diff options
Diffstat (limited to '37968-h/37968-h.htm')
| -rw-r--r-- | 37968-h/37968-h.htm | 11681 |
1 files changed, 11681 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/37968-h/37968-h.htm b/37968-h/37968-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..30b3cf5 --- /dev/null +++ b/37968-h/37968-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,11681 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<!-- $Id: header.txt 236 2009-12-07 18:57:00Z vlsimpson $ --> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Nut Culturist, by Andrew S. Fuller.</title> +<style type="text/css"> +body +{ + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + +h1, h2, h3, h4, h5 +{ + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +p +{ + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; +} + +hr +{ + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; +} + +table +{ + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} + +.pagenum +{ /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; +}.center { text-align: center; } + +.smcap { font-variant: small-caps; } + +span.larft { font-size: 125% } + +.caption { font-weight: bold; } + +.figcenter +{ + margin: auto; + text-align: center; +} + +.figleft +{ + float: left; + clear: left; + margin-left: 0; + margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-right: 1em; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; +} + +.figright +{ + float: right; + clear: right; + margin-left: 1em; + margin-bottom: + 1em; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-right: 0; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; +} + +.footnote +{ + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + font-size: 0.9em; +} + +.footnote .label +{ + position: absolute; + right: 84%; + text-align: right; +} + +.fnanchor +{ + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; +} + +.italics { font-style: italic; } + +.italics { font-style: italic; } +</style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Nut Culturist, by Andrew S. Fuller + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Nut Culturist + A Treatise on Propogation, Planting, and Cultivation of + Nut Bearing Trees and Shrubs Adapted to the Climate of the + United States + +Author: Andrew S. Fuller + +Release Date: November 10, 2011 [EBook #37968] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NUT CULTURIST *** + + + + +Produced by Charlene Taylor, Kathryn Lybarger and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 525px;"> <img src="images/frontisgs.png" alt="" height="800" width="525" /></div> +<hr /> +<h2>THE</h2> +<h1>NUT CULTURIST</h1> +<h2>A TREATISE</h2> +<h4>ON THE</h4> +<h3>PROPAGATION, PLANTING AND CULTIVATION</h3> +<h3>OF NUT-BEARING TREES AND SHRUBS</h3> +<h4>ADAPTED TO THE</h4> +<h2>CLIMATE OF THE UNITED STATES,</h2> +<h4>WITH THE SCIENTIFIC AND COMMON NAMES OF</h4> +<h3>THE FRUITS KNOWN</h3> +<h4>IN COMMERCE AS EDIBLE OR OTHERWISE USEFUL NUTS</h4> +<hr style="width: 15%" /> +<h3>By ANDREW S. FULLER,</h3> +<p class="center"><i>Author of the "Grape Culturist," "Small Fruit Culturist," "Practical Forestry,"</i></p> +<p class="center"><i>"Propagation of Plants," etc., etc.</i></p> +<hr style="width: 15%" /> +<h3><i>ILLUSTRATED</i></h3> +<hr style="width: 15%" /> +<h4>NEW YORK</h4> +<h3>ORANGE JUDD COMPANY</h3> +<h4>1896</h4> +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p> +<h4> <span class="smcap">Copyright, 1896,</span></h4> +<h4> <span class="smcap">BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY</span><br /> +</h4> +<hr /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span> +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2> +<p>Believing that the time is opportune for making an + effort to cultivate all kinds of edible and otherwise useful + nut-bearing trees and shrubs adapted to the soil and + climate of the United States, thereby inaugurating a + great, permanent and far-reaching industry, the following + pages have been penned, and with the hope of encouraging + and aiding the farmer to increase his income + and enjoyments, without, to any appreciable extent, + adding to his expenses or labors. With this idea in + mind, I have not advised the general planting of nut + orchards on land adapted to the production of grain and + other indispensable farm crops, but mainly as roadside + trees and where desired for shade, shelter and ornament, + being confident that when all such positions are occupied + with choice nut-bearing trees, to the exclusion of those + yielding nothing of intrinsic value, there will have + been added many millions of dollars to the wealth of + the country, as well as a vast store of edible and delicious + food.</p> +<p>This work has not been written for the edification, + or the special approbation, of scientific botanists, but for + those who, in the opinion of the writer, are most likely + to profit by a treatise of this kind. Unfamiliar terms + have been omitted wherever simple common words + would answer equally as well in conveying the intended + information. There being no work of this kind published + in this country that would serve as a guide, I + have been compelled to formulate a plan of my own,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span> and to describe all the newer varieties from the best + specimens obtainable, and these may not, in all cases, + have been perfect. Under such circumstances, this + work must necessarily be incomplete, and especially + where the possessors of claimed-to-be new and valuable + varieties have either refused or failed to give any information + in regard to them. On the contrary, however, + I must acknowledge my indebtedness to many correspondents, + who have so generously placed specimens of + both trees and nuts of rare new varieties in my hands + for testing and describing, as well as assisting me in + tracing their history and origin.</p> +<p>That this treatise may become the pioneer of many + other and better works on nut culture is the sincere + wish of</p> +<p style="text-align: right"> THE AUTHOR.</p> +<p style="text-align: left"> <span class="smcap">Ridgewood, N. J., 1896.</span> </p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> +<hr /> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> +<div align="center"> + <table id="table2" summary="toc" style="border-collapse: collapse;" + border="0"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"><span>Page.</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" align="center">CHAPTER I.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">INTRODUCTION</a>,</span></td> + <td align="right">1</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" align="center">CHAPTER II. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">The Almond</a></span>, </td> + <td align="right">12</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" align="center">CHAPTER III. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">The Beechnut</a></span>, </td> + <td align="right">44</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" align="center">CHAPTER IV. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">Castanopsis</a></span>, </td> + <td align="right">55</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" align="center">CHAPTER V. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">The Chestnut</a></span>, </td> + <td align="right">60</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" align="center">CHAPTER VI. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">Filbert Or Hazelnut</a></span>, </td> + <td align="right">118</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" align="center">CHAPTER VII. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Hickory Nuts</a></span>, </td> + <td align="right">147</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" align="center">CHAPTER VIII. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">The Walnut</a></span>, </td> + <td align="right">203</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td colspan="2" align="center">CHAPTER IX. </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">Miscellaneous Nuts</a>—Edible and Otherwise</span>, </td> + <td align="right">254</td> + </tr> + </tbody> + </table> +</div> +<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p> +<hr /> +<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> +<div align="center"> + <table id="table1" summary="loi" style="border-collapse: collapse;" border="0"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <td align="right">Fig. </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="right">Page.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._1.">1.</a> </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>A California almond orchard,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 18</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._2.">2.</a> </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Budding knife, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 24</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._3.">3.</a> </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Yankee budding knife, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 24</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._4">4.</a> </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Prepared shoot,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 26</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._5">5</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Incision for bud, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 27</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._6.">6.</a> </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Bud in position, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 28</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._7.">7</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Hard-shelled almond,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 36</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._8">8</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Thin-shelled almond,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 37</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._9">9</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Beechnut leaf, bur and nut, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 51</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._10">10</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Leaves and nut of Castanopsis chrysophylla,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 56</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._11">11</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Castanopsis bur,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 57</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._12">12</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Chestnut flowers, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 61</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._13">13</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Splice graft,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 75</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._14">14</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Splice graft inserted, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 75</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._15">15</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Stock, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 77</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._16">16</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Cion,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 77</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._17">17</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Two cions inserted,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 77</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._17">18</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>One cion inserted,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 77</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._19">19</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>American chestnut leaf,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 88</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._20">20</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Spike of burs of bush chinquapin (<span class="italics">Castanea nana</span>),</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 89</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._21">21</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Spike of chinquapin chestnut bur (<span class="italics">C. pumila</span>),</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 90</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._22">22</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Single bur, nut and leaf of chinquapin chestnut (<span style="font-style: italic">C. pumila</span>),</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 91</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._23">23</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Japan chestnut leaf,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 92</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._24">24</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Burs of Fuller's chinquapin (one-half natural size),</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 97</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._25">25</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Fuller's chinquapin, five years old from nut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 98</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._26">26</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Bur of Numbo chestnut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 101</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._27">27</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Spines of Numbo chestnut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 102</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._28">28</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Numbo chestnut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 102</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._29">29</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Paragon chestnut bur (one-half natural size),</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 103</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._30">30</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Spines of Paragon chestnut bur,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 103</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._31">31</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Paragon chestnut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 104</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._32">32</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Four-year-old Paragon chestnut tree, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 105</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._33">33</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Open bur of the Ridgely chestnut, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 106</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._34">34</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Japan Giant chestnut, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 110</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._35">35</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Spines of Japan chestnut, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 110</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._36">36</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Chestnut weevil, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 114</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._37">37</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Large filbert, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 119</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._38">38</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Large seedling hazelnut, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 120</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._39">39</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Constantinople hazel, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 129</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._40">40</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>English filbert orchard, five years from seed, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 134</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._41">41</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Varieties of filberts and hazel seedlings, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 135</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._42">42</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Extra large hazel seedling or round English filbert, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 136</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._43">43</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Filbert orchard struck with blight, fifth year from seed, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 137</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._44">44</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Hazel fungus, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 141</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._45">45</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Fourteen-years-old pecan tree in Mississippi, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 154</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._46">46</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Leaf and sterile catkins of shellbark hickory, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 156</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._47">47</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Western shellbark, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 158</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._48">48</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Section Western shellbark, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 158</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._49">49</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Leaf of pignut, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 161</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._50">50</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Bitternut branch and leaf, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 163</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._51">51</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Bitternut, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 164</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._52">52</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Large, long pecan nut, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 166</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._53">53</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Oval pecan nut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 166</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._54">54</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Small oval pecan nut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 167</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._55">55</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Little Mobile pecan nut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 167</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._56">56</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Stuart pecan nut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 169</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._57">57</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Van Deman pecan nut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 169</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._58">58</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Risien pecan nut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 169</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._59">59</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Lady Finger pecan nut, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 169</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._60">60</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>The original Hales' Paper-shell hickory tree, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 171</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._61">61</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Hales' hickory, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 172</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._62">62</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Section of Hales' hickory, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 172</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._63">63</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Long shellbark hickory,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 173</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._64">64</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Shellbark Missouri,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 173</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._65">65</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Long Western shellbark,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 174</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._66">66</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Fresh Nussbaumer hybrid,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 175</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._67">67</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Nussbaumer's hybrid, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 176</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._68">68</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Crown grafting on roots of the hickory, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 189</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._69">69</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Sprouts from severed hickory roots, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 190</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._70">70</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>The hickory-twig girdler, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 196</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._71">71</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Hickory borer, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 198</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._72">72</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Burrows of hickory scolytus, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 200</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._73">73</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Persian walnut, showing position of sexual organs,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 204</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._74">74</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Bearing branch of English walnut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 205</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._75">75</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Seedling walnut, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 216</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._76">76</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Flute budding,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 220</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._77">77</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Flowering branch of hybrid walnut, </span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 228</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._78">78</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Hybrid walnut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 230</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._79">79</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Hybrid walnut, shell removed,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 230</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._80">80</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Juglans Sieboldiana raceme,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 231</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._81">81</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Black walnut in husk,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 232</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._82">82</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Juglans nigra, husk removed,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 233</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._83">83</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Juglans Californica,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 235</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._84">84</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Juglans rupestris, showing small kernel,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 235</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._85">85</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Juglans Sieboldiana,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 238</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._86">86</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Juglans cordiformis,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 239</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._87">87</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Small fruited walnut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 240</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._88">88</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Barthere walnut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 242</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._89">89</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Chaberte walnut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 242</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._90">90</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Chile walnut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 242</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._91">91</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Cut-leaved walnut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 243</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._92">92</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Gibbons walnut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 244</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._93">93</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Mayette walnut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 245</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._94">94</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Kernel of walnut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 245</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._95">95</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Juglans regia octogona,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 245</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._96">96</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Cross section,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 245</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._97">97</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Parisienne walnut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 246</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._98">98</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>Serotina or St. John walnut,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 247</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._99">99</a>. </span></td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left"><span>The caterpillar of the regal walnut moth,</span></td> + <td align="right"><span> 252</span></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#FIG._100">100</a>. </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left">The regal walnut moth—Citheronia regalis, </td> + <td align="right">252</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#FIG._101">101</a>. </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left">Brazil nut, </td> + <td align="right">258 </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#FIG._102">102</a>. </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left">The cashew nut, </td> + <td align="right">260 </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#FIG._103">103</a>. </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left">Litchi or Leechee nut, </td> + <td align="right">270 </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#FIG._104">104</a>. </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left">Branch of nut pine, </td> + <td align="right">277 </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#FIG._105">105</a>. </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left">Paradise or sapucaia nut, </td> + <td align="right">279 </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#FIG._106">106</a>. </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left">Souari nut, </td> + <td align="right">281 </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#FIG._107">107</a>. </td> + <td align="left"> </td> + <td align="left">Water chestnut, </td> + <td align="right">283</td> + </tr> + </tbody> + </table> +</div> +<p> </p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> +<hr /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2> +<h3>INTRODUCTION.</h3> +<p>No special amount of prophetic acumen is required + to foresee that the time will soon come when the people + of this country must necessarily place a much higher + value upon all kinds of food than they do at present, or + have done in the past. In this we are pre-supposing + that in the natural course of events, our population will + continue to increase in nearly the same ratio it has since + we assumed the responsibilities of an independent nation.</p> +<p>The very existence of animal life on this planet depends + upon the quantity and quality of available food, + and while some sentimentalists may assume to ignore + and even attempt to deprecate the animal desires of + their race, nature compels us to recognize the fact that + there can be no fire without fuel, and the great and useful + intellectual powers of man are the emanations of the + animal tissues of a well-nourished brain. The brawny + arm that rends the rock and hurls the fragments aside, + gets its power through the same channel and from the + same source as those of other members of society, whatever + the nature of their calling; for mankind is built + upon one universal and general plan, varied though it + may be in some of the minor details of construction. + We certainly have no cause to fear that the theories of + Malthus, in regard to the overpopulation of the earth + as a whole, will ever be verified in the experience of the + human race, because with necessity comes industry, also + the inventions of devices to enable us to avoid just such + dangers, and if these fail to keep pace with our wants<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> and needs, wars, earthquakes, drouths, floods, and contagious, + epidemic and other diseases, become the weapons + which nature employs to prevent overpopulation. But + we cannot deny that nature does sometimes encourage or + permit a somewhat redundant population in certain + favorable countries and localities, and then follows a + struggle for existence, and food becomes the paramount + object in life. To ward off danger of this kind and + keep the supply in excess of the demand, is a problem + which should seriously engage the attention of every + one who takes the least interest in the general welfare of + his countrymen, even though the day of want or scarcity + of food may be very far distant.</p> +<p>Among the various sources of acceptable and nutritious + food products heretofore almost entirely neglected + in this country, the edible nuts stand preĂ«minently and + conspicuously in the foreground, awaiting the skill + and attention of all who seek pleasure and profit—to + be derived from the products of the soil. For many + centuries these nuts have held a prominent position + among the desirable and valuable food products of various + European and Oriental countries; not only because + they were important and almost indispensable in making + up the household supplies of all classes of the people, + but often because available for filling a depleted purse, + and the thing needful for this purpose has, in the main, + been received from far-distant nations, who through indifference + and neglect failed to provide themselves with + such a simple and valuable article as the edible nuts.</p> +<p>Much as we may boast of our immense natural resources + and advantages, we have not, as yet, availed ourselves + of one-half of those we possess, and the remainder + is still awaiting our attention. We also neglect to avail + ourselves of the many superior domestic traits and practices + of the foreign nations with whom we are in constant + communication. It may be that the absence of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> incentives has made us careless and indifferent in regard + to a day of need, which in all probability will come to + us sooner or later; but whatever the cause, the fact remains + that we have been spending millions annually on + worthless articles and sentimental problems and projects, + which have brought us neither riches nor honor; in + truth, to use a homely phrase, we have been following + the bellwether in nearly all of our rural affairs and pursuits. + As a natural result we are spending millions for + imported articles of everyday use which might easily + and with large profit be produced at home, and in many + instances the most humiliating part of the transaction is + that we send our money to people who do not purchase + any of our productions and almost ignore us in commercial + matters. I am not referring to those products ill-adapted + to our climate, nor to those which, owing to + scarcity and high price of labor, we are unable to produce + profitably, but to such nuts as the almond, walnut and + chestnut, which we can raise as readily as peaches, + apples and pears. There certainly can be no excuse for + the neglect of such nut trees on the score of cost of + labor in propagation and planting, because our streets + and highways are lined and shaded with equally as expensive + kinds, although they are absolutely worthless + for any other purpose than shade or shelter, yielding + nothing in the way of food for either man or beast. + Can any one invent a reasonable excuse for planting + miles and miles of roadside trees of such kinds as elm, + maple, ash, willow, cottonwood, and a hundred other + similar kinds, where shellbark hickory, chestnut, walnut, + pecan and butternut would thrive just as well, + cost no more, and yet yield bushels of delicious and + highly prized nuts, and this annually or in alternate + years, continuing and increasing in productiveness for one, two or more centuries. Aside from the intrinsic + value of such trees, they are, in the way of ornament,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> just as beautiful as, and in many instances much superior + to those yielding nothing in the way of food except, perhaps, + something for noxious insects.</p> +<p>I am not attempting to pose as the one wise man + engaged in rural affairs, but am merely recounting my personal + observation and experience, having in my younger + days taken the advice of my elders, and at a time when + a hint of the future value of nut trees would have been + worth more than a paid-up life insurance policy. But + as the hint was not given, I selected for roadside trees + ash, maples, tulip, magnolias, and other popular kinds, + all of which thrived, and by the time they were twenty + years old began to be admired for their beauty, although + their roots were spreading into the adjoining field, robbing + the soil of the nutriment required for less vigorous-growing + plants. Later, however, the discovery was + made that I was paying very dearly for a crop of leaves + and sentiment, neither of which was salable or available + for filling one's purse. When thirty years of age + the very best of my roadside trees were probably worth + two dollars each for firewood, or one dollar more than + the nurseryman's price at the time of planting. The + greater part of these trees, however, have since been cremated, + a few being left as reminders of the misdirected + labors of youth and inexperience.</p> +<p>In this matter of following a leader in tree-planting + along the highways, it appears to be a predominant trait + of our rural population and as old as the settlement of + this country, for nowhere is it more pronounced than in + the New England States, where the American elms + attracted the attention of the Pilgrims and their contemporaries + and descendants, and even continued down + to the present day. No one will deny that the + American elm is a noble tree in appearance, is easily + transplanted and of rapid growth, and yet it is one of + the most worthless for any economic purpose. It may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> be that its worthlessness for other purposes made it all + the more acceptable for streets and roadsides, the better + kinds being reserved for firewood, fencing, furniture, + and the manufacture of agricultural and other implements. + But whatever the cause or object, the elm became + the one tree generally selected for planting in + parks, villages, cities, and along roadsides in the country, + not only in the older but in many of the newer + States. From present indications, however, the glory + of this much over-praised tree is on the wane, for the + imported elm-leaf beetle (<i>Galeruca calmariensis</i>) is + slowly but surely spreading over the country, defoliating + the elms of all species and varieties, and it is a question + whether we should bless this insect for the work it is + doing or look upon it as a pest. Perhaps future generations + will sing pæons in its praise, and they certainly + will have reasons for rejoicing if better and more useful + kinds are planted in the places now occupied by the + worthless elms.</p> +<p>In other localities some pioneer or leader in roadside + ornamentation selected or recommended some species + of maple, linden, catalpa, poplar or willow, but it + made little or no difference as to kind, because, as a rule, + all his neighbors followed without a thought or question + in regard to adaptation to soil, climate, or fitness in the + local or surrounding scenery, or of its future economic + value. The result of this want of taste and forethought + may be seen in whatever direction one travels throughout + the older and more thickly settled portions of this + country.</p> +<p>Had the early settlers of the New England States + planted shellbark hickories, or even the native chestnut, + in place of the American elm, they would not only have + had equally as beautiful trees for shade and ornament, + but the nutritious nuts would scarcely have failed to bring + bright cheer to many a household and money to fill oft-depleted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> purses, while their descendants would have + blessed them for their forethought. Of course there are + other valuable kinds of nuts which thrive over the + greater part of the New England States, but I refer only + to the two, which were so abundant in the forests that + one or both could have been obtained for the mere cost + of transplanting. But it is not fair to prate about the + remissness and follies of our ancestors, unless we can + show by our works that wisdom has come down to us + through their experience.</p> +<p>What is true of the New England is equally true of + all the older States, and is rapidly becoming so in many + of the newer, little attention being paid to the intrinsic + value of the wood or the product of the trees planted + along the highways. There are also millions of acres of + wild lands not suitable for cultivation, but well adapted + to the growth of trees, whether of the nut-bearing or + other kinds. But for the present I will omit further + reference to the planting of nut trees except on the line + of the highways, just where other kinds have long been + in vogue and are still being cultivated for shade and + ornament,—with no thought, perhaps, on the part of + the planter, that both could be obtained in the nut trees, + with something of more intrinsic value added. The nut + trees which grow to a large size are as well adapted for + planting along roadsides, in the open country, as other + kinds that yield nothing in the way of food for either + man or beast. They are also fully as beautiful in form + and foliage, and in many instances far superior, to the + kinds often selected for such purposes.</p> +<p>The only objection I have heard of as being urged + against planting fruit and nut trees along the highway + is that they tempt boys and girls—as well as persons of + larger growth—to become trespassers; but this only applies + to where there is such a scarcity that the quantity + taken perceptibly lessens the total crop. But where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> there is an abundance, either the temptation to trespass + disappears, or we fail to recognize our loss. As we cannot + very well dispense with the small boy and his sister, + I am in favor of providing them bountifully with all the + good things that climate and circumstance will afford. + It is a truism that conscience is never strengthened by + an empty stomach.</p> +<p>A mile, in this country, is 5280 feet, and if trees + are set 40 feet apart—which is allowing sufficient room + for them to grow during an ordinary lifetime—we get + 133 per mile in a single row; but where the roads are + three to four rods wide, two rows may be planted, one + on each side, or 266 per mile. With such kinds as the + Persian walnut and American and foreign chestnuts, we + can safely estimate the crop, when the trees are twenty + years old, at a half bushel per tree, or 66 bushels for a + single row, and 133 for a double row per mile. With + grafted trees of either kind we may count on double the + quantity named, presuming, of course, that the trees + are given proper care. But to be on the safe side, let us + keep our estimate down to the half-bushel mark per + tree, and with this crop, at the moderate price of four + dollars per bushel, we would get $264 from the crop on a + single row, and double this sum, or $528, for the crop + on a double row—with a fair assurance that the yield + would increase steadily for the next hundred years or + more; while the cost of gathering and marketing the + nuts is no greater, and in many instances much less + than that of the ordinary grain crops. At the expiration + of the first half century, one-half of the trees may + be removed, if they begin to crowd, and the timber used + for whatever purpose it may best be adapted. The remaining + trees would probably improve, on account of + having more room for development.</p> +<p>There has been a steady increase in the demand, + and a corresponding advance in the price of all kinds of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> edible nuts, during the past three or four decades, and + this is likely to continue for many years to come, because + consumers are increasing far more rapidly than + producers; besides, the forests, which have long been + the only source of supply of the native kinds, are rapidly + disappearing, while there has not been, as yet, any + special effort to make good the loss, by replanting or + otherwise. The dealers in such articles in our larger + cities assure me that the demand for our best kinds of + edible nuts is far in excess of the supply, and yet not + one housewife or cook in a thousand in this country has + ever attempted to use nuts of any kind in the preparation + of meats and other dishes for the table, as is so generally + practiced in European and Oriental countries.</p> +<p>The question may be asked, if the demand is sufficient + to warrant the planting of the hardy nut trees extensively + along our highways or elsewhere. In answer + to such a question it may be said that we not only consume + all of the edible nuts raised in this country, but + import millions of pounds annually of the very kinds + which thrive here as well as in any other part of the + world.</p> +<p>I have before me the records of our imports from + the year 1790 to 1894, but as I purpose dealing more + with the present and future than with the distant past, + I will refer here only to the statistics of the four years + of the present decade, leaving out all reference to the + tropical nuts, which are not supposed to be adapted to + our climate.</p> +<p>Of almonds, not shelled, and on which there is a + protective duty of three cents per pound, we imported + from 1890 to the close of 1893, 12,443,895 pounds, valued + at $1,100,477.65. Of almonds, shelled, on which + the duty is now five cents, we imported 1,326,633 pounds. + The total value of both kinds for the four years, amounted + to $1,716,277.32. Whether this high protective duty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> is to remain or not is uncertain, but it is quite evident + that it has had very little effect in stimulating the cultivation + of this nut except in circumscribed localities on + the Pacific coast.</p> +<p>Of filberts and walnuts, not shelled, and with a + duty of two cents per pound, we imported during the + same years from eleven to fifteen million pounds annually, + or a total for the four years of 54,526,181 pounds, + and in addition about two million pounds of the shelled + kernels, on which the duty was six cents (now four) per + pound. The total value of these importations amounted + to $3,176,085.34.</p> +<p>I do not find the European chestnut mentioned in + any list of imports, although an immense quantity must + be received from France, Italy and Spain every year, + and they are probably imported under the head of miscellaneous + nuts, not specially provided for, and upon + which the duty was two cents per pound in 1890-'91, + but was later reduced to one and a half cents.</p> +<p>Under the head "miscellaneous nuts," or all other + shelled and unshelled "not specially provided for," there + was imported during the period named 6,442,908 pounds, + valued at $235,976.05. The total for all kinds of edible + nuts imported was $7,124,575.82. These figures are + sufficient to prove that we are neglecting an opportunity + to largely engage in and extend a most important and + profitable industry. It is true that in the Southern + States considerable attention has been given, of late, to + the preservation of the old pecan nut trees and the planting + of young stock, but it will be many years before the + increase from this source can overtake the ever-increasing + demand for this delicious native nut. Californians + are also making an effort to raise several foreign varieties + of edible nuts on a somewhat extensive scale, but + all these widely scattered experiments are mere drops in + the ocean of our wants. Under such conditions I ask,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> in all seriousness, if it is not about time that our farmers + and rural population generally began to count their + worthless and unproductive possessions, in the form of + roadside and other shade trees—which have probably + cost fully as much to secure, plant and care for during + the few or many years since they were set out, as would + have been expended upon the most beautiful and valuable + nut-bearing kinds. If our ancestors were at fault + in the selection of trees for planting, we need not expect + that posterity will excuse us for continuing and repeating + their folly, especially when our dear-bought experience + should teach us better.</p> +<p>At the present time there might be some difficulty + in procuring, at the nurseries, a choice selection of nut + trees in any considerable quantity, suited to roadside + planting, because heretofore there has been little demand + for such stock; and nurserymen are only human, + and conduct their establishments on business principles, + propagating the kind of trees in greatest demand, regardless + of their intrinsic or future value to purchasers. + They will also continue producing such stock just so + long as the demand will warrant it, and further, it is + but natural that they should sometimes recommend and + advise their customers to purchase worthless, and even + pestiferous kinds, such as the ailanthus and white poplar, + because the profits in raising these trees are large + and there is little danger of loss in transplanting. But + if purchasers will insist on having better kinds and refuse + to accept any other, they will soon be accommodated; + and if not, then let everyone who owns a plot of + ground become his own propagator of trees. It is not + beyond the ability of any moderately intelligent man (or + woman, for that matter) to raise nut trees, and as readily + as one could potatoes or corn.</p> +<p>Where farmers want a row of trees along the roadside, + to be utilized for line fence posts, they cannot possibly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> find any kinds better adapted for this purpose than + chestnut, walnut and hickory; and these will give just as + dense a shade, and look as well—besides, in a few years + they may yield enough to pay the taxes on the entire + farm, the crop increasing in amount and value not only + during the lifetime of the planter, but that of many + generations of his descendants.</p> +<p>This appeal to the good sense of our rural population + is made in all sincerity and with the hope that it + will be heeded by every man who has a spark of patriotism + in his soul, and who dares show it in his labors, and + by setting up a few milestones in the form of nut-bearing + trees along the roadsides—if for no other purpose + than the present pleasure of anticipating the gratification + such monuments will afford the many who are + certain to pass along these highways years hence.</p> +<p>It is surely not good policy to enrich other nations + at the expense of our own people, as we are now doing + in sending millions of dollars annually to foreign countries + in payment for such luxuries as edible nuts that + could be readily and profitably produced at home. There + need be no fear of an overproduction of such things, no + matter how many may engage in their cultivation, because + in such industries many will resolve to do, and + even make an attempt, but a comparatively small number + will reach any marked degree of success.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2> +<h3>THE ALMOND.</h3> +<p>Amygdalus, <i>Tournefort</i>. Name supposed to be derived + from <i>amysso</i>, to lacerate, because of the prominent + sharp, knifelike margin of one edge of the deeply pitted, + wrinkled nut. Martius, an Italian botanist, suggests + that the name came from the Hebrew word <i>shakad</i>, signifying + vigilant, or to awake, because after the rigors of + winter the almond tree is one of the earliest to hail the + coming of spring, with its flowers. The common English + name is from the Latin <i>amandola</i>, corrupted from <i>amygdala</i>. In French it is <i>amandier</i>; in German, <i>mandel</i>; Portuguese, <i>amendoa</i>; Spanish, <i>almendro</i>; + Italian, <i>amandola</i>, <i>mandalo</i>, <i>mandorla</i>, etc.; Dutch, <i>amendel</i>; Chinese, <i>him-ho-gin</i>.</p> +<p>Under the natural classification of plants the almond + belongs to the order <i>Rosaceæ</i>, and in the tribe <i>Drupaceæ</i>. + Linnæus placed the peach and almond in the same + genus, and they are now generally considered to be only + varieties of one species,—the wild almond tree is probably + the parent from which all the cultivated peaches + and nectarines have descended. In most of our modern + botanical works these fruits are classed as a sub-section + of <i>Prunus</i>, the plum. They are mainly deciduous + shrubs, or small trees. The flowers are variable, both + in size and color; but in the almond they are usually + somewhat larger than in the peach, almost sessile, and + from separate scaly buds on the shoots of the preceding + season, appearing in early spring, before or with the + unfolding leaves, the latter being folded lengthwise in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> the bud. Leaves three to four inches long, tapering, + finely serrate, with few or no glands at the base of the + blade, as seen in many varieties of the common peach. + Fruit clothed with a fine dense pubescence in both peach + and almond; but in the latter the pulpy envelope becomes + dry and fibrous at maturity, cracking open irregularly, + allowing the rough and deeply indented nuts to + drop out; while in the peach the pulpy part becomes + soft, juicy and edible, the reverse of the almond. The + nectarine is only a smooth-skinned peach.</p> +<p><strong>History of the Almond.</strong>—As with most of our + long-cultivated fruits and nut trees, very little is now + known of the early history or origin of the almond, and + even its native country has not been positively determined, + although it is supposed to be indigenous to parts + of Northern Africa and the mountainous region of Asia. + Theophrastus, who wrote a history of plants about three + centuries before the Christian era, mentions the almond + as the only tree in Greece that produces blossoms before + the leaves. From Greece it was introduced into Italy, + where the nuts were called <i>nuces græcæ</i>, or Greek nuts.</p> +<p>Columella, about the middle of the first century of + our era, was the earliest Roman writer to mention the + almond as distinct from the peach. From Italy this + nut was slowly disseminated, making its way northward + mainly through France, reaching Great Britain as late + as 1538 (<i>Hortus Kewensis</i>). But its cultivation has + never extended in Britain, beyond sheltered gardens and + orchard houses, owing to the cool and otherwise uncongenial + climate, and the same is true of Northern France + and other regions to the eastward in Europe. But in + the south of France, also in Italy, Spain, Sicily, and + throughout the Mediterranean countries, both in Europe + and Africa, the almond thrives, and has long been extensively + cultivated. These nuts are an important article + of commerce, immense quantities being exported by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> Spain, mainly from Valencia, while the so-called Jordan + almond comes from Malaga, as very few are raised in + the valley of the Jordan. Bitter almonds come principally + from Mogador in Morocco.</p> +<p>As for almond culture in the United States, very + little is to be said further than that, while we have few + experiments to refer to as having been made east of the + Rocky Mountains, not one of our great pomologists, + in their published works, has ever given any reason for + the almost entire neglect of this nut. Mr. Wm. H. + White, author of "Gardening for the South" (1868), + throws no light upon the subject, merely describing a + few of the well-known varieties of the almond. Downing's + "Fruit and Fruit Trees of America," Thomas' + "American Fruit Culturist," Barry's "Fruit Garden," + and a score of other standard pomological works may be + consulted, without obtaining therefrom any information + in regard to the culture of this nut further than to be + assured that the hard-shelled varieties are hardy in the + North wherever the peach tree thrives, and the thin, or + paper shelled, succeed only in warm climates. All these + authors agree in saying that the propagation and cultivation + of the almond is the same as practiced with the + peach.</p> +<p>Coming down to recent years for information in + regard to almond culture, we find H. E. Van Deman, + pomologist to the Department of Agriculture, dismissing + the subject in his report for 1892, as follows:</p> +<blockquote> + <p>"I only mention this nut to state to all experimenters + that it is useless to try to grow the almond of commerce + this side of the Rocky mountains, except, possibly, + in New Mexico and southwestern Texas. This is + thoroughly established by many reports from those who + have tried it in nearly every State and for many years + past. It is too tender in the North and does not bear in + the South. In California it is an eminent success.</p> + <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p> + <p>"The flavor of the hard-shelled almond, so far as I + have tested it, is little or no better than a peach kernel, + and is therefore practically worthless. The tree of this + variety is about as hardy as the peach, and bears quite + freely. The attention paid to the almond in the Atlantic + and Central States might well be given to other nuts."</p> +</blockquote> +<p>This is certainly a very easy way of disposing of the + cultivation of a nut which has so long figured among + our importations from European countries; besides, no + experiments are cited, experimenters named, or reasons + given why almond culture is a failure in the Southern + States. But fortunately there are men in the South + who are able and ready to give reasons for their opinions + and statements, in regard to the cultivation of crops or + plants with which they have become familiar through + personal experience. When I asked Mr. P. J. Berckmans, + Augusta, Ga., president of the American Pomological + Society, for information on this point, he promptly + replied as follows:</p> +<blockquote> + <p>"The reason that almonds are not cultivated in + Georgia and other Southern States is because of their + early blooming, as spring frosts usually destroy all the + blossoms. We have tried many varieties of the soft-shell + without success. The hard-shell will occasionally + bear a crop of fruit, as it blooms later, and the blooms + seem to resist cold better than the other varieties. In + middle Florida soft-shell almonds are sometimes successful, + but they have been tried so sparingly that I cannot + obtain any satisfactory reports."</p> +</blockquote> +<p>Admitting, as we do, that President Berckmans' + long experience in the cultivation of nut and fruit trees + in the South enables him to speak with authority on + this subject, still, we have some encouragement for continuing + experiments with the almond in regions known + to be favorable for the cultivation of its near relative, + the peach. Furthermore, experiments seem to be wanting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> with the almond in the more elevated regions of the + northern line of Southern States, also in Maryland, Delaware + and southern New Jersey, near the seacoast, or + other large bodies of water, which, as is well known, + have considerable influence in retarding the early blooming + of fruit trees, as well as warding off late spring and + early autumn frosts.</p> +<p>It is scarcely reasonable to suppose that a region + of country as extensive as that of one-half of the Middle + and all of the Southern States, with a range of climate + admitting of the successful cultivation of such hardy + fruits as the apple and pear, and from these down to the + pineapple and cocoa-nut, should not yield a locality or + localities admirably adapted to the cultivation of the + half-hardy almond tree. It is no doubt true that there + are extensive regions in the South where late spring + frosts are exceedingly troublesome, and sometimes disastrously + so, to fruit growers; but even these have their + limits, as shown in the vast quantity and variety of + fruits annually produced in the Southern States. But + great local variations in climate are natural to all countries + in the temperate zone, and we frequently find the + most favorable and the unfavorable for fruit culture + within a few miles of each other.</p> +<p>If there are not thousands and tens of thousands of + acres of land located in favorable positions between Virginia + and Florida, adapted to produce the commercial + almond in some of its varieties, then we must confess + that the study of climatology is of little use to the + pomologist. Furthermore, all the varieties of the so-called + hard-shelled almonds which thrive in our northern + States are not worthless, neither are the kernels + of all of them "bitter," and even if they were, they + would still be worth cultivating, else we would not + import such vast quantities from Morocco to supply the + demand.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p> +<p>If none of the thin-shelled varieties heretofore tried + in the South are successful, it is time that either our experiment + stations or individual horticulturists made some + attempt to produce those that are adapted to that region + of country. But until we have some more definite information + than heretofore disseminated, in regard to almond + culture in the South, it is safe to conclude that failures + in the past have been due mainly to want of judgment, + or knowledge of varieties and of positions for the orchard, + with, perhaps, some neglect in care and cultivation.</p> +<p>In California almond culture has been pushed with + vigor for several decades, but at first with rather indifferent + results, because growers depended upon noted + European varieties, which, as experience proved, were + not adapted to the soil and climate of the country. In + a paper read before the American Pomological Society + at its session held at Sacramento, Cal., Jan. 16-18, 1895, + Prof. E. J. Wickson, of the University of California, + alluded to this subject of almond culture in the State as + follows:</p> +<blockquote> + <p>"In no branch of this effort for improved varieties + has our success been more marked than in the + development of seedling almonds. The achievements of + A. T. Hatch in this line are too well known to require + but a passing allusion. It is not too much to say that + this work rescued almond culture to California. When + he began, the almond, because of almost universal failure + of the old varieties, was a jest and a byword in our + horticulture. Nine-tenths of all the almonds planted + during the preceding twenty-five years had gone for + firewood or were carrying the foliage of the prune to + conceal their hated stems. At the present time, through + the dissemination of Mr. Hatch's varieties, the almond, + in all regions decently adapted to the tree, is productive + and profitable and has a future."</p> +</blockquote> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> <img src="images/fig1.jpg" + alt="" height="449" width="700" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._1." id="FIG._1.">FIG. 1.</a> A CALIFORNIA ALMOND ORCHARD.</span></div> +<p>That almond culture in California is rapidly becoming + an important and successful industry, we have an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a><br /> + <a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> ocular demonstration in the tons of these valuable nuts + received from there in the past few years, and placed on + sale in Eastern markets. If one man, by his individual + efforts, can revolutionize or establish a great industry in + a region as large as the State of California, it is not too + much to expect that something of the kind could be + done elsewhere, with the combined efforts of several + men. If the varieties heretofore tried in the East are + unsuited to the climate, it is certainly within the range + of probabilities that others better adapted to surrounding + conditions can be produced. The native grape, + raspberry and strawberry have had a history similar to + the almond, but now all are extensively and successfully + cultivated.</p> +<p><strong>Propagation of the Almond.</strong>—The propagation + of the almond is identical with that of the peach: that + is, from seed to procure new varieties, or by budding + the more desirable ones, when obtained, upon seedling + almond, peach or plum stocks. The half-wild hard-shelled + almond is probably the most congenial and best + stock for this purpose, but seedlings of the peach are + most generally employed because the most abundant and + cheapest. Under certain conditions, such as cold, + heavy, moist soils, and where rather dwarfish trees are + desired, the plum may be employed with advantage as a + stock, but it is not to be recommended for general + orchard culture. In mild climates seedlings of the best + of the soft-shelled varieties may be raised and planted in + orchards without budding, but the nuts from such trees + are likely to be somewhat variable in size and quality, + although the trees will usually prove to be as healthy + and productive as those subjected to artificial modes of + propagation. If, however, the grower desires a uniform + product, he must resort to the usual means of obtaining + it; that is, multiplying superior or distinct varieties by + budding, either upon peach, almond or other stocks.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> It is advisable, as well as exceedingly important, for + all who intend or feel inclined to cultivate almonds in + regions where the adaptation of this nut has not been + fully established by years of practical experience, that + seedlings should be raised in large numbers, and from + these a selection be made to meet the requirements of + the climate and other conditions under which they are + to be propagated and grown. If spring frosts have been + heretofore inimical to the cultivation of the almond, + then the production of late-blooming varieties would be + a remedy. There will also be variations in the season + of ripening; some may come on too early, others far too + late for special localities, but all these faults or variations + may be readily overcome by raising seedlings, and + then selecting for propagation those coming nearest fulfilling + the requirements of local conditions or circumstances. + It is by such experiments and means that fruit + culture has reached its present position in this and all + other countries, where it is practiced as an art or industrial + pursuit. Varieties that have become exceedingly + popular and profitable in one locality or country, may + not have succeeded elsewhere, and this holds good with + all cultivated plants.</p> +<p>In making experiments with the almond in regions + where it has not been cultivated, but under conditions + which appear to be favorable, I would certainly advise + testing the well-known varieties first, and if these fail, + then see what can be done in the way of producing new + ones adapted to the locality and climate.</p> +<p><strong>Raising Seedlings for Stocks.</strong>—In warm or + moderately mild climates the nuts, whether peach or + almond, may be planted soon after they are gathered in + the fall, but should the weather continue warm and + moist the nuts will sometimes sprout prematurely and + the young sprouts get frosted later in the season, and + for this reason it is better to store them in a cool room,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> packed in dry sand or soil, until the approach of steady + cold weather, and then plant. Having lost choice kinds + of nuts from being in too great haste in getting them + into the ground in the fall, I am prompted to give this + warning to those who have had no experience in raising + nut trees. If not convenient to plant in the fall, nuts + of all kinds may be packed in barrels, boxes, or similar + vessels, mixed with or stratified with sharp sand or light + soil, then stored in a dry, cool place,—a very cool cellar + will answer, but in my experience, out of doors is preferable,—and + in the shade of some evergreen tree or on + the north side of a building, and there banked over with + earth just sufficient to keep the nuts at an equably low + temperature. It is advisable to have a few small holes + in the bottom of the barrels or boxes, to insure proper + drainage, should any considerable amount of water get + in at the top; but this will not occur if the vessels are + properly covered with boards when placed in position + for winter.</p> +<p>It must also be kept in mind that mice, squirrels + and chipmunks are fond of almonds and other kinds of + edible nuts, and if placed where these little rodents can + find them, they are sure to take a share, or perhaps the + entire store, before their visits are discovered. I have + known field mice to dig down under boxes of nuts, enlarge + the holes left for drainage, and spend the winter + among the chestnuts which I had put away for planting + in spring. The safest way is to place fine wire netting + on the bottom of the box, and then cover it with the + same. Owing to the abundance of mice and other little + nut-eating animals, I have never dared to plant out nuts + in the fall, and so have always stored them in sand, but + out of doors during the winter, and well covered with + earth. In other localities it may be safe to sow in + autumn, and if protection from vermin is required, coat + the nuts with gas tar, the same as practiced by farmers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> in protecting seed corn against the attacks of crows and + other corn-pulling birds. One pint of warm tar will be + sufficient for a bushel of nuts, and the application is + readily made by placing the nuts in a barrel, pouring the + tar on them, and stirring with a stick until every nut is + coated. To prevent the tar sticking to the hands in + planting, dust the nuts with dry wood ashes, land plaster, + or fine dry sand.</p> +<p>If peach stones are to be planted for stocks they + may be put into the ground as soon as ready in autumn, + because they are rarely disturbed by vermin; or if more + convenient, mix with common soil, and in heaps, in the + open ground, and leave in this position until spring, + then pick out as they begin to sprout, and plant. The + hard-shelled almond may be treated in the same way, + only they are not to be handled quite as roughly as peach + stones, and for protection it is best to put them in barrels + or boxes, as described above.</p> +<p>When ready for planting take out the nuts and drop + them in shallow drills, one every ten or twelve inches, + then cover with about two inches of soil. It is to be supposed, + of course, that a seed bed has been prepared, by + thorough working over and enriching, if necessary, in + advance of planting. The distance between the drills + or rows should be sufficient to admit of cultivating the + plants with a horse or mule, and cultivator, during the + summer, and if this is done and the soil stirred often + enough to keep down all weeds, the stocks should become + large enough to admit of budding the first season; + if not, then this operation must be deferred until the + following year. But in case the seedlings are raised from + choice varieties and to be left in their natural condition + for fruiting, they may be lifted when one or two seasons + old and set where they are to remain permanently.</p> +<p><strong>The Season for Budding.</strong>—So much depends + upon climate, location, and variation of seasons, that no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> special date or time can be given for budding trees of + any kind, but it is always to be done while the stocks + are in active growth, because the bark must part freely + from the wood underneath, in order to admit of inserting + the bud under it. If the buds are set too early in + the season there is danger of a premature growth; that + is, of pushing out a shoot in the fall instead of remaining + dormant until the following spring. Under certain conditions, + however, and for special purposes, it may be + advisable to force the buds as soon as they have formed + a union with the stock, but as a rule, in the propagation + of hardy and half-hardy trees, it is better to keep the + buds dormant during the cool or cold winter months.</p> +<p>Here in the Northern States we usually begin to + look over our stocks during the latter part of July or + first week in August, and note their progress and condition. + Should they show the least signs of cessation of + growth, we begin budding them, and push the work as + rapidly as possible. If the season is a wet one the stocks + may continue to grow and remain in good condition for + budding until the middle of September; but in a dry + season they may cease to grow in August, and it is these + variable conditions which gives to the close observer and + man of experience such an advantage over the novice in + the propagation of plants. It is better to begin budding + too early than to be a few days too late.</p> +<p>The operation called budding consists in taking a + bud, with a small portion of the bark adjoining, from + one plant, and inserting it in another, or in some other + part of the same plant from which it was taken. The + physiological principles which govern the operation are, + that there must exist an affinity between the plant from + which the bud is taken and the one upon which it is to + be placed, and the nearer the relationship the more + readily will it unite and the more perfect the union. + For instance, the cultivated peach and almond are supposed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> to be of the same origin, and descendants of one + original species; consequently there is a close relationship + between the varieties of both sections, and their + seedlings may be employed indiscriminately for stocks. + The next nearest relatives in the family line are the + plums (<i>Prunus</i>), some of which answer very well as + stocks for the almond, although very rarely used for + this purpose. The next group in the line of botanical + relationship are the cherries (<i>Prunus cerasus</i>), but these + are too far removed to be employed as stocks for either + the peach or almond.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig2.jpg" + alt="" height="117" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._2." id="FIG._2.">FIG. 2.</a> BUDDING KNIFE.</span> </div> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" height="125" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._3." id="FIG._3.">FIG. 3.</a> YANKEE BUDDING KNIFE.</span> </div> +<p>For budding are necessary a small knife for preparing + the buds for insertion and making an incision in the + bark of the stock to admit them; and a quantity of + some material to tie around the stock, so as to hold the + bud in place. Budding knives are made after various + patterns; one that is commonly used has an ivory or + bone handle, made very thin at the end, that is used to + peel the bark from the stock where the bud is to be inserted + (Fig. 2). Another form of budding knife is made + with a horn handle, and a small tapering piece of ivory + fastened in the end. These knives, of various shapes + and sizes, can be had at the seed stores; but another and + quite a different form of budding knife is shown in Fig. + 3, and is known as the "Yankee budding knife." It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> merely a small one-bladed pocket knife with a thin + blade, round at the end. The cutting portion extends + about one-third around the end of the blade and two-thirds + of its length, leaving the lower part dull. Although + this form of budding knife has been in constant + use in some of the older nurseries in this country for + nearly a century, it does not appear to have been manufactured + for the general trade, but only on special orders + for nurserymen. It is so simple a knife, however, that + with a little grinding almost any small one-bladed pocket + knife can be transformed into one of these handy budding + knives. The rounded end of the blade is used for + lifting the bark, and for rapid work it is far more convenient + than any form of knife that must be reversed in + the hand every time a bud is inserted. In addition, a + polished bit of steel is smoother and far less likely to + lacerate the alburnous matter between the bark and + wood than the best piece of bone or ivory. It may be + said, however, that it is immaterial what form of knife + is employed, provided it has a keen edge and is dexterously + used.</p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 238px;"> <img src="images/fig4.jpg" alt="" title="" height="650" width="258" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._4" id="FIG._4">FIG. 4</a>. PREPARED SHOOT.