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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Nut Culturist, by Andrew S. Fuller
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Nut Culturist
+       A Treatise on Propogation, Planting, and Cultivation of
+       Nut Bearing Trees and Shrubs Adapted to the Climate of the
+       United States
+
+Author: Andrew S. Fuller
+
+Release Date: November 10, 2011 [EBook #37968]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NUT CULTURIST ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charlene Taylor, Kathryn Lybarger and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: A S Fuller]
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+  NUT CULTURIST
+
+  A TREATISE
+  ON THE
+  PROPAGATION, PLANTING AND CULTIVATION
+  OF NUT-BEARING TREES AND SHRUBS
+  ADAPTED TO THE
+  CLIMATE OF THE UNITED STATES,
+  WITH THE SCIENTIFIC AND COMMON NAMES OF
+  THE FRUITS KNOWN
+  IN COMMERCE AS EDIBLE OR OTHERWISE USEFUL NUTS
+
+
+  By ANDREW S. FULLER,
+
+_Author of the "Grape Culturist," "Small Fruit Culturist,"
+"Practical Forestry," "Propagation of Plants," etc., etc._
+
+
+_ILLUSTRATED_
+
+
+  NEW YORK
+  ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
+  1896
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1896,
+  BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Believing that the time is opportune for making an effort to
+cultivate all kinds of edible and otherwise useful nut-bearing trees
+and shrubs adapted to the soil and climate of the United States,
+thereby inaugurating a great, permanent and far-reaching industry,
+the following pages have been penned, and with the hope of
+encouraging and aiding the farmer to increase his income and
+enjoyments, without, to any appreciable extent, adding to his
+expenses or labors. With this idea in mind, I have not advised the
+general planting of nut orchards on land adapted to the production
+of grain and other indispensable farm crops, but mainly as roadside
+trees and where desired for shade, shelter and ornament, being
+confident that when all such positions are occupied with choice
+nut-bearing trees, to the exclusion of those yielding nothing of
+intrinsic value, there will have been added many millions of dollars
+to the wealth of the country, as well as a vast store of edible and
+delicious food.
+
+This work has not been written for the edification, or the special
+approbation, of scientific botanists, but for those who, in the
+opinion of the writer, are most likely to profit by a treatise of
+this kind. Unfamiliar terms have been omitted wherever simple common
+words would answer equally as well in conveying the intended
+information. There being no work of this kind published in this
+country that would serve as a guide, I have been compelled to
+formulate a plan of my own, and to describe all the newer varieties
+from the best specimens obtainable, and these may not, in all cases,
+have been perfect. Under such circumstances, this work must
+necessarily be incomplete, and especially where the possessors of
+claimed-to-be new and valuable varieties have either refused or
+failed to give any information in regard to them. On the contrary,
+however, I must acknowledge my indebtedness to many correspondents,
+who have so generously placed specimens of both trees and nuts of
+rare new varieties in my hands for testing and describing, as well
+as assisting me in tracing their history and origin.
+
+That this treatise may become the pioneer of many other and better
+works on nut culture is the sincere wish of
+
+  THE AUTHOR.
+
+  RIDGEWOOD, N. J., 1896.
+
+
+
+
+  CONTENTS.
+
+                                                               Page.
+  CHAPTER I.
+  INTRODUCTION,                                                    1
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+  THE ALMOND,                                                     12
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+  THE BEECHNUT,                                                   44
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+  CASTANOPSIS,                                                    55
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+  THE CHESTNUT,                                                   60
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+  FILBERT OR HAZELNUT,                                           118
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+  HICKORY NUTS,                                                  147
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.
+  THE WALNUT,                                                    203
+
+  CHAPTER IX.
+  MISCELLANEOUS NUTS--EDIBLE AND OTHERWISE,                      254
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+  Fig.                                                         Page.
