrong in persons to whom he +had given his friendship, and on several occasions such friends +proved themselves unworthy of him. The feeling was widely +prevalent in the spring of 1872 that the interests of pure government +in the United States demanded that President Grant should +not be elected to a second term. This feeling led a number of +high-minded gentlemen to form themselves into an organization +under the name of Liberal Republicans. They held a convention +at Cincinnati in May with the intention of nominating for the +presidency Charles Francis Adams, who had ably represented +the United States at the court of St James’s during the Civil +War. The convention, was, however, captured by politicians +who converted the whole affair into a farce by nominating +Horace Greeley, editor of the <i>New York Tribune</i>, who represented +almost anything rather than the object for which the convention +had been called together. The Democrats had despaired of +electing a candidate of their own, and hoped to achieve success +by adopting the Cincinnati nominee, should he prove to be an +eligible person. The event showed that while their defeat in +1868 had taught them despondency, it had not taught them +wisdom; it was still in their power to make a gallant fight by +nominating a person for whom Republican reformers could +vote. But with almost incredible fatuity, they adopted Greeley +as their candidate. As a natural result Grant was re-elected +by an overwhelming majority.</p> + +<p>The most important event of his second term was his veto +of the Inflation Bill in 1874 followed by the passage of the +Resumption Act in the following year. The country +was still labouring under the curse of an inconvertible +<span class="sidenote">Second presidency.</span> +paper currency originating with the Legal Tender Act +of 1862. There was a considerable party in favour of +debasing the currency indefinitely by inflation, and a bill with +that object was passed by Congress in April 1874. It was +promptly vetoed by President Grant, and two months later he +wrote a very sensible letter to Senator J. P. Jones of Nevada +advocating a speedy return to specie payments. The passage of +the Resumption Act in January 1875 was largely due to his consistent +advocacy, and for these measures he deserves as high +credit as for his victories in the field. In spite of these great +services, popular dissatisfaction with the Republican party +rapidly increased during the years 1874-1876. The causes were +twofold: firstly, there was great dissatisfaction with the troubles +in the Southern states, owing to the harsh Reconstruction +laws and the robberies committed by the carpet-bag governments +which those laws kept in power; secondly, the scandals at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page358" id="page358"></a>358</span> +Washington, comprising wholesale frauds on the public revenue, +awakened lively disgust. In some cases the culprits were so near +to President Grant that many persons found it difficult to avoid +the suspicion that he was himself implicated, and never perhaps +was his hold upon popular favour so slight as in the summer +and autumn of 1876.</p> + +<p>After the close of his presidency in the spring of 1877 Grant +started on a journey round the world, accompanied by his wife +and one son. He was received with distinguished +honours in England and on the continent of Europe, +<span class="sidenote">Later life.</span> +whence he made his way to India, China and Japan. +After his return to America in September 1880 he went back to +his old home in Galena, Illinois. A faction among the managers +of the Republican party attempted to secure his nomination for +a third term as president, and in the convention at Chicago in +June 1880 he received a vote exceeding 300 during 36 consecutive +ballots. Nevertheless, his opponents made such effective use of +the popular prejudice against third terms that the scheme was +defeated, and Garfield was named in his stead. In August 1881 +General Grant bought a house in the city of New York. His +income was insufficient for the proper support of his family, and +accordingly he had become partner in a banking house in which +one of his sons was interested along with other persons. The +name of the firm was Grant and Ward. The ex-president +invested in it all his available property, but paid no attention to +the management of the business. His facility in giving his confidence +to unworthy people was now to be visited with dire +calamity. In 1884 the firm became bankrupt, and it was discovered +that two of the partners had been perpetrating systematic +and gigantic frauds. This severe blow left General Grant +penniless, just at the time when he was beginning to suffer +acutely from the disease which finally caused his death. Down +to this time he had never made any pretensions to literary skill +or talent, but on being approached by the <i>Century Magazine</i> +with a request for some articles he undertook the work in order +to keep the wolf from the door. It proved a congenial task, and +led to the writing of his <i>Personal Memoirs</i>, a frank, modest +and charming book, which ranks among the best standard +military biographies. The sales earned for the general and his +family something like half a million dollars. The circumstances +in which it was written made it an act of heroism comparable +with any that Grant ever showed as a soldier. During most of +the time he was suffering tortures from cancer in the throat, and +it was only four days before his death that he finished the manuscript. +In the spring of 1885 Congress passed a bill creating him +a general on the retired list; and in the summer he was removed +to a cottage at Mount M’Gregor, near Saratoga, where he passed +the last five weeks of his life, and where he died on the 23rd of +July 1885. His body was placed in a temporary tomb in +Riverside Drive, in New York City, overlooking the Hudson +river.<a name="fa2m" id="fa2m" href="#ft2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>Grant showed many admirable and lovable traits. There was +a charming side to his trustful simplicity, which was at times +almost like that of a sailor set ashore. He abounded in kindliness +and generosity, and if there was anything especially difficult +for him to endure, it was the sight of human suffering, as was +shown on the night at Shiloh, where he lay out of doors in the +icy rain rather than stay in a comfortable room where the +surgeons were at work. His good sense was strong, as well as his +sense of justice, and these qualities stood him in good service as +president, especially in his triumphant fight against the greenback +monster. Altogether, in spite of some shortcomings, +Grant was a massive, noble and lovable personality, well fit to +be remembered as one of the heroes of a great nation.</p> +<div class="author">(J. Fi.)</div> + +<p>General Grant’s son, <span class="sc">Frederick Dent Grant</span> (b. 1850), +graduated at the U.S. Military Academy in 1871, was aide-de-camp +to General Philip Sheridan in 1873-1881, and resigned from +the army in 1881, after having attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. +He was U.S. minister to Austria in 1889-1893, and +police commissioner of New York city in 1894-1898. He served +as a brigadier-general of volunteers in the Spanish-American +War of 1898, and then in the Philippines, becoming brigadier-general +in the regular army in February 1901 and major-general +in February 1906.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Adam Badeau’s <i>Military History of U. S. Grant</i> +(3 vols., New York, 1867-1881), and <i>Grant in Peace</i> (Hartford, +1887), are appreciative but lacking in discrimination. William +Conant Church’s <i>Ulysses S. Grant and the Period of National Preservation +and Reconstruction</i> (New York, 1897) is a good succinct +account. Hamlin Garland’s <i>Ulysses S. Grant, His Life and Character</i> +(New York, 1898) gives especial attention to the personal +traits of Grant and abounds in anecdote. See also Grant’s <i>Personal +Memoirs</i> (2 vols., New York, 1885-1886); J. G. Wilson’s <i>Life and +Public Services of U. S. Grant</i> (New York, 1886); J. R. Young’s +<i>Around the World with General Grant</i> (New York, 1880); Horace +Porter’s <i>Campaigning with Grant</i> (New York, 1897); James Ford +Rhodes’s <i>History of the United States</i> (vols. iii.-vii., New York, 1896-1906); +James K. Hosmer’s <i>Appeal to Arms and Outcome of the Civil +War</i> (New York, 1907); John Eaton’s <i>Grant, Lincoln, and the +Freedmen</i> (New York, 1907), and various works mentioned in the +articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American Civil War</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wilderness Campaign</a></span>, &c.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> President Lincoln was Grant’s most unwavering supporter. +Many amusing stories are told of his replies to various deputations +which waited upon him to ask for Grant’s removal. On one occasion +he asked the critics to ascertain the brand of whisky favoured by +Grant, so that he could send kegs of it to the other generals. The +question of Grant’s abstemiousness was and is of little importance. +The cause at stake over-rode every prejudice and the people of the +United States, since the war, have been in general content to leave +the question alone, as was evidenced by the outcry raised in 1908, +when President Taft reopened it in a speech at Grant’s tomb.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The permanent tomb is of white granite and white marble and +is 150 ft. high with a circular cupola topping a square building +90 ft. on the side and 72 ft. high; the sarcophagus, in the centre +of the building, is of red Wisconsin porphyry. The cornerstone +was laid by President Harrison in 1892, and the tomb was dedicated +on the 27th of April 1897 with a splendid parade and addresses by +President McKinley and General Horace Porter, president of the +Grant Monument Association, which from 90,000 contributions +raised the funds for the tomb.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANT<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> (from A.-Fr. <i>graunter</i>, O. Fr. <i>greanter</i> for <i>creanter</i>, +popular Lat. <i>creantare</i>, for <i>credentare</i>, to entrust, Lat. <i>credere</i>, to +believe, trust), originally permission, acknowledgment, hence the +gift of privileges, rights, &c., specifically in law, the transfer of +property by an instrument in writing, termed a deed of grant. +According to the old rule of common law, the immediate freehold +in corporeal hereditaments lay in livery (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feoffment</a></span>), +whereas incorporeal hereditaments, such as a reversion, remainder, +advowson, &c., lay in grant, that is, passed by the +delivery of the deed of conveyance or grant without further +ceremony. The distinction between property lying in livery and +in grant is now abolished, the Real Property Act 1845 providing +that all corporeal tenements and hereditaments shall be transferable +as well by grant as by livery (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conveyancing</a></span>). A +grant of personal property is properly termed an assignment or +bill of sale.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANTH,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> the holy scriptures of the Sikhs, containing the +spiritual and moral teaching of Sikhism (<i>q.v.</i>). The book is called +the <i>Adi Granth Sahib</i> by the Sikhs as a title of respect, because it +is believed by them to be an embodiment of the gurus. The title +is generally applied to the volume compiled by the fifth guru +Arjan, which contains the compositions of Guru Nanak, the +founder of the Sikh religion; of his successors, Guru Angad, +Amar Das, Ram Das and Arjan; hymns of the Hindu bhagats or +saints, Jaidev, Namdev, Trilochan, Sain, Ramanand, Kabir, +Rai Das, Pipa, Bhikhan, Beni, Parmanand Das, Sur Das, Sadhna +and Dhanna Jat; verses of the Mahommedan saint called Farid; +and panegyrics of the gurus by bards who either attended them or +admired their characters. The compositions of the ninth guru, +Teg Bahadur, were subsequently added to the <i>Adi Granth</i> by +Guru Govind Singh. One recension of the sacred volume preserved +at Mangat in the Gujrat district contains a hymn composed +by Mira Bai, queen of Chitor. The <i>Adi Granth</i> contains +passages of great picturesqueness and beauty. The original +copy is said to be in Kartarpur in the Jullundur district, but the +chief copy in use is now in the Har Mandar or Golden Temple +at Amritsar, where it is daily read aloud by the attendant +Granthis or scripture readers.</p> + +<p>There is also a second <i>Granth</i> which was compiled by the +Sikhs in 1734, and popularly known as the <i>Granth of the tenth +Guru</i>, but it has not the same authority as the <i>Adi Granth</i>. It +contains Guru Govind Singh’s <i>Jāpji</i>, the <i>Akāl Ustit</i> or Praise of +the Creator, thirty-three <i>sawaias</i> (quatrains containing some of +the main tenets of the guru and strong reprobation of idolatry +and hypocrisy), and the <i>Vachitar Natak</i> or wonderful drama, in +which the guru gives an account of his parentage, divine mission +and the battles in which he was engaged. Then come three +abridged translations by different hands of the <i>Devi Mahatamya</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>359</span> +an episode in the <i>Markandeya Puran</i>, in praise of Durga, the +goddess of war. Then follow the <i>Gyan Parbodh</i> or awakening of +knowledge, accounts of twenty-four incarnations of the deity, +selected because of their warlike character; the <i>Hazare de +Shabd</i>; the <i>Shastar Nam Mala</i>, which is a list of offensive and +defensive weapons used in the guru’s time, with special reference +to the attributes of the Creator; the <i>Tria Charitar</i> or tales illustrating +the qualities, but principally the deceit of women; the +<i>Kabit</i>, compositions of a miscellaneous character; the <i>Zafarnama</i> +containing the tenth guru’s epistle to the emperor Aurangzeb, and +several metrical tales in the Persian language. This <i>Granth</i> is +only partially the composition of the tenth guru. The greater +portion of it was written by bards in his employ.</p> + +<p>The two volumes are written in several different languages +and dialects. The <i>Adi Granth</i> is largely in old Punjabi and Hindi, +but Prakrit, Persian, Mahratti and Gujrati are also +represented. The <i>Granth of the Tenth Guru</i> is written +<span class="sidenote">Form of the Granth.</span> +in the old and very difficult Hindi affected by literary +men in the Patna district in the 16th century. In +neither of these sacred volumes is there any separation of words. +As there is no separation of words in Sanskrit, the <i>gyanis</i> or +interpreters of the guru’s hymns prefer to follow the ancient +practice of junction of words. This makes the reading of the Sikh +scriptures very difficult, and is one of the causes of the decline +of the Sikh religion.</p> + +<p>The hymns in the <i>Adi Granth</i> are arranged not according to +the gurus or bhagats who compose them, but according to rags +or musical measures. There are thirty-one such measures in +the <i>Adi Granth</i>, and the hymns are arranged according to the +<span class="correction" title="amended from neasures">measures</span> to which they are composed. The gurus who composed +hymns, namely the first, second, third, fourth, fifth and ninth +gurus, all used the name Nanak as their nom-de-plume. Their +compositions are distinguished by mahallas or wards. Thus the +compositions of Guru Nanak are styled mahalla one, the compositions +of Guru Angad are styled mahalla two, and so on. +After the hymns of the gurus are found the hymns of the bhagats +under their several musical measures. The Sikhs generally dislike +any arrangement of the <i>Adi Granth</i> by which the compositions +of each guru or bhagat should be separately shown.</p> + +<p>All the doctrines of the Sikhs are found set forth in the two +<i>Granths</i> and in compositions called +<span class="sidenote">The Sikh doctrines.</span> +<i>Rahit Namas</i> and <i>Tanakhwah +Namas</i>, which are believed to have been the utterances +of the tenth guru. The cardinal principle of the sacred +books is the unity of God, and starting from this +premiss the rejection of idolatry and superstition. +Thus Guru Govind Singh writes:</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Some worshipping stones, put them on their heads;</p> + <p class="i2">Some suspend lingams from their necks;</p> +<p class="i05">Some see the God in the South; some bow their heads to the West.</p> + <p class="i2">Some fools worship idols, others busy themselves with worshipping the dead.</p> +<p class="i05">The whole world entangled in false ceremonies hath not found God’s secret.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Next to the unity of God comes the equality of all men in His +sight, and so the abolition of caste distinctions. Guru Nanak +says:</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Caste hath no power in the next world; there is a new order of beings,</p> +<p class="i05">Those whose accounts are honoured are the good.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">The concremation of widows, though practised in later times by +Hinduized Sikhs, is forbidden in the <i>Granth</i>. Guru Arjan +writes:</p> + +<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“She who considereth her beloved as her God,</p> +<p class="i05">Is the blessed <i>sati</i> who shall be acceptable in God’s Court.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">It is a common belief that the Sikhs are allowed to drink wine +and other intoxicants. This is not the case. Guru Nanak +wrote:</p> + +<p class="center f90">“By drinking wine man committeth many sins.”</p> + +<p class="noind">Guru Arjan wrote:</p> + +<p class="center f90">“The fool who drinketh evil wine is involved in sin.”</p> + +<p class="noind">And in the Rahit Nama of Bhai Desu Singh there is the following:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“Let a Sikh take no intoxicant; it maketh the body lazy; it +diverteth men from their temporal and spiritual duties, and inciteth +them to evil deeds.”</p> +</div> + +<p>It is also generally believed that the Sikhs are bound to +abstain from the flesh of kine. This, too, is a mistake, arising +from the Sikh adoption of Hindu usages. The two <i>Granths</i> of +the Sikhs and all their canonical works are absolutely silent on +the subject. The Sikhs are not bound to abstain from any flesh, +except that which is obviously unfit for human food, or what is +killed in the Mahommedan fashion by jagging an animal’s throat +with a knife. This flesh-eating practice is one of the main sources +of their physical strength. Smoking is strictly prohibited by +the Sikh religion. Guru Teg Bahadur preached to his host as +follows:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“Save the people from the vile drug, and employ thyself in the +service of Sikhs and holy men. When the people abandon the +degrading smoke and cultivate their lands, their wealth and prosperity +shall increase, and they shall want for nothing ... but +when they smoke the vile vegetable, they shall grow poor and lose +their wealth.”</p> +</div> + +<p class="noind">Guru Govind Singh also said:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“Wine is bad, bhang destroyeth one generation, but tobacco +destroyeth all generations.”</p> +</div> + +<p>In addition to these prohibitions Sikhism inculcates most +of the positive virtues of Christianity, and specially loyalty to +rulers, a quality which has made the Sikhs valuable servants of +the British crown.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Granth</i> was translated by Dr Trumpp, a German missionary, +on behalf of the Punjab government in 1877, but his rendering is +in many respects incorrect, owing to insufficient knowledge of the +Punjabi dialects. <i>The Sikh Religion</i>, &c., in 6 vols. (London, 1909) is +an authoritative version prepared by M. Macauliffe, in concert with +the modern leaders of the Sikh sect.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANTHAM, THOMAS ROBINSON,<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> 1st <span class="sc">Baron</span> (<i>c.</i> 1695-1770), +English diplomatist and politician, was a younger son of Sir +William Robinson, Bart. (1655-1736) of Newby, Yorkshire, +who was member of parliament for York from 1697 to 1722. +Having been a scholar and minor fellow of Trinity College, +Cambridge, Thomas Robinson gained his earliest diplomatic +experience in Paris and then went to Vienna, where he was +English ambassador from 1730 to 1748. During 1741 he sought +to make peace between the empress Maria Theresa and Frederick +the Great, but in vain, and in 1748 he represented his country +at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. Returning to England he +sat in parliament for Christchurch from 1749 to 1761. In 1754 +Robinson was appointed a secretary of state and leader of the +House of Commons by the prime minister, the duke of Newcastle, +and it was on this occasion that Pitt made the famous remark +to Fox, “the duke might as well have sent us his jackboot +to lead us.” In November 1755 he resigned, and in April 1761 +he was created Baron Grantham. He was master of the wardrobe +from 1749 to 1754 and again from 1755 to 1760, and was joint +postmaster-general in 1765 and 1766. He died in London on the +30th of September 1770.</p> + +<p>Grantham’s elder son, <span class="sc">Thomas Robinson</span> (1738-1786), who +became the 2nd baron, was born at Vienna on the 30th of +November 1738. Educated at Westminster School and at Christ’s +College, Cambridge, he entered parliament as member for Christchurch +in 1761, and succeeded to the peerage in 1770. In 1771 he +was sent as ambassador to Madrid and retained this post until +war broke out between England and Spain in 1779. From 1780 +to 1782 Grantham was first commissioner of the board of trade +and foreign plantations, and from July 1782 to April 1783 +secretary for the foreign department under Lord Shelburne. +He died on the 20th of July 1786, leaving two sons, Thomas +Philip, who became the 3rd baron, and Frederick John afterwards +1st earl of Ripon.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Thomas Philip Robinson</span>, 3rd Baron Grantham (1781-1859). +in 1803 took the name of Weddell instead of that of Robinson. +In May 1833 he became Earl de Grey of Wrest on the death of +his maternal aunt, Amabell Hume-Campbell, Countess de Grey +(1751-1833), and he now took the name of de Grey. He was +first lord of the admiralty under Sir Robert Peel in 1834-1835 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>360</span> +and from 1841 to 1844 lord-lieutenant of Ireland. On his death +without male issue his nephew, George Frederick Samuel Robinson, +afterwards marquess of Ripon (<i>q.v.</i>), succeeded as Earl de +Grey.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANTHAM,<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> a municipal and parliamentary borough of +Lincolnshire, England; situated in a pleasant undulating +country on the river Witham. Pop. (1901) 17,593. It is an +important junction of the Great Northern railway, 105 m. N. +by W. from London, with branch lines to Nottingham, Lincoln +and Boston; while there is communication with Nottingham +and the Trent by the Grantham canal. The parish church of St +Wulfram is a splendid building, exhibiting all the Gothic styles, +but mainly Early English and Decorated. The massive and +ornate western tower and spire, about 280 ft. in height, are of +early Decorated workmanship. There is a double Decorated +crypt beneath the lady chapel. The north and south porches are +fine examples of a later period of the same style. The delicately +carved font is noteworthy. Two libraries, respectively of the +16th and 17th centuries, are preserved in the church. At the +King Edward VI. grammar school Sir Isaac Newton received +part of his education. A bronze statue commemorates him. +The late Perpendicular building is picturesque, and the school was +greatly enlarged in 1904. The Angel Hotel is a hostelry of the +15th century, with a gateway of earlier date. A conduit dating +from 1597 stands in the wide market-place. Modern public +buildings are a gild hall, exchange hall, and several churches +and chapels. The Queen Victoria Memorial home for nurses was +erected in 1902-1903. The chief industries are malting and the +manufacture of agricultural implements. Grantham returns one +member to parliament. The borough falls within the S. Kesteven +or Stamford division of the county. Grantham was created a +suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Lincoln in 1905. The +municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 +councillors. Area, 1726 acres.