</span> </div> +<p>The material most commonly used in times past for + tying in the bud is the inner bark of the linden or basswood + tree, usually called bass, and always to be procured + in the form of mats, or as prepared from our + indigenous basswoods and kept on sale at the seed stores. + Recently, however, another excellent tying material has + come into use, known in the trade as raffia or roffia. It is + the cuticle of the Jupati palms. One species (<i>Raphia + tædigera</i>) is a native of the lower valley of the Amazon + and Orinoco, and another (<i>R. Ruffia</i>) of Madagascar and + adjacent islands. Raffia is somewhat softer and more + pliable than the ordinary bass, although it does not hold + its form quite as well; but it is so cheap, soft and strong, + that it has become very popular, and is extensively used + for budding and many other purposes. But if none of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> these tying materials are at hand, the inner bark of the + persimmon, corn husks, cotton twine, woolen yarn, or + even strips of old muslin and calico may be employed + with equally as good results, although not as handy and + convenient for such purposes. The amateur, with only + a few stocks to bud, can readily + improvise implements and materials + for doing the work, even if + they are not of the regulation type. + In selecting buds, the young shoots + of the present season's growth + are preferred, and these should be + taken from the most healthy and + vigorous branches of bearing trees, + if possible. The leaves should be + immediately removed, not by + breaking or pulling off with the + hand, but by severing the leaf-stalks + with a knife, as shown in + Fig. 4. If the leaves have fallen + from the twig, the buds may be + too ripe, with some kinds of + plants, but with the almond, and + where only a few leaves near the + base have dropped, all may be + used with fair success. If there + are any soft and immature buds + on the upper part of the shoot, or + any undeveloped ones at the base, + they should be rejected. Success + in budding depends very largely + upon the condition of the stocks at the time the operation + is performed. Unless the sap is flowing and in + sufficient abundance to allow the bark to part or peel + readily from the wood underneath, the bud is certain to + fail. If the buds used should happen to be a little over-ripe<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> or wholly dormant when placed in direct contact + with the living tissues and the juices of the stock, + they will absorb moisture and nutriment, and be as + likely to unite and live as under opposite conditions.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 180px;"> <img src="images/fig5.jpg" alt="" title="" height="400" width="180" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._5" id="FIG._5">FIG. 5</a>. INCISION FOR BUD.</span> </div> +<p>In performing the operation of budding, the following + rules may be observed: Take the twig from which + the buds are to be removed, in the left hand, with the + small end pointing under the left arm; insert the knife-blade + half an inch, or a little more, below the bud, cutting + through the bark and a little into the wood; pass + the knife under the bud, and bring it out + about the same distance above it, taking off + the bud with the bark, and a thin slice of + wood attached, as at <i>c</i>, Fig. 4. Then, if + using the Yankee budding knife, or one of + similar form, let the forefinger clasp the + lower part of the blade, make the horizontal + incision in the stock first, and from this an + incision downward about an inch long,—or + it may be twice this length without doing + any harm,—being careful not to cut too + deep. Lift up the edge of the bark by passing + the back of the end of the blade (without + removing it) up to the horizontal incision. + Lift the bark on the other side in the + same manner, the two incisions making a wound in the + stock resembling the letter T, as shown in Fig. 5. If + other forms of budding knives are used, the thin end of + the ivory handle is thrust under the bark, raising it + sufficiently to admit the bud. The budder holds the + bud between the thumb and forefinger of his left hand + while making the incision in the stock; and as the knife + leaves it he places the lower point of the bark attached + to the bud under the bark of the stock before this falls + back into place, and thrusts it down into position. If + the upper end of the bark attached to the bud does not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> pass completely under the bark of the stock, it must be + cut across, so as to allow that which remains with the + bud to fall into place and rest firmly on the wood of the + stock, as shown in Fig. 6.</p> +<p>When the bud is in position and fitted to the stock, + as shown, wind the raffia, or other material used, around + the stock, both above and below, covering the entire + incision, leaving only the bud and part of leafstalk uncovered. + Of course experienced propagators have their + own individual systems and modes of operation, but the + above may be taken as a safe guide for the + amateur budder. The ligatures should be + loosened or removed as soon as the bud + has become firmly united with the stock, + which will usually be in ten or fifteen + days, if at all. When the buds have failed, + others may be inserted, provided, of course, + the stocks are in condition to admit of the + operation. Exceptions, however, may be + made where the budding has been done so + late in the season that the stock has ceased + to grow by the time the buds have taken, + and in such cases the ligatures may be left + on later and removed any time before + winter. In cold climates the snow, ice + and water are likely to get in around the bud if the + ligatures are not removed. But where the stocks are + vigorous and the buds set early, there will be danger + of the ligatures cutting into the bark as the stocks swell + or increase in diameter, unless they are loosened or entirely + removed.</p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 220px;"> <img src="images/fig6.jpg" alt="" title="" height="400" width="220" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._6." id="FIG._6.">FIG. 6.</a> BUD IN POSITION.</span> </div> +<p>Under ordinary circumstances budded stocks should + not be headed back until the following spring, and then + should be cut off two or three inches above the inserted + bud; and when this pushes into growth, all suckers and + sprouts below and above it should be rubbed off as they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> appear, for the object is to throw the entire strength of + the stock into this one bud, and when this has made a + growth of two or three feet the short stump of the stock + above the base of the shoot may be carefully removed + with a sharp knife. This is usually done the last of + July or first of August, which gives time for the healing + of the wound before the close of the growing season. + Sometimes it may be necessary to place small stakes by + the side of these shoots for their support and to prevent + breaking at the point of union with the stock; but + this will rarely be necessary, except in very exposed + situations.</p> +<p>If the young trees make a fairly good growth they + will be ready for planting out in the orchard the following + spring, and one-year-old almond trees are usually + preferable for transplanting than older. It is not advisable + to prune these young trees during the growing + season the first summer, but allow all the side shoots or + branches to grow unchecked, for by so doing we secure + a more stocky plant, if not as tall a one, than we would + if trimming up was practiced. But when the trees are + taken up for transplanting, in the late fall or early + spring, then they may be pruned and the lateral + branches cut off close to the main stem, leaving a naked + rod, and if low-headed trees are desired (and they usually + are), cut back the main stem to about three feet + from the ground. If the young trees have made a + growth of from four to six feet, then prune away the + lateral branches to a hight of three feet or a little more, + and cut in all branches above this point to within four + to six inches of the main stem, leaving the buds on these + stumps to form the head of the tree. Four or five + branches at the top of the stem will be sufficient for the + foundation for an open, round-headed tree, or in what + may be termed a vase form, which is the best for + almonds.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p> +<p><strong>Soil and Exposure for Almonds.</strong>—The almond + requires a warm, rather light and well-drained soil. + Cold, heavy clays, and low, moist soils, whether light or + heavy, are always to be avoided for the almond and + closely allied trees. That the soil should be moderately + rich is, of course, a condition required with all cultivated + nut and fruit trees, but over-stimulation may result + in excessive and immature growth late in the season, + this leaving the twigs in such a state that they will + be unable to resist even a few degrees of frost, to which + they may be subjected the ensuing winter. In what are + generally termed mild climates, or where the temperature + seldom goes more than four to six degrees below the + freezing point, hardy trees, if they have made a late + growth, are often injured more than they would have + been in a colder climate, with early matured wood. + There are many kinds of what we consider very hardy + trees and shrubs here in the North, that are very likely + to be winterkilled or severely frosted when grown at + the South, simply because the conditions are such that + they do not ripen up in time to resist the cold.</p> +<p>In touching upon the subject of location for an + almond orchard east of the Mississippi, I should be + inclined to relegate this valuable nut to semi-tropical + Florida, were it not for the fact that almost a score of + ornamental species and varieties of the same genus,—to + say nothing of the widely cultivated peach,—flourish + over a very wide range of country and climate, and + nowhere better than near the Atlantic ocean in the Middle + and some of the Northern States. It is also generally + conceded that several of what are called hard-shelled + varieties thrive and bear fruit in nearly all of our best + peach-growing regions. From all that I have been able + to learn of almond culture, and with my own limited + experience with this nut, experiments are wanting to + prove that it cannot be successfully cultivated in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> peach-growing region of the Eastern States. I will not + say "profitably" cultivated, for this is a rather vague + term when applied to horticultural operations of any + kind. Success is not synonymous with profit; in fact, + it is frequently quite the opposite, and an abundant + crop may mean glutted markets and a corresponding + loss to the producer. But, to return to location, the + principal cause of failure in almond culture, where it + has been tried in the older States, seems to be the early + blooming of the trees and subsequent destruction of the + embryo fruit by frosts. To avoid this, high, open, airy + situations, and even the north side of hills, would certainly + be preferable to southern slopes and protected + locations, especially in the South or where the temperature + in winter does not go low enough to kill the wood + of the previous season's growth. Theoretically, we might + suppose that there are many locations favorable to almond + culture in the elevated regions of North Carolina + and Tennessee, as well as in the northern tier of counties + in Alabama and Georgia. But in the absence of carefully + conducted experiments in these regions, we have only to + wait for their consummation at some future time, to + prove the truth or falsity of our theory.</p> +<p>In the rich, warm valleys of New Mexico, Arizona + and California, congenial locations are plentiful, inasmuch + as almost every variety of climate is at hand, with + a temperature ranging from that of perpetual summer + to the opposite extreme, and all to be found within a + few miles, and frequently to be found in the same + county. Under such conditions, it rests with the would-be + cultivator to decide upon the kinds of fruits desired, + then to seek a location best adapted to his purpose.</p> +<p>If, as claimed,—but not proven,—there are no + limited or extended areas fitted for almond culture east + of the Mississippi river, there are certainly plenty of such + west of it, awaiting the industrious and intelligent nut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> culturist. Almond orchards have been planted in California + and Arizona, and the quality of the nuts, as well + as the quantity, is very satisfactory; but a greater + number and more extensive orchards are needed to meet + the home demand.</p> +<p><strong>Planting and Pruning.</strong>—In planting and pruning + the almond tree the same system should be adopted + as with its near relative, the peach. One-year-old budded + trees are preferred for planting in an orchard, to + older, except in the case of seedlings, then two-year-old + may be selected, because these are seldom larger than + one-year budded trees. The trees should be set fifteen + to eighteen feet apart, varying the distance according to + variety, soil, and other local conditions, and it is best to + place them in rows and at right angles, in order to admit + of cultivating both ways, as it is termed, thereby + saving as much hand labor as possible. For the first + two or three years after planting, all weeds and grass + should be kept away from the stems and over the roots, + either by frequent hoeing, or covering with a mulch. + The best way, perhaps, to prevent the growth of weeds, + is to use the land among the trees for some low-growing + crops, such as beans, tomatoes, melons or potatoes, then + see that the workmen, when hoeing these crops, hoe up + the weeds and grass about the trees at the same time. + We might reasonably suppose that the most careless cultivator + of trees would think of this, but, unfortunately, + extended observation proves quite the contrary, and it + is scarcely possible to go through any very extensive + fruit-growing region without seeing many such instances + of neglect. A square yard or more of tough sward is + frequently left for years undisturbed about the stems + of all the trees in an orchard, while the little annual + plants growing near by, and not worth, at an extreme + valuation, five cents each, are cultivated with the greatest + care.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p> +<p>The first pruning of the trees should be done at the + time of transplanting from the nursery rows, as directed + on a preceding page, and from the top of the stem only + three or four shoots allowed to grow the first season, all + others being rubbed off as soon as they appear, or when + they have made a growth of two or three inches. These + three or four upper branches are to become the foundation + of the future head of the tree, and should be allowed + to grow unchecked the first season; the next spring cut + back one-half to two-thirds of their original length. + This pruning will force out strong side or lateral shoots + near the base, thus giving a sturdy foundation to build + upon later, the pruner keeping in mind that the weaker + the growth the more severe should be the pruning. + Better leave a few strong buds, from which vigorous + shoots will be produced, than a great number succeeded + by many feeble twigs. If blossoms and fruit appear on + the young two-year-old trees, a limited number may be + left to mature, although no considerable crop ought to + be gathered before the third year.</p> +<p>In after years a somewhat different system of pruning may be adopted, keeping + in view the fact that the fruit buds and fruit are always produced on the young + shoots of the previous season's growth, and for this reason an annual renewal of + such parts of the tree is absolutely required, in order to secure a good crop on + trees of any age. In some localities and countries it may be possible that + almond trees produce a crop every year; but this is scarcely to be expected + anywhere. Consequently a system of pruning should be followed which will conform + to the variations of circumstances and conditions; and this brings us to the + consideration of—</p> +<p><strong>The Proper Time to Prune.</strong>—If the growth of + the trees and their fruiting were always uniform, then + we might readily adopt some invariable system and season + for pruning; but as we are dealing with uncertainties,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> our rules must be equally flexible and variable. If the + season is favorable, and the trees bloom freely and fruit + sets abundantly, we may proceed to prune as soon as + the embryo nuts are as large as peas,—but only cutting + back some of the largest bearing shoots, and thinning + out others here and there, just enough to equalize and + evenly distribute the crop through the head of the tree. + But in case the frost or cold of winter has destroyed + the crop for the season, then as soon as this is discovered, + prune and cut back all the shoots and branches + sufficient to insure a vigorous growth of young bearing + wood for the ensuing year. Under this system of pruning + we fix the time as after blooming in the spring, in + order to have our work correspond to circumstances and + conditions, and where there is a crop in prospect the + pruning is comparatively light; but if there is to be no + fruit, or but little, then one should aim to produce an + abundance of bearing shoots for the following season. + In other words, we prune severely in non-bearing years, + whether they occur alternately or otherwise; but this + system is only applicable to trees like the almond and + peach, which produce their fruit on the shoots of the + preceding year's growth.</p> +<h3>VARIETIES OF THE ALMOND.</h3> +<p>Almonds are usually divided into three groups, viz.: + Bitter, hard-shelled, and soft, or paper-shelled. In + each there are many varieties, although they are + rarely known in market except by the general name + of the group to which they belong. If they are soft, + hard or bitter, this is sufficient designation for commercial + purposes, with, perhaps, the addition of the name + of country in which they were grown, or that of the + city or seaport from whence exported.</p> +<p><strong>Bitter Almond</strong>, <i>Amygdalus communis amara</i>.—The + varieties of this group are not specifically distinct,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> and some have soft, thin shells, while others are thick + and hard; but the kernels are very bitter, hence the + name. But in the countries where these almonds are + most extensively cultivated, as in the South of France, + Austria, Spain and Greece, the trees are generally raised + from the nut, and, as might be expected, the crop produced + under such conditions is exceedingly variable, the + nuts being large or small, and the shells of various degrees + of hardness, with an occasional tree producing + both bitter and sweet kerneled nuts. These wilding + trees are, in the main, more hardy than the improved + varieties, hence are largely employed as stocks for the + better sorts, as well as for the plum and apricot. It is + also claimed that, as a rule, the bitter almond trees + bloom later in the spring than those of the other two + groups, and for this reason are not so liable to be injured + by spring frosts. The trees are hardy in all of our most + favorable peach-growing regions of the Middle and + Northern States, but some of the varieties ripen rather + too late for localities north of the latitude of New York + city. All this, however, and other obstacles, will soon + disappear, whenever the time arrives for our horticulturists + to take up almond culture and pursue it with half + the zeal they have the cultivation of the peach and many + other kinds of fruits.</p> +<p><strong>Hard-Shelled Almond</strong>, <i>A. c. dulcis</i>, or sweet-kerneled + almond.—The varieties of this group, as a + whole, differ from those of the next only in the firmness + of their shells, which are moderately firm, with a slightly + rough and deeply pitted surface, as shown in Fig. 7. + Varieties of this group are fully as large as, and perhaps + a little longer than the thin-shelled, and the kernels are + fully as valuable when removed and sold as shelled + almonds. It may require a little more labor to crack + and remove the kernels for market, but the difference is + scarcely worth taking into consideration by the grower.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p> +<p>The common sweet, hard-shelled almond thrives in + peach-growing regions as far north as Central New York, + and I well remember of seeing trees loaded with these + nuts, in my boyhood days, in the western part of the + State. The late Patrick Barry, in the Fruit Garden, + when referring to this nut, says: </p> +<blockquote> + <p>"This is a hardy and + productive tree, succeeding well in the climate of Western + New York, and still farther north. Nut very large, + with a hard shell and a large sweet kernel; ripe here + (Rochester) about the first of October. + The tree is very vigorous, has + smooth, glaucous leaves, and when + in bloom in the spring is more brilliant + and showy than any other fruit + tree."</p> +</blockquote> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 224px;"> <img src="images/fig7.jpg" alt="" title="" height="350" width="224" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._7." id="FIG._7.">FIG. 7.</a> HARD-SHELLED ALMOND.</span></span> </div> +<p>Nearly every one of our noted + horticulturists who have said anything + about almond culture in the + North, agree with Mr. Barry in regard + to the beauty of this tree and + its productiveness; but it is well to + keep in mind that it is no more to + be depended upon than the peach, and the barren years + will far outnumber the bearing ones. But the almond + is probably as certain here as in France, where it is cultivated + extensively as an article of commerce, although + a full crop once in about five years is about all that is + expected. We can probably do much better than this, + especially if proper attention is given to the production + of new varieties adapted to our climate, as has been done + in California with the almond, and here in the East with + the peach and many other kinds of fruits; and when + such have been secured, proceed to multiply them in the + usual mode of budding upon seedling stocks.</p> +<p><strong>Soft, or Brittle-Shelled</strong>, <i>A. c. fragilis</i>.—In + this group we have many distinct varieties, besides<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> others which are known by local names, but have no + permanent and pronounced distinguishing characteristics + that would aid in separating them, should this be + desired. The most common form, widely known as the + sweet-kerneled thin-shelled (Fig. 8), is one of the oldest + in cultivation in European countries. + The flowers usually appear with the + leaves, or before they unfold, and are + large and of a pale rose color. The + tree is rather tender for latitudes north + of Philadelphia, but succeeds southward, + and westward to the Pacific, + if late frosts do not come to destroy + the flowers or embryo nuts.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 216px;"> <img src="images/fig8.jpg" alt="" title="" height="350" width="216" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._8" id="FIG._8">FIG. 8.</a> THIN-SHELLED + ALMOND.</span></span> </div> +<p><strong>Large Fruited Almond</strong>, <i>A. c. + macrocarpa</i>.—This is an old French + variety, and perhaps most widely + known as the Sultana, although the + latter name is often applied in market to almost every + variety of sweet almond. The leaves of the genuine + variety are much broader than those of the preceding + groups, and are smooth and deep green. Flowers very + large and showy, of a pale rose color, and always appear + in spring before the leaves, and for this reason it has long + been cultivated in England as an ornamental tree. Fruit + large, depressed or flattened at the base, but pointed at + the top. Shell rather hard and firm, and will withstand + rough handling and transportation long distances. Kernel + very sweet and tender, hence highly prized everywhere. + There are several sub-varieties; one, known as + the Pistache almond, is highly esteemed for the table, + on account of its delicate flavor, although it is very small + and not popular for commercial purposes.</p> +<p><strong>The Peach Almond</strong>, <i>A. c. persicoides</i>.—This is + another old variety, described by Du Hamel about the + middle of the last century, under the name of <i>Amandier-Pecher</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> or peach-leaved almond. Leaves similar to those + of the common peach. Fruit ovate, obtuse; husk + slightly succulent; shell of a yellowish color, and the + kernel sweet-flavored and excellent. Du Hamel says + the fruit varies widely, even upon the same tree or + branch, some having a dry, thin husk, while on others + it is soft and fleshy, somewhat like that of the peach. + As the almond and peach are of the same species, it + would not be at all strange if an occasional variety raised + from the seed of either class should diverge towards, or + even pass completely over to a closely allied group.</p> +<p>From the varieties found in the forementioned + groups we must seek to find, or produce therefrom, those + which will succeed in this country wherever it may be + thought desirable to attempt the cultivation of this nut. + So far as my knowledge extends, no attempts have, as + yet, been made to produce distinct American varieties in + the Eastern States, as with its near relative, the peach, + but all the almonds thus far cultivated here are of well-known + foreign varieties. Perhaps the demand for + almond trees has not been sufficient heretofore to encourage + very extended experiments in this direction, but + I cannot believe that our people will continue for another + century to import millions of pounds annually of + almonds if it is possible to raise them in this country. + That it is possible on the Pacific coast has already been + fully demonstrated, but we want to see the field greatly + enlarged, and give the people of the Eastern States a + share in what is evidently soon to become a large and + profitable industry.</p> +<p><strong>Ornamental Varieties of the Almond.</strong>—These + are only referred to because some of the many in cultivation + belong to the groups producing the most valuable + nuts, but the greater part of the purely ornamental varieties + are worthless for other purposes. <i>Amygdalus cochinchinensis</i> grows to quite a large tree in its native country,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> or thirty to forty feet high; flowers small, white, + produced in long racemes; tender.<i> A. orientalis</i>, a + small shrub, with grayish or hoary leaves, and small + rose-colored flowers; sometimes cultivated under the + name of <i>argentea</i>, or Silvery almond. <i>A. incana</i> (hoary) + is another dwarf species, from the Caucasus, with solitary + red flowers. <i>A. nana</i> and <i>A. pumila</i> are oriental species + of very dwarf shrubs, with either red or white flowers. + The double-flowering varieties of these have long + been inhabitants of our gardens.</p> +<p><strong>Properties and Uses.</strong>—For domestic purposes + the almond is highly esteemed wherever it is known, + and is employed in hundreds of different ways in the + preparation of appetizing dishes and dainties for the + table. In countries where this nut is in cultivation, it + is brought to the table in the half-opened green husk, + for at this time the kernels are just passing from the + milky stage, and are considered more readily digested + than later, or when fully ripe. But it is only when they + are fully mature that they are gathered for market, and + after thorough drying they are placed in strong sacks + and distributed among dealers in all parts of the world. + But only certain varieties are exported in this condition, + and principally those with very thin shells, because + these are most in demand, for the table and dessert, + where the almond is not a home product. Other sweet + varieties, whether with very hard or very tender shells, + are cracked and only the kernels exported. The importation + of shelled almonds into this country is somewhat + in excess of the unshelled, and as they are of + greater value per pound, the duty levied is proportionally + higher. There is also a great saving to the importer + and consumer,—not only in freight, but the extraction of + the kernels is done in countries where labor is abundant + and cheap. Whether the almond shells are used for + any purpose in European countries, or are considered as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> wholly a waste product, I have been unable to learn, but + it is asserted, and by men whose word is worthy of + credence, that almond shells ground into a fine golden + colored flour, is much used in this country for adulterating + red pepper, cinnamon and other spices.</p> +<p>Almonds are not only used extensively at all times + and seasons, by persons of all ages and sexes, at table + and elsewhere, but they are employed largely in the + making of fancy confectionery with sugar, or in the form + of salted almonds, the kernels having been first thoroughly + steamed or scalded, to remove the skin, and then + rolled or dusted with fine salt. Prepared in this way + they are usually considered more readily digestible and + healthful than in their natural state.</p> +<p>Sweet almonds are also valued in the form of emulsions, + as a medicine in pulmonary disorders, and the oil + of almonds is a common standard article in the stock of + druggists everywhere, as it enters into the composition + of cosmetics, syrups, pastes and powders of various + kinds.</p> +<p>The kernels of the wild bitter almond contain a + poisonous principle known as hydrocyanic or Prussic + acid, which does not exist in the sweet varieties, although + found in their leaves and the bark of their twigs. But + as bitter almonds are not palatable, there is little danger + of anyone being poisoned from eating them, should + these nuts ever be cultivated here for any special purpose, + as in other countries.</p> +<p><strong>Insects and Diseases.</strong>—Whenever the almond + tree becomes common here in orchards it will doubtless + suffer from the attacks of the same kinds of natural enemies + as affect the peach. One of the most widely distributed + of these pests is the common peach-tree borer. + The parents of these borers are small, slender-bodied, + bluish, transparent-winged moths, the male somewhat + smaller than the female. These moths usually appear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> in this latitude during the month of June, and the + female deposits her eggs on the stems of the trees near + the surface of the ground, or a little below it if she can + find a convenient opening to suit her purpose. The + eggs deposited soon hatch, and the young larvæ bore + through the tender bark at this point, and when fairly + under it, branch off, cutting galleries through the soft + alburnum underneath. When a number of these borers + are at work on the same tree they sometimes girdle and + kill it the first season, especially if it is young or a small + specimen. But if the tree is not killed outright it will + show, by the check to its growth, that borers are at + work. The borers continue feeding throughout the + remainder of the season, and up to the time freezing + weather sets in for the winter, and if not full grown at + this time they will finish their growth early in spring, + then crawl to near the outside, or just under the old + bark, and there spin a thin cocoon, in which they are + transformed to the pupal stage, remaining in this form + for a few weeks, then issuing in the winged or moth + stage.</p> +<p>In the line of preventives and remedies there is + nothing better than clean cultivation about the trees, + and annual examination of each tree early in summer + and the crushing of every borer found. The next best + thing, in the way of a preventive, is to wrap the stems + from a little below the surface of the ground to a foot or + more above it with heavy paper, cloth, or bark of some + kind, to keep the moth from laying her eggs on the bark + of the tree. I have used common tar paper for this + purpose, not only because it is very cheap and does not + decay when exposed to the weather, but the exhalation + or odor of tar seems to be offensive to the moths. In + the use of this material I have never found that it was + in the least injurious to the bark underneath. Painting + the stems with soap, cement, clay, or even common<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> mineral paints, will answer very well if a little care is + given to keeping down the number of insects by removing + the larger part of the borers with knife or gouge.</p> +<p>In recent years a pest known as the "shot-hole + borer" (<i>Scolytus rugulosus</i>) has appeared in many and + widely separated localities, in both the Eastern and + Western States, attacking the almond, peach and plum + tree. It is supposed to have been introduced from + Europe with imported nursery stock, and thence rapidly + distributed, by similar means, through the country. In + its perfect stages it is a minute brown beetle, about one-twelfth + of an inch long and one-thirtieth of an inch in + diameter. This pest appears about midsummer, boring + numerous minute holes through the bark and into the + sapwood underneath, and in this the female deposits + her eggs, and from these are hatched the little grubs + found later feeding on the soft inner bark and alburnous + matter beneath it. From every hole made in the bark + a small globule of gum will soon appear, drying upon + the surface—thence onward until autumn—and glistening + in the sun, an immutable sign of the presence of a + minute but destructive enemy.</p> +<p>When the beetles and their eggs are once in possession + there is no practical way known of removing them, + and the best thing to be done is to cut down and burn + every infested tree, and just as soon as it is known to be + in this condition. There are also several indigenous + species of bark beetles, which will very likely attack + almond trees as soon as they are as abundant as peach + trees, but all may be destroyed with the same, or very + similar weapons and materials.</p> +<p>What are called preventives consist mainly of substances + to be applied to the stems in a semi-liquid form, + and of such a nature as to be offensive to the beetles + because of their odor, taste, or because so hard that the + insects cannot cut through them with their mandibles.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> Common lime whitewash, soft soap, whale-oil soap, or a + thin mineral paint made of pure linseed oil, will answer + very well for this purpose if applied often enough to + keep the bark constantly coated.</p> +<p>Of the fungous diseases affecting the almond in this + country, very little is as yet known, although we may + safely include under this head all those that have been + inimical to the peach, for the transition from this tree + to the almond would only be a natural sequence. The + peach-leaf curl (<i>Taphrina deformans</i>) would not be far + from home on the almond leaf, neither could we expect + that almond orchards would be wholly exempt from + that mysteriously distributed and uncontrollable disease + known as "peach yellows."</p> +<p>In California an almond-leaf blight has already appeared + and seriously affected the trees in some of the + orchards. It is caused by a fungus known as <i>Cercospora + circumscissa</i> Sacc. This fungus attacks the leaves and + young twigs, causing the former to fall off early in the + season, thereby checking the growth of the tree and preventing + the maturing of the fruit. It is thought that + remedies may be applied to check this disease, and there + will probably be some form of copper solution employed + for destroying it, as with various species of fungi on other + kinds of fruit trees.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2> +<h3>THE BEECHNUT.</h3> +<p>Fagus, <i>Linn.</i> The Beech. The Latin name of the + genus (<i>Fagus</i>) supposed to be an equivalent of the Greek + phegos, an oak, or it may be derived from <i>phago</i>, to eat; + the nuts of this tree having been used as food by man + in all ages and countries where it is a native. The + modern English name, beech, was probably derived + from the Anglo-Saxon <i>bece</i> or <i>boc</i>; in Dutch it is <i>beuk</i>; + French, <i>hetre</i>; Icelandic, <i>beyk</i>; Danish, <i>bog</i>; Swedish, <i>bok</i>; German, <i>buche</i> or <i>buoche</i>; Russian, <i>buk</i>; Italian, <i>faggio</i>; Armenian, <i>fao</i>; and in Welsh <i>ffawydd</i>.</p> +<p>The beech belongs to the order <i>Cupuliferæ</i>, or oak + family. The genus contains about fifteen species of + handsome deciduous and evergreen trees, or shrubs, very + widely distributed throughout the temperate and colder + regions of both the northern and southern hemispheres. + Male flowers are bell-shaped, in long-stalked drooping + heads; calyx five to seven cleft, containing numerous + stamens. Female flowers two to four in a cluster on the + summit of the scaly-bracted peduncle; the inside scales + uniting, forming a four-lobed involucre of imbricated + bracts, the whole becoming at maturity a somewhat + prickly, scaly bur, within which are found a pair of + sharp-edged triangular nuts, containing a tender and + sweet-flavored kernel.</p> +<p><strong>History of the Beech.</strong>—The common beeches of + both Europe and North America are so closely related + that the two species may be considered as one for all + practical purposes, such as propagation, cultivation, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> value of the wood and nuts. It is true, however, that + our native beech is not environed with ancient myths + and stories of love and war, neither is it celebrated in + poetry and song, yet it has, doubtless, played just as + noble a part in human affairs among the pre-historic + races of America as those recorded of its European contemporary. + As the beech in Europe is found in the + forests of Great Britain, Norway, Sweden, France, Germany, + and southward to Constantinople, Palestine, Asia + Minor and Armenia, it was well known and highly appreciated + by all the early inhabitants of these countries, + and is frequently referred to by the earlier writers of + Greece and Rome who touch upon the rural affairs of + their times. It is supposed that Theophrastus refers to + the beech under the name of <i>Oxua</i>, and Dioscorides + as <i>Phegos</i>, and the latter author places it among the + oaks, in which he was not far out of the way, because + the beech is a member of the oak family in our modern + classification. Virgil and Pliny speak highly of the + little triangular nuts, and the people of their times set + considerable value upon beech-nuts as an article of food. + Pliny also assures us that at the siege of Chios, the besieged + inhabitants lived for some time entirely on these + nuts. We are inclined to think, however, that both + Virgil and Pliny are in error when they tell us that + the beech was propagated by being grafted on the + chestnut. They were probably led astray in this by + some romancing gardener of their time, for we even + have some of the same ilk with us at this day. Pliny + refers to the beech several times in his writings, and + places a much higher value upon this nut than he does + upon the chestnut; in fact, speaks rather contemptuously + of the latter, and seems to be surprised that nature + should have taken such care of the nuts, which he calls + "<i>vilissima</i>," as to enclose them with a prickly involucre + or bur.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p> +<p>But my limited space will not allow of tracing the + history of the beech from ancient to modern times, + although it has always been esteemed as food for man, + as well as for wild and domesticated animals. Swine fattened + on beech and oak mast have for ages been noted + for their excellent flesh, and the value of many an old + estate in Great Britain was determined more upon the + mast the forest produced, than the area or number of + square miles they contained.</p> +<p>As a monumental tree the beech has no rival, for + its smooth gray bark, perennial and almost unchangeable, + has ever been a convenient place to register challenges + to enemies, epitaphs, epithets, and probably more + frequently than all, the initials of the name of some + loved one, who might possibly pass that way and find + her name engraved on the beechen tree. I doubt much + if there is a beech grove in all Europe or in America, + within a convenient distance of a city, country village or + schoolhouse, on which the bark of the trees is not scarified + by the knives of boys in recording the initials of + their own names, and those of their favorites of the opposite + sex. These living registers were long ago recognized + by the poets, and more than eighteen centuries + ago Virgil admits it in these lines:</p> +<p style="text-align: left; margin-left: 20%">"Or shall I rather the sad verse repeat,<br /> + Which on the beech's bark I lately writ."<br /> +</p> +<p>In more modern times Tasso hints of the same habit, + in <i>Jerusalem Delivered</i>, to wit:</p> +<p style="text-align: left; margin-left: 20%">"On the smooth beechen rind, the pensive dame<br /> + Carves in a thousand forms her Tancred's name."<br /> +</p> +<p>That the Spanish youths were not oblivious to their + opportunities for recording the names of their favorites + we must assume to be true, from the lines of Don Luis + de Gongora, who tells us that:</p> +<p style="text-align: left; margin-left: 20%">"Not a beech but bears some cipher,<br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Tender word, or amorous text.</span><br /> + If one vale sounds Angelina,<br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Angelina sounds the next."</span><br /> +</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p> +<p><strong>Propagation of the Beech.</strong>—The beech, in all + its species and varieties, may be propagated by the usual + modes, viz.: By seed, layers, budding and grafting. + The seeds, when gathered, should be mixed with clean, + sharp, moist sand, placed in boxes, and then stored in a + cool or cold place and carefully protected from mice, + until the time arrives for sowing in spring. They may + also be sown in the fall and lightly covered with leaf + mold or other light soil, but unless coated with tar or + some offensive poisonous substance, vermin of some + form will be very likely to find them and leave few + to grow. Seedlings are used for stocks upon which + to work the many varieties in cultivation; but as I + am not writing this for the encouragement of propagators + of purely ornamental trees, I will omit giving + any very extended description of the different modes + of propagating the beech, further than to say that + should remarkably fine varieties with extra-sized nuts be + discovered or produced, they can be perpetuated and + multiplied by the same processes adopted for other kinds + of nut trees.</p> +<p><strong>Soil and Location.</strong>—The beeches of Northern + countries, in their many varieties, thrive best in a cool, + moist soil, for their roots rarely penetrate very deeply, but + spread out widely and near the surface, forming an intricate + network, which will try the patience of the woodman + who attempts to clear away a forest of beech and + break up the ground. In this country, as well as in + Europe, the beech thrives in calcareous soils, or what is + usually termed limestone regions; consequently, when + transplanted or raised in sandy soils, or on the red sandstone + formation, light applications of lime are usually + found very beneficial; but more than all, the beech requires + moisture, and if not planted in a moist soil the + surface over the roots should be kept constantly covered + with some kind of mulch.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p> +<p><strong>Species and Varieties of the Beech.</strong>—In the + Dictionary of Gardening, edited by George Nicholson, + of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, the following + species of Fagus are briefly described, viz:</p> +<p><i>F. antarctica.</i>—Leaves ovate, blunt, glabrous, attenuated + at the base, doubly dentate, alternate, petiolate, + one and a half inches long. A small deciduous tree or + shrub, with rugged, tortuous branches. Native of Tierra + del Fuego, S. A.</p> +<p><i>F. betuloides</i> (birch-like). Evergreen beech.—Leaves + ovate, elliptic, obtuse crenulate, leathery, shining + glabrous, round at the base or short footstalks. An + evergreen tree, native of Tierra del Fuego, S. A.</p> +<p><i>F. ferruginea</i> (rusty). American beech.—Leaves + ovate, acuminate, thickly toothed, downy beneath, ciliate + on the margin. A large deciduous tree, very closely + resembling the common European species, from which + it is distinguished by its longer, thinner and less shining + leaves.</p> +<p><i>F. obliqua</i> (oblique). Chile beech.—Leaves ovate, + oblong, oblique, somewhat rhomboid, blunt, doubly serrated, + entire at the base, attenuated into the petiole, and + somewhat downy. A hardy deciduous tree, native of + the cooler elevated regions of Chile, S. A.</p> +<p><i>F. sylvatica</i> (sylvan). European beech.—Leaves oblong, + ovate, obscurely toothed; margin ciliate. A well-known + large deciduous tree, widely distributed in Europe + from Norway southward to Asia Minor. From this species + a large number of ornamental varieties have been + produced, many of them merely accidental variations of + the wild forms of the forests, while others have originated + in the seedbeds of nurserymen. But so far as I am + aware, no variety has ever been introduced bearing + superior or improved forms of nuts.</p> +<p>Our American beech (<i>F. ferruginea</i>) is a widely + distributed tree, extending from Nova Scotia in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> north, south to Florida, and westward to Wisconsin and + Missouri. Formerly it was exceedingly abundant, but + like many other of our most valuable forest trees, it is + disappearing before the axe of the woodman, who has + always found a ready sale for beech timber. It is used in + the manufacture of plane stocks, shoe lasts, handles for + paring chisels, and hundreds of similar articles. Beech + wood is hard, firm, and takes a good polish, but is not + very flexible. It makes excellent fuel, and ranks next + in value to hard maple and hickory for this purpose. + In the more northern States and where the beech grows + to its largest size, the heartwood is usually of a reddish + color; but here in New Jersey and farther south, the + wood is usually white almost to the center of the tree, + no matter how large it may be. The color of the wood, + however, does not in any way detract from its value, for + fuel and many other purposes, although some European + dendrologists have been deceived into supposing that the + white beech was almost or quite worthless. Loudon, in <i>Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum</i>, Vol. III, in referring + to our beech, says: "The wood of the white + beech is little valued in America, even for fuel; and + the bark is used for tanning, but is little esteemed," etc. + But if any one, in these later years, has had occasion to + purchase beech timber for any purpose, he has probably + learned, from the price charged, that it is esteemed, + even for such base purposes as firewood.</p> +<p>I am not, however, attempting to extol the American + beech as a timber tree, but ask that it be given a + place among the select ornamental nut-bearing kinds. + And I think every farmer who has a pasture lot could + afford a place for at least one beech tree, and if there is + a low, moist spot in the field, or a stony corner, this + will be a suitable place for such a tree; and the horses, + cattle or sheep out in pasture during hot days in summer + will be very grateful for the shade which a wide-spreading<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> specimen will give them. It may be that + the owner of said pasture may recall the lines of + Garcilaso:</p> +<p style="text-align: left; margin-left: 20%"><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">"But in calm idlesse laid,</span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Supine in the cool shade</span><br /> + Of oak or ilex, beech or pendant pine,<br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Sees his flocks feeding stray,</span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Whitening a length of way,</span><br /> + Or numbers up his homeward-tending kine."<br /> +</p> +<p>He may be sure of one thing, and that is, the beech-nuts + produced by one or many trees will always be acceptable + to the children, and of these hungry mortals + there is likely to be a few, at least, roaming about in + ages to come, as in times past.</p> +<p>The beech is not really a desirable tree to plant on + a lawn or near one's dwelling, because of its persistent + foliage, which clings to the twigs very late in winter, + and the rustling of the wind through the dry leaves is + not soothing to one's nerves, although not quite as dismal + as the moaning pines. In summer, and until late + in autumn, the American beech is a noble and graceful + tree,—and if I may be allowed the expression, one of + the cleanest of trees; its large, thin, bright-green and + glossy leaves retain none of the dust and cast-off material + of other trees which may be floating through the + air, but are ever bright and pure. The tree has naturally + wide-spreading and somewhat drooping branches, + and should be given plenty of room for development + when planted for the nuts or as an ornamental tree. Its + leaves and the small slender branchlets (Fig. 9) are eaten + with avidity by all kinds of farm animals; consequently, + protection may be required until the trees have reached + a hight to be safe from such depredators.</p> +<p>Beech seedlings do not usually come into bearing in + less than twenty to thirty years, but as no one in this + country has ever attempted to cultivate this tree for its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> nuts, or search our forests for precocious and superior + varieties, we have to admit that the field remains unexplored, + and as barren of results as it was when our ancestors + first discovered + America. Every hunter, + woodman, farmer + and botanist who has + roamed through forests + where the beech + trees grow, is well + aware of the fact that + distinct varieties are + not at all rare, some + having nuts twice the + size of others in the + same woods or groves, + and it is possible and + probable that some + nut culturist in the + near future will find + time to select these + choice wild varieties + for cultivation and + propagation. It + would not, in my opinion, + be beneath the + dignity of our national + department of agriculture, + or some of its + numerous costly annexes, + to occasionally + take into consideration + the natural products + of this great + country, and determine, by a series of experiments, + whether or no they were not worthy of attention.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 440px;"> <img src="images/fig9.jpg" alt="" height="858" width="440" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._9" id="FIG._9">FIG. 9. </a>BEECHNUT LEAF, BUR AND NUT.</span></span> </div> +<p><strong>Insects Injurious to the Beech.</strong>—No disease + has, as yet, been known to seriously affect the beech, + and as for insect enemies, it probably has a less number + than any other denizen of our forests. It is true that + transplanted trees, and those left exposed by cutting + away protecting neighbors, are sometimes attacked by + borers in the stem, branches and twigs, but these enemies + naturally follow in the train of debility, it being + one of the immutable economic laws of nature to hasten + the demise and decomposition of the half-starved or + otherwise enfeebled members of both the animal and + vegetable kingdom.</p> +<p>Isolated beech trees growing by the roadsides in + parks and fields are occasionally attacked by a large + grayish, long-horn beetle, the <i>Goes pulverulenta</i>. It is + about one inch long, and a rather sturdy beetle of a + light grayish color, and usually infests the branches, + but may occasionally attack the main stem. It is not + abundant, and has seldom been found infesting the + beech. There are also two or three borers of the Buprestis + family of beetles which occasionally attack beech + trees. They are distinguished by the broad heads and + flattened bodies of the grubs, and they work just beneath + the bark in the sapwood, causing dead patches, mainly + on the south side of the stem and larger branches. If + the dead bark is removed and the wounds painted they + will soon heal over, unless the tree is suffering for moisture + and nutrients at the roots. A few twig borers, with + an occasional colony of caterpillars on the leaves, embody + about all the insect enemies of the beech calling for any + special attention, but there are a host of different species + and kinds ever ready to pounce upon a sickly or dead + tree, whether found in the field or forest.</p> +<p><strong>Properties and Uses.</strong>—The beechnut has been so + long and favorably known that very little need be said + here in regard to its properties and uses. In the forests<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> it affords food for many kinds of birds, such as the wild + turkey, partridge or grouse, and especially the pigeon, + and immense flocks of these collect in the beech forests + in autumn to feed upon the nuts. Deer are very fond + of these nuts, and so are all of the squirrel family, and + the little ground squirrel or chipmunk, <i>Tamias striatus</i>, + of our Northern States, gives us a good practical lesson + in the way of preserving the nuts over winter. These + little rodents pack away the nuts in small pockets in + their burrows and from two to three feet below the surface, + where they are protected from excessive moisture + and any considerable change of temperature. The chipmunk + always stores the nuts in the ground, and not in + hollow logs, as is sometimes asserted. The deer-mouse + (<i>Hesperomys leucopus</i>), however, does select such places + for putting away his winter's supply, but more frequently + he chooses a hollow in the stem of some old tree, + and several feet from the ground. Unlike the chipmunk, + this mouse cleans the shells from the kernels, + storing only the latter, and I have often found a quart + or more when cutting down trees in winter. These kernels + are usually so clean, bright, and free from odor, + that it is to be feared the finder always confiscates them + for his own use.</p> +<p>As the beechnut contains considerable oil, many + schemes have been set on foot, in European countries, + for its extraction and use as a salad oil. Early in the + last century (1721) Aaron Hill, an English poet, proposed + to pay off the national debt from the profits to be + derived from the manufacture of beechnut oil; but his + scheme fell through, like many others of its kind. It is + also stated that Henry Fielding, so well known by his + delightful stories of English society, once speculated + rather largely on the manufacture of beechnut oil. In + France, however, beechnut oil was formerly made in + considerable quantities, and used in cooking fish and as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> a salad oil. In Silesia it is used by the country people + instead of butter, and the cakes which remain from the + pressure are given to fatten swine, oxen and poultry. + The forests of Eu and of CrĂ©cy, in the department of + the Oise, it is stated by Duhamel du Monceau, have + yielded, in a single season, more than 2,000,000 bushels + of mast, but probably this referred to all kinds of nuts, + and not beech-nuts alone. Years later, or in 1779, + Michaux states that the forests of Compiègne, near the + Verberie department of the Somme, afforded oil enough + to supply the wants of the district for more than half a + century. In some parts of France beech-nuts are roasted + and served as a substitute for coffee. Many of these old + forests have disappeared, but other kinds of nut trees + are still being planted in France, and the product is + simply enormous, and a source of wealth to the peasant, + as well as the owners of extensive forests and orchards.</p> +<p>The beechnut has never been an article of commerce + in this country, and it is rarely seen on sale in either + country villages or our larger cities, not because of its + scarcity or want of demand, but all that the country + boys and girls find time to gather are wanted for their + own pleasure and use. Picking up beech-nuts among + the leaves in a forest, or even after raking off the leaves + and then whipping the trees, is, at best, slow and rather + tedious work, as I know full well from experience, and + only once do I remember of having secured a rounded + half bushel as the sum total of many raids on the beech + trees in the neighborhood. But as the beechnut is the + diamond among the larger and less precious gems of our + forests, we should set a higher value upon it because + small and rather difficult to obtain.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2> +<h3>CASTANOPSIS.</h3> +<p class="center">California chestnut. Western chinquapin. Evergreen + chestnut.</p> +<p>Castanopsis, Spach. Name derived from <i>Castanea</i>, + the chestnut. Order, <i>Cupuliferæ</i>. A genus of evergreen + shrubs and trees, intermediate between the oaks + (<i>Quercus</i>) and the chestnuts (<i>Castanea</i>). There are + about a dozen species indigenous to Eastern Asia and + the adjacent islands. Blume, in "Flora Javae," Vol. II, + 1828-36, describes three species under <i>Castanea</i>, which + he found in the mountains and more elevated regions of + the Javanese islands. Very little, however, is known of + these oriental evergreen chestnuts outside of the herbariums + of professional botanists, and they are rarely referred + to, even in standard botanical dictionaries, or + dictionaries of gardening, and when mentioned they are + usually placed in the genus <i>Castanea</i>. Edouard Spach, + a half-century or more ago, gave a synopsis of the genus, + for which he proposed the name of <i>Castanopsis</i>, and + although not recognized by botanists in general for a + number of years, it is now accepted by botanical authorities + everywhere. We have but one indigenous species, + and this on the Pacific coast, viz:</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> <img src="images/fig10.jpg" alt="" height="658" width="650" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._10" id="FIG._10">FIG. 10.</a> LEAVES AND NUT OF CASTANOPSIS CHRYSOPHYLLA.</span></span> </div> +<p><i>Castanopsis chrysophylla</i>, A. de Candolle. <i>Castanea + chrysophylla</i>, Douglas. <i>Castanea sempervirens</i>, + Kellogg.</p> +<blockquote> + <p>"Leaves coriaceous, evergreen, lanceolate or oblong, + one to four inches long, acuminate or only acutish (Fig. + 10), cuneate at base and shortly petioled, entire green + and glabrous above or somewhat scurfy, densely scurfy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> beneath, with none or few yellow scales; male aments + one to three inches long, densely pubescent; styles three, + stout, glabrous, divergent; fruiting involucre with stout + divergent spines (Fig. 11) one-half to one inch long, + subverticillately many branched; nut usually solitary, + obversely triangular, six lines long."—"Geological Survey + of California," Botany, Vol. II, p. 100.</p> + <p>"This handsome broad-leaved evergreen tree is indigenous + to the elevated regions, from Monterey, California, + northward to the Columbia river in Oregon. It is + also common in the Sierra Nevadas at elevations of six<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> thousand feet, but in its southern limits rarely below + ten thousand feet elevation."—C. S. Sargent ("Woods of + the United States").</p> +</blockquote> +<p>In the warmer and drier regions of California it is + a mere shrub two to six feet high, and these dwarf forms + have, in some instances, been described as varieties. + As, for instance, <i>Castanea chrysophylla</i>, var. <i>minor</i>, + Bentham; <i>C. chrysophylla</i>, var. <i>minor</i>, A. de Candolle; + and <i>C. chrysophylla</i>, var. <i>pumila</i>, Vasey. But northward, + where the climate + is more moist, it + becomes a large tree + fifty to one hundred + and twenty feet high, + with a stem two to + three feet in diameter. + In its wide variation + in habit of growth, + this western chinquapin + is similar to our + Eastern dwarf chestnut, + which is mainly + a low shrub in the + more Southern States, + but becomes a fair-sized tree in the Middle States, or + near its northern limits.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"> <img src="images/fig11.jpg" alt="" title="" height="391" width="350" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._11" id="FIG._11">FIG. 11</a>. CASTANOPSIS BUR.</span></span> </div> +<p>I have introduced the Western chinquapin here + among the nut-bearing trees, not with the idea that + it will ever be extensively cultivated for its edible nuts, + but because it is a beautiful broad-leaved evergreen tree, + and of which we have far too few kinds in cultivation to + give warmth and a cheerful aspect to our gardens and + pleasure grounds in winter. It is true that, so far as + can be learned at this time, no extended experiments + have ever been made to introduce or cultivate the Castanopsis + in the Atlantic States, consequently nothing positive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> is known as to whether it will succeed here or not. + In its northernmost range it thrives in forests among + many kinds of trees and shrubs that are already common + in our gardens, and this leads me to think that specimens + or seeds of this tree procured from the mountains + of northern Oregon will withstand the rigors of our + climate.</p> +<p>Mr. S. B. Parsons writes me that he first saw <i>Castanopsis + chrysophylla</i> in Kew Gardens (Eng.) thirty-five + years ago, and procured specimens, which were planted + in his gardens at Flushing, N. Y., but they failed, presumably + because not hardy. It may be that his specimens + were raised from nuts procured in the warmer part + of California, and, as with many other Pacific coast + plants, proved to be tender, while later introductions of + the same species collected in colder localities have proved + hardy here. In my experience I have found a great difference + in the hardiness of trees and plants obtained + from the higher and lower levels of the mountains from + Colorado westward to the Coast range, for in those regions + acclimation extending over thousands of years has + developed and fixed certain physiological attributes, + which enables them to readily adapt themselves to similar + conditions elsewhere, especially in the line of temperature. + It may make no difference to those who want + plants for warm climates, whether they are obtained + from mountain or valley, but it certainly does to those + who value hardiness above all other merits.</p> +<p>In horticultural matters we are supposed to confine + ourselves within certain natural lines in making experiments, + but if we fail in one, or one hundred, it proves + little beyond the bare fact that we have not been successful. + I have experimented enough to have become + somewhat wary of deciding that a thing cannot be done, + or is impossible, because of my own and others' failures. + Every practical horticulturist can call to mind many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> productions which had evaded the pursuit of experimenters + for decades and even centuries.</p> +<p>For specimens of the nuts, burs and plants of this + handsome nut-bearing tree I am indebted to Mr. J. J. + Harden, of Stayton, Oregon, who informs me that it + grows in the mountains near by to a very large size, and + among such well-known kinds of shrubs and trees as <i>Rhamnus Purshianus</i>, <i>Cornus Nuttalli</i>, <i>Corylus rostrata</i>, + and various species of conifers which are now more or + less common in our Eastern gardens and parks. The + twigs and leaves are shown in Fig. 10, and below a nut, + and in Fig. 11 a bur, all of natural size. The small conical + nut is slightly triangular, with a rather firm, brittle + shell, not fibrous as in the acorn and chestnut. The burs + are produced singly, but sometimes several on a twig, and + when mature, instead of opening by valves, as in the true + chestnut, they break up irregularly. The kernels are + sweet and excellent flavored, and are sought for by various + kinds of birds, as well as by all the squirrel tribe, and + for this reason it is very difficult to procure specimens, + unless gathered before they are fully ripe. The nuts do + not mature the first season, but pass the winter in a + partly developed stage, usually ripening the second year + about midsummer or, in northern Oregon, in July.</p> +<p>It is quite probable that this Castanopsis, when + planted in the Atlantic States, will require a little shade + or protection, like the American holly and similar broad-leaved + evergreens, and while it may not thrive anywhere + north of Delaware and Maryland, it is worth trying, as + the sole native representative of a genus containing several + species of noble evergreen trees.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2> +<h3>THE CHESTNUT.</h3> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/fig12.jpg" alt="" height="972" width="600" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._12" id="FIG._12">FIG. 12</a>. CHESTNUT FLOWERS.</span></span> </div> +<p>Castanea, <i>Tournefort</i>. The ancient classical name + derived either from Castanis, a town in Thessaly, or one + in Pontius, as historians disagree in regard to its derivation. + The genus belongs to the order <i>Cupuliferæ</i>.</p> +<p>Male flowers irregularly clustered in long, naked, + cylindrical catkins from the axils of the leaves and on + the new shoots of the season. Calyx five or six parted; + stamens or pollen-bearing organs seven to fifteen; anther + two-celled. On old, mature trees, the male catkins + are usually crowded near the end of the short new twigs, + as shown in Fig. 12, the terminal one productive; but + on young thrifty trees, wide apart. Female flowers + always on and near the base of a late-developed male + catkin, sometimes two or three together,—or even six or + eight on the chinquapins,—oval or ovoid, scaly, prickly, + two- to four-valved involucre or bur; calyx usually with + a four- to six-lobed border crowning the three- to seven-celled + ovary; stigmas bristle-shaped, and as many in + number as there are cells in the ovary. Shell of the nut + leathery, not brittle, ovoid, two or more together in the + larger species, in others solitary, or only one in a bur. + Kernel very thick, fleshy, and somewhat plaited, sweet + and edible.</p> +<p>Both male and female flowers appear late in spring, + the males usually exceedingly so, exhaling a slightly nauseating + odor. The productive male catkins appear the + latest, their base becoming the rachis or stalk supporting + the burs, this rather anomalous arrangement appearing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a><br /> + <a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> to be a natural provision to secure fertilization in + case the earlier catkins failed.</p> +<p>The genus <i>Castanea</i>, as now restricted, contains + shrubs and large trees, with simple, alternate deciduous + leaves, coarsely serrate, with pointed spiny teeth. Indigenous, + and widely distributed over northern Africa, + southern Europe, Asia and the eastern half of the + United States.</p> +<p>The common English name of this nut is supposed + to be derived from the Anglo-Saxon <i>cystel</i>, chestnut, + and <i>cyst-beam</i> or <i>cisten-beam</i>, chestnut tree; Old English, <i>chastein</i> or <i>chesten</i>; Old German, <i>chestinna</i> or <i>kestinna</i>; Modern German, <i>kestene</i> or <i>kastanie</i>; French, <i>castaigne</i> or <i>chataigne</i>; Provencal, <i>castanha</i>; Spanish, <i>castana</i>; Italian, <i>castagna</i>, from the Latin <i>castanea</i>.</p> +<p><strong>History of the Chestnut.</strong>—The so-called European + chestnut is supposed to be indigenous to Asia + Minor, Armenia, Caucasus and northern Africa, and + from these countries it was introduced and became naturalized + throughout the greater part of temperate Europe, + where it has been cultivated from time immemorial. + The Romans are supposed to have distributed it + northward through France and Great Britain, and in + the latter country there were trees centuries ago of such + large size that many of the early English authors claimed + this tree was indigenous. But in the absence of any + natural forests of chestnut, the claim had to be abandoned. + In parts of France, Italy and Spain, the chestnut + has become thoroughly naturalized and, as we may + say, run wild, but as one of the early investigators says, + in speaking of the abundance of old chestnut trees on + the Apennines, they are generally scattered over the + surface like trees on a well-arranged lawn, and not + crowded and massed, as they would be in a state of + nature or in a forest. On the south side of the Alps the + trees grow up to an altitude of twenty-five hundred feet,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> and on the Pyrenees some two or three hundred feet + higher.</p> +<p>There are old trees of immense size almost everywhere + in the milder regions of Europe, and the celebrated + monarchs of Etna have been many times described + by travelers. The largest measure one hundred + and eighty feet in circumference near the root. All the + early Roman writers who have anything to say about + rural affairs, mention the chestnut as one of their valuable + trees, producing nuts used for various purposes. + Pliny enumerates eight varieties, but Columella appears + to place more value upon the timber, especially the + sprouts, for stakes, than he does on the nuts. But long + before the Romans began to cultivate the chestnut, the + Greeks held it in high esteem under the name of <i>Sardianos + Balanos</i> or Sardis nut, and still later it was called <i>Dios Balanos Lopimon</i>.</p> +<p>The European chestnut has been so frequently and + extensively referred to by ancient and modern authors + that it would not be at all difficult to fill a large volume + with brief extracts from their works, but my aim is not + so much to show what has been done with this nut in + other countries as what we may do with it here. All + nations who have any experience with it admit its value + as food for many wild and domesticated animals, as well + as for the human race, and we know, from our long + experience with the native species, that it is highly + esteemed wherever known, although it must be admitted + that our sparse population and the abundance of + other kinds of food, have tended to make us careless + and neglectful of the indigenous chestnut.</p> +<p>It may be well, before dismissing this brief history + of the chestnut, to add that while nearly all the ancient + authors, in referring to it, employed its present scientific + name of <i>Castanea</i>, still, when botanists first attempted + what has since been recognized as the scientific<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> classification of plants, many of them placed the chestnut + in the same genus as the beech, retaining the generic + name of <i>Fagus</i> for both.</p> +<p>Linnæus, in his <i>Systema Naturæ</i>, 1766, Vol. II, + p. 630, describes two species of the chestnut and one of + beech in the genus <i>Fagus</i>, although Tournefort, in his + "History of Plants Growing About Paris," published + seventy years before that of Linnæus, had recognized + the distinctive characteristics of these two groups of nut + trees, and he adopted the present name of <i>Castanea</i> for + the generic name of the chestnut, and <i>Fagus</i> for that of + the beech. But nearly all of the English and earlier + American botanists adopted and followed Linnæus in + his classification, ignoring the works of the earlier as + well as contemporaneous continental botanists. I merely + refer to this matter of botanical nomenclature because + some of my readers may have occasion to consult the + earlier authors who describe American plants, as, for + instance, such works as John Clayton's "Flora of Virginia," + 1739, Thomas Walter's "Flora Caroliniana," + 1787, or Humphrey Marshall's "American Grove," 1785. + In all of these, and others, the chestnut is described as a + species of beech (<i>Fagus</i>).</p> +<p><strong>Propagation of the Chestnut.</strong>—The usual mode + of propagating the chestnut is from seed, when trees are + wanted for general planting or for stocks upon which + to graft improved and rare varieties. Under some conditions + and circumstances, it is best to plant the nuts + soon after they are ripe in autumn, and this appears to + be the most natural method; in fact, it is the way in + which forests have been produced and are constantly + renewed and perpetuated, when man does not interfere + to prevent it. But nature is in no hurry in such matters, + while man always is, because his time is limited; + consequently, in our attempts at the multiplication and + cultivation of plants we aim to save both time and material,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> therefore cannot afford to adopt nature's slow and + wasteful processes.</p> +<p>The principal objection to planting chestnuts in the + fall is the danger of having them destroyed by vermin, + which abound almost everywhere. There is also danger + of the nuts sprouting prematurely in the autumn, and of + the young growth being killed by cold or by excessive + moisture during late fall rains. But these natural enemies + and obstacles prevent an excess in number and the + overcrowding of trees in our forests. It is, no doubt, + possible and practicable to smear the nuts with poisonous + substances, or those sufficiently offensive to prevent + the depredations of vermin, but taking all things into + consideration, I am decidedly in favor of preserving the + nuts in bulk and in a dormant state until the season + arrives for insuring a rapid and continuous growth, and + then planting them. To do this in our cold northern + climate, as well as in the South, requires more care and + attention with chestnuts than with the harder-shelled + kinds, like the walnut and hickory nut. As a rule, it + may be said that all the hardy kinds of nuts sprout at a + rather low temperature and a few degrees above the + freezing point, and for this reason it is well to select as + cool a spot in the open ground as possible for their winter + quarters, and then examine them as early as can be done + conveniently in the spring.</p> +<p>In this matter of manipulating and preserving + chestnuts for planting, as well as what follows in regard + to transplanting, pruning and grafting, I shall give my + own practice, with results; and while it may differ from + that of other propagators, it is one evolved from long + experience, many successes, and a few failures.</p> +<p><strong>Gathering and Assorting Nuts.</strong>—When the + nuts begin to ripen and fall, gather as soon as possible, + and if the trees are on your own grounds and will admit + of such an operation, thrash them and secure the entire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> crop at once. The object of this early gathering is to + collect the false and weevil-infested specimens and destroy + them. But in whatever way the nuts are collected, + they should be stored in the shade and in shallow boxes, + or spread out on a tight floor; but the better way would + be on screens over a floor, and then when the grubs + worked their way downward through the nuts and screen, + they would fall upon the floor, from which they could + be taken up and burned or otherwise destroyed. The + nuts, while on the screen or other receptacle, should be + stirred over daily for two or three weeks, and by that + time they will be in good condition for either planting + or packing away for the winter. But before finally disposing + of the nuts in either way, they should be carefully + looked over, and every shrunken specimen, as well as all + with punctured shells from which the grubs have escaped, + removed from among the sound stock, because + these damaged nuts are not only useless, but are very + likely to decay and affect all with which they come in + contact. It is not to be expected that by such means or + handling we can get rid of all the grubs enclosed in the + nuts when gathered, for there will always be a few not + more than half grown at the time, and these will remain + hidden in the nuts until midwinter, or later, but the + greater part of the brood will reach maturity within two + or three weeks after the nuts are ripe. Of course, what + is said here about chestnut weevils is only applicable to + chestnuts grown in this country, but all species and varieties, + when planted here, are subject to the attacks of + this pest—at least, everywhere in the Eastern and + Southern States.