+    1.  A California almond orchard,                              18
+    2.  Budding knife,                                            24
+    3.  Yankee budding knife,                                     24
+    4.  Prepared shoot,                                           26
+    5.  Incision for bud,                                         27
+    6.  Bud in position,                                          28
+    7.  Hard-shelled almond,                                      36
+    8.  Thin-shelled almond,                                      37
+    9.  Beechnut leaf, bur and nut,                               51
+   10.  Leaves and nut of Castanopsis chrysophylla,               56
+   11.  Castanopsis bur,                                          57
+   12.  Chestnut flowers,                                         61
+   13.  Splice graft,                                             75
+   14.  Splice graft inserted,                                    75
+   15.  Stock,                                                    77
+   16.  Cion,                                                     77
+   17.  Two cions inserted,                                       77
+   18.  One cion inserted,                                        77
+   19.  American chestnut leaf,                                   88
+   20.  Spike of burs of bush chinquapin (_Castanea nana_),       89
+   21.  Spike of chinquapin chestnut bur (_C. pumila_),           90
+   22.  Single bur, nut and leaf of chinquapin
+            chestnut (_C. pumila_),                               91
+   23.  Japan chestnut leaf,                                      92
+   24.  Burs of Fuller's chinquapin (one-half natural size),      97
+   25.  Fuller's chinquapin, five years old from nut,             98
+   26.  Bur of Numbo chestnut,                                   101
+   27.  Spines of Numbo chestnut,                                102
+   28.  Numbo chestnut,                                          102
+   29.  Paragon chestnut bur (one-half natural size),            103
+   30.  Spines of Paragon chestnut bur,                          103
+   31.  Paragon chestnut,                                        104
+   32.  Four-year-old Paragon chestnut tree,                     105
+   33.  Open bur of the Ridgely chestnut,                        106
+   34.  Japan Giant chestnut,                                    110
+   35.  Spines of Japan chestnut,                                110
+   36.  Chestnut weevil,                                         114
+   37.  Large filbert,                                           119
+   38.  Large seedling hazelnut,                                 120
+   39.  Constantinople hazel,                                    129
+   40.  English filbert orchard, five years from seed,           134
+   41.  Varieties of filberts and hazel seedlings,               135
+   42.  Extra large hazel seedling or round English filbert,     136
+   43.  Filbert orchard struck with blight, fifth year from seed,137
+   44.  Hazel fungus,                                            141
+   45.  Fourteen-years-old pecan tree in Mississippi,            154
+   46.  Leaf and sterile catkins of shellbark hickory,           156
+   47.  Western shellbark,                                       158
+   48.  Section Western shellbark,                               158
+   49.  Leaf of pignut,                                          161
+   50.  Bitternut branch and leaf,                               163
+   51.  Bitternut,                                               164
+   52.  Large, long pecan nut,                                   166
+   53.  Oval pecan nut,                                          166
+   54.  Small oval pecan nut,                                    167
+   55.  Little Mobile pecan nut,                                 167
+   56.  Stuart pecan nut,                                        169
+   57.  Van Deman pecan nut,                                     169
+   58.  Risien pecan nut,                                        169
+   59.  Lady Finger pecan nut,                                   169
+   60.  The original Hales' Paper-shell hickory tree,            171
+   61.  Hales' hickory,                                          172
+   62.  Section of Hales' hickory,                               172
+   63.  Long shellbark hickory,                                  173
+   64.  Shellbark Missouri,                                      173
+   65.  Long Western shellbark,                                  174
+   66.  Fresh Nussbaumer hybrid,                                 175
+   67.  Nussbaumer's hybrid,                                     176
+   68.  Crown grafting on roots of the hickory,                  189
+   69.  Sprouts from severed hickory roots,                      190
+   70.  The hickory-twig girdler,                                196
+   71.  Hickory borer,                                           198
+   72.  Burrows of hickory scolytus,                             200
+   73.  Persian walnut, showing position of sexual organs,       204
+   74.  Bearing branch of English walnut,                        205
+   75.  Seedling walnut,                                         216
+   76.  Flute budding,                                           220
+   77.  Flowering branch of hybrid walnut,                       228
+   78.  Hybrid walnut,                                           230
+   79.  Hybrid walnut, shell removed,                            230
+   80.  Juglans Sieboldiana raceme,                              231
+   81.  Black walnut in husk,                                    232
+   82.  Juglans nigra, husk removed,                             233
+   83.  Juglans Californica,                                     235
+   84.  Juglans rupestris, showing small kernel,                 235
+   85.  Juglans Sieboldiana,                                     238
+   86.  Juglans cordiformis,                                     239
+   87.  Small fruited walnut,                                    240
+   88.  Barthere walnut,                                         242
+   89.  Chaberte walnut,                                         242
+   90.  Chile walnut,                                            242
+   91.  Cut-leaved walnut,                                       243
+   92.  Gibbons walnut,                                          244
+   93.  Mayette walnut,                                          245
+   94. Kernel of walnut,                                         245
+   95. Juglans regia octogona,                                   245
+   96. Cross section,                                            245
+   97. Parisienne walnut,                                        246
+   98. Serotina or St. John walnut,                              247
+   99. The caterpillar of the regal walnut moth,                 252
+  100. The regal walnut moth--Citheronia regalis,                252
+  101. Brazil nut,                                               258
+  102. The cashew nut,                                           260
+  103. Litchi or Leechee nut,                                    270
+  104. Branch of nut pine,                                       277
+  105. Paradise or sapucaia nut,                                 279
+  106. Souari nut,                                               281
+  107. Water chestnut,                                           283
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+No special amount of prophetic acumen is required to foresee that
+the time will soon come when the people of this country must
+necessarily place a much higher value upon all kinds of food than
+they do at present, or have done in the past. In this we are
+pre-supposing that in the natural course of events, our population
+will continue to increase in nearly the same ratio it has since we
+assumed the responsibilities of an independent nation.