</p> + +<p>Although there is no authentic evidence of Roman occupation, +Grantham (Graham, Granham in Domesday Book) from its +situation on the Ermine Street, is supposed to have been a +Roman station. It was possibly a borough in the Saxon period, +and by the time of the Domesday Survey it was a royal borough +with 111 burgesses. Charters of liberties existing now only in +the confirmation charter of 1377 were granted by various kings. +From the first the town was governed by a bailiff appointed +by the lord of the manor, but by the end of the 14th century the +office of alderman had come into existence. Finally government +under a mayor and alderman was granted by Edward IV. in +1463, and Grantham became a corporate town. Among later +charters, that of James II., given in 1685, changed the title to +that of government by a mayor and 6 aldermen, but this was +afterwards reversed and the old order resumed. Grantham +was first represented in parliament in 1467, and returned two +members; but by the Redistribution Act of 1885 the number +was reduced to one. Richard III. in 1483 granted a Wednesday +market and two fairs yearly, namely on the feast of St Nicholas +the Bishop, and the two following days, and on Passion Sunday +and the day following. At the present day the market is held +on Saturday, and fairs are held on the Monday, Tuesday and +Wednesday following the fifth Sunday in Lent; a cherry fair +on the 11th of July and two stock fairs on the 26th of October +and the 17th of December.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANTLEY, FLETCHER NORTON,<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> 1st Baron (1716-1789), +English politician, was the eldest son of Thomas Norton of +Grantley, Yorkshire, where he was born on the 23rd of June 1716. +He became a barrister in 1739, and, after a period of inactivity, +obtained a large and profitable practice, becoming a K.C. in +1754, and afterwards attorney-general for the county palatine +of Lancaster. In 1756 he was elected member of parliament for +Appleby; he represented Wigan from 1761 to 1768, and was +appointed solicitor-general for England and knighted in 1762. +He took part in the proceedings against John Wilkes, and, +having become attorney-general in 1763, prosecuted the 5th +Lord Byron for the murder of William Chaworth, losing his +office when the marquess of Rockingham came into power in +July 1765. In 1769, being now member of parliament for +Guildford, Norton became a privy councillor and chief justice +in eyre of the forests south of the Trent, and in 1770 was chosen +Speaker of the House of Commons. In 1777, when presenting +the bill for the increase of the civil list to the king, he told +George III. that parliament has “not only granted to your +majesty a large present supply, but also a very great additional +revenue; great beyond example; great beyond your majesty’s +highest expense.” This speech aroused general attention and +caused some irritation; but the Speaker was supported by Fox +and by the city of London, and received the thanks of the House +of Commons. George, however, did not forget these plain words, +and after the general election of 1780, the prime minister, Lord +North, and his followers declined to support the re-election of the +retiring Speaker, alleging that his health was not equal to the +duties of the office, and he was defeated when the voting took +place. In 1782 he was made a peer as Baron Grantley of +Markenfield. He died in London on the 1st of January 1789. +He was succeeded as Baron Grantley by his eldest son William +(1742-1822). Wraxall describes Norton as “a bold, able and +eloquent, but not a popular pleader,” and as Speaker he was +aggressive and indiscreet. Derided by satirists as “Sir Bullface +Doublefee,” and described by Horace Walpole as one who “rose +from obscure infamy to that infamous fame which will long stick +to him,” his character was also assailed by Junius, and the general +impression is that he was a hot-tempered, avaricious and unprincipled +man.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Walpole, <i>Memoirs of the Reign of George III.</i>, edited by +G. F. R. Barker (1894); Sir N. W. Wraxall, <i>Historical and Posthumous +Memoirs</i>, edited by H. B. Wheatley (1884); and J. A. +Manning, <i>Lives of the Speakers</i> (1850).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANTOWN,<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> the capital of Speyside, Elginshire, Scotland. +Pop. (1901) 1568. It lies on the left bank of the Spey, 23ź m. +S. of Forres by the Highland railway, with a station on the Great +North of Scotland’s Speyside line connecting Craigellachie with +Boat of Garten. It was founded in 1776 by Sir James Grant of +Grant, and became the chief seat of that ancient family, who had +lived on their adjoining estate of Freuchie (Gaelic, <i>fraochach</i>, +“heathery”) since the beginning of the 15th century, and +hence were usually described as the lairds of Freuchie. The +public buildings include the town hall, court house and orphan +hospital; and the industries are mainly connected with the +cattle trade and the distilling of whisky. The town, built of grey +granite, presents a handsome appearance, and being delightfully +situated in the midst of the most beautiful pine and birch woods +in Scotland, with pure air and a bracing climate, is an attractive +resort. Castle Grant, immediately to the north, is the principal +mansion of the earl of Seafield, the head of the Clan Grant. +In a cave, still called “Lord Huntly’s Cave,” in a rocky glen in +the vicinity, George, marquess of Huntly, lay hid during +Montrose’s campaign in 1644-45.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANULITE<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> (Lat. <i>granulum</i>, a little grain), a name used by +petrographers to designate two distinct classes of rocks. According +to the terminology of the French school it signifies a granite +in which both kinds of mica (muscovite and biotite) occur, and +corresponds to the German <i>Granit</i>, or to the English “muscovite +biotite granite.” This application has not been accepted +generally. To the German petrologists “granulite” means a +more or less banded fine-grained metamorphic rock, consisting +mainly of quartz and felspar in very small irregular crystals, +and containing usually also a fair number of minute rounded +pale-red garnets. Among English and American geologists the +term is generally employed in this sense. The granulites are +very closely allied to the gneisses, as they consist of nearly the +same minerals, but they are finer grained, have usually less +perfect foliation, are more frequently garnetiferous, and have +some special features of microscopic structure. In the rocks of +this group the minerals, as seen in a microscopic slide, occur as +small rounded grains forming a mosaic closely fitted together. +The individual crystals have never perfect form, and indeed +rarely any traces of it. In some granulites they interlock, with +irregular borders; in others they have been drawn out and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361"></a>361</span> +flattened into tapering lenticles by crushing. In most cases they +are somewhat rounded with smaller grains between the larger. +This is especially true of the quartz and felspar which are the +predominant minerals; mica always appears as flat scales +(irregular or rounded but not hexagonal). Both muscovite and +biotite may be present and vary considerably in abundance; +very commonly they have their flat sides parallel and give the +rock a rudimentary schistosity, and they may be aggregated +into bands—in which case the granulites are indistinguishable +from certain varieties of gneiss. The garnets are very generally +larger than the above-mentioned ingredients, and easily visible +with the eye as pink spots on the broken surfaces of the rock. +They usually are filled with enclosed grains of the other minerals.</p> + +<p>The felspar of the granulites is mostly orthoclase or cryptoperthite; +microcline, oligoclase and albite are also common. +Basic felspars occur only rarely. Among accessory minerals, in +addition to apatite, zircon, and iron oxides, the following may +be mentioned: hornblende (not common), riebeckite (rare), +epidote and zoisite, calcite, sphene, andalusite, sillimanite, +kyanite, hercynite (a green spinel), rutile, orthite and tourmaline. +Though occasionally we may find larger grains of felspar, quartz +or epidote, it is more characteristic of these rocks that all the +minerals are in small, nearly uniform, imperfectly shaped +individuals.</p> + +<p>On account of the minuteness with which it has been described +and the important controversies on points of theoretical geology +which have arisen regarding it, the granulite district of Saxony +(around Rosswein, Penig, &c.) may be considered the typical +region for rocks of this group. It should be remembered that +though granulites are probably the commonest rocks of this +country, they are mingled with granites, gneisses, gabbros, +amphibolites, mica schists and many other petrographical types. +All of these rocks show more or less metamorphism either of a +thermal character or due to pressure and crushing. The granites +pass into gneiss and granulite; the gabbros into flaser gabbro and +amphibolite; the slates often contain andalusite or chiastolite, +and show transitions to mica schists. At one time these rocks +were regarded as Archean gneisses of a special type. Johannes +Georg Lehmann propounded the hypothesis that their present +state was due principally to crushing acting on them in a solid +condition, grinding them down and breaking up their minerals, +while the pressure to which they were subjected welded them +together into coherent rock. It is now believed, however, that +they are comparatively recent and include sedimentary rocks, +partly of Palaeozoic age, and intrusive masses which may be +nearly massive or may have gneissose, flaser or granulitic +structures. These have been developed largely by the injection +of semi-consolidated highly viscous intrusions, and the varieties +of texture are original or were produced very shortly after the +crystallization of the rocks. Meanwhile, however, Lehmann’s +advocacy of post-consolidation crushing as a factor in the +development of granulites has been so successful that the terms +granulitization and granulitic structures are widely employed +to indicate the results of dynamometamorphism acting on rocks +at a period long after their solidification.</p> + +<p>The Saxon granulites are apparently for the most part igneous +and correspond in composition to granites and porphyries. +There are, however, many granulites which undoubtedly were +originally sediments (arkoses, grits and sandstones). A large part +of the highlands of Scotland consists of paragranulites of this +kind, which have received the group name of “Moine gneisses.”</p> + +<p>Along with the typical acid granulites above described, in +Saxony, India, Scotland and other countries there occur dark-coloured +basic granulites (“trap granulites”). These are +fine-grained rocks, not usually banded, nearly black in colour +with small red spots of garnet. Their essential minerals are +pyroxene, plagioclase and garnet: chemically they resemble +the gabbros. Green augite and hypersthene form a considerable +part of these rocks, they may contain also biotite, hornblende and +quartz. Around the garnets there is often a radial grouping of +small grains of pyroxene and hornblende in a clear matrix of +felspar: these “centric” structures are frequent in granulites. +The rocks of this group accompany gabbro and serpentine, +but the exact conditions under which they are formed +and the significance of their structures is not very clearly +understood.</p> +<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANVELLA, ANTOINE PERRENOT,<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> <span class="sc">Cardinal de</span> (1517-1586), +one of the ablest and most influential of the princes of +the church during the great political and ecclesiastical movements +which immediately followed the appearance of Protestantism +in Europe, was born on the 20th of August 1517 at Besançon, +where his father, Nicolas Perrenot de Granvella (1484-1550), +who afterwards became chancellor of the empire under Charles V., +was practising as a lawyer. Later Nicolas held an influential +position in the Netherlands, and from 1530 until his death he +was one of the emperor’s most trusted advisers in Germany. +On the completion of his studies in law at Padua and in divinity +at Louvain, Antoine held a canonry at Besançon, but he was +promoted to the bishopric of Arras when barely twenty-three +(1540). In his episcopal capacity he attended several diets of +the empire, as well as the opening meetings of the council of +Trent; and the influence of his father, now chancellor, led to +his being entrusted with many difficult and delicate pieces of +public business, in the execution of which he developed a rare +talent for diplomacy, and at the same time acquired an intimate +acquaintance with most of the currents of European politics. +One of his specially noteworthy performances was the settlement +of the terms of peace after the defeat of the league of Schmalkalden +at Mühlberg in 1547, a settlement in which, to say the least, +some particularly sharp practice was exhibited. In 1550 he +succeeded his father in the office of secretary of state; in this +capacity he attended Charles in the war with Maurice, elector +of Saxony, accompanied him in the flight from Innsbruck, and +afterwards drew up the treaty of Passau (August 1552). In the +following year he conducted the negotiations for the marriage +of Mary of England and Philip II. of Spain, to whom, in 1555, +on the abdication of the emperor, he transferred his services, +and by whom he was employed in the Netherlands. In April +1559 Granvella was one of the Spanish commissioners who +arranged the peace of Cateau Cambrésis, and on Philip’s withdrawal +from the Netherlands in August of the same year he +was appointed prime minister to the regent, Margaret of Parma. +The policy of repression which in this capacity he pursued +during the next five years secured for him many tangible rewards, +in 1560 he was elevated to the archiepiscopal see of Malines, +and in 1561 he received the cardinal’s hat; but the growing +hostility of a people whose religious convictions he had set +himself to trample under foot ultimately made it impossible +for him to continue in the Low Countries, and by the advice +of his royal master he, in March 1564, retired to Franche Comté. +Nominally this withdrawal was only of a temporary character, +but it proved to be final. The following six years were spent +in comparative quiet, broken, however, by a visit to Rome in +1565; but in 1570 Granvella, at the call of Philip, resumed +public life by accepting another mission to Rome. Here he +helped to arrange the alliance between the Papacy, Venice and +Spain against the Turks, an alliance which was responsible for +the victory of Lepanto. In the same year he became viceroy +of Naples, a post of some difficulty and danger, which for five +years he occupied with ability and success. He was summoned +to Madrid in 1575 by Philip II. to be president of the council +for Italian affairs. Among the more delicate negotiations of +his later years were those of 1580, which had for their object +the ultimate union of the crowns of Spain and Portugal, and +those of 1584, which resulted in a check to France by the marriage +of the Spanish infanta Catherine to Charles Emmanuel, duke of +Savoy. In the same year he was made archbishop of Besançon, +but meanwhile he had been stricken with a lingering disease; +he was never enthroned, but died at Madrid on the 21st of +September 1586. His body was removed to Besançon, where +his father had been buried. Granvella was a man of great +learning, which was equalled by his industry, and these qualities +made him almost indispensable both to Charles V. and to +Philip II.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page362" id="page362"></a>362</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Numerous letters and memoirs of Granvella are preserved in the +archives of Besançon. These were to some extent made use of by +Prosper Levęque in his <i>Mémoires pour servir</i> (1753), as well as by +the Abbé Boisot in the <i>Trésor de Granvella</i>. A commission for +publishing the whole of the letters and memoirs was appointed by +Guizot in 1834, and the result has been the issue of nine volumes +of the <i>Papiers d’État du cardinal de Granvelle</i>, edited by C. Weiss +(Paris, 1841-1852). They form a part of the <i>Collection de documents +inédits sur l’histoire de France</i>, and were supplemented by the +<i>Correspondance du cardinal Granvelle, 1565-1586</i>, edited by M. E. +Poullet and G. J. C. Piot (12 vols., Brussels, 1878-1896). See also +the anonymous <i>Histoire du cardinal de Granville</i>, attributed to +Courchetet D’Esnans (Paris, 1761); J. L. Motley, <i>Rise of the Dutch +Republic</i>; M. Philippson, <i>Ein Ministerium unter Philipp II.</i> (Berlin, +1895); and the <i>Cambridge Modern History</i> (vol. iii. 1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE GEORGE LEVESON-GOWER,<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> +<span class="sc">2nd Earl</span> (1815-1891), English statesman, eldest son of the +1st Earl Granville (1773-1846), by his marriage with Lady +Harriet, daughter of the duke of Devonshire, was born in London +on the 11th of May 1815. His father, Granville Leveson-Gower, +was a younger son of Granville, 2nd Lord Gower and 1st marquess +of Stafford (1720-1803), by his third wife; an elder son by the +second wife (a daughter of the 1st duke of Bridgwater) became +the 2nd marquess of Stafford, and his marriage with the daughter +and heiress of the 17th earl of Sutherland (countess of Sutherland +in her own right) led to the merging of the Gower and Stafford +titles in that of the dukes of Sutherland (created 1833), who +represent the elder branch of the family. As Lord Granville +Leveson-Gower, the 1st Earl Granville (created viscount in +1815 and earl in 1833) entered the diplomatic service and was +ambassador at St Petersburg (1804-1807) and at Paris (1824-1841). +He was a Liberal in politics and an intimate friend of +Canning. The title of Earl Granville had been previously held +in the Carteret family.</p> + +<p>After being at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, young Lord +Leveson went to Paris for a short time under his father, and in +1836 was returned to parliament in the Whig interest for Morpeth. +For a short time he was under-secretary for foreign affairs in +Lord Melbourne’s ministry. In 1840 he married Lady Acton +(Marie Louise Pelline de Dalberg, widow of Sir Richard Acton; +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Acton</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dalberg</a></span>). From 1841 till his father’s death +in 1846, when he succeeded to the title, he sat for Lichfield. +In the House of Lords he signalized himself as a Free Trader, +and Lord John Russell made him master of the buckhounds +(1846). He proved a useful member of the party, and his +influence and amiable character were valuable in all matters +needing diplomacy and good breeding. He became vice-president +of the Board of Trade in 1848, and took a prominent +part in promoting the great exhibition of 1851. In the latter +year, having already been admitted to the cabinet, he succeeded +Palmerston at the foreign office until Lord John Russell’s defeat +in 1852; and when Lord Aberdeen formed his government at +the end of the year, he became first president of the council, +and then chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster (1854). Under +Lord Palmerston (1855) he was president of the council. His +interest in education (a subject associated with this office) led +to his election (1856) as chancellor of the London University, +a post he held for thirty-five years; and he was a prominent +champion of the movement for the admission of women, and +also of the teaching of modern languages. From 1855 Lord +Granville led the Liberals in the Upper House, both in office, +and, after Palmerston’s resignation in 1858, in opposition. +He went in 1856 as head of the British mission to the tsar’s +coronation in Moscow. In June 1859 the queen, embarrassed +by the rival ambitions of Palmerston and Russell, sent for him +to form a ministry, but he was unable to do so, and Palmerston +again became prime minister, with Lord John as foreign secretary +and Granville as president of the council. In 1860 his wife +died, and to this heavy loss was shortly added that of his great +friends Lord and Lady Canning and of his mother (1862); but +he devoted himself to his political work, and retained his office +when, on Palmerston’s death in 1865, Lord Russell (now a peer) +became prime minister and took over the leadership in the +House of Lords. He was made Lord Warden of the Cinque +Ports, and in the same year married again, his second wife +being Miss Castalia Campbell. From 1866 to 1868 he was in +opposition, but in December 1868 he became colonial secretary +in Gladstone’s first ministry. His tact was invaluable to the +government in carrying the Irish Church and Land Bills through +the House of Lords. On the 27th of June 1870, on Lord +Clarendon’s death, he was transferred to the foreign office. +Lord Granville’s name is mainly associated with his career as +foreign secretary (1870-1874 and 1880-1885); but the Liberal +foreign policy of that period was not distinguished by enterprise +or “backbone.” Lord Granville personally was patient and +polite, but his courteous and pacific methods were somewhat +inadequate in dealing with the new situation then arising in +Europe and outside it; and foreign governments had little +scruple in creating embarrassments for Great Britain, and relying +on the disinclination of the Liberal leaders to take strong +measures. The Franco-German War of 1870 broke out within +a few days of Lord Granville’s quoting in the House of Lords +(11th of July) the curiously unprophetic opinion of the permanent +under-secretary (Mr Hammond) that “he had never +known so great a lull in foreign affairs.” Russia took advantage +of the situation to denounce the Black Sea clauses of the treaty +of Paris, and Lord Granville’s protest was ineffectual. In 1871 +an intermediate zone between Asiatic Russia and Afghanistan +was agreed on between him and Shuválov; but in 1873 Russia +took possession of Khiva, within the neutral zone, and Lord +Granville had to accept the aggression. When the Conservatives +came into power in 1874, his part for the next six years was to +criticize Disraeli’s “spirited” foreign policy, and to defend his +own more pliant methods. He returned to the foreign office in +1880, only to find an anti-British spirit developing in German +policy which the temporizing methods of the Liberal leaders +were generally powerless to deal with. Lord Granville failed +to realize in time the importance of the Angra Pequeńa question +in 1883-1884, and he was forced, somewhat ignominiously, to +yield to Bismarck over it. Whether in Egypt, Afghanistan +or equatorial and south-west Africa, British foreign policy was +dominated by suavity rather than by the strength which commands +respect. Finally, when Gladstone took up Home Rule +for Ireland, Lord Granville, whose mind was similarly receptive +to new ideas, adhered to his chief (1886), and gracefully gave +way to Lord Rosebery when the latter was preferred to the foreign +office; the Liberals had now realized that they had lost ground +in the country by Lord Granville’s occupancy of the post. He +went to the Colonial Office for six months, and in July 1886 +retired from public life. He died in London on the 31st of March +1891, being succeeded in the title by his son, born in 1872. +Lord Granville was a man of much charm and many friendships, +and an admirable after-dinner speaker. He spoke French like +a Parisian, and was essentially a diplomatist; but he has no +place in history as a constructive statesman.