</p> +<p>Having assorted the nuts carefully, the sound ones + should be reserved for planting; these should be mixed + with or stratified with moist, sharp sand, and stored in + boxes of convenient size for handling and examination, + whenever this is required. In preparing the boxes, bore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> a number of small holes through the bottom, and over + each of these lay a piece of a broken flower-pot, brick + or stone, then cover the bottom one inch deep with the + moist sand, and on this place a single layer of nuts, then + fill in all interstices with sand, and also use enough more + to fairly cover the layer; and proceed in this way until + all the nuts are disposed of or the box is full, covering + the top layer one or two inches deep, because the sand + will settle some after the work seems complete. The + boxes may be covered with fine wire netting or with narrow + strips of boards, fitting these so that mice cannot + get in, but should not be air-tight. They may then be + buried in the open ground, selecting some knoll or dry + spot for this purpose, for the nuts should not be placed + where they will be submerged, or even be water-soaked, + at any time during the fall, winter or early spring. If + no such spot is conveniently near, then set the boxes on + the top of the ground, and on the north side of some + building or in the shade of an evergreen tree, and bank + over with soil, covering the boxes a foot deep. If the + spot selected is under the eaves of a building, place + boards over the heap of soil, to carry off the water, for + the object is to keep the nuts moderately moist, cool, + and where they will not be subjected to frequent changes + of temperature. In our Northern States the nuts, + under such conditions, usually become frozen during + the coldest weather, but this does not injure them if the + sand is moist and they remain frozen, as there will be no + danger of germination; while if kept too warm, they + may start to grow before the seedbed is ready, in spring, + for their reception. I have tried keeping the nuts + mixed with sand in a cool cellar, also in outbuildings, + but have not found any other place so certain as pits in + the open ground.</p> +<p><strong>Seedbed and Soil.</strong>—It is well to have the seedbed + prepared the previous autumn, but it is not absolutely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> necessary. The soil for the bed should be light, either + sandy or loamy, and if not rich, made so by adding very + old and fine stable manure, or leaf mold from the forest—I + prefer the latter, as it is the most natural for all + kinds of seedling nut trees. Whatever fertilizing materials + are used, they should be placed on or near the surface, + and never worked in deeply, for our aim should be + the production of side or lateral fibers, and not coarse + perpendicular roots. Furthermore, seedling nut trees + grown on light, sandy soils or in pure leaf mold, produce + a far greater number of small fibrous roots than on heavy + soils, and this is a decided advantage with those which + are to be transplanted.</p> +<p><strong>Planting the Nuts.</strong>—When the time arrives for + planting, take the nuts from their winter quarters, and + after sifting out the sand, sow or drop them in drills, + covering about two inches deep with fine soil. With + the small native varieties my practice has been to sow in + wide drills; that is, those made with the blade of a + common garden hoe, and of the same width, the nuts + being scattered along the bottom two to three inches + apart.</p> +<p>The soil is then drawn in over them and pressed + down with the back of the hoe, or by passing a light + garden roller over the surface. If the size of the seedbed + is not limited, or only a small quantity of nuts are + to be sown, then the single row would be preferable, + because less hand weeding will be needed to subdue the + weeds, and for all the larger varieties I should certainly + recommend it, because they are of a more stocky growth. + The distance allowed between the drills will depend + somewhat upon the implements to be employed in cultivation, + as well as how long the seedlings are to remain + in the seedbed before transplanting, but from two to + three feet will be found convenient for the ordinary + modes of cultivation.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p> +<p>If the seedlings make a fair average growth the first + season they will be from one to three feet high in the + autumn, and as soon as the leaves have fallen they may + be taken up, or allowed to remain until the following + spring and then lifted. But if, from any cause, they + have made a feeble growth, it is better to let them remain + in the seedbed another year. Where large quantities + of seedlings are raised they are usually taken up + with a tree-digger drawn by a span of horses or mules, + but with only a few hundred or a thousand to dig, a + common spade will answer every purpose; and if, when + removed from the seedbed, they are found to have produced + long perpendicular taproots, these should be + shortened to about one-half their original length. For + instance, if these taproots are taken up entire and are + eighteen to twenty inches long, cut away the lower half, + whether it consists of one or more long perpendicular + roots, as this pruning will force the plants to produce a + greater number of lateral roots, and it is upon these we + depend mainly for keeping our trees alive and vigorous + if transplanted when larger and older. All side branches + should be pruned off close to the main stem, for we aim + to favor the latter in its growth upward until it reaches + the required hight for either grafting or forming the + future head of the tree.</p> +<p>In taking up seedlings, it is not safe to leave them + for any considerable time exposed to the sun and drying + winds, and they should be carried either to a shed or + other building while being pruned, and also covered + with blankets in the field, except during moist, cloudy + days. A very little drying of the small fibers on such + plants is always more or less injurious.</p> +<p><strong>Planting in Nursery Rows.</strong>—After the seedlings + have been taken from the seedbed and pruned, they + should be set out in nursery rows, four feet apart, and + the plants about eighteen inches in the row. Trenches<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> should be opened for the reception of the plants, and + wide enough to allow all the roots to be spread out in a + natural position; and it is well to set a little deeper than + the seedlings were in the seedbed, because newly plowed + ground will settle some after the planting is finished, + although the soil should always be packed firmly about + the stems of newly set trees, whether large or small. + The more frequent and thorough the cultivation during + the ensuing summer, the more rapid will be the growth + of the trees.</p> +<p>If the transplanted seedlings have produced any + considerable number of side branches,—and especially, + low down,—these may be pruned off at any time during + the summer, for our object is usually to secure straight, + upright stems for grafting the following spring, if they + are large and tall enough; if not, we may delay this operation + for another year. Of course, small chestnut stocks + may be grafted close to the ground, but there is nothing + really gained by this, for a good strong stock will push + a cion forward more in one season than a weak stock in + two or three seasons. But when the stocks have reached + a diameter of from three-eighths to one-half an inch + three or four feet from the ground, they may be grafted, + but I would prefer to have them a little over than under + these sizes.</p> +<p><strong>Stocks From the Forests.</strong>—It is not necessary + for a man who may need a few chestnut stocks for experimental + or other purposes, to wait until they can be + grown from the nut, because these can always be purchased + at the nurseries; but if one does not wish to + incur even this small outlay, it may be avoided by obtaining + a supply from the forests, provided there are + any in the neighborhood where chestnut seedlings are to + be found, and the owner will permit their removal. The + best wild stocks are usually to be found in recent clearings, + or where the larger trees have been cut off for timber,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> and the underbrush, composed of seedlings and + sprouts, is left to grow up again into a forest. There + are many thousands of acres in New Jersey, New York, + and other Eastern States, from which the timber is cut + every twenty or thirty years, and no further attention + paid to the land or what it produces. Wherever such + clearings are found containing chestnut trees, good + stocks can usually be procured by selecting those varying + from one to two inches in diameter at the ground, and + if the soil in which they are growing is rather poor and + stony they will usually have pretty good roots, if carefully + taken up. They should be pruned to a single + stem, and this cut off at a hight of from five to six feet + or less, then planted where they are to remain permanently. + Such stocks, if carefully taken up and planted, + will throw out numerous sprouts from their stems during + the summer, but all should be rubbed off while small + and tender, except three or four at the top, and the following + spring, if wanted for this purpose, they may be + grafted in the same way as the young stocks growing in + the nursery, thereby saving three or four years of time + in securing bearing trees. Having often employed such + wildings for stocks with just as good results as with + those raised from the nuts in nursery rows, I am inclined + to recommend them, where obtainable, knowing that + there are thousands of farmers and owners of small + places in the country who can do likewise, but may have + never thought it practicable to transplant nut trees from + the forest, although well aware of the fact that elms, + maples, and similar kinds were obtained there, and in + immense numbers, for planting in the streets of villages + and alongside country highways.</p> +<p><strong>The Season for Grafting.</strong>—The proper time for + grafting the chestnut is in early spring, just as the buds + begin to swell, but not until all danger of freezing + weather is past, although light frosts will not seriously<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> injure newly set cions. The grafting may be continued + while the leaves are unfolding, provided the cions were + cut early and stored in a cool place, where they remain + in a dormant state until used. I usually cut the shoots + wanted for this purpose during the late fall or winter, + and then pack them away in a cool cellar between layers + of damp moss (<i>sphagnum</i>) to be obtained in almost any + swamp. Cions may be taken from the tree on the same + day that they are used, but there is some risk in this, + because we cannot control the weather, and a week of + warm rain in spring may delay us in grafting, while it is + pushing our stocks into leaf; and then, our dormant + cions are available, while those on the trees are not, owing + to their expanded and tender buds.</p> +<p>The shoots used for cions are those of the previous + season's growth, or as usually termed, one-year-old + wood; and in selecting these, endeavor to get such as + are plump, well ripened and firm. If taken from young + and very thrifty chestnut trees, there is likely to be a + considerable portion of the upper end of the shoot that + is rather soft, spongy and immature, and this should be + discarded, as it would be a waste of time to use it. Of + course, I am supposing that the grafter is so fortunate + as to be able to make his own selection of the wood desired; + if not, then he may be compelled to do the best + he can with that obtained elsewhere.</p> +<p><strong>Grafting Materials.</strong>—The really essential materials + and implements required in grafting nut trees are + few in number. Grafting wax must be provided, and + while there are many different compositions used for + this purpose, I much prefer, for ordinary work in the + open air, a wax made after the old formula, and as follows: + Take one pound of common rosin, one-half pound + of beeswax, and one-quarter of a pound of beef tallow; + melt together and stir enough to insure the thorough + intermingling of the ingredients, and then set away to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> cool, or pour into cold water and work up into cakes or + rolls and wrap in paper until wanted for use. Larger + quantities may be made if required, preserving the same + proportions of the materials used. If to be used immediately + in grafting chestnuts and similar trees, then procure + some sheets of tough Manilla paper of only moderate + thickness, and cut this up into sheets about six + inches wide and a foot long. While the fresh-made + wax is melted, take an old and rather stiff paint brush, + dip it into the hot wax and coat the papers thinly + with it, and then spread them out on shelves or elsewhere + to cool, and let them remain undisturbed until + wanted for use. Any thin kind of cloth may be used + instead of paper, but I prefer the latter because it will + yield to the pressure of the enlarging stock and cion + when growth begins, and it will not be necessary to examine + the grafted stock so frequently during the summer + to prevent girdling, as is usually the case when a + tougher material is employed for wrappers. Before these + waxed sheets are taken into the field for use, lay each + one separately on a piece of board with the waxed side + up, and with the point of a sharp knife cut them crossways + into narrow strips of from one-half to three-fourths + of an inch wide. But for convenience in handling, + insert the point of the knife a half-inch from one edge, + but cut the other clean through, so that the whole sheet + of strips can be lifted together.</p> +<p>In early spring there is usually more or less windy + weather, and if waxed sheets of paper are taken out into + the field unprotected they are very likely to become tangled + up and useless. To prevent this, procure a number + of large but very shallow paper boxes, such as can usually + be had at the stores and groceries of almost any village, + and in these place a single layer of the cut waxed + sheets, where they will be protected from wind and dust + until removed for immediate use.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p> +<p>Other kinds of grafting wax can, of course, be used, + and are usually procurable at the seed stores or made at + home, and I have given their composition and the formulas + for their manufacture in my work, "The Propagation + of Plants;" but, as I have already said, this old standard + kind of wax is just as good as any other, although a little + more troublesome to use on account of its sticky consistency. + Raffia or bass may be employed as ligatures for + holding the cions in place, then covered with Leport's + or other kinds of liquid grafting wax; but when these + are employed it will be necessary to examine the grafted + trees frequently, in order to cut the ligatures to prevent + girdling.</p> +<p>The best implement for grafting is a common broad-blade + pocket knife. One with a blade three to three + and a half inches long and three-fourths of an inch wide, + is a handy size. It should be of the best material for + grafting chestnuts, because the wood of this tree is + coarse-grained, and so filled with siliceous matter that it + soon dulls the keenest blade, and the grafter will, of + necessity, have to use his whetstone frequently. In + grinding the knife-blade have the sides a true level, from + the back to the edge, especially the underside when to be + held in the right hand with the edge towards the body. + The importance of having a blade of this form will soon + become apparent when the grafter attempts to make a + true sloping cut on either stock or cion, and it would be + well for the novice to practice for an hour or two in + splicing some worthless twigs before commencing upon + more valuable material, for even an expert workman is + very likely to make some awkward dissections and joints + when out of practice. The professional propagator of + plants may think such details are unimportant, but I + wish to impress upon the amateur that in grafting nut + trees we are dealing with kinds that will not respond + satisfactorily to such free manipulations as the apple<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> and pear; consequently, better and more careful handling + is required to insure success.</p> +<p>When ready to begin operations in the field, take + out a quantity of the shoots to be used for cions, and + keep them wrapped in damp cloth or + packed in a box, basket or other receptacle + with wet moss, to prevent drying. + If any considerable number of stocks are + to be grafted, then an assistant or two + will be required, for the grafter cannot + be alternately handling the + knife and cions and wax, and + do good work, but if he only + inserts the cions and his assistant + applies the waxed ligatures, + the operation will proceed + more rapidly and satisfactorily.</p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig13.jpg" alt="" height="530" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._13" id="FIG._13">FIG. 13</a>. + SPLICE GRAFT.</span></span> </div> +<div class="figright" style="width: 220px;"> <img src="images/fig14.jpg" alt="" height="715" width="220" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._14" id="FIG._14">FIG. 14</a>. SPLICE + GRAFT INSERTED.</span></span> </div> +<p><strong>Modes of Grafting.</strong>—The + only two modes of grafting + that I shall recommend + for the chestnut are the splice + or whip graft, and the cleft + or wedge graft. In the splice + graft, the cion and stock + should be of about the same + diameter, but if there is any + difference let it be in favor of + the stock, and this the largest. In this + mode of grafting, the stock is cut off with + an upward slope, exposing two or three + inches of wood; and about midway on + this slope a small cleft or incision is made, forming + what is called a "tongue." The cion is then cut in the + same way from the upper end downward, with a corresponding + incision, as seen in Fig. 13. Then the two are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> neatly fitted together, the tongue on one entering the cleft + on the other, making a close joint, as shown in Fig. 14. + The bark of the cion and stock should be exactly even on + one side at least; and if they are of the same size, so + much the better, for then they will be even on both sides; + but we cannot expect to secure such perfect joints on + every stock, or any considerable number, although we + aim to do so as frequently as possible. When the cion + is fitted, the waxed paper is applied by placing one end + of the strip at or near the base of the splice, then wind + it spirally and firmly upward until the entire wound is + covered. If one of the waxed strips is not enough use + another, for it will do no harm if they are double on a + part or all over the joint. The cion should not be much + over four inches long, and a less length is preferable, + but not so convenient for handling. One good prominent + bud on each cion is sufficient, and this left near + the upper end, but on short-jointed wood we may use + cions with two or more buds without greatly increasing + their length. After the cion is in place and every part + of the splice is carefully sealed with the waxed paper, + place a small piece or a little wax on the upper end of + the cion, just enough to cover the exposed wound and + prevent evaporation of the natural moisture or sap in + the wood. I have found, in practice, that this sealing + the end of the cion is time well spent; in fact, to leave + any of the wood cells exposed to the air endangers the + success of the operation.</p> +<p>Young shoots from a quarter of an inch in diameter + up to five-eighths may be used for cions, in splice + grafting; and with a little care in the selection of stocks, + or by cutting them off a few inches higher or lower, we + may readily manage to have them nearly of the same + diameter to match our cions, whether they are large or + small, and such unions will soon heal over, leaving no + scar at the point where the two have been joined.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p> +<p>If the new growth or shoot to be employed as a cion + is slender and feeble, then the base of the cion may be of + two-year-old wood, leaving just a bud or two on the + upper end of the one-year shoot. But it will seldom be + necessary to employ such cions in grafting the chestnut, + although it may occur when seeking to secure wood for + propagation, from very old trees which have made only + a feeble annual growth.</p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"> <img src="images/fig15.jpg" alt="" title="" height="270" width="150" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._15" id="FIG._15">FIG. 15</a>. + STOCK.</span></span> </div> +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig16.jpg" alt="" height="368" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._16" id="FIG._16">FIG. 16</a>. CION.</span></span> </div> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"> <img src="images/fig17-18.jpg" alt="" height="378" width="250" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._17" id="FIG._17">FIG. 17</a>.</span> <span class="smcap">FIG. 18.</span></span> </div> +<p><strong>Cleft Grafting.</strong>—This method is employed principally + upon stocks or branches of trees too large for splicing. + The stock is first cut off at the + point where it is desirable to insert the + cion; then split with a knife, being + careful to divide it, so that the edges + will be kept smooth, and not rough + and ragged (Fig. 15). When the knife + blade is withdrawn, the cleft may be + kept open with a hard wood wedge, + if the stock is too large to admit of + opening it with the point of the knife + when ready to insert the cion. The cion may be three + or four inches long, containing two or more buds; the + lower end is cut wedge-shape, as shown in Fig. 16, and + slightly the thickest on the side to be set + against the bark of the stock. In stocks + of an inch or more in diameter, two cions, + one on each side, may be inserted (Fig. + 17), and if both grow one should be cut + away, else the tree, in later years, will be + very likely to divide or break apart at this + point. In stocks of an inch or less in diameter, + one cion is sufficient, the top of + the stock to be cut off with an upward + slope, as shown in Fig. 18. After the cions are inserted, + the entire exposed surface of the wood must be covered + with grafting wax or waxed paper, and usually both may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> be employed with benefit. All the various forms of + grafting in the open air, as described in my work on the + "Propagation of Plants," may be employed on the + chestnut, but the two here given will probably answer + just as well as others for those who may have occasion to + propagate this tree.</p> +<p><strong>Success in Grafting.</strong>—The question has been + asked many times, and will, no doubt, be frequently + repeated, "What percentage of cions should one accustomed + to grafting make grow?" As there are no statistics + upon which to base an answer to the question, I can + only give my own personal experience, and this leads me + to say that seventy-five per cent may be considered an + excellent, if not a high average. In some seasons this + has been exceeded by at least ten per cent, while in + others it has fallen as much or more below, with no + apparent reason for the difference. Ninety-five per cent + of the cions may push their buds, or even make a growth + of several inches, then begin to die off; consequently, + the time to count your successfully grafted trees is in + the autumn, and not in spring or midsummer, as it is to + be feared some are in the habit of doing when making a + report upon what they call success in grafting nut trees.</p> +<p><strong>Growth of Cions.</strong>—Cions set in strong stocks + usually make a very rapid and vigorous growth, and if + left unchecked, there is danger of loss by being broken + or blown off by strong winds during the summer and + autumn. To prevent this as much as possible, it has + been my practice to pinch off the ends of the young + shoots when they are about two feet long. Lateral + shoots will then push out freely, and in some seasons it + may be necessary to check their growth in the same way + later. On feeble stocks, or those quite small, and with + the less vigorous growing varieties, no summer pinching + or pruning will be required. My experimental grounds + are well protected upon the north and west, not only by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> rising ground, but by Norway spruce and American + arbor vitæ hedges twice as high as the grafted chestnut + trees in the nursery rows, and yet almost every season + some of the stronger-growing grafts are blown out or + broken off by the wind. After the first season there is + little danger of injury, probably because the union between + cion and stock has become stronger.</p> +<p><strong>Grafting Chestnut Sprouts.</strong>—In grafting the + vigorous sprouts that always spring up from the stumps + of old trees that have been recently cut down, we may + reasonably expect a prodigious growth of the cion the + first season, as well as in succeeding ones, and if all goes + well with them we will secure large bearing trees in a + very few years, but such stocks are only available where + old trees are sacrificed for their timber or other purposes. + Having a few such sprouts on my place, they have been + utilized from time to time in testing some of the newer + varieties. In one instance I allowed the cion, set on a + sprout about one inch in diameter, six feet from the + base, to grow unchecked throughout the season, as it + was in a protected position, and in the fall the entire + length of the main stem and lateral branches was sixty-five + feet, and all from one bud on a cion set early in the + spring. The third year this tree bore about a peck of + very large nuts, to which I shall have occasion to refer + again under "Injurious Insects."</p> +<p><strong>Grafting Large Trees.</strong>—Grafting large chestnut + trees with stems of six inches or more in diameter, and + with large spreading heads, is possible, but far from + being economical or practicable, especially if the trees + stand out where they will get the full sweep of prevailing + winds. By cutting off and grafting a few of the + branches at a time for several seasons in succession, one + may, in a few years, succeed in getting the entire head + grafted, but there is constant danger of some of the cions + being broken out if they make a vigorous growth, leaving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> a distorted and ill-shapen tree. Having experimented + somewhat in this line with variable success, I + am not inclined to recommend it, because ten trees can + be raised to a bearing age on moderate-sized stocks with + less labor, and the results will be more satisfactory.</p> +<p><strong>Budding Chestnuts.</strong>—I have frequently tried + budding chestnut stocks as described for the almond, + and extensively employed with other kinds of fruit trees. + But the results of my experiments have been unsatisfactory, + although buds were set from very early in summer + until late in the fall, also on young and old wood; but + so few have taken and remained alive over winter that + my personal experience in this mode of propagation will + not justify its recommendation to others. Perhaps there + is some secret connected with the operation that I have + not yet discovered, but which is known to other propagators. + Of course, budding with semi-dormant wood and + buds in spring, as soon as the bark will peel from the wood, + is practicable, but there is really nothing to be gained + by this mode of propagation over that of grafting.</p> +<p><strong>Transplanting and Pruning.</strong>—There is no tree + that will bear or withstand more severe pruning than + the chestnut. If trees of one or five hundred years of + age are cut down, the stumps are sure to throw up an + immense number of sprouts from adventitious buds, as + these are readily produced at almost any point on the + sapwood or alburnum under the bark; and yet, with this + inherent vitality and faculty of recuperation, the chestnut + tree does not naturally, like many other deciduous + kinds, throw up suckers from the roots. Keeping this + peculiarity in mind, the cultivator has only to use his + pruning knife freely upon the trees to secure almost any + form desired. But after the trees have become well + established, very little pruning will be required, except + to occasionally thin out or remove a rambling branch, to + secure a well-balanced and shapely head to the tree.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p> +<p>In transplanting from the nursery rows, after grafting, + and especially if the trees are of some considerable + size and large enough to set where they are to remain + permanently, there is sure to be a loss of roots, and + those that are preserved are likely to remain for a short + time inactive and incapable of absorbing nutrients from + the soil to which they are transferred, or until new rootlets + are produced. Under these conditions we aim to + favor the roots by removing or cutting back the greater + part of the branches. No matter how carefully such + trees are lifted and their roots protected during the + operation of transplanting, it will check the growth, + and the best and most practical restorative is severe + pruning of the top, and every young shoot of the previous + season's growth should be cut back to within three + or four inches of its base. I am presuming that the + trees have been grafted only one year, but if older, and + the cions were set high enough to begin the formation of + the head of the tree, then the entire young growth may + be cut away and some of the older wood, but of course + not below the graft. All broken roots must be cut off; + and the ends of the larger ones, roughly severed with + the spade or other implements employed in digging, + should have their wounds smoothed with a sharp knife.</p> +<p>Frequent transplanting and root-pruning young + nursery stock tends to keep up a proper root system, + and an abundance of small fibrous roots near the main + stem, and trees so treated are worth much more, if to be + transplanted later, than those left undisturbed; but + while the latter may be twice the size of the former + when of the same age, they are not worth half as much + to the purchaser, or for transplanting in our own + grounds.</p> +<p><strong>Staking Transplanted Trees.</strong>—This is always + necessary for recently planted trees, if they are of any + considerable size, or from six feet high and upwards.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> If not supported by stakes they are sure to be swayed + about, if not thrown over, by strong winds in summer. + A strong stake, two or three inches in diameter, would + better be set at the time of planting the tree, thereby + avoiding breaking off or crushing the roots, as frequently + happens when stakes are driven down among them later + in the season. Set the stakes or drive into the subsoil + six inches from the stem, then use strips of cloth, sacks, + carpet, or some similar material, for tying, because hard + cord or twine will be very likely to cut through the tender + bark from the constant swaying about of the stems. + Wind the strips around the stem, and then cross between + it and the stake once or twice, to prevent the tree from + pressing against or coming in contact with the stake. + Renew the stakes and tying materials, if necessary, until + the trees become firmly established, and provided with + lateral roots large enough to keep them in an upright + position.</p> +<p><strong>Mulching.</strong>—Placing a few forkfuls of coarse stable + manure, half-rotted straw, leaves, or any similar material, + on the surface about the stems of recently planted + trees, will prove very beneficial, in not only keeping + down the weeds, but aiding greatly in retaining moisture + in the soil about the roots. The application of + some such material as a mulch is all the more important + with the chestnut, because these trees are always to be + planted in a naturally dry and well drained soil.</p> +<p><strong>Distance Between Trees.</strong>—How far apart chestnut + trees should be planted will depend very much upon + the species and varieties, some growing to immense + trees, while others are only fair-sized shrubs at maturity. + But for the larger-growing varieties, forty to fifty feet + between the trees is none too much space, when planted + for their nuts and not for timber. If set in a single row + along the public highways, farm lanes or around the + outbuildings, to serve as shade or ornament, and for their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> nuts, then about forty feet will answer very well for the + larger-growing species; and I will add that, in my opinion, + all the larger kinds of nut trees will give better + returns if placed in such positions, than when set in + orchards or in compact masses. When set in single + rows or widely scattered, they are less liable to be attacked + by insects and diseases, while they will still serve + the double purpose of being both ornamental and useful. + I must admit, however, that in my experimental grounds + the trees are planted only twenty feet apart, but with + the expectation of soon cutting out every alternate + specimen.</p> +<p><strong>Soil and Climate.</strong>—The chestnut thrives best in + light, well-drained soils, and those containing a large + proportion of sand or decomposed quartz, slate, or volcanic + scoria; but it is rarely found, nor does it succeed, + in heavy clays, limestone soils, or on the rich western + prairies, where we might think it would grow most luxuriantly. + That limestone soils are inimical to the chestnut + has often been disputed, but my own observations, + which have been somewhat extensive in years and range + of country, rather confirm the impression that this tree + avoids land containing any considerable percentage of + lime. It is true that chestnut groves, and sometimes + extensive forests, are found on hills and ridges overlying + limestone, but a careful examination of the soil among + the trees will show that it is a drift deposit containing + little or no lime. Such groves can be found in all the + southern tier of counties of New York, also among the + hills of northern and western parts of New Jersey, and + thence west and south along the Blue Ridge and Alleghany + mountains to the Carolinas, and westward in + Tennessee and Kentucky. The chestnut is sometimes + found in New Jersey and other northern Atlantic States + growing in considerable abundance near streams only + a few feet above sea level, but when found in such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> situations the subsoil is invariably sand, gravel or porous + shale.</p> +<p>The range of climate in which the native sweet + chestnut thrives is quite extensive, as it is found sparingly + in Maine in latitude 44°, extending westward,—but + not very abundant on this line,—through New England + and New York, crossing the Niagara river, skirting + the north shore of Lake Erie in Canada, and thence into + southern Michigan, but does not reach Illinois. From + this line southward it increases in abundance in Virginia, + western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee and + Kentucky. But in following this tree southward we + meet another indigenous species, widely known as the + chinquapin (<i>Castanea pumila</i>). This species is indigenous + to southern New Jersey, and sparingly in parts of + Pennsylvania, becoming more plentiful as we proceed + southward, the two species named overlapping and in + part occupying the same region; but the chinquapin + extends further south, and also to the westward, near its + northern limits crossing the Mississippi into southern + Missouri, then extends south again, becoming quite + abundant in Arkansas.</p> +<p>The European chestnut, in its many varieties, extends + over about the same number of degrees of latitude + in Europe as our species do here, although reaching a + higher latitude in countries bordering on the Atlantic, + as shown in the old chestnut trees of England. The + Oriental chestnut has also a very wide range, but the + limits are not so well known as those of the European + and American species; but a study of its geographical + distribution is of considerable importance, now that we + are importing these nuts for cultivation. The same is + also true of the European varieties, and the cultivator + who neglects to take this matter into consideration will + fail to secure whatever advantages may have accrued + from acclimation, an agency which, undoubtedly, has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> been active and continuous in modifying and changing + the primary characteristics of these plants during unknown + ages.</p> +<p>To more fully impress upon the reader the importance + of care in the selection of materials to be employed + in any pursuit with which he is not perfectly familiar, + I am prompted to relate the story of my first personal + experience in chestnut culture, as it may serve as a warning + to others who may attempt to raise these nuts in a + cold climate.</p> +<p>At the time of purchasing the farm which has been + my home for the past thirty years, nut trees of various + kinds were on my list of things wanted, and the chestnut + occupied a leading position, probably because there + were already many old and large native trees on the + place. My first planting consisted of a number of imported + seedlings, obtained from a well-known French + nursery. The trees were three or four years old, very + stocky and vigorous, and they made a good growth the + first season; but the following winter the young shoots + were all frozen down to old wood, with the exception of + one tree, and thinking that this might prove hardy, + cions were taken from it and set in thrifty sprouts growing + in a grove near by. The cions made rapid growth, + and from one of these I soon had a large tree, which remained + in good health for twenty years, but during all + that time it produced but one bur, containing two half-developed + nuts. Why it was unfruitful I do not pretend + to know, but it was certainly not for want of company, for + it had large native chestnut trees all about it, and these + bearing heavy crops. The seedling trees planted in the + orchard also failed to be fruitful, and were finally dug + up and burned. Thus ended my first experiment in the + cultivation of the European chestnut. Had my location + been farther south and in a milder climate, the experiment + might have ended differently, but I am relating experience,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> and not attempting to guess what might have + been the results under more favorable conditions. In + the meantime, however, I had seen a few trees of the + Japan chestnut bearing on Long Island, and had received + specimens of the Numbo and Paragon, two now + well-known and superior varieties of the European species, + although raised in this country. These varieties + were secured, and succeeded so well that I have continued + to add others from time to time, or as soon as trees + or cions were obtainable.</p> +<p>The success which appears to have attended the + propagation and dissemination of these two varieties of + European parentage has awakened considerable interest + in chestnut culture, besides attracting the attention of + those interested in such matters to the fact that there + are many old trees of the same or similar origin scattered + about the country, awaiting the coming nut culturist to + propagate them and make known their merits.</p> +<p>It may be well, before leaving this subject, to remind + the novice in chestnut culture that seedlings of + these hardy and productive descendants of the European + species will not come true from the nut or seed, and + while it will be admitted that the chances are somewhat + better for procuring a hardy variety from such nuts + than from those imported, still, there is no certainty of + any considerable number being equal in hardiness or + other respects to the parent tree. There is an inherent + tendency, in tree seedlings of all kinds, to revert to the + wild form or type, and the chestnut is no exception to + this rule.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 280px;"> <img src="images/fig19.jpg" alt="" title="" height="650" width="280" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._19" id="FIG._19">FIG. 19</a>. AMERICAN CHESTNUT + LEAF.</span></span> </div> +<p><strong>Species of Chestnut.</strong>—What is called a "species," + among plants, is a particular form or type supposed to + have descended from one original stock, whether this + was composed of one or more individuals. But variations + doubtless occurred at the first inception or multiplication + of the original, but so long as the offsprings do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> not differ so widely as to be untraceable to the proemial + types, they are held to be varieties of one species.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p> +<p>Whether all the chestnuts found in the various + countries of the world are descendants of one original + tree or group of trees is now beyond our ability to determine; + consequently, what are now termed species rests + very much upon the opinions of botanists, as may readily + be demonstrated by consulting the works of hundreds + of authors who have essayed to describe and classify the + plants of any locality or country, and this, too, without + reaching an absolute finality acceptable to their contemporaries, + or at all likely to share a better fate with posterity.</p> +<p>For many years after botany began to be recognized + as a science, the common American sweet chestnut was + considered a distinct species, but in recent years it has + been relegated to the position of a widely distributed + variety of the European chestnut, and it is so described + and classified in most of the botanical works of the present + time, and under such names as <i>Castanea vesca</i>, variety <i>Americana</i>; <i>Castanea sativa</i>, variety <i>Americana</i>; <i>Castanea vulgaris</i>, variety <i>Americana</i>, etc.</p> +<p>The Asiatic species or varieties—under whichever + cognomen we may find them described in botanical + works—have fared little better than our American kinds, + for some botanists have described the Japan chestnut as + a distinct species, while others only as a widely divergent + variety of the common European chestnut.</p> +<p>I regret that there should be any need of giving so + much space to this matter of species and varieties, yet + presuming that far the larger number of my readers will + not be professional botanists, nor persons with a botanical + library at hand to consult for unfamiliar terms, I + have thought this explanation in regard to classification + might assist them in making clear the apparent confusion + of names which, in the main, are only synonyms. + Furthermore, I purpose retaining some of the older specific<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> names of the distinct groups of varieties, whether + it be strictly in accord with the ideas of eminent authorities + or otherwise, because it will be more convenient to + do so, and certain phases will + thus be made clearer to the + practical cultivators of nut + trees, for whom this work is + written. My wish is to assist + those who do not know, but + want to learn how to obtain, + plant and make nut trees grow + and bear remunerative crops.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Castanea Americana</span> (<i>American sweet chestnut</i>).—Leaves + oblong-lanceolate, serrate, + with rather coarse teeth, + each terminated with a feeble + prickle or spine; smooth on + both sides (Fig. 19). Burs + thickly covered with sharp, + branching spines a half inch + long or less, from a fleshy + green envelope, becoming + hard and somewhat woody; + opening by four valves or divisions + when mature. Usually + three nuts in each bur, + the center one flattened by + compression, the two outer + ones plano-convex. Shell + tough and leathery, dark + brown, smooth, or more or less inverted, with a silvery + pubescence from the point downward; variable in size + from five-eighths to an inch in diameter. Kernel sweet + and fine-grained. A very large and common tree in the + Middle and Northern States, living to a great age.</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig20.jpg" alt="" height="747" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._20" id="FIG._20">FIG. 20</a>. SPIKE OF BURS OF BUSH CHINQUAPIN. <i>C. nana.</i></span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Castanea Nana</span> (<i>bush chinquapin</i>).—Leaves oval-lanceolate, + serrate, with feeble prickles on teeth and often + wanting; pale + green above and + white tomentose + underneath. + Burs in racemes, + small; husk + thin, opening by + two divisions or + lobes, instead of + four, as in the + last species; + spines short, + somewhat scattering, + sessile or + very short-stalked; + nuts small, + pointed, brown, + smooth, thin-shelled, + solitary + or only one in a + bur. Kernel + fine-grained, + sweet and delicious. + Common + from North Carolina + southward + to Florida, in + dry soils and + barrens. A medium-sized + shrub or low-spreading + bush, rarely reaching a hight of ten feet, the + slender twigs usually tomentose. A spike of burs and + leaves of this species are seen in Fig. 20.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 353px;"> <img src="images/fig21.jpg" alt="" title="" height="600" width="353" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._21" id="FIG._21">FIG. 21</a>. SPIKE OF CHINQUAPIN CHESTNUT BUR. <i>C. pumila.</i></span> </div> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> <img src="images/fig22.jpg" alt="" title="" height="714" width="350" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._22" id="FIG._22">FIG. 22</a>. SINGLE BUR, NUT AND LEAF OF + CHINQUAPIN CHESTNUT. <i>C. pumila.</i></span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Castanea Pumila</span> (<i>chinquapin chestnut</i>).—Leaves + oblong-lanceolate, short or acutely pointed, coarsely + serrate, with incurved + pointed + teeth, green above, + tomentose underneath. + Burs in racemes + (Fig. 21), + two-valved. Sometimes + the burs are + single, as shown in + Fig. 22. Spines + branching from a + short stalk; nuts + solitary, ovoid, + pointed, with dark-brown + polished + shell. Kernel fine-grained, + sweet and + excellent. A medium-sized + tree twenty + to forty feet high; + in rich soils from + New Jersey, Southern + Pennsylvania + and southward, to + Georgia, and sparingly + westward to + Arkansas.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Castanea Sativa + Or Vesca</span> (<i>European chestnut</i>).—Leaves + oblong-lanceolate, + pointed, coarsely serrate, with rather long incurved + spines on the teeth; smooth on both sides, but glossy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a><br /> + <a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> and dark green above; thicker and of more substance + than in any other species. Burs very large, with thick + husk, and long, stout, branching spines, from a woody + stem at the base; shell of nut thick, tough and leathery, + of a dark mahogany brown; kernel enclosed in a rather + tough but thin skin that is usually intensely bitter, a + characteristic that readily distinguishes this from any of + our species. Trees of large size, rather stocky; young + shoots coarse, with smooth bark; buds prominent, + glossy, and of a light yellowish-brown color.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig23.jpg" alt="" height="723" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._23" id="FIG._23">FIG. 23</a>. JAPAN CHESTNUT LEAF.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Castanea Japonica</span> (<i>Japan chestnut</i>).—Leaves + lanceolate-oblong (Fig. 23), finely serrate, indentations + shallow, and the teeth slender pointed; pale green above + and silvery or rusty white underneath. Burs with a + very thin husk; spines short, widely branching from a + short stem. Nuts large to very large, usually three in a + bur; shell thin, and of a light brown color; the inner + skin thin, fibrous, but not as bitter as in the European + varieties, and the kernel somewhat finer grained and + sweeter. Trees of moderate growth and are said to rarely + exceed fifty feet high in Japan. The growth is slender + in comparison with the European or American chestnut, + and the habit is decidedly bushy, the new growth of the + season usually producing a number of lateral twigs late + in summer. The leaves here seem to be more persistent, + probably because the season is not long enough to insure + thorough ripening.</p> +<p>The reader will please bear in mind that this description + of the Japan chestnut is drawn from the introduced + varieties or those raised from the imported nuts, + and not from the trees growing in their native habitats. + All the varieties that I have seen appear to belong to + one type or species, and they come from the warmer + parts of that country; but Prof. Sargent, in his "Forest + Flora of Japan," says that while the largest nuts appear + in the markets of Kobe and Osaka, from whence they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> come to this country, there are varieties offered for sale + in the markets of Aomori, which is much further north, + and these, he thinks, would produce a more hardy race + of varieties than those we have already received from + that country. As a race, all the Japan chestnuts are + very precocious, the trees coming into bearing early + whether raised from the nut or propagated by grafting.</p> +<p><strong>Native Varieties.</strong> (Group One).—While it is well + known that our American sweet chestnut varies widely + in the size, flavor, form, color and general appearance of + the nuts, no special effort has been made to select and + perpetuate the most distinct and valuable varieties. + This is to be regretted, inasmuch as the opportunities + for making such selections, and preserving and propagating + those most worthy of it, are rapidly passing away + with the destruction of our chestnut forests; but there + is still time to do something in this direction, and perhaps + save a few varieties as valuable as those already + destroyed. It is to be hoped that every man who knows + of a large variety, will either propagate it himself, or + point it out to some one who is sufficiently interested to + do so. If proper attention was given to the raising of + seedlings, we might soon secure many improved native + varieties, and I would urge this mode of propagation + upon all whose circumstances and surroundings will admit + of it, and especially upon the young men who possess + the talent and inclination to make such experiments; + for there is a wide and fertile field open to them, and + they can scarcely fail to reap a rich reward for their + labors, if applied with earnestness and a moderate + amount of intelligence.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Burless chestnut.</span>—This is a peculiar variety or + freak, in which the burs are merely shallow cups upon + which the nuts rest, and at no stage of their growth are + they enclosed in a husk or bur. The nuts are small and + usually perfect, but being unprotected they are preyed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> upon by birds and squirrels as soon as the kernels are + well formed, few escaping to reach maturity. This + chestnut is of no economic value, but is worth preserving + as an illustration of extremes in variation. The + original tree was found in the forest near Freehold, + Green Co., N. Y., by Mr. Harry Bagley, to whom I am + indebted for cions sent me in the spring of 1885. + Another and very similar variety was found about the + same time on Staten Island, N. Y., and this also has + been propagated, to a limited extent, as a curiosity.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Hathaway.</span>—A very large and handsome native + variety, and one of the very best. A strong and vigorous + grower, and productive. Raised by Mr. B. Hathaway, + the veteran and widely known pomologist of Little + Prairie Ronde, Mich. Some thirty years ago Mr. Hathaway + purchased a half bushel of native chestnuts of a + dealer in Ohio, and from these raised a large number of + trees for sale; but a few were reserved for planting out + on his own grounds, and when these came into bearing + the one named here was selected for propagation, because + of its large size and productiveness.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Phillips.</span>—A large and handsome variety of excellent + flavor, with a very smooth, dark-brown shell. + Grafted trees exceedingly vigorous, upright growth, as + well as precocious and productive. The original tree is + growing in the grounds of the late Whitman Phillips, at + Ridgewood, N. J. Several years ago my attention was + called to a number of large varieties of the chestnut + growing in and near the village, and from these I obtained + cions for propagation; but I name only one at + this time, reserving the others until more fully tested.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 395px;"> <img src="images/fig24.jpg" alt="" title="" height="500" width="395" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._24" id="FIG._24">FIG. 24</a>. BURS OF FULLER'S CHINQUAPIN. + ONE-HALF NATURAL SIZE.</span> </div> +<p>This is rather an insignificant number of varieties + to be named among the many hundreds that are to be + found in almost every town or neighborhood where the + chestnut is a native, and yet I have been able to find + only one named in nurserymen's catalogues as being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> propagated by grafting. It is true that nearly all dealers + in trees offer seedling American chestnuts, which + may mean good, bad or indifferent varieties when the + trees come into bearing. Among all of the many thousands + that have been raised and planted in the East and + West, beyond the natural range of the chestnut, as, for + instance, in Missouri, Kansas and Iowa, there must be + some distinct and valuable varieties worthy of names + and propagation. There are not only distinct varieties + to be found in every forest, but in some instances the + entire product of an extended area of country are distinct + in their color, size, and general appearance of the + nuts produced; as, for instance, in the woolly chestnuts + of the Piedmont district of Virginia, these being so + nearly covered with a white down that they remind one + of popcorn. Hundreds of bushels of these woolly chestnuts + come to our markets, and among them I have often + found very large specimens, but so far as known, no + effort has been made to perpetuate them.</p> +<p>So far as can now be determined, the wild or original + European chestnut was much inferior in its flavor, + and little, if any, larger than our American sweet chestnut; + but by continued selections of the largest for planting, + and propagation by grafting, it has attained to its + present size and excellence; but this system of improving + our native varieties has scarcely, as yet, been attempted, + a fact which does not, in the least, redound to + our credit.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Bush chinquapin</span> (<i>C. nana.</i> Muhlenberg).—Of + this I do not know of any named varieties in cultivation. + Plants are occasionally seen in cultivated grounds, and I + have one in my garden growing in a sheltered position, + where it has fruited for several years. It is a pretty, + round-headed, silvery-leaved bush, about six feet high; + ornamental, if not specially valuable for other purposes, + although the little sweet nuts are always acceptable. As<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> a rule, the seedlings of this species are not hardy in the + Northern States, but an occasional one will survive if + planted in a light, porous soil and a protected situation.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Common chinquapin</span> (<i>C. pumila.</i> Miller).—This + is a small tree, sometimes thirty to forty feet high; + found sparingly as far north as central New Jersey, and + on Long Island. It is more common in cultivation than + the bush chinquapin, probably because more hardy and + better known, but I do not know of any improved varieties + that have been disseminated under distinct names + except the one hereinafter described.</p> +<p>Among many seedlings raised, of this species, I have + selected one which good judges of such things have + thought worthy of propagation, and as I do not raise + plants for sale, no + one will be likely + to accuse me of + having any selfish + motives, further + than a pardonable + pride in producing + something worthy + of perpetuation. + Furthermore, as + an earnest of my + confidence in its + merits, I have distributed + it under + my own name.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig25.jpg" alt="" height="452" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._25" id="FIG._25">FIG. 25</a>. FULLER'S CHINQUAPIN. FIVE YEARS OLD FROM NUT.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Fuller's + chinquapin.</span>—Leaves + large, + broadly oval, pointed, coarsely serrate, pale green above, + clear silvery white below. Bark on main stem; branches + and twigs smooth, light gray, with numerous white + dots. The young twigs thick and stocky, cylindrical,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> with moderately prominent, grayish buds. Burs in long + racemes (Fig. 24), very large for this species; spines + long, strong, branching and sharp. Nuts only one in + each bur, rather short, broad, top-shaped, with blunt + point; shell very smooth, glossy, almost black; kernel + fine-grained and sweet. Ripens early, or with the earliest + of the native sweet chestnuts. The original tree is + only six years old, twice transplanted, and is now ten + feet high, with a head fully as broad, and as shown in + Fig. 25. Although growing in a rather exposed position, + it has never been injured by low temperature in + winter or a high one in summer. It has thus far been + the most rapid-growing chestnut tree in my grounds, + although given no special care. Whether it will eventually + become a large tree, or soon cease to extend, is, of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> course, a question to be answered at some future time, + but from present indications this tree will be well worthy + of cultivation as an ornamental shade tree, even if we + leave out of the account its rapid growth, productiveness, + and delicious little nuts, which will be very acceptable + for home use, if not possessing any great commercial + value.</p> +<p><strong>European Varieties.</strong>—In the use of this term I + wish it understood that the varieties named and described + in this group are all of American origin; that is, raised + in this country from seed. At the same time they are + descendants of the European species. They are, in other + words, "Survivals of the fittests," the few that have + survived the many being raised from imported nuts (perhaps + one out of a thousand) that tests and time have shown + were adapted to our climate. There may be many other + varieties scattered about the country which are worthy + of a name and of propagation, but I can speak only of + those I have been able to procure, or that have been + brought to my notice.</p> +<p>In describing the following varieties, and in seeking + to get at the facts relating to their origin, name and + history, the reader will please bear in mind that there + has been no previous attempt to arrange or classify these + semi-American varieties. Furthermore, there is much + confusion in regard to the true names of a number of + them, and the most I can say is that I have endeavored, + under the circumstances, to get as near the truth as possible. + Could I defer writing this chapter ten years, some + moot points might be cleared up, but as this is out of + the question I must follow the light already in my + possession.</p> +<p>To Mr. John R. Parry, of Parry, N. J., I am greatly + indebted, not only for specimens of new and rare varieties, + but also notes relating to the history of several of + the older ones.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap">Comfort.</span>—Burs very large, broad, somewhat flattened; + spines very strong and long, branching; nuts + very broad, with short point, and shell covered from + base to point with scattering silky hairs, thicker at upper + end. In quality, about the same as in the ordinary varieties + of the species, but to some persons' taste it is better, + having less astringency in the skin surrounding the + kernel. Origin uncertain, but said to have been grown + for many years at Germantown, a suburb of Philadelphia, + Pa., where the Paragon chestnut was discovered. The + Comfort certainly closely resembles the Paragon, but I + have not had an opportunity of fruiting trees under the + two names side by side, as would be necessary to determine + their identity or difference, if they are really + distinct.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig26.jpg" alt="" height="485" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._26" id="FIG._26">FIG. 26</a>. BUR OF NUMBO CHESTNUT.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Cooper.</span>—A very large variety; has been in cultivation + for several years in Camden Co., N. J., but up to + the present time the trees have not been propagated for + sale, although I am informed by Mr. John R. Parry + that there are a large number under cultivation. The + tree is described as of a broad spreading habit, with + enormously large leaves, and immensely productive. + Nuts very large, smooth and glossy, with little fuzz + near the top. In quality they may be considered excellent + for a variety of this class. The burs are very large, + and this is its greatest or only fault; for when nearly + mature they absorb and retain such a quantity of water + during heavy rains, in addition to the original weight + and the enclosed nuts, that the trees are liable to be + broken down by strong winds.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Corson.</span>—Burs of immense size; spines an inch or + more in length, from a stout, woody, irregularly branching + stem, resting on the moderately thin husk. Nuts + extra large, usually three in a bur; shell dark brown, + somewhat ridged; the upper end or point of the shell + densely covered with a white, almost woolly, pubescence,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> or fuzz as it is usually termed. This is a remarkably + large and fine variety and of good quality. Originated + with Mr. Walter H. Corson, Plymouth Meeting, Montgomery + Co., Pa.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Dager.</span>—A large variety originated near Wyoming, + Delaware, from seed of the Ridgely. My specimen trees + are good vigorous growers, and hardy, but have not, as + yet, produced fruit. It is said that the nuts are of fair + quality, but not as good as the best of its class.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Moncur.</span>—Another seedling of the Ridgely, raised + on the farm of Mr. Frank Moncur, near Dover, Del. + The original tree is about thirty years old. Described + as smaller than its parent, but of better quality.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> <img src="images/fig27.jpg" alt="" title="" height="250" width="350" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._27" id="FIG._27">FIG. 27</a>. SPINES OF NUMBO CHESTNUT.</span> </div> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> <img src="images/fig28.jpg" alt="" title="" height="384" width="350" /><span class="caption"><a name="FIG._28" id="FIG._28">FIG. 28</a>. NUMBO CHESTNUT.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Numbo.</span>—Burs medium, and distinctly long pointed + before opening, as shown in Fig. 26, the four divisions of + the burs extending an inch or more beyond the nut as + they open. This is an + exceptional form of + the bur, and will enable + almost any person + to recognize the variety + with bearing trees. + Spines only medium + in length (Fig. 27), + and not as strong as in + most other varieties of this species. Nuts very large + (Fig. 28), smooth, decidedly pointed, light brown when + first mature, and of good flavor. + Tree hardy and a vigorous, + free grower, and is + very productive even when + young. The original tree is + now some forty years old, + and is one of a large number + raised from imported nuts, + by the late Mahlon Moon, of + Morrisville, Pa.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Miller's Dupont.</span>—Burs + large, spines long and + strong but not as stout as in some of the closely related + varieties. Nut medium, and kernel of fair quality. A + promising variety. Origin unknown. Received from + Jos. Evans, Delaware Co., Pa.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig29.jpg" alt="" height="412" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._29" id="FIG._29">FIG. 29</a>. PARAGON CHESTNUT BUR. (<i>One-half natural size.</i>)</span> </div> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> <img src="images/fig30.jpg" alt="" height="279" width="400" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._30" id="FIG._30">FIG. 30</a>. SPINES OF PARAGON CHESTNUT BUR.</span> </div> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig31.jpg" alt="" height="306" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._31" id="FIG._31">FIG. 31</a>. PARAGON CHESTNUT.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Paragon.</span>—Burs of immense size, often five inches + and more in lateral diameter; distinctly flattened on the + top, or cushion shape (Fig. 29); spines an inch in + length, widely and irregularly branching from a stout + stem springing from a thick, fleshy husk, as shown in + Fig. 30, the whole making an involucre or bur out of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> proportion to the nuts within. Nuts of large size, + slightly depressed at the top (Fig. 31), and they are + usually broader than long; shell very dark brown, + slightly ridged, and covered with a fine but not very + conspicuous pubescence. Kernel sweet, fine-grained, + and of superior flavor for one of this species. Tree hardy,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> exceedingly precocious and productive when grafted on + strong, healthy stock. A four-year-old tree on my + grounds is shown in Fig. 32. It was loaded with nuts + in the fall of 1894. This is one of the best of its class. + Origin somewhat in doubt, but it is claimed that the + late W. L. Shaffer, of Philadelphia, raised it from a foreign + nut planted in his garden, and who, some eighteen + years or more ago, gave cions to W. H. Engle, of + Marietta, Pa. Mr. Engle + has since propagated and + disseminated this variety + quite extensively under its + present name, but should + further investigation prove + it to be distinct and that + it was raised by Mr. Shaffer, + then it should certainly + bear his name, and Paragon + become a synonym. + No more appropriate monument + could possibly be erected in honor of a distinguished + horticulturist like the late Mr. Shaffer, than a + chestnut tree, nor could his memory be perpetuated + under more pleasant and agreeable surroundings than + to have his name linked inseparably with such an excellent + and valuable variety.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig32.jpg" alt="" height="532" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._32" id="FIG._32">FIG. 32</a>. FOUR YEAR OLD PARAGON CHESTNUT TREE.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Ridgely.</span>—Burs large, with dense spines, but not + as long as those of the Paragon. Nuts large, pointed; + shell dark brown, with very little pubescence, and this + mainly at the point (Fig. 33). In quality this variety + ranks very near, if not the equal of, the best of its class, + and it has been highly commended, by those who have + been acquainted with it, for many years.</p> +<p>The origin of the Ridgely, as recorded, leaves the + question of name a debatable one. Some sixty years + ago a Mr. Dupont, of Wilmington, Del., gave or sent to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> Mr. D. M. Ridgely, of Dover, Del., a sprouted chestnut, + and this was planted and became the original tree + of the variety under consideration. It has been called + Dupont, because he raised the nut and kept it over winter + and until it sprouted; then it passed into the care of + Mr. Ridgely, who thenceforward gave it his attention. + The tree is now of immense size, and some seasons has + produced more than five bushels of nuts, selling at eleven + dollars per bushel. It is quite probable that the Dupont<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> family were the first to raise European chestnut trees to + a bearing size in this country, for some of its members + were settled in Delaware before the war of the Revolution. + Pierre Samuel Dupont de Nemours, during the + French ministry of Vergennes, was employed in forming + the treaty of 1783, in which the independence of the + United States was formally recognized by England. In + 1795 (Am. encyclopedia) he came to this country and + joined his sons, who had become successful manufacturers + of gunpowder at or near Wilmington, Del., where + their descendants, or at least some of them, are still engaged + in the same business. If any of the old and original + chestnut trees have escaped the numerous "powder<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> mill explosions" which have frequently occurred in that + neighborhood, they are probably much older than the + Ridgely. I am also inclined to believe that a very large + majority of all the hardy chestnut trees of the European + species scattered about the country are the direct descendants + of the old Dupont stock.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig33.jpg" alt="" height="472" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._33" id="FIG._33">FIG. 33</a>. OPEN BUR OF THE RIDGELY CHESTNUT.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Scott.</span>—Burs large, with long branching spines. + Nuts from the original tree, as received the past season, + are only of medium size, but said to be much larger on + younger trees. Shell dark brown, smooth, with a little + fuzz around the point. As my specimen tree has not, + as yet, fruited, I am unable to say anything of its productiveness + from personal experience, but in a note from + Mr. William Parry, under date of Oct. 15, 1894, he + says: "I send specimens of the Scott chestnuts, grown + by Judge Scott, of Burlington, N. J. The crop is about + gone and it was with difficulty I could get these, which + are about the average size; earlier in the season many + are larger. Judge Scott has grown those nuts for market + several years. The original tree was bought by his + father many years ago from the nursery of Thomas + Hancock. He bought three trees for Spanish chestnuts, + planted them in a row about thirty feet apart, and + the one from which these nuts were obtained happened + to be in the middle. It is now a large tree, the trunk + about five feet in diameter. It is a regular and heavy + bearer. Judge Scott has propagated and planted an + orchard from this variety, and claims among its important + features, large size and early bearing,—two-year + grafts generally produce nuts; immense productiveness + and good quality; beautiful, glossy, mahogany color; freedom + from fuzz, and an almost entire exemption from the + attacks of the chestnut weevil. While the crop of two + trees standing on either side of the Scott is badly damaged + by worms, it is the exception to find a wormy nut + among the Scott.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p> +<blockquote> + <p>"The crop sells readily at ten to twelve dollars per + bushel. This year (1894) some sold as low as eight dollars, + the lowest ever known for this variety."</p> +</blockquote> +<p><span class="smcap">Styer.</span>—Burs large, round; spines long, branching, + but not as coarse as those of Comfort. Nuts medium to + large, decidedly pointed, and the point fuzzy. Shell + dark brown, with a few longitudinal stripes, but not + ridged. A handsome nut of good quality. This variety + has been distributed under the name of Hannum. The + original tree, which is a mammoth in size, is still standing + on the farm of a Mr. Hannum, near Concordville, + Delaware Co., Penn. But Mr. T. Walter Styer, of the + same place, is propagating and introducing it as the + Styer.</p> +<p>Some of the varieties in this group may not prove + to be distinct, and later they will be relegated to their + proper place as synonyms, but I have thought it best to + record them by the names under which they have been + received. In writing these descriptions I have had the + nuts and leaves before me, but there may be characters + overlooked which will become more conspicuous as the + grafted trees become older and more mature. The + Dager chestnut, from Delaware, is a promising variety, + disseminated through the Department of Agriculture, + but as I have not seen the nuts at this writing, a description + is necessarily omitted.</p> +<p>Among the French varieties of this species which + are said to succeed admirably in California, a large proportion + would probably do equally well in Delaware and + further south. Among those worthy of trial I may + name the <i>Avant Chataigne</i>, <i>Comale</i>, <i>Exalade</i>, <i>Green + of Lemousin</i>, <i>Grosse PrĂ©coce</i>, <i>Jaune Rousse</i>, <i>Lyons</i>, <i>Merle</i>, <i>Nouzillard</i>, <i>Quercy</i>, etc. I have tried some of + these, but with such indifferent results that they were + abandoned. Cultivators of nut trees located in a milder + climate, should take advantage of whatever improvements<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> there have been made in Europe, by importing + grafted trees or cions. There are a few ornamental varieties + of the European chestnut, but none worthy of any + special attention.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig34.jpg" alt="" height="400" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._34" id="FIG._34">FIG. 34</a>. JAPAN GIANT CHESTNUT.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Japan Chestnuts.</span>—The first authentic account I + have been able to find of the introduction of the Japan + chestnut into this country, is of a number of trees received + by S. B. Parsons & Co., Flushing, N. Y., 1876, + from the late Thos. Hogg, who, as is well known to all + horticulturists, spent several years in Japan collecting + many rare kinds of trees and shrubs, which were shipped + direct to Parsons & Co. The chestnut trees received in + 1876 fruited two years later, or in 1878, and soon attracted + attention, on account of the large size and excellent + quality of the nuts and the precocious habits of the trees.</p> +<p>The success of this typical variety of the Japanese + species, as I have assumed to designate it, proved that + there were oriental chestnuts—heretofore untested in + this country—that were certainly worthy of an attempt + to obtain. This variety, introduced by the Messrs. + Parsons & Co., does not appear to have been disseminated + under any distinct varietal name, but merely bears + the rather meaningless one of Japan chestnut, and + for the purpose of giving it a position where it may be + recognized—by name at least—from other varieties more + recently introduced, I shall take the liberty of calling it + "Parsons' Japan."</p> +<p>Soon after it became known that the oriental chestnuts + would succeed in this country, the fruit growers + and nurserymen of California began to import and plant + these nuts, shipping an occasional lot to their customers + in the Eastern States, and from these hundreds of seedlings + have been raised and distributed, under the general + name of Japan chestnut. Among the nuts imported + there are some of extraordinary size, even larger than + anything of the kind obtained from Europe, as shown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> in Fig. 34, natural size, and from a specimen received + direct from Japan. Some of the nurserymen who have + secured these very large nuts for planting, offer the + seedlings raised + therefrom under + such names as + Mammoth and + Giant Japan, but + as there is no + certainty, and + scarcely a probability, + that such + seedlings will + produce nuts as + large as those + planted, the + names are rather misleading, although proper enough if + given to grafted varieties of large size. When an extra-fine + variety is produced from the nut, it should, of + course, be preserved and propagated in the usual way.