+
+The very existence of animal life on this planet depends upon the
+quantity and quality of available food, and while some
+sentimentalists may assume to ignore and even attempt to deprecate
+the animal desires of their race, nature compels us to recognize the
+fact that there can be no fire without fuel, and the great and
+useful intellectual powers of man are the emanations of the animal
+tissues of a well-nourished brain. The brawny arm that rends the
+rock and hurls the fragments aside, gets its power through the same
+channel and from the same source as those of other members of
+society, whatever the nature of their calling; for mankind is built
+upon one universal and general plan, varied though it may be in some
+of the minor details of construction. We certainly have no cause to
+fear that the theories of Malthus, in regard to the overpopulation
+of the earth as a whole, will ever be verified in the experience of
+the human race, because with necessity comes industry, also the
+inventions of devices to enable us to avoid just such dangers, and
+if these fail to keep pace with our wants and needs, wars,
+earthquakes, drouths, floods, and contagious, epidemic and other
+diseases, become the weapons which nature employs to prevent
+overpopulation. But we cannot deny that nature does sometimes
+encourage or permit a somewhat redundant population in certain
+favorable countries and localities, and then follows a struggle for
+existence, and food becomes the paramount object in life. To ward
+off danger of this kind and keep the supply in excess of the demand,
+is a problem which should seriously engage the attention of every
+one who takes the least interest in the general welfare of his
+countrymen, even though the day of want or scarcity of food may be
+very far distant.
+
+Among the various sources of acceptable and nutritious food products
+heretofore almost entirely neglected in this country, the edible
+nuts stand pre�minently and conspicuously in the foreground,
+awaiting the skill and attention of all who seek pleasure and
+profit--to be derived from the products of the soil. For many
+centuries these nuts have held a prominent position among the
+desirable and valuable food products of various European and
+Oriental countries; not only because they were important and almost
+indispensable in making up the household supplies of all classes of
+the people, but often because available for filling a depleted
+purse, and the thing needful for this purpose has, in the main, been
+received from far-distant nations, who through indifference and
+neglect failed to provide themselves with such a simple and valuable
+article as the edible nuts.
+
+Much as we may boast of our immense natural resources and
+advantages, we have not, as yet, availed ourselves of one-half of
+those we possess, and the remainder is still awaiting our attention.
+We also neglect to avail ourselves of the many superior domestic
+traits and practices of the foreign nations with whom we are in
+constant communication. It may be that the absence of incentives has
+made us careless and indifferent in regard to a day of need, which
+in all probability will come to us sooner or later; but whatever the
+cause, the fact remains that we have been spending millions annually
+on worthless articles and sentimental problems and projects, which
+have brought us neither riches nor honor; in truth, to use a homely
+phrase, we have been following the bellwether in nearly all of our
+rural affairs and pursuits. As a natural result we are spending
+millions for imported articles of everyday use which might easily
+and with large profit be produced at home, and in many instances the
+most humiliating part of the transaction is that we send our money
+to people who do not purchase any of our productions and almost
+ignore us in commercial matters. I am not referring to those
+products ill-adapted to our climate, nor to those which, owing to
+scarcity and high price of labor, we are unable to produce
+profitably, but to such nuts as the almond, walnut and chestnut,
+which we can raise as readily as peaches, apples and pears. There
+certainly can be no excuse for the neglect of such nut trees on the
+score of cost of labor in propagation and planting, because our
+streets and highways are lined and shaded with equally as expensive
+kinds, although they are absolutely worthless for any other purpose
+than shade or shelter, yielding nothing in the way of food for
+either man or beast. Can any one invent a reasonable excuse for
+planting miles and miles of roadside trees of such kinds as elm,
+maple, ash, willow, cottonwood, and a hundred other similar kinds,
+where shellbark hickory, chestnut, walnut, pecan and butternut would
+thrive just as well, cost no more, and yet yield bushels of
+delicious and highly prized nuts, and this annually or in alternate
+years, continuing and increasing in productiveness for one, two or
+more centuries. Aside from the intrinsic value of such trees, they
+are, in the way of ornament, just as beautiful as, and in many
+instances much superior to those yielding nothing in the way of food
+except, perhaps, something for noxious insects.