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The life of Lord Granville (1905), by Lord Fitzmaurice, is full of +interesting material for the history of the period, but being written +by a Liberal, himself an under-secretary for foreign affairs, it +explains rather than criticizes Lord Granville’s work in that department.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANVILLE, JOHN CARTERET,<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl</span> (1690-1763), English +statesman, commonly known by his earlier title as Lord Carteret, +born on the 22nd of April 1690, was the son of George, 1st Lord +Carteret, by his marriage with Grace Granville, daughter of +Sir John Granville, 1st earl of Bath, and great grandson of +the Elizabethan admiral, Sir Richard Grenville, famous for his +death in the “Revenge.” The family of Carteret was settled +in the Channel Islands, and was of Norman descent. John +Carteret was educated at Westminster, and at Christ Church, +Oxford. Swift says that “with a singularity scarce to be +justified he carried away more Greek, Latin and philosophy +than properly became a person of his rank.” Throughout life +Carteret not only showed a keen love of the classics, but a taste +for, and a knowledge of, modern languages and literatures. +He was almost the only Englishman of his time who knew +German. Harte, the author of the <i>Life of Gustavus Adolphus</i>, +acknowledged the aid which Carteret had given him. On the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page363" id="page363"></a>363</span> +17th of October 1710 he married at Longleat Lady Frances +Worsley, grand-daughter of the first Viscount Weymouth. +He took his seat in the Lords on the 25th of May 1711. Though +his family, on both sides, had been devoted to the house of +Stuart, Carteret was a steady adherent of the Hanoverian +dynasty. He was a friend of the Whig leaders Stanhope and +Sunderland, took a share in defeating the Jacobite conspiracy +of Bolingbroke on the death of Queen Anne, and supported the +passing of the Septennial Act. Carteret’s interests were however +in foreign, and not in domestic policy. His serious work in +public life began with his appointment, early in 1719, as +ambassador to Sweden. During this and the following year +he was employed in saving Sweden from the attacks of Peter +the Great, and in arranging the pacification of the north. His +efforts were finally successful. During this period of diplomatic +work he acquired an exceptional knowledge of the affairs of +Europe, and in particular of Germany, and displayed great tact +and temper in dealing with the Swedish senate, with Queen +Ulrica, with the king of Denmark and Frederick William I. +of Prussia. But he was not qualified to hold his own in the +intrigues of court and parliament in London. Named secretary +of state for the southern department on his return home, he soon +became helplessly in conflict with the intrigues of Townshend +and Sir Robert Walpole. To Walpole, who looked upon every +able colleague, or subordinate, as an enemy to be removed, +Carteret was exceptionally odious. His capacity to speak +German with the king would alone have made Sir Robert detest +him. When, therefore, the violent agitation in Ireland against +Wood’s halfpence (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Swift, Jonathan</a></span>) made it necessary +to replace the duke of Grafton as lord lieutenant, Carteret was +sent to Dublin. He landed in Dublin on the 23rd of October +1724, and remained there till 1730. In the first months of his +tenure of office he had to deal with the furious opposition to +Wood’s halfpence, and to counteract the effect of Swift’s +<i>Draper’s Letters</i>. The lord lieutenant had a strong personal +liking for Swift, who was also a friend of Lady Carteret’s family. +It is highly doubtful whether Carteret could have reconciled +his duty to the crown with his private friendships, if government +had persisted in endeavouring to force the detested coinage +on the Irish people. Wood’s patent was however withdrawn, +and Ireland settled down. Carteret was a profuse and +popular lord lieutenant who pleased both the “English interest” +and the native Irish. He was at all times addicted to lavish +hospitality, and according to the testimony of contemporaries +was too fond of burgundy. When he returned to London in +1730, Walpole was firmly established as master of the House of +Commons, and as the trusted minister of King George II. He +had the full confidence of Queen Caroline, whom he prejudiced +against Carteret. Till the fall of Walpole in 1742, Carteret +could take no share in public affairs except as a leader of opposition +of the Lords. His brilliant parts were somewhat obscured +by his rather erratic conduct, and a certain contempt, partly +aristocratic and partly intellectual, for commonplace men and +ways. He endeavoured to please Queen Caroline, who loved +literature, and he has the credit, on good grounds, of having +paid the expenses of the first handsome edition of <i>Don Quixote</i> +to please her. But he reluctantly, and most unwisely, allowed +himself to be entangled in the scandalous family quarrel between +Frederick, prince of Wales, and his parents. Queen Caroline +was provoked into classing him and Bolingbroke, as “the two +most worthless men of parts in the country.” Carteret took +the popular side in the outcry against Walpole for not making +war on Spain. When the War of the Austrian Succession approached, +his sympathies were entirely with Maria Theresa—mainly +on the ground that the fall of the house of Austria would +dangerously increase the power of France, even if she gained +no accession of territory. These views made him welcome to +George II., who gladly accepted him as secretary of state in 1742. +In 1743 he accompanied the king of Germany, and was present +at the battle of Dettingen on the 27th of June. He held the +secretaryship till November 1744. He succeeded in promoting +an agreement between Maria Theresa and Frederick. He understood +the relations of the European states, and the interests +of Great Britain among them. But the defects which had +rendered him unable to baffle the intrigues of Walpole made him +equally unable to contend with the Pelhams. His support of +the king’s policy was denounced as subservience to Hanover. +Pitt called him “an execrable, a sole minister who had renounced +the British nation.” A few years later Pitt adopted an identical +policy, and professed that whatever he knew he had learnt +from Carteret. On the 18th of October 1744 Carteret became +Earl Granville on the death of his mother. His first wife died +in June 1743 at Aschaffenburg, and in April 1744 he married +Lady Sophia Fermor, daughter of Lord Pomfret—a fashionable +beauty and “reigning toast” of London society, who was +younger than his daughters. “The nuptials of our great +Quixote and the fair Sophia,” and Granville’s ostentatious +performance of the part of lover, were ridiculed by Horace +Walpole. The countess Granville died on the 7th of October +1745, leaving one daughter Sophia, who married Lord Shelburne, +1st marquis of Lansdowne. This marriage may have done +something to increase Granville’s reputation for eccentricity. +In February 1746 he allowed himself to be entrapped by the +intrigues of the Pelhams into accepting the secretaryship, but +resigned in forty-eight hours. In June 1751 he became president +of the council, and was still liked and trusted by the king, but +his share in government did not go beyond giving advice, and +endeavouring to forward ministerial arrangements. In 1756 +he was asked by Newcastle to become prime minister as the +alternative to Pitt, but Granville, who perfectly understood +why the offer was made, declined and supported Pitt. When +in October 1761 Pitt, who had information of the signing of +the “Family Compact” wished to declare war on Spain, and +declared his intention to resign unless his advice was accepted, +Granville replied that “the opinion of the majority (of the +Cabinet) must decide.” He spoke in complimentary terms of +Pitt, but resisted his claim to be considered as a “sole minister” +or, in the modern phrase, “a prime minister.” Whether he used +the words attributed to him in the Annual Register for 1761 +is more than doubtful, but the minutes of council show that they +express his meaning. Granville remained in office as president +till his death. His last act was to listen while on his death-bed +to the reading of the preliminaries of the treaty of Paris. He +was so weak that the under-secretary, Robert Wood, author +of an essay on <i>The Original Genius of Homer</i>, would have postponed +the business, but Granville said that it “could not prolong +his life to neglect his duty,” and quoted the speech of +Sarpedon from <i>Iliad</i> xii. 322-328, repeating the last word +(<span class="grk" title="iomen">ἴομεν</span>) “with a calm and determined resignation.” He died +in his house in Arlington Street, London, on the 22nd of January +1763. The title of Granville descended to his son Robert, who +died without issue in 1776, when the earldom of this creation +became extinct.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A somewhat partisan life of Granville was published in 1887, by +Archibald Ballantyne, under the title of <i>Lord Carteret, a Political +Biography</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANVILLE,<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> a town of Cumberland county, New South +Wales, 13 m. by rail W. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 5094. It is +an important railway junction and manufacturing town, producing +agricultural implements, tweed, pipes, tiles and bricks; +there are also tanneries, flour-mills, and kerosene and meat +export works. It became a municipality in 1885.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANVILLE,<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> a fortified sea-port and bathing-resort of north-western +France, in the department of Manche, at the mouth of +the Bosq, 85 m. S. by W. of Cherbourg by rail. Pop. (1906) +10,530. Granville consists of two quarters, the upper town +built on a promontory jutting into the sea and surrounded +by ramparts, and the lower town and harbour lying below it. +The barracks and the church of Notre-Dame, a low building +of granite, partly Romanesque, partly late Gothic in style, are in +the upper town. The port consists of a tidal harbour, two +floating basins and a dry dock. Its fleets take an active part +in deep sea fishing, including the cod-fishing off Newfoundland, +and oyster-fishing is carried on. It has regular communication +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page364" id="page364"></a>364</span> +with Guernsey and Jersey, and with the islands of St Pierre +and Miquelon. The principal exports are eggs, vegetables and +fish; coal, timber and chemical manures are imported. The +industries include ship-building, fish-salting, the manufacture +of cod-liver oil, the preserving of vegetables, dyeing, metal-founding, +rope-making and the manufacture of chemical +manures. Among the public institutions are a tribunal and +a chamber of commerce. In the commune are included the +Iles Chausey about 7˝ m. N.W. of Granville (see Channel +Islands). Granville, before an insignificant village, was fortified +by the English in 1437, taken by the French in 1441, bombarded +and burned by the English in 1695, and unsuccessfully besieged +by the Vendean troops in 1793. It was again bombarded by +the English in 1803.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRANVILLE,<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> a village in Licking county, Ohio, U.S.A., in +the township of Granville, about 6 m. W. of Newark and 27 m. +E. by N. of Columbus. Pop. of the village (1910) 1394; of the +township (1910) 2442. Granville is served by the Toledo & Ohio +Central and the Ohio Electric railways, the latter reaching +Newark (where it connects with the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, +Chicago & St Louis and the Baltimore & Ohio railways), Columbus, +Dayton, Zanesville and Springfield. Granville is the seat of +Denison University, founded in 1831 by the Ohio Baptist +Education Society and opened as a manual labour school, called +the Granville Literary and Theological Institution. It was +renamed Granville College in 1845, and took its present name +in 1854 in honour of William S. Denison of Adamsville, Ohio, +who had given $10,000 to the college. The university comprised +in 1907-1908 five departments: Granville College (229 students), +the collegiate department for men; Shepardson College (246 +students, including 82 in the preparatory department), the collegiate +department for women, founded as the Young Ladies’ +Institute of Granville in 1859, given to the Baptist denomination +in 1887 by Dr Daniel Shepardson, its principal and owner, +and closely affiliated for scholastic purposes, since 1900, with the +university, though legally it is still a distinct institution; +Doane Academy (137 students), the preparatory department +for boys, established in 1831, named Granville Academy in +1887, and renamed in 1895 in honour of William H. Doane of +Cincinnati, who gave to it its building; a conservatory of music +(137 students); and a school of art (38 students).</p> + +<p>In 1805 the Licking Land Company, organized in the preceding +year in Granville, Massachusetts, bought 29,040 acres of land +in Ohio, including the site of Granville; the town was laid out, +and in the last months of that year settlers from Granville, Mass., +began to arrive. By January 1806 the colony numbered 234 +persons; the township was incorporated in 1806 and the village +was incorporated in 1831. There are several remarkable Indian +mounds near Granville, notably one shaped like an alligator.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Henry Bushnell, <i>History of Granville, Ohio</i> (Columbus, O., 1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAPE,<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> the fruit of the vine (<i>q.v.</i>). The word is adopted +from the O. Fr. <i>grape</i>, mod. <i>grappe</i>, bunch or cluster of flowers +or fruit, <i>grappes de raisin</i>, bunch of grapes. The French word +meant properly a hook; cf. M.H.G. <i>krapfe</i>, Eng. “grapnel,” and +“cramp.” The development of meaning seems to be vine-hook, +cluster of grapes cut with a hook, and thence in English a single +grape of a cluster. The projectile called “grape” or “grape-shot,” +formerly used with smooth-bore ordnance, took its name +from its general resemblance to a bunch of grapes. It consisted +of a number of spherical bullets (heavier than those of the contemporary +musket) arranged in layers separated by thin iron +plates, a bolt passing through the centre of the plates binding +the whole together. On being discharged the projectile delivered +the bullets in a shower somewhat after the fashion of case-shot.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAPHICAL METHODS,<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> devices for representing by geometrical +figures the numerical data which result from the quantitative +investigation of phenomena. The simplest application is met +with in the representation of tabular data such as occur in +statistics. Such tables are usually of single entry, <i>i.e.</i> to a certain +value of one variable there corresponds one, and only one, value +of the other variable. To construct the graph, as it is called, +of such a table, Cartesian co-ordinates are usually employed. +Two lines or axes at right angles to each other are chosen, intersecting +at a point called the origin; the horizontal axis is the +axis of abscissae, the vertical one the axis of ordinates. Along +one, say the axis of abscissae, distances are taken from the origin +corresponding to the values of one of the variables; at these +points perpendiculars are erected, and along these ordinates +distances are taken corresponding to the related values of the +other variable. The curve drawn through these points is the +graph. A general inspection of the graph shows in bold relief +the essential characters of the table. For example, if the world’s +production of corn over a number of years be plotted, a poor +yield is represented by a depression, a rich one by a peak, a +uniform one over several years by a horizontal line and so on. +Moreover, such graphs permit a convenient comparison of two +or more different phenomena, and the curves render apparent +at first sight similarities or differences which can be made out from +the tables only after close examination. In making graphs for +comparison, the scales chosen must give a similar range of +variation, otherwise the correspondence may not be discerned. +For example, the scales adopted for the average consumption of +tea and sugar must be ounces for the former and pounds for the +latter. Cartesian graphs are almost always yielded by automatic +recording instruments, such as the barograph, meteorograph, +seismometer, &c. The method of polar co-ordinates is more +rarely used, being only specially applicable when one of the +variables is a direction or recorded as an angle. A simple case is +the representation of photometric data, <i>i.e.</i> the value of the +intensity of the light emitted in different directions from a +luminous source (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lighting</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The geometrical solution of arithmetical and algebraical problems +is usually termed graphical analysis; the application to problems +in mechanics is treated in <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span>, § 5, <i>Graphic Statics</i>, and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diagram</a></span>. A special phase is presented in <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vector Analysis</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAPHITE,<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> a mineral species consisting of the element +carbon crystallized in the rhombohedral system. Chemically, +it is thus indentical with the cubic mineral diamond, but between +the two there are very wide differences in physical characters. +Graphite is black and opaque, whilst diamond is colourless and +transparent; it is one of the softest (H = 1) of minerals, and +diamond the hardest of all; it is a good conductor of electricity, +whilst diamond is a bad conductor. The specific gravity is 2.2, +that of diamond is 3.5. Further, unlike diamond, it never +occurs as distinctly developed crystals, but only as imperfect +six-sided plates and scales. There is a perfect cleavage parallel +to the surface of the scales, and the cleavage flakes are flexible +but not elastic. The material is greasy to the touch, and soils +everything with which it comes into contact. The lustre is +bright and metallic. In its external characters graphite is thus +strikingly similar to molybdenite (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>The name graphite, given by A. G. Werner in 1789, is from +the Greek <span class="grk" title="gráphein">γράφειν</span>, “to write,” because the mineral is used for +making pencils. Earlier names, still in common use, are plumbago +and black-lead, but since the mineral contains no lead these +names are singularly inappropriate. Plumbago (Lat. <i>plumbum</i>, +lead) was originally used for an artificial product obtained from +lead ore, and afterwards for the ore (galena) itself; it was confused +both with graphite and with molybdenite. The true +chemical nature of graphite was determined by K. W. Scheele +in 1779.</p> + +<p>Graphite occurs mainly in the older crystalline rocks—gneiss, +granulite, schist and crystalline limestone—and also sometimes in +granite: it is found as isolated scales embedded in these rocks, +or as large irregular masses or filling veins. It has also been +observed as a product of contact-metamorphism in carbonaceous +clay-slates near their contact with granite, and where igneous +rocks have been intruded into beds of coal; in these cases the +mineral has clearly been derived from organic matter. The +graphite found in granite and in veins in gneiss, as well as that +contained in meteoric irons, cannot have had such an origin. +As an artificial product, graphite is well known as dark lustrous +scales in grey pig-iron, and in the “kish” of iron furnaces: +it is also produced artificially on a large scale, together with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page365" id="page365"></a>365</span> +carborundum, in the electric furnace (see below). The graphite +veins in the older crystalline rocks are probably akin to metalliferous +veins and the material derived from deep-seated sources; +the decomposition of metallic carbides by water and the reduction +of hydrocarbon vapours have been suggested as possible modes +of origin. Such veins often attain a thickness of several feet, and +sometimes possess a columnar structure perpendicular to the +enclosing walls; they are met with in the crystalline limestones +and other Laurentian rocks of New York and Canada, in the +gneisses of the Austrian Alps and the granulites of Ceylon. +Other localities which have yielded the mineral in large amount +are the Alibert mine in Irkutsk, Siberia and the Borrowdale +mine in Cumberland. The Santa Maria mines of Sonora, Mexico, +probably the richest deposits in the world, supply the American +lead pencil manufacturers. The graphite of New York, Pennsylvania +and Alabama is “flake” and unsuitable for this purpose.</p> + +<p>Graphite is used for the manufacture of pencils, dry lubricants, +grate polish, paints, crucibles and for foundry facings. The +material as mined usually does not contain more than 20 to +50% of graphite: the ore has therefore to be crushed and the +graphite floated off in water from the heavier impurities. Even +the purest forms contain a small percentage of volatile matter +and ash. The Cumberland graphite, which is especially suitable +for pencils, contains about 12% of impurities.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + +<p><i>Artificial Manufacture.</i>—The alteration of carbon at high +temperatures into a material resembling graphite has long been +known. In 1893 Girard and Street patented a furnace and a +process by which this transformation could be effected. Carbon +powder compressed into a rod was slowly passed through a tube +in which it was subjected to the action of one or more electric +arcs. E. G. Acheson, in 1896, patented an application of his +carborundum process to graphite manufacture, and in 1899 +the International Acheson Graphite Co. was formed, employing +electric current from the Niagara Falls. Two procedures are +adopted: (1) graphitization of moulded carbons; (2) graphitization +of anthracite <i>en masse</i>. The former includes electrodes, +lamp carbons, &c. Coke, or some other form of amorphous +carbon, is mixed with a little tar, and the required article moulded +in a press or by a die. The articles are stacked transversely in a +furnace, each being packed in granular coke and covered with +carborundum. At first the current is 3000 amperes at 220 volts, +increasing to 9000 amperes at 20 volts after 20 hours. In graphitizing +<i>en masse</i> large lumps of anthracite are treated in the +electric furnace. A soft, unctuous form results on treating +carbon with ash or silica in special furnaces, and this gives the +so-called “deflocculated” variety when treated with gallotannic +acid. These two modifications are valuable lubricants. +The massive graphite is very easily machined and is widely used +for electrodes, dynamo brushes, lead pencils and the like.