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;"> <img src="images/fig35.jpg" alt="" title="" height="227" width="280" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._35" id="FIG._35">FIG. 35</a>. SPINES OF JAPAN CHESTNUT.</span> </div> +<p>The late Wm. Parry, of Parry, N. J., was one of + the first nurserymen to attempt to produce new varieties + of the Japan chestnut in this country, and his sons have + continued his experiments + in this direction. + Others may have been + equally successful, but I + have been unable to obtain + any satisfactory reports + from those to + whom I have applied for + information; consequently, I can only say that the following, + with few exceptions, originated at the Wm. + Parry nurseries.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Advance</span> (Parry).—Burs medium, slightly flattened + on top; spines medium, short, almost sessile, as shown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> in Fig. 35, and this is a characteristic of all the Japan + chestnuts; branching and widely separated on a very + thin husk. Nuts very large; shell a light yellowish + brown, with a few slight darker streaks from base to + apex. Quality excellent for one of this species. Ripens + early, and long before touched by frost.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Alpha</span> (Parry).—Very similar to the last, but + ripens earlier, which would be an advantage in some + localities. Tree vigorous and productive.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Beta</span> (Parry).—Bur medium; spines rather long + and thin for one of this group, set on a thin husk. Nut + large; shell light brown, smooth, with a slight trace of + pubescence near the tip. The leaves are shallow and + coarsely serrate, and on some the teeth or serratures are + entirely wanting. Ripens a little later than the Alpha, + or about the first of October in northern New Jersey.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Early Reliance</span> (Parry).—Burs medium, with + short, almost deflexed spines, on an exceedingly thin + husk. Nuts large, more pointed than in the last, and + of a lighter color the past season, but this may not be + constant, and may be due to the long and severe drouth + of the summer of 1894. Usually three nuts in a bur, and + sometimes four or five, but I do not consider this increase + in number a merit in any variety, for where there + are more than three they are likely to be of small size + and very much deformed. The original tree of the Reliance + is enormously productive, and a regular bearer.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Felton.</span>—A seedling of the common Japanese + chestnut, raised by J. W. Killen, of Felton, Delaware.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Giant Japan</span> (Parry).—Burs large to extra large + for a variety of this species, with medium low branching + spines on a very thin, parchment-like husk. Nuts extra + large, usually only two in a bur, often only one, and + about two inches broad, much depressed at the top, with + a short point set in an irregular depression or basin. + Shell dark mahogany color, more or less ribbed; kernel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> coarse grained, as is usual in the extra large varieties of + nearly all species of the chestnut. This is probably the + largest variety of the Japanese chestnut raised in this + country, of which grafted trees are obtainable at this + time. There may be others equally as large, but if so + they are unknown to the writer.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Killen.</span>—Of the Japan species, and described as + very large, the nuts over two inches in diameter and of + fair quality. Raised by J. W. Killen, of Felton, Del.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Parsons' Japan.</span>—Burs medium, with rather thick-set + and long spines. Nuts large, one inch and a half + broad, curving regularly to a point; shell smooth, + almost glossy, brown, with faint stripes of a darker shade + extending from base to apex. In quality the kernel is + far better than most of the European varieties, being + finer grained and sweeter. When grafted on strong + stocks the trees come into bearing early, or in two or + three years. This is the best known, and probably the + most widely distributed variety, of the Japanese species + in this country, having been introduced, as I have stated + elsewhere, in 1876.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Parry's Superb</span> (Parry).—Burs broad, cushion-shaped, + or much flattened on top, with extra long, + widely branching spines from single or multiple stems, + very much as in the European varieties. But the thin + husk, the nuts, and the growth of tree, wood and leaves, + stamp it as a pure Japanese variety. Nuts large, broader + than long, with a decided sharp woody point; almost + entirely destitute of even a sign of pubescence. A very + promising and distinct variety.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Success</span> (Parry).—Burs very large, broad, with + only a few short, scattering, branching spines on the + top, thicker toward the base; on a thin, parchment-like + husk, and this is so thin that it sometimes cracks open + and exposes the nuts within before they are fully ripe. + Nuts extra large, nearly equal to the Giant, but of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> more regular and symmetrical form, being nearly as long + as broad, tapering to a point. Shell smooth, dark + brown, with a slight pubescence about the point. Usually + three nuts in a bur; an ideal variety in every respect.</p> +<p>There is a variety of the Japan chestnut recently + much lauded under the name of Mammoth or Burbank, + which is said to be of immense size, and as sweet as the + common American chestnut.</p> +<p><strong>Injurious Insects.</strong>—The chestnut tree is rarely + attacked by insects. It is true that grubs may occasionally + be found boring into the wood or cutting sinuous + burrows under the bark, but this is mainly in trees weakened + by exposure, in removing protecting companions, + as when removing forests, or by plowing up and destroying + the roots, in cultivating the land about them; but + the attacks of insects upon such specimens is nature's + way of getting rid of the feeble and least valuable, making + room for the healthy and strong. But my thirty + years' residence in a chestnut grove leads me to think + that this nut tree is exceedingly free from wood borers + of any kind.</p> +<p>Entomologists, however, have noted several instances + of insect depredations upon individual trees, by a few + species of the long-horn beetles, three or four in all, but + these occur so rarely that they are scarcely worthy of + notice as pests of the chestnut. There are also several + species of caterpillars occasionally found feeding on the + leaves of this tree, also some sucking bugs or tree hoppers, + and two or three kinds of plant lice, but none of + these have, as yet, become at all formidable enemies, or + likely to become so later. But the chestnut has one + enemy which is so abundant and destructive to the nuts + as to call for an extended notice. I refer to the common + native chestnut weevil (<i>Balaninus carytripes</i>, Boheman). + The little fat, white, round, legless grubs, nearly or quite + a half-inch long, must be familiar to every person who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> has handled or eaten chestnuts raised in this country, + whether of the exotic or native varieties. The parents + of this grub are oval-shaped beetles about one-half inch + long or less; wing covers, body and legs densely covered + with a short yellow down, and from the front or thorax + there extends a long, slightly curved, slender snout (Fig. + 36), sometimes nearly an inch in length in the females, + but usually less in the males. The mouth parts are at + the extreme end of this snout or proboscis, and the female, + with her mandibles, it is claimed, reaches down + among the chestnut spines and gnaws a hole + in the husk, into which she drops an egg; + and when this hatches, the minute grub cuts + its way through the green husk and into the + nut, the hole made in its progress closing + up behind, leaving no mark or scar. Although + I have taken hundreds of these weevils + on chestnut trees, I never have been so + fortunate as to take one in the act of ovipositing, + but have come so near it as to find + the ovipositor still extended as the insect crawled out + from among the spines.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig36.jpg" alt="" height="292" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._36" id="FIG._36">FIG. 36</a>. CHESTNUT + WEEVIL.</span> </div> +<p>The chestnut weevil usually appears in great numbers + soon after the trees bloom in spring, but they continue + to come out all through the summer; I have + occasionally found them late in September, which probably + accounts for finding small and half-grown grubs in + the nuts as they ripen and fall from the trees. These + late grubs often remain in the nuts all winter, but the + greater part escape earlier, or very soon after the crop + is ripe. The grubs crawl out of the nuts and work their + way into the ground to a depth of from a few inches to + two feet, much depending upon the nature of the soil. + Having very powerful jaws, they readily cut through a + layer of leaves or soft wood, and I have known them to + cut holes in sheets of dry cork. These grubs remain in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> the ground until the following season, then come forth + in their winged or weevil stage, except the belated, + broods, or those that have not reached full size in the + autumn; these remain in the ground the entire summer, + coming out late in the fall, or pass over until the second + year, as I have proved by burying the grubs in a barrel + sunk in the ground, covering the top with fine wire netting, + to prevent the escape of the weevils as they emerged + from time to time during the season.</p> +<p>As a rule, we find only one grub in a nut, of the + American sweet chestnut, but in the larger varieties of + the European and Japanese, two or more is not unusual, + which rather favors the idea that the female weevil does + possess something akin to reason, which guides her in + locating stores of food available for her progeny. I have + never observed that the weevils had any choice among + varieties, all being subject to their attacks alike, provided + all were growing in equally favorable positions. + But if the trees are of different sizes, some tall and + others short, some exposed to the winds and others protected, + then the ravages of this pest will, no doubt, be + as variable as the surrounding conditions. As the + weevils emerge from the ground in spring or early summer, + they will naturally seek the nuts most convenient + and on the small trees, then those on the lower branches + of the larger ones, while those on the upper part of the + tree, where they are fully exposed to the winds, may + wholly escape the attacks of these pests. This leads me + to think that whoever attempts to cut off native chestnut + forests, with the expectation of renewal with the + larger varieties, by grafting the sprouts, will find the + chestnut weevil a rather formidable enemy. I have + found it so on a limited number of trees in my own + grounds, that are grown from grafted sprouts near large + native specimens, the weevils destroying nearly every + nut; but out in the field, away from the woods, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> where the young trees are scattered and exposed to the + full sweep of the winds, the nuts are sound and free + from insect enemies. The only remedy is to collect and + destroy the weevils, which is not a serious matter where + only the larger varieties are cultivated.</p> +<p><strong>Diseases of the Chestnut.</strong>—I have never noticed + any special disease among chestnuts, neither do I find + any mentioned in European works on forestry. The + nearest approach to any such malady being recorded as + having appeared in this country, is found in a paragraph + in Hough's "Report on Forestry," 1877, p. 470, where the + author copies from Prof. W. C. Kerr, State Geologist, + North Carolina, as follows: "The chestnut was formerly + abundant in the Piedmont region, down to the + country between the Catawba and Yadkin rivers, but + within the last thirty years they have mostly perished. + They are now found east of the Blue Ridge only, on + higher ridges and spurs of the mountains. They have + suffered injury here, and are dying out both here and + beyond the Blue Ridge. They are much less fruitful + than they were a generation ago, and the crop is much + more uncertain."</p> +<p>While there is nothing said about any chestnut disease + in the paragraph quoted, we only infer that the + author intended to convey the idea that the trees were + suffering from some endemic malady, although it may + have been due to long drouths, insect depredators, or + other causes. A few years later Mr. Hough, in his + "Elements of Forestry," refers to the subject again, and + admits that "the cause of the malady is unknown." + But as chestnuts continue to come to our markets in + vast quantities from the Piedmont regions, there must + be a goodly number of healthy trees remaining.</p> +<p><strong>Uses.</strong>—The economic value of the chestnut, as + food for mankind and the lower animals, has been, and + is still, so well known, that no extended dissertation or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> compilation of historic instances of its usefulness are + required here. For almost two thousand years it has + been an important article of food throughout southern + Europe, and in some of the mountainous districts it is + almost the "staff of life" among the poorer people, who + not only use these nuts in their raw state, but roasted, + boiled, stewed, and even dried and ground into flour, + from which a coarse but nutritious kind of cake or bread + is made. These nuts are also used in the same way by + the poorer classes of China and Japan, and probably in + other oriental countries. In France, Italy, Spain and + Portugal, the chestnut crop is of immense importance, + not only for domestic use, but commercially, because all + surplus is wanted by other nations, who are ever ready + to take a share, and pay a good round price for the same.</p> +<p>In this country chestnuts are mainly used as a luxury + or a kind of pocket lunch for the children, as they + are rarely brought to the table, and it is very doubtful + if the American housewife, or our cooks,—unless foreign + born and bred,—know anything about preparing these + delicious nuts for comestible purposes. Cereals, meats, + fruits and vegetables have always been so abundant and + cheap in this country, that the poorest of the poor could + indulge in them without stint or limit; but all this will + change sooner or later, and when our population has + doubled or trebled, the edible nuts must become of much + more importance than now, and a roast turkey stuffed + with chestnuts may figure as the ideal of gastronomic + art.</p> +<p>As our native chestnuts are now annually consumed + by the thousands of bushels, and the imported varieties + by millions of pounds, and all as a mere luxury,—not a + necessity nor an article which we could not dispense + with without any serious inconvenience,—we may well + consider what the future demand must be, and make + haste to meet it with an abundant supply.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h2> +<h3>FILBERT OR HAZELNUT.</h3> +<p>Corylus, <i>Tournefort</i>. Name from <i>korys</i>, a hood, + helmet or bonnet, in reference to the form of the calyx + or husk enclosing the nut. Order, <i>Corylaceæ</i>. Deciduous + trees or low shrubs. Male flowers appearing in + the autumn in pendulous cylindrical catkins two inches + or more in length, with a two-cleft calyx partly united + with the bracts or scales. These catkins remain on the + plants all winter, becoming fully developed, and shedding + their pollen early the following spring. Female + flowers minute, entirely hidden within the buds during + the winter, but early in spring their bright red, thread-like + stigmas push out from the tips of the lateral or terminal + buds. Ovary two-celled, with one ovule in each. + Nut globular, ovoid or oblong, often in clusters, but + each enclosed in a leafy, two- or three-valved husk, + fringed or deeply notched at the upper end. Leaves + broadly heart-shaped, serrate, with sturdy, short leaf-stalks. + The filbert and hazel always bloom before the + leaves appear in spring, and the male catkins usually + open and begin to scatter their pollen in this latitude + during warm days in March, the females soon following, + their bright-red stigmas pushing out from the ends of + the buds, but as soon as fertilization has been consummated + they shrivel and disappear. The trees may then + remain leafless for weeks following, and yet produce a + heavy crop of fruit.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 470px;"> <img src="images/fig37.jpg" alt="" height="540" width="470" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._37" id="FIG._37">FIG. 37</a>. LARGE FILBERT.</span> </div> +<p>The common English name, filbert, is from "full-beard." + All the varieties with husks extending beyond + the nut, and with fringed edges, are filberts (Fig. 37);<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> while those with husks shorter than the nuts (Fig. 38) + are hazels, from the old Anglo-Saxon word, <i>hæsel</i>, a + hood or bonnet. The parentage, size, form or quality + of the nut, is not to be considered in this classification, + for when the nuts are ripe and fallen from the husks, + there is nothing left to distinguish the hazelnuts from + filberts, unless a person is sufficiently familiar with a + variety to know to which group it belongs. In France + these nuts are known under the general name of <i>Noysette</i>; + while in Germany it is <i>Haselnuss</i>; in Holland <i>Hazelnoot</i>;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> and in Italy <i>Avellana</i>, from Avellana, a city of + Naples, near which there is a valley where these nuts + have been extensively cultivated for many centuries.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> <img src="images/fig38.jpg" alt="" height="425" width="550" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._38" id="FIG._38">FIG. 38</a>. LARGE SEEDLING HAZELNUT.</span> </div> +<p><strong>History of the Filbert.</strong>—It is claimed that the + filbert was first known to the Romans as <i>Nux Pontica</i>, + because introduced from Pontus; but it must have become + naturalized throughout southern Europe in very + early times. But the Italian name of <i>Avellana</i> appears + to have been applied to the wild hazel of Britain, long + before Linnæus adopted it as the specific name of the + indigenous species. John Evelyn, one of the most careful + and learned of English arboriculturists of his time, + in referring to these nuts, in his "Sylva," 1664, says: + "I do not confound the filbert Pontic, distinguished by + its beard, with our foresters or bald hazelnuts, which, + doubtless, we had from abroad, bearing the names of <i>Avelan</i> or <i>Avelin</i>, as I find in some ancient records and + deeds in my custody, where my ancestors' names were + written Avelan, <i>alias</i> Evelin."</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p> +<p>The filbert has been celebrated in prose and poetry + from ancient times, as we may infer from a remark of + Virgil, who says that it has been more honored "than + the vine, the myrtle, or even the bay itself" (Eclogue vii).</p> +<p>The supposed occult power of a forked twig of the + hazel as a divining-rod (<i>virgula divinatoria</i>) for finding + hidden treasures, veins of metals, subterranean streams + of water, and even pointing out criminals, is, of course, + purely mythical, although so solemnly attested by many + learned men in the past; and I would not consider this + myth worthy of a notice here were it not for the fact + that it was early imported into this country, and is still + firmly believed by many persons among our rural population. + It is true that the supposed attributes of the + European hazel have been transferred to different plants + in this country, mainly to the peach and our indigenous + witch-hazel (<i>Hamamelis Virginiana</i>), but the myth + still lives, a legitimate descendant of an Old World + nut tree.</p> +<p>There is little to be said in regard to the history of + the filbert and hazelnut in this country, but it is quite + likely that both of the European species, and many varieties, + were brought here and planted by the early settlers + in the Eastern States, and bushes of the same could have + been seen in many gardens a hundred years ago; but I + have been unable to find any account of extensive plantings + of these nuts, although nurserymen, all along, have + been offering choice varieties to their customers. In + the main, our pomologists have either remained silent in + regard to these nuts, or, at most, referred to them very + briefly in their published works.</p> +<p>William Prince, of Flushing, N. Y., in a "Short + Treatise on Horticulture," published in 1828, refers to + the filbert as follows: </p> +<blockquote> + <p>"This shrub or, in some cases, + tree, accommodates itself to every exposition, and to + every variety of soil, but prefers a moist loam on a sandy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> bottom, with a northern exposure. It is easily multiplied + by seeds, layers or inoculation. In fact, these + nuts, which are vended in large quantities in our markets, + grow as well in our climate as the common hazelnut, + and produce very abundantly. Such being the + case, it is hoped, ere long, sufficient will be produced + from our soil to supersede the necessity of importation, + as plantations of this tree would amply remunerate the + possessor; or if planted as a hedge, would be found to + be very productive. A single bush of the Spanish filbert + in my garden has produced a half-bushel annually."</p> +</blockquote> +<p>Mr. Prince then names a few of the best varieties, + which are about the same as those recommended at the + present time, and he was, no doubt, honest in recommending + filbert culture to his countrymen, for his own + limited experience proved that the trees would grow + here and fruit abundantly.</p> +<p>A. J. Downing, in the first edition of his "Fruits + and Fruit Trees of America," 1845, says: "The Spanish + filbert, common in many of our gardens, is a worthless, + nearly barren variety; but we have found the better + English sorts productive and excellent in this climate + (Newburg, N. Y.), and at least a few plants of these + should have a place in all our gardens." If a few plants + will succeed in a garden, then we might reasonably suppose + that the number might be safely increased, and + this was the idea of Mr. Prince, and many other writers + on the subject since his time, but I fail to find any record + of extended experiments with these nuts in this + country, and as there must be some good reason for this + neglect, perhaps my own experience in the cultivation + of the filbert and hazel, to be given in succeeding pages, + may throw some light on this question.</p> +<p><strong>Propagation.</strong>—Filberts are readily propagated by + almost all the modes employed in the multiplication of + ordinary fruit trees and shrubs. The nuts are not at all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> delicate, and may be planted in the fall, or stored in a + cool place, mixed with sand or sphagnum, and then put + out in spring, always selecting a rather light and rich + soil for a seed bed, and in such beds plants from one to + three feet high may be obtained the first season. The + seedlings produce such a mass of fine roots that they are + readily transplanted without danger of loss. Varieties + are perpetuated and multiplied by budding, grafting, + suckers, layers, and some grow quite readily from cuttings + made of the young, vigorous shoots, cut up into + proper lengths in the fall, and then buried in the ground + until the following spring, then planted out in trenches, + as usually practiced with currants, grapes and similar + plants. The method of propagation most generally + practiced in Europe and this country is by suckers, and + as the cultivated varieties of the filbert usually produce + these from the base of their stems in profusion, there is + no lack of material; besides, they make as strong, + healthy and productive plants as can be procured in any + other way. To secure an extra number of roots on these + suckers, they should be banked up with a few inches in + depth of good rich soil, or old manure, about midsummer, + and then late in the autumn dig down to the base + and remove with knife or chisel, after which they may + be headed down to about fifteen or eighteen inches, and + heeled-in for the winter, to be planted out in nursery + rows early in spring. If a greater number of sprouts are + wanted than the plants naturally produce, the main + stem may be cut down; but this will seldom be necessary, + because the young transplanted suckers will usually produce + more or less new ones the first season, all of which + can be utilized for multiplying the stock if they are + wanted.</p> +<p><strong>Soil, Location and Climate.</strong>—European varieties + of the filbert thrive best in what may be termed a rich + loam, with a dry subsoil. If the soil is too moist, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> trees are inclined to run too much to wood, producing + less fruit. In the famous nut orchards of Kent, England, + the soil is loam upon a dry, sandy rock. The + trees in these orchards are manured at least once in two + years, especially after they reach the full bearing age. + Almost any good soil that is rich enough to produce a + good crop of corn, and is not submerged in winter, will + answer for the filbert in this country.</p> +<p>In selecting a location for a filbert orchard, an open, + airy one would probably be preferable to a spot so sheltered + as to cause the flowers to appear so early as to be + injured by frosts. Furthermore, I would warn cultivators + to keep as far away as possible from any hedgerows + or plantation of the wild native hazel bushes, for + these are always loaded with disease germs that are fatal + to the foreign species. We might reasonably suppose + that filberts would succeed better in the Southern than + in the Northern States, but if the experience of those + who have tried them there count for anything, then + these nuts are not adapted to the South, owing to the + fact that the flowers almost invariably push out during + warm days in winter, and these are destroyed later by + frosts. In the more elevated regions of the northern + border of the Southern, and in similar locations in the + Middle States, these nuts will doubtless thrive, or at + least the climate will prove congenial. The more equable + the climate and free from extremes in temperature, + the better; but the most important element in this + country is moisture, especially in summer, when the + nuts are filling out; and the best way to supply this, + where irrigation cannot be practiced, is to keep the + ground around the trees continually covered with a + mulch of leaves or other coarse vegetable matter.</p> +<p><strong>Planting and Pruning.</strong>—The space to be allowed + between the plants, when set out for bearing, will, of + course, depend very much upon the size they are expected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> to attain. Those varieties which assume and + remain in the bush form may be planted very close together, + or not more than six to eight feet between the + plants; but those which become small trees must be + given more room. The larger European sorts, which + are at present the only ones worth cultivating for their + nuts, should be set ten or twelve feet apart, and the + rows fifteen to sixteen feet, then if properly pruned they + will shade the ground and be in a convenient form for + gathering the crop. The trees may be planted in the + orchard when quite small, and some kind of vegetable + crop grown among them for the first two or three years, + but I would prefer keeping the plants in nursery rows + until they were four or five feet high, and then transplant + to the orchard, and set a short, stout stake by the + side of each, to keep the main stem in an upright position + until the tree is well established.</p> +<p>The first pruning,—except removing suckers from + those in the nursery rows,—will be the heading back of + the main or central stem to a hight of two or three + feet, for the purpose of laying the foundation, as it + were, of the head of the future tree. Three or four of + the larger branches, which will push out from near the + top of the severed main stem, are to be selected to form + the top, and all others removed. Small lateral branches + or twigs will spring out from the larger or main ones, + and in this way the head of a bearing tree is formed. + But before attempting to prune a mature or fruitful + tree, we must consider the mode of fructification, for + the filbert does not bear nuts on the young growth of + the season, as in the chestnut, but on the small branchlets + or spur-like twigs of the preceding season, or, as we + may say, on the one-year-old twigs. The small fruiting + twigs are seldom more than four to six inches long, and + sometimes almost every well-developed bud on these contain + pistillate flowers and embryo nuts, either singly or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> in clusters. In pruning the bearing trees, the main + point to be observed is to head back the strong leading + shoots, to prevent the trees growing too tall, as well as + to force out the side or lateral twigs as fruiting wood + for the ensuing year. If the heads of the trees become + too much crowded to admit light and air to the center, + some of the larger branches must be removed entire. + The best time to prune is in early spring, when the trees + are in bloom, for at this season we can readily determine + the injured from the sound male catkins, and preserve + enough of these to insure perfect fertilization. It is not + necessary, however, that there should be healthy pollen-bearing + catkins on every tree in an orchard, for if one in + a dozen is well supplied, there will be sufficient to fertilize + the flowers of all growing near by. It often happens, + in our rather severe climate, that the catkins of + some trees or varieties are winterkilled, while the pistillate + flowers enclosed in the buds escape injury, and + when this occurs it is well to have some hardy variety at + hand, from which pollen can be obtained when needed. + The inferior varieties are usually the most hardy, and + the wild European hazel or our northern beaked hazel, + will usually escape injury where all the large improved + sorts fail, and it requires but a few minutes' labor to cut + branches bearing sound catkins, and scatter these about + through the heads of trees requiring such assistance to + make them fruitful.</p> +<h2>SPECIES OF AMERICAN HAZELS.</h2> +<p><span class="smcap">Corylus Americana</span> (Walters). Common hazel + bush.—Leaves roundish, heart-shaped, pointed, coarsely + serrate; husk somewhat downy, with a wide, flattened, + fringed border extending beyond the roundish nut. + Shell rather thick and brittle; kernel sweet and good, + but the nut is too small to be considered of much value. + A low shrub, with many stems springing from the roots.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> Young shoots and twigs downy and glandular-hairy. + Common in woods and old fields from Canada to Florida.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Corylus Rostrata</span> (Aiton). Beaked hazel.—Leaves + ovate or oblong, somewhat heart-shaped, pointed, doubly + serrate; husk extending an inch or more beyond the + round or ovoid nut, forming before it opens a long tubular + beak, hence the name. The husk is densely covered + with nettle-like bristles, which are quite irritating to + tender hands. The nuts are small, usually growing in + clusters at the ends of the twigs, only a few coming to + maturity. A low shrub or small tree, usually growing + in a dense clump, not spreading from subterranean + stems, as in the last species. Common on rather firm + and rich soil along the borders of streams, in the + northern border States, and southward on the Alleghanies, + but most abundant in the north through Canada, + and westward to the Pacific in Washington and + Oregon, where, in the mountains, it often assumes the + tree form, growing to a hight of twenty-five to thirty + feet, with a stem from four to six inches in diameter. + The wood is light, soft, and very white to the center. + It also extends southward to central California, but + here it is only a small bush, this form having been described + under the name of <i>Corylus rostrata</i>, var. Californica, + A. de C. This species probably reaches its highest + development in the Cascade range, in northern Oregon. + The same or a closely allied species of the hazel + extends far into northern Asia. There are no improved + varieties of either of our native species of the hazel in + cultivation.</p> +<h2>EUROPEAN SPECIES OF CORYLUS.</h2> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig39.jpg" alt="" height="665" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._39" id="FIG._39">FIG. 39</a>. CONSTANTINOPLE HAZEL.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Corylus Avellana</span> (Linn.). Common hazelnut.—Leaves + roundish, heart-shaped, pointed, coarsely and unevenly + serrate; husk bell-shaped, spreading, with a + fringed or deeply cut margin. The original form of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> nut is supposed to have been ovate or oval, but with a + plant indigenous to such a wide range of climate and + country, and one that has been so long under cultivation,—running + wild in many localities where it is not a native,—it + would be very difficult at this time to determine its + primary botanical characters. A common shrub or small + tree throughout the greater part of Europe and Asia.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Corylus Colurna</span> (Linn.).—Constantinople hazel. + Leaves roundish ovate, heart-shaped; husk double, + the inner one divided into three deeply cleft divisions, + the outer with many long, slender, curved segments, + giving to the calyx or husk a fringed appearance, but + leaving the end of the nut fully exposed (Fig. 39). Nuts + small, and for this reason rarely cultivated. Native of + Asia Minor, where the tree attains a hight of from fifty + to sixty feet. It is, however, hardy in France and England, + and was introduced into the latter country some + three hundred years ago, probably by Clusius, who received + either nuts or plants from Constantinople, hence + its present name.</p> +<p>There are several other hazels and filberts, so distinct + from the two common European types that botanists + have, in a few instances, been inclined to elevate them + to the rank of species, and among these I may name <i>Corylus heterophylla</i>, or various-leaved filbert, from eastern + Asia, also the <i>Corylus ferox</i>, or spiny filbert, which + has a long and deeply cut or fringed husk. It is a native + of the Sheopur mountain in Nepaul. But from the + two common European species, <i>C. Avellana</i> and <i>C. Colurna</i>, + and their hybrids, many hundreds of varieties + have been raised, and from among these we may readily + select a dozen possessing all the distinct and estimable + properties to be found in this genus of nut-bearing + plants; to multiply names without securing anything + of intrinsic value, is but a waste of time and labor on + the part of the cultivator.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p> +<p>As we have no popular varieties of American origin, + I am compelled to consult European catalogues in making + a selection of those most promising for cultivation + here, and this is, perhaps, an advantage, inasmuch as + our transatlantic cousins have had a long experience and + abundant opportunities for determining the merits of + the varieties they recommend. If hardiness and adaptation + to our soil and climate are to be taken into account, + in making a selection, then we may fail for the + want of experienced guides, as it is undeniable that very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> few persons in this country have ever attempted to conduct + extended experiments in the cultivation of either + the native or European species and varieties of the hazel.</p> +<p>Taking this view of the situation, I shall avail myself + of the small but select list of varieties given in that + standard work, "The Dictionary of Gardening," edited + by Mr. George Nicholson, of the Royal Gardens, Kew, + England.</p> +<h2>SELECT LIST OF VARIETIES.</h2> +<p><span class="smcap">Alba, or White filbert.</span>—Considered in England + one of the best varieties in cultivation. From the + peculiar structure of the husk, which contracts rather + than opens at the outer edge, this filbert can be kept + longer in its cover than most others. As fashion + demands that fresh filberts must be brought to the + table in their husks, this variety deserves special attention. + It is also known as Avelinier Blanche, Wrotham + Park, etc.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Cosford, or Miss Young's Thin-Shelled.</span>—Nut + oblong, of excellent quality; husk hairy, deeply + cut, about as long as the nut. Highly valued on account + of the thinness of the shell.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Crispa, or Frizzled Filbert.</span>—Shell thin, somewhat + flattened; husk richly and curiously frizzled + throughout, open wide at the mouth, and hanging + about as long again as the nut. Ripens late, and one of + the most productive.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Downton Large Square.</span>—Nut very large; shell + thick and well-filled; husk smooth, shorter than the + nut. A peculiarly formed semi-square nut, of the best + quality.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Lambert's Filbert</span> (<i>Corylus tubulosa</i>).—Nut + large, oblong; shell thick and strong, the kernel being + covered with a red skin; husk long, rather smooth, serrated + at the edges, longer than the nut. A fine, strong-growing,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> free-fruiting variety. It is quite popular in + California, where it has been in cultivation for twenty + years or more under the name of Red Aveline. Specimens + I have received from there were not as large as + those raised in England, but this can be accounted for + by the difference in climate. This variety is cultivated + in Europe under various local names, as, for instance, + Great Cob, Kentish Cob, Filbert Cob, and Large Bond + Cob.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Grandis, or Round cob-nut.</span>—Nut large, short, + slightly compressed, very thick and hard; husk shorter + than the fruit, much frizzled and hairy. This is supposed + to be the true Barcelona nut of commerce, and is + one of the finest grown. This is the large round hazel + or filbert so largely imported for the trade in this country. + It has many synonyms, and among them we may + record Downton, Dwarf Prolific, Great Cob and Round + Cob.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Purple-Leaved filbert.</span>—Usually cultivated as + an ornamental shrub in this country, but under proper + treatment it is one of the most valuable for its fruit. + Leaves very large, and of a deep purple color. Nuts + and husk of the same color, which they retain until cut + by frosts. Nuts large, an inch in length; husks much + longer than the nut, and slightly hairy. The catkins + are tender and become winterkilled in our Northern + States, but if the pistillate flowers are fertilized by pollen + from some more hardy plant, this purple-leaved + filbert is exceedingly prolific. I have gathered eighty + nuts from a small bush in my garden, the flowers of + which had been fertilized from another variety in early + spring.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Red filbert.</span> Red Hazel, Avelinier Rouge.—Nut + medium ovate, not long as in the <i>tubulosa</i>, or Lambert's + filbert; shell thick; husk long and hispid. A very + productive variety of good quality.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap">Spanish filbert.</span>—Nut very large, oblong; shell + thick; husk smooth, longer than the nut. A very large + variety, sometimes confounded with the Round cob-nut + and its synonyms.</p> +<h2>PERSONAL EXPERIENCE WITH FILBERTS.</h2> +<p>Believing that our failures are often of far more + value, in the line of education, than our successes, I + shall not hesitate to place my own on record as guideposts + to those who may be seeking the most direct road + to success in nut culture. Having had a rather extended + and expensive experience in the cultivation of filberts, I + propose giving a brief account of it here, with the hope + that it may save some other enthusiast from losing time + and money.</p> +<p>My attention was first specially drawn to these nuts + in 1858,—while a resident of the city of Brooklyn, N. Y.,—by + a neighbor who had a moderately large garden, on + three sides of which he had planted a row of English + filberts. These trees, at the time, had attained a hight + of about fifteen feet, with broad, open heads, and they + rarely failed to produce a heavy crop of nuts, which sold + readily at very remunerative prices, for as they were + always gathered in the husks and sold by the pound, + the amount obtained from these few trees seemed to be + enormous, considering the small space they occupied in + this garden. The owner of these filbert trees, being an + Englishman by birth, never tired of showing his English + filberts to visitors, and of descanting upon their value, + as well as upon the stupid indifference of the Yankees + in neglecting the cultivation of these valuable nuts. I + imbibed enough of my neighbor's enthusiasm to secure + a good stock of his plants, a few years later, for cultivation + in my grounds here. The third year after planting, + quite a number of the bushes produced a fair crop of + nuts, but I noticed that an occasional shoot was affected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> with blight, and these were immediately cut out and + burned. The next season more of the branches were + affected, and from these the blight extended downward + on the main stems, and when these were cut away the + sprouts from below made a very vigorous and apparently + healthy growth, some reaching a hight of six feet the + first season, but a year or two later these were also attacked + and destroyed by blight.</p> +<p>Finding that the filberts in my grounds were doomed, + I visited my old neighbor in Brooklyn, hoping to learn + something of the origin or cause of the disease; but the + blight had invaded his garden, and not a tree remained. + On my return from this visit I had every filbert and + hazel plant on my place dug up and burned, thinking + by such means to stamp out the disease. After waiting + ten years, I thought it time to try filberts again, and to + be certain of securing pure and healthy plants, I concluded + to raise them from the nuts, and sent an order + for a few pounds of the largest and best variety to be + found in the celebrated filbert orchards of Kent, Eng. + In due time the nuts arrived, and they were very large, + and all of one variety, as ordered. They were mixed + with sand and buried in the garden until the following + spring, then sown thinly in shallow drills and covered + with about two inches of rich soil.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/fig40.jpg" alt="" height="410" width="600" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._40" id="FIG._40">FIG. 40</a>. ENGLISH FILBERT ORCHARD, FIVE YEARS FROM SEED.</span> </div> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig41.jpg" alt="" height="438" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._41" id="FIG._41">FIG. 41</a>. VARIETIES OF FILBERTS AND HAZEL SEEDLINGS.</span> </div> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> <img src="images/fig42.jpg" alt="" height="758" width="550" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._42" id="FIG._42">FIG. 42</a>. EXTRA LARGE HAZEL SEEDLING OR ROUND ENGLISH FILBERT.</span> </div> +<p>At the close of the first season the plants were from + one to two feet high and quite stocky, with a mass of + small fibrous roots. The next spring they were transplanted + into nursery rows, and set about one foot apart. + The third spring I laid out about one acre for a specimen + filbert orchard, and after the ground had been thoroughly + prepared, the plants were set ten feet apart in + the row, and twelve between the rows. No crop was + planted among the trees, but the ground was kept clean + and free from weeds during the summer, with cultivator + and harrow. All suckers springing from the base of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a><br /> + <a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> stems were removed as soon as they appeared, and under + such treatment the plants made a vigorous growth. Two + years later quite a number of the trees came into bearing, + these showing that I was likely to have nearly as + many varieties in my orchard as there were trees. Some + of the varieties might be better than the parent, but the + greater part were certain to be inferior in size. The + fourth year after planting in the orchard the trees gave + me a heavy crop of nuts, and they made a fine appearance + as one looked down between the long rows, as + shown in Fig. 40. But this season my old enemy, the + filbert blight, appeared again, and branches and main + stems began to blacken and the leaves to wither. But I + had bushels of nuts and in great variety, and by sending + specimen baskets of the long-husk varieties to dealers + in New York, learned that there was an almost + unlimited demand for such nuts, at prices ranging from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a><br /> + <a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a><br /> + <a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> thirty to seventy-five cents per pound, if sent to market + in their fresh, half-ripened husk; but later on, when + the nuts have fallen out and become thoroughly ripened, + as when imported, ten cents a pound may be considered + an average price for the larger varieties. Several of + these are shown in Fig. 41, of natural size and form. + Another extra-large hazel is shown in Fig. 42. The + fifth year after planting, my specimen filbert orchard + had suffered so much from blight that it appeared as + shown in Fig. 43; but a few dozen trees have been reserved, + the rest being removed and reduced to ashes.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/fig43.jpg" alt="" height="413" width="600" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._43" id="FIG._43">FIG. 43</a>. FILBERT ORCHARD STRUCK WITH BLIGHT, FIFTH YEAR FROM SEED.</span> </div> +<p><strong>Name and Nature of the Filbert Blight.</strong>—The + reader must not suppose that one who has spent as much + time and money as the writer in experimenting with + these nuts, would make no effort to discover the origin + and name of such a virulent disease, and means of destroying + it if these were known. For many years I had + been well aware of its presence in nearly all of the nurseries + of the older States, as well as in the public parks + and private gardens. In the meantime I had diligently + examined the reports of the Division of Vegetable Pathology + of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, as well + as the hundreds of bulletins of the various State experiment + stations, treating of the fungous diseases of plants, + all without finding a hint or reference to this widely + distributed and destructive blight of the filbert. I also + sent many specimens of the diseased twigs and branches + to professional mycologists, with no better results. + With the nature of the disease, its mode of multiplication + and distribution, I had become somewhat familiar, + but the information sought was: Had it ever + been described and given a scientific name, and if so, + where, and by whom? This much of its history had + somehow escaped me, and, as it would appear from the + following correspondence, the chances were none too + good of finding it.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p> +<p>In reply to an inquiry directed to the U. S. Department + of Agriculture, Division of Vegetable Pathology, + I received the following:</p> +<blockquote> + <p style="text-align: right; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%"> <span class="smcap">Washington, D. C.</span>, Aug. 4, 1894.</p> +</blockquote> +<p style="margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%"><span class="smcap">Dear Sir:</span><br /> +</p> +<p style="margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%">Your letter of Aug. + 2, relating to the disease of the filbert, + is at hand. In reply I have to say that we have not investigated + this trouble, and are therefore unable to furnish you + with any definite information upon it. Specimens of the disease, + as you describe it, have never been, so far as I know, referred + to the Division, nor am I able to find any record of any + such disease in foreign or domestic literature. If you will + send us specimens we shall be pleased to examine them and + furnish you a report. We should also be pleased to have any + information from you in regard to the manner in which the + disease + works. + Very truly,</p> +<p style="text-align: right; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%">B. T. GALLOWAY, <i>Chief of Division</i>.</p> +<p>The specimens requested were forwarded promptly + by mail, and in the absence of the Chief of Division, + they fell into the hands of one of his assistants, who reported + as follows:</p> +<p style="text-align: right; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%"> <span class="smcap">Washington, D. C.</span>, Aug. 14, 1894.</p> +<p style="margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%"><span class="smcap">Dear Sir:</span> </p> +<p style="margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%">Your letter of Aug. 7 is received, together with the specimens. + The stems of the <i>Corylus</i> are affected with one of the + Pyrenomycetes. <i>Cryptospora anomala</i>, Pk. The fungus is + described in "North American Pyrenomycetes," by Ellis and + Everhart, p. 531. It attacks <i>Corylus Americana</i>, but appears + to be worst on the European varieties, as you say. The pustules + appear first on the young branches, and later on the + older ones and on the trunk. The roots are not killed.</p> +<p style="margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%">The only remedy known is to cut out and burn the diseased + stems. Whether Bordeaux mixture or any other copper + solution will protect the shrub from attack, is not known. So + far as I know, it has not been tried. It is probable, however, + that if the stems were thoroughly sprayed with the Bordeaux + mixture they would be protected from attack. The mycelium + of the fungus grows into the cambium and practically girdles + the stems. The black pustules contain the spores.</p> +<p style="text-align: right; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%">Very + truly + yours, <br /> + ALBERT F. WOODS, <i>Acting Chief</i>.<br /> +</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span></p> +<p>On the receipt of this note of Prof. Woods, I looked + up Ellis and Everhart's work, a voluminous one of over + 800 octavo pages, published by the authors at Newfield, + N. J. This filbert blight is briefly described under the + scientific name of <i>Cryptospora anomala</i>, Pk., but Prof. + Peck writes me that "the description was made from + specimens discovered near Albany, N. Y., in May, 1874. + In 1882 this description was republished by Saccardo, in + his "Syllage Fungorum," Vol. I, p. 470, under the name + of <i>Cryptosporella anomala</i>. The original name in Report + 28, p. 72, was <i>Diatrype anomala</i>. In 1892 Ellis and + Everhart, in "Pyrenomycetes of North America," p. 531, + changed the name again, making it <i>Cryptospora anomala</i>." + So at present we have the names of this fungus + in the following order:</p> +<blockquote> + <p><i>Diatrypes anomal</i>, Peck, 1876.<br /> + <i>Cryptosporella anomala</i>, Sacc., 1882.<br /> + <i>Cryptospora anomala</i>, E. and E., 1892.<br /> + </p> +</blockquote> +<p>Ellis and Everhart, after giving scientific description, + add,</p> +<blockquote> + <p>"On living stems of <i>Corylus Americana</i>, + Albany, N. Y. (Peck), Iowa (Holoway), on <i>Corylus Avellana</i>, + Newfield, N. J. The pustules appear first on + the smaller branches, and are serrately arranged along + one side of the branch; afterwards they appear also on + the larger branches and on the trunk itself, and in the + course of two or three years the part of tree above + ground is entirely killed. The roots, however, still + retain their vitality, and continue to send up each year + a luxuriant growth of new shoots, destined to be destroyed + the succeeding year by the inexorable pest. The + imported trees seem to be more injuriously affected than + the native species."</p> +</blockquote> +<p>The observations of Ellis and Everhart and Prof. + Woods accord with my own, but I may say that the infested + branches often show the presence of the mycelium + in the bark and alburnum,—by a slight shrinking,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>— + weeks or months before the pustules appear, for these + are merely indications of the last stage in the life of the + fungus, and with the throwing off the spores from these + pustules the old parasite perishes.</p> +<p>The pustules, when fully open, are from one-sixteenth + to one-eighth of an inch in diameter, + usually round, but sometimes slightly + oval in form, and placed mainly in almost + straight rows lengthways of the branch, as + shown in Fig. 44. These pustules appear + on wood of all ages, from two years upward, + and in what may be termed patches, ranging + from a few inches to a foot or more in + length, and more frequently on the upper + side than the underside of the branches.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig44.jpg" alt="" height="614" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._44" id="FIG._44">FIG. 44</a>. + HAZEL FUNGUS.</span> </div> +<p>This fungus is undoubtedly indigenous, + and its host plant is the common + American hazel (<i>C. Americana</i>). From a + very careful search, I have not been able to + find any clump of these bushes of any considerable + size that was entirely free from + pustulous stems. But on these wild plants + it seems to do but little harm, for if a stem + is killed, another soon springs up from the + roots to take its place; but when this fungus + invades our orchards and gardens and + attacks filbert trees, we recognize it as an + implacable enemy. How far the spores of + this fungus are likely to be carried by the + wind, transported on the clothes of a person, + or the hair of domestic animals, I do + not know, but it certainly is not safe to + plant the susceptible species and varieties + within a mile of the wild hazel bushes, unless the planter + is prepared to use fungicides freely on his trees. There + are certain phases of this filbert blight that are rather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> obscure and scarcely explainable; as, for instance, its + virulence among some species and varieties, and almost + if not total absence among others. So far as my observation + extends, I have never found it attacking the native + beaked hazel (<i>Corylus rostrata</i>), and my correspondents + in the Northwest and in the Pacific States assure + me that no blight on the hazel has, as yet, been found + there, and its absence is probably due to the fact that + the common hazel (<i>C. Americana</i>) is not an inhabitant + of these regions.</p> +<p>In a neighbor's garden just across the highway from + my own, there are, at this time, four old European + hazelnut trees, fully twenty feet high and as many years + old. They are of two varieties: one a small round nut, + the other a long, slender nut, but neither of much value, + because of their small size. The trees, however, are + perfectly healthy, never having suffered from the blight, + although these four are all that remain of a long row + of choice European varieties all planted at the same + time. Blight destroyed the better varieties, while these + inferior ones continue to thrive and are exceedingly + productive.</p> +<p>This native fungus that causes blight in the hazels + is but one of a large number of similar maladies which + have appeared and often worsted the horticulturist, in + his endeavor to introduce and cultivate foreign species + and varieties of plants, and like the tropical fevers, they + may pass unnoticed among the natives, but are terribly + fatal to immigrants from cooler climates. The disease + so well known as the black knot (<i>Otthia morbosa</i>, Schu.), + and widely destructive to the European varieties of the + plum, and Morello cherries, has existed for ages among + our native plums and black cherries, doing comparatively + little harm; but it seems to protest, by its virulence, + against the introduction of some foreign species. + The same is true with various blights and rusts which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> attack the exotic pear, apple, quince, peach, and other + of the larger fruits, and we have only to ascend the + scale a few degrees from the microscopic fungi to the + microscopic insects, to meet on the very threshold of + this realm the minute but unconquerable grape louse + (<i>Phylloxera vastatrix</i>), which for more than two centuries + has prevented the successful cultivation of the European + varieties of the grape in the open air everywhere + east of the Rocky mountains in North America; although + this minute insect has ever been present and a constant + parasite of the indigenous species of the grape, but + scarcely affecting the health of its host. The plum curculio, + chestnut and hickory weevils, bean weevil, and + many other similar species of insects appear to be ever + protesting against the introduction of exotic plants, as + well as the improvement of our indigenous kinds.</p> +<p>It is this blight, and nothing else, that has prevented + the extensive cultivation of the improved varieties + of the European filbert and hazelnut in this country, + and not the uncongenial soil and climate, as has + been so often "officially" proclaimed by men whose theories + are far greater than their practical knowledge of + such subjects. Men whose experience with these nuts + has been limited to a few isolated bushes or trees in gardens + or nurseries, where they were protected, or beyond + the reach of the spores of the blight fungus, as has + already been noted in the experience of Prince, Downing, + Barry, and my neighbor Butler, of Brooklyn, could + scarcely understand why others should remain so indifferent + to such a promising industry, or why the demand + for the trees remained so limited, with scarcely an + attempt to plant filbert orchards anywhere in this country. + Nurserymen have continued to offer the choice + varieties at low prices per plant, and to advise their customers + to cultivate filberts extensively, even to setting + them in hedgerows; and yet home-grown filberts remain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> as rare in our markets as they were a hundred years ago, + and all due to the simple reason that the insidious filbert + blight still scatters its spores unrestrained.</p> +<p>With the present almost universal employment of + various fungicides for the destruction of blights, mildews + and rusts on cultivated fruits and vegetables, we + may confidently assert that the diseases of the filbert + may be readily controlled by the same means. The + spraying of the trees with Bordeaux mixture and other + copper solutions will certainly destroy the fungus spores, + and with these out of the way filbert culture may become + of as much importance and as popular here as it is + in certain countries of Europe. In my own experience + I have found no other nut tree (barring always the + blight) that has been more satisfactory. The plants + come forward rapidly, fruiting freely and abundantly + when young, and if properly trained, the crop can be + gathered with little labor, and as it is ready for use a + month or more in advance of the arrival of fresh nuts + from abroad, the home market during the time is at our + command.</p> +<p>The number of applications of the fungicides that + will be necessary during the season to rid the trees of + blight, or the strength of the copper solution used, will + depend somewhat upon circumstances and the condition + of the subjects operated upon. If the trees are growing + near hedges of wild hazels, where there is a constant or + annual influx of the fungus spores, then greater care + will be required to suppress them than if the trees are + some distance from such sources of contagion; and it + may be well for those contemplating planting filbert + orchards, to examine their surroundings carefully in advance, + in order to avoid local blight-breeding plants, + and have these destroyed if any are found. I would also + warn the cultivator against collecting branches of the + wild hazel in the spring, carrying pollen-bearing catkins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> to be employed in fertilizing the pistillate flowers of the + cultivated varieties, for by such means blight spores may + be readily introduced into orchard and garden.</p> +<p>It will seldom be necessary to practice artificial fertilization, + where any considerable number of trees are + grown near together, because if ninety per cent. of the + male catkins are winterkilled, the few remaining will be + sufficient to supply pollen for the pistillate flowers. + In my grounds filberts have never failed to produce annual + crops after reaching a bearing age, although they + have been subjected to great extremes of temperature in + winter. One year the trees were in full bloom the last + week in February, and although cold weather followed, + the protected pistillate flowers were not injured. The + winters of 1894 and 1895 were among the severest, + in the way of continuous low temperature, I have ever + experienced here, and while the filberts did not bloom + until the first week in April, the crop proved to be + abundant.</p> +<p><strong>Insects Injurious to Filberts.</strong>—My personal observations + lead me to believe that the filberts and hazels + are, in this country, remarkably free from the depredations + of noxious insects. Two species of nut weevils + have been reported as breeding in the wild hazelnuts, + viz., <i>Balaninus obtusus</i>, and <i>B. nasicus</i>, but among + the many bushels of the European varieties of the filbert + produced in my grounds I have never found one infested + by a weevil or other insect. In Europe a nut weevil + (<i>B. nucum</i>) is said to be very destructive to the wild + hazel, often invading the filbert orchards, and this + we can readily believe, because they are not at all uncommon + in the imported nuts, but fortunately have not, + as yet, become naturalized in this country.</p> +<p>The great hazel-leaf beetle, or as more generally + known, elm-leaf beetle (<i>Monocesta coryli</i>), has been + known in a few instances to attack and defoliate large<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> patches of the wild hazel bushes, but this insect seems + to prefer the elm, hence is rarely found on the hazels. + But should it ever invade our filbert orchards, it can be + readily destroyed by dusting or spraying the trees with + Paris green, London purple, or other well-known insecticides. + There may be an occasional invasion of caterpillars, + like the tent worms, spanworms, leaf rollers of + various species, and what are called leaf miners, but as + these infest almost all kinds of deciduous trees and + shrubs, we cannot consider them specially injurious to + the filberts and hazels.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2> +<h3>HICKORY NUTS.</h3> +<p>Hicoria, <i>Rafinesque</i>. Name probably derived from + the aboriginal or Indian word hickery, or hickory, the + common name for these nuts among the tribes formerly + inhabiting the Middle and Southern Atlantic States.</p> +<p><strong>Order</strong>, <i>Juglandaceæ</i> (Walnut family).—Native deciduous + trees of large size, with compound serrate leaves + with an odd number of leaflets, varying from five to fifteen + in the different species, the three terminal ones + usually much the largest, the lower ones on opposite + sides of the rather stout leafstalk. Male catkins slender, + cylindrical, pendulous, two to six inches long, three + in a cluster, on a naked peduncle or stalk (Fig. 46) + springing from the base of the terminal buds of the previous + season's twigs, and just below the first set of new + leaves in spring; calyx unequally three-parted; stamens + three to eight. Female flowers two or more in a cluster, + from the end of the new growth of the season, which + becomes the common peduncle or fruit-stalk of a single + nut or cluster of nuts. The flowers are destitute of + petals; stigma short, broad, and four-lobed; husk fleshy + or leathery, smooth, very thick in some species and + thin in others, partly or wholly four-lobed, opening in + some, allowing the nut to drop out at maturity, in others + adhering, falling off entire when ripe. Nuts with hard, + bone-like shell, round or oblong, smooth or deeply four + to six angled, somewhat flattened or compressed in most + of the species; kernel two-lobed, oily, sweet and delicious, + as in the common shellbark hickory, or extremely + bitter, as in the bitter nut.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span></p> +<p><strong>History.</strong>—The early white settlers of the Atlantic + States found the hickory nut in common use among the + Indians, who gathered and stored them in large quantities + in the fall, for food during the winter months, and + while our ancestors who sought to make homes in the + western wilderness may have appreciated these luxuries, + they needed land for cultivation, and to secure it the + forests were destroyed, with no thought of preserving + trees that would yield food for themselves or succeeding + generations. Not only were the forests cleared away, as + things to be banished from sight and mind, but as the + hickories yielded superior timber for various agricultural + and other implements, as well as for fuel, they were + often sought for and utilized in advance of the general + clearing of wood lands, and the first to feel the woodman's + axe.</p> +<p>William Bartram, in the account of his travels + through the Southern Atlantic States, from 1773 to + 1778, and published in Philadelphia in 1791, says, in + referring to these nuts, that they are held "in great + estimation with the present generation of Indians, particularly <i>Juglans exaltata</i>, commonly called shellbarked + hickory; the Creeks store up the latter in their towns. + I have seen above an hundred bushels of these nuts belonging + to one family. They pound them to pieces, and + then cast them into boiling water, which, after passing + through fine strainers, preserves the most oily part of + the liquid; this they call by a name which signifies + 'hickory milk;' it is as sweet and rich as fresh cream, + and is an ingredient in most of their cookery, especially + in hominy and corn cakes."</p> +<p>We can readily imagine what a delicious liquid + hickory milk must be in which to cook hominy, rice, + and similar kinds of grain; and there would be no danger + from tuberculosis in this natural product of the vegetable + kingdom. Perhaps at some future day, when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> milch cows are as rare in this country as they have been + for ages in China and Japan, hickory milk will come + into vogue again and be more highly valued by our people + than it ever was by the aborigines.</p> +<p>While we have no romantic tales to repeat in which + either hickory trees or the nuts have played an important + part, yet we can well imagine that such delicious food + must, in ages past, as well as in our own times, have + been a coveted luxury, enjoyed at many a social gathering + of friends and neighbors. Many a country boy and girl + has welcomed the early autumn frosts, because they announced + the opening of the nutting season, reminding + them of the long winter evenings near at hand, and that + the industrious and nimble squirrel was a sharp competitor + in the nutting field; consequently, no time could + be wasted if a store of such luxuries was to be gathered + for home use, or to be sent to city or village market for + the benefit of less fortunate consumers. It is to be + hoped that this source of pleasure and profit may continue + long after the original forests of our country have + disappeared, and through the preservation and planting + of the noble food-bearing hickories by the roadsides, in + orchards, also for shelter, shade and ornament. Valuable + as hickory timber and hickory nuts have always been + to the inhabitants of this country, we might reasonably + suppose that there would be many thousands of these + trees planted every year, in order to keep up a supply + and make good the annual loss sustained in the destruction + constantly going on in our forests. But no such + plantings appear to have been undertaken in our Northern + States, and only quite recently in the Southern, + where the pecan nut is attracting considerable attention, + on account of the increase in demand, and the advance in + price obtained for them in the markets. Furthermore, + with the many millions of dollars expended by the general + government to encourage the planting, preservation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> and cultivation of forest trees, no special encouragement + has been extended to the nut-bearing kinds, and the + man who plants a cottonwood or worthless willow is + given as much credit as though he planted and reared a + tree a thousand times more valuable to himself and the + country at large.</p> +<p>This may not be a very creditable phase of nut culture + in the United States, but it is history, nevertheless, + and to attempt to suppress it would merely be encouraging + negligence, which has already become so general + that the inferior varieties of hickory nuts command a + much higher price in our markets than the very choicest + did a few years ago.</p> +<p>The nomenclature of the walnut family has been + subjected to various revisions by botanists, during the + present century, and there are probably others yet to + follow in the near or distant future. In all other standard + botanical works published prior to 1817-1818, the + hickories were classed with the butternut, black walnut + and Persian walnut, and under the generic name of <i>Juglans</i>. But in the year 1818 Mr. Thomas Nuttall, an + eminent English botanist, who had given years to wandering + through our forests and studying American + plants, separated the hickories from the older genus of <i>Juglans</i>, placing them in a new one, to which he gave + the name of <i>Carya</i>, from an ancient Greek name of the + walnut tree. This classification of Nuttall's was immediately + adopted by the botanists of his time, and has + been observed, scarcely without question, by the authors + of all the numerous botanical works published in America + and Europe during the past seventy-five years. But + now we are informed by some of our noted botanists + that, in deference to the law of priority dominant in + matters scientific, Nuttall's name for this genus must + be abandoned, inasmuch as Mr. C. S. Rafinesque, + an erratic Frenchman possessing considerable ability<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> for botanical research, and who came to this country + several years before Nuttall,—as some recent investigations + appear to prove,—defined the distinct characteristics + of the hickories, and not only proposed, but published + the name <i>Hicoria</i> for this genus in 1817, while + Nuttall's <i>Carya</i> did not appear until one year later, viz.: + 1818. For these dates I am mainly indebted to Dr. N. + L. Britton, who appears to have been delving among + "first editions" of the works of the authors named + (Bulletin, Torrey Botanical Club, 1888).</p> +<p>It seems strange, however, at this late date, that + such eminent botanists as the late Dr. John Torrey and + Dr. Asa Gray, who were both intimately acquainted + with, in fact associates of, Rafinesque, should have ignored + his rights in regard to the name of <i>Hicoria</i>, if he + was really entitled to the honor of founding this genus + and separating the hickories from the <i>Juglans</i>. But for + some good reason they left the matter in abeyance, for + their successors to settle. Dr. Torrey does, in a way, + recognize Rafinesque, in his "Catalogue of Plants Within + Thirty Miles of the City of New York," published in + 1819, but in a manner which shows that he had no confidence + in Rafinesque's claim, but did approve of Nuttall's + classifications and name of <i>Carya</i>, for on page 74 + he refers to the hickories as follows: "<i>Carya</i>, Nuttall; <i>Hickoria</i>, Rafinesque."</p> +<p>From this it appears that Dr. Torrey did not adopt <i>Hicoria</i> as the proper mode of spelling this word, but + retained the letter k in giving it a Latin form. This is + not strange, inasmuch as Rafinesque had no settled form + of his own, and varied the spelling at different times; + as, for instance, <i>Scoria</i>, <i>Hicoria</i>, <i>Hickorius</i> and <i>Hicorius</i>. + It is but reasonable to suppose that Dr. Torrey + was familiar with Rafinesque's earlier writings, and also + whether his proposed generic name of <i>Scoria</i>, in 1808, + was legitimate, or a misspelling of <i>Hicoria</i>, as suggested<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> by Dr. Britton. But of one thing we may rest assured, + and that is, Dr. Torrey would not knowingly detract + from, nor fail to give every man full credit for his labors + in any branch of natural history or elsewhere, and he + certainly must have known Rafinesque in all his eccentricities + and moods, for when in New York city he was + usually the guest of Dr. Torrey, and these relations continued + for many years.</p> +<p>A few of our leading botanists, having recently decided + that Rafinesque's name of <i>Hicoria</i> must be restored, + in deference to the laws of priority, and Nuttall's <i>Carya</i> be relegated to the position of a synonym, I have + concluded to adopt it in this work, although I am well + aware that a large majority of our botanists have protested + against this change, probably because of the confusion + it is likely to cause in the botanical literature of + our times. My own reason for adopting <i>Hicoria</i> is not + so much from any special reverence to the laws of priority, + but because it is derived from an old American Indian + name, and for all such I have a profound regard, + and would retain and adopt them whenever and wherever + they are at all appropriate to products indigenous + to this country. The hickories being purely American, + and unknown to Greece or Greeks, a semi-native name + is all the more acceptable. It is not to be expected that + botanical quibbles are of any special interest to the practical + nut culturist, for a pecan or a shellbark hickory + will taste just as sweet and command as high a price in + market under one scientific name as another; but the + cultivator may have occasion to look up the botanical + name of his trees in some school botany, or other botanical + work, and fail to find it, in the absence of some guide + to the various changes that have been made in the name + of the genus, as well as in the name of the synonyms of + the different species. Then, again, propagators and + dealers in trees are prone to employ unfamiliar names,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> whether they are old or new, this adding to the confusion, + without benefit to either purchaser or cultivator.</p> +<p>To assist those who may have occasion to consult + these pages for either the common or botanical names of + the different species of the hickory, I shall endeavor to + give the greater part of those compiled by Prof. C. S. + Sargent (Tenth Census), Dr. Britton, and other eminent + authorities whose works I have had occasion to + consult in writing this treatise. It is not certain, however, + that these revisions and readjustments of the scientific + names of this genus of trees will remain undisturbed + for any considerable number of years, for we + have "many men of many minds" at work in the line + of botanical research, and it can scarcely be expected + that all will reach the same conclusion, either in fact or + fancy; besides, it is often difficult, if not wholly impossible, + to determine a species from the description given + by the earlier botanists, for they are generally very brief + and vague, and will often apply equally well to two or + more species of the same genus. In some instances not + a word is given in the way of description, merely a + name, as in "Bartram's Travels" (1791), where he speaks + of <i>Juglans exaltata</i>, a tall-growing hickory found in the + region through which he was traveling, and we now + know that it may have been any one of two or three species + indigenous to the Southern States.</p> +<p>Under such confusing circumstances I shall make + no claim of infallibility in applying names to species, + but attempt no more than my predecessors have in the + same direction, and my contemporaries are now attempting, + i. e., make as close a guess as possible as to the species + or variety of hickory which the earlier authors intended + to name and briefly describe. The date of publication + of some of the earlier works consulted are given, + as an earnest of my desire to assent to the law of priority + in such matters.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a><br /> + <a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig45.jpg" alt="" height="694" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._45" id="FIG._45">FIG. 45</a>. FOURTEEN YEARS OLD PECAN TREE IN MISSISSIPPI.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Pecan nut</span>, <span class="smcap">Illinois nut</span> (<i>Hicoria Pecan.</i> Marshall).—Leaves + with thirteen to fifteen leaflets, oblong-lanceolate, + serrate, pointed; nuts mostly oblong, smooth; + husk thin, somewhat four-angled and four-valved, these + at maturity shrinking, and falling apart when dropping + to the ground. Shell of nut generally thin, smooth or + slightly corrugated, varying widely in both form and + size from less than one inch in length to nearly or quite + two inches, abruptly blunt, or long and sharp pointed; + the two-lobed cotyledon or kernel oily, sweet and delicious. + A large, tall, but usually slender tree, with + smooth or slightly furrowed bark, as seen in Fig. 45. + Mainly indigenous to river bottoms in the Southern and + Southwestern States, extending northward to Indiana, + Illinois, Missouri and Southern Iowa.</p> +<p>Synonyms and their authors:</p> +<blockquote> + <p><i>Juglans Pecan</i>, Marshall, Arboretum Americanum, 1785.<br /> + <i>Juglans Pecan</i>, Walter, 1787.<br /> + <i>Juglans olivæformis</i>, Willdenow, 1809.<br /> + <i>Carya olivæformis</i>, Nuttall, 1818.<br /> + <i>Juglans Illinoiensis</i>, Wangenheim, 1787.<br /> + <i>Juglans angustifolia</i>, Aiton, Hortus Kewensis.<br /> + <i>Juglans rubra</i>, Gærtner.<br /> + <i>Juglans cylindrica</i>, Lamarck.<br /> + </p> +</blockquote> +<p><span class="smcap">Shellbark or shagbark hickory</span> (<i>Hicoria alba</i>. + Clayton).—Leaflets mostly five, occasionally seven, the + three upper ones obovate-lanceolate, the lower pair much + smaller and oblong-lanceolate, as shown in Fig. 46, all + taper-pointed, finely serrate, and slightly downy underneath. + Terminal buds large and scaly. Fruit globose, + somewhat depressed; husk smooth, very thick, firm, + scarcely shrinking at maturity, but opening and falling + with the nuts when ripe. Nuts variable in size, mainly + thin-shelled, white, compressed or flattened, four-angled, + with deep corrugations, blunt, rarely sharp-pointed;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a><br /> + <a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> kernel large, sweet and excellent. One of the most + common and popular of the indigenous edible nuts, collected + in large quantities as they ripen in autumn, for + home use and for sale, as the demand for this excellent + nut is almost unlimited. A large tree, fifty to eighty + feet high, and stem one to three feet in diameter, with + a shaggy or scaly bark, which on old trees may be readily + pulled off in long, shell-like plates. Timber well + known as valuable for many purposes. This species has + a very wide range, of from Maine to Florida in the Eastern + States, and westward to Minnesota, thence southward + through eastern Kansas, Missouri, Indian Territory + and eastern Texas.</p> +<p>Synonyms:</p> +<blockquote> + <p><i>Juglans alba</i>, Clayton, Flora Virginica, 1739.<br /> + <i>Juglans alba ovata</i>, Miller, Gard. Dict., 1754.<br /> + <i>Juglans alba</i>, Linn., Spec. pl., 1754.<br /> + <i>Juglans alba ovata</i>, Marshall, 1785.<br /> + <i>Juglans compressa (?)</i>, Willdenow, 1809.<br /> + <i>Juglans exaltata (?)</i>, Bartram, 1791.<br /> + <i>Juglans alba</i>, Nuttall, 1818.<br /> + <i>Juglans</i> var. <i>microcarpa</i>, Nuttall.<br /> + <i>Juglans squamosa (?)</i>, Lamarck.<br /> + <i>Juglans ovalis (?)</i>, Wangenheim.<br /> + </p> +</blockquote> +<p>Although Clayton, as with most of the earlier botanists, + fails to give any description of the foliage of the + hickories he mentions, and all have the affix <i>alba</i> (white), + yet his reference to the form of the nut and the scaly + bark of the tree is sufficient to enable us to identify the + species as that of our common shellbark hickory of the + Atlantic States, which extends through the regions + where he gathered his botanical specimens.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig46.jpg" alt="" height="661" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._46" id="FIG._46">FIG. 46</a>. LEAF AND STERILE CATKINS OF SHELLBARK HICKORY.</span> </div> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> <img src="images/fig47.jpg" alt="" title="" height="464" width="350" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._47" id="FIG._47">FIG. 47</a>. WESTERN SHELLBARK.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Big shellbark, thick or Western shellbark, + etc.</span> (<i>Hicoria laciniosa.</i> Michaux).—Leaflets seven to + nine, obovate-oblong, finely serrate, roughish-downy or + pubescent beneath. Buds large, composed of rather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> loose grayish scales; the young twigs stout, with a gray + bark, most noticeable in winter. Fruit large, oval to + oblong, usually four-ribbed above the middle, with depressions + between; husk + thick, somewhat spongy, + shrinking at maturity, and + splitting open from top downward. + Nut large, with prominent + ridges, and strongly + pointed, but slightly compressed + at the sides, as seen + in Fig. 47; shell thick and of + a dull yellowish color; kernel + moderately large, as shown + across section of nut in Fig. + 48, but much smaller in proportion + to the size of the nut + than in the two preceding + species, but it is sweet, well flavored, and easily removed + from the shell when cracked. The very large size of + these nuts makes them a favorite, especially where the + pecan and the true shellbarks are + not plentiful. These nuts were + formerly known as the Springfield + or Gloucester nut. A very large + tree, sixty to eighty feet high, and + two to four feet in diameter, with + thick, scaly bark, the scales somewhat + thicker than in the common + shellbark hickory of the Atlantic + States. A rare tree, except in the + valleys west of the Alleghanies, + although it is reported to have + been found in Chester county, Pennsylvania, and thence + west to southern Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, eastern + Kansas, and the Indian Territory. Plentiful in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> bottom lands along the Ohio, Mississippi and lower Missouri. + Elliott, in "Botany of South Carolina and + Georgia" (1824), says it is rare in the low country + of Carolina, but he does not say that it is found plentiful + anywhere in the South. That he was sometimes in + doubt in regard to the identification of this and other + species may be inferred from his remark, namely: "The + greater part of our hickories resemble each other so + closely in their leaves and vary so much in their fruit + that it is very difficult to discriminate the species."</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig48.jpg" alt="" title="" height="263" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._48" id="FIG._48">FIG. 48</a>. SECTION WESTERN SHELLBARK.</span> </div> +<p>It is this difficulty of identification which has led to + so much confusion in the application of the specific + names, for the earlier botanists rarely had an opportunity + of a close and careful examination of the trees or + other plants which they attempted to describe. In relation + to the species under consideration, we find that the + specific name of <i>sulcata</i>, so long in use, was adopted by + Nuttall, from some earlier or contemporaneous author,—a + system he followed with all the different species of + the hickory, but without, in some instances, any discrimination + or regard to their adaptation or validity. + If there was anything to show that Willdenow (1796) + had this Western shellbark in mind, or that he or his + correspondents in this country had ever seen or collected + it, then we might adopt the name of <i>sulcata</i> as the original + and true one; but in the absence of such information, + with a full and accurate description of the species + and its habitats by Michaux, under the name of <i>laciniosa</i>, + I think, in common justice to one of the most eminent + dendrologists who ever visited this country, the name + given should stand as the true one for this species. See + Michaux, "North American Sylva," Vol. I, p. 128.</p> +<p>Synonyms:</p> +<blockquote> + <p><i>Juglans sulcata (?)</i>, Willdenow, 1796.<br /> + <i>Juglans laciniosa</i>, Michaux, 1810.<br /> + <i>Carya sulcata</i>, Nuttall, 1818.<br /> + <i>Carya cordiformis</i>, Koch, Dendrologie.<br /> + </p> +</blockquote> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p> +<p>The three preceding species are probably the only + ones worthy of propagation for their fruit, or that have + and are likely to yield varieties of any considerable economic + value; but as it is important that the nut culturist + should know the materials he is using, and whether + they be of the best or otherwise, I shall admit all the + species, without regard to their merits or value for + cultivation.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Mocker nut, bull nut, big-bud hickory, king + nut, white-heart hickory, etc.</span> (<i>Hicoria tomentosa.</i> Michaux).—Leaflets mostly seven, occasionally nine, + large, oblong-obovate, rather long pointed, slightly serrate, + smooth on both sides while young, becoming roughish + downy underneath when fully developed in summer; + leaf-stalks and catkins also somewhat downy. Fruit + medium to very large, round or ovoid, with a very thick + woody husk, which splits nearly or quite down to the + base, but usually falling with the enclosed nut entire, or + bursting open as they strike the ground. Nut very + thick shelled, smooth, or strongly four to six angled, + white at first, but becoming a dull brown when exposed + to the light. The kernel is sweet, but so small and + firmly imbedded in the thick shell that it is only to be + removed in minute sections, but this is successfully accomplished + by the squirrels, who often throw down the + entire crop from large trees before the shells harden, + and then pack them away in the ground, in old logs, + and under the leaves, where they will not dry for some + weeks or months later. An exceedingly variable species, + especially in the size and form of the nuts; on some + trees they are scarcely an inch in diameter, while on + others they are nearly or quite two inches, but always + with such a thick, hard shell as to be nearly worthless + for their meats. The largest of these nuts I have ever + seen grow in central and western New York, where + they are called "King" or "Bull" nuts.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig49.jpg" alt="" height="680" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._49" id="FIG._49">FIG. 49</a>. LEAF OF PIGNUT.</span> </div> +<p>The trees grow to a very large size, or from sixty to + eighty feet high, and two to three feet in diameter, with + a thick, deeply furrowed bark, not scaly. The wood is + white, heavy, tough, and nearly as valuable as the common + shellbark hickory. The terminal buds, and especially + those on the young seedlings and suckers springing + up in clearings, are very large, round, short, and + covered with brownish scales, hence one of the local + names of big-bud hickory.</p> +<p>A widely distributed species, or from the valley of + the St. Lawrence to Florida, and along the great lakes + to Nebraska, and thence southward to Texas. Unlike + most of the other hickories, this species seems to prefer + thin soils, rocky sandstone ridges, and here in New Jersey + almost disappearing in the rich bottom lands along + our creeks and rivers; at least, this is its habit here in + the northern part of the State.</p> +<p>Synonyms:</p> +<blockquote> + <p><i>Juglans alba (?)</i>, Linn., 1754.<br /> + <i>Juglans tomentosa</i>, Michaux, 1810.<br /> + <i>Carya tomentosa</i>, Nuttall, 1818.<br /> + <i>Carya tomentosa</i> var. <i>maxima</i>, Nuttall.<br /> + <i>Carya alba</i>, Koch, Dendrologie.<br /> + </p> +</blockquote> +<p><span class="smcap">Pignut, hognut, brown hickory, black hickory, + switch-bud hickory</span> (<i>Hicoria glabra.</i> Miller).—Leaflets + five to seven, mostly seven (Fig. 49), + ovate-lanceolate, serrate, smooth; fruit pear-shaped or + roundish-obovate; husk very thin, splitting about half + way down into four sections or valves, these usually remaining + attached to the nut for some time after falling, + in fact, may often be found within the husk all through + the winter; shell of nut moderately thin but tough, + with a small, bitterish-sweet kernel. A large, rather + slender tree in similar and same localities as the last, + with a close bark but not so deeply furrowed as in the + mocker nut (<i>H. tomentosa</i>). Of no special value except<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a><br /> + <a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> as a timber tree, and its slow growth makes it less deserving + of attention than those species that bear large + and edible nuts.</p> +<p>Synonyms:</p> +<blockquote> + <p><i>Juglans glabra</i>, Miller, 1768.<br /> + <i>Juglans alba acuminata</i>, Marshall, 1785.<br /> + <i>Juglans obcordata</i>, Lamarck.<br /> + <i>Juglans porcina</i>, Michaux.<br /> + <i>Juglans pyriformis</i>, Muhlenberg.<br /> + <i>Juglans porcina</i>, var. <i>obcordata</i>, Pursh.<br /> + <i>Juglans porcina</i>, var. <i>pyriformis</i>, Pursh.<br /> + <i>Carya porcina</i>, Nuttall.<br /> + <i>Carya glabra</i>, Torrey.<br /> + <i>Carya amara</i>, var. <i>porcina</i>, Darby.<br /> + </p> +</blockquote> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 298px;"> <img src="images/fig50.jpg" alt="" height="600" width="298" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._50" id="FIG._50">FIG. 50</a>. BITTERNUT.</span> </div> +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> <img src="images/fig51.jpg" alt="" title="" height="196" width="150" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._51" id="FIG._51">FIG. 51</a>. BITTERNUT.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Bitternut, swamp hickory, pignut</span> (<i>Hicoria + minima.</i> Marshall).—Leaflets seven to eleven, oblong-lanceolate, + serrate, smooth and thin; fruit globular, + with distinct ridges at the seams (Fig. + 50); the husk very thin, and at maturity + splitting about halfway to the + base, the four divisions becoming reflexed + in maturing, but not separating and + falling apart as in the thicker-husk species. + Nut broadest at the top, sharp-pointed, + obcordata (Fig. 51), slightly + depressed; shell very thin, smooth, white; kernel intensely + bitter when fully ripe, but greedily eaten by + squirrels when fresh or in a half milky state. Usually a + medium-sized, graceful tree, with smooth bark, slender + twigs, and small, oblong buds covered with a dense yellow + pubescence in winter. It grows in moist soils, along + streams and borders of swamps, and near springs on + hill-sides, from Maine to Florida, and westward to Minnesota, + Nebraska and Kansas. Humphrey Marshall described + this species so accurately in his "American + Grove," under the name of <i>Juglans minima</i>, p. 68, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> there is no good reason to doubt its identity, nor question + the validity of this name, which should remain as the + true and original one, and all others of later date be + placed among the synonyms.</p> +<p> </p> +<p>Synonyms:</p> +<blockquote> + <p><i>Juglans</i> (<i>alba</i>) <i>minima</i>, Marshall, 1785.<br /> + <i>Juglans cordiformis</i>, Wangenheim, 1787.<br /> + <i>Juglans angustifolia</i>, Lamarck, 1791.<br /> + <i>Juglans amara</i>, Michaux, 1810.<br /> + <i>Hickorius amarus</i>, Rafinesque, 1817.<br /> + <i>Carya amara</i>, Nuttall, 1818.<br /> + </p> +</blockquote> +<p><span class="smcap">Nutmeg hickory</span> (<i>Hicoria myristicæformis.</i> Michaux).—Leaflets + five to seven, ovate-lanceolate, pointed, + quite smooth on both sides, the terminal leaflet sessile, + not stalked; fruit oval; husk wrinkled and rough, + thick; nut small, oval, short-pointed; the shell furrowed + and very hard, and of a brownish color marked with + white lines. Michaux says: "The shell is so thick that + it constitutes two-thirds of the volume of the nut, which, + consequently, is extremely hard, and has a minute kernel. + It is inferior to the pignut."</p> +<p>A medium-size tree with slender branches, found in + a few localities in South Carolina, near swamps and borders + of streams, and westward to Arkansas, where it + reaches its greatest development. This hickory has + been so rarely seen by botanists that Michaux's specific + name, given it more than eighty years ago, has fared a + better fate than those of our more common and abundant + species; consequently, I have only one synonym to record, + viz.: <i>Carya amara</i>, var. <i>myristicæformis</i>, Cooper, + in Smithsonian Report, 1858.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"> <img src="images/fig52.jpg" alt="" title="" height="267" width="150" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._52" id="FIG._52">FIG. 52</a>. LARGE, LONG PECAN NUT.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Water hickory, swamp hickory, bitter pecan</span> (<i>Hicoria aquatica.</i> Michaux).—Leaflets nine to + thirteen, generally eleven, narrow and obliquely lanceolate-pointed, + slightly serrate, thin and smooth; fruit + globular or somewhat egg-shaped, four-ribbed; husk<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> thin, dividing at maturity down to the base; nut thin-shelled, + four-angled; kernel much wrinkled and very + bitter. This is closely allied to if not a more Southern + form of our common bitternut. A small tree in swamps + and river bottoms from North Carolina south to Florida, + and west to Texas.</p><div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> <img src="images/fig53.jpg" alt="" title="" height="236" width="150" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._53" id="FIG._53">FIG. 53</a>. OVAL PECAN NUT.</span> </div> +<p>Synonyms:</p> +<blockquote> + <p><i>Juglans aquatica</i>, Michaux.<br /> + <i>Hicorius integrifolia</i>, Rafinesque.<br /> + <i>Carya aquatica</i>, Nuttall.<br /> + <i>Carya integrifolia</i>, Sprengel.<br /> + </p> +</blockquote> + + +<p><strong>Varieties of the Hickories.</strong>—Every one who + has ever had occasion to gather or examine hickory nuts + in the forest, or has seen them in market, must be aware + of the fact that there is an almost endless variety of each + and all the different species. But as it + is only the varieties of the pecan and + thick- and thin-shelled shagbark hickories + that are likely to be of any economic + value to the nut culturist, + all others will be omitted. + Of the first or pecan + nut the natural varieties + are not only exceedingly + numerous, but vary widely + in size, form, thickness + of shell, and productiveness + of the individual + trees. In some the nuts + are produced singly or in pairs, and from this number + up to clusters of seven or eight; these large-clustered + and extra-prolific varieties are most worthy of special + attention, especially when the nuts are of good size and + thin-shelled, as in the large, long pecan (Fig. 52). From + this size they vary, as shown in Figs. 53, 54, 55. Some + of the wild varieties have received local names, and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> very few propagated by grafting, which is probably the + most practical means known of multiplying them, and + at the same time preserving their varietal characteristics. + Choice and extra fine ones are constantly being discovered + and brought to notice, and doubtless many more + will follow as the old fields and + forests of the South and West are + explored; besides, there are many + thousands of seedling trees now + under cultivation, and from these + we may expect some marked variations + from the original or wild + forms. In Bulletin 105, of the + North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station for + 1894, and in Report of Assistant Pomologist of U. S. + Department of Agriculture for same year, we find the + following-named varieties of pecans:</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> <img src="images/fig54.jpg" alt="" title="" height="218" width="150" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._54" id="FIG._54">FIG. 54</a>. SMALL OVAL.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Alba.</span>—Size below medium, cylindrical, with + pointed apex; cracking qualities good; shell of medium + thickness; corky shell lining thick, adhering to the kernel; + kernel plump, light colored; quality good.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Biloxi</span> (W. R. Stuart, Ocean Springs, Miss.).—Medium + size, cylindrical, pointed at each end; surface + quite regular, light brown; shell thin; cracking qualities + medium; kernel plump, with yellowish-brown surface; + free from astringency, of good quality, and keeps + well without becoming rancid. Introduced several years + ago by W. R. Stuart as Mexican Paper Shell, but the + name has since been changed to Biloxi.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Columbian</span> (W. R. Stuart, Ocean Springs, Miss.).—Large, + cylindrical, somewhat compressed at the middle, + rounding at the base; pointed and somewhat four-sided + at the crown; shell rather heavy; cracking qualities + medium; quality good. In size and form this nut + closely resembles Mammoth, which was introduced in + 1890 by Richard Frotscher, of New Orleans, La.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap">Early Texan</span> (Louis Biediger, Idlewild, Tex.).—Size + above medium, short, cylindrical, with rounded + base and blunt conical crown; shell quite thick, shell + lining thick, astringent; cracking qualities medium; + kernel not very plump, of mild, nutty flavor; quality + good.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Georgia Melon.</span>—Size above medium, short, + rather blunt at apex; cracking quality medium; shell + rather thick; kernel plump, brown; meat yellow, moderately + tender, pleasant, good.</p> + <div class="figright" style="width: 130px;"> <img src="images/fig55.jpg" alt="" title="" height="200" width="130" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._55" id="FIG._55">FIG. 55</a>. LITTLE MOBILE.</span> </div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gonzales</span> (T. V. Munson, Denison, Tex.).—Above + medium size, with firm, clear shell; quality excellent. + Originated in Gonzales county, Tex.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Harcourt.</span>—Size medium, short, slightly acorn-shaped; + cracking qualities medium; shell rather thick, + but very smooth inside; kernel short, very plump; meat + yellow, very tender, rich, very good.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Longfellow.</span>—Size medium, oblong, cylindrical, + somewhat irregular, enlarging from base to near crown, + then sharply conical to the apex; cracking qualities not + first-class; shell of medium thickness; kernel plump + but rather thin, light-colored; meat white, sweetish, + rich, good.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Primate</span> (W. R. Stuart, Ocean Springs, Miss.)—Of + medium size, slender, rather long; shell thin; quality + good; ripens in September, thirty days before other + nuts.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Ribera.</span>—Size above medium, oblong ovate; cracking + qualities good; shell thin; kernel plump, light + brown, free from the bitter, red, corky growth which + adheres to the shell; meat yellow, tender, with rich, + delicate, pleasant flavor.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Faust.</span>—A South Carolina variety of medium to + large size, medium shell and good quality.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Frotscher.</span>—A Louisiana variety of large size, very + thin shell, and plump kernel of good quality.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap">Jewett.</span>—From Mississippi; a large, long nut, + rather irregular; shell medium; quality very good.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig56.jpg" alt="" title="" height="333" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._56" id="FIG._56">FIG. 56</a>. STUART.</span> </div> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig57.jpg" alt="" title="" height="379" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._57" id="FIG._57">FIG. 57</a>. VAN DEMAN.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Stuart.</span>—A large, roundish, oblong nut from Mississippi + (Fig. 56).</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Turkey Egg.</span>—A + variety from Florida; + large and thin-shelled.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Van Deman.</span>—A + large variety from Mississippi, + of oblong form + and thin shell (Fig. 57).</p> +<p>From other sources + we collect other names, + namely:</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Idlewild.</span>—An oval + shaped nut from Idlewild, + Texas. Report of + U. S. Department of + Agriculture, 1890.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Risien.</span>—A very broad, thick variety, about one + inch in diameter, very blunt at both ends. From San + Saba, Texas (Fig. 58).</p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig58.jpg" alt="" title="" height="324" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._58" id="FIG._58">FIG. 58</a>. RISIEN.</span> </div> +<p>A peculiar shaped + pecan nut is shown in + Fig. 59, from Louisiana, + sent under the name of + Lady Finger.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig59.jpg" alt="" title="" height="374" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._59" id="FIG._59">FIG. 59</a>. LADY FINGER.</span> </div> +<p>From the report of + the Georgia State Horticultural + Society, 1893, we + obtain certain local names + without description, as, + for instance, Turkey Egg, + Mexican, Colorado, Pride + of the Coast, etc. Col. W. R. Stuart, of Ocean Springs, + Miss., who has been called the "father of pecan culture"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> in that State, and is the author of "The Pecan and + How to Grow it," adds two more varieties to the above + list, viz.: Beauty and Columbia; the latter, as figured + in the book named, is a very large variety, tapering + from a broad base to a sharp point. Judge Samuel Miller, + of Bluffton, Mo., found some very large and fine + varieties of the pecan in his neighborhood several years + ago, on the farm of a man named Meyers, and he purchased + the nuts from the tree bearing the largest in + the grove and planted them, and the seedlings have + since been distributed under the name of "Meyers' + Pecan."</p> +<p>Judge Miller kindly sent me a quantity of these + nuts, from which I raised some fifty or more trees, and + all have thus far been uninjured by the cold of our severest + winters. From my own experience in raising pecan + trees, and I may add, that of some of my neighbors, + those grown from nuts gathered in the more Southern + States are almost invariably tender here in the North; + but those raised from thoroughly acclimated trees, along + the northern limits of this species, will give us a hardy + race, and probably allow of extending their cultivation + far north of their natural range. Those who intend to + try pecan culture in the Northern States should bear + this in mind, and secure nuts and cions from hardy acclimated + trees.</p> +<p><strong>Varieties of the Shellbark.</strong>—Of this species + (<i>H. alba</i>) there are as many distinct natural varieties as + of the pecan, and while local or neighborhood names are + plentiful enough, they have not, except in a very few + instances, been placed on record in agricultural reports + or other publications. Three small thin-shelled varieties + are named in the Report of the Pomologist of the U. S. + Department of Agriculture for 1891, viz.: Milford, + Shimar and Leaming, but neither has been propagated, + and they are probably not worthy of it, because there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a><br /> + <a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> are plenty of larger ones with thin shells which would + be far more valuable for cultivation.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 392px;"> <img src="images/fig60.jpg" alt="" height="600" width="392" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._60" id="FIG._60">FIG. 60</a>. THE ORIGINAL HALES' PAPER-SHELL HICKORY TREE.</span> </div> +<p>A careful research extending over a period of a + quarter of a century yields only a solitary instance of + the propagation and dissemination of a variety of the + shellbark hickory, and this one is Hales' Paper-shell, + which I named, described and figured in the <i>Rural New-Yorker</i>, + Nov. 19, 1870, p. 382, Vol. XXII. I am thus + particular in regard to time and place, because years + hence these facts may be of more importance than at + the present day.</p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> <img src="images/fig61.jpg" alt="" title="" height="308" width="250" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._61" id="FIG._61">FIG. 61</a>. HALES' HICKORY.</span> </div> +<div class="figright" style="width: 220px;"> <img src="images/fig62.jpg" alt="" title="" height="328" width="220" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._62" id="FIG._62">FIG. 62</a>. SECTION OF HALES' HICKORY.</span> </div> +<p>The original tree of this remarkable variety is growing + upon the farm of Mr. Henry Hales, near Ridgewood, + N. J., and on bottom land within a few rods of the + Saddle river. The tree is probably more than a hundred + years old, and is about seventy-five feet high, and + nearly two feet in diameter at the base, and of the shape + shown in Fig. 60, taken from a sketch made in the fall + of 1894. There + are a large number + of the shellbark + hickories growing + near by, and while + there are several + excellent and very + large varieties + among them, the + one I have named + is by far the largest and most distinct in form, and with + the thinnest shell; in fact, the shell is much thinner + than in many of the pecan nuts that reach our Northern + markets from the South. The size and form of these + nuts is clearly shown in Fig. 61, while the thin shell and + thick, plump kernel is seen in the cross-section, Fig. 62. + It will be noticed that these nuts differ from the ordinary + varieties of this species in the absence of the sharp<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> ridges and depressions running from base to point, the + surface of the shell being broken up into irregular, wavy + lines, somewhat resembling the shell of the more common + varieties of the Persian walnuts. I have occasionally + seen very similar varieties,—but + of smaller size,—among the mixed lots + of hickory nuts on sale in our city + markets, also oblong nuts, as shown + in Fig. 63, but of course there is no + way of tracing these to the trees producing + them.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 230px;"> <img src="images/fig63.jpg" alt="" height="368" width="230" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._63" id="FIG._63">FIG. 63</a>. LONG SHELLBARK HICKORY.</span> </div> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 260px;"> <img src="images/fig64.jpg" alt="" height="345" width="260" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._64" id="FIG._64">FIG. 64</a>. SHELLBARK MISSOURI.</span> </div> +<p>Another merit, in addition to the + large size and thin shell of the Hales' + Paper-shell, is its keeping qualities, + the kernels rarely becoming rancid, + even when two or more years old, and + from a long acquaintance with this + nut and hundreds of other varieties gathered from all + parts of the United States, I am inclined to place it at + the head of the list, and as the most valuable sort as yet + discovered. It is true, however, + that I have found in the forests, + and also received, many very large + and superior nuts of this species, + that are well worthy of propagation + and cultivation, but they have + been, in the main, of the typical + form, and not of so distinct a type + as this Paper-shell. Judge Miller + sent me a few nuts of a shellbark + found in Missouri, that were even + larger, and with fully as thin shell + as that of the Hales' (Fig. 64), but upon making + further inquiries in regard to the tree that produced + them, I learned that an incoming railroad line had + destroyed it, and thus one more tree of inestimable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> value had been sacrificed in the march of this progressive + age.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig65.jpg" alt="" title="" height="440" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._65" id="FIG._65">FIG. 65</a>. LONG WESTERN SHELLBARK.</span> </div> +<p><strong>Varieties of the Western Shellbark.</strong>—The + typical form of the thick or Western shellbark (<i>H. laciniosa</i>) + has already been shown on a preceding page, + but some remarkable and valuable varieties have been + found in the Western States, and no doubt others will + be, when more attention is paid than at present to the + natural food products of our forests. The tendency of + this species, in its variations, is usually in the direction + of an elongation of the nuts, + even when there is no decrease + in the thickness of the shell, + as shown in Fig. 65, taken + from one of a number of long + varieties collected in the Western + States; and while they do + not possess any special merit, + they attract attention, owing + to their unusual form.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig66.jpg" alt="" height="832" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._66" id="FIG._66">FIG. 66</a>. FRESH NUSSBAUMER HYBRID.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Nussbaumer's Hybrid.</span>—Several + years ago I received + a specimen of a very remarkable + nut from Judge Samuel + Miller, of Bluffton, Mo., under + the name of "Nussbaumer's + Hybrid Pecan." Judge Miller informed me that he + had received it from Mr. J. J. Nussbaumer, Mascoutah, + St. Clair Co., Ill., who claimed that it was a hybrid + between the pecan and the large western shellbark hickory + (<i>H. laciniosa</i>). I had an illustration made of this + specimen, and it appeared, with a brief description, in + the <i>American Agriculturist</i> for Dec., 1884, p. 546. + Soon after receiving the specimen nut from Judge Miller + I opened correspondence with Mr. Nussbaumer, and + learned from him that only one tree bearing such nuts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a><br /> + <a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> had ever been found, and this was of large size, six and + a half feet in circumference, and about fifty feet high, + the bark somewhat like that of the hickory but nearer + the pecan. Mr. Nussbaumer sent me specimens of the + green nuts with leaves and twigs, from the original tree. + The nuts, however, of that season (1884), were badly + infested with the "hickory-shuck worm" (<i>Grapholitha + caryana</i>, Fitch), and these had so ruined the shucks, + and even eaten into the shells of the nuts, that few of + the specimens received were fully developed. But from + two nuts I had a sketch made while they were fresh and + of natural size, as shown in Fig. + 66, the dark, irregular marks on + the husks showing where the + shuck worm had attacked them. + One of these nuts is shown in Fig. + 67, also natural size. I planted + one of the nuts, from which I now + have a tree about ten feet high, + but although ten years old it has + not fruited, and, so far as I can + judge from its appearance, is a + pure Western shellbark, with no + indication of hybridity; but of + course this does not prove that + the original or parent tree is not + a hybrid, as claimed by Mr. Nussbaumer, Judge Miller, + and, if I am rightly informed, Prof. T. J. Burrill, of + the University of Illinois.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 260px;"> <img src="images/fig67.jpg" alt="" title="" height="411" width="260" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._67" id="FIG._67">FIG. 67</a>. NUSSBAUMER'S HYBRID.</span> </div> +<p>However widely opinions may differ in regard to + the origin of this variety, it is certainly a most remarkable + nut, and I regret that the exact location of the + original tree has entirely escaped my most careful seeking; + and of late years I have been unable to learn anything + of Mr. Nussbaumer, further than that he had + moved from Mascoutah to Okawville, Ill., the last letter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> received from him being dated Dec. 13, 1887. In one + of his letters he said that he had raised a large number + of seedlings from this supposed hybrid, and if these are + still alive they would be of much scientific interest, especially + if any of them showed the distinct characteristics + of either of the supposed parents.</p> +<p>It would certainly be a pity to have such a remarkable + nut lost to the world, because if propagated by + grafting or by any other mode to insure perpetuating its + varietal characteristics, its value could scarcely be estimated. + The nuts are as thin-shelled as the common + pecan, the kernel sweet and good, and in addition, the + tree is a native of a northern State, and would, no + doubt, prove as hardy as our common shellbark hickories.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">The Floyd pecan.</span>—This is another supposed-to-be + hybrid, and of the same species of hickory as the + last; but the one nut which I received differed from + the Nussbaumer by being somewhat larger, and the shell + with more prominent ridges and a little thicker. It + was said to have been found somewhere in southern Indiana + by a Mr. Floyd, who, believing it to be of great + value, refused to give any information likely to aid any + one else to locate the original tree, neither would he + part with any of the nuts except the one specimen which + eventually came into my hands. Of course all horticulturists + know that seedlings raised from such freaks + among nut trees are far too uncertain to be of much + value, but ignorance in such matters often leads the + possessor of an article slightly differing from the ordinary + to permit his imagination to warp his good sense.</p> +<p><strong>Cultivation of the Hickories.</strong>—The hickories + have been so seldom planted in our Northern States for + any purpose, that anything like a systematic cultivation + of these trees is a thing almost unknown. Of course + there is no good reason why the hickories should not be + multiplied and cultivated as well as other kinds of trees,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> but in some unknown way the idea became prevalent + that these trees could not be transplanted with any assurance + of success, and this has been kept alive, either + through ignorance or by those whose interest led them + to encourage the planting of the rapid-growing and + easily propagated kinds, instead of those which, though + less profitable to the producer, would be of far greater + value to the purchaser. It must be admitted, however, + that the hickories are not so tenacious of life as the + willows, poplars, elms and similar kinds of trees, requiring + more care in their cultivation if they are to be transplanted + when of a proper size for setting along roadsides + or elsewhere, for shade and ornament, but they are certainly + no more difficult to make live than the beech, oak, + tulip and various species of the magnolia.</p> +<p>The slow growth of the hickories while young is + another objection often urged as a fault of these trees, + but there is nothing lost but time in waiting, and this + passes just as swiftly whether we plant trees that may in + ten years yield a golden harvest, or nothing but leaves; + besides, the hickories respond as readily to stimulants + and good care generally as the common fruit trees of our + orchards. While the farmers of our Northern States + are generally quite indifferent as to what becomes of + their old hickory trees, and seldom attempt to preserve + the wild seedlings that spring up in the fields and on + the borders of forests, their fellow countrymen of the + Southern States have, within the past two or three + decades, discovered that they possess an inexhaustible + source of wealth in their common pecan nut. Formerly + these trees were sacrificed whenever a choice piece of + tough timber was wanted, and often merely to secure + the entire crop of nuts without waiting for nature to + drop them within reach; but the advent of many lines + of railroads, steamboats, and other means of communication + with the great cities and their markets, has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> changed this inclination to destroy into one of preservation. + The old pecan trees are not only appreciated as a + source of income, but thousands and tens of thousands + of seedlings are now annually raised and planted, to + insure larger returns in the near or distant future. In + fact, pecan culture has already become an important + industry in several of the Southern States, although in + point of age it is little more than a fledgling. We have + no statistics to show what the annual crop averages in + pounds or bushels, but it must be something enormous + if we make our estimate from the quantities received + and distributed in the Northern States. But with all + the efforts put forth to secure a supply of these nuts, + and the high prices they command at both wholesale + and retail, the demand seems to keep well in advance of + the supply, and this will, in all probability, continue as + our population increases. In the way of demand, the + same is true with our northern species of the shellbark + hickories, which were formerly very abundant, but of + late years have become rather scarce, for reasons too + obvious to call for any explanation at this time.</p> +<p>In selecting a location for planting and cultivating + the hickories, including the pecan, a moist, deep soil is + certainly preferable to any other, especially for the three + species and their varieties most promising for this purpose, + because we find them growing wild in such situations + and soils. But while these naturally deep, rich + and moist soils are to be preferred, no one need hesitate + to plant hickories on light, dry, and even poor soils, if + they are properly enriched, or a few shovelfuls of fine + old stable manure is thoroughly mixed with the earth in + which the roots are set, and then a mulch applied to + the surface to keep the soil moist. Almost any old + waste fibrous material, such as leaves, straw, hay, weeds + or coarse manure, will answer for mulching newly planted + trees, and it should be applied to a depth of three or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> four inches, and renewed annually, or as often as necessary + to prevent the growth of grass or weeds growing + within three or four feet of the stem of the tree. In all + dry climates and soils mulching should be considered an + important operation, not to be omitted until the trees + are from six to ten years old, and it may usually be continued + a longer time with benefit.</p> +<p><strong>Propagation.</strong>—All the species of the hickory are + very readily grown from nuts gathered when ripe and + planted within a few weeks; or they may be mixed with + or stratified between layers of sand and light soil and + buried in the open ground for the winter, and the planting + deferred until the following spring. They are not + at all delicate and will withstand considerable drying + and neglect, and will grow, if stored in a cool cellar, + without being packed in either soil, sand or other material. + But as I have had no occasion to determine how + much neglect these nuts will withstand, nor to what + extremes of adverse conditions it is safe to subject them, + I shall leave investigation in this direction to others, + because in general practice no valuable seed or plant + grows any too readily and freely to satisfy the cultivator, + and for this reason I recommend either planting hickory + nuts in the fall, or burying them between layers of light + soil or sand, sifting out and planting early the following + spring. If any considerable quantity is to be + planted they should be dropped three or four inches + apart in shallow trenches and covered about two inches + deep. The distance between the rows may be from two + to three feet, depending upon the implements to be used + in their cultivation.</p> +<p>The soil for a seedbed should, of course, be made + rich and deep, or the same as recommended for chestnuts, + and all the means usually employed to assist the + growth of cultivated plants are applicable to nut trees. + I may also add that cutworms, white grubs and other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> noxious insects are enemies of nut-tree seedlings as well + as garden vegetables. The seedling hickories should + be treated as advised for chestnuts; that is, dug up + when one or, at the latest, two years old, and their + central or taproot shortened to at least one-half their + original length, and then reset in nursery rows, and at + a distance of twelve to fifteen inches apart in the row. + If grown in ordinary upland, the transplanted seedlings + will make a better growth if heavily mulched than under + the usual system of clean cultivation, and it is usually + less expensive; besides, by keeping the surface of + the soil cool and moist, we encourage and assist the production + of fibrous lateral roots, which, as a rule, are + none too abundant on seedling hickories, no matter + under what conditions or system of cultivation they + are raised.</p> +<p>When the seedlings have grown in the nursery rows + two or three years, they will probably be large enough + for planting where they are to remain permanently; but + if, for any reason, they are not disposed of, then they + should be again transplanted,—the larger roots shortened,—and + re-set in good rich soil. The object of transplanting + is to insure the production of small fibrous + roots, and a frequent renewal of the same, close to the + main stem or stock, as long as the trees remain in the + nursery, whether this be two or twenty years. This + is somewhat of an expensive operation, but the value of + stock thus handled is enhanced far more than the cost + of such transplanting, and purchasers are, or at least + should be, willing to pay a fair price for such trees.</p> +<p>It is the natural habit of the hickories, as well as + many other kinds of deciduous trees, to produce in their + earlier stages of growth rather large, deeply penetrating, + naked roots, with few small fibers, and in this condition + they are not so readily and successfully transplanted as + the kinds possessing a more ramified root system. This,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> perhaps, has misled many persons to believe that certain + kinds of trees, like the hickories, could not be moved at + all, or at least not with any assurance of being made to + live. This idea has become so prevalent among inexperienced + cultivators, and, I regret to add, often reiterated + by theorists, that it has discouraged many who + otherwise would have raised and planted nut trees in + preference to other kinds.</p> +<p>Admitting that it is the general habit of most kinds + of forest trees to produce deeply penetrating taproots, + when grown from seed, it proves nothing more than + that these parts may be of some importance to the plants + while they are young, and under natural conditions, yet + they are not absolutely necessary, and, at most, are only + temporary organs, like the tails of tadpoles, always disappearing + with maturity.</p> +<p>Any one at all observing, and having had an opportunity + of examining limited or extended areas of forest + trees thrown over by hurricanes, must have noticed that + no tree of any considerable size and age possessed a taproot, + but had been for years kept in its upright position + by lateral brace-roots, and through these it had also + obtained nutriment from the surface soil. Some of my + correspondents in the South have expressed their surprise + at not finding any trace of the original central + roots on old pecan trees, when blown over by severe + wind storms. But it is the same everywhere with forest + trees and where the soil is naturally loose and moist: + the principal or supporting roots spread out widely and + remain near the surface, and the central roots or taproots + disappear much earlier than in dry soils.</p> +<p>In multiplying trees under artificial conditions, we + remove the taproots, not only for convenience in transplanting, + but also to hasten and increase the production + of surface lateral roots, and more than this, we lessen + the years of luxuriant sterility, securing earlier fruiting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> by such operations as root pruning and frequent + transplanting.</p> +<p><strong>Budding and Grafting.</strong>—I have never known of + an instance of successful budding of the hickory, at least + in the ordinary way during the summer months. What + is called "annular budding" in early spring with buds + of the previous season, is said to have been successfully + practiced with the pecan at the South, but this mode of + propagation is more of the nature of grafting than of + what is usually understood as budding. But I have + been unable to obtain any statistics in regard to the proportion + of buds that any propagator or experimenter has + made live by this or other modes of propagation. Col. + Stuart says, in "The Pecan," p. 45, "There is a method + known as 'annular budding,' which proves quite successful." + He then proceeds to describe the operation, + as given in all works on the propagation of trees and + plants during the past hundred years or more, but not a + word to indicate what he considers a "success,"—whether + it be once or fifty times in a hundred, or if he + ever succeeded in making an annular bud unite to the + stock; I am more inclined to think that he never did, + than otherwise.</p> +<p>In Bulletin No. 105, "Nut Culture for North Carolina," + issued from the N. C. State Experiment Station, + 1894, Mr. W. A. Taylor, Assistant Pomologist U. S. + Department of Agriculture, in referring to budding and + grafting of these trees, says: "These latter operations + are less successful with the pecan than most fruit trees, + though they are by no means impossible to accomplish. + On seedlings one or two years old annular budding in + early summer succeeds best." But here again we are + left in doubt in regard to what the writer considers "a + success." Then, again, the line between the "possible" + and "impossible," in horticultural matters, is a rather + difficult one to determine, and Mr. Taylor fails to cite a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> single instance in which either annular or any other + form of either budding or grafting had been successfully + practiced. The Bulletins issued from the Division of + Pomology of the Department of Agriculture, give us no + information whatever on this subject of propagation of + the hickories, further than to repeat the old formulas of + annular, splice and cleft grafting; but as to results they + have always been provokingly silent.</p> +<p>Having been repeatedly assured, by men who presumed + to know, that the pecan tree was successfully + propagated in the South by grafting, and many thousands + annually raised in this way, it seems strange that + such plants are so rarely offered by nurserymen. Seedlings + of choice varieties are, of course, abundant enough, + but a man might, with as much propriety, offer seedling + Bartlett pears or Baldwin apples, as pecan trees, expecting + to perpetuate varieties. In corresponding with Mr. + P. J. Berckmans, of the Fruitland Nurseries of Augusta, + Ga., whose experience and acquaintance with the fruits + of the South are, without doubt, in advance of any other + horticulturist of the past or even the present generation, + in reply to my request for information on grafting + pecans, he writes: "For the past five or six years we + have grafted various varieties of the pecan nuts. I do + not know of any other nurseryman South who offers + grafted trees. I presume the reason of this is, the + great difficulty in having the grafts take, as we seldom + have more than fifteen to twenty-five per cent. grow. + We usually crown graft in February, using one-year-old + seedlings grown in nursery rows. Owing to the small + percentage of grafts which grow, grafted trees must, + necessarily, be quite expensive, and for this reason there + are so few attempts made in this method of propagation."</p> +<p>Mr. Berckmans makes no reference to annular budding + of the pecan, so strongly and frequently recommended + by the several writers already quoted, although<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> I am certain that he is as familiar with this mode of + propagation as any one else, and would have practiced + it had he found it in any way superior to crown grafting. + From all that I have been able to learn through a + rather extended correspondence, in regard to the propagation + of the pecan nut tree in the South, I conclude + that they are occasionally and sparingly grafted, but + with such indifferent results that they are not at all + numerous in either orchards or nurseries.</p> +<p>From certain remarks of Col. Stuart, in his essay + on "Pecan Culture," I infer that he has sold grafted + trees, for he says: </p> +<blockquote> + <p>"It costs no more to care for the + grove of choice trees than of poor ones; then, again, the + grafted or budded ones come into profitable bearing + three years earlier than seedlings. Here is a case in + point: Last November (1892) we paid, in cash, two + hundred and forty-eight dollars for the nuts which grew + upon one tree, the crop of one year. The tree is twenty + inches through at its base, and forty-five feet high; such + a size tree would grow in twenty or twenty-five years. + Now small nuts from the same size tree will sell for not + more than fifteen to twenty dollars. Another tree only + ten years old bore thirteen and a half dollars worth. + These choice nuts are such as we grow seedlings from; + we sell a great many more seedlings than we do grafted + or budded trees, simply because they are so much + cheaper, and people in general do not realize that such a + vast difference exists between the profits of seedling and + grafted or budded trees; but such is the case, and such it + will always remain for aught we can see." </p> +</blockquote> +<p>Soon after I + published the description of the Hales' Paper-shell hickory + in 1870, requests for cions were received from nurserymen + and many amateur horticulturists, who were + anxious to try their skill in grafting this excellent variety. + Mr. Hales generously responded, and sent cions to + a large number of correspondents in various parts of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> country, because he was desirous of having the variety + preserved and propagated. During the following ten + years the old original tree was kept pretty well pruned, + in filling orders for cions; those sent to nurserymen + were to be raised on shares, one-half of all the successfully + grafted trees to be returned to Mr. Hales. Being + a near neighbor, my opportunities for keeping informed + as to the result of this arrangement was all that I could + desire. To one nursery firm in central New York Mr. + Hales sent about one thousand cions per annum for four + successive years, and in return received just four feeble + grafted plants as his share of the total product of the + four thousand cions. But as the four plants received + soon died, he closed that account as one of total loss. + Previously, however, he had sent a quantity of cions to + Mr. J. R. Trumpy, of the Kissena Nurseries, Flushing, + N. Y., whose skill as a propagator of ligneous plants is + probably second to that of no man in this country; the + result proved that our faith in the man was not misplaced, + for Mr. Hales received for his share of the experiment + something over two dozen grafted trees, and + most of these are now handsome specimens ten to twenty + feet high. Just what percentage of the cions set were + made to unite and grow I have not been informed, but + the experiment was, doubtless, rather unsatisfactory as a + commercial transaction.</p> +<p>In addition to the plants sent to Mr. Hales, there + have been quite a number distributed among the customers + of the nurseries named; consequently, we are + pretty well assured of the perpetuation of this remarkably + fine variety, even when the original tree succumbs + to old age, or should it be accidentally destroyed. I am + inclined to give Mr. Trumpy credit for being the first + man to graft the shellbark hickory in this or any other + country, and make the cions unite and grow, for I + have failed to find any instance of success in this mode<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> of propagating these trees, prior to his with the Hales' + Paper-shell.</p> +<p>In reply to a note sent him a few months since, asking: + "How did or do you graft the hickories?" he + replied as follows: </p> +<blockquote> + <p>"I put the hickory stocks in pots in + the spring, and graft them the following spring, say in + April, and in the house. The cions are cut during the + winter, so as to keep them in good order until wanted + for use. I find it is better to operate in April than + earlier in the winter. I also graft them out of doors + about the beginning of May, when the stocks are growing. + They will succeed very well out of doors, provided + the stocks are large enough for the cions. Any kind of + grafting will do, but crown grafting is the best. I have + not done much of late in the way of grafting hickories + in the nursery, not having suitable stocks; besides, when + the weather becomes warm enough for outside work, vegetation + pushes far too rapidly to give a man a chance to + do much of this kind of grafting."</p> +</blockquote> +<p>Since the above was written and while these pages + were being put in type, Mr. Jackson Dawson, of the + Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass., has given his + method of grafting the hickories, in <i>Garden and Forest</i>, + Feb. 19, 1896, as follows:</p> +<blockquote> + <p>"My method," writes Mr. Dawson, "has been to + side-graft, using a cion with part of the second year's + wood attached, binding it firmly and covering it with + damp sphagnum until the union has been made. The + best time I have found for the operation under glass has + been during February, and the plants have been kept + under glass until midsummer, and wintered the first + year in a cold frame. In all the genera I find certain + species which may be called free stocks,—that is, stocks + which take grafts more readily than others. Thus, + nearly all the oaks will graft readily on <i>Quercus Robur</i>; + the birches will graft more easily on <i>Betula alba</i> than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> on others; so of the hickories, observation has led me + to believe that the best stock is the bitternut, <i>Hicoria + minima</i>. This species grows almost twice as rapidly as + the common shagbark hickory, and while young the + cambium is quite soft. I should advise anyone who + wishes to propagate hickories on a large scale to grow + stocks of this species in boxes not more than four inches + deep. In this way all the roots can be saved and there + will be no extreme taproot, and when shaken out of the + boxes the plants are easily established in pots and ready + for grafting. If taken up in the ordinary way from the + woods, it requires almost two years to get them well + rooted, and often the stocks die for want of roots after + the grafts have really taken. If grown in rich soil, the + stocks will be large enough to use in one or two years. + I should then pot them early in the fall, keeping them + from heavy frosts, and bringing them into the house + about the first of January, and as soon as they begin to + make roots. I should side-graft them close to the collar + and plunge them in sphagnum moss, leaving the top + bud of the graft out to the air. The graft ought to be + well united about the last of March, when the plants + should be taken from the sphagnum and set in the body + of the house to finish their growth."</p> +</blockquote> +<p>All who have had any experience in the propagation + of trees by grafting in spring, are well aware of the flight + of time, in the hurry of work that must be done in a + few days or not at all. It is true that the season for + grafting may be prolonged or extended a little by cutting + the cions in winter and storing them in a cool, + moist place, where they remain dormant after vegetation + has started in the open air; but this does not affect the + stocks, and these may come on slowly or rapidly, varying + with the seasons, and the grafter must not only watch + for opportune moments, but take his chances of striking + the right time and conditions, in order to be successful.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> With such hard wood trees as the hickories it is better + to be a little ahead of time than a few days too late, for + frosts, and even quite a severe freeze, will not injure a + dormant cion, and under the most favorable conditions + the union between stock and cion is a rather slow process. + For this reason I advise giving as much time as + possible, and while I do not claim to having had any + personal experience as a grafter, in the South, still I am + inclined to think that grafting in the fall, and not later + than December, would be preferable to later in winter + or spring. By giving the cion and stock two or three + months in which to form granulations and cohesion, + there would be more certainty of success. Of course, I + now refer to what is called crown grafting on the root + below the surface of the ground, and when the cion is + fixed in place with the usual ligatures of waxed paper or + cloth, the soil is drawn back into place and the cion + entirely covered with it, but very lightly over the terminal + bud.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig68.jpg" alt="" height="371" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._68" id="FIG._68">FIG. 68</a>. CROWN GRAFTING ON ROOTS OF THE HICKORY.</span> </div> +<p>Where small stocks are not at hand, the roots of + large trees may be severed and the end partly lifted + towards the surface, as shown in Fig. 68, and when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> grafted, allowed to remain in position until the following + season, and then taken up entire or with roots + enough to insure future growth. The same or a similar + process may be practiced to propagate a choice variety + of the hickory, and a mere severing of the roots will + insure the production of suckers from near the severed + end, as shown in Fig. 69.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig69.jpg" alt="" height="469" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._69" id="FIG._69">FIG. 69</a>. SPROUTS FROM SEVERED HICKORY ROOTS.</span> </div> +<p>In grafting isolated stocks in this way, a small or + large stake should be placed by the side of each, to indicate + their position, and also protect them from being + trampled upon. I make this suggestion because, in my + own experience, it has often proved successful with various + kinds of hard-wooded trees and shrubs that failed + when grafted in the spring. Here in the North it is + rather difficult, as well as expensive, to protect cions set + in the open ground in the fall; but in the South it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> different, and a handful of almost any coarse litter would + be sufficient to prevent severe freezing.</p> +<p>But grafting in the fall in the open ground is unnecessary, + where small seedling stocks are used in the + propagation of any kind of tree; in fact, nurserymen do + very little grafting of this kind in spring, for they + learned, by long experience, that the most economical + and certain method of multiplying such trees is to take + up the stocks in the fall, and then graft them indoors + during the winter, having stocks and cions stored in + cool cellars or pits, where they will be readily accessible + when wanted. Apples, pears, quinces, grapes, and + many other kinds of hardy trees, shrubs and vines are + now extensively propagated by grafting during the winter + months, and I do not know of any good reason why + the hickories and other closely allied nut trees should + not be multiplied in this way. I have tried it, on a limited + scale, with the shellbark hickories, and with fair + success, and in my opinion it is the only way by which + the hickories, including the pecan, can be multiplied + cheaply enough to become of commercial importance.</p> +<p>The small stocks of one or two years old should be + taken up in the fall, and then crown grafted any time + from December to March in the Northern States, but + the earlier the better; then pack away the grafted stocks + in moss or soil, in a cool cellar, or heel-in elsewhere, as, + for instance, in pits or frames, where they will not be + frozen, and yet cool enough to prevent active growth.</p> +<p>In the spring the grafted stocks should be planted + out in nursery rows, and deep enough to have the top of + the cion just level with the surface after the soil has + been settled about it by a shower or heavy rains. The + plants must be handled with care, so as not to disturb + the cions. Mulching will, of course, be beneficial in + dry seasons, and especially if the stocks are set in ordinary + well-drained soils. In selecting wood for cions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> twigs of the previous season's growth are usually preferred, + but it is not necessary, nor is it advisable to discard + all except the extreme end of the shoot or that + containing a terminal bud, as some writers have advised, + to prevent rapid loss of moisture by evaporation, for a + drop of wax will seal the end of a cion as thoroughly + and effectually as a natural bud; besides, the lower part + of the annual twigs is often more firm and really better + for grafting than the upper and less sturdy wood, and + the lateral buds on it will push just as readily as the + terminal one. The cion may be three or four inches + long, and contain two or more buds. The sealing of + the upper end of a cion that is not protected by a terminal + bud is certainly important with all of the hickories, + for in this genus of trees the pith is large and + continuous, not intersected or cut off by a thin partition + of wood at the joints, as seen in many trees, shrubs and + vines. This large and continuous pith in the hickories + is another reason why the cions succeed best if set below + the crown and in or on the fleshy roots having no pith. + They may be set on one side, as in splice grafting, or in + the center, or in a cleft made for their reception with a + sharp knife, then bound with waxed paper, or wrapped + with bass, raffia, or other similar material, and afterwards + covered with melted wax to exclude air and water + from the joints and wounds.</p> +<p>In this mode of grafting hickories it is not necessary + to employ the entire root or stock, if it is of large + size, for a single cion; for pieces of from six to twelve + inches long, containing a few lateral fibers, will answer + the purpose, and it will be found, in practice, that these + sections of the large fleshy roots contain so much vitality + that, if the cions set in them fail to grow, they will + throw up sprouts from adventitious buds during the + ensuing summer. Almost any fair-sized piece of root + left in the ground, when digging up hickory trees large<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> or small, is pretty certain to throw up sprouts, this not + only showing their great vitality, but that propagation + by root cuttings is perfectly practicable and may be utilized + whenever and wherever it may be desirable. The + man who attempts to raise hickories from root cuttings + must have patience, for very frequently the cuttings + will remain apparently dormant in the ground one entire + season before the sprouts appear above the surface. I + will also add that this slow or retarded germination frequently + occurs with the nuts, especially if they have + become somewhat dry before planting.</p> +<p>For commercial purposes root-grafting small stock, + as described, during the fall and winter, gives promise + of being the best and most practicable system of multiplying + varieties; but there is much yet to be learned in + regard to details, and hundreds of carefully conducted + experiments may be necessary to determine the exact + time, condition and mode of operation. It may be that + very early grafting is better than late, or that we have + not, as yet, found the best species for stocks, and that a + half-ripened one will be preferable to one fully matured. + Neither has it, as yet, been determined what kind of + material is best in which to store the grafted roots: sand, + soil or sphagnum (moss) from the swamps; or whether + they should be kept very moist, or comparatively dry; + very cold, or moderately warm. Here is a wide field for + experiments, and a most interesting one; for the successful + propagation of the hickories by any mode that + will insure the perpetuation and rapid multiplication of + varieties, means millions of dollars added to the wealth + of the country.</p> +<p><strong>Age of Fruiting.</strong>—We hear much of the precociousness + of pecan trees in the South, and many are + reported as coming into bearing at the age of six to ten + years from the time of planting the nut; but these are + probably exceptional instances of early fruiting and not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> the rule, although in a favorable soil and climate it is to + be expected that such trees will push forward more rapidly + than under less favorable conditions. Grafted trees + will, of course, produce fruit in less time than seedlings, + and as this mode of propagation becomes more general, + and repeated in a direct ancestral line, the cions for each + successive generation of trees being taken from mature + or bearing specimens, the precocious and productive + habit will eventually become intensified, as it has been + in all of our long-cultivated fruit trees propagated by + artificial methods. We have so intensified the productiveness + of many kinds of cultivated fruits by selection, + that it has become more of a fault, than a merit to be + encouraged.</p> +<p>The nut trees are amenable to the same physiological + laws as other kinds, and in their propagation by + grafting with cions from bearing specimens we hasten + maturity in the offspring. This has been fully demonstrated + in many varieties of the Persian walnuts and + European chestnuts. Here in the Northern States we + have had so little experience with grafted hickories of + any species, that really nothing is yet known as to how + they will respond to this mode of propagation, further + than that they grow rapidly and give promise of being + fruitful. Seedling trees are, as a rule, of slow growth, + rarely attaining a bearing age and size under twenty + years, and with the shellbarks thirty or forty years usually + pass before anything like a crop of nuts is gathered. + Something may be gained, in the way of time, by frequent + transplantings and pruning, but more by grafting + seedlings from old and mature trees. Two grafts of the + Hales' hickory commenced bearing at the age of sixteen + years.</p> +<p><strong>Planting for Profit.</strong>—There are, doubtless, many + thousands of acres of half-denuded woodlands in almost + every State in the Union, both North and South, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> could be readily utilized for growing hickory timber, + and much of such lands is almost useless for other purposes; + but timber culture and forestry is a subject + which I have discussed elsewhere,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> while the object of + this work is to aid my readers in producing something that + may be utilized as food. When the hundreds and thousands + of miles of our public highways are shaded with + hickory and other nut-bearing trees of the best species + and varieties, it will be time enough to begin planting + such kinds elsewhere. As roadside trees they cannot + fail to be profitable, largely enhancing the value of adjoining + land; for in addition to being equally as ornamental + as other kinds, they yield fruit always in demand + at remunerative prices. The three species of the hickory + and their varieties recommended for cultivation all + thrive best in moist soils, but by occasional watering or + thorough mulching they will succeed almost anywhere, + especially in naturally dry locations.</p> +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Practical Forestry.</p> +</div> +<p><strong>Insect Enemies.</strong>—The hickories, as with all other + nut-bearing trees, have numerous insect enemies, but + these are neither so numerous nor destructive as to seriously + interfere with their growth in general, or with + their productiveness. Insects may occasionally become + exceedingly numerous in certain localities for a few + years, then suddenly or slowly disappear; but this we + must expect, as one of the coexisting phases of all agricultural + pursuits.</p> +<p>Collectively the hickories have no considerable number + of destructive insect enemies, but if we count all the + species of the various orders that have been found occasionally, + or otherwise, feeding on the leaves, buds, fruit, + twigs, bark, or boring in the solid wood, they make a + very formidable list of names, or about one hundred and + seventy-five in all; but fully ninety per cent. of these <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> depredators are scarcely known, except to a few professional + entomologists, and unless they become more destructive + in the future than they are at present, or have + been in years past, nut culturists have little to fear from + their depredations. Among the most common species + of insects injurious to the hickory, the following may + prove most annoying to the cultivator. </p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> <img src="images/fig70.jpg" alt="" height="494" width="250" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._70" id="FIG._70">FIG. 70</a>.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">The hickory-twig girdler</span> (<i>Oncideres cingulatus.</i> Say).