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See “Graphite and its Uses,” <i>Bull. Imperial Institute</i>, (1906) +P. 353. (1907) p. 70; F. Cirkel, <i>Graphite</i> (Ottawa, 1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. G. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAPTOLITES,<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> an assemblage of extinct zoophytes whose +skeletal remains are found in the Palaeozoic rocks, occasionally +in great abundance. They are usually preserved as branching +or unbranching carbonized bodies, tree-like, leaf-like or rod-like in +shape, their edges regularly toothed or denticulated. Most +frequently they occur lying on the bedding planes of black +shales; less commonly they are met with in many other kinds of +sediment, and when in limestone they may retain much of their +original relief and admit of a detailed microscopic study.</p> + +<p>Each Graptolite represents the common horny or chitinous +investment or supporting structure of a colony of zooids, each +tooth-like projection marking the position of the sheath or <i>theca</i> +of an individual zooid. Some of the branching forms have a +distinct outward resemblance to the polyparies of <i>Sertularia</i> and +<i>Plumularia</i> among the recent Hydroida (<i>Calyptoblastea</i>); in +none of the unbranching forms, however, is the similarity by +any means close.</p> + +<p>The Graptolite polyparies vary considerably in size: the +majority range from 1 in. to about 6 in. in length; few examples +have been met with having a length or more than 30 in.</p> + +<p>Very different views have been held as to the systematic +place and rank of the Graptolites. Linnaeus included them +in his group of false fossils (<i>Graptolithus</i> = written stone). At +one time they were referred by some to the Polyzoa (Bryozoa), +and later, by almost general consent, to the Hydroida (Calyptoblastea) +among the Hydrozoa (Hydromedusae). Of late years +an opinion is gaining ground that they may be regarded as +constituting collectively an independent phylum of their own +(<i>Graptolithina</i>).</p> + +<p>There are two main groups, or sub-phyla: the <i>Graptoloidea</i> +or Graptolites proper, and the <i>Dendroidea</i> or tree-like Graptolites; +the former is typified by the unbranched genus <i>Monograptus</i> +and the latter by the many-branched genus <i>Dendrograptus</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A <i>Monograptus</i> makes its first appearance as a minute dagger-like +body (the <i>sicula</i>), which represents the flattened covering of the +primary or embryonic zooid of the colony. This sicula, which had +originally the shape of a hollow cone, is formed of two portions or +regions—an upper and smaller (<i>apical</i> or embryonic) portion, marked +by delicate longitudinal lines, and having a fine tabular thread +(the <i>nema</i>) proceeding from its apex; and a lower (thecal or <i>apertural</i>) +portion, marked by transverse lines of growth and widening in the +direction of the mouth, the lip or apertural margin of which forms +the broad end of the sicula. This margin is normally furnished with +a perpendicular spine (<i>virgella</i>) and occasionally with two shorter +lateral spines or lobes.</p> + +<p>A bud is given off from the sicula at a variable distance along its +length. From this bud is developed the first zooid and first serial +theca of the colony. This theca grows in the direction of the apex of +the sicula, to which it adheres by its dorsal wall. Thus while the +mouth of the sicula is directed downwards, that of the first serial +theca is pointed upwards, making a theoretical angle of about 180° +with the direction of that of the sicula.</p> + +<p>From this first theca originates a second, opening in the same +direction, and from the second a third, and soon, in a continuous linear +series until the polypary is complete. Each zooid buds from the one +immediately preceding it in the series, and intercommunication is +effected by all the budding orifices (including that in the wall of the +sicula) remaining permanently open. The sicula itself ceases to grow +soon after the earliest theca have been developed; it remains +permanently attached to the dorsal wall of the polypary, of which it +forms the proximal end, its apex rarely reaching beyond the third +or fourth theca.</p> +</div> + +<p>A fine cylindrical rod or fibre (the so-called solid axis or +<i>virgula</i>) becomes developed in a median groove in the dorsal wall +of the polypary, and is sometimes continued distally as a naked +rod. It was formerly supposed that a virgula was present in +all the Graptoloidea; hence the term <i>Rhabdophora</i> sometimes +employed for the Graptoloidea in general, and <i>rhabdosome</i> for the +individual polypary; but while the virgula is present in many +(Axonophora) it is absent as such in others (Axonolipa).</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">Graptoloidea</span> are arranged in eight families, each named +after a characteristic genus: (1) Dichograptidae; (2) Leptograptidae; +(3) Dicranograptidae; (4) Diplograptidae; (5) +Glossograptidae (sub-family, Lasiograptidae); (6) Retiolitidae; +(7) Dimorphograptidae; (8) Monograptidae.</p> + +<p>In all these families the polypary originates as in <i>Monograptus</i> +from a nema-bearing sicula, which invariably opens downwards +and gives off only a single bud, such branching as may take +place occurring at subsequent stages in the growth of the polypary. +In some species young examples have been met with in +which the nema ends above in a small membranous disk, which +has been interpreted as an organ of attachment to the underside +of floating bodies, probably sea weeds, from which the young +polypary hung suspended.</p> + +<p>Broadly speaking, these families make their first appearance +in time in the order given above, and show a progressive morphological +evolution along certain special lines. There is a tendency +for the branches to become reduced in number, and for the serial +thecae to become directed more and more upwards towards the +line of the nema. In the oldest family—Dichograptidae—in +which the branching polypary is bilaterally symmetrical and +the thecae uniserial (<i>monoprionidian</i>)—there is a gradation +from earlier groups with many branches to later groups with +only two; and from species in which all the branches and their +thecae are directed downwards, through species in which the +branches become bent back more and more outwards and +upwards, until in some the terminal thecae open almost vertically. +In the genus <i>Phyllograptus</i> the branches have become reduced +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366"></a>366</span> +to four and these coalesce by their dorsal walls along the line of +the nema, and the sicula becomes embedded in the base of the +polypary. In the family of the Diplograptidae the branches are +reduced to two; these also coalesce similarly by their dorsal +walls, and the polypary thus becomes biserial (<i>diprionidian</i>), and +the line of the nema is taken by a long axial tube-like structure, +the <i>nemacaulus</i> or virgular tube. Finally, in the latest family, +the Monograptidae, the branches are theoretically reduced to +one, the polypary is uniserial throughout, and all the thecae +are directed outwards and upwards.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:442px; height:871px" src="images/img366.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>1, <i>Diptograptus</i>, young sicula.</p> +<p>2, <i>Monograptus dubius</i>, sicula and first serial theca (partly restored).</p> +<p>3, Young form (all above after Wiman).</p> +<p>4<i>a</i>, Older form.</p> +<p>4<i>b</i>, Showing virgula (after Holm).</p> +<p>5, <i>Rastrites distans.</i></p> +<p>6, Base of Diptograptus (after Wiman).</p> +<p>7, D. calcaratus.</p> +<p>8, Dimorphograptus.</p> +<p>9, Base of <i>Didymograptus minulus</i> (after Holm).</p> +<p>10, Young <i>Dictyograptus</i>, with primary disk.</p> +<p>11, Ibid. <i>Diptograptus</i> (after Ruedemann).</p> +<p>12 <i>a-b</i>, Base and transverse section, <i>Retiolites Geinitzianus</i> (after Holm).</p> +<p>13, <i>Bryograptus Kjerulfi</i>.</p> +<p>14, <i>Dichograptus octobrachiatus</i>, with central disk.</p> +<p>15, <i>Didymograptus Murchisoni</i>.</p> +<p>16, <i>D. gibberulus</i>.</p> +<p>17 <i>a-b</i>, <i>Phyllograptus</i> and transverse section.</p> +<p>18, <i>Nemagraptus gracilis</i>.</p> +<p>19, <i>Dicranograptus ramosus</i>.</p> +<p>20, <i>Climacograptus Scharenbergi</i>.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>21, <i>Glossograptus Hincksii</i>.</p> +<p>22, <i>Lasiograptus costatus</i> (after Elles and Wood).</p> +<p>23, <i>Dictyonema</i> (<i>-graptus</i>) <i>flabelliforme</i> (<i>-is</i>).</p> +<p>24, <i>Dictyonema</i> (<i>-dendron</i>) <i>peltatum</i> with base of attachment.</p> +<p>25, <i>D. cervicorne</i>, branches (after Holm).</p> +<p>26, <i>D. rarum</i> (section after Wiman).</p> +<p>27, <i>Dendrograptus Hallianus</i>.</p> +<p>28, Synrhabdosome of <i>Diptograptus</i> (after Ruedemann).</p> +<p>S, Sicula.</p> +<p><i>u</i>, Upper or apical portion.</p> +<p><i>l</i>, Lower or apertural.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Mouth.</p> +<p>N, Nema.</p> +<p><i>nn</i>, Nemacaulus or virgular tube.</p> +<p>V, Virgula.</p> +<p><i>vv</i>, Virgella.</p> +<p><i>zz</i>, Septal strands.</p> +<p>T, Theca.</p> +<p>C, Common canal (in Retiolites).</p> +<p>G, Gonangium.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Gonotheca.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Budding theca.</p></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2">The thecae in the earliest family—Dichograptidae—are so similar in +form to the sicula itself that the polypary has been compared to a +colony of siculae; there is the greatest variation in shape in +those of the latest family—Monograptidae—in some species of which +the terminal portion of each theca becomes isolated (<i>Rastrites</i>) and +in some coiled into a rounded lobe. The thecae in several of the +families are occasionally provided with spines or lateral processes: +the spines are especially conspicuous at the base in some biserial +forms: in the Lasiograptidae the lateral processes originate a +marginal meshwork surrounding the polypary.</p> + +<p><i>Histologically</i>, the perisarc or <i>test</i> in the Graptoloidea appears +to be composed of three layers, a middle layer of variable structure, +and an overlying and an underlying layer of remarkable tenuity. +The central layer is usually thick and marked by lines of growth; +but in <i>Glossograptus</i> and <i>Lasiograptus</i> it is thinned down to a fine +membrane stretched upon a skeleton framework of lists and fibres, +and in <i>Retiolites</i> this membrane is reduced to a delicate network. +The groups typified by these three genera are sometimes referred to, +collectively, as the <i>Retioloidea</i>, and the structure as <i>retioloid</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>It is the general practice of palaeontologists to regard each +graptolite polypary (<i>rhabdosome</i>) developed from a single sicula +as an individual of the highest order. Certain American forms, +however, which are preserved as stellate groups, have been +interpreted as complex umbrella-shaped colonial stocks, individuals +of a still higher order (<i>synrhabdosomes</i>), composed of a +number of biserial polyparies (each having a sicula at its outer +extremity) attached by their nemacauli to a common centre of +origin, which is provided with two disks, a swimming bladder and +a ring of capsules.</p> + +<p>In the <span class="sc">Dendroidea</span>, as a rule, the polypary is non-symmetrical +in shape and tree-like or shrub-like in habit, with numerous +branches irregularly disposed, and with a distinct stem-like or +short basal portion ending below in root-like fibres or in a membranous +disk or sheet of attachment. An exception, however, +is constituted by the comprehensive genus <i>Dictyonema</i>, which +embraces species composed of a large number of divergent and +sub-parallel branches, united by transverse dissepiments into +a symmetrical cone-like or funnel-shaped polypary, and includes +some forms (<i>Dictyograptus</i>) which originate from a nema-bearing +sicula and have been claimed as belonging to the Graptoloidea.</p> + +<p>Of the early development of the polypary in the Dendroidea +little is known, but the more mature stages have been fully +worked out. In <i>Dictyonema</i> the branches show thecae of two +kinds: (1) the ordinary tubular thecae answering to those of +the Graptoloidea and occupied by the nourishing zooids; and +(2) the so-called <i>bithecae</i>, birdnest-like cups (regarded by their +discoverers as gonothecae) opening alternately right and left +of the ordinary thecae. Internally, there existed a third set of +thecae, held to have been inhabited by the budding individuals. +In the genus <i>Dendrograptus</i> the gonothecae open within the walls +of the ordinary thecae, and the branches present an outward +resemblance to those of the uniserial Graptoloidea. But in +striking contrast to what obtains among the Graptoloidea in +general, the budding orifices in the Dendroidea become closed, +and all the various cells shut off from each other.</p> + +<p>The classification of the Dendroidea is as yet unsatisfactory: +the families most conspicuous are those typified by the genera +<i>Dendrograptus</i>, <i>Dictyonema</i>, <i>Inocaulis</i> and <i>Thamnograptus</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>As regards the <i>modes of reproduction among the Graptolites</i> little is +known. In the Dendroidea, as already pointed out, the bithecae +were possibly gonothecae, but they have been interpreted by some +as nematophores. In the Graptoloidea certain lateral and vesicular +appendages of the polypary in the Lasiograptidae have been looked +upon as connected with the reproductive system; and in the +umbrella-shaped <i>synrhabdosomes</i> already referred to, the common +centre is surrounded by a ring of what have been regarded as ovarian +capsules. The theory of the gonangial nature of the vesicular bodies +in the Graptoloidea is, however, disputed by some authorities, and +it has been suggested that the zooid of the sicula itself is not the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page367" id="page367"></a>367</span> +product of the normal or sexual mode of propagation in the group, +but owes its origin to a peculiar type of budding or non-sexual +reproduction, in which, as temporary resting or protecting structures, +the vesicular bodies may have had a share.</p> +</div> + +<p>As respects the <i>mode of life of the Graptolites</i> there can be +little doubt that the Dendroidea were, with some exceptions, +sessile or benthonic animals, their polyparies, like those of the +recent Calyptoblastea, growing upwards, their bases remaining +attached to the sea floor or to foreign bodies, usually fixed. The +Graptoloidea have also been regarded by some as benthonic +organisms. A more prevalent view, however, is that the majority +were pseudo-planktonic or drifting colonies, hanging from the +underside of floating seaweeds; their polyparies being each +suspended by the nema in the earliest stages of growth, and, in +later stages, some by the nemacaulus, while others became +adherent above by means of a central disk or by parts of their +dorsal walls. Some of these ancient seaweeds may have remained +permanently rooted in the littoral regions, while others may +have become broken off and drifted, like the recent Sargassum, +at the mercy of the winds and currents, carrying the attached +Graptolites into all latitudes. The more complex umbrella-shaped +colonies of colonies (synrhabdosomes) described as +provided with a common swimming bladder (pneumatophore?) +may have attained a holo-planktonic or free-swimming mode +of existence.</p> + +<p>The <i>range of the Graptolites in time</i> extends from the Cambrian +to the Carboniferous. The Dendroidea alone, however, have +this extended range, the Graptoloidea becoming extinct at the +close of Silurian time. Both groups make their first appearance +together near the end of the Cambrian; but while in the succeeding +Ordovician and Silurian the Dendroidea are comparatively +rare, the Graptoloidea become the most characteristic and, +locally, the most abundant fossils of these systems.</p> + +<p>The species of the Graptoloidea have individually a remarkably +short range in geological time; but the geographical distribution +of the group as a whole, and that of many of its species, is almost +world-wide. This combination of circumstances has given the +Graptoloidea a paramount stratigraphical importance as palaeontological +indices of the detailed sequence and correlation of the +Lower Palaeozoic rocks in general. Many <i>Graptolite zones</i>, +showing a constant uniformity of succession, paralleled in this +respect only by the longer known Ammonite zones of the Jurassic, +have been distinguished in Britain and northern Europe, each +marked by a characteristic species. Many British species and +associations of genera and species, occurring on corresponding +horizons to those on which they are found in Britain, have been +met with in the graptolite-bearing Lower Palaeozoic formations +of other parts of Europe, in America, Australia, New Zealand +and elsewhere.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Linnaeus, <i>Systema naturae</i> (12th ed. 1768); +Hall, <i>Graptolites of the Quebec Group</i> (1865); Barrande, <i>Graptolites +de Bohčme</i> (1850); Carruthers, <i>Revision of the British Graptolites</i> +(1868); H. A. Nicholson, <i>Monograph of British Graptolites</i>, pt. 1 +(1872); id. and J. E. Marr, <i>Phylogeny of the Graptolites</i> (1895); +Hopkinson, <i>On British Graptolites</i> (1869); Allman, <i>Monograph of +Gymnoblastic Hydroids</i> (1872); Lapworth, <i>An Improved Classification +of the Rhabdophora</i> (1873); <i>The Geological Distribution of the Rhabdophora</i> +(1879, 1880); Walther, <i>Lebensweise fossiler Meerestiere</i> +(1897); Tullberg, <i>Skĺnes Grapioliter</i> (1882, 1883); Törnquist, +<i>Graptolites Scanian Rastrites Beds</i> (1899); Wiman, <i>Die Graptolithen</i> +(1895); Holm, <i>Gotlands Graptoliter</i> (1890); Perner, <i>Graptolites de +Bohčme</i> (1894-1899); R. Ruedemann, <i>Development and Mode of Growth +of Diplograptus</i> (1895-1896); <i>Graptolites of New York</i>, vol. i. (1904), +vol. ii. (1908); Frech, <i>Lethaea palaeozoica, Graptolithiden</i> (1897); Elles +and Wood, <i>Monograph of British Graptolites</i> (1901-1909).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRASLITZ<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (Czech, <i>Kraslice</i>), a town of Bohemia, on the +Zwodau, 145 m. N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,803, +exclusively German. Graslitz is one of the most important +industrial towns of Bohemia, its specialities being the manufacture +of musical instruments, carried on both as a factory and +a domestic industry, and lace-making. Next in importance are +cotton-spinning and weaving, machine embroidery, brewing, +and the mother-of-pearl industry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRASMERE,<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> a village and lake of Westmorland, in the heart +of the English Lake District. The village (pop. of urban district +in 1901, 781) lies near the head of the lake, on the small river +Rothay and the Keswick-Ambleside road, 12˝ m. from Keswick +and 4 from Ambleside. The scenery is very beautiful; the valley +about the lakes of Grasmere and Rydal Water is in great part +wooded, while on its eastern flank there rises boldly the range +of hills which includes Rydal Fell, Fairfield and Seat Sandal, +and, farther north, Helvellyn. On the west side are Loughrigg +Fell and Silver How. The village has become a favourite centre +for tourists, but preserves its picturesque and sequestered +appearance. In a house still standing William Wordsworth +lived from 1799 to 1808, and it was subsequently occupied by +Thomas de Quincey and by Hartley Coleridge. Wordsworth’s +tomb, and also that of Coleridge, are in the churchyard of the +ancient church of St Oswald, which contains a memorial to +Wordsworth with an inscription by John Keble. A festival +called the Rushbearing takes place on the Saturday within the +octave of St Oswald’s day (August 5th), when a holiday is +observed and the church decorated with rushes, heather and +flowers. The festival is of early origin, and has been derived by +some from the Roman <i>Floralia</i>, but appears also to have been +made the occasion for carpeting the floors of churches, unpaved +in early times, with rushes. Moreover, in a procession which +forms part of the festivities at Grasmere, certain Biblical stories +are symbolized, and in this a connexion with the ancient miracle +plays may be found (see H. D. Rawnsley, <i>A Rambler’s Note-Book +at the English Lakes</i>, Glasgow, 1902). Grasmere is also noted for +an athletic meeting in August.</p> + +<p>The lake of Grasmere is just under 1 m. in length, and has +an extreme breadth of 766 yds. A ridge divides the basin from +north to south, and rises so high as to form an island about the +middle. The greatest depth of the lake (75 ft.) lies to the east +of this ridge.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRASS AND GRASSLAND,<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> in agriculture. The natural +vegetable covering of the soil in most countries is “grass” +(for derivation see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grasses</a></span>) of various kinds. Even where +dense forest or other growth exists, if a little daylight penetrates +to the ground grass of some sort or another will grow. On +ordinary farms, or wherever farming of any kind is carried out, +the proportion of the land not actually cultivated will either +be in grass or will revert naturally to grass in time if left alone, +after having been cultivated.</p> + +<p>Pasture land has always been an important part of the farm, +but since the “era of cheap corn” set in its importance has +been increased, and much more attention has been given to the +study of the different species of grass, their characteristics, the +improvement of a pasture generally, and the “laying down” +of arable land into grass where tillage farming has not paid. +Most farmers desire a proportion of grass-land on their farms—from +a third to a half of the area—and even on wholly arable +farms there are usually certain courses in the rotation of crops +devoted to grass (or clover). Thus the Norfolk 4-course rotation +is corn, roots, corn, clover; the Berwick 5-course is corn, roots, +corn, grass, grass; the Ulster 8-course, corn, flax, roots, corn, +flax, grass, grass, grass; and so on, to the point where the grass +remains down for 5 years, or is left indefinitely.</p> + +<p>Permanent grass may be grazed by live-stock and classed +as pasture pure and simple, or it may be cut for hay. In the +latter case it is usually classed as “meadow” land, and often +forms an alluvial tract alongside a stream, but as grass is often +grazed and hayed in alternate years, the distinction is not a hard +and fast one.</p> + +<p>There are two classes of pasturage, temporary and permanent. +The latter again consists of two kinds, the permanent grass +natural to land that has never been cultivated, and the pasture +that has been laid down artificially on land previously arable +and allowed to remain and improve itself in the course of time. +The existence of ridge and furrow on many old pastures in +Great Britain shows that they were cultivated at one time, +though perhaps more than a century ago. Often a newly laid +down pasture will decline markedly in thickness and quality +about the fifth and sixth year, and then begin to thicken and +improve year by year afterwards. This is usually attributed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>368</span> +to the fact that the unsuitable varieties die out, and the “naturally” +suitable varieties only come in gradually. This trouble +can be largely prevented, however, by a judicious selection +of seed, and by subsequently manuring with phosphatic manures, +with farmyard or other bulky “topdressings,” or by feeding +sheep with cake and corn over the field.