—A small yellowish-gray beetle, a little less + than an inch long, usually appearing in this latitude + during August, the females depositing their eggs in the + twigs of from a quarter to a half-inch in diameter. + On old large trees the loss of a few or + many of these is scarcely noticed; but on + young seedlings or grafted stock it is quite + a different affair, for on such plants the + females usually select the leader in preference + to the lateral twigs in which to deposit + their eggs. The female girdles the + twigs for the purpose of providing proper + and acceptable food for her progeny; that + is, first the green, then the slowly drying, + then the perfectly hard, seasoned hickory + or whatever kind she may have attacked. + Selecting a suitable twig, she rests upon + it, usually with head downward (Fig. 70), and with her + mandibles cuts out a ring of bark about one-twelfth of + an inch wide, and deep enough to reach the firm wood + underneath. The place selected for this annular incision + may be only a few inches from the terminal bud, or + a foot below it, and in some instances she will cut two + incisions on the same twig some distance apart, but + usually there is only one on a twig. While cutting this + incision she will sometimes rest long enough from her + labors to deposit an egg in the bark above. The number + of eggs she deposits in the twig is probably variable,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> but three full-grown grubs is the most I have ever found, + and the larger proportion examined had only one. This + girdling of the twig prevents the flow of sap, and the + leaves soon wither and drop off, and the bark and wood + shrivel and become hard and dry; but in the meantime + the eggs have hatched and the minute grubs have + bored their way through the soft bark and reached the + pith, feeding in this while acquiring size and strength + of jaws that will enable them to consume more solid + food later and during the succeeding winter, spring and + summer. Some do not reach maturity until the second + summer; at least, in this latitude, as I have found after + very careful observation and while collecting many hundreds + of specimens. I will say, however, that this insect + is usually referred to by entomologists as rather + rare, and in general it is, but some years ago, in an old + clearing near by where there was a great number of + young hickory seedlings and sprouts, it was for a season + or two very abundant; then it suddenly disappeared, + and I have not taken a half-dozen specimens since. The + grubs bore out the wood in the infested twig, and in + most instances so completely as to leave only a thin shell + of the wood or bark, by the time they have reached maturity + and are ready to pass into their imago or perfect-winged + stage.</p> +<p>This species of twig girdler also attacks the apple, + pear, persimmon, elm, and other kinds of trees, and + with those like the apple, with a soft and brittle wood, + the girdled twigs are frequently broken off by the winds; + but this rarely occurs with the hickories, and we can + usually find the stumps remaining on the trees years + after the beetles have emerged. The only way to keep + this pest in check is to cut off and burn the girdled + twigs any time before the larvæ have reached maturity, + and as the girdled dead twigs are readily seen, the gathering + is not difficult, from medium-sized trees.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap">The painted hickory borer</span> (<i>Cyllene pictus.</i> Drury).—This is, perhaps, one of the most common and + widely distributed of all the hickory borers, but, so far + as my observations have extended, it rarely attacks + young or healthy trees of any age; in fact, I have never + found it in or about growing trees, but I have seen it, + by the thousands, breeding in decaying specimens and + in hickory cordwood cut during the winter months and + ranked up in shady places. A hickory tree cut down in + fall or winter, and left on the ground or cut up into + cordwood, is pretty sure to attract this borer early in + spring, the females swarming over the bark, depositing + their eggs upon it, and by the ensuing autumn the wood + will be fairly honeycombed if this insect is at all abundant. + The general color of the beetle is + black, and the size as shown in Fig. 71. + There are three narrow, whitish bands + across the top of the thorax, and one + slightly broader band at the extreme point + of the wing-covers; but the next band is + in the form of an inverted <span class="larft"> <strong>V</strong></span>; the point + of the <span class="larft"><strong>Λ</strong></span> does not quite touch the broad + lateral band, as in the closely allied species known as + the locust borer (<i>C. robiniæ</i>), with which it is often + confounded; besides, in the latter the markings are of a + deep yellow, and not white or of a faint yellowish tinge. + The hickory borer always appears in spring, and the + locust borer in the fall, not later than September in this + part of the country. Below or behind the <span class="larft"> <strong>V</strong></span>-shaped + band there are three others, but all broken up into mere + dots, and not continuous.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 130px;"> <img src="images/fig71.jpg" alt="" title="" height="164" width="130" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._71" id="FIG._71">FIG. 71</a>. + HICKORY BORER.</span> </div> +<p>In the South, and especially in Texas, there is a + somewhat smaller but closely allied species (<i>Cyllene + crinicornis</i>) that attacks the pecan tree and its wood in + the same way as our common hickory borer, but in the + Southern or Southwestern species the bands on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> wing-covers are all interrupted or broken up into small + white spots or dots. I have no remedy to suggest, further + than to cut down old, infested trees, and to haul + the wood out into the sun and spread it out where it + will quickly dry and become seasoned. If the felled + tree and wood is stripped of its bark as soon as cut, the + female beetles will not deposit their eggs upon it.</p> +<p>There are other long-horned beetles (<i>Cerambycidæ</i>) + that are occasionally found breeding in the hickories, + and among these may be named the Belted Chion (<i>Chion + cinctus</i>), Tiger Goes (<i>Goes tigrinus</i>), Beautiful Goes + (<i>Goes pulchra</i>), and the Orange Sawyer (<i>Elaphidion + inerme</i>), but they are usually quite too rare to be considered + as very destructive insects.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Hickory-bark borer</span> (<i>Scolytus 4-spinosus.</i> Say).—Only + once within my memory has this minute but + destructive beetle appeared in any considerable numbers + in my neighborhood, although I have occasionally + received a few specimens from correspondents in various + parts of the country, even as far west as the Pacific coast + in Washington. This borer is a very small, cylindrical, + dark brown beetle, about one-fifth of an inch or less in + length, and one-sixteenth in diameter. The hind part + of the body is quite blunt (truncate), the males having + four short but distinct blunt spines, two on each side, + projecting from the hind part of the abdomen, hence + the name "4-spinosus." In the females these spines + are absent, otherwise they closely resemble the males. + These bark borers usually appear here in the Northern + States the last of June or early in July, and both sexes + attack hickory trees of all species, but appear to prefer + the old and nearly mature trees to the young and small + with thinner bark. After boring through the bark and + reaching the soft cambium layer underneath, upon + which these insects feed, the female cuts a vertical channel + in this substance, of little over an inch in length.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span></p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 380px;"> <img src="images/fig72.jpg" alt="" title="" height="526" width="380" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._72" id="FIG._72">FIG. 72</a>. BURROWS OF HICKORY SCOLYTUS.</span> </div> +<p>This burrow is a little larger than the diameter of her + body, and along on both sides she deposits her eggs, to + the number of ten to thirty, placing about an equal + number on each side. When these eggs hatch, the young + larvæ begin to feed on the soft material by which they + are surrounded, making minute burrows at first, and at + nearly right angles with the parent one; but as they + increase in size they are forced to diverge, those above + the center working upward, and those below downward, + as shown in Fig. 72. These burrows enlarge as the + grubs increase in size, as + shown, most of them + reaching their full development + by the time cold + weather sets in, but + some do not cease feeding + until spring, then + pass to the pupal stage, + and later to the perfect + or beetle form, and from + the extreme end of these + burrows they bore a hole + straight out to the surface, + and are then ready + to begin the cycle of life + again, either on the tree + from which they have + emerged, or others near by. Some fifteen years ago I + noticed that the leaves of some of the old hickory trees + on my place were turning yellow prematurely, and upon + examination I found the bark perforated with minute + holes not larger than small bird shot, indicating the + presence of the bark borer under consideration. Seven + of the very largest and, presumably, the oldest, appeared + to be affected, and these were immediately cut down and + stripped of their bark, exposing the little grubs to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> air and attacks of insect-eating birds. These trees appeared + to have been infested for several years, as there + was scarcely a spot on the surface of the wood that had + not been scarified with this pest. Since the destruction + of these trees I have not been troubled with bark borers, + although there are still a number of very old and large + hickories thriving in the same grove. The only remedy + I can suggest is to cut down infested trees as soon as + they are discovered, and also encourage the insect-eating + birds to remain in and near the nut groves.</p> +<p>There are several other species of bark borers that + occasionally attack hickories, one of these, the <i>Chramesus + icoriæ</i>, Leconte, infests the small twigs, while + another, the <i>Sinoxylon basilare</i>, say, after boring + through the bark, continues its course far into the heartwood, + showing a preference for this kind of food instead + of the living tissues. These pests, however, are rarely + constant, but very erratic, in their attacks, and while + they may be rather abundant on a few or many trees a + season or two, they then disappear, and not one may be + seen for several decades.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">The hickory-shuck worm</span> (<i>Grapholitha caryana.</i> Fitch).—The parent of this pest is a minute moth of + the family <i>Tortricidæ</i>, the small caterpillars mining and + boring the green husks, and sometimes into the immature + shell, causing the nuts to wither and drop off prematurely, + although an occasional one may reach maturity, + even in its scarified condition. This insect appears + to be somewhat rare in the East, but very abundant + some years in the West, where it is frequently destructive + to the thick shellbark hickory and pecan. The first + fresh specimens of the Nussbaumer Hybrid pecan nut + (referred to on a preceding page) were so badly bored + and scarified by this worm when received, that they + would have been nearly or quite worthless for either + planting or other purposes. As this insect attacks the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> nuts on the very largest trees in the forest and elsewhere, + I cannot suggest any other remedy than to gather the + immature and infested nuts as they fall, and burn them, + with their contents.</p> +<p>Among the larger Lepidoptera (butterflies and + moths) there are many species, the caterpillars of which + occasionally feed on the leaves of the hickories, but not + exclusively; consequently, they cannot be considered as + the special enemies of this genus of trees. When they + do attack them, it is as much due to accident as design. + This is certainly true with the great Luna moth (<i>Attacus + luna</i>) and the American silk worm (<i>Telea polyphemus</i>), + and various species of the Catocala, as well as the Tent + caterpillar (<i>Clisiocampa sylvatica</i>).</p> +<p>There is also a hickory-nut weevil, closely allied to + the species infesting the chestnut; and while not quite + as large, its habits are similar, and its ravages may be + checked by the same or similar means. The grubs bore + into the green nuts, causing some to fall before half-grown; + others may remain in the nuts until they are + ripe and gathered in the autumn; consequently, perforated + hickory nuts are not at all rare, even on the + stands of venders in our cities.</p> +<p>Bud worms, leaf miners, leaf rollers and plant lice,—and + among the latter several gall-making species,—are + to be found on the hickories; but with all these natural + enemies to contend with, the hickories thrive, grow, and + yield their fruits in greater or less abundance. To enumerate, + describe and illustrate all the insects known to + be enemies of the hickory would require a large volume, + but fortunately there are many special works published + on the insects injurious to vegetation, and these are + readily obtainable by all who may have occasion to consult + their pages.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.</h2> +<h3>THE WALNUT.</h3> +<p>Juglans. The ancient Latin name, first used by + Pliny, contracted from <i>Jovis glans</i>, the nut of Jove or + Jupiter. A genus of about eight species, three or four + of these indigenous to the United States.</p> +<p><strong>Order</strong>, <i>Juglandaceæ</i> (Walnut family).—Medium to + large deciduous trees with odd-pinnate leaves; leaflets + from fifteen to twenty-one, serrate, mainly oblong and + pointed. The sexes of flowers separate (monÅ“cious) on + the same tree, the males in pendulous green cylindrical + catkins two to three inches long, solitary or in pairs, + sessile,—not stalked, as in the hickories,—issuing from + the one-year-old twigs, and at the upper edge of the scar + left by the falling leaf of the previous season (Fig. 73), + showing that the male organs emanate from an aggregation + of bud-cells in the axils of the leaves during the + preceding summer and autumn. Female flowers terminal + on the new growth in spring, also single, in clusters, + and occasionally in long pendulous racemes with a + four-cleft calyx, four minute petals and two thick curved + stigmas. Fruit round or oblong (Fig. 74); husk thin, + drying up without opening by seams, as in the hickories. + Shell of nut either rough and deeply corrugated, with + sharp-pointed ridges, or quite smooth, with an undulating, + wavy surface, very thick in some species and thin + in others; kernel two- or indistinctly four-lobed, united + at the apex, fleshy, rich and oily.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> <img src="images/fig73.jpg" alt="" height="636" width="550" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._73" id="FIG._73">FIG. 73</a>. PERSIAN WALNUT, SHOWING POSITION OF SEXUAL ORGANS.</span> </div> +<p><strong>History.</strong>—The common walnut, so long and + widely known in commerce under various names, such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> as Persian, English, French, Italian and European walnuts, + also as Madeira nut, and recently Chile walnut, + are now all believed to have descended from trees native + of Persia, most plentiful in the province of Ghilan on + the Caspian sea, between latitude 35° and 40°, hence the + old Grecian name of the fruit, viz.: Persicon and Basilicon, + or Persian Royal nut, probably because either + introduced by the Greek monarchs, or sent to them by + the Persian kings. Later,—according to Pliny,—the + Greeks called the trees <i>Caryon</i>, on account of the strong<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a><br /> + <a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> scent of the foliage, and from this name Nuttall coined + his word, <i>Carya</i>, for our indigenous hickories, as explained + in the preceding chapter. It should also be + noted here that the elder Michaux, in 1782-4, was the + first modern botanist to visit the province of Ghilan, and + he determined, by personal investigation, that this species + of the walnut was really indigenous to that region + of country, along with the peach and apricot.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> <img src="images/fig74.jpg" alt="" height="788" width="550" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._74" id="FIG._74">FIG. 74</a>. BEARING BRANCH OF ENGLISH WALNUT.</span> </div> +<p>Earlier European authors claim that the walnut + was first introduced into Italy by Vitellius (emperor) + early in the first century of the Christian Era,—but this + is uncertain,—the Romans giving it the name of <i>Juglandes</i>, + or the nut of Jove or Jupiter, both being the + same mythical personage. The nuts, at this early day, + were highly prized, and also the wood of the tree, the + latter being even more valuable than that of the citron + (orange and lemon). Ovid wrote a poem about these + nuts, entitled <i>De Nuce</i>, from which we learn that boys + were employed to, or did of their own accord, knock off + these nuts; and that at marriages walnuts were thrown + by the bride and bridegroom among the children, a + ceremony which was supposed to indicate that the + bridegroom had left off his boyish amusements, and + that the bride was no longer a votary of Diana, and + it is quite probable that the French word for nuptials, <i>des nĂ´ces</i>, was derived from this ancient custom. + The ancients also believed that walnuts possessed powerful + medicinal properties, even to the curing of hydrophobia; + but in these latter days they have lost most + of their curative virtues, in the opinion of the medical + fraternity.</p> +<p>As with the chestnut, the planting of the walnut + extended northward into Gaul (France), hence the + earlier name of Gaul nuts, which became corrupted into + walnuts by the English-speaking people. The Italian + name is <i>Noci</i>; in France, <i>Noyer</i>; and the Germans,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> with their usual habit of compounding names, call it <i>walnuss-baum</i> or walnut tree.</p> +<p>Joannis De Loureiro, in his work on the plants of + China, "Flora Cochinchinensis," published in 1790, + claims that this Persian walnut is also a native of the + northern provinces of China, with two other species + which he describes (p. 573), adding, however, that one + of these is cultivated in Cochin China, and the other is + found wild in the mountains.</p> +<p>The wild form of this world-wide-famous nut is, + doubtless, quite different from the varieties with which + we are familiar, for two thousand years or more of continuous + cultivation and selections have greatly changed + the character of these nuts, as well as the habit of the + trees. The nuts from the wild trees are said to have a + rather thick shell, and to be much smaller than the best of + the improved cultivated varieties, or very like those we + now obtain in China and Japan. The Persian walnut, + in its many varieties, has been planted almost everywhere + in Europe as far north as Warsaw, but does not + appear to have run wild and become naturalized, as with + many other kinds of fruit and forest trees. In Great + Britain it has probably been cultivated ever since the + invasion of the country by the Romans, although a + much later date is named by some of our modern horticultural + authorities. Dodoens (1552), Gerarde (1597), + Parkinson (1629), and other of our early authors of + works on cultivated plants, speak of the Persian walnut + as common in various countries of Europe, Great Britain + included. John Evelyn, in his "Sylva" (1664), says:</p> +<blockquote> + <p>"In Burgundy, walnut trees abound where they stand, + in the meadows of goodly lands, at sixty and a hundred + feet distance, and so far as hurting the crop, they are + looked upon as great preservers, keeping the ground + warm, nor do the roots hinder the plow."</p> +</blockquote> +<p>Evelyn, no + doubt, had read what Pliny had said on this point, viz.:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> </p> +<blockquote> + <p> </p> + <p>"Even the oak will not thrive near the walnut tree; + which, if it be true, may be owing to the interference of + their roots in the subsoil; but it is certain that neither + grass nor field nor garden crops thrive well under the + walnut."</p> +</blockquote> +<p>Evelyn was far too good a gardener and close + observer to fall into the error of attributing noxious + properties to the walnut tree, although Pliny's assertion, + which has no foundation beyond his imagination, has + been many times repeated in these days of supposed general + intelligence. Small plants may fail, under the + shade of large trees, or when deprived of moisture by + the roots of such trees, but the walnut is no exception + to the rule; in fact, such deep-rooted kinds are less + injurious than those with roots nearer the surface. + Evelyn, in continuing his account of the walnut in Germany, + says:</p> +<blockquote> + <p>"Whenever they fell a tree, which is only + the old, decayed, they always plant a young one near + him, and, in several places betwixt Hanau and Frankfort, + no young farmer whatsoever is permitted to marry + a wife till he bring proof that he is a father of such a + stated number of walnut trees; and the law is inviolably + observed to this day, for the extraordinary benefit which + this tree affords the inhabitants."</p> +</blockquote> +<p>What a pity that + some such custom could not have prevailed during the + past century in the United States. The author from + whom I have just quoted adds that the Bergstrasse, + which extends from Heidelberg to Darmstadt, is all + planted with walnuts.</p> +<p>Cold winters, however, have occasionally played + havoc with the walnut trees in Europe, and one of these + occurred in 1709, when the greater part of the trees + were seriously injured, especially in Switzerland, Germany + and France. Many trees were cut down for their + timber, which is always in great demand for gun-stocks + and furniture. Certain Dutch capitalists, foreseeing + the scarcity of walnut timber, bought up all they could<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> procure, and years afterwards sold it at a greatly advanced + price. In the year 1720 an act was passed in + France to prevent the exportation of walnut timber, and + this led to the planting of these trees more extensively + than at any previous date; this practice has continued to + the present time, hence the immense revenue secured + from the exportation of these nuts. The people of the + United States are good customers for the surplus stock + of Europe, and will probably so continue, until we wake + up to a sense of our folly of perpetually buying articles + that could be readily produced at home, and at a very + large profit.</p> +<p><strong>Persian Walnut in America.</strong>—The date of the + first experiment in planting this nut in this country is + now probably unknown, but the oldest tree that I have + been able to find with anything like a satisfactory history, + is still growing vigorously at Washington Heights, + on Manhattan Island, near 160th street and St. Nicholas + avenue. I gave a brief history of this noble monarch of + its race in the <i>American Garden</i> for September, 1888, + from which the following account is condensed:</p> +<blockquote> + <p>"In 1758 Roger Morris, an English gentleman, built a spacious + mansion on his estate, at what, in later years, became + known as Washington Heights. His grounds + were well laid out for that time, and many rare foreign + trees and shrubs planted, among them several, as then + called, English walnuts. Whether these trees were + raised from the nuts, or plants of some size imported, is + not now known. Mr. Morris may have procured the + seedlings from the Prince Nursery, Flushing, L. I., for + this famous garden was established in 1713, or forty-five + years previous to the building of the Morris mansion + and the planting of the grounds about it.</p> + <p>"At that period no one doubted the hardiness of the + so-called English walnut in America, and as most of the + nuts and trees procured for planting came from acclimated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> stock in Great Britain or the cooler region of + Europe, success usually attended such experiments. + Our pioneers and horticulturists fully expected that the + trees would thrive and bear nuts in abundance, and time + has shown that they were not mistaken, although we + frequently see it stated at this late day, that the Persian + walnut is not hardy north of the latitude of Washington, + Philadelphia, or other cities south of New York.</p> + <p>"One hundred and thirty-eight years have rolled by + since walnut trees were planted at Washington Heights, + and at least one of the originals has escaped destruction + and holds its head aloft, defying the tempests which + frequently sweep over that elevated and exposed spot on + Manhattan Island. This veritable patriarch of its race + in America is a monster in size, its stem between four + and five feet in diameter at the base and more than + seventy-five feet high, with wide-spreading branches.</p> + <p>"In the summer of 1776 the Battle of Long Island + was fought, and the American forces were compelled to + retreat in confusion to New York, thence northward up + the island; but when they reached Fort Washington, not + far from the eleventh milestone on the old Albany post + road, they made a stand and proceeded to entrench + themselves at that place. This was in September, 1776, + and General Washington took possession of the Morris + mansion near by, making it his headquarters, and, as + this was at the season when the walnuts had reached an + edible stage, we may safely presume, from his well-known + predilection for such delicacies, that he tested the quality + of the Morris walnuts. One hundred and twenty + years later I am writing this, with some fresh specimens + of nuts before me from that same old tree.</p> + <p>"This old patriarch has cast its shade over many a + noted person in its time, for in 1810 the Morris estate + passed into the hands of Madame Jumel, a lady long + famous for her hospitality and the good cheer she extended<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> to the surviving patriots of the Revolution. + From 1810 to the time of her death, 1865, Madame + Jumel's household always had an abundance of walnuts + from the old tree, and one of the workmen on the place + informed me that about two cartloads was considered a + fair annual crop."</p> +</blockquote> +<p>It cannot be many years before this old tree will + meet the same fate that has overtaken many of its + younger contemporaries which were once growing in the + neighborhood, for with the rush for building lots and + the opening of new streets and avenues, trees are usually + in the way, and in such cases even patriarchs are not + sacred, nor do they command much respect from our + urban population.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> +<div class="footnote"> + <p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Since writing the above, and while these pages are being put in + type, accidentally I learn with regret that the old Morris walnut tree + has been destroyed.</p> +</div> +<p>A half-century ago there was quite a large number + of walnut trees scattered about on the northern half of + Manhattan Island, many of these probably descendants + of the old Morris trees, but of this nothing definite is + now known. A number of persons whose ages permitted + them to scan the early days of the present century, + have assured me that in their childhood they had often + collected walnuts from goodly sized trees on farms, from + Harlem northward on the island. The largest number + of Persian walnut trees planted in any one place was on + the Tieman farm at Manhattanville, these being set out + as roadside trees, some of which are still standing, + although in the march of improvements they must soon + disappear. These trees have always been noted for their + productiveness, bearing a full crop every alternate year, + and a lighter one in what is termed the "off season."</p> +<p>While the old Morris walnut tree, and the large + number growing on the Tieman estate, and scores of + others scattered about New York city and its suburbs,</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p> +<p>have been, and many still are, living witnesses of the + fact that varieties of the Persian walnut will thrive in + this latitude, certain horticultural authors and essayists + have continually asserted the contrary.</p> +<p>Mr. F. J. Scott, in his superb and voluminous work, + "Suburban Home Grounds," in speaking of this species + of the walnut, says, p. 351: </p> +<blockquote> + <p>"Though greatly valued + in England and on the continent for its beauty, as well + as for its nuts, its want of hardiness in the Northern + States, and lack of any peculiar beauty in the South, has + prevented its culture to any great extent in this country. + South of Philadelphia it may be grown with safety." </p> +</blockquote> +<p>This seems strange language to have come from such an + eminent authority as the late Mr. Scott, inasmuch as he + must have passed a hundred times within sight, if not + in the very shadow of the rows of old walnut trees growing + at Manhattanville, when going from New York city + to Newburgh, where he studied landscape gardening + under the lamented A. J. Downing, and to whom the + work from which I have quoted is dedicated. It is quite + evident, however, that our author, like many others, + failed to see things that should have interested him.</p> +<p>As an offset to Mr. Scott's idea of the northern + limit for the successful cultivation of this nut, I may + refer to the work of Mr. George Jacques, "Practical + Treatise on Fruit Trees, Adapted to the Interior of + New England," published at Worcester, Mass., 1849. + In referring to the European walnut, p. 238, he says: </p> +<blockquote> + <p>"It is perfectly hardy on Long Island, and to the south + of New York, and as far north as the city of Charlestown + in this State (Mass.), where there may be seen, in + the enclosure of a residence on Harvard street, two fine + trees of this kind, either of them much taller and larger + than our large-sized apple trees. We have eaten nuts + from these trees well ripened and fully equal to any of + those imported. The trees often bear a crop of some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> bushels." </p> +</blockquote> +<p>It is unnecessary to search for further proof + to show that certain excellent varieties of the Persian + walnut do thrive and bear abundantly in our Northern + States; not, perhaps, in the extreme boreal borders of + New England, nor in those of the northwest, but the + acclimated sorts are pretty safe as far north as 42° + of latitude, and in protected locations may crowd up a + half degree more. I have found very productive trees + of this nut in northern New Jersey, several in Bergen + county, others in Passaic, and thence southward, and + while they are few in number, they are sufficient to + prove that this tree is adapted to the soil and climate of + the entire State. We seldom find more than one or two + trees in any garden, and these are probably more the + result of accident than design, their owners seeming to + be satisfied in possessing something in the way of a tree + not common in the neighborhood, never thinking that + it might be well to plant enough of such trees to have + them become a source of revenue. The parentage of + quite a number of these bearing trees is readily traced + to the Morris and Tieman stock, showing that these old + trees are of a hardy and prolific race, which are well + worthy of perpetuation for cold climates. Very old and + large walnut trees are reported as growing in Pennsylvania + and other of the Middle States, but they are far + from being numerous. It has long been claimed that + this species of nut succeeded best in the Southern States, + and it is probably true, especially with the tender varieties; + but for some reason, unknown to me, they have + not been planted there in sufficient numbers to have, as + yet, become of any commercial importance.</p> +<p>During the past twenty-five years these nuts have + been more extensively planted in California than elsewhere + in the United States, and we may expect soon to + know something definite in regard to results. Nearly + all of the favorite French varieties have been introduced,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> and are now being tested in different parts of the State, + and it is quite likely that the greater part will succeed, + although some of the early-blooming sorts may fail in + localities subject to late spring frosts. Previous to the + introduction of grafted trees of the named varieties, the + only trees of this kind planted in California were seedlings + raised from the common imported nuts; but I + have no statistics at hand to determine the date of the + first plantings of this kind.</p> +<p>Of late years there has been received, at some of + our seaports, and especially at New York, some quite + large consignments of walnuts from South America, + under the name of "Chile walnuts," but they are only + varieties of the Persian raised in Chile. They are generally + of good size, moderately thin shelled, with plump + kernels of excellent flavor. They are in great demand + for confectionery, and are really better for such purposes + than the larger and fancy bleached walnuts imported + under the somewhat general name of Grenobles, or + French walnuts. Owing to the difference of climate, + these Chile walnuts arrive here late in winter, or about + the time those coming from European countries the previous + autumn begin to become somewhat stale.</p> +<p>Of our native species of this genus (<i>Juglans</i>), the + almost everywhere common butternut ranks first in + flavor and general estimation, but owing to its hard, + rough shell, and the difficulty in extracting the kernel, + it has never become of any considerable importance, + although usually found in our markets in limited quantities. + Of course, it is a general favorite in the country, + and wherever found in sufficient quantities the boys and + girls lay up a goodly supply for winter use; and cracking + butternuts during the long winter evenings is a + pastime and pleasure not to be ignored nor forgotten. + The flavor of the butternut is far more delicate, and + better, than any of the Persian species, but the difficulty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> in extracting the rather small kernel is a serious + objection.</p> +<p>The black walnut has a larger kernel, in proportion + to its size, than the butternut, and it is not so difficult + to extract when the nuts are dry, but the flavor is too + rank for most palates, although it has often been referred + to as excellent by the earlier botanists who visited this + country; but it has never been considered of much value + until quite recently, or since the manufacturers of confectionery + discovered that heat somewhat subdued the + rank flavor, and now many tons of the meats are annually + consumed in candies and walnut cakes. I am credibly + informed that cracking black walnuts and shipping + the meats to our larger cities has become quite an extensive + industry in several of the Middle and Western States. + We have two other but smaller native species of the walnut + that will be described further on, under the head + Species and Varieties.</p> +<p><strong>Propagation of Walnuts.</strong>—The propagation of + the walnut in the natural way, or by seed, is exceedingly + simple, for the nuts grow readily and freely if planted + soon after they are ripe, or any time before they become + old and the kernels shriveled. It is, of course, best to + plant them while fresh, but they are not at all delicate, + and may be transported a long distance in a dry condition + without seriously affecting their vitality. If walnuts + are given the same care as recommended in the + preceding pages for other kinds of nuts, so much the + better.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig75.jpg" alt="" title="" height="526" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._75" id="FIG._75">FIG. 75</a>. SEEDLING WALNUT.</span> </div> +<p>The seedlings of walnuts, like those of other species, + usually produce long taproots, and if grown in a compact + soil, these will have few small lateral fibers the first season, + as shown in Fig. 75; but when taken up and the + vertical main root shortened at <i>a</i>, and then replanted, + they produce fibrous roots in abundance. The trees of + almost any age from one to twenty years old, are not at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> all difficult to make live when transplanted, provided + the branches or tops of the trees are reduced, to correspond + with loss of roots in digging up at the time of + removal. It may be well to give + a word of caution to the novice in + nut culture about pruning nut + trees in spring, after the sap begins + to flow; for if done at this time + they will bleed freely and leave + unhealthy wounds and black, unsightly + spots on the bark. Prune + walnuts in summer or early in + winter, to give time for the wounds + to season before the buds swell in + spring. If young trees are to be + dug up, prune after they are taken + from the ground, then the sap will + not flow from the wounds. This + is true of all deciduous trees, + vines and shrubs. If the trees + have few small roots when taken + up, prune severely; but if roots + are abundant, little pruning will + be required. It is seldom, however, + in transplanting walnuts, + that the pruning need be as severe + as recommended for the chestnut; + in fact, having transplanted walnuts + of various species, and of + all ages from one to twenty years, + without the loss of a plant, I have + come to the conclusion that they + are pretty safe trees to handle, in this climate, at least, + if not elsewhere.</p> +<p>In seeking walnuts from a distance, for planting + anywhere in the Middle or Northern States, it will be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> well to learn something in advance about the climate in + which the nuts are raised; for it would be folly to send + for either trees or nuts to a warm or semi-tropical region, + like that of southern France or Spain, for a stock to + cultivate in a climate as cold as that of New York, New + Jersey, and States on the same line westward. We + might, perchance, from such importation, secure one + hardy plant in a hundred or thousand, but there would + be no certainty of even this small number.</p> +<p>This idea of acclimation and adaptation of trees + to conditions and climate should not be overlooked + by the nut culturist, no matter from what source + he procures his stock, whether from abroad, or some + distant region of his own country. If it can be + obtained from a region where it has been growing + under conditions similar to those to which it is to + be transferred for cultivation, then the chances of + success will certainly be largely augmented. Acclimation + is a slow process; in fact, too slow for us to + expect to secure any appreciable advantages from it + in a lifetime, but in nature we seek final results, leaving + time out of the question.</p> +<p>In raising seedling trees we cannot expect much + more than a reproduction of the species, and not that of + the parent tree. Plants that have been subjected to unnatural + conditions and surroundings, as usual under cultivation, + are far more likely to show a wider range of variation + in the seedlings than those growing wild in their + native habitats; but even the latter cannot be depended + upon to reproduce exact types from seed. In other + words, there is nothing certain about seedling nut trees; + the large nuts may produce trees bearing very small ones, + the early-ripening give late ones, the tall dwarf trees + and the precocious fruiting some of the most tardy varieties; + and yet, with all this uncertainty, we still think + it best to select for planting the best nuts obtainable,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> <i>i. e.</i>, best and most promising for the conditions under + which the seedlings are to be grown.</p> +<p>For the multiplication and perpetuation of choice + varieties we must resort to artificial modes of propagation, + mainly by budding and grafting. These modes, + however, while the best at present known, are so difficult + and uncertain in cool climates,—even in the hands + of the most skilful propagators,—that grafted walnut + trees have never been very plentiful in the nurseries of + this or other countries with which we have commercial + relations. In the south of France nurserymen appear to + have been more successful in the propagation of walnuts + by budding and grafting, than elsewhere; but in the + northern provinces, as well as in Great Britain, we hear + little of this mode of propagation. So difficult has this + mode of propagating the walnut been considered in England, + that Thomas Andrew Knight, president of the + London Horticultural Society, early in the present century + discouraged all attempts to propagate this tree by + such means; but later, in a paper read before the Society + April 7, 1818, he admits to having changed his + mind, especially in regard to budding the walnut, and + says:</p> +<blockquote> + <p>"The buds of trees of almost every species succeed + with most certainty when inserted on the shoots of the + same year's growth; but the walnut tree appears to + afford an exception; possibly, in some measure, because + its buds contain within themselves, in the spring, all + the leaves which the tree bears in the following summer, + whence its annual shoots cease to elongate soon after its + buds unfold; all its buds of each season are also, consequently, + very nearly of the same age, and long before + any have acquired the proper degree of maturity for + being removed, the annual branches have ceased to grow + longer or to produce new foliage.... To obviate the + disadvantage arising from the preceding circumstances, I<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> adopted means of retarding the period of the vegetation + of the stocks comparatively with that of the bearing + tree: and by these means I became partially successful. + There are, at the base of the annual shoots of the walnut + and other trees, where these join the year-old wood, + many minute buds which are almost concealed in the + bark, and which rarely or never vegetate but in the + event of the destruction of the large prominent buds + which occupy the middle and opposite end of the annual + wood. By inserting in each stock one of these minute + buds and one of the large prominent kind, I had the + pleasure to find that the minute buds took freely, + while the large all failed without a single exception."</p> +</blockquote> +<p>From the above and other remarks of Mr. Knight, + in the paper read by him, I infer that he kept the stocks + in pots stored in a cool place in spring, until he could + obtain shoots of the season from bearing trees, and from + these minute undeveloped axillary buds for inserting in + the stocks. These buds, as he informs us, are inserted + in the wood of the preceding season, and near the summit + or top. He does not give any directions for holding + the buds in place, whether by waxed or plain bass ligatures; + the former, however, would probably be preferable, + for the purpose of excluding the air and water.</p> +<p>Some twenty years later (1838) J. C. Loudon, in + "Arboretum Britannicum," etc., refers to the propagation + of the walnut as follows:</p> +<blockquote> + <p>"Much has been written on + the subject by French authors, from which it appears + that in the north of France, and in cold countries generally, + the walnut does not bud or graft easily by any + mode; but that in the south of France and north of + Italy it may be budded or grafted by different modes, + with success. At Metz, the Baron de Tschoudy found + the flute method (Fig. 76) almost the only one which he + could practice with success. By this mode an entire + ring of bark, containing one or more buds, is removed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> from a twig on a tree to be multiplied, and transferred + to the stock, and made to fit as shown. If the ring is + too large, a slice may be cut off; and if too small, a + piece of the bark of the stock may be left to fill the + space."</p> +</blockquote> +<p>Both stock and parent tree must be in about + the same condition or stage of growth when this ring + budding is done, in order that the bark containing the + bud may peel off freely from the wood, and this is always + in the spring, soon after the buds + begin to unfold and the sap is in + motion. Loudon says that in Dauphine, + France, young plants in the + nurseries are budded chiefly by this + mode, which succeeds best the closer + the operation is performed to the collar + of the plant; and the same is + true in grafting, the nearer the root + the better, as has been found by experience + with hickories.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig76.jpg" alt="" title="" height="411" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._76" id="FIG._76">FIG. 76</a>. + FLUTE BUDDING.</span> </div> +<p>Charles Baltet, in his "L'Art de + Greffer," recommends grafting in the + usual mode of crown grafting, also + flute or ring grafting, in April or + May, and ordinary cleft grafting close + to the root and at the forks of the + branches, etc. He says that the cion + should be cut, as much as possible, + obliquely across the pith, so that it may be exposed on + one side only. He also advises using cions whose base + consists of wood of two years' growth, and these furnished + with a terminal bud. He cautions propagators + against grafting early-growing kinds upon those of later + vegetation. If walnuts of any of the native or foreign + species have been successfully propagated by budding or + grafting, at any of the nurseries in our Eastern States, it + has not been made known in the nurserymen's catalogues.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span></p> +<p>Michael Floy, who early in the present century had + quite extensive grounds devoted to fruit and ornamental + trees, near what is now the center of New York city, as + we learn from his "Guide to the Orchard," published in + 1833, claims, in this work, that the Persian walnuts + thrive well in this country, but admits that he had never + succeeded in grafting the trees, and with the hickories + had no better success, although he had tried them many + times; but he adds:</p> +<blockquote> + <p>"Still I do not say it is impossible + either to bud or graft them; but there is + something peculiar about it, for both the bud and graft + turn black when cut, almost instantaneously. Others + may succeed better, but let them try it before they + affirm it upon hearsay; they may succeed very well by + inarching."</p> +</blockquote> +<p>Coming down to the present day, in our search for + facts and information in regard to the propagation of + varieties of the walnut, we may find it interesting to + visit California, which, of all the States of the Union, is + perhaps the best adapted to nut culture in general; + besides, a larger number of nut trees of various kinds + have been planted there than elsewhere in this country. + It is in California that we find such men as Felix Gillet, + of Nevada City, an enthusiastic propagator and cultivator + of fruit and nut trees, and especially of the latter, + if we may judge by his works and writings on this + branch of horticulture,—and so far as I have been able + to learn, he is the only nurseryman in the United States + who has grafted walnut trees of many different varieties + for sale.</p> +<p>In regard to modes of propagation, Mr. Gillet says + that the common mode of shield budding, as employed + on fruit trees, fails entirely with small walnuts from one + to three years from the seed, and it does but seldom succeed + even on larger stocks. When tried on large, old + stocks, he advises removing all the wood from the inner<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> side of the strip of bark on which the bud is situated, + and at the same time have this strip not less than two + inches long and as broad as possible. He describes his + mode of grafting walnuts, which does not differ materially + from those already given. That he has never attained + any very remarkable results may be inferred from + the following:</p> +<blockquote> + <p>"We will add that the 'grafted walnuts' that we + offer were grafted expressly for us, regardless of cost, by + the most reliable firm to be found in the walnut district + in France, through a process discovered several years + ago, and which we will briefly describe for the benefit of + people who may be inclined to try this new method of + grafting very young walnuts.</p> + <p>"One-year-old seedlings of the size of the little finger, + or about one-half inch in diameter at the butt, are + selected, the root cut back short enough to permit the + planting of the trees in pots of three inches in depth; + the trees, previously to being potted, are grafted with + cions exactly of the same size, whip or cleft grafting + being used; the pots are then taken to a hot or propagating + house, and a glass bell set over them to prevent + the outside air getting to the grafts, the temperature + of the house being kept day and night, at least for + fifteen days, or till the grafting has taken, to 70° F. + When the grafts are well taken and growing, the glass + bells are removed, and the grafts allowed to grow three + or four inches, before the little grafted trees are set out + in nursery rows; it may be preferable, especially in certain + parts of the country, to keep the trees in the + pots till the ensuing spring. Forty to fifty per cent + of the grafts will succeed, and it is the best that can + be done.</p> + <p>"This mode of grafting the walnut, besides requiring + a hothouse, needs the care of a skillful person to + make it succeed. So are grafted the little trees that we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> import from France, and that we plant in nursery rows + and offer to the public."</p> +</blockquote> +<p>For other modes of root grafting, I refer the reader + to those recommended for the hickories, in the preceding + chapter. Propagating walnuts by layers is practicable, + where the small trees have been cut down to force + out new shoots near the surface of the ground, then bent + down and covered with soil in the usual method of layering + woody plants.</p> +<p><strong>Planting and Pruning.</strong>—The plants will produce + a greater number of fibrous roots if the nuts are planted + in light, loose, but rich soil, than in a heavy, tenacious + one; but with all kinds it is best to transplant when + one or two years old, and cut off a portion of the taproots, + as recommended for the hickories. When removed + from the nursery rows for final planting, prune + away nearly or quite all side branches, leaving only the + terminal bud if the trees are not more than six to eight + feet high. After final planting where the trees are to + remain permanently, very little pruning will ever be + required, further than to cut away branches that may + cross each other, or to shorten some to give proper form + to the head. No tree in cultivation requires less pruning + than walnuts.</p> +<p>As a genus of trees the walnuts flourish best in + deep, rich loam, rather light than heavy, and in this + country require considerable moisture at the roots, and + some, like the butternut, succeed best in bottomlands, + near creeks and larger streams. If the soil is naturally + too dry for such trees, the fault can be readily remedied + by the use of some form of mulch applied to the surface + of the soil around the stem after planting, renewing this + annually, or oftener if necessary, until the trees are large + enough to shade the ground.</p> +<p>Walnut trees, as well as the closely allied hickories, + are well adapted for roadside planting, and when set in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> such positions are far less likely to be injured by insects + than when planted in orchards or large groups, besides + serving a double purpose, being ornamental as well as + useful. They may also be planted around buildings, + and where other and less valuable trees are generally + grown. There are also millions of acres of rocky hill-sides + and old fields which might be utilized for nut + orchards, and if rather widely scattered over such land + they would prove beneficial in shading the pasture + grasses. First of all, however, let us have rows of these + trees along all our country roads, after which it will be + time enough to begin planting them elsewhere.</p> +<h3>SPECIES AND VARIETIES OF WALNUTS.</h3> +<p><strong>Native of the United States</strong> (<i>Juglans cinerea.</i> Linn.). Butternut. White Walnut.—Leaflets fifteen + to nineteen, oblong-lanceolate and sharp-pointed, rounded + at the base, downy, especially on the underside, + petioles covered with viscid hairs; fruit oblong, two + or more inches in length, with a clammy husk, not + opening when ripe, but closely adhering to the deeply + corrugated and rough, thick shell. Trees with wide-spreading + branches, and of medium hight, or from forty + to fifty feet, but in deep forests sometimes sixty to + seventy, with stems two to three feet in diameter. A + common tree in moist soils almost everywhere, from the + Canadas southward to the highlands of northern Georgia, + Alabama, and sparingly in Mississippi and Arkansas, + and all the States bordering the Mississippi river northward + to Minnesota. A valuable timber tree, with soft, + light wood, much used of late for furniture and inside + house finishing. In early times the inner bark was + employed for making a yellow dye, also as a medicine, + the extract being a mild cathartic, hence one of the + specific names, <i>Cathartica</i>.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p> +<p>Synonyms.</p> +<blockquote> + <p><i>Juglans oblonga alba</i>, Marshall.<br /> + <i>Juglans cathartica</i>, Michaux.<br /> + <i>Carya cathartica</i>, Barton, 1818.<br /> + <i>Wallia cinerea</i>, Alefeld, 1861.<br /> + </p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Varieties of the Butternut.</strong>—There are to be + found many varieties of the butternut, varying mainly + in the size of the nuts, and only slightly in the thickness + of the shell; but I am not aware that any of these have + ever been propagated, all the trees in cultivation or elsewhere + having been grown from the nuts. This nut is, + no doubt, susceptible of great improvement, as well as + others of the genus, and it is worthy of being experimented + with for that purpose, especially in cold, northern + climates, where there are few or no other kinds of + edible nuts. Probably the most direct and surest way + to secure improved varieties is by hybridizing, taking + the butternut for the female parent, and the Persian + walnut for the male. Hybrids between these two species + are already known, and they will, no doubt, become + more plentiful as soon as skillful horticulturists are encouraged + to produce them. Several hybrid walnuts of + other species are figured and described by European horticulturists, + but, so far as known, they are mainly accidental + productions, and not the result of any direct + effort of man; nature, in this instance, merely giving a + hint of the possible, leaving us to avail ourselves of the + lesson if we feel so inclined.</p> +<p>J. Le Conte, in a list of four hundred and fifty + plants, collected by him on the island of New York + (Manhattan), and published in the "Medical and Philosophical + Register," Vol. II, 1812, mentions a hybrid + walnut among the number. Dr. John Torrey, in "Catalogue + of Plants," etc., 1819, refers to this tree under + the name of <i>Juglans hybrida</i>, and says that it is growing + near where Eighth avenue intersects the road called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> Lake Tours, about three miles from the city, and is a + large tree. This specimen probably disappeared long + ago, and we have no means now of determining its origin + or between what two species it was a hybrid.</p> +<p>Recently Prof. C. S. Sargent has discovered other + hybrid walnuts in the neighborhood of Boston, and figured + and described one in <i>Garden and Forest</i> for Oct. + 31, 1894. He says:</p> +<blockquote> + <p>"My attention was first called to + the fact by observing that a tree which I had supposed + was a so-called English walnut (<i>Juglans regia</i>), in the + grounds connected with the Episcopal school of Harvard + college, at Cambridge, was not injured by the cold of the + severest winters, although <i>Juglans regia</i> generally suffers + from cold here, and rarely grows to a large size. + This individual is really a noble tree; the trunk forks, + about five feet above the surface of the ground, into two + limbs, and girths, at the point where its diameter is + smallest, fifteen feet and two inches. The divisions of + the trunk spread slightly and form a wide, round-topped + head of pendulous branches of unusual symmetry and + beauty, and probably sixty to seventy feet high. A + closer examination of this tree showed that it was hardly + to be distinguished from <i>Juglans regia</i> in habit, in the + character of the bark, or in the form and coloring of the + leaves, and that the oblong nut, with its thick shell + deeply sculptured into narrow ridges, was the slightly + modified nut of our native butternut, <i>Juglans regia</i>. + Two other trees with the same peculiarities were afterwards + found. One is a large, wide-spreading specimen, + with a trunk diameter of four feet three inches about + two feet above the surface of the ground, and just below + the point where it divides into three large limbs. This + is on the grounds of Mr. Eben Bacon of Jamaica Plain, + and is supposed to have been planted between fifty + and sixty years ago. The other has a tall, straight + trunk, with a diameter of three feet one inch at three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> feet above the surface of the ground, and is growing on + a farm near Houghton's Pond, in Milton, at the base of + the southeastern slope of the Blue Hills."</p> +</blockquote> +<p>That there should be hybrid walnuts is nothing + strange or wonderful, and we often marvel that there + should be so few of them in regions where two or more + species are growing in close proximity in the same forest, + or elsewhere, but from whence came these specimens in + Massachusetts is somewhat of a mystery. We may + safely conclude, however, that the hybridizing did not + occur there, but somewhere else, and either the nuts or + small seedling trees were introduced and planted where + these hybrid specimens are now growing. It is possible + that they are descendants of the old hybrid walnut tree + of New York city, mentioned by Le Conte and Dr. + Torrey, some one having sent nuts or seedlings to friends + in Massachusetts, and the three trees described by Prof. + Sargent are merely those which have survived until + the present day, these retaining the hybrid characteristics + of their parent. These hybrids may or may not + possess any special economic value, but they are of considerable + scientific interest, and for this reason alone + are well worthy of careful preservation and extensive + propagation.</p> +<p><i>Butternut Sugar.</i>—It has often been claimed that + sugar can be made from the native butternut tree, and + while it is true that the sweetish sap flows readily from + wounds made in this tree in early spring, the amount + and quality of sugar to be obtained from it is scarcely + worthy of serious attention. In my boyhood days butternut + syrup and sugar were considered as "sticky jokes" + of the sugar camp.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> <img src="images/fig77.jpg" alt="" height="845" width="550" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._77" id="FIG._77">FIG. 77</a>. FLOWERING BRANCH OF HYBRID WALNUT.<br /> + <i>J. regia</i> Ă— <i>J. Californica</i>.</span> </div> +<p><strong>Hybrids in California.</strong>—Mrs. Ninetta Eames, + writing, in the <i>American Agriculturist</i>, of new varieties + of walnuts in California, refers to certain species and + varieties growing in that State, as follows:</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a><br /> + <a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span></p> +<blockquote> + <p>"On one of the avenues in Santa Rosa there are some + dozen or so ornamental shade trees, which invariably + attract the passers. It is not only that they are uncommonly + beautiful, but that there is something unfamiliar + about them. One unhesitatingly pronounces them + 'walnuts,' from their unmistakable likeness to both + the English walnut and the native species found growing + along the streams of middle and southern California. + They are, in fact, a cross between the <i>Juglans regia</i> and <i>J. Californica</i>, the wild black walnut of this State. In + its appearance, this magnificent hybrid is nicely balanced + between both parents, but it is superior to either of + them in beauty and luxuriance of foliage, and in its + phenomenal growth. There is, indeed, but one tree, + the eucalyptus, that grows more rapidly. In speaking + of this quality in the new walnut, Mr. Luther Burbank + says: 'It often excels the combined growth + of both parents, adding twelve to sixteen feet to its + hight in one year. Given like conditions, a budded + six-year-old hybrid is twice as large as a black walnut + at twenty years of age.'</p> +</blockquote> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig78.jpg" alt="" height="497" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._78" id="FIG._78">FIG. 78</a>. HYBRID WALNUT. <i>J. nigra</i> Ă— <i>J. Californica</i>.</span> </div> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig79.jpg" alt="" height="289" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._79" id="FIG._79">FIG. 79</a>. HYBRID WALNUT, SHELL REMOVED.<br /> + <i>J. nigra</i> Ă— <i>J. Californica</i>.</span> </div> +<blockquote> + <p>"The clean cut, bright green leaves make a remarkable + showing, being all the way from two feet to a yard + in length, and of graceful, drooping habit (Fig. 77). + They are sweet-scented, too,—a delightful fragrance, + resembling that of June apples. Another admirable + feature of this hybrid walnut is its smooth, grayish bark, + with white marblings not unlike the Eastern sugar + maple. The wood is compact, with lustrous, satiny + grain, and takes an elegant polish, which gives it unmistakable + commercial value. Like the majority of hybrids, + though blossoming freely it yields a scant crop of nuts, + one or two annually on a single tree, and this only after + twelve years of persistent barrenness. The seed, when + planted, goes back to its parent distinctiveness,—one-half + turning out to be English walnuts and the other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a><br /> + <a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> half black walnuts,—the true hybrid being only + reproduced by grafting + on a thrifty young <i>Juglans + Californica</i>.</p> + <p>"Another handsome + novelty in shade trees, + is a hybrid from the <i>Juglans nigra</i>, or well-known + Eastern black + walnut, and <i>J. Californica</i> (Figs. 78 and 79). + It makes a charming + ornamental tree, and + bears, in its season, a + prolific crop of unusually + large nuts, which have + little value except in the + eyes of school children. + Several of these hybrids + are growing in Santa + Rosa, and present an interesting + study to the + pomologist.</p> +</blockquote> +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig80.jpg" alt="" title="" height="726" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._80" id="FIG._80">FIG. 80</a>. JUGLANS SIEBOLDIANA RACEME.</span> </div> +<blockquote> + <p>"A still more unique + species of the walnut + genus is the <i>Juglans Sieboldiana</i>, + a Japanese walnut + which grows abundantly + in the mountainous + districts of the island + of Yesso, and also in the + more southern divisions + of the empire. Several + of these remarkable trees + are to be found in the + Kew gardens, but only one specimen is said to be growing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> in America, and this has recently come into profuse + bearing on the Burbank experimental farm, eight + miles from Santa Rosa, California. According to good + authority, this Japanese walnut not only attains its + greatest perfection in this favored climate, but it thrives + equally well in countries too cold for the common + walnut, <i>J. regia</i>. In its wild state in Japan, the <i>Juglans + Sieboldiana</i> (whose curious raceme of nuts is shown in + Fig. 80) makes a wide-spreading tree about fifty feet in + hight, with pale, furrowed bark; nuts an inch and a + half long, with a diameter one-third less, and a kernel + having much the + flavor of the common + walnut. The + tree bearing so + thriftily on California + soil, suggests its + possible value as a + marketable nut, + while it already furnishes + a remarkable + addition to horticultural + interests."</p> +</blockquote> +<p><span class="smcap">Juglans nigra</span>, + Linn. Black + Walnut.—Leaflets + eleven to seventeen, + rarely more; ovate-lanceolate, smooth above, moderately + pubescent beneath, pointed, somewhat heart-shaped at + the base; leaf-stalks slightly downy, usually of a pale + purplish color early in the season, especially on young + trees; fruit large, mostly globose (Fig. 81); husk thin, + roughly dotted; shell thick, hard, deeply and unevenly + corrugated with rough, sharp ridges and points (Fig. + 82); kernel large, sweet, but usually with a strong, + rather rank taste, but less oily than the butternut.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> Trees grow to an immense size, with deeply furrowed + bark; wood dark colored, valuable for cabinet work, + inside finishing, gun stocks, etc. Common in deep, rich + soils, from western Massachusetts west to southern Minnesota, + and southward to Florida. Most abundant west + of the Alleghany mountains, and especially in the rich + valleys of the Western States distant from railroads and + water communication; elsewhere the trees have long + since been cut for their + timber. I have only one + synonym to record, and + this is scarcely worthy of + notice, viz.: <i>Wallia nigra</i>. + (Alefeld in "Bonplandia," + 1861.)</p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"> <img src="images/fig81.jpg" alt="" title="" height="462" width="400" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._81" id="FIG._81">FIG. 81</a>. BLACK WALNUT IN HUSK.</span> </div> +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig82.jpg" alt="" title="" height="348" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._82" id="FIG._82">FIG. 82</a>. JUGLANS NIGRA, HUSK + REMOVED.</span> </div> +<p><strong>Varieties of the + Black Walnut.</strong>—As with + the butternut, there are no + varieties of the black walnut + in cultivation; at least, + none propagated by means + which will insure the perpetuation of their varietal characteristics. + It is true that there are plenty of wild varieties + to be found, these varying widely in size and form, + and somewhat in thickness of their shell, as well as the + ease with which the kernels may be extracted, but none + of these have been perpetuated by artificial means. + Among the earliest varieties recognized by botanists, + one was called Oblong Black Walnut, <i>Juglans nigra + oblonga</i>, by Miller, 1754, and perhaps in earlier editions + of the "Gardener's Dictionary." He says this is from + Virginia, and only a variety of the common black walnut. + Marshall, in 1785, describes this "black oblong + fruited walnut," and adds: "There are, perhaps, some + other varieties." These oblong, or, more correctly + speaking, oval nuts, often sharp-pointed at both ends,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> are rather plentiful at this time. There are rarely any + considerable number of bushels reaching market from + Virginia and adjacent States, among which these oval or + oblong nuts cannot be found. I have a number before + me measuring from one inch to one and a quarter in + diameter, and from one and a half to nearly two inches + in length. Other varieties found, perhaps, in the same + lot, are broader than long, or one and seven-eighths + inches broad, by one and one-half in vertical diameter. + These measurements are of the cleaned shell, after the + husks have been removed.</p> +<p>For several years a "thin-shelled black walnut" has + been offered by at least two nurserymen, in whose catalogues + they are described as "with unusually thin shells, + the kernels coming out whole." I have endeavored to + ascertain the origin of this variety, but failed, for both + of the nursery firms who advertised the frees for sale + admit that they do not know from whom they obtained + the nuts planted, or where the original tree is growing. + As the trees offered are only seedlings, there is no certainty + that they will produce nuts with "thin shells." + We can safely drop this supposed variety from the list + until something definite is known about it.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Juglans Californica</span>, Watson. California Walnut.—Leaflets + in from five to eight pairs, more or less + downy, but sometimes smooth, oblong-lanceolate, sharp-pointed, + narrowing upward from near the base, two to + two and a half inches long. Male catkins much larger + than in our Eastern species, or from four to eight inches, + often in pairs. Fruit round, slightly compressed, three-fourths + to one inch and a quarter in diameter; husk + thin, slightly dotted or roughened; shell dark brown, + very faintly sculptured (Fig. 83), almost smooth, thick, + the kernel filling two broad cavities upon each side; edible + and fairly good. A tree or large shrub in the vicinity + of San Francisco and along the Sacramento (where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> it is sometimes cultivated), growing to the hight of + forty to sixty feet, and two to four feet in diameter; + ranging southward to Santa Barbara, and eastward + through southern Arizona to New Mexico and Sonora + (Thurber, "Botany of California"). This species has + been considered by some botanists as only a variety of + the next, or <i>Juglans rupestris</i>, var. <i>Major</i>, Torrey. + Scarcely hardy in the latitude of + New York city, except an occasional + seedling from nuts gathered along + the northern limits of the species, + or from the cooler elevated regions + of the Pacific slope. It is of no + special value, only adding one more + edible nut tree to the list.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig83.jpg" alt="" title="" height="192" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._83" id="FIG._83">FIG. 83</a>. JUGLANS CALIFORNICA.</span> </div> +<div class="figright" style="width: 180px;"> <img src="images/fig84.jpg" alt="" title="" height="237" width="180" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._84" id="FIG._84">FIG. 84</a>. JUGLANS + RUPESTRIS, SHOWING + SMALL KERNEL.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Juglans Rupestris</span>, Engelmann. Texas Walnut. + New Mexico Walnut.—Leaflets thirteen to twenty-five, + smooth, bright green, small, narrow, and long-pointed; + male catkins short, or about two inches long, and quite + slender; fruit round or oblate; husk + thin, nearly smooth; nut small, one-half + to three-fourths of an inch in + diameter; shell very thick, rather + deeply furrowed, the narrow grooves on + the greater part continuous from base + to apex, the broad edges of the ridges + smooth, not jagged as in the butternut + and black walnut. Kernel sweet and + good, but so small (Fig. 84) as not to + be worth the trouble of extracting. A small and neat tree + twenty to forty feet high, native of the bottom lands of + the Colorado in Texas, and throughout the western part + of the State, extending through southern and central + New Mexico to Arizona. In New Mexico it reaches an + elevation of seven or eight thousand feet, though the + climate is often severe, the temperature dropping to zero<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> and below during the winter. Seedlings raised from + nuts obtained near the northern limits of this species in + Texas and New Mexico would probably be hardy in + most of the Northern States, but they are scarcely worth + cultivating for their nuts, owing to the small size and + thick shell; but as the trees are neat and graceful they + are worthy of a place among other useful and ornamental + kinds. An occasional bearing tree of this Texas + walnut may be seen in the gardens and parks of the + Eastern States, and probably in some of the Western, + but I have no direct information in regard to their locations + or age.</p> +<p>Synonyms:</p> +<blockquote> + <p><i>Juglans rupestris</i>, Torrey.<br /> + <i>Juglans Californica</i>, Watson, Bot. California.<br /> + </p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong><a name="Oriental_Walnuts." id="Oriental_Walnuts.">Oriental Walnuts.</a></strong>—How few or many species of + the walnut are indigenous to China, Korea, Japan and + other Oriental countries it would be very difficult to + determine, with our present limited knowledge of the + forests of that part of the world. The few botanists + who have had opportunities of studying the flora of + those regions do not agree as to names or number of + species of the genus. Loureiro, in his "Flora Cochinchinensis" + (1788), names three species as indigenous to + China, viz.: <i>Juglans regia</i> in the northern part, but + this is now considered very doubtful; <i>Juglans Camirium</i>, + Rhumphius, a medium-sized, heart-shaped nut, the trees + found in the forests, and also under cultivation; <i>Juglans + Catappa</i>, a large forest tree in the Cochin China + mountains, with oblong, edible nuts, with husk and + shell of nuts of a reddish color. Many years later Siebold + describes a Japan walnut under the name of <i>Juglans + Japonica</i>, and still later the Russian botanist, Maxiomowicz, + renames this, in honor of Siebold, <i>Juglans + Sieboldiana</i>, and describes another native of Japan as <i>Juglans cordiformis</i>. But prior to any of the authors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> named, Thunberg had described a Japan walnut under + the name of <i>Juglans nigra</i>, probably the same as Loureiro's + species, with reddish husk, but as this name had + already been given to an American species it had to be + dropped. Maxiomowicz also describes what he supposed + to be a distinct species, found in the forests of Mandshuria + under the name of <i>J. Mandshurica</i> (1872), but + it is doubtful if it is anything more than one of the + many wild forms of the species found widely distributed + over eastern Asia. The red or black fruited walnut of + Loureiro (<i>J. Catappa</i>), and Siebold's black walnut (<i>J. + nigra</i>), are probably the same as the Ailantus-leaved + (<i>J. ailantifolia</i>), recently described in Nicholson's + "Dictionary of Gardening," London, Eng., 1884, the + origin of which is said to be uncertain. It is <i>Juglans + Mandshurica</i>, Maxim, in Alphonse LavallĂ©e's "Catalogue + of Arboretum Segrezianum." As described in + this work, the young fruit is violet-red, and produced in + long pendulous clusters, the latter being one of the + marked characteristics of these Oriental walnuts. But + whether we admit that there is but one or a dozen species + of these Eastern walnuts, it cannot be of any special + interest to the practical nut culturist, for to him their + economic and commercial value is of more importance + than scientific nomenclature.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig85.jpg" alt="" title="" height="389" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._85" id="FIG._85">FIG. 85</a>. JUGLANS SIEBOLDIANA.</span> </div> +<p>Up to the present time we have only succeeded in + obtaining two species of these walnuts, or perhaps only + one species and one variety; but we certainly have two + distinct forms, both coming from Japan, and distributed + under the names given them by Maxiomowicz, viz.:</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Juglans Sieboldiana</span> (Siebold Walnut).—Leaflets + sessile, usually fifteen, five to seven inches long, oblong-pointed, + thin, soft, downy, serratures very shallow, pale + green above and somewhat lighter beneath; footstalks + densely clothed with clammy hairs; fruit in long pendulous + clusters of a half dozen to a dozen, one and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> half inches or more long by a little more than one inch + broad in the middle; husk thin, downy or clammy; nut + somewhat compressed, the point usually bending to one + side; shell smooth, with two shallow grooves from base + upward on the sides opposite to the sharp, prominent + ridges at the seams of the two lobes, the shell ending in + a strong, sharp point (Fig. 85). The shell is very hard + and thick; the kernel small, sweet, oily, resembling in + taste our common butternut; tree a rapid and stocky + grower, the coarse shoots and + large leaves resembling those of + the Ailantus tree at first, but + soon spreading branches appear, + forming an open, roundish head. + The seedlings, as raised here, are + abundantly supplied with small + fibrous roots, which insures + transplanting with safety. Apparently + perfectly hardy in our + Northern States, as I have heard + no complaints of winter-killing + of the young trees, although they are now widely distributed + and in considerable numbers, but none, so far + as I have been able to learn, have reached a bearing age + here in the North.