</p> + +<p>All the grasses proper belong to the natural order <i>Gramineae</i> +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grasses</a></span>), to which order also belong all the “corn” plants +cultivated throughout the world, also many others, such as +bamboo, sugar-cane, millet, rice, &c. &c., which yield food for +mankind. Of the grasses which constitute pastures and hay-fields +over a hundred species are classified by botanists in Great +Britain, with many varieties in addition, but the majority of +these, though often forming a part of natural pastures, are +worthless or inferior for farming purposes. The grasses of good +quality which should form a “sole” in an old pasture and provide +the bulk of the forage on a newly laid down piece of grass +are only about a dozen in number (see below), and of these there are +only some six species of the very first importance and indispensable +in a “prescription” of grass seeds intended for laying away land +in temporary or permanent pasture. Dr W. Fream caused a +botanical examination to be made of several of the most celebrated +pastures of England, and, contrary to expectation, found +that their chief constituents were ordinary perennial ryegrass and +white clover. Many other grasses and legumes were present, but +these two formed an overwhelming proportion of the plants.</p> + +<p>In ordinary usage the term grass, pasturage, hay, &c., includes +many varieties of clover and other members of the natural order +<i>Leguminosae</i> as well as other “herbs of the field,” which, though +not strictly “grasses,” are always found in a grass field, and +are included in mixtures of seeds for pasture and meadows. +The following is a list of the most desirable or valuable agricultural +grasses and clovers, which are either actually sown or, in +the case of old pastures, encouraged to grow by draining, liming, +manuring, and so on:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Grasses.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Alopecurus pratensis</td> <td class="tcl">Meadow foxtail.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Anthoxanthum odoratum</td> <td class="tcl">Sweet vernal grass.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Avena elatior</td> <td class="tcl">Tall oat-grass.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Avena flavescens</td> <td class="tcl">Golden oat-grass.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cynosurus cristatus</td> <td class="tcl">Crested dogstail.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Dactylis glomerata</td> <td class="tcl">Cocksfoot.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Festuca duriuscula</td> <td class="tcl">Hard fescue.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Festuca elatior</td> <td class="tcl">Tall fescue.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Festuca ovina</td> <td class="tcl">Sheep’s fescue.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Festuca pratensis</td> <td class="tcl">Meadow fescue.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Lolium italicum</td> <td class="tcl">Italian ryegrass.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Phleum pratense</td> <td class="tcl">Timothy or catstail.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Poa nemoralis</td> <td class="tcl">Wood meadow-grass.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Poa pratensis</td> <td class="tcl">Smooth meadow-grass.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Poa trivialis</td> <td class="tcl">Rough meadow-grass.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt1 center"><i>Clovers, &c.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Medicago lupulina</td> <td class="tcl">Trefoil or “Nonsuch.”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Medicago sativa</td> <td class="tcl">Lucerne (Alfalfa).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Trifolium hybridum</td> <td class="tcl">Alsike clover.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Trifolium pratense</td> <td class="tcl">Broad red clover.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Trifolium pratense</td> <td class="tclm cl" rowspan="2">Perennial clover.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Trifolium perennne</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Trifolium incarnatum</td> <td class="tcl">Crimson clover or “Trifolium.”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Trifolium procumbens</td> <td class="tcl">Yellow Hop-trefoil.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Trifolium repens</td> <td class="tcl">White or Dutch clover.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Achillea Millefolium</td> <td class="tcl">Yarrow or Milfoil.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Anthyllis vulneraria</td> <td class="tcl">Kidney-vetch.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Lotus major</td> <td class="tcl">Greater Birdsfoot Trefoil.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Lotus corniculatus</td> <td class="tcl">Lesser Birdsfoot Trefoil.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Carum petroselinum</td> <td class="tcl">Field parsley.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Plantago lanceolata</td> <td class="tcl">Plantain.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cichorium intybus</td> <td class="tcl">Chicory.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Poterium officinale</td> <td class="tcl">Burnet.</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>The predominance of any particular species is largely determined +by climatic circumstances, the nature of the soil and the +treatment it receives. In limestone regions sheep’s fescue has +been found to predominate; on wet clay soil the dog’s bent +(<i>Agrostis canina</i>) is common; continuous manuring with nitrogenous +manures kills out the leguminous plants and stimulates +such grasses as cocksfoot; manuring with phosphates stimulates +the clovers and other legumes; and so on. Manuring with +basic slag at the rate of from 5 to 10 cwt. per acre has been found +to give excellent results on poor clays and peaty soils. Basic +slag is a by-product of the Bessemer steel process, and is rich in a +soluble form of phosphate of lime (tetra-phosphate) which specially +stimulates the growth of clovers and other legumes, and has +renovated many inferior pastures.</p> + +<p>In the Rothamsted experiments continuous manuring with +“mineral manures” (no nitrogen) on an old meadow has reduced +the grasses from 71 to 64% of the whole, while at the same time +it has increased the <i>Leguminosae</i> from 7% to 24%. On the +other hand, continuous use of nitrogenous manure in addition to +“minerals” has raised the grasses to 94% of the total and +reduced the legumes to less than 1%.</p> + +<p>As to the best kinds of grasses, &c., to sow in making a pasture +out of arable land, experiments at Cambridge, England, have +demonstrated that of the many varieties offered by seedsmen +only a very few are of any permanent value. A complex mixture +of tested seeds was sown, and after five years an examination of +the pasture showed that only a few varieties survived and made +the “sole” for either grazing or forage. These varieties in the +order of their importance were:—</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cocksfoot</td> <td class="tcr">26</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Perennial rye grass</td> <td class="tcr">16</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Meadow fescue</td> <td class="tcr">13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hard fescue</td> <td class="tcr">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Crested dogstail</td> <td class="tcr">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Timothy</td> <td class="tcr">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">White clover</td> <td class="tcr">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Meadow foxtail</td> <td class="tcr">2</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The figures represent approximate percentages.</p> + +<p>Before laying down grass it is well to examine the species already +growing round the hedges and adjacent fields. An inspection of +this sort will show that the Cambridge experiments are very +conclusive, and that the above species are the only ones to be +depended on. Occasionally some other variety will be prominent, +but if so there will be a special local reason for this.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, many farmers when sowing down to grass +like to have a good bulk of forage for the first year or two, and +therefore include several of the clovers, lucerne, Italian ryegrass, +evergreen ryegrass, &c., knowing that these will die out in the +course of years and leave the ground to the more permanent +species.</p> + +<p>There are also several mixtures of “seeds” (the technical +name given on the farm to grass-seeds) which have been adopted +with success in laying down permanent pasture in some localities.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Young.</td> <td class="tccm allb">De Laune.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Leicester.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Elliot.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cambridge<br />average.</td> <td class="tccm allb">General<br />purpose<br />mixture.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cocksfoot</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Perennial ryegrass</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Meadow fescue</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hard fescue</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Crested dogstail</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Timothy</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Meadow foxtail</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tall fescue</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">3˝</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tall oat grass</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Italian ryegrass</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Smooth meadow grass</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rough meadow grass</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Golden oat grass</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">ź</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sheep’s fescue</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Broad red clover</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Perennial red clover</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1˝</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alsike</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1˝</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lucerne (Alfalfa)</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">White clover</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kidney vetch</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2˝</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sheep’s parsley</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Yarrow</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">ź</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Burnet</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chicory</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2˝</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Plantain</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Total ℔ per acre</td> <td class="tcc allb">30</td> <td class="tcc allb">40</td> <td class="tcc allb">17</td> <td class="tcc allb">40</td> <td class="tcc allb">30</td> <td class="tcc allb">40</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page369" id="page369"></a>369</span></p> + +<p class="noind">Arthur Young more than 100 years ago made out one to suit +chalky hillsides; Mr Faunce de Laune (Sussex) in our days was +the first to study grasses and advocated leaving out ryegrass of +all kinds; Lord Leicester adopted a cheap mixture suitable for +poor land with success; Mr Elliot (Kelso) has introduced many +deep-rooted “herbs” in his mixture with good results. Typical +examples of such mixtures are given on preceding page.</p> + +<p>Temporary pastures are commonly resorted to for rotation +purposes, and in these the bulky fast-growing and short-lived +grasses and clovers are given the preference. Three examples of +temporary mixtures are given below.</p> + +<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">One<br />year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Two<br />years.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Three<br />or four<br />years.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Italian ryegrass</td> <td class="tcc rb">14</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cocksfoot</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Timothy</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Broad red clover</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Alsike</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Trefoil</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Perennial ryegrass</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Meadow fescue</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Perennial red clover</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">White clover</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Meadow foxtail</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb bb">Total ℔ per acre</td> <td class="tcc allb">30</td> <td class="tcc allb">36</td> <td class="tcc allb">40</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Where only a one-year hay is required, broad red clover is +often grown, either alone or mixed with a little Italian ryegrass, +while other forage crops, like trefoil and trifolium, are often grown +alone.</p> + +<p>In Great Britain a heavy clay soil is usually preferred for +pasture, both because it takes most kindly to grass and because +the expense of cultivating it makes it unprofitable as arable land +when the price of corn is low. On light soil the plant frequently +suffers from drought in summer, the want of moisture preventing +it from obtaining proper root-hold. On such soil the use of a +heavy roller is advantageous, and indeed on any soil excepting +heavy clay frequent rolling is beneficial to the grass, as it promotes +the capillary action of the soil-particles and the consequent +ascension of ground-water.</p> + +<p>In addition, the grass on the surface helps to keep the moisture +from being wasted by the sun’s heat.</p> + +<p>The graminaceous crops of western Europe generally are +similar to those enumerated. Elsewhere in Europe are found +certain grasses, such as Hungarian brome, which are suitable for +introduction into the British Isles. The grasses of the American +prairies also include many plants not met with in Great Britain. +Some half-dozen species are common to both countries: Kentucky +“blue-grass” is the British <i>Poa pratensis</i>; couch grass (<i>Triticum +repens</i>) grows plentifully without its underground runners; +bent (<i>Agrostis vulgaris</i>) forms the famous “red-top,” and so on. +But the American buffalo-grass, the Canadian buffalo-grass, the +“bunch” grasses, “squirrel-tail” and many others which have +no equivalents in the British Islands, form a large part of the +prairie pasturage. There is not a single species of true clover +found on the prairies, though cultivated varieties can be introduced.</p> +<div class="author">(P. McC.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRASSE, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH PAUL<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Marquis de Grassetilly, +Comte de</span> (1722-1788), French sailor, was born at Bar, +in the present department of the Alpes Maritimes. In 1734 he +took service on the galleys of the order of Malta, and in 1740 +entered the service of France, being promoted to chief of squadron +in 1779. He took part in the naval operations of the American +War of Independence, and distinguished himself in the battles of +Dominica and Saint Lucia (1780), and of Tobago (1781). He +was less fortunate at St Kitts, where he was defeated by Admiral +Hood. Shortly afterwards, in April 1782, he was defeated and +taken prisoner by Admiral Rodney. Some months later he returned +to France, published a <i>Mémoire justificatif</i>, and was +acquitted by a court-martial (1784). He died at Paris in January +1788.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His son Alexandre de Grasse, published a <i>Notice bibliographique +sur l’amiral comte de Grasse d’aprčs les documents inédits</i> in 1840. +See G. Lacour-Gayet, <i>La Marine militaire de la France sous le rčgne +de Louis XV</i> (Paris, 1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRASSE,<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> a town in the French department of the Alpes +Maritimes (till 1860 in that of the Var), 12˝ m. by rail N. of Cannes. +Pop. (1906) town, 13,958; commune, 20,305. It is built in a +picturesque situation, in the form of an amphitheatre and at a +height oŁ 1066 ft. above the sea, on the southern slope of a hill, +facing the Mediterranean. In the older (eastern) part of the town +the streets are narrow, steep and winding, but the new portion +(western) is laid out in accordance with modern French ideas. +It possesses a remarkably mild and salubrious climate, and is +well supplied with water. That used for the purpose of the +factories comes from the fine spring of Foux. But the drinking +water used in the higher portions of the town flows, by means of +a conduit, from the Foulon stream, one of the sources of the +Loup. Grasse was from 1244 (when the see was transferred +hither from Antibes) to 1790 an episcopal see, but was then +included in the diocese of Fréjus till 1860, when politically as +well as ecclesiastically, the region was annexed to the newly-formed +department of the Alpes Maritimes. It still possesses a +12th-century cathedral, now a simple parish church; while an +ancient tower, of uncertain date, rises close by near the town +hall, which was formerly the bishop’s palace (13th century). +There is a good town library, containing the muniments of the +abbey of Lérins, on the island of St Honorat opposite Cannes. +In the chapel of the old hospital are three pictures by Rubens. +The painter J. H. Fragonard (1732-1806) was a native of Grasse, +and some of his best works were formerly to be seen here (now +in America). Grasse is particularly celebrated for its perfumery. +Oranges and roses are cultivated abundantly in the neighbourhood. +It is stated that the preparation of attar of roses (which +costs nearly Ł100 per 2 ℔) requires alone nearly 7,000,000 roses +a year. The finest quality of olive oil is also manufactured at +Grasse.</p> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRASSES,<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span><a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a group of plants possessing certain characters in +common and constituting a family (Gramineae) of the class +Monocotyledons. It is one of the largest and most widespread +and, from an economic point of view, the most important family +of flowering plants. No plant is correctly termed a grass which +is not a member of this family, but the word is in common +language also used, generally in combination, for many plants of +widely different affinities which possess some resemblance (often +slight) in foliage to true grasses; <i>e.g.</i> knot-grass (<i>Polygonum +aviculare</i>), cotton-grass (<i>Eriophorum</i>), rib-grass (<i>Plantago</i>), +scorpion-grass (<i>Myosotis</i>), blue-eyed grass (<i>Sisyrinchium</i>), sea-grass +(<i>Zostera</i>). The grass-tree of Australia (<i>Xanthorrhoea</i>) is a +remarkable plant, allied to the rushes in the form of its flower, but +with a tall, unbranched, soft-woody, palm-like trunk bearing a +crown of long, narrow, grass-like leaves and stalked heads of +small, densely-crowded flowers. In agriculture the word has an +extended signification to include the various fodder-plants, +chiefly leguminous, often called “artificial grasses.” Indeed, +formerly <i>grass</i> (also spelt <i>gwrs</i>, <i>gres</i>, <i>gyrs</i> in the old herbals) +meant any green herbaceous plant of small size.</p> + +<p>Yet the first attempts at a classification of plants recognized +and separated a group of <i>Gramina</i>, and this, though bounded by +nothing more definite than habit and general appearance, +contained the Gramineae of modern botanists. The older group, +however, even with such systematists as Ray (1703), Scheuchzer +(1719), and Micheli (1729), embraced in addition the Cyperaceae +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>370</span> +(Sedge family), Juncaceae (Rush family), and some other monocotyledons +with inconspicuous flowers. Singularly enough, the +sexual system of Linnaeus (1735) served to mark off more distinctly +the true grasses from these allies, since very nearly all +of the former then known fell under his Triandria Digynia, whilst +the latter found themselves under his other classes and orders.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">I. Structure.</span>—The general type of true grasses is familiar in +the cultivated cereals of temperate climates—wheat, barley, +rye, oats, and in the smaller plants which make up pastures and +meadows and form a principal factor of the turf of natural +downs. Less familiar are the grains of warmer climates—rice, +maize, millet and sorgho, or the sugar-cane. Still farther removed +are the bamboos of the tropics, the columnar stems of +which reach to the height of forest trees. All are, however, +formed on a common plan.</p> + +<p><i>Root.</i>—Most cereals and many other grasses are annual, and +possess a tuft of very numerous slender root-fibres, much branched +and of great length. The majority of the members of the family +are of longer duration, and have the roots also fibrous, but fewer, +thicker and less branched. In such cases they are very generally +given off from just above each node (often in a circle) of the lower +part of the stem or rhizome, perforating the leaf-sheaths. In +some bamboos they are very numerous from the lower nodes of +the erect culms, and pass downwards to the soil, whilst those from +the upper nodes shrivel up and form circles of spiny fibres.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:433px; height:277px" src="images/img370.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Rhizome of Bamboo. A, B, C, D, successive series of axes, +the last bearing aerial culms. Much reduced.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Stem.</i>—The underground stem or rootstock (rhizome) of +perennial grasses is usually well developed, and often forms very +long creeping or subterranean rhizomes, with elongated internodes +and sheathing scales; the widely-creeping, slender +rhizomes in Marram-grass (<i>Psamma</i>), <i>Agropyrum junceum</i>, +<i>Elymus arenarius</i>, and other sand-loving plants render them +useful as sand-binders. It is also frequently short, with the +nodes crowded. The turf-formation, which is characteristic +of open situations in cool temperate climates, results from an +extensive production of short stolons, the branches and the +fibrous roots developed from their nodes forming the dense +“sod.” The very large rhizome of the bamboos (fig. 1) is also +a striking example of “definite” growth; it is much branched, +the short, thick, curved branches being given off below the apex +of the older ones and at right angles to them, the whole forming +a series of connected arched axes, truncate at their ends, which +were formerly continued into leafy culms. The rhizome is always +solid, and has the usual internal structure of the monocotyledonous +stem. In the cases of branching just cited the branches +break directly through the sheath of the leaf in connexion with +which they arise. In other cases the branches grow upwards +through the sheaths which they ultimately split from above, +and emerging as aerial shoots give a tufted habit to the plant. +Good examples are the oat, cock’s-foot (<i>Dactylis</i>) and other +British grasses. This mode of growth is the cause of the “tillering” +of cereals, or the production of a large number of erect +growing branches from the lower nodes of the young stem. +Isolated tufts or tussocks are also characteristic of steppe—and +savanna—vegetation and open places generally in the warmer +parts of the earth.</p> + +<p>The aerial leaf-bearing branches (culms) are a characteristic +feature of grasses. They are generally numerous, erect, cylindrical +(rarely flattened) and conspicuously jointed with evident +nodes. The nodes are solid, a strong plate of tissue passing +across the stem, but the internodes are commonly hollow, although +examples of completely solid stems are not uncommon (<i>e.g.</i> maize, +many Andropogons, sugar-cane). The swollen nodes are a +characteristic feature. In wheat, barley and most of the +British native grasses they are a development, not of the culm, +but of the base of the leaf-sheath. The function of the nodes +is to raise again culms which have become bent down; they are +composed of highly turgescent tissue, the cells of which elongate +on the side next the earth when the culm is placed in a horizontal +or oblique position, and thus raise the culm again to an erect +position. The internodes continue to grow in length, especially +the upper ones, for some time; the increase takes place in a zone +at the extreme base, just above the node. The exterior of the +culms is more or less concealed by the leaf-sheaths; it is usually +smooth and often highly polished, the epidermal cells containing +an amount of silica sufficient to leave after burning a distinct +skeleton of their structure. Tabasheer is a white substance +mainly composed of silica, found in the joints of several bamboos. +A few of the lower internodes may become enlarged and sub-globular, +forming nutriment-stores, and grasses so characterized +are termed “bulbous” (<i>Arrhenatherum</i>, <i>Poa bulbosa</i>, &c.). In +internal structure grass-culms, save in being hollow, conform +to that usual in monocotyledons; the vascular bundles run +parallel in the internodes, but a horizontal interlacement occurs +at the nodes. In grasses of temperate climates branching is +rare at the upper nodes of the culm, but it is characteristic of +the bamboos and many tropical grasses. The branches are +strictly distichous. In many bamboos they are long and spreading +or drooping and copiously ramified, in others they are +reduced to hooked spines. One genus (<i>Dinochloa</i>, a native +of the Malay archipelago) is scandent, and climbs over trees +100 ft. or more in height, <i>Olyra latifolia</i>, a widely-spread +tropical species, is also a climber on a humbler scale.</p> + +<p>Grass-culms grow with great rapidity, as is most strikingly +seen in bamboos, where a height of over 100 ft. is attained in +from two to three months, and many species grow two, three or +even more feet in twenty-four hours. Silicic hardening does not +begin till the full height is nearly attained. The largest bamboo +recorded is 170 ft., and the diameter is usually reckoned at about +4 in. to each 50 ft.</p> + +<p><i>Leaves.</i>—These present special characters usually sufficient +for ordinal determination. They are solitary at each node and +arranged in two rows, the lower often crowded, forming a basal +tuft. They consist of two distinct portions, the sheath and the +blade. The sheath is often of great length, and generally completely +surrounds the culm, forming a firm protection for the +internode, the younger basal portion of which, including the +zone of growth, remains tender for some time. As a rule it is +split down its whole length, thus differing from that of Cyperaceae +which is almost invariably (<i>Eriospora</i> is an exception) a complete +tube; in some grasses, however (species of <i>Poa</i>, <i>Bromus</i> and +others), the edges are united. The sheaths are much dilated +in <i>Alopecurus vaginatus</i> and in a species of <i>Potamochloa</i>, in the +latter, an East Indian aquatic grass, serving as floats. At the +summit of the sheath, above the origin of the blade, is the +<i>ligule</i>, a usually membranous process of small size (occasionally +reaching 1 in. in length) erect and pressed around the culm. +It is rarely quite absent, but may be represented by a tuft of +hairs (very conspicuous in <i>Pariana</i>). It serves to prevent +rain-water, which has run down the blade, from entering the +sheath. <i>Melica uniflora</i> has in addition to the ligule, a green +erect tongue-like process, from the line of junction of the edges +of the sheath.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:308px; height:87px" src="images/img371a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Magnified transverse section +of one-half of a leaf-blade of <i>Festuca +rubra</i>. The dark portions represent +supporting and conducting tissue; the +upper face bears furrows, at the bottom +of each of which are seen the motor +cells <i>m</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The blade is frequently wanting or small and imperfect in +the basal leaves, but in the rest is long and set on to the sheath +at an angle. The usual form is familiar—sessile, more or less +ribbon-shaped, tapering to a point, and entire at the edge. +The chief modifications are the articulation of the deciduous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page371" id="page371"></a>371</span> +blade on to the sheath, which occurs in all the Bambuseae +(except <i>Planotia</i>) and in <i>Spartina stricta</i>; and the interposition +of a petiole between the sheath and the blade, as in bamboos, +<i>Leptaspis</i>, <i>Pharus</i>, <i>Pariana</i>, <i>Lophatherum</i> and others. In the +latter case the leaf usually becomes oval, ovate or even cordate +or sagittate, but these forms are found in sessile leaves also +(<i>Olyra</i>, <i>Panicum</i>). The venation is strictly parallel, the midrib +usually strong, and the other ribs more slender. In <i>Anomochloa</i> +there are several nearly equal ribs and in some broad-leaved +grasses (<i>Bambuseae</i>, <i>Pharus</i>, <i>Leptaspis</i>) the venation becomes +tesselated by transverse +connecting veins. The +tissue is often raised +above the veins, forming +longitudinal ridges, +generally on the upper +face; the stomata are in +lines in the intervening +furrows. The thick prominent +veins in <i>Agropyrum</i> +occupy the whole +upper surface of the leaf. Epidermal appendages are rare, +the most frequent being marginal, saw-like, cartilaginous +teeth, usually minute, but occasionally (<i>Danthonia scabra</i>, +<i>Panicum serratum</i>) so large as to give the margin a serrate +appearance. The leaves are occasionally woolly, as in <i>Alopecurus +lanatus</i> and one or two <i>Panicums</i>. The blade is often twisted, +frequently so much so that the upper and under faces become +reversed. In dry-country grasses the blades are often folded +on the midrib, or rolled up. The rolling is effected by bands of +large wedge-shaped cells—motor-cells—between the nerves, +the loss of turgescence by which, as the air dries, causes the +blade to curl towards the face on which they occur. The rolling +up acts as a protection from too great loss of water, the exposed +surface being specially protected to this end by a strong cuticle, +the majority or all of the stomata occurring on the protected +surface. The stiffness of the blade, which becomes very marked +in dry-country grasses, is due to the development of girders of +thick-walled mechanical tissue which follow the course of all +or the principal veins (fig. 2).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:475px; height:234px" src="images/img371b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—One-flowered<br />spikelet of <i>Agrostis</i>.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Two-flowered spikelet<br />of <i>Aira</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><i>b</i>, Barren glumes; <i>f</i>, flowering glumes. +(Both Enlarged.)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Inflorescence.</i>—This possesses an exceptional importance in +grasses, since, their floral envelopes being much reduced and the +sexual organs of very great uniformity, the characters employed +for classification are mainly derived from the arrangement of +the flowers and their investing bracts. Various interpretations +have been given to these glumaceous organs and different terms +employed for them by various writers. It may, however, be +considered as settled that the whole of the bodies known as +glumes and paleae, and distichously arranged externally to +the flower, form no part of the floral envelopes, but are of the +nature of bracts. These are arranged so as to form <i>spikelets</i> +(locustae), and each spikelet may contain one, as in <i>Agrostis</i> +(fig. 3) two, as in <i>Aira</i> (fig. 4) three, or a great number of +flowers, as in <i>Briza</i> (fig. 5) <i>Triticum</i> (fig. 6); in some species of +<i>Eragrostis</i> there are nearly 60. The flowers are, as a rule, placed +laterally on the axis (<i>rachilla</i>) of the spikelet, but in one-flowered +spikelets they appear to be terminal, and are probably really +so in <i>Anthoxanthum</i> (fig. 7) and in two anomalous genera, +<i>Anomochloa</i> and <i>Streptochaeta</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:449px; height:208px" src="images/img371c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.—Spikelet of <i>Briza</i>.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 6.—Spikelet of <i>Triticum</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(Both enlarged.)</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:251px; height:319px" src="images/img371d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 7.—Spikelet of <i>Anthoxanthum</i> +(enlarged) without the +two lower barren glumes, showing +the two upper awned barren +glumes (<i>g</i>) and the flower.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In immediate relation with the flower itself, and often entirely +concealing it, is the <i>palea</i> or <i>pale</i> (“upper pale” of most systematic +agrostologists). This organ (fig. 13, 1) is peculiar to grasses +among Glumiflorae (the series to which belong the two families +Gramineae and Cyperaceae), and is almost always present, +certain <i>Oryzeae</i> and <i>Phalarideae</i> +being the only exceptions. It is +of thin membranous consistence, +usually obtuse, often bifid, and +possesses no central rib or nerve, +but has two lateral ones, one on +either side; the margins are frequently +folded in at the ribs, +which thus become placed at the +sharp angles. This structure was +formerly regarded as pointing to +the fusion of two organs, and +the pale was considered by +Robert Brown to represent two +portions soldered together of a +trimerous perianth-whorl, the +third portion being the “lower +pale.” The pale is now generally +considered to represent the +single bracteole, characteristic +of Monocotyledons, the binerved +structure being the result of the pressure of the axis of the +spikelet during the development of the pale, as in <i>Iris</i> and others.</p> + +<p>The flower with its pale is sessile, and is placed in the axis of +another bract in such a way that the pale is exactly opposed +to it, though at a slightly higher level. It is this second bract +or flowering glume which has been generally called by systematists +the “lower pale,” and with the “upper pale” was formerly +considered to form an outer floral envelope (“calyx,” Jussieu; +“perianthium,” Brown). The two bracts are, however, on +different axes, one secondary to the other, and cannot therefore +be parts of one whorl of organs. They are usually quite unlike +one another, but in some genera (<i>e.g.</i> most <i>Festuceae</i>) are very +similar in shape and appearance.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:158px; height:870px" src="images/img372a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Spikelet of +<i>Stipa pennata</i>. The pair +of barren glumes (<i>b</i>) +are separated from the +flowering glume, which +bears a long awn, +twisted below the knee +and feathery above. +About ž nat. size.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The flowering glume has generally a more or less boat-shaped +form, is of firm consistence, and possesses a well-marked central +midrib and frequently several lateral ones. The midrib in a +large proportion of genera extends into an appendage termed +the <i>awn</i> (fig. 4), and the lateral veins more rarely extend beyond +the glume as sharp points (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Pappophorum</i>). The form of the +flowering glume is very various, this organ being plastic and +extensively modified in different genera. It frequently extends +downwards a little on the rachilla, forming with the latter a +swollen callus, which is separated from the free portion by a +furrow. In <i>Leptaspis</i> it is formed into a closed cavity by the +union of its edges, and encloses the flower, the styles projecting +through the pervious summit. Valuable characters for distinguishing +genera are obtained from the awn. This presents +itself variously developed from a mere subulate point to an +organ several inches in length, and when complete (as in <i>Andropogoneae</i>, +<i>Aveneae</i> and <i>Stipeae</i>) consists of two well-marked +portions, a lower twisted part and a terminal straight portion, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page372" id="page372"></a>372</span> +usually set in at an angle with the former, sometimes trifid and +occasionally beautifully feathery (fig. 8). The lower part is most +often suppressed, and in the large group of the <i>Paniceae</i> awns +of any sort are very rarely seen. The awn may be either terminal +or may come off from the back of the flowering glume, and +Duval Jouve’s observations have shown that it represents the +blade of the leaf of which the portion of the +flowering glume below its origin is the sheath; +the twisted part (so often suppressed) corresponds +with the petiole, and the portion of +the glume extending beyond the origin of +the awn (very long in some species, <i>e.g.</i> of +<i>Danthonia</i>) with the ligule of the developed +foliage-leaf. When terminal the awn has +three fibro-vascular bundles, when dorsal +only one; it is covered with stomate-bearing +epidermis.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:318px; height:229px" src="images/img372b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 9</span> (left).—Spikelet +of <i>Leersia</i>. +<i>f</i>, Flowering glume; <i>p</i>, +pale.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 10</span> (right).—Spikelet of +<i>Setaria</i>, with an abortive +branch (<i>h</i>) beneath it. <i>b</i>, +Barren glumes; <i>f</i>, flowering +glume; <i>p</i>, pale.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The flower with its palea is thus sessile in +the axil of a floriferous glume, and in a few +grasses (<i>Leersia</i> (fig. 9), <i>Coleanthus</i>, <i>Nardus</i>) +the spikelet consists of nothing more, but +usually (even in uniflorous spikelets) other +glumes are present. Of these the two placed +distichously opposite each other at the base +of the spikelet never bear any flower in their +axils, and are called the <i>empty</i> or <i>barren +glumes</i> (figs. 3, 8). They are the “glumes” +of most writers, and together form what +was called the “gluma” by R. Brown. +They rarely differ much from one another, +but one may be smaller or quite +absent (<i>Panicum</i>, <i>Setaria</i> (fig. 10), <i>Paspalum</i>, +<i>Lolium</i>), or both be altogether +suppressed, as above noticed. They are +commonly firm and strong, often enclose +the spikelet, and are rarely provided with +long points or imperfect awns. Generally +speaking they do not share in the +special modifications of the flowering +glumes, and rarely themselves undergo +modification, chiefly in hardening of +portions (<i>Sclerachne</i>, <i>Manisuris</i>, <i>Anthephora</i>, +<i>Peltophorum</i>), so as to afford greater protection to the +flowers or fruit. But it is usual to find, besides the basal glumes, +a few other empty ones, and these are in two- or more-flowered +spikelets (see <i>Triticum</i>, fig. 6) at the top of the rhachilla (numerous +in <i>Lophatherum</i>), or in uniflorous ones (fig. 10) below and +interposed between the floral glume and the basal pair.</p> + +<p>The axis of the spikelet is frequently jointed and breaks up +into articulations above each flower. Tufts or borders of hairs +are frequently present (<i>Calamagrostis</i>, <i>Phragmites</i>, <i>Andropogon</i>), +and are often so long as to surround and conceal the flowers +(fig. 11). The axis is often continued beyond the last flower or +glume as a bristle or stalk.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:211px; height:225px" src="images/img372c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—Spikelet of +Reed (<i>Phragmites communis</i>) +opened out.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, Barren glumes.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, <i>c</i>, Fertile glumes, each enclosing one flower with its pale <i>d</i>.</p> +<p>Note the zigzag axis (<i>rhachilla</i>) bearing long silky hairs.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Involucres</i> or organs outside the spikelets also occur, and are +formed in various ways. Thus in <i>Setaria</i> (fig. 10), <i>Pennisetum</i>, +&c., the one or more circles of simple or feathery hairs represent +abortive branches of the inflorescence; in <i>Cenchrus</i> (fig. 12) +these become consolidated, and the inner ones flattened so as +to form a very hard globular spiny case to the spikelets. The +cup-shaped involucre of <i>Cornucopia</i> +is a dilatation of the axis into +a hollow receptacle with a raised +border. In <i>Cynosurus</i> (Dog’s tail) +the pectinate involucre which conceals +the spikelet is a barren or +abortive spikelet. Bracts of a more +general character subtending branches +of the inflorescence are singularly +rare in Gramineae, in marked contrast +with Cyperaceae, where they are +so conspicuous. They however occur +in a whole section of <i>Andropogon</i>, in +<i>Anomochloa</i>, and at the base of the +spike in <i>Sesleria</i>. The remarkable +ovoid involucre of <i>Coix</i>, which becomes +of stony hardness, white and +polished (then known as “Job’s +tears,” <i>q.v.</i>), is also a modified bract +or leaf-sheath. It is closed except at +the apex, and contains the female +spikelet, the stalks of the male inflorescence and the long styles +emerging through the small apical orifice.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:161px; height:167px" src="images/img372d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>—Spikelet +of <i>Cenchrus echinatus</i> +enclosed in a bristly +involucre.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Any number of spikelets may compose the inflorescence, and +their arrangement is very various. In the spicate forms, with +sessile spikelets on the main axis, the latter is often dilated and +flattened (<i>Paspalum</i>), or is more or less +thickened and hollowed out (<i>Stenotaphrum</i>, +<i>Rottboellia</i>, <i>Tripsacum</i>), when the spikelets +are sunk and buried within the cavities. +Every variety of racemose and paniculate +inflorescence obtains, and the number of +spikelets composing those of the large kinds +is often immense. Rarely the inflorescence +consists of very few flowers; thus <i>Lygeum +Spartum</i>, the most anomalous of European +grasses, has but two or three large uniflorous +spikelets, which are fused together +at the base, and have no basal glumes, but are enveloped in a +large, hooded, spathe-like bract.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:440px; height:342px" src="images/img372e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—Flowers of Grasses (enlarged). 1, <i>Piptatherum</i>, with the +palea <i>p</i>; 2, <i>Poa</i>; 3, <i>Oryza</i>; <i>l</i>, Lodicule.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Flower.</i>—This is characterized by remarkable uniformity. +The perianth is represented by very rudimentary, small, fleshy +scales arising below the ovary, called <i>lodicules</i>; they are elongated +or truncate, sometimes fringed with hairs, and are in contact +with the ovary. Their usual number is two, and they are placed +collaterally at the anterior side of the flower (fig. 13,) that is, +within the flowering glume. They are generally considered to +represent the inner whorl of the ordinary monocotyledonous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page373" id="page373"></a>373</span> +(liliaceous) perianth, the outer whorl of these being suppressed +as well as the posterior member of the inner whorl. This latter +is present almost constantly in <i>Stipeae</i> and <i>Bambuseae</i>, which +have three lodicules, and in the latter group they are occasionally +more numerous. In <i>Anomochloa</i> they are represented by hairs. +In <i>Streptochaeta</i> there are six lodicules, alternately arranged +in two whorls. Sometimes, as in <i>Anthoxanthum</i>, they are +absent. In <i>Melica</i> there is one large anterior lodicule resulting +presumably from the union of the two which are present in allied +genera. Professor E. Hackel, however, regards this as an +undivided second pale, which in the majority of the grasses is +split in halves, and the posterior lodicule, when present, as a +third pale. On this view the grass-flower has no perianth. +The function of the lodicules is the separation of the pale and +glume to allow the protrusion of stamens and stigmas; they +effect this by swelling and thus exerting pressure on the base of +these two structures. Where, as in <i>Anthoxanthum</i>, there are no +lodicules, pale and glume do not become laterally separated, +and the stamens and stigmas protrude only at the apex of the +floret (fig. 7). Grass-flowers are usually hermaphrodite, but +there are very many exceptions. Thus it is common to find one +or more imperfect (usually male) flowers in the same spikelet +with bisexual ones, and their relative position is important +in classification. <i>Holcus</i> and <i>Arrhenatherum</i> are examples in +English grasses; and as a rule in species of temperate regions +separation of the sexes is not carried further. In warmer +countries monoecious and dioecious grasses are more frequent. +In such cases the male and female spikelets and inflorescence +may be very dissimilar, as in maize, Job’s tears, <i>Euchlaena</i>, +<i>Spinifex</i>, &c.; and in some dioecious species this dissimilarity +has led to the two sexes being referred to different genera (<i>e.g.</i> +<i>Anthephora axilliflora</i> is the female of <i>Buchloe dactyloides</i>, +and <i>Neurachne paradoxa</i> of a species of <i>Spinifex</i>). In other +grasses, however, with the sexes in different plants (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Brizopyrum</i>, +<i>Distichlis</i>, <i>Eragrostis capitala</i>, <i>Gynerium</i>), no such +dimorphism obtains. <i>Amphicarpum</i> is remarkable in having +cleistogamic flowers borne on long radical subterranean peduncles +which are fertile, whilst the conspicuous upper paniculate ones, +though apparently perfect, never produce fruit. Something +similar occurs in <i>Leersia oryzoides</i>, where the fertile spikelets +are concealed within the leaf-sheaths.</p> + +<p><i>Androecium.</i>—In the vast majority there are three stamens +alternating with the lodicules, and therefore one anterior, <i>i.e.</i> +opposite the flowering glume, the other two being posterior and +in contact with the palea (fig. 13, 1 and 2). They are hypogynous, +and have long and very delicate filaments, and large, +linear or oblong two-celled anthers, dorsifixed and ultimately +very versatile, deeply indented at each end, and commonly +exserted and pendulous. Suppression of the anterior stamen +sometimes occurs (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Anthoxanthum</i>, fig. 7), or the two posterior +ones may be absent (<i>Uniola</i>, <i>Cinna</i>, <i>Phippsia</i>, <i>Festuca bromoides</i>). +There is in some genera (<i>Oryza</i>, most <i>Bambuseae</i>) another row of +three stamens, making six in all (fig. 13, 3); and <i>Anomochloa</i> and +<i>Tetrarrhena</i> possess four. The stamens become numerous (ten +to forty) in the male flowers of a few monoecious genera (<i>Pariana</i>, +<i>Luziola</i>). In <i>Ochlandra</i> they vary from seven to thirty, and in +<i>Gigantochloa</i> they are monadelphous.</p> + +<p><i>Gynoecium.