</p> +<p>Mr. P. C. Berckmans, of Augusta, Ga., in writing + me under date of Dec. 3, 1894, says:</p> +<blockquote> + <p>"Last year we + fruited <i>Juglans Sieboldiana</i> trees four years from the + seed. Fruit was produced in long clusters, and trees + exceedingly ornamental, but this year these same trees + were killed to the ground on the 26th of March, after + they had set a crop of fruit and made a young growth of + more than twelve inches. This untimely frost may not + happen again in years, but it goes to show that many + varieties of trees which are considered hardy further + north, are sometimes destroyed here by spring frosts."</p> +</blockquote> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span></p> +<p>As these Japanese and Chinese walnuts are natives + of cold climates they may be better adapted to the Northern + than Southern States, but there is no locality entirely + exempt from late spring frosts, as most farmers + and fruit growers learned to their cost the past season. + There can be little doubt of this species of walnut being + the one described by Rhumphius under the name of <i>J. + Camirium</i>, and more fully later by Loureiro, as already + noted; but having come to us from Japan as Siebold's + walnut, this name will answer as well as any other, even + if it is not the proper one.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig86.jpg" alt="" title="" height="291" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._86" id="FIG._86">FIG. 86</a>. JUGLANS + CORDIFORMIS.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Juglans cordiformis</span>, Maxim.—In foliage and + growth of tree this is almost, if not absolutely, identical + with the last; the difference observed + is in the nuts, which are also produced + in pendulous clusters. The + form of the nut is almost round + (Fig. 86), rather blunt-pointed, but + the shell is deeply and unevenly furrowed, + and indented somewhat like + our black walnut; the ridges, however, + are not as sharp. The specimens + I have received from various + sources are not as large as the Siebold, + and the shell not quite as thick, but the kernel is + small. I may note here that there appears to be some + confusion in regard to this variety or species, for in several + nurserymen's catalogues this form of nut is figured + as Siebold's, and the one that I have described under + that name is called <i>Cordiformis</i>. The specimens received + from California, Japan, and also from Mr. Berckmans, + correspond with the names here given, but further + investigations may show that they should be reversed. + The one I have received as <i>Cordiformis</i> is, doubtless, + the nut described by Loureiro as <i>J. Catappa</i>, as an + ovate-oblong nut, with a fibrous, leathery, reddish husk.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span></p> +<p>While I do not suppose that these Oriental walnuts + will ever become of any considerable commercial value, + they are worth planting for shade and ornamental trees. + They are rather precocious, coming into bearing at an + early age, and the nuts are not only edible, but will + always be an acceptable addition to the unimportant + although agreeable household supplies.</p> +<p><strong>Persian Walnuts.</strong> <i>Juglans regia</i>, Linn. Royal + Walnut, Madeira Nut, English Walnut, French Walnut, + Chile Walnut, etc.—Leaflets five to nine, oval, smooth, + pointed, slightly serrate; fruit round or slightly oval; + husk thin, green, of a leathery texture, becoming brittle + and cleaving from the nut when ripe and dry; nut + roundish-oval, smallest at the top; shell smooth, with + slight indentations, thin, two-valved, readily parting at + the seams; kernel large, wrinkled and corrugated, the + two lobes separated below with a thin, papery partition, + but united at the top; sweet, oily, and generally + esteemed.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> <img src="images/fig87.jpg" alt="" title="" height="171" width="150" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._87" id="FIG._87">FIG. 87</a>. SMALL FRUITED WALNUT.</span> </div> +<p>This species has been in cultivation many centuries, + and in different countries and climates, and under such + variable conditions that many of the varieties + have departed widely from the normal + type. There are now an almost innumerable + number of varieties, varying greatly in + size and form. Some are not larger than a + good-sized pea, as seen in the "Small + Fruited Walnut" (Fig. 87), while others are nearly as + large as a man's fist, as in the thick-shelled or "Gibbous + Walnut" (Fig. 92), while in others the nut is greatly + elongated, as in the "Barthere Walnut" (Fig. 88), and + hundreds of other intermediate forms. There are also + varieties that bloom early in spring, others late. Some + are very hardy, others quite tender in cold climates. + There are also dwarf and tall-growing, as well as the + precocious and tardy fruiting varieties. But very few<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> of these have ever been cultivated in our Eastern + States, consequently little is known of their value + here; but more may be in the near future, when our + horticulturists and farmers begin to plant nut trees as + freely as they have other kinds, or are awakened to the + fact that such trees can be made a source of pleasure + and profit.</p> +<p>Here in the Northern States our main dependence + for hardy and productive trees of this species will be + upon seedlings or cions from those acclimated specimens + which have already been thoroughly tested and found to + be both hardy and prolific. There are plenty of these, + as I have stated elsewhere, and they are well worthy of + attention and multiplication until something better is + produced or discovered. In the meantime, the most + promising European varieties could be imported and + tested, although it is not probable that those originating + in southern France and Italy would be of much value + for planting in the latitude of New York city or north + of it, but south of this line the chances of success + would be somewhat greater; and to escape injury from + late spring frosts, the more elevated regions are preferable + to the lower and warmer anywhere in the Southern + States. In anticipation of the question being asked, I + will say that, at present, I do not know of any nurseryman + in the Eastern States who propagates or imports + named varieties of walnuts for sale. Of course, seedlings + of these are offered, but it is well known that there + is but a remote chance of these coming true from seed. + Even the little dwarf French walnut <i>Præparturiens</i>, or + Early Prolific, cannot be depended upon to produce + dwarf or early bearing trees beyond the first generation + from the nut, and these must be the product of grafted + trees, to insure this much. The following list contains + the names of only a few of the most noted varieties, the + greater part having originated in Europe.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap">Ailantus-leaved walnut.</span> See <a href="#Oriental_Walnuts.">Oriental walnuts</a>.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig88.jpg" alt="" title="" height="373" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._88" id="FIG._88">FIG. 88</a>. BARTHERE WALNUT.</span> </div> +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig89.jpg" alt="" title="" height="259" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._89" id="FIG._89">FIG. 89</a>. CHABERTE.</span> </div> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"> <img src="images/fig90.jpg" alt="" height="471" width="400" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._90" id="FIG._90">FIG. 90</a>. CHILE WALNUT.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Barthere walnuts.</span> See Fig. 88.—A very long + nut, pointed at both ends. Shell thin; kernel large and + of excellent flavor. + Named + after M. Barthere, + a horticulturist + of + Toulouse, + France, who + discovered it + growing among + a number of + other trees; consequently, its origin + is a mystery. M. Barthere says that + it is very productive, and even the + seedlings of this variety + begin to bear + very early.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Chaberte.</span>—An + old standard + French variety, of + an oval shape; medium + size, with + very full and rich + flavored kernel + (Fig. 89). The + tree buds and blooms late, therefore especially valuable + in localities where late spring frosts are likely to occur.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Chile walnut.</span>—This name is given, in a general + way, to all the walnuts received in our markets from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> South America. The nuts are usually of good size, with + a dark grayish shell; thin but firm, with plump kernels + of excellent flavor. These nuts arrive in February and + March. Many of the Chile walnuts have three valves + (Fig. 90), instead of the normal two. Such freaks are + occasionally found among the European varieties, also + in the native hickories, but these tri-valved nuts appear + to be very abundant among the Chile walnuts.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Cluster walnut</span>. <span class="smcap">Racemosa or Spicata</span>.—Described + by Mr. Gillet as a variety of the Persian walnut, + producing medium, thin-shelled nuts in long clusters of + from eight to twenty-eight. He also says that he introduced + it into this country, but from whence we are not + informed. LavellĂ©e (1877) records it as a variety of <i>J. + regia</i>, under the name + of <i>racemosa</i>, giving + its synonym as <i>Juglans + Californica</i> of + the horticulturists. + I have not found it + mentioned elsewhere.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 430px;"> <img src="images/fig91.jpg" alt="" height="405" width="430" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._91" id="FIG._91">FIG. 91</a>. CUT-LEAVED WALNUT.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Cut-leaved + walnut.</span>—A variety + with deeply cut + leaves; very ornamental, + as seen in + Fig. 91. Nuts quite small, but of good quality.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Franquette.</span>—Another old standard French variety, + with large, elongated-oval nuts with a distinct point. + Shell thin; kernel large, and of rich flavor. The tree + blooms late; valuable for planting in the South.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Gant or Bijou walnut.</span>—A remarkable variety + on account of its extraordinary size. The shell is thin, + with rather deep furrows, those of the largest size being + made into ladies' companions, where to stow away gloves + or handkerchiefs, hence the name "Gant" walnut.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> The kernel, though, does not correspond to the size of + the shell (Gillet).</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Gibbous walnut</span> (Fig. 92).—This is a very large + variety, supposed to be a hybrid, raised in France many + years ago. It is of little value, as the shell is very thick + and kernel small. + Valuable mainly for + its immense size.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> <img src="images/fig92.jpg" alt="" title="" height="492" width="400" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._92" id="FIG._92">FIG. 92</a>. GIBBOUS WALNUT.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Kaghazi.</span>—This + is supposed to + be a variety of the + Persian walnut, of + fair size, with a very + thin shell. The tree + blooms very late in + spring, and for this + reason is recommended + for localities + where there is danger + from injury by + frost. The tree is + said to be a very + rapid grower, and much more hardy than the general + run of varieties of this species. I have been unable to + learn its origin, but it has been planted quite extensively + in California, and some of our Eastern nurserymen + are offering the seedling trees for sale, but whether they + will possess the merits of the original or not must be + determined by experience.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Large-fruited Præparturiens.</span>—A sub-variety + of the Præparturiens, originating with Mr. Felix Gillet + of California.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Late Præparturiens.</span>—Also originated with Mr. + Gillet. Valuable because the trees bloom late in spring. + Nuts described as of medium size, but with full kernels + of excellent quality.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap">Mayette.</span>—Very large (Fig. 93), with a light-colored + shell of moderate thickness. Kernel plump, readily + extracted whole, as shown in Fig. 94, sweet, and a + rich, nutty flavor. Tree blooms late and is very productive. + An old and standard French variety.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig93.jpg" alt="" title="" height="370" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._93" id="FIG._93">FIG. 93</a>. MAYETTE.</span> </div> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig94.jpg" alt="" title="" height="314" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._94" id="FIG._94">FIG. 94</a>. KERNEL OF WALNUT.</span> </div> +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig95.jpg" alt="" title="" height="343" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._95" id="FIG._95">FIG. 95</a>. J. REGIA OCTOGONA.</span> </div> +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig96.jpg" alt="" title="" height="328" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._96" id="FIG._96">FIG. 96</a>. CROSS SECTION.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Mesange or Paper-shell.</span>—This nut has the + thinnest shell of any variety known; it derives its name + of Mesange from a little lark of that name, that goes to + the kernel through the tender shell. Tree very productive, + and the kernel quite rich in oil. We do not, however, + recommend the growing of this variety for market, + on account of the thinness of the shell, which breaks off<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> too easily in handling the nuts, or even when they drop + on the ground (Felix Gillet).</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Meylan Walnut.</span>—A French variety that originated + near the little village of Meylan, in the vicinity + of which it is quite extensively cultivated for home + use and export.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Octogona.</span>—Of uncertain origin, but very much + resembles one of the Oriental species in the form and + sculpture of the shell (Fig. 95). The shell is also very + thick, as shown in the cross section (Fig. 96). Of no + special value.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Parisienne Walnut.</span>—Although this was named + for the city of Paris it did not originate there, but in + the South of France. It is a + large and rather broad variety, + with a firm but thin shell (Fig. + 97) and excellent flavored kernel. + It is reported that this + variety succeeds in California, + also in the South wherever + tried. The trees leaf out late + in spring and are rarely injured + by frosts, and are remarkably productive.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Præparturiens.</span> Precocious Dwarf Prolific.—A + French variety of a dwarf habit, and the plants noted + for bearing when very young. A correspondent of <i>The + Garden</i> (London, Eng.), referring to this variety some + years ago, says:</p> +<blockquote> + <p>"It is precocious on account of the + singular and exceptional fact that it is born almost an + adult; in fact, it is nothing uncommon to see a tree in + its third year bearing excellent fruit."</p> +</blockquote> +<p>He does not say, + however, whether he refers to seedlings or grafted + plants, but we may presume the latter or those raised + from layers, for cultivators who have experimented with + seedlings have found that they possess a strong tendency<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> to revert to the original or tree form. This may not + show itself very strongly in the first generation if the + nuts are obtained from grafted trees of some age, but in + the second and third generation the early-fruiting and + dwarf are usually entirely lost. The only certain way of + securing the true variety is by grafting or layering, but + it is to be feared that very few trees propagated by these + modes are in cultivation, at least in the Eastern States, + although nurserymen have been offering Præparturiens + walnut trees in their catalogues during the past fifty + years. In one now before me, published in New York + city in 1844, trees of this walnut are offered at one dollar + each, or about what is charged for seedlings at the + present time. As nothing is said in the catalogues about + the mode of propagation, we infer that they are seedlings, + as grafted trees would be worth more than one + dollar. The nuts of this dwarf + walnut are of medium size, thin-shelled + and of excellent flavor; + valuable for gardens of limited + extent.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Serotina.</span> Late Walnut, St. + John Walnut.—A very peculiar + sort, inasmuch as it is the latest + of all to bud and bloom in spring, + and yet it pushes forward so rapidly + that the nuts are ripe with + others in the fall. They are of medium size (Fig. 98), + with a rather hard shell, but the kernel is plump and + good flavored. The tree is very productive, and sure to + escape late spring frosts.</p> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig97.jpg" alt="" title="" height="355" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._97" id="FIG._97">FIG. 97</a>. PARISIENNE.</span> </div> +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig98.jpg" alt="" title="" height="380" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._98" id="FIG._98">FIG. 98</a>. SEROTINA OR + ST. JOHN.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Vilmorin.</span>—This is claimed to be a hybrid between + some variety of <i>J. regia</i> and our native black walnut, <i>J. nigra</i>. Scarcely known outside of France.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Vourey.</span>—A new and splendid variety raised near + Vourey, a small town in southeast France. It has much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> the same shape and qualities of the Parisienne walnut + (Gillet).</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Variegated walnut.</span>—A handsome variety, with + young branches covered with dark-green bark spotted + with gray, and often striped longitudinally with yellow. + The leaves resemble those of the common walnut; the + fruit is of a light yellowish-green streaked with darker + green, and reminds one closely of certain varieties of + pears which, in common with this variety, frequently + have their young branches striped in a similar manner. + Propagated by grafting or layers. (<i>The Garden.</i>)</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Weeping walnut.</span>—A tree with pendulous twigs + and branches. Quite ornamental, but not especially + valuable for its fruit. Hardy in England.</p> +<p>In addition to those described, there are a large + number of varieties, which may be worth importing + and testing in this country, by those who may feel + inclined to make experiments with these nuts. Probably + some of those highly extolled by earlier writers are + now lost, but this cannot be determined until a careful + search through the old European gardens has + been made.</p> +<p>Among the early-fruiting or precocious varieties we + find an account of one raised by Anthony Carlisle, of + England, as recorded in a paper read at a meeting of the + Horticultural Society of London, March 3, 1812. Mr. + Carlisle planted six nuts in March, 1802, these having + been received from Mr. Thomas Wedgewood of + Blandford. Six years later, or in 1808, one of the seedlings + bore and matured ten walnuts, and the next season + (1809) upwards of fifty, and in 1810 one hundred and + twelve, the tree at that age being nineteen feet seven + and one-half inches high. Another variety, under the + name of Highflyer walnut, is described in the Transactions + of the same society, Vol. IV, 1822, p. 517. The + nuts sent to the society were grown in the town of Thetford,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> and are described as a long oval, with a shell so + very thin that the slightest pressure of the fingers + crushes it. I find that this Highflyer walnut is mentioned + in the recently published "Dictionary of Gardening," + but whether obtainable in English nurseries or + not we are left in doubt.</p> +<p>I refer to these English varieties mainly to show + that some of the very best and thinnest-shelled walnuts + have been grown in cool climates, and are not confined + entirely to the warm or semi-tropical, as many persons + seem to suppose and even claim to be the fact. It is + principally from these English walnuts, as they are usually + termed, that our hardy old-bearing trees, referred + to elsewhere, have been produced, and, doubtless, many + more will be, when we begin to pay some attention to + this very valuable nut. It is also quite likely that when + our horticulturists look about for choice acclimated + varieties for propagation, they will be found right here + in the grounds of next-door neighbors, and there may be + no necessity of sending to Europe or elsewhere for either + nuts or trees.</p> +<p>At present there is much confusion and uncertainty + in regard to the identity and nomenclature of both species + and varieties of the walnut, and it must remain so + until they are collected from all countries and climes, of + which they are either native or into which they have + been introduced, and when so collected, and fruiting + specimens produce, it will not be difficult to classify + and determine their synonyms. This will be an undertaking + scarcely to be expected of the individual nut culturist, + but is within the legitimate line of the arboretum, + and of public botanical gardens located in both cold and + warm climates, thereby securing a division of labor, and + at the same time avoiding the uncertainty of trying to + produce practical results under uncongenial conditions + and surroundings.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span></p> +<p><strong>Husking Walnuts.</strong>—The husks of nearly all the + varieties of the Persian and Oriental walnuts part from + their shells freely when fully ripened and dried, but in a + few varieties the husks are rather persistent, requiring + force and friction for their removal. This may be accomplished + by placing them in bags and shaking, or in + barrels and rolling, until the nuts are scraped clean. + But the better way, where there is any considerable + quantity of nuts to be operated upon, is to take a strong + barrel or cask, and so arrange it on standards that it + can be rapidly revolved with a crank attached to one + end. Of course, the cask must have its two heads left + in place, and an opening made in the side to admit the + nuts and remove them when cleaned. Almost any man + handy with tools can make such a cleaner and polisher + in a few hours, and if stored in a dry place it will last + for several years. With butternuts and black walnuts + the husks are much tougher, and they should be thrown + into heaps in the open air, and turned over occasionally + until the husks become softened sufficiently to permit + of their removal, in case they are to be sent to market. + Ordinary threshing machines may be used for cleaning + the husks from black walnuts, by removing about one-half + the teeth, or enough to allow the nuts to pass + through without breaking their shells.</p> +<p>Most of the hickories drop from the husk, leaving + the nut clean; but in some varieties of the pecan the + inner part of the husk adheres rather tenaciously, and + they sell better if cleaned; besides, some have rather + rough and thick shells, and a little scraping and polishing + adds much to their appearance. The revolving cask, + either worked by hand or other power, is an excellent + implement for preparing these nuts for market, and if + the husk is very persistent, a little dry sand thrown in + will aid in cleaning and polishing. Sometimes these + nuts are subjected to what is called the soapstone polish,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> leaving the shells very smooth, with a greasy feel. The + French walnuts, which are extensively imported under + the general name of Grenoble walnuts, are usually + bleached with sulphur before they are shipped, and + while this adds nothing to the quality of the kernel, the + sulphur is an excellent insecticide and fungicide, and + may be of some use on that account; but otherwise it is + likely to be more injurious than beneficial. As bleaching + both walnuts and almonds is often insisted upon by + dealers, I give the process suggested by Director Hilgard, + of the California Agricultural Experiment Station, which + he believes will prove more satisfactory than the one + usually employed, and is as follows:</p> +<blockquote> + <p>"The nuts, placed in small baskets (such as the + Chinese use for carrying), are dipped for about five minutes + in a solution containing to every fifty gallons of + water six pounds of bleaching powder and twelve pounds + of sal soda. They are then rinsed with a hose, and + after draining, again dipped into another solution containing + one per cent of bisulphite of lime; after the + nuts have assumed the desired tint, they are again rinsed + with water and then dried. Instead of the second dipping, + the nuts may be sulphured (fumigated) for ten or + fifteen minutes. The cost of fifty gallons of chlorine + dip will be about forty cents; the same bulk of the bisulphite + dip, probably considerably less. The time occupied + in handling one batch (two dips) is from twelve to + fifteen minutes."</p> +</blockquote> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig99.jpg" alt="" height="150" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._99" id="FIG._99">FIG. 99</a>. THE CATERPILLAR.</span> </div> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig100.jpg" alt="" height="232" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._100" id="FIG._100">FIG. 100</a>. THE REGAL WALNUT MOTH—CITHERONIA REGALIS.</span> </div> +<p><strong>Insect Enemies.</strong>—The walnut is attacked by the + same kinds of insects that infest the hickories, with, + perhaps, a few exceptions; as, for instance, the bark + beetles and the nut weevils. The leaves appear to be + more or less acceptable food for the caterpillars that + feed on the hickories, and the same insecticides and + means employed for destroying these pests on one will + answer for the other.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a><br /> + <a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></p> +<p>The caterpillars of some of the smaller kinds of + moths are, as a rule, far more destructive to the leaves + than the larger, and their ravages often escape notice + until it is too late for the use of preventives, or for their + destruction with insecticides.</p> +<p>Ever since I became connected with the New York + city press, some thirty odd years ago, scarcely a season + has passed during which one or more specimens of the + Regal walnut caterpillar (<i>Citheronia regalis</i>), shown in + Fig. 99, have not been received from some correspondent + who had found them crawling down the stem or on the + ground near a walnut tree. Such a large caterpillar + would naturally attract the attention of almost any person, + but to the timid its appearance is exceedingly ferocious + and repulsive, while to the entomologist it is a + beautiful and interesting creature, and far more likely + to be handled with care than injured. This caterpillar + is of a green color, and transversely banded across each + of the rings with pale blue. The head and legs are of + an orange color, also the long spine or horns, with the + points tipped with black. It is certainly very formidable + in appearance, but perfectly harmless, and may be + handled with impunity. The parent moth (Fig. 100) + has fore wings of an olive color, ornamented with small + yellow spots and veined with red lines. The hind wings + are orange-red, with two large irregular yellow patches + before, and a row of wedge-shaped olive colored spots + between the veins behind. Although this insect appears + to be widely distributed over the country, and the caterpillars + feed on the walnuts and occasionally on the + hickory, it has never been known to be sufficiently numerous + to attract any special attention.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.</h2> +<h3>MISCELLANEOUS NUTS—EDIBLE AND OTHERWISE.</h3> +<p>In the following list of plants there are a few that + in no way can be considered as related to the true nut-bearing + trees and shrubs; but as the word "nut" has + been attached as a prefix or affix in commerce, or elsewhere, + they are admitted, even if for no other purpose + than to designate their true position in the vegetable + kingdom. For convenience, they are recorded in alphabetical + order, the most familiar of the common names—where + there are more than one—being given precedence, + the botanical or scientific following, with a brief description, + as my limited space will not permit of anything + more extended.</p> +<p>It is not claimed that this catalogue of nuts is complete, + but it is probably as near it as any heretofore + compiled and published, and it may serve as the + basis for a better and more extended one at some future + time.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Acorn, or oak nut.</span>—The fruit of the oak, Quercus + (<i>Cupuliferæ</i>), monÅ“cious, evergreen and deciduous + trees and shrubs, with alternate and simple straight-veined + leaves. A very large genus, of about two hundred + and fifty species, mainly in the temperate region of + the northern hemisphere. There are some forty species + native of the United States. The nuts are, on the + whole, rather too harsh and bitter flavored to be esteemed + or considered edible by civilized nations at the + present day, but in former times some of the oak nuts + were often an important article among the garnered food<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> of the household. They were used—and are still, in + some countries—boiled, roasted, and even ground and + made into bread and cakes. They have also been used + as a substitute for coffee, and for malt in making beer. + Strabo says that in the mountains of Spain the inhabitants + ground their acorns into meal, and Pliny affirms + that in his time acorns were brought to the table with + the dessert, in Spain. Every student of English history + is well aware of the importance of the acorn, not only + as food for man, in Great Britain, in the time of the + Druids, and later, but also for feeding swine, deer, and + other wild and domesticated animals. But with the + advance of civilization and the production of better + food, the oak nut ceased to be classed among the important + culinary supplies. There are, however, a few species + of the oak yielding nuts fairly edible in their raw + state, and these are much improved by roasting. The + best of those among our native species are to be found + in the varieties of the white oaks of the North, and in + the evergreen (<i>Quercus virens</i>) of the Southern States. + But with so many far superior species of edible nuts, it + is very doubtful if any of the oaks will ever be cultivated + for their fruit.</p> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Australian_chestnut." id="Australian_chestnut.">Australian chestnut.</a></span>—The seeds of a large tree, + native of Australia, the <i>Castanospermum australe</i>, the + name of the genus being derived from <i>Kastanon</i>, chestnut, + and <i>sperma</i>, a seed, because the seeds resemble, in + size and taste, the common chestnut. But the tree + belongs to the bean family (<i>Leguminosæ</i>), and the seeds + are produced in large, long pods. They are about an + inch and a half broad, somewhat flattened, and of the + color of a chestnut when ripe. They are roasted and + eaten by the natives, but are rather unpalatable to those + who have been accustomed to something better in the + way of edible nuts. These seeds are also known as + "Moreton Bay chestnuts."</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Australian_hazelnut." id="Australian_hazelnut.">Australian hazelnut.</a></span>—The fruit of <i>Macadamia + ternifolia</i> (<i>Proteaceæ</i>). There are two species, both + evergreen trees or tall shrubs confined to eastern Australia. + The fruit is a kind of drupe with a fleshy exterior, + enclosing a hard shelled nut, not unlike a small + walnut. The kernel, when mature, has a rich and + agreeable flavor, much like but richer than the hazelnut, + hence one of its local names, for it is also known as + "Queensland nut." This nut tree would probably + thrive in southern Florida, and in the warmer parts of + California.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Ben nut.</span>—Fruit of <i>Moringa aptera</i> (<i>Moringeæ</i>). + Small, unarmed trees; only three species in the order, + these inhabiting tropical Asia, northern Africa and the + West Indies. The one producing the ben nuts grows + from fifteen to twenty feet high, and is found in upper + Egypt, Syria and Arabia. The seeds,—or nuts, as they + are called,—are produced in capsules or seed-pods about + a foot long, and while not edible, an oil is expressed + from them which is largely used in the manufacture of + perfumery, and known in commerce as ben oil. Another + species, the <i>M. pterygosperma</i>, or winged-seeded Moringa, + is known as the horse-radish tree, the bark of the + roots being used as a substitute for horse-radish.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Betel nut or pinang.</span>—The fruit of a lofty palm, <i>Areca Catechu</i> (<i>Palmaceæ</i>). A native of Cochin China, + the Malayan Peninsula, and adjacent islands. A slender-stemmed + palm, with regular pinnate leaves and long, + narrow leaflets. The fruit is produced on an erect, + fleshy spike, each fruit about the size of a hen's egg, + with a thick, fibrous rind or husk, enclosing a hard nut + somewhat like an ordinary nutmeg. These are used by + being cut into small pieces or slices, then rolled up in a + leaf of the betel pepper (<i>Piper betel</i>), a little lime sprinkled + over it, and then chewed or held in the mouth, as + practiced by those who use tobacco for chewing. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> habit of chewing the betel nut is said to be almost universal + among the Malayan races, all carrying a box containing + the nut leaf and lime. These nuts are shipped + in large quantities to countries where they do not grow, + and the habit of chewing them has spread enormously, + of late years, and is likely to increase, as it has with + tobacco; and the effect upon the users is said to be + very similar, although some authorities claim that the + betel is the most injurious of the two, having a far more + deleterious effect upon the teeth and gums. But this + may be due to the use of the lime. Travelers in countries + where these nuts are in common use tell wonderful + tales about the invigorating effects of the betel, and how + their assistants and followers are enabled, by its use, to + perform the most exhausting labor for days at a time, + which, without it, would be impossible. We have no + doubt that the users of tobacco will claim just as much + for this narcotic weed, and probably could produce as + many trustworthy witnesses in support of it. The betel + is, like tobacco, a narcotic stimulant, and causes giddiness + in persons unaccustomed to it, excoriates the + mouth, and is so burning that Western nations will be + slow to adopt this Eastern habit.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Bladder nut.</span>—A rather inappropriate name for + the seed pods and small seeds of one of our common + large deciduous shrubs, the <i>Staphylea trifolia</i>. It is + sometimes planted for ornament. The small white + flowers are produced in hanging racemes, succeeded by + large bladdery pods, hence its common name.</p> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Brazil_nut." id="Brazil_nut.">Brazil nut.</a></span>—The fruit of <i>Bertholletia excelsa</i>, a + lofty tree of the myrtle family (<i>Myrtaceæ</i>). The tree + attains a height of from one hundred to one hundred + and fifty feet, with stems three to four feet in diameter. + The leaves are broad, smooth, and about two feet long, + rather thick, and of the texture of leather. The fruit + is produced mainly on the uppermost branches, and is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> globular, four to six inches in diameter, with a brittle + husk on the outside, and within this a hard, tough, + woody shell, fully one-half inch thick, containing a large + number of the closely packed, three-sided, rough nuts, + about an inch and a half to two inches or over in length, + as seen in Fig. 101. The kernels are very white, solid + and oily. When mature the fruit falls entire, and the + natives of the country collect them, splitting the shells + to obtain the nuts. An occasional entire fruit is sent to + other countries, as a curiosity, + or for the cabinet of some botanist. + The Brazil nut is not + only indigenous to Brazil, but + also of Guiana, Venezuela (forming + immense forests on the Orinoco, + where they are called + Juvia), and southward on the + Rio Negra and in the valley + of the Amazon. In fact, the + supply appears to be inexhaustible; + the only difficulty is in + getting the nuts from the forests + to some point where they + can be shipped out of the + country. The principal export + is from Para, but there are + many smaller cities and towns + where a load of these nuts may be obtained on short + notice. A very superior oil may be obtained from the + nuts, by pressure, but the principal use for them is for + desserts and confectionery. They are always abundant + in our city markets.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig101.jpg" alt="" title="" height="332" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._101" id="FIG._101">FIG. 101</a>. BRAZIL NUT.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Bread nut.</span>—The fruit of a large tree, the <i>Brosimum + Alicastrum</i>, of the bread fruit family (<i>Artocarpaceæ</i>), + native of the West Indies, but best known in + Jamaica. The botanical authorities disagree in regard<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> to this species, some claiming that it is a large tree, with + wood similar to mahogany; others that it is only a small + shrub, only five or six feet high. It has lance-shaped + leaves, male and female flowers in globular heads, and + usually on separate trees. The fruit is about the size of + a plum, containing one seed or nut, which is only edible + after roasting.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Buffalo Nut.</span>—See <a href="#Oil_nut.">Oil nut</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Butternut.</span>—See <a href="#Souari_nut">Souari nut</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Byzantium Nut.</span>—See Filberts, <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">Chap. VI</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Candle Nuts.</span>—A small evergreen tree, the <i>Aleurites + triloba</i> of the spurgewort family (<i>Euphorbiaceæ</i>). + It is a native of most warm countries of the East: India, + Malay, southern Japan, and nearly all the islands of the + Pacific ocean, and in some of these it is cultivated for + the fruit, which is about two inches in diameter. In + the center there is a hard nut, very oily, with the flavor + of the walnut. The oil obtained from these nuts is in + common use among the natives of the Polynesian islands. + In the Hawaiian group the kernels are strung on a + small, dry stick, which serves the purpose of a wick, + and then one end lighted, as with an ordinary tallow + or wax candle, hence probably the common name of + candle nut. These nuts are said to be used in the + same way in India. Large quantities of oil is also + expressed from them and used for various purposes, + and occasionally small quantities are exported to European + countries.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Cape chestnut.</span>—The name of a beautiful evergreen + ornamental tree, native of south Africa, and recently + introduced into European gardens from the Cape + of Good Hope, hence its common, and its specific scientific + name, <i>Calodendron capense</i>. It belongs to the + Rue family (<i>Rutaceæ</i>). The flowers are red, produced + in long terminal racemes, the tree growing about forty + feet high, and said to be one of the finest trees of that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> part of Africa. It is now under trial in Florida. Why + called a chestnut I have been unable to discover.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> <img src="images/fig102.jpg" alt="" height="446" width="350" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._102" id="FIG._102">FIG. 102</a>. THE CASHEW NUT.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap">Cashew nut.</span>—A large shrub or small tree, native + of the West Indies, and for this reason often referred to + as the "Western Cashew," or <i>Anacardium occidentale</i>. + It belongs to the Terebinth family (<i>Anacardium</i>), consequently + is closely related to our native poison sumachs + (<i>Rhus</i>). The tree is an evergreen, with entire feather-veined + leaves; flowers of a reddish color, very small,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> sweet-scented, and produced in terminal panicles. The + fruit is kidney-shaped, and borne on a fleshy receptacle, + and when ripe of reddish or yellow color. The nut + proper is enclosed in a leathery covering, consisting of + two layers, between which is deposited a thick, caustic, + oily substance, exceedingly acrid; but this is eliminated + by heat, so that when the kernels are roasted they have + a pleasant flavor and are highly esteemed for dessert. + Some care is required in roasting these nuts, as the + fumes given off during this operation cause inflammation + of the eyes. The nuts also yield an excellent oil, + very similar to the best olive oil. Although originally + found only in the West Indies, this nut is now widely + distributed throughout the tropical countries of the + East; in fact, naturalized in all hot climates, and is also + under trial in southern Florida.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Caucasian walnut</span>. <span class="smcap">Winged walnut</span>.—The + winged fruit of <i>Pterocarya fraxinifolia</i>, also known as <i>P. Caucasica</i> of nurserymen's catalogues. It belongs to + the walnut family (<i>Juglandaceæ</i>), and is a tree growing + thirty to forty feet high, somewhat resembling the common + ash (<i>Fraxinus</i>). It is a pretty, hardy, ornamental + tree, thriving only in moist soils. Seeds on winged nuts + produced in long, drooping racemes, but of no special + value. Introduced into England from Caucasus in 1800, + and now plentiful here in nurseries.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Chestnut.</span>—See <a href="#CHAPTER_V">Chapter V</a>; also <a href="#Horse-chestnut.">Horse-chestnut</a>, + and <a href="#Moreton_Bay">Moreton Bay</a>, <a href="#Tahitian_chestnut.">Tahiti</a> and <a href="#Water_chestnut.">Water chestnuts</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Chocolate nut or bean.</span>—The seeds of a small + tropical tree, <i>Theobroma Cacao</i>, of the chocolate nut + family (<i>Sterculiaceæ</i>). Indigenous to tropical America, + but now cultivated more or less extensively in all hot + climates. The tree grows from fifteen to twenty feet + high, with long, pointed, smooth leaves. The flowers + are small, yellow, and produced from the old wood of + both stems and branches, succeeded by a pod-like fruit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> six to ten or more inches long, containing fifty to a hundred + seeds, resembling beans more than they do nuts. + When the fruit is ripe it is gathered, at which time the + seeds are covered with a gum-like substance, and to + remove this they are subjected to a slight fermentation, + after which they are dried in the sun, this giving them + their usual brown color. Chocolate nut trees are extensively + cultivated in Brazil, New Grenada, Trinidad, and, + in fact, throughout tropical America, and their cultivation + is, upon the whole, very profitable, as the demand + is almost unlimited.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Clearing nut.</span>—This is an East India name for + the seeds of <i>Strychnos potatorum</i>, a plant belonging to + the well-known nux vomica family (<i>Loganiaceæ</i>). It is + a small tree, native of India, the wood of which is used + for various purposes. The fruit is about the size of a + cherry, and contains one seed; this is dried, and used + for clearing muddy water, this being effected by rubbing + one of the little nuts around the sides of the vessel that + is to be filled, after which the water is poured in, and + then, through some unknown agency, all the foreign + matter settles, leaving the liquid perfectly pure, clear + and wholesome.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Cocoanut.</span>—One of the most widely-known and + largest of edible nuts; the product of <i>Cocos nucifera</i>, a + lofty, tree-like palm (<i>Palmæ</i> or <i>Palmaceæ</i>). It is a + native of tropical Africa, India, Malay, and of nearly all + the islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans. It only + thrives near the seacoast or where the sea breezes reach + it, requiring no special care after the nuts and young + plants once become established in a congenial soil. The + coco palm grows from fifty to one hundred feet high, + with pinnate leaves from ten to twenty feet long. The + nuts are produced in clusters of a dozen or more, and + when full grown are somewhat triangular and a foot + long, the outer coat or husk composed of a tough fiber.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> The nuts, when cleaned of their husks, are too well + known to call for a further description here. In countries + where these nuts are plentiful, their contents + form nearly the entire food of the natives, the milky + fluid serving for drink, and the more solid parts as + a substitute for meat and bread. The cocoa-nut + utilized in more ways, and for a greater variety of + purposes, than any other kind known, and it would + require a volume to briefly enumerate them. Of recent + years there have been plantations made of this nut on + the coast of southern Florida, and one of the most + extensive of these is by a man from New Jersey, but I + have not heard from him of late, or seen any reports + as to the results of his experiments. It is reported + that there are about 250,000 cocoa-nut trees now growing + in Florida.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Cocoanut, Double.</span>—This is the fruit of another + lofty palm, <i>Lodoicea Sechellarum</i>, and is usually considered + the largest member of the order. It is a native of + the Seychelles islands, in the Indian ocean. It is said + to reach a hight of a hundred feet, with a stem two feet + in diameter. The fruit is a large, oblong nut, with a + rather thin rind or husk, and when this is removed the + nut appears to be double, or two oblong nuts firmly + united, a kind of twin formation, the entire nut weighing + from thirty to forty pounds. These immense nuts + are produced in bunches of eight to ten, the cluster + sometimes weighing from three to four hundred pounds. + It is supposed that these nuts require about ten years to + grow and mature. They are useless as food, but the + shells are manufactured into various useful articles by + the natives, and they are also transported to other countries + and valued as curiosities. There is a great demand + for the leaves of this palm for making hats, baskets, etc., + and as the trees have to be cut down to obtain them, + they are becoming rather scarce.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Cola_nut" id="Cola_nut">Cola nut</a>, Kola nut or Goora nut.</span>—The fruit + of a small tree, native of the warmer parts of western + Africa, and known to botanists as <i>Cola acuminata</i>, and + of the Sterculiad family (<i>Sterculiaceæ</i>). In its native + country it grows thirty to forty feet high. The leaves + are oblong-elliptical, six to eight inches long, and pointed + (acuminate), and from this it probably derived its specific + name. The flowers are yellow, and produced in + axillary racemes, and succeeded by simple bean-like + pods, each containing several nut-like seeds, which the + natives call cola or goora nuts. These nuts have long + been an article of trade among the native tribes of Africa, + they being valued for their supposed efficacy in allaying + thirst, promoting digestion, giving strength, and preventing + exhaustion during the performance of hard manual + labor. This tree was early introduced into the West + Indies and Brazil, but its reputation in Africa does not + appear to have been sustained it its Western habitat.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Coquilla nut.</span>—The fruit of the Piassaba palm, <i>Attalea funifera</i>, a native of Brazil, where it grows + about thirty feet high. The fruit is produced in + bunches, and are each about three inches long, covered + with a thin rind. The nut is very hard, and is used as + a substitute for bone and ivory in the manufacture of + articles for the household.</p> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Coquito_nut." id="Coquito_nut.">Coquito nut.</a></span>—This is the fruit of the wing-leaved + palm of Chile, <span class="smcap">Jubæa spectabilis</span>. It is a moderately + tall species, and closely resembles, in general habit, the + date palm. The nuts are edible, but they are of secondary + importance, this palm being valued mainly for + the sweet sap issuing from the stem when cut down, + this continuing to exude from it for weeks after it is + severed from the roots. The sap is gathered and boiled, + and when reduced to the consistency of molasses becomes + an article of commerce, under the name of Meil de Palma + or palm honey.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap">Cream nut.</span>—A local name of <a href="#Brazil_nut.">Brazil nut</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Dawa nut.</span>—See <a href="#Litchi_nut">Litchi nut</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Earth nut, or <a name="earth_chestnut" id="earth_chestnut">earth chestnut</a>, etc.</span>—A small, + low-growing, herbaceous plant of the carrot family + (<i>Umbelliferæ</i>), common in waste or uncultivated grounds + in Great Britain and other countries of northern Europe. + Formerly botanists supposed there were two species, but + of late only one, the <i>Bunium bulbocastanum</i>. On the roots there are + small, nut-like tubers, of a sweetish taste, and they are eaten by children, + either in the raw state or after being roasted. These tubers have various local + names, and in addition to the above, they are called kipper nuts, and pig nuts + in England, but a familiar local name in Scotland is lousy nuts, because it is + said that eating them is sure to breed lice. But this story may have been + invented by parents to deter their children from digging and eating the roots of + wild plants. Willdenow, in naming this species, certainly recognized its edible + qualities, and that children were fond of it, else he would not have called it + an earth chestnut,—<i>bulbo</i>, + bulb, and <i>castanum</i> from <i>castanea</i>, the chestnut.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Elk nut.</span>—See <a href="#Oil_nut.">Oil nut</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Fisticke nut.</span>—See <a href="#Pistachio_nut.">Pistacia nut</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Fox_nut." id="Fox_nut.">Fox nut.</a></span>—The seeds of a floating, annual aquatic + plant, the <i>Euryale ferox</i>, native of India, and belonging + to the water lily family (<i>Nymphæaceæ</i>). It is a handsome + plant, with leaves about two feet in diameter, of a rich + purple on the underside, with thorn-like spines on the + veins. Flowers deep violet-red. The seeds of this species + are eaten by the natives, the same as the aborigines + of this country gathered the seeds of our indigenous <i>Nelumbium luteum</i>, under the name of water chinquapin, + using them for food in the late fall and winter.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Ginkgo nut.</span>—The large, round, white, somewhat + flattened, nut-like seeds of the now common maidenhair + tree, or <i>Ginkgo biloba</i>, also known as <i>Salisburia adiantifolia</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> of some nurserymen's catalogues and many recent + botanical works. The former, however, is the older + and correct scientific name. This tree is a native of + China and Japan, and of a slender, sparsely branched + habit, growing from fifty to eighty feet high in its native + countries. It is a deciduous, cone-bearing (<i>Coniferæ</i>) + tree, with two-lobed, fan-shaped leaves two to three + inches broad, divided about halfway down from the top. + The male and female flowers are on separate trees, and + to secure seed or nuts both sexes must be grown near + together. The ginkgo was introduced into European + gardens in 1754, and there are now many fruiting specimens, + especially in France, from whence the nuts have + long been secured for planting, by nurserymen and + others interested in tree culture. There are very few + bearing trees in this country, and one in Washington, + D. C., has been fruiting for a number of years. In + China and Japan the seeds or nuts are valued for their + edible qualities, but they have a kind of disagreeable, + balsamic taste in their raw state, although this is dispelled + by roasting, after which they are quite sweet and + palatable. As the trees do not begin to bear until of + considerable age, and the nuts are inferior to many other + kinds, I do not think the ginkgo will ever become very + popular in this country as a nut tree.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Goora nut.</span>—See <a href="#Cola_nut">Cola nut</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Gorgon nut.</span>—See <a href="#Fox_nut.">Fox nut</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Groundnut.</span>—The small, globular tubers of the + dwarf three-leaved ginseng, <i>Aralia trifolia</i>, are called + groundnuts in some of our Northern States, and they + are frequently sought for, dug up and eaten by children, + as I know from personal experience. The plant belongs + to the ginseng family (<i>Araliaceæ</i>), and is closely related + to the true five-leaved ginseng (<i>Aralia quinquefolia</i>), + but our groundnut has only three leaves, instead of + five; besides, it is a somewhat smaller plant, rarely more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> than six to eight inches high. When the scattered seed + sprout in spring, they send down a long, slender, thread-like + rootstock, to a depth of from four to six inches, and + at the bottom of this the small tuber is produced. It + has a somewhat pungent taste, but this only whets the + appetite of a boy when on a hunt for ground nuts.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Groundnut.</span>—The tubers of one of the most widely + distributed climbing plants of the Eastern States, and + common in low, wet grounds almost everywhere, from + Canada to Florida, and westward to the Mississippi. + This plant is described in most of the botanical works + of the present day under the name of <i>Apios tuberosa</i>, + and it belongs to the Pulse family (<i>Leguminosæ</i>), and + is closely related to the common and well-known wistarias, + although much smaller and of a more slender habit. + It is a smooth, perennial, twining vine, with pinnate + leaves, and dense racemes or clusters of small brownish-purple + pea-shaped flowers. The subterranean rootstocks + bear long strings of edible tubers, from one to two inches + long, and from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, + somewhat variable in shape, dark brown on the + outside, but white within. When boiled or roasted + these tubers have a rich, farinaceous, nutty flavor. + This tuber or groundnut is the one described by Mr. + Thomas Herriot, the historiographer of Sir Walter + Raleigh's expedition to Virginia in 1585, under the Indian + name of "Openawk." He says: "These roots + are round, some as large as walnuts, others much larger; + they grow in damp soil, many hanging together, as fixed + on ropes; they are good food, either boiled or roasted." + These tubers are to be found in the swamps and damp + soils of Virginia at this day, just as they were at the + time of Herriot's visit, but many modern historians have + tried to make out that Raleigh's colonists found our + common potato among the Indians at that time, although + I have never been able to find a scrap of trustworthy history<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> to support such a claim, or that Raleigh himself + ever planted or cultivated the American potato in Ireland + or England, or, in fact, ever tasted one of these + tubers.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Groundnut.</span>—See <a href="#Peanut">Peanut or Goober</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Hazelnut, or Chile hazel.</span>—This is merely a + local English name for the fruit of a small evergreen + tree, native of Chile, S. A., where it is known as Guevina, + and this has been adopted as the name of the genus, + adding the specific name of the European hazel, so we + have <i>Guevina Avellana</i>, although in some botanical + works it may be found under the name of <i>Qudria heterophylla</i>. + It belongs to the Protea family (<i>Proteaceæ</i>). + It has white, hermaphrodite flowers, in long axillary + racemes; these are succeeded by coral-red fruit about + the size of a large cherry; the stone or nut-like seeds + being edible are largely used by the Chileans. They are + said to taste like the hazel, hence the name. Trees are + hardy in the southwest of England, and would probably + succeed here in the Southern States. It has been + planted and found to thrive in California. Readily + propagated from seed or green cuttings under glass.</p> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Horse-chestnut." id="Horse-chestnut.">Horse-chestnut.</a></span>—The fruit of a genus of deciduous + ornamental trees and shrubs, native of Asia and + North America. The common horse-chestnut, or <i>Æsculus + Hippocastanum</i>, is a native of Asia, and was introduced + into Europe over three hundred years ago, its + large, smooth seeds and prickly husks probably suggesting + both its common and scientific names, although + these trees do not even belong to the same order as the + true edible chestnuts (<i>Castanea</i>), but to the soapworts + (<i>Sapindaceæ</i>). It is supposed that the prefix, "horse," + was derived from a custom among the Turks, of giving + the nuts to horses as a medicine when these animals + were afflicted with a cough or inclined to become wind-broken. + In southern Europe they are sometimes fed to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> cows to increase the flow of milk, and at one time they + were employed for making paste for book binders. + They are scarcely edible, although containing considerable + farinaceous matter, owing to the presence of a bitter + narcotic principle. Our native species, better known as + Buckeyes, with both smooth and prickly fruit, are + equally worthless as food.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Ivory nut.</span>—There are two species of palms producing + nuts hard enough to be employed as a substitute + for ivory, in the manufacture of small articles of domestic + use. But the one best known to commerce under + the name of ivory nut is the fruit of <i>Phytelephas macrocarpa</i>, + native of New Granada and other parts of Central + America. This palm is a low-growing and almost decumbent + species, the stem seldom more than six to eight + inches in diameter; but the leaves are of immense length, + or from fifteen to twenty feet, growing in bundles, or + clusters. The fruit consists of about forty nuts, enclosed + in a rough, spiny husk, of a globular form, produced + on a short footstalk growing from the axis of the + leaves, the whole bunch weighing from twenty to thirty + pounds. They are two inches long, slightly triangular, + and covered with a thin, pulpy coat, which becomes + dry, papery and brittle when thoroughly dried, but + when in its green state it is sometimes utilized by the + natives for making a favorite beverage. The ripe nuts + are very solid, hard, and when polished resemble ivory. + Immense quantities of these nuts are imported into this + country, as well as Europe, and used as a substitute for + bone and ivory for making buttons, toys, and similar + small articles.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Jesuit chestnut.</span>—See <a href="#Water_chestnut.">Water chestnut</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Jicara nut.</span>—A local name, in some of the Central + American States for the Calabash (<i>Crescentia Cujete</i>). + A low-growing, rather rough tree, with simple leaves, + usually three growing together on a broad leafstalk.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> The fruit is extremely variable, both in size and form, + but mainly globose, and two to four inches in diameter. + The shell is very hard, and largely used for drinking + cups, and these are sometimes highly ornamented on + the outside. The kernel is scarcely edible, but is used + by the natives as a medicine.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Juba nut.</span>—See <a href="#Coquito_nut.">Coquito nut</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Juvia nut.</span>—See <a href="#Brazil_nut.">Brazil nut</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Kipper nut.</span>—See <a href="#earth_chestnut">Earth chestnut</a>.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 160px;"> <img src="images/fig103.jpg" alt="" title="" height="191" width="160" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._103" id="FIG._103">FIG. 103</a>. LITCHI OR LEECHEE NUT.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Litchi_nut" id="Litchi_nut">Litchi nut</a> or leechee nut.</span>—I am inclined to + think that the affix of "nut" to this Oriental fruit is + an Americanism, and not used elsewhere. There are + three distinct species of this fruit known among the + Chinese, under the name of Litchi, Longan or Long-yen, + and Rambutan, all the product + of the Nepheliums, a genus + of the soapberry family (<i>Sapindaceæ</i>). + By some of the earlier + botanical works the litchi is placed + either in the genus <i>Dimocarpus</i> or <i>Euphoria</i>. Within the past + few years this fruit has appeared + in our markets, in consequence + of the increased trade with Oriental countries, and facilities + for rapid transit across the continent. The litchi is + a globular fruit, about one inch in diameter (Fig. 103), + with a thin, chocolate-brown colored shell covered with + wart-like protuberances. When fresh the shell is filled + with a white, jelly-like pulp, in the center of which + there is one rather large, smooth brown seed. The pulp + is of a most delicious sub-acid flavor, but it is often + rather dry and stale in the nuts which reach us from + China and Japan. The tree producing this fruit is seldom + more than twenty-five feet high, with rather sturdy + twigs and branches, the leaves composed of about seven + oblong pointed leaflets. This is said to be one of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> most popular of Oriental fruits, and the trees would + probably succeed in many of the Southern States and in + California. It is now on trial in Florida, having been + introduced there in 1886. It has been fruited in England + many times, but always under glass, where the + plants receive protection and artificial heat. A full + description of this species, accompanied by a superb colored + plate of the <i>Nephelium</i> or <i>Dimocarpus Longana</i>, appeared + in the "Transactions of the London Horticultural + Society," 1818, p. 402. There are not only a large number + of species of the Nepheliums bearing edible fruit, + but, as might be expected from their long and extensive + cultivation, many local varieties, especially in the southern + provinces of China and throughout the islands of + tropical Asia. The Dawa of the Fiji islands is the fruit + of <i>N. pinnatum</i>, a tree growing sixty feet high, and + forming extensive forests on those islands. At some + future time we may be receiving the dawas under the + name of Fiji nuts.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Lousy nut.</span>—See <a href="#earth_chestnut">Earth chestnut</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Marking nut.</span>—The seeds of <i>Semecarpus Anacardium</i>, + an evergreen tree of the cashew-nut family (<i>Anacardiaceæ</i>), + native of tropical Asia, and especially Ceylon. + It has large, oblong leaves, and grows about fifty + feet high, and the fruit is produced on a fleshy receptacle. + The natives roast and eat these nuts, and the black + juice obtained from the green fruit is used for marking + cloth, hence the common name. The juice is also mixed + with lime to make an excellent indelible ink, also for a + kind of varnish.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Miriti nut or ita palm nut.</span>—These are the + Indian names of the fruit of a lofty palm tree, the <i>Mauritia + flexuosa</i>, of the swamps along the Orinoco river, + also in wet soils at higher elevations. This giant palm + grows to a hight of a hundred and fifty feet, with an + immense crown of large, fan-shaped leaves, and just<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> beneath these the fruit appears in a pendulous cluster + eight to ten feet long, containing several bushels, weighing, + altogether, from one to three hundred pounds. + The individual nuts are about the size of an ordinary + apple, with a very smooth shell, somewhat veined or + streaked. The natives of the country not only use the + farinaceous kernels of these nuts as food, but obtain a + saccharine material from the pith, out of which they + make wine by fermentation. The petioles of the leaves + also furnish them with a strong fiber, used as thread-cord, + and for various other purposes.</p> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Moreton_Bay" id="Moreton_Bay">Moreton Bay</a> chestnut.</span>—See <a href="#Australian_chestnut.">Australian chestnut</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Monkey-pot nut.</span>—See <a href="#Sapucaia_nut.">Sapucaia nut</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Myrobalan_nut." id="Myrobalan_nut.">Myrobalan nut.</a></span>—This name is applied rather + indiscriminately to the fruits of several species of the + genus <i>Terminalia</i>, which are, in the main, large trees of + the Myrobalan family (<i>Combretaceæ</i>). They are native + of India, Malay, Fiji, and, in fact, almost all the islands + of the Pacific in warm latitudes. The fruits are similar + to large plums, but slightly angular, containing a hard, + nut-like seed. They are used principally for tanning + leather, and also for making ink similar to that made + from oak galls. The kernels of all the species are edible, + and are eaten by the natives. In the Fiji islands + the <i>Terminalia Catappa</i> is a favorite tree with the natives, + and they plant it near the houses. The kernels of this + species have the flavor of the sweet almond.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Nickar nut.</span>—The seeds of two species of <i>Guilandina</i>, + a genus of the bean family (<i>Leguminosæ</i>). They + are climbing plants, with hard-wooded, prickly stems, + forming almost impenetrable thickets near the seacoast + in the East Indies and other tropical countries. They + have become widely distributed, as the pods readily float + when they drop into the water. The pods are about + three inches long, very prickly, containing seeds or nuts + about the size of small marbles, and exceedingly hard;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> but in time the water softens them, after which they + sprout and grow when cast upon the shore by the waves. + The two species are distinguished mainly by the color of + the nuts, those of <i>G. Bonduc</i> being yellow, and those of <i>G. Bonducella</i> gray, or with a reddish tint. Of no value + or use except as botanical curiosities.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Nitta or nutta nut.</span>—The native African name + of the seeds of <i>Parkia Africana</i>, a tree of the sensitive-tree + section of the bean family (<i>Leguminosæ</i>). It grows + about forty feet high, and has compound winged leaves. + It has become naturalized in the West Indies. The + pods grow in clusters, the seeds imbedded in a yellowish, + sweet pulp, like the carob or St. John's bread, and the + negroes are very fond of them. In the Soudan the seeds + are roasted, and then allowed to ferment in water until + they are soft and putrid, after which they are washed, + pounded and dried, then made up into cakes to be used + as a sauce for different kinds of food. It is supposed + that the African traveler, Mungo Park, first brought + these seeds or nuts to the notice of Europeans, and + Robert Brown named the genus <i>Parkia</i> in his honor.</p> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Nutmeg." id="Nutmeg.">Nutmeg.</a></span>—A name applied to the fruits of a large + number of trees, and of different orders of plants. The + true nutmegs of commerce are the fruits of trees belonging + to the genus <i>Myristica</i>, and of the family <i>Myristicaceæ</i>. + The oldest and best known of these is the <i>M. + fragrans</i>, a small, widely branching tree, growing + twenty to twenty-five feet high, and supposed to be + indigenous to the Indian Archipelago. The fruit is + about the size of an ordinary walnut, with a thick rind, + which, upon opening, at maturity, discloses a reddish + aril covering the nut within. This aril or husk is the + mace of commerce, while the true nutmeg is the center + or hard seed (nut). The Brazil nutmeg is longer than + the true species, and is sold under the name of long nutmeg, + and is the fruit of <i>M. fatua</i>. Another species, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> <i>M. otoba</i>, is cultivated in Madagascar, but is scarcely + known in commerce.</p> +<p>Another species, the <i>M. sebifera</i>, is a common tree + in the forests of Guiana, North Brazil, and up into + Panama. It is utilized principally for the oil extracted + from the nuts, obtained by macerating them in water, + the oil rising to the surface, and as it cools skimmed off.</p> +<p>The seeds of several species of conifers and laurels + are known, either locally or in commerce, as nutmegs, + or are used as a substitute for the true nutmeg. There + are three different kinds of trees, native of Guiana, in + addition to the one already named, the seeds of which + are employed as a spice or medicine. One of these is + the <i>Acrodiclidium camara</i>. These nuts are known in + commerce as "Ackawai nutmegs," and are used mainly + as a cure for diarrhÅ“a and colic. Another is the seed + of the <i>Aydendron Cujumary</i> tree, and they are known + in commerce as "Cujumary beans," although they are + not, strictly speaking, a bean, and the same is true of + the so-called "Puchurim beans," from the same country, + for they are the fruit of <i><a name="Nectandy_Puchury" id="Nectandy_Puchury">Nectandy Puchury</a></i>, a small tree + of the laurel family. They are used as a tonic, and considered + highly stimulating.</p> +<p><i>Clove Nutmeg</i>, or Madagascar nutmeg of commerce, + is the fruit of <i>Agathophyllum aromaticum</i>, a + small evergreen tree, indigenous to Madagascar.</p> +<p><i>Brazilian Nutmegs</i> are the highly aromatic seeds + of <i>Cryptocarya moschata</i>, or <i>Atherosperma moschata</i> of + some botanists. It is a lofty tree, native of Brazil. The + aromatic nuts are used as a substitute for nutmegs, but + are very inferior to the genuine.</p> +<p><i><a name="Peruvian_Nutmeg" id="Peruvian_Nutmeg">Peruvian Nutmeg</a>, or Plum Nutmeg.</i>—The seeds + of a large evergreen tree with aromatic foliage, like our + common sassafras, and for this reason is sometimes + called Chilean or Peruvian sassafras. The seeds are of + no more economic value than those of our native sassafras.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> It is known under various botanical names, but <i>Laurelia sempervirens</i> is, perhaps, the most familiar.</p> +<p><i>California Nutmeg</i>, or <i>Stinking Nutmeg</i>, is the + nut-like seed of <i>Torreya Californica</i>, a small tree of + the yew family (<i>Taxaceæ</i>). The fruit is from an inch + to an inch and a half long, with a fleshy rind enclosing + a hard, long nut, which is slightly grooved like a nutmeg. + The fruit, leaves and wood are strongly scented, + hence the name of "stinking nutmeg," or "stinking + yew." Another species, the <i>T. taxifolia</i>, is a native of + Florida.</p> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Oil_nut." id="Oil_nut.">Oil nut.</a></span>—The fruit of a low-branching, deciduous + native shrub, growing three to ten feet high, with alternate + leaves and small greenish flowers in terminal spikes. + It is the <i>Pyrularia oleifera</i> of Gray, and <i>Hamiltonia + oleifera</i> of Muhlenberg. The fruit is in the form of a + pear-shaped drupe, about an inch long, the small seed + or nut with an oily kernel of strong acrid taste; of no + value. This shrub is found on shady banks in the + mountains of Pennsylvania, and southward into Georgia.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Paradise nut.</span>—See <a href="#Sapucaia_nut.">Sapucaia nut</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Peanut" id="Peanut">Peanut</a></span>, <span class="smcap">groundnut</span>, <span class="smcap">goober</span>.—The well-known + fruit of <i>Arachis hypogæa</i>, a low-growing annual belonging + to the pulse or pea family (<i>Leguminosæ</i>), supposed + to be a native of South America, but now extensively + cultivated in nearly all semi-tropical countries and + wherever the summers are long enough to insure the + ripening of the seeds. Extensively cultivated in Virginia, + south and westward. Too well known to require + any further comment or notice here.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Pecan nut.</span>—See <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Chap. VII</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Pekea nut.</span>—See <a href="#Souari_nut">Souari nut</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Peruvian nut.</span>—See <a href="#Nutmeg.">Nutmegs</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Physic nut.</span>—The seeds of <i>Jatropha Curcas</i>, a + small tree of the spurgewort family (<i>Euphorbiaceæ</i>). It + is native of some of the West Indies and warmer parts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> of South America, but now cultivated in other tropical + countries for its seeds, which yield an oil used for the + same purposes as castor oil, but rather more powerful + and drastic. The seeds have a nutty flavor, but are + rather dangerous if eaten in any considerable quantities, + and death has been known to follow excess in this + direction.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Physic nut.</span>—In "Bartram's Travels," he refers + to a seed or nut of a plant he found growing in Florida + under this name, p. 41, as follows: "... some + very curious new shrubs and plants, particularly the + physic nut or Indian olive. The stems arise, many from + a root, two or three feet high; the leaves sit opposite, + on very short petioles; they are broad, lanceolate, entire + and undulated, having a smooth surface, of a deep green + color. From the bosom of each leaf is produced a single + oval drupe, standing erect on long slender stems; it + has a large kernel and thin pulp. The fruit is yellow + when ripe, and about the size of an olive. The Indians, + when they go in pursuit of deer, carry this fruit with + them, supposing that it has the power of charming or + drawing that creature to them, from whence, with + traders, it has obtained the name of physic nut, which + means, with them, charming, conjuring or fascinating."