</i>—The pistil consists of a single carpel, opposite the +pale in the median plane of the spikelet. The ovary is small, +rounded to elliptical, and one-celled, and contains a single +slightly bent ovule sessile on the ventral suture (that is, springing +from the back of the ovary); the micropyle points downwards. +It bears usually two lateral styles which are quite distinct or +connate at the base, sometimes for a greater length (fig. 14, 1), +each ends in a densely hairy or feathery stigma (fig. 14). Occasionally +there is but a single style, as in <i>Nardus</i> (fig. 14, 7), which +corresponds to the midrib of the carpel. The very long and +apparently simple stigma of maize arises from the union of two. +Many of the bamboos have a third, anterior, style.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:438px; height:305px" src="images/img373a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>—Pistils of grasses (much enlarged). 1, <i>Alopecurus</i>; 2, +<i>Bromus</i>; 3, <i>Arrhenatherum</i>; 4, <i>Glyceria</i>; 5, <i>Melica</i>; 6, <i>Mibora</i>; +7, <i>Nardus</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Comparing the flower of Gramineae with the general monocotyledonous +plan as represented by Liliaceae and other families +(fig. 15), it will be seen to differ in the absence of the outer row and +the posterior member of the inner row of the perianth-leaves, of +the whole inner row of stamens, and of the two lateral carpels, +whilst the remaining members of the perianth are in a rudimentary +condition. But each or any of the usually missing organs +are to be found +normally in different +genera, or as +occasional developments.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 405px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:355px; height:186px" src="images/img373b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>—Diagrams of the ordinary Grass-flower.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p>1, Actual condition;</p> +<p>2, Theoretical, with the suppressed organs supplied.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Axis.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Flowering glume.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Palea.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Outer row of perianth leaves.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Inner row.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Outer row of stamens.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Inner row.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Pistil.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Pollination.</i>—Grasses +are generally +wind-pollinated, +though self-fertilization +sometimes +occurs. A few +species, as we have +seen, are monoecious +or dioecious, +while many are +polygamous (having +unisexual as well +as bisexual flowers +as in many members of the tribes <i>Andropogoneae</i>, fig. 18, +and <i>Paniceae</i>), and in these the male flower of a spikelet +always blooms later than the hermaphrodite, so that its +pollen can only effect cross-fertilization upon other spikelets +in the same or another plant. Of those with only bisexual +flowers, many are strongly protogynous (the stigmas protruding +before the anthers are ripe), such as <i>Alopecurus</i> and +<i>Anthoxanthum</i> (fig. 7), but generally the anthers protrude first +and discharge the greater part of their pollen before the stigmas +appear. The filaments elongate rapidly at flowering-time, and +the lightly versatile anthers empty an abundance of finely +granular smooth pollen through a longitudinal slit. Some +flowers, such as rye, have lost the power of effective self-fertilization, +but in most cases both forms, self- and cross-fertilization, +seem to be possible. Thus the species of wheat are usually self-fertilized, +but cross-fertilization is possible since the glumes are +open above, the stigmas project laterally, and the anthers empty +only about one-third of their pollen in their own flower and +the rest into the air. In some cultivated races of barley, cross-fertilization +is precluded, as the flowers never open. Reference +has already been made to cleistogamic species which occur in +several genera.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:68px; height:101px" src="images/img374a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>—Fruit +of <i>Sporobolus</i>, +showing +the dehiscent +pericarp and +seed.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Fruit and Seed.</i>—The ovary ripens into a usually small ovoid +or rounded fruit, which is entirely occupied by the single large +seed, from which it is not to be distinguished, the thin pericarp +being completely united to its surface. To this peculiar +fruit the term <i>caryopsis</i> has been applied (more familiarly +“grain”); it is commonly furrowed longitudinally down one +side (usually the inner, but in <i>Coix</i> and its allies, the outer), and +an additional covering is not unfrequently provided by the +adherence of the persistent palea, or even also of the flowering +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374"></a>374</span> +glume (“chaff” of cereals). From this type are a few deviations; +thus in <i>Sporobolus</i>, &c. (fig. 16), the pericarp is not united with +the seed but is quite distinct, dehisces, and allows the loose seed to +escape. Sometimes the pericarp is membranous, sometimes hard, +forming a nut, as in some genera of <i>Bambuseae</i>, while in other +<i>Bambuseae</i> it becomes thick and fleshy, forming a berry often as +large as an apple. In <i>Melocanna</i> the berry forms +an edible fruit 3 or 4 in. long, with a pointed +beak of 2 in. more; it is indehiscent, and the +small seed germinates whilst the fruit is still +attached to the tree, putting out a tuft of roots +and a shoot, and not falling till the latter is 6 in. +long. The position of the embryo is plainly +visible on the front side at the base of the grain. +On the other, posterior, side of the grain is a +more or less evident, sometimes punctiform, +sometimes elongated or linear mark, the hilum, +the place where the ovule was fastened to the wall of the ovary. +The form of the hilum is constant throughout a genus, and +sometimes also in whole tribes.</p> + +<p>The testa is thin and membranous but occasionally coloured, +and the embryo small, the great bulk of the seed being occupied +by the hard farinaceous endosperm (albumen) on which the +nutritive value of the grain depends. The outermost layer of +endosperm, the aleuron-layer, consists of regular cells filled with +small proteid granules; the rest is made up of large polygonal +cells containing numerous starch-grains in a matrix of proteid +which may be continuous (horny endosperm) or granular (mealy +endosperm). The embryo presents many points of interest. Its +position is remarkable, closely applied to the surface of the +endosperm at the base of its outer side. This character is +absolute for the whole order, and effectually separates Gramineae +from Cyperaceae. The part in contact with the endosperm is +plate-like, and is known as the <i>scutellum</i>; the surface in contact +with the endosperm forms an absorptive epithelium. In some +grasses there is a small scale-like appendage opposite the scutellum, +the <i>epiblast</i>. There is some difference of opinion as to which +structure or structures represent the cotyledon. Three must be +considered: (1) the scutellum, connected by vascular tissue +with the vascular cylinder of the main axis of the embryo which +it more or less envelops; it never leaves the seed, serving +merely to prepare and absorb the food-stuff in the endosperm; +(2) the cellular outgrowth of the axis, the epiblast, small and +inconspicuous as in wheat, or larger as in <i>Stipa</i>; (3) the pileole +or germ-sheath, arising on the same side of the axis and above the +scutellum, enveloping the plumule in the seed and appearing +above ground as a generally colourless sheath from the apex of +which the plumule ultimately breaks (fig. 17, 4, <i>b</i>). The development +of these structures (which was investigated by van Tieghem), +especially in relation to the origin of the vascular bundles which +supply them, favours the view that the scutellum and pileole are +highly differentiated parts of a single cotyledon, and this view is in +accord with a comparative study of the seedling of grasses and +of other monocotyledons. The epiblast has been regarded as +representing a second cotyledon, but this is a very doubtful +interpretation.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:439px; height:197px" src="images/img374b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>—A Grain of Wheat. 1, back, and 2, front view; 3, +vertical section, showing (<i>b</i>) the endosperm, and (<i>a</i>) embryo; 4, +beginning of germination, showing (<i>b</i>) the pileole and (<i>c</i>) the radicle +and secondary rootlets surrounded by their coleorrhizae.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Germination.</i>—In germination the coleorhiza lengthens, +ruptures the pericarp, and fixes the grain to the ground by +developing numerous hairs. The radicle then breaks through +the coleorhiza, as do also the secondary rootlets where, as in +the case of many cereals, these have been formed in the embryo +(fig. 17, 4). The germ-sheath grows vertically upwards, its +stiff apex pushing through the soil, while the plumule is hidden +in its hollow interior. Finally the plumule escapes, its leaves +successively breaking through at the tip of the germ-sheath. +The scutellum meanwhile feeds the developing embryo from +the endosperm. The growth of the primary root is limited; +sooner or later adventitious roots develop from the axis above +the radicle which they ultimately exceed in growth.</p> + +<p><i>Means of Distribution.</i>—Various methods of scattering the +grain have been adopted, in which parts of the spikelet or inflorescence +are concerned. Short spikes may fall from the +culm as a whole; or the axis of a spike or raceme is jointed so +that one spikelet falls with each joint as in many <i>Andropogoneae</i> +and <i>Hordeae</i>. In many-flowered spikelets the rachilla is often +jointed and breaks into as many pieces as there are fruits, each +piece bearing a glume and pale. One-flowered spikelets may +fall as a whole (as in the tribes <i>Paniceae</i> and <i>Andropogoneae</i>), +or the axis is jointed above the barren glumes so that only the +flowering glume and pale fall with the fruit. These arrangements +are, with few exceptions, lacking in cultivated cereals +though present in their wild forms, so far as these are known. +Such arrangements are disadvantageous for the complete gathering +of the fruit, and therefore varieties in which they are not +present would be preferred for cultivation. The persistent +bracts (glume and pale) afford an additional protection to the +fruit; they protect the embryo, which is near the surface, from +too rapid wetting and, when once soaked, from drying up again. +They also decrease the specific gravity, so that the grain is more +readily carried by the wind, especially when, as in <i>Briza</i>, the glume +has a large surface compared with the size of the grain, or when, +as in <i>Holcus</i>, empty glumes also take part; in Canary grass +(<i>Phalaris</i>) the large empty glumes bear a membranous wing +on the keel. In the sugar-cane (<i>Saccharum</i>) and several allied +genera the separating joints of the axis bear long hairs below +the spikelets; in others, as in <i>Arundo</i> (a reed-grass), the flowering +glumes are enveloped in long hairs. The awn which is frequently +borne on the flowering glume is also a very efficient means of +distribution, catching into fur of animals or plumage of birds, +or as often in <i>Stipa</i> (fig. 8) forming a long feather for wind-carriage. +In <i>Tragus</i> the glumes bear numerous short hooked +bristles. The fleshy berries of some <i>Bambuseae</i> favour distribution +by animals.</p> + +<p>The awn is also of use in burying the fruit in the soil. Thus +in <i>Stipa</i>, species of <i>Avena</i>, <i>Heteropogon</i> and others the base of +the glume forms a sharp point which will easily penetrate the +ground; above the point are short stiff upwardly pointing hairs +which oppose its withdrawal. The long awn, which is bent and +closely twisted below the bend, acts as a driving organ; it is +very hygroscopic, the coils untwisting when damp and twisting +up when dry. The repeated twisting and untwisting, especially +when the upper part of the awn has become fixed in the +earth or caught in surrounding vegetation, drives the point +deeper and deeper into the ground. Such grasses often cause +harm to sheep by catching in the wool and boring through +the skin.</p> + +<p>A peculiar method of distribution occurs in some alpine and +arctic grasses, which grow under conditions where ripening of +the fruit is often uncertain. The entire spikelet, or single +flowers, are transformed into small-leaved shoots which fall +from the axes and readily root in the ground. Some species, +such as <i>Poa stricta</i>, are known only in this viviparous +condition; others, like our British species <i>Festuca ovina</i> +and <i>Poa alpina</i>, become viviparous under the special climatic +conditions.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">II. Classification.</span>—Gramineae are sharply defined from +all other plants, and there are no genera as to which it is possible +to feel a doubt whether they should be referred to it or not. +The only family closely allied is Cyperaceae, and the points of +difference between the two may be here brought together. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page375" id="page375"></a>375</span> +best distinctions are found in the position of the embryo in +relation to the endosperm—lateral in grasses, basal in Cyperaceae—and +in the possession by Gramineae of the 2-nerved palea +below each flower. Less absolute characters, but generally +trustworthy and more easily observed, are the feathery stigmas, +the always distichous arrangement of the glumes, the usual +absence of more general bracts in the inflorescence, the split +leaf-sheaths, and the hollow, cylindrical, jointed culms—some +or all of which are wanting in all Cyperaceae. The same characters +will distinguish grasses from the other glumiferous orders, +Restiaceae, and Eriocaulonaceae, which are besides further +removed by their capsular fruit and pendulous ovules. To other +monocotyledonous families the resemblances are merely of +adaptive or vegetative characters. Some Commelinaceae and +Marantaceae approach grasses in foliage; the leaves of <i>Allium</i>, +&c., possess a ligule; the habit of some palms reminds one of +the bamboos; and Juncaceae and a few Liliaceae possess an +inconspicuous scarious perianth. There are about 300 genera +containing about 3500 well-defined species.</p> + +<p>The great uniformity among the very numerous species of this +vast family renders its <i>classification</i> very difficult. The difficulty +has been increased by the confusion resulting from the multiplication +of genera founded on slight characters, and from the description +(in consequence of their wide distribution) of identical +plants under several different genera.</p> + +<p>No characters for main divisions can be obtained from the +flower proper or fruit (with the exception of the character of +the hilum), and it has therefore been found necessary to trust +to characters derived from the usually less important inflorescence +and bracts.</p> + +<p>Robert Brown suggested two primary divisions—Paniceae +and Poaceae, according to the position of the most perfect +flower in the spikelet; this is the upper (apparently) terminal +one in the first, whilst in the second it occupies the lower position, +the more imperfect ones (if any) being above it. Munro supplemented +this by another character easier of verification, and of +even greater constancy, in the articulation of the pedicel in the +Paniceae immediately below the glumes; whilst in Poaceae +this does not occur, but the axis of the spikelet frequently +articulates <i>above</i> the pair of empty basal glumes. Neither of +these great divisions will well accommodate certain genera +allied to <i>Phalaris</i>, for which Brown proposed tentatively a +third group (since named <i>Phalarideae</i>); this, or at least the +greater part of it, is placed by Bentham under the Poaceae.</p> + +<p>The following arrangement has been proposed by Professor +Eduard Hackel in his recent monograph on the order.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A. Spikelets one-flowered, rarely two-flowered as in Zea, falling +from the pedicel entire or with certain joints of the rachis at maturity. +Rachilla not produced beyond the flowers.</p> + +<p><i>a</i>. Hilum a point; spikelets not laterally compressed.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>α Fertile glume and pale hyaline; empty glumes thick, +membranous to coriaceous or cartilaginous, the lowest +the largest. Rachis generally jointed and breaking up +when mature.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>1. Spikelets unisexual, male and female in separate +inflorescences or on different parts of the same +inflorescence.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>1. <i>Maydeae</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>2. Spikelets bisexual, or male and bisexual, each male +standing close to a bisexual.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>2. <i>Andropogoneae</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list"> +<p>β Fertile glume and pale cartilaginous, coriaceous or papery; +empty glumes more delicate, usually herbaceous, the +lowest usually smallest. Spikelets falling singly from the +unjointed rachis of the spike or the ultimate branches of +the panicle.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>3. <i>Paniceae</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>b</i>. Hilum a line; spikelets laterally compressed.</p> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>4. <i>Oryzeae</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>B. Spikelets one- to indefinite-flowered; in the one-flowered the +rachilla frequently produced beyond the flower; rachilla generally +jointed above the empty glumes, which remain after the fruiting +glumes have fallen. When more than one-flowered, distinct internodes +are developed between the flowers.</p> + +<p><i>a</i>. Culm herbaceous, annual; leaf-blade sessile, and not jointed +to the sheath.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>α Spikelets upon distinct pedicels and arranged in panicles or +racemes.</p> + +<p>I. Spikelets one-flowered.</p> +</div> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">i.</td> <td class="tcl">Empty glumes 4.</td> <td class="tcl">5. <i>Phalarideae</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">ii.</td> <td class="tcl">Empty glumes 2.</td> <td class="tcl">6. <i>Agrostideae</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="list"> +<p>II. Spikelets more than one-flowered.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>i. Fertile glumes generally shorter than the empty +glumes, usually with a bent awn on the back.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>7. <i>Aveneae</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>ii. Fertile glumes generally longer than the empty, unawned +or with a straight, terminal awn.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>9. <i>Festuceae</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list"> +<p>β Spikelets crowded in two close rows, forming a one-sided +spike or raceme with a continuous (not jointed) rachis.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>8. <i>Chlorideae</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list"> +<p>γ Spikelets in two opposite rows forming an equal-sided spike.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>10. <i>Hordeae</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>b</i>. Culm woody, at any rate at the base, leaf-blade jointed to the +sheath, often with a short, slender petiole.</p> + +<div class="list2"> +<p>11. <i>Bambuseae</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>Tribe 1. <i>Maydeae</i> (7 genera in the warmer parts of the earth). +<i>Zea Mays</i> (maize, <i>q.v.</i>, or Indian corn) (<i>q.v.</i>). <i>Tripsacum</i>, 2 or 3 species +in subtropical America north of the equator; <i>Tr. dactyloides</i> (gama +grass) extends northwards to Illinois and Connecticut; it is used for +fodder and as an ornamental plant. <i>Coix Lacryma-Jobi</i> (Job’s +tears) <i>q.v.</i></p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:162px; height:354px" src="images/img375.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>—A pair of +spikelets of <i>Andropogon</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Tribe 2. <i>Andropogoneae</i> (25 genera, mainly tropical). The +spikelets are arranged in spike-like racemes, generally in pairs consisting +of a sessile and stalked spikelet at each joint of the rachis +(fig. 18). Many are savanna grasses, in various parts of the tropics, +for instance the large genus <i>Andropogon</i>, <i>Elionurus</i> and others. +<i>Saccharum officinarum</i> (sugar-cane) (<i>q.v.</i>). <i>Sorghum</i>, an important +tropical cereal known as black millet or <i>durra</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). <i>Miscanthus</i> and +<i>Erianthus</i>, nearly allied to <i>Saccharum</i>, are tall reed-like grasses, +with large silky flower-panicles, which are +grown for ornament. <i>Imperata</i>, another +ally, is a widespread tropical genus; one +species <i>I. arundinacea</i> is the principal grass +of the alang-alang fields in the Malay Archipelago; +it is used for thatch. <i>Vossia</i>, an +aquatic grass, often floating, is found in +western India and tropical Africa. In the +swampy lands of the upper Nile it forms, +along with a species of <i>Saccharum</i>, huge +floating grass barriers. <i>Elionurus</i>, a widespread +savanna grass in tropical and subtropical +America, and also in the tropics of +the old world, is rejected by cattle probably +on account of its aromatic character, the +spikelets having a strong balsam-like smell. +Other aromatic members are <i>Andropogon +Nardus</i>, a native of India, but also cultivated, +the rhizome, leaves and especially the spikelets +of which contain a volatile oil, which on +distillation yields the citronella oil of commerce. +A closely allied species, <i>A. Schoenanthus</i> +(lemon-grass), yields lemon-grass oil; +a variety is used by the negroes in western +Africa for haemorrhage. Other species of +the same genus are used as stimulants and +cosmetics in various parts of the tropics. The species of <i>Heteropogon</i>, +a cosmopolitan genus in the warmer parts of the world, have +strongly awned spikelets. <i>Themeda Forskalii</i>, which occurs from the +Mediterranean region to South Africa and Tasmania, is the kangaroo +grass of Australia, where, as in South Africa, it often covers wide +tracts.</p> + +<p>Tribe 3. <i>Paniceae</i> (about 25 genera, tropical to subtropical; +a few temperate), a second flower, generally male, rarely hermaphrodite, +is often present below the fertile flower. <i>Paspalum</i>, is a +large tropical genus, most abundant in America, especially on the +pampas and campos; many species are good forage plants, and the +grain is sometimes used for food. <i>Amphicarpum</i>, native in the south-eastern +United States, has fertile cleistogamous spikelets on filiform +runners at the base of the culm, those on the terminal panicle are +sterile. <i>Panicum</i>, a very polymorphic genus, and one of the largest +in the order, is widely spread in all warm countries; together with +species of <i>Paspalum</i> they form good forage grasses in the South +American savannas and campos. <i>Panicum Crus-galli</i> is a polymorphic +cosmopolitan grass, which is often grown for fodder; in one +form (<i>P. frumentaceum</i>) it is cultivated in India for its grain. <i>P. +plicatum</i>, with broad folded leaves, is an ornamental greenhouse grass. +<i>P. miliaceum</i> is millet (<i>q.v.</i>), and <i>P. altissimum</i>, Guinea grass. In +the closely allied genus <i>Digitaria</i>, which is sometimes regarded as +a section of <i>Panicum</i>, the lowest barren glume is reduced to a point; +<i>D. sanguinalis</i> is a very widespread grass, in Bohemia it is cultivated +as a food-grain; it is also the crab-grass of the southern United States, +where it is used for fodder.