</p> +<p>To what kind of fruit Bartram referred under the + name of "physic nut," is not certain, but his description + of the plant comes very near that of the American + olive (<i>Olea Americana</i>), but the fruit of this and other + closely allied plants of the same family are not "yellow" + when ripe, but purple.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Pignut, or hognut.</span>—See chapter on <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Hickory</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Pine nut.</span>—A name applied indiscriminately to + the many species of pine trees (<i>Pinus</i>) bearing seeds + large enough to be conveniently used as food. In southern + Europe, and especially in Italy and the south of + France, the seeds of the stone pine (<i>Pinus Pinea</i>) have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> been extensively used as food, from the earliest times + down to the present day. Nearly all the ancient authors + refer to them as among the valuable products of the + country. Macrobius, in his story of the <i>Saturnalia</i>, + speaks of the cones as <i>Nuces vel Poma Pinea</i>. These + pine nuts are called <i>Pinocchi</i> in Italy and Sicily, and + occasionally a few reach this country, where the Italian + name has been corrupted into Pinolas. These seeds or + nuts are used for desserts, puddings and cakes, also + eaten raw at table, + as with almonds. + They have a slight + taste of turpentine, + but it is not strong + enough to be at all + disagreeable.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig104.jpg" alt="" title="" height="415" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._104" id="FIG._104">FIG. 104</a>. BRANCH OF NUT PINE.</span> </div> +<p>In this country + we have several native + species bearing + very large edible + seeds, and they are + known in the West + under the general + name of <i>Piñon</i>, or + nut pines. The + best of these nuts, + to my taste, are the + seeds of <i>Pinus + edulis</i>, so named + by the late Dr. Engelmann, because of its large, sweet + and edible seeds. It is a small, low-growing tree, more + or less common on dry hills and slopes, from Colorado + southward through New Mexico, and into western + Texas. The seeds of <i>Pinus Parryana</i> and <i>Pinus cembroides</i>, + of Arizona and Lower California, are also called + Piñons, and largely gathered by the Indians. Farther<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> east and north, we find the one-leaved pine (<i>Pinus monophylla</i>), + and although the seeds are much smaller than + those of <i>P. edulis</i>, they were formerly gathered in immense + quantities by the Indians, to help eke out their + often scanty winter store of food. Occasionally a small + quantity of these pine nuts is sent to Eastern markets, + but rarely, unless ordered early in the season. The trees + of <i>P. edulis</i> and <i>P. monophylla</i> are perfectly hardy here, + and worth cultivating for ornament, as well as their + nuts, although their slow growth is a rather severe test + of one's patience. Fig. 104 shows a Piñon branch.</p> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Pistachio_nut." id="Pistachio_nut.">Pistachio nut.</a></span>—Historically, this is a very ancient + nut, for Bible commentators claim that it is the one sent + by Jacob into Egypt. It is the fruit of a small, deciduous + tree of the cashew family (<i>Anacardiaceæ</i>), a native + of western Asia, but many centuries ago it had become + naturalized in Palestine and throughout the Mediterranean + regions. It has shining evergreen winged leaves, + and the bark on the young twigs is brown, becoming + russet-colored with age. There are several different + species, but the one producing the nuts of commerce is + the <i>Pistacia vera</i>, having brownish-green flowers in + loose panicles, and these are succeeded by bunches of + reddish fruit, about an inch long, with an oblique or + bent point. The nuts have a double shell, the outer + one usually red, the inner one smooth and brittle; the + kernel is pale green, sweet, and of rather pleasant taste. + There are a number of varieties, differing only slightly + in form and size. This nut has been cultivated sparingly + in Great Britain since 1570, but the climate is not + quite warm enough to insure its ripening in the open + air. It would probably succeed throughout the greater + part of California, as well as in the extreme Southern + States, but Mr. Berckmans writes me that it is not + hardy in his grounds at Augusta, Ga. There is a species + of pistacia known as <i>P. Mexicana</i>, found in central<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> Mexico, and extending as far north as San Diego, in + California, according to the report of Dr. Cooper (Botany + of California, Vol. I, p. 109).</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Quandang nut.</span>—A medium size Australian tree, + the <i>Santalum acuminatum</i>, of the sandalwood family + (<i>Santalaceæ</i>). It produces a plum-like fruit, which is + best known in its native country as the quandang nut. + It is used as a preserve, but is little known, except in + or near its native habitats.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Queensland nut.</span>—See <a href="#Australian_hazelnut.">Australian hazelnut</a>.</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig105.jpg" alt="" title="" height="348" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._105" id="FIG._105">FIG. 105</a>. PARADISE OR SAPUCAIA NUT.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sapucaia_nut." id="Sapucaia_nut.">Sapucaia nut.</a></span>—The Brazilian name of, at least, + two species of large forest trees growing in the valley of + the Amazon and its tributaries. + The best known of these is the <i>Lecythis Zabucajo</i>, a lofty tree of + the myrtle family (<i>Myrtaceæ</i>). It + is closely allied to the more common + Brazil nut of commerce. The + sapucaia nuts are produced in an + urn-shaped, woody capsule, which + has received the name of Monkey-pot, + because when these capsules + ripen the lid at the top is suddenly + liberated, emitting a sharp sound, + which, as heard by the monkeys, + gives them notice that the nuts are + falling, and that the first on the + ground becomes the fortunate possessor + of the largest number. The + capsules or pots are about six + inches in diameter, and the lid opening at the top about + two inches. The nuts, which are packed very closely in + the shell, are about one inch in diameter, and two to + three in length, with a thin, brown, and very much + wrinkled and twisted shell (Fig. 105). The kernel is + white, sweet, oily, and somewhat more delicate in flavor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> than that of the common Brazil nut. In New York + city these nuts are sold under the name of Paradise + nuts. But this is probably only a local name, for I + have been unable to find it in any botanical work. + These nuts rarely come to this country in any considerable + quantities; a few hundred pounds at a time would + be considered a large consignment.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Sassafras nut.</span>—See <a href="#Peruvian_Nutmeg">Nutmeg, Chilean</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Sassafras nut.</span>—See <a href="#Nectandy_Puchury">Nutmeg, Puchury</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Snake nut.</span>—A large, roundish fruit, about the + size of the black walnut, the product of the <i>Ophiocaryon + paradoxum</i>, a large tree of the soapberry family (<i>Sapindaceæ</i>), + native of British Guiana. This nut takes its + name of "Snake nut," from the peculiar form of the + embryo of the seed, which is curled up spirally. The + Indians, thinking there must be some virtue in form, + use these nuts as an antidote for snake bites, although, + so far as known to science, they do not possess any + medicinal properties.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig106.jpg" alt="" height="451" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._106" id="FIG._106">FIG. 106</a>. SOUARI NUT.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Souari_nut" id="Souari_nut">Souari nut</a>, or butternut.</span>—This nut, like the + last, is a native of British Guiana, and is the fruit of the <i>Caryocar nuciferum</i>, a noble tree, growing a hundred + feet high, having large, broad, trifoliate leaves, resembling + those of our common horse-chestnut, but not + quite as broad. The flowers are very large, and, with + the tube, fully a foot long, of a deep purple on the outside, + and yellow within. They are composed of five + thick, fleshy petals, and as showy as some of our best + and brightest-colored magnolias. The flowers are produced + in terminal clusters or corymbs, succeeded by a + large, round, four-celled fleshy fruit five to six inches in + diameter; but as some of the embryo nuts usually fail + to grow, it changes the form of the fruit as it enlarges + towards maturity, and only one or two of the nuts mature + and ripen, very much as frequently occurs in both + the sweet and horse-chestnuts. The nuts are affixed to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> a central axis, and are of a rounded, subreniform shape, + and even flattened to an almost sharp edge on one side, + and broadly truncate at the scar (hilum) where they are + attached to the pericarp or central axis. The shell is of + a deep brown color, embossed, as it were, with smooth + tubercles. They are from two to two and a half inches + or more in their broadest diameter, as shown in Fig. 106. + The kernel or meat is pure white, soft, rich and oily, + with a pleasant flavor. This nut is a rarity in our markets, + and Mr. H. R. Davy of New York, to whom I am + indebted for a specimen, as well as other rare kinds, + assures me that in his forty-five years' experience as a + dealer in foreign fruits and nuts, he has never known of + but one lot, and that one consisted of about one-half + bushel, brought into his store by a sailor, who only knew<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> their common South American name. These nuts are + more frequently seen in European seaports than in those + of this country.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">South Sea chestnut.</span>—See <a href="#Tahitian_chestnut.">Tahitian chestnut</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Tahitian_chestnut." id="Tahitian_chestnut.">Tahitian chestnut.</a></span>—The seeds of a tree known + in the South Sea islands by the native name of Toi, but + to botanists as <i>Inocarpus edulis</i>. It belongs to the bean + family (<i>Leguminosæ</i>). The tree grows sixty to eighty + feet high, and when young the stems are fluted like a + Grecian column, but as they increase with age the projections + extend outward, until they form a kind of buttress + all around the lower part, gradually decreasing + upward. This so-called chestnut tree has yellow flowers, + succeeded by fibrous pods containing one large seed or + nut, which, when roasted or boiled, resembles the chestnut + in taste. The nuts have a different local name in + almost every one of the Pacific islands where it is at all + abundant.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Tavola nut.</span>—See <a href="#Myrobalan_nut.">Myrobalan nut</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Tallow nut.</span>—A local and nearly obsolete name + for the fruit of the Ogeechee lime or sour gum tree + (<i>Nyssa capitata</i>) of the swamps of Florida, Georgia and + westward. The fruit is about an inch long, resembling + a small plum, the pulp having an agreeable acid taste. + Bartram, p. 94, refers to this fruit under the name of + "Tallow nut," but why so called is not explained.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Tallow nut.</span>—The fruit of the Chinese Tallow + tree, <i>Stillingia sebifera</i>, of the spurgewort family + (<i>Euphorbiaceæ</i>), a native of China, where it is, as well + as in some of the warmer parts of America, extensively + cultivated. It has been planted in a few localities in + the Southern States, and appears to thrive. It is a + small tree thirty to forty feet high, with rhomboid + tapering leaves and a three-celled capsuled fruit, each + cell containing only a single seed thickly coated with a + yellow, tallow-like substance, hence its common name.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> This tallow or grease is used for making soap, burning + in lamps, and also for dressing cloth.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Temperance nut.</span>—An English name of <a href="#Cola_nut">cola nut</a>.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Torrey nut.</span>—The hard, nut-like seeds of <i>Torreya + nucifera</i>, of Siebold, or <i>Taxus nucifera</i>, of Kæmpfer, + and <i>Caryotaxus nucifera</i>, of Zuccarini, a tree native of + Japan, where these nuts are eaten by the Japanese, + either raw or roasted. An oil is also extracted from the + nuts, for use in cooking or for burning in lamps. This + Japanese tree belongs to the same genus as the so-called + California nutmeg (see <a href="#Nutmeg.">Nutmeg</a>) and our Florida stinking + cedar (<i>T. taxifolia</i>), also the great Chinese cedar + (<i>T. grandis</i>).</p> +<div class="figright" style="width: 360px;"> <img src="images/fig107.jpg" alt="" title="" height="260" width="360" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._107" id="FIG._107">FIG. 107</a>. WATER CHESTNUT.</span> </div> +<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Water_chestnut." id="Water_chestnut.">Water chestnut.</a></span>—Also known as water caltrops. + The seeds of several species of water plants of the genus <i>Trapa</i>, of the + evening primrose + family + (<i>Onagraceæ</i>). + In southern + Europe and + eastward there + is a species + found in ponds, + the seeds of which are called Jesuit chestnuts (<i>T. natans</i>), + and in India and Ceylon a closely allied one, + the Singhara-nut plant (<i>T. bispinosa</i>), while in Lago + Maggiore there is another (<i>T. verbanensis</i>), but all may + be varieties of one and the same species, including the <i>Trapa bicornis</i>, a two-horned water chestnut, extensively + used in China and Japan as food under various + local names. In China they are called Ling, and of + late years have been occasionally imported and sold, + more as curiosities than for eating. These seeds or nuts + are of a dark brown color, and of the form and size + shown in Fig. 107, resembling, in miniature, the skull of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> an ox with abbreviated horns. When fresh, the kernel + is of an agreeable nutty flavor.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Water chestnut, or chinquapin.</span>—The seeds of + the large yellow water lily (<i>Nelumbium luteum</i>), a very + common plant in small ponds in the West and South, + but more rare in the East. The seeds are about the size + and shape of small acorns, and produced in a large, top-shaped, + fleshy receptacle. They are edible, and are supposed + to have been extensively used as food by the aborigines + of this country.</p> +<hr class="chap" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h2> +<p> Ackawai nutmeg, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> + <br /> + Acorn, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> + <br /> + Acrodiclidium camara, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> + <br /> + Æsculus hippocastanum, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> + <br /> + Agathophyllum aromaticum, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> + <br /> + Aleurites triloba, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> + <br /> + Almond, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">bitter, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">budding, bud in position, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">incision for bud, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">budding knife, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">budding knife, Yankee, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">prepared shoot of buds, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">season for budding, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">culture in California, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of the, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">insects and diseases, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cercospora circumscissa, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Goes pulverulenta, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Scolytus rugulosus, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Taphrina deformans, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">orchard in California, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">planting and pruning, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">propagation of the, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">properties and uses of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pruning, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">raising seedlings for stocks, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">soil and exposure for the, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">varieties, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">hard-shelled, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">large-fruited, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">ornamental varieties, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">peach, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">soft or brittle-shelled, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">sweet, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">thin-shelled, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Amygdalus argentea, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cochinchinensis, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">communis amara, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">dulcis, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">fragilis, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">macrocarpa, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">persicoides, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">incana, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">nana, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">orientalis, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Anacardium occidentale, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br /> + <br /> + Apios tuberosa, <a href="#Page_267">267</a><br /> + <br /> + Arachis hypogæa, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> + <br /> + Aralia trifolia, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> + <br /> + Areca catechu, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> + <br /> + Atherosperma moschata, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> + <br /> + Attalea funifera, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> + <br /> + Australian chestnut, <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br /> + <br /> + Australian hazelnut, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> + <br /> + Aydendron cujumary, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Beech, American, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chile, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">European, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">evergreen, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">injurious insects, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">properties and uses, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">propagation of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">soil and location for the, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">species and varieties, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Beechnut, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">leaf, bur and nut, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Ben nut, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> + <br /> + Bertholletia excelsa, <a href="#Page_267">267</a><br /> + <br /> + Betel nut, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> + <br /> + Bladder nut, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> + <br /> + Brazil nut, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> + <br /> + Brazilian nutmegs, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> + <br /> + Bread nut, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> + <br /> + Brosimum alicastrum, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> + <br /> + Buffalo nut, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> + <br /> + Bunium bulbocastanum, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> + <br /> + Butternut, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> + <br /> + Byzantium nut, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + California chestnut, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> + <br /> + California nutmeg, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> + <br /> + Calodendron Capense, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> + <br /> + Candle nut, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> + <br /> + Cape chestnut, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> + <br /> + Caryocar nuciferum, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> + <br /> + Caryotaxus nucifera, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br /> + <br /> + Cashew nut, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br /> + <br /> + Castanea chrysophylla var. minor, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> + <br /> + Castanea chrysophylla var. pumila, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> + <br /> + Castanea sempervirens, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> + <br /> + Castanopsis, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">bur, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">chrysophylla, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">leaves and nuts, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Castanospermum Australe, <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br /> + <br /> + Caucasian walnut, <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> + <br /> + Chestnut, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">budding, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">diseases of the, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">distance between trees, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">European varieties of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Comfort, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cooper, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Corson, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dager, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Moncur, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Numbo, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">spines of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Miller's Dupont, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Paragon, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">bur, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">nut, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">spines of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">tree, four years old, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ridgely, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">bur, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Scott, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Styer, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">flowers, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">French variety of the, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">gathering and assorting, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">grafting, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">cleft, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">growth of cion, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">large trees, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">materials, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">modes of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">season for, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">splice, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">sprouts, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">success in, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">wax, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of the, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">insects injurious to, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Balaninus carytripes, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">weevil, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Japan, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Advance, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Alpha, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Beta, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Early Reliance, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Felton, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Giant, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Killen, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Parsons, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Parry's Superb, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Success, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">mulching, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">native varieties of the, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">burless, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">bush chinquapin, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">common chinquapin, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fuller's chinquapin, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">chinquapin burs, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">chinquapin tree, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hathaway, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Phillips, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">planting, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">in nursery rows, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">propagation of the, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">seedbed and soil for, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">soil and climate for, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">species of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">American, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">species bush chinquapin, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Castanea Americana, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Japonica, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">nana, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">pumila, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">sativa, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">vesca, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">European, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Japan, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">leaf, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">staking transplanted trees, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">stocks from the forests, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">transplanting and pruning, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Chile hazelnut, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> + <br /> + Chocolate nut or bean, <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> + <br /> + Clearing nut, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br /> + <br /> + Clove nutmeg, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> + <br /> + Cocoanut, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">double, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Cocos nucifera, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br /> + <br /> + Cola acuminata, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">nut, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Coquito nut, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> + <br /> + Coquilla nut, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> + <br /> + Cream nut, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> + <br /> + Crescentia cujete, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br /> + <br /> + Cryptocarya moschata, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> + <br /> + Cujumary beans, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Dawa nut, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> + <br /> + Dimocarpus longana, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Earth nut, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">chestnut, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Elk nut, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> + <br /> + Euryale ferox, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> + <br /> + Evergreen chestnut, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Fagus antarctica, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">betuloides, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">ferruginea, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">obliqua, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">sylvatica, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Fisticke nut, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> + <br /> + Filbert or hazelnut, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> + <br /> + Fox nut, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Galeruca calmariensis, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br /> + <br /> + Ginkgo biloba, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">nut, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Goober, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> + <br /> + Goora nut, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> + <br /> + Gorgon nut, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> + <br /> + Groundnut, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> + <br /> + Guevina Avellana, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> + <br /> + Guilandina bouduc, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">bonducella, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></span><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Hamiltonia oleifera, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> + <br /> + Hazelnut or filbert, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">American species of hazel, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">beaked hazel, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Corylus Americana, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Corylus rostrata, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Asiatic species of hazel, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">C. ferox & heterophylla, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">blight, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cryptospora anomala, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">fungus, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">European species of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Constantinople hazel, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Corylus Avellana, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Colurna, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">tubulosa, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of the filbert, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">insects injurious to filberts, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">personal experience with filberts, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">planting and pruning filberts, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">propagation of the filbert, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">soil, location, etc., for filberts, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">varieties of filbert and hazel seedlings, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">varieties extra large hazel seedling, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">varieties large filbert, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">large seedling hazelnut, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">select list of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Alba or white filbert, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cosford, or Miss Young's thin-shelled, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Crispa, or frizzled filbert, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Downton, large square, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Grandis, or round cob-nut, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lambert's filbert, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Purple-leaved filbert, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">red filbert, red hazel, etc., <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Spanish filbert, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Horse-chestnut, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> + <br /> + Hickory nuts, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">age of fruiting the, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">big bud, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">big shellbark, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">bitter pecan, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">bitternut, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">brown, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">budding and grafting, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">crown, on roots, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">sprouts from roots, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carya amara var. myristicæformis, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carya olivæformis, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">cultivation of the, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hicoria pecan and synonyms, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hicoria alba, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">" " synonyms, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hicoria aquatica, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">" " synonyms, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hicoria glabra, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">" " synonyms, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hicoria laciniosa, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">" " synonyms, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hicoria minima, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">" " synonyms, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hicoria myristicæformis, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hicoria tomentosa, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">" " synonyms, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of the, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">hognut, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Illinois nut, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">insect enemies of the, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">American silk worm, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Attacus luna, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">belted chion, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">bud worm, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">burrows of scolytus, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Catocala, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chion cinctus, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chramesus icoriæ, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Clisiocampa sylvatica, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cyllene crinicornis, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">pictus, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">robiniæ, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Elaphidion inerme, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Goes, beautiful, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">pulchra, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">tiger, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">tigrinus, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Grapholitha caryana, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">bark borer, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">nut weevil, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">shuck worm, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">twig girdler, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">leaf miners, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">leaf rollers, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">locust borer, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">luna moth, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Oncideres cingulatus, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">orange sawyer, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">painted borer, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">plant lice, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Scolytus <a href="#Page_4">4</a>-spinosus, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sinoxylon basilare, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Telea polyphemus, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">tent caterpillar, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tortricidæ, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">king nut, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">mocker nut, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pecan nut, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">varieties of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Alba, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Biloxi, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Colorado, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Columbian, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Early Texan, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Faust, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Frotscher, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Georgia Melon, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Gonzales, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Harcourt, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Idlewild, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Jewett, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Lady Finger, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">large, long, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Little Mobile, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Longfellow, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Pride of the Coast, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Primate, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Mexican, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Meyers, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Ribera, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Risien, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Stuart, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Turkey Egg, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Van Deman, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pignut <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">planting for profit, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">propagation of the, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">shellbark or shagbark, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">varieties of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Hales' paper-shell, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">long hickory, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">from Missouri, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Western, varieties of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Floyd pecan, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">long, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Nussbaumer's, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">species and varieties, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">swamp hickoria, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">switch bud, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">thick, or western shellbark, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">white-heart, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></span><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Inocarpus edulis, <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br /> + <br /> + Introduction, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br /> + <br /> + Importation of nuts, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> + <br /> + Imported nuts, value of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> + <br /> + Ita palm nut, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> + <br /> + Ivory nut, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Jesuit chestnuts, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br /> + <br /> + Jicara nut, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br /> + <br /> + Juba nut, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> + <br /> + Jubæa spectabilis, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> + <br /> + Juvia nut <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Kipper nut, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> + <br /> + Kola nut, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Laurelia sempervirens, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> + <br /> + Lecythis Zabucajo, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br /> + <br /> + Leechee nut, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> + <br /> + Litchi nut, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> + <br /> + Lodoicea Sechellarum, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> + <br /> + Longan, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> + <br /> + Longyen, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> + <br /> + Lousy nut, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Macadamia ternifolia, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> + <br /> + Madagascar nutmeg, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> + <br /> + Marking nut, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> + <br /> + Mauritia flexuosa, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> + <br /> + Miriti nut, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> + <br /> + Miscellaneous nuts, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> + <br /> + Monkey-pot nut, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /> + <br /> + Moreton Bay chestnuts, <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br /> + <br /> + Moringa optera, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pterygosperma, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Myristica fatua, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">fragrans, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">otoba, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">sebifera, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Myrobalan nut, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Nectandy puchury, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> + <br /> + Nelumbium luteum, <a href="#Page_284">284</a><br /> + <br /> + Nephelium pinnatum, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> + <br /> + Nepheliums, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> + <br /> + Nickar nut, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /> + <br /> + Nittar, or Nutta, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br /> + <br /> + Nuces vel Poma Pinea, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> + <br /> + Nutmeg, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br /> + <br /> + Nutmeg hickory, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> + <br /> + Nyssa capitata, <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Oak nut, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> + <br /> + Oil nut <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> + <br /> + Olea Americana, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br /> + <br /> + Openawk, <a href="#Page_267">267</a><br /> + <br /> + Ophiocaryon paradoxum, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Paradise nut, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> + <br /> + Parkia Africana, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br /> + <br /> + Peanut, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> + <br /> + Pekea nut, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> + <br /> + Peruvian nut, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">nutmeg, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Phytelephas macrocarpa, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br /> + <br /> + Physic nut, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br /> + <br /> + Pinang, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> + <br /> + Pine nut, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br /> + <br /> + Pinocchi, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> + <br /> + Pinolas, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> + <br /> + Pinon, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> + <br /> + Pinus cembroides, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">edulis, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">monophylla, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Parryana, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pinea, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Piper betel, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> + <br /> + Pistacia Mexicana, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">vera, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Pistachio nut, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /> + <br /> + Plum nutmeg, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> + <br /> + Pterocarya fraxinifolia, <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> + <br /> + Puchurim beans, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> + <br /> + Pyrularia oleifera, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Quandang nut, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br /> + <br /> + Qudria heterophylla, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> + <br /> + Queensland nut, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> + <br /> + Quercus virens, <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Raffia, or Roffia, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> + <br /> + Rambutan, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Salisburia adiantifolia, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> + <br /> + Santalum acuminatum, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br /> + <br /> + Sapucaia nut, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br /> + <br /> + Sardis nut, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> + <br /> + Sassafras nut, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> + <br /> + Semecarpus anacardium, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> + <br /> + Singhara-nut plant, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br /> + <br /> + Snake nut, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> + <br /> + Sonari nut, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> + <br /> + South Sea chestnut, <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br /> + <br /> + Staphylea trifolia, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> + <br /> + Stillingia sebifera, <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br /> + <br /> + Stinking nutmeg, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> + <br /> + Strychnos potatorum, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Tahitian chestnut, <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br /> + <br /> + Tallow nut, <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br /> + <br /> + Tavola nut, <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br /> + <br /> + Taxus nucifera, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br /> + <br /> + Temperance nut, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br /> + <br /> + Terminalia Catappa, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /> + <br /> + Theobroma cacao, <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> + <br /> + Torrey nut, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br /> + <br /> + Torreya Californica, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">nucifera, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Trapa bicornis, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">bispinosa, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">natans, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">verbanensis, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br /> + <br /> + <br /> + Walnut, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">American, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">black, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">black, in husk, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">varieties of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">butternut, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">sugar, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">varieties of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">California, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Carya cathartica, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Juglans Californica, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">cathartica, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">cinerea, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">hybrida, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">oblonga alba, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">nigra, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">nigra, husk removed, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">nigra oblonga, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">rupestris, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">New Mexico, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Texas, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Wallia cinerea, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">white, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">budding and grafting, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">flute, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">history, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">husking, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">hybrids in California, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">flowering branch of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Juglans Californica, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Sieboldiana, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">insect enemies of the, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Citheronia regalis, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Regal walnut moth, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jovis glans, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Juglans, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oriental, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Juglans ailantifolia, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Camirium, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Catappa, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">cordiformis, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Japonica, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Mandshurica, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Persian, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">in America, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Persian, Barthere, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chaberte, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chile, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cluster, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cut-leaved, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">English, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Franquette, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">French, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gant, or Bijou, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Juglans regia, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">regia octogona, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 3em;">serotina, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kaghazi, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Large-fruited Præparturiens, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Late Præparturiens, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Late, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Madeira nut, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mayette, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mesange, or paper-shell, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Meylan, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Octogona, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Parisienne, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Præparturiens, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Precocious, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Racemosa, or Spicata, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Royal, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Small fruited, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">St. John, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Variegated, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vilmorin, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vourey, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Weeping, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">planting and pruning, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">propagation of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">seedling, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Water chestnut, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">chinquapin, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">hickory, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Western cashew, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">chinquapin, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br /> + <br /> + Winged-seeded moringa, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> + <br /> + Winged walnut, <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> +</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span></p> +<hr /> +<h3><span class="smcap">SENT FREE ON APPLICATION.</span></h3> +<h2><span class="smcap">DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE</span></h2> +<h4>—OF—</h4> +<h1>RURAL BOOKS,</h1> +<h5><span class="smcap">CONTAINING 116 8vo. PAGES</span>,</h5> +<h5><span class="smcap">Profusely Illustrated, and giving Full Descriptions of<br /> + Nearly 600 Works on the Following Subjects</span>:</h5> +<p style="text-align: left; margin-left: 25%">Farm and Garden,<br /> + <span style="margin-left: 6em;">Fruits, Flowers, Etc.</span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 13.5em;">Cattle, Sheep, and Swine,</span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dogs, Horses, Riding, Etc.,</span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 7.5em;">Poultry, Pigeons, and Bees,</span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 16.5em;">Angling and Fishing,</span><br /> + Boating, Canoeing, and Sailing,<br /> + <span style="margin-left: 5.5em;">Field Sports and Natural History,</span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 15.5em;">Hunting, Shooting, Etc.,</span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Architecture and Building,</span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 8.5em;">Landscape Gardening,</span><br /> + <span style="margin-left: 13em;">Household and Miscellaneous.</span><br /> +</p> +<h3>PUBLISHERS AND IMPORTERS:</h3> +<h2>ORANGE JUDD COMPANY,</h2> +<h2>52 & 54 Lafayette Place, New York.</h2> +<p style="text-align: center"><strong>Books will be Forwarded, postpaid, on receipt of Price.</strong></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span></p> +<hr /> +<h2><a name="STANDARD_BOOKS" id="STANDARD_BOOKS"></a>STANDARD BOOKS.</h2> +<p><strong>Mushrooms: How to Grow Them.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>Any one who has an ordinary house cellar, woodshed or barn, can + grow Mushrooms. This is the most practical work on the subject + ever written, and the only book on growing Mushrooms published + in America. The author describes how he grows Mushrooms, and + how they are grown for profit by the leading market gardeners, and + for home use by the most successful private growers. Engravings + drawn from nature expressly for this work. By Wm. Falconer. + Cloth. Price, postpaid. 1.50</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Land Draining.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>A Handbook for Farmers on the Principles and Practice of Draining, + by Manly Miles, giving the results of his extended experience + in laying tile drains. The directions for the laying out and the + construction of tile drains will enable the farmer to avoid the + errors of imperfect construction, and the disappointment that + must necessarily follow. This manual for practical farmers will + also be found convenient for references in regard to many questions + that may arise in crop growing, aside from the special subjects + of drainage of which it treats. Cloth, 12mo. 1.00</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Allen's New American Farm Book.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>The very best work on the subject; comprising all that can be condensed + into an available volume. Originally by Richard L. Allen. + Revised and greatly enlarged by Lewis F. Allen. Cloth, 12mo. 2.50</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Henderson's Gardening for Profit.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>By Peter Henderson. The standard work on Market and Family + Gardening. The successful experience of the author for more than + thirty years, and his willingness to tell, as he does in this work, the + secret of his success for the benefit of others, enables him to give + most valuable information. The book is profusely illustrated. + Cloth, 12mo. 2.00</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Henderson's Gardening for Pleasure.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>A guide to the amateur in the fruit, vegetable and flower garden, + with full descriptions for the greenhouse, conservatory and window + garden. It meets the wants of all classes in country, city and village + who keep a garden for their own enjoyment rather than for + the sale of products. By Peter Henderson. Finely Illustrated. + Cloth, 12mo. 2.00</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Johnson's How Crops Grow.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>New Edition. A Treatise on the Chemical Composition, Structure + and Life of the Plant. Revised Edition. This book is a guide to + the knowledge of agricultural plants, their composition, their + structure and modes of development and growth; of the complex + organizations of plants, and the use of the parts; the germination + of seeds, and the food of plants obtained both from the air and + the soil. The book is a valuable one to all real students of agriculture. + With numerous illustrations and tables of analysis. By Prof. + Samuel W. Johnson of Yale College. Cloth, 12mo. 2.00</p> +</blockquote> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span></p> +<p><strong>Johnson's How Crops Feed.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>A Treatise on the Atmosphere and the Soil, as related in the + Nutrition of Agricultural Plants. This volume—the companion and + complement to "How Crops Grow"—has been welcomed by those + who appreciate the scientific aspects of agriculture. Illustrated. + By Prof. Samuel W. Johnson. Cloth, 12mo. 2.00</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Market Gardening and Farm Notes.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>By Barnet Landreth. Experiences and Observations for both + North and South, of interest to the Amateur Gardener, Trucker and + Farmer. A novel feature of the book is the calendar of farm and + garden operations for each month of the year; the chapters on + fertilizers, transplanting, succession and rotation of crops, the + packing, shipping and marketing of vegetables, will be especially + useful to market gardeners. Cloth, 12mo. 1.00</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Forest Planting.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>A Treatise on the Care of Woodlands and the Restoration of the + Denuded Timber-Lands on Plains and Mountains. By H. Nicholas + Jarchow, LL. D. The author has fully described those European + methods which have proved to be most useful in maintaining the + superb forests of the old world. This experience has been adapted + to the different climates and trees of America, full instructions being + given for forest planting on our various kinds of soil and subsoil, + whether on mountain or valley. Illustrated, 12mo. 1.50</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Harris' Talks on Manures.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>By Joseph Harris, M. S., author of "Walks and Talks on the Farm," + "Harris on the Pig," etc. Revised and enlarged by the author. A + series of familiar and practical talks between the author and the + Deacon, the Doctor, and other neighbors, on the whole subject of + manures and fertilizers; including a chapter especially written for + it, by Sir John Bennet Lawes of Rothamsted, England. Cloth, + 12mo. 1.75</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Truck Farming at the South.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>A work which gives the experience of a successful grower of vegetables + or "truck" for Northern markets. Essential to any one who + contemplates entering this promising field of Agriculture. By A. + Oemler of Georgia. Illustrated, cloth, 12mo. 1.50</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Sweet Potato Culture.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>Giving full instructions from starting the plants to harvesting and + storing the crop. With a chapter on the Chinese Yam. By James + Fitz, Keswich, Va., author of "Southern Apple and Peach Culture." + Cloth, 12mo. .60</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Heinrich's Window Flower Garden.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>The author is a practical florist, and this enterprising volume embodies + his personal experiences in Window Gardening during a + long period. New and enlarged edition. By Julius J. Heinrich. + Fully illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. .75</p> +</blockquote> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span></p> +<p><strong>Greenhouse Construction.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>By Prof. L. R. Taft. A complete treatise on Greenhouse structures + and arrangements of the various forms and styles of Plant Houses + for professional florists as well as amateurs. All the best and most + approved structures are so fully and clearly described that anyone + who desires to build a Greenhouse will have no difficulty in determining + the kind best suited to his purpose. The modern and most + successful methods of heating and ventilating are fully treated + upon. Special chapters are devoted to houses used for the growing + of one kind of plants exclusively. The construction of hotbeds + and frames receives appropriate attention. Over one hundred excellent + illustrations, specially engraved for this work, make every + point clear to the reader and add considerably to the artistic appearance + of the book. Cloth, 12mo. 1.50</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Bulbs and Tuberous-Rooted Plants.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>By C. L. Allen. A complete treatise on the History, Description, + Methods of Propagation and full Directions for the successful culture + of Bulbs in the garden, Dwelling and Greenhouse. As generally + treated, bulbs are an expensive luxury, while, when properly + managed, they afford the greatest amount of pleasure at the least + cost. The author of this book has for many years made bulb growing + a specialty, and is a recognized authority on their cultivation + and management. The illustrations which embellish this work + have been drawn from nature, and have been engraved especially + for this book. The cultural directions are plainly stated, practical + and to the point. Cloth, 12mo. 2.00</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Henderson's Practical Floriculture.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>By Peter Henderson. A guide to the successful propagation and + cultivation of florists' plants. The work is not one for florists and + gardeners only, but the amateur's wants are constantly kept in + mind, and we have a very complete treatise on the cultivation of + flowers under glass, or in the open air, suited to those who grow + flowers for pleasure as well as those who make them a matter of + trade. Beautifully illustrated. New and enlarged edition. Cloth, + 12mo. 1.50</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Long's Ornamental Gardening for Americans.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>A Treatise on Beautifying Homes, Rural Districts and Cemeteries. + A plain and practical work at a moderate price, with numerous + illustrations and instructions so plain that they may be readily + followed. By Elias A. Long, Landscape Architect. Illustrated, + Cloth, 12mo. 2.00</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>The Propagation of Plants.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>By Andrew S. Fuller. Illustrated with numerous engravings. An + eminently practical and useful work. Describing the process of + hybridizing and crossing species and varieties, and also the many + different modes by which cultivated plants may be propagated and + multiplied. Cloth, 12mo. 1.50</p> +</blockquote> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span></p> +<p><strong>Parsons on the Rose.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>By Samuel B. Parsons. A treatise on the propagation, culture and + history of the rose. New and revised edition. In his work upon + the rose, Mr. Parsons has gathered up the curious legends concerning + the flower, and gives us an idea of the esteem in which it was + held in former times. A simple garden classification has been + adopted, and the leading varieties under each class enumerated + and briefly described. The chapters on multiplication, cultivation + and training are very full, and the work is altogether one of the + most complete before the public. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 1.00</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Henderson's Handbook of Plants.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>This new edition comprises about fifty per cent. more genera than + the former one, and embraces the botanical name, derivation, + natural order, etc., together with a short history of the different + genera, concise instructions for their propagation and culture, and + all the leading local or common English names, together with a + comprehensive glossary of Botanical and Technical terms. Plain + instructions are also given for the cultivation of the principal vegetables, + fruits and flowers. Cloth, large 8vo. 4.00</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Barry's Fruit Garden.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>By P. Barry. A standard work on Fruit and Fruit Trees; the author + having had over thirty years' practical experience at the head of + one of the largest nurseries in this country. New edition revised + up to date. Invaluable to all fruit growers. Illustrated. Cloth, + 12mo. 2.00</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Fulton's Peach Culture.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>This is the only practical guide to Peach Culture on the Delaware + Peninsula, and is the best work upon the subject of peach growing + for those who would be successful in that culture in any part of + the country. It has been thoroughly revised and a large portion of + it rewritten, by Hon. J. Alexander Fulton, the author, bringing it + down to date. Cloth, 12mo. 1.50</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Strawberry Culturist.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>By Andrew S. Fuller. Containing the History, Sexuality, Field and + Garden Culture of Strawberries, forcing or pot culture, how to + grow from seed, hybridizing, and all information necessary to enable + everybody to raise their own strawberries, together with a + description of new varieties and a list of the best of the old sorts. + Fully illustrated. Flexible cloth, 12mo. .25</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Fuller's Small Fruit Culturist.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>By Andrew S. Fuller. Rewritten, enlarged, and brought fully up to + the present time. The book covers the whole ground of propagating + Small Fruits, their culture, varieties, packing for market, etc. It is + very finely and thoroughly illustrated, and makes an admirable + companion to "The Grape Culturist," by the same well known + author. 1.50</p> +</blockquote> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span></p> +<p><strong>Fuller's Grape Culturist.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>By A. S. Fuller. This is one of the very best of works on the Culture + of the Hardy Grapes, with full directions for all departments + of propagation, culture, etc., with 150 excellent engravings, illustrating + planting, training, grafting, etc. Cloth, 12mo. 1.50</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Quinn's Pear Culture for Profit.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>Teaching How to Raise Pears intelligently, and with the best results, + how to find out the character of the soil, the best methods of + preparing it, the best varieties to select under existing conditions, + the best modes of planting, pruning, fertilizing, grafting, and utilizing + the ground before the trees come into bearing, and finally of + gathering and packing for market. Illustrated. By P. T. Quinn, + practical horticulturist. Cloth, 12mo. 1.00</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Husmann's American Grape Growing and Wine-Making.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>By George Husmann of Talcoa vineyards, Napa, California. New + and enlarged edition. With contributions from well known grape-growers, + giving a wide range of experience. The author of this + book is a recognized authority on the subject. Cloth, 12mo. 1.50</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>White's Cranberry Culture.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>Contents:—Natural History.—History of Cultivation.—Choice of + Location.—Preparing the Ground.—Planting the Vines.—Management + of Meadows.—Flooding.—Enemies and Difficulties Overcome.—Picking.—Keeping.—Profit + and Loss.—Letters from Practical + Growers.—Insects Injurious to the Cranberry. By Joseph J. White, + a practical grower. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. New and revised + edition. 1.25</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Fuller's Practical Forestry.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>A Treatise on the Propagation, Planting and Cultivation, with a + description and the botanical and proper names of all the indigenous + trees of the United States, both Evergreen and Deciduous, with + Notes on a large number of the most valuable Exotic Species. By + Andrew S. Fuller, author of "Grape Culturist," "Small Fruit Culturist," + etc. 1.50</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Stewart's Irrigation for the Farm, Garden and Orchard.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>This work is offered to those American Farmers and other cultivators + of the soil who, from painful experience, can readily appreciate + the losses which result from the scarcity of water at critical + periods. By Henry Stewart. Fully illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 1.50</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Quinn's Money in the Garden.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>By P. T. Quinn. The author gives in a plain, practical style, instructions + on three distinct, although closely connected branches + of gardening—the kitchen garden, market garden, and field culture, + from successful practical experience for a term of years. Illustrated. + Cloth, 12mo. 1.50</p> +</blockquote> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span></p> +<p><strong>Roe's Play and Profit in My Garden.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>By E. P. Roe. The author takes us to his garden on the rocky hill-sides + in the vicinity of West Point, and shows us how out of it, + after four years' experience, he evoked a profit of $1,000, and this + while carrying on pastoral and literary labor. It is very rarely + that so much literary taste and skill are mated to so much agricultural + experience and good sense. Cloth, 12mo. 1.50</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>The New Onion Culture.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>By T. Greiner. This new work is written by one of our most successful + agriculturists, and is full of new, original, and highly valuable + matter of material interest to every one who raises onions in + the family garden, or by the acre for market. By the process here + described a crop of 2000 bushels per acre can be as easily raised as + 500 or 600 bushels in the old way. Paper, 12mo. .50</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>The Dairyman's Manual.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>By Henry Stewart, author of "The Shepherd's Manual," "Irrigation," + etc. A useful and practical work, by a writer who is well + known as thoroughly familiar with the subject of which he writes. + Cloth, 12mo. 2.00</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Allen's American Cattle.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>Their History, Breeding and Management. By Lewis F. Allen. + This book will be considered indispensable by every breeder of + live stock. The large experience of the author in improving the + character of American herds adds to the weight of his observations + and has enabled him to produce a work which will at once make + good his claims as a standard authority on the subject. New and + revised edition. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 2.50</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Profits in Poultry.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>Useful and ornamental Breeds and their Profitable Management. + This excellent work contains the combined experience of a number + of practical men in all departments of poultry raising. It is + profusely illustrated and forms a unique and important addition + to our poultry literature. Cloth, 12mo. 1.00</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>The American Standard of Perfection.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>The recognized standard work on Poultry in this country, adopted + by the American Poultry Association. It contains a complete description + of all the recognized varieties of fowls, including turkeys, + ducks and geese; gives instructions to judges; glossary of technical + terms and nomenclature. It contains 244 pages, handsomely + bound in cloth, embellished with title in gold on front cover. $1.00</p> +</blockquote> +<p><strong>Stoddard's An Egg Farm.</strong></p> +<blockquote> + <p>By H. H. Stoddard. The management of poultry in large numbers, + being a series of articles written for the<span class="smcap">American Agriculturist</span>. + Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. .50</p> +</blockquote> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Nut Culturist, by Andrew S. Fuller + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NUT CULTURIST *** + +***** This file should be named 37968-h.htm or 37968-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/7/9/6/37968/ + +Produced by Charlene Taylor, Kathryn Lybarger and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> |