</p> + +<p>In <i>Setaria</i> and allied genera the spikelet is subtended by an +involucre of bristles or spines which represent sterile branches of the +inflorescence. <i>Setaria italica</i>, Hungarian grass, is extensively grown +as a food-grain both in China and Japan, parts of India and western +Asia, as well as in Europe, where its culture dates from prehistoric +times; it is found in considerable quantity in the lake dwellings of +the Stone age.</p> + +<p>In <i>Cenchrus</i> the bristles unite to form a tough spiny capsule +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page376" id="page376"></a>376</span> +(fig. 12); <i>C. tribuloides</i> (bur-grass) and other species are troublesome +weeds in North and South America, as the involucre clings to the +wool of sheep and is removed with great difficulty. <i>Pennisetum +typhoideum</i> is widely cultivated as a grain in tropical Africa. <i>Spinifex</i>, +a dioecious grass, is widespread on the coasts of Australia and +eastern Asia, forming an important sand-binder. The female heads +are spinose with long pungent bracts, fall entire when ripe and are +carried away by wind or sea, becoming finally anchored in the sand +and falling to pieces.</p> + +<p>Tribe 4. <i>Oryzeae</i> (16 genera, mainly tropical and subtropical). +The spikelets are sometimes unisexual, and there are often six +stamens. <i>Leersia</i> is a genus of swamp grasses, one of which <i>L. +oryzoides</i> occurs in the north temperate zone of both old and new +worlds, and is a rare grass in Surrey, Sussex and Hampshire. <i>Zizania +aquatica</i> (Tuscarora or Indian rice) is a reed-like grass growing over +large areas on banks of streams and lakes in North America and north-east +Asia. The Indians collect the grain for food. <i>Oryza sativa</i> +(rice) (<i>q.v.</i>). <i>Lygeum Spartum</i>, with a creeping stem and stiff rush-like +leaves, is common on rocky soil on the high plains bordering the +western Mediterranean, and is one of the sources of esparto.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:246px; height:202px" src="images/img376a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>—<i>Phalarideae.</i> Spikelet +of Hierochloe.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Tribe 5. <i>Phalarideae</i> (6 genera, +three of which are South African +and Australasian; the others are +more widely distributed, and represented +in our flora). <i>Phalaris +arundinacea</i>, is a reed-grass found +on the banks of British rivers and +lakes; a variety with striped leaves +known as ribbon-grass is grown for +ornament. <i>P. canariensis</i> (Canary +grass, a native of southern Europe +and the Mediterranean area) is +grown for bird-food and sometimes +as a cereal. <i>Anthoxanthum +odoratum</i>, the sweet vernal grass of +our flora, owes its scent to the +presence of coumarin, which is also present in the closely allied +genus <i>Hierochloe</i> (fig. 19), which occurs throughout the temperate +and frigid zones.</p> + +<p>Tribe 6. <i>Agrostideae</i> (about 35 genera, occurring in all parts of +the world; eleven are British). <i>Aristida</i> and <i>Stipa</i> are large and +widely distributed genera, occurring especially on open plains and +steppes; the conspicuously awned persistent flowering glume forms +an efficient means of dispersing the grain. <i>Stipa pennata</i> is a characteristic +species of the Russian steppes. <i>St. spartea</i> (porcupine +grass) and other species are plentiful on the North American prairies. +<i>St. tenacissima</i> is the Spanish esparto grass (<i>q.v.</i>), known in North +Africa as halfa or alfa. <i>Phleum</i> has a cylindrical spike-like inflorescence; +<i>P. pratense</i> (timothy) is a valuable fodder grass, as also is +<i>Alopecurus pratensis</i> (foxtail). <i>Sporobolus</i>, a large genus in the +warmer parts of both hemispheres, but chiefly America, derives its +name from the fact that the seed is ultimately expelled from the +fruit. <i>Agrostis</i> is a large world-wide genus, but especially developed +in the north temperate zone, where it includes important meadow-grasses. +<i>Calamagrostis</i> and <i>Deyeuxia</i> are tall, often reed-like grasses, +occurring throughout the temperate and arctic zones and upon high +mountains in the tropics. <i>Ammophila arundinacea</i> (or <i>Psamma +arenaria</i>) (Marram grass) with its long creeping stems forms a useful +sand-binder on the coasts of Europe, North Africa and the Atlantic +states of America.</p> + +<p>Tribe 7. <i>Aveneae</i> (about 24 genera, seven of which are British). +<i>Holcus lanatus</i> (Yorkshire fog, soft grass) is a common meadow and +wayside grass with woolly or downy leaves. <i>Aira</i> is a genus of +delicate annuals with slender hair-like branches of the panicle. +<i>Deschampsia</i> and <i>Trisetum</i> occur in temperate and cold regions or on +high mountains in the tropics; <i>T. pratense</i> (<i>Avena flavescens</i>) with +a loose panicle and yellow shining spikelets is a valuable fodder-grass. +<i>Avena fatua</i> is the wild oat and <i>A. sativa</i> the cultivated oat +(<i>q.v.</i>). <i>Arrhenatherum avenaceum</i>, a perennial field grass, native in +Britain and central and southern Europe, is cultivated in North +America.</p> + +<p>Tribe 8. <i>Chlorideae</i> (about 30 genera, chiefly in warm countries). +The only British representative is <i>Cynodon Dactylon</i> (dog’s tooth, +Bermuda grass) found on sandy shores in the south-west of England; +it is a cosmopolitan, covering the ground in sandy soils, and forming +an important forage grass in many dry climates (Bermuda grass of +the southern United States, and known as durba, dub and other +names in India). Species of <i>Chloris</i> are grown as ornamental grasses. +<i>Bouteloua</i> with numerous species (mesquite grass, grama grass) on +the plains of the south-western United States, afford good grazing. +<i>Eleusine indica</i> is a common tropical weed; the nearly allied species +<i>E. Coracana</i> is a cultivated grain in the warmer parts of Asia and +throughout Africa. <i>Buchloe dactyloides</i> is the buffalo grass of the +North American prairies, a valuable fodder.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 375px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:314px; height:618px" src="images/img376b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>—<i>Poa annua.</i> Plant in Flower; +about ˝ nat. size. 1, one spikelet.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Tribe 9. <i>Festuceae</i> (about 83 genera, including tropical, temperate, +arctic and alpine forms) many are important meadow-grasses; 15 +are British. <i>Gynerium argenteum</i> (pampas grass) is a native of +southern Brazil and Argentina. <i>Arundo</i> and <i>Phragmites</i> are tall +reed-grasses (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Reed</a></span>). Several species of <i>Triodia</i> cover large areas +of the interior of Australia, and from their stiff, sharply pointed leaves +are very troublesome. <i>Eragrostis</i>, one of the larger genera of the +order, is widely distributed in the warmer parts of the earth; many +species are grown for ornament and <i>E. abyssinica</i> is an important +food-plant in Abyssinia. +<i>Koeleria cristata</i> is a +fodder-grass. <i>Briza +media</i> (quaking grass) +is a useful meadow-grass. +<i>Dactylis glomerata</i> +(cock’s-foot), a +perennial grass with a +dense panicle, common +in pastures and waste +places is a useful +meadow-grass. It has +become naturalized in +North America, where +it is known as orchard +grass, as it will grow +in shade. <i>Cynosurus +cristatus</i> (dog’s tail) is +a common pasture-grass. +<i>Poa</i>, a large +genus widely distributed +in temperate and +cold countries, includes +many meadow and +alpine grasses; eight +species are British; <i>P. +annua</i> (fig. 20) is the +very common weed in +paths and waste places; +<i>P. pratensis</i> and <i>P. trivialis</i> +are also common +grasses of meadows, +banks and pastures, the +former is the “June +grass” or “Kentucky +blue grass” of North +America; <i>P. alpina</i> +is a mountain grass of +the northern hemisphere +and found also +in the Arctic region. +The largest species of +the genus is <i>Poa flabellata</i> +which forms great +tufts 6-7 ft. high with leaves arranged like a fan; it is a native +of the Falkland and certain antarctic islands where it is known as +tussock grass. <i>Glyceria fluitans</i>, manna-grass, so-called +from the sweet grain, is one of the best fodder +grasses for swampy meadows; the grain is an article +of food in central Europe. <i>Festuca</i> (fescue) is also +a large and widely distributed genus, but found +especially in the temperate and cold zones; it +includes valuable pasture grasses, such as <i>F. ovina</i> +(sheep’s fescue), <i>F. rubra</i>; nine species are British. +The closely allied genus <i>Bromus</i> (brome grass) is +also widely distributed but most abundant in the +north temperate zone; <i>B. erectus</i> is a useful forage +grass on dry chalky soil.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:58px; height:486px" src="images/img376c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>—Spike of Wheat +(<i>Triticum sativum</i>). +About <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> nat. size.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Tribe 10. <i>Hordeae</i> (about 19 genera, widely +distributed; six are British). <i>Nardus stricta</i> (mat-weed), +found on heaths and dry pastures, is a small +perennial with slender rigid stem and leaves, it is +a useless grass, crowding out better sorts. <i>Lolium +perenne</i>, ray- (or by corruption rye-) grass, is +common in waste places and a valuable pasture-grass; +<i>L. italicum</i> is the Italian ray-grass; <i>L. +temulentum</i> (darnel) contains a narcotic principle +in the grain. <i>Secale cereale</i>, rye (<i>q.v.</i>), is cultivated +mainly in northern Europe. <i>Agropyrum repens</i> +(couch grass) has a long creeping underground stem, +and is a troublesome weed in cultivated land; the +widely creeping stem of <i>A. junceum</i>, found on +sandy sea-shores, renders it a useful sand-binder. +<i>Triticum sativum</i> is wheat (<i>q.v.</i>) (fig. 21), and <i>Hordeum +sativum</i>, barley (<i>q.v.</i>). <i>H. murinum</i>, wild +barley, is a common grass in waste places. <i>Elymus +arenarius</i> (lyme grass) occurs on sandy sea-shores in +the north temperate zone and is a useful sand-binder.</p> + +<p>Tribe 11. <i>Bambuseae</i>. Contains 23 genera, mainly +tropical. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bamboo</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<p>III. <span class="sc">Distribution.</span>—Grasses are the most +universally diffused of all flowering plants. +There is no district in which they do not occur, and in nearly +all they are a leading feature of the flora. In number of +species Gramineae comes considerably after Compositae and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>377</span> +Leguminosae, the two most numerous orders of phanerogams, +but in number of individual plants it probably far exceeds +either; whilst from the wide extension of many of its +species, the proportion of Gramineae to other orders in the +various floras of the world is much higher than its number of +species would lead one to expect. In tropical regions, where +Leguminosae is the leading order, grasses closely follow as the +second, whilst in the warm and temperate regions of the northern +hemisphere, in which Compositae takes the lead, Gramineae +again occupies the second position.</p> + +<p>While the greatest number of species is found in the tropical +zone, the number of individuals is greater in the temperate +zones, where they form extended areas of turf. Turf- or meadow-formation +depends upon uniform rainfall. Grasses also characterize +steppes and savannas, where they form scattered tufts. +The bamboos are a feature of tropical forest vegetation, especially +in the monsoon region. As the colder latitudes are entered the +grasses become relatively more numerous, and are the leading +family in Arctic and Antarctic regions. The only countries +where the order plays a distinctly subordinate part are some +extra-tropical regions of the southern hemisphere, Australia, +the Cape, Chili, &c. The proportion of graminaceous species +to the whole phanerogamic flora in different countries is found +to vary from nearly źth in the Arctic regions to about <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">25</span>th at +the Cape; in the British Isles it is about <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span>th.</p> + +<p>The principal climatic cause influencing the number of graminaceous +species appears to be amount of moisture. A remarkable +feature of the distribution of grasses is its uniformity; there are +no great centres for the order, as in Compositae, where a marked +preponderance of endemic species exists; and the genera, +except some of the smallest or monotypic ones, have usually +a wide distribution.</p> + +<p>The distribution of the tropical tribe <i>Bambuseae</i> is interesting. +The species are about equally divided between the Indo-Malayan +region and tropical America, only one species being common +to both. The tribe is very poorly represented in tropical Africa; +one species <i>Oxytenanthera abyssinica</i> has a wide range, and three +monotypic genera are endemic in western tropical Africa. None +is recorded for Australia, though species may perhaps occur +on the northern coast. One species of <i>Arundinaria</i> reaches +northwards as far as Virginia, and the elevation attained in the +Andes by some species of <i>Chusquea</i> is very remarkable,—one, +<i>C. aristata</i>, being abundant from 15,000 ft. up to nearly the level +of perpetual snow.</p> + +<p>Many grasses are almost cosmopolitan, such as the common +reed, <i>Phragmites communis</i>; and many range throughout the +warm regions of the globe, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Cynodon Dactylon</i>, <i>Eleusine +indica</i>, <i>Imperata arundinacea</i>, <i>Sporobolus indicus</i>, &c., and such +weeds of cultivation as species of <i>Setaria</i>, <i>Echinochloa</i>. Several +species of the north temperate zone, such as <i>Poa nemoralis</i>, +<i>P. pratensis</i>, <i>Festuca ovina</i>, <i>F. rubra</i> and others, are absent in +the tropics but reappear in the antarctic regions; others (<i>e.g.</i> +<i>Phleum alpinum</i>) appear in isolated positions on high mountains +in the intervening tropics. No tribe is confined to one hemisphere +and no large genus to any one floral region; facts which indicate +that the separation of the tribes goes back to very ancient times. +The revision of the Australian species by Bentham well exhibits +the wide range of the genera of the order in a flora generally so +peculiar and restricted as that of Australia. Thus of the 90 +indigenous genera (many monotypic or very small) only 14 are +endemic, 1 extends to South Africa, 3 are common to Australia +and New Zealand, 18 extend also into Asia, whilst no fewer than +54 are found in both the Old and New Worlds; 26 being chiefly +tropical and 28 chiefly extra-tropical.</p> + +<p>Of specially remarkable species <i>Lygeum</i> is found on the +sea-sand of the eastern half of the Mediterranean basin, and the +minute <i>Coleanthus</i> occurs in three or four isolated spots in +Europe (Norway, Bohemia, Austria, Normandy), in North-east +Asia (Amur) and on the Pacific coast of North America (Oregon, +Washington). Many remarkable endemic genera occur in +tropical America, including <i>Anomochloa</i> of Brazil, and most of +the large aquatic species with separated sexes are found in this +region. The only genus of flowering plants peculiar to the arctic +regions is the beautiful and rare grass <i>Pleuropogon Sabinii</i>, of +Melville Island.</p> + +<p><i>Fossil Grasses.</i>—While numerous remains of grass-like leaves +are a proof that grasses were widespread and abundantly +developed in past geological ages, especially in the Tertiary +period, the fossil remains are in most cases too fragmentary and +badly preserved for the determination of genera, and conclusions +based thereon in explanation of existing geographical distribution +are most unsatisfactory. There is, however, justification for +referring some specimens to <i>Arundo</i>, <i>Phragmites</i>, and to the +<i>Bambuseae</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—E. Hackel, <i>The True Grasses</i> (translated from +Engler and Prantl, <i>Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien</i>, by F. Lamson +Scribner and E. A. Southworth); and <i>Andropogoneae</i> in de Candolle’s +<i>Monographiae phanerogamarum</i> (Paris, 1889); K. S. Kunth, +<i>Revision des graminées</i> (Paris, 1829-1835) and <i>Agrostographia</i> +(Stuttgart, 1833); J. C. Döll in Martius and Eichler, <i>Flora Brasiliensis</i>, +ii. Pts. II. and III. (Munich, 1871-1883); A. W. Eichler, <i>Blüthendiagramme</i> +i. 119 (Leipzig, 1875); Bentham and Hooker, <i>Genera +plantarum</i>, iii. 1074 (London, 1883); H. Baillon, <i>Histoire des +plantes</i>, xii. 136 (Paris, 1893); J. S. Gamble, “<i>Bambuseae</i> of British +India” in <i>Annals Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta</i>, vii. (1896); +John Percival, <i>Agricultural Botany</i> (chapters on “Grasses,” 2nd ed., +London, 1902). See also accounts of the family in the various great +floras, such as Ascherson and Graebner, <i>Synopsis der mitteleuropäischen +Flora</i>; N. L. Britton and A. Brown, <i>Illustrated Flora of the Northern +United States and Canada</i> (New York, 1896); Hooker’s <i>Flora of +British India</i>; <i>Flora Capensis</i> (edited by W. Thiselton-Dyer); +Boissier, <i>Flora orientalis</i>, &c. &c.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word “grass” (O. Eng. <i>gćrs</i>, <i>grćs</i>) is common to Teutonic +languages, cf. Dutch Ger. Goth, <i>gras</i>, Dan. <i>grćs</i>; the root is the +O. Teut. <i>gra</i>-, <i>gro</i>-, to increase, whence “grow,” and “green,” the +typical colour of growing vegetation. The Indo-European root is +seen in Lat. <i>gramen</i>. The O. Eng. <i>grasian</i>, formed from <i>grćs</i>, gives +“to graze,” of cattle feeding on growing herbage, also “grazier,” +one who grazes or feeds cattle for the market; “to graze,” to +abrade, to touch lightly in passing, may be a development of this +from the idea of close cropping; if it is to be distinguished a possible +connexion may be found with “glace” (Fr. <i>glacer</i>, glide, slip, Lat. +<i>glacies</i>, ice), to glance off, the change in form being influenced by +“grate,” to scrape, scratch (Fr. <i>gratter</i>, Ger. <i>kratzen</i>).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 12, Slice 3, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 37984-h.htm or 37984-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/7/9/8/37984/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> + + diff --git a/37984-h/images/img272.jpg b/37984-h/images/img272.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..dcb542f --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img272.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img287.jpg b/37984-h/images/img287.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c46f6c2 --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img287.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img311.jpg b/37984-h/images/img311.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..780735f --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img311.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img314.jpg b/37984-h/images/img314.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0433cd9 --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img314.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img337.jpg b/37984-h/images/img337.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e09eaf9 --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img337.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img338.jpg b/37984-h/images/img338.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c43cecd --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img338.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img339.jpg b/37984-h/images/img339.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6e8f750 --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img339.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img366.jpg b/37984-h/images/img366.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1c7f2ef --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img366.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img370.jpg b/37984-h/images/img370.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c2dcdd1 --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img370.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img371a.jpg b/37984-h/images/img371a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..258d5fb --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img371a.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img371b.jpg b/37984-h/images/img371b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f1ccefe --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img371b.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img371c.jpg b/37984-h/images/img371c.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f5bc886 --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img371c.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img371d.jpg b/37984-h/images/img371d.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5654108 --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img371d.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img372a.jpg b/37984-h/images/img372a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cbe69be --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img372a.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img372b.jpg b/37984-h/images/img372b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1844381 --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img372b.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img372c.jpg b/37984-h/images/img372c.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..04216eb --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img372c.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img372d.jpg b/37984-h/images/img372d.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..97ddce2 --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img372d.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img372e.jpg b/37984-h/images/img372e.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..eaf24fa --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img372e.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img373a.jpg b/37984-h/images/img373a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..13577d8 --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img373a.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img373b.jpg b/37984-h/images/img373b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..960eb9f --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img373b.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img374a.jpg b/37984-h/images/img374a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e698f85 --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img374a.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img374b.jpg b/37984-h/images/img374b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1346cd7 --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img374b.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img375.jpg b/37984-h/images/img375.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6b8035b --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img375.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img376a.jpg b/37984-h/images/img376a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..05280a1 --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img376a.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img376b.jpg b/37984-h/images/img376b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..898f3b6 --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img376b.jpg diff --git a/37984-h/images/img376c.jpg b/37984-h/images/img376c.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..71d97c4 --- /dev/null +++ b/37984-h/images/img376c.jpg |