+
+I am not attempting to pose as the one wise man engaged in rural
+affairs, but am merely recounting my personal observation and
+experience, having in my younger days taken the advice of my elders,
+and at a time when a hint of the future value of nut trees would
+have been worth more than a paid-up life insurance policy. But as
+the hint was not given, I selected for roadside trees ash, maples,
+tulip, magnolias, and other popular kinds, all of which thrived, and
+by the time they were twenty years old began to be admired for their
+beauty, although their roots were spreading into the adjoining
+field, robbing the soil of the nutriment required for less
+vigorous-growing plants. Later, however, the discovery was made that
+I was paying very dearly for a crop of leaves and sentiment, neither
+of which was salable or available for filling one's purse. When
+thirty years of age the very best of my roadside trees were probably
+worth two dollars each for firewood, or one dollar more than the
+nurseryman's price at the time of planting. The greater part of
+these trees, however, have since been cremated, a few being left as
+reminders of the misdirected labors of youth and inexperience.
+
+In this matter of following a leader in tree-planting along the
+highways, it appears to be a predominant trait of our rural
+population and as old as the settlement of this country, for nowhere
+is it more pronounced than in the New England States, where the
+American elms attracted the attention of the Pilgrims and their
+contemporaries and descendants, and even continued down to the
+present day. No one will deny that the American elm is a noble tree
+in appearance, is easily transplanted and of rapid growth, and yet
+it is one of the most worthless for any economic purpose. It may be
+that its worthlessness for other purposes made it all the more
+acceptable for streets and roadsides, the better kinds being
+reserved for firewood, fencing, furniture, and the manufacture of
+agricultural and other implements. But whatever the cause or object,
+the elm became the one tree generally selected for planting in
+parks, villages, cities, and along roadsides in the country, not
+only in the older but in many of the newer States. From present
+indications, however, the glory of this much over-praised tree is on
+the wane, for the imported elm-leaf beetle (_Galeruca calmariensis_)
+is slowly but surely spreading over the country, defoliating the
+elms of all species and varieties, and it is a question whether we
+should bless this insect for the work it is doing or look upon it as
+a pest. Perhaps future generations will sing p�ons in its praise,
+and they certainly will have reasons for rejoicing if better and
+more useful kinds are planted in the places now occupied by the
+worthless elms.
+
+In other localities some pioneer or leader in roadside ornamentation
+selected or recommended some species of maple, linden, catalpa,
+poplar or willow, but it made little or no difference as to kind,
+because, as a rule, all his neighbors followed without a thought or
+question in regard to adaptation to soil, climate, or fitness in the
+local or surrounding scenery, or of its future economic value. The
+result of this want of taste and forethought may be seen in whatever
+direction one travels throughout the older and more thickly settled
+portions of this country.
+
+Had the early settlers of the New England States planted shellbark
+hickories, or even the native chestnut, in place of the American
+elm, they would not only have had equally as beautiful trees for
+shade and ornament, but the nutritious nuts would scarcely have
+failed to bring bright cheer to many a household and money to fill
+oft-depleted purses, while their descendants would have blessed them
+for their forethought. Of course there are other valuable kinds of
+nuts which thrive over the greater part of the New England States,
+but I refer only to the two, which were so abundant in the forests
+that one or both could have been obtained for the mere cost of
+transplanting. But it is not fair to prate about the remissness and
+follies of our ancestors, unless we can show by our works that
+wisdom has come down to us through their experience.
+
+What is true of the New England is equally true of all the older
+States, and is rapidly becoming so in many of the newer, little
+attention being paid to the intrinsic value of the wood or the
+product of the trees planted along the highways. There are also
+millions of acres of wild lands not suitable for cultivation, but
+well adapted to the growth of trees, whether of the nut-bearing or
+other kinds. But for the present I will omit further reference to
+the planting of nut trees except on the line of the highways, just
+where other kinds have long been in vogue and are still being
+cultivated for shade and ornament,--with no thought, perhaps, on the
+part of the planter, that both could be obtained in the nut trees,
+with something of more intrinsic value added. The nut trees which
+grow to a large size are as well adapted for planting along
+roadsides, in the open country, as other kinds that yield nothing in
+the way of food for either man or beast. They are also fully as
+beautiful in form and foliage, and in many instances far superior,
+to the kinds often selected for such purposes.
+
+The only objection I have heard of as being urged against planting
+fruit and nut trees along the highway is that they tempt boys and
+girls--as well as persons of larger growth--to become trespassers;
+but this only applies to where there is such a scarcity that the
+quantity taken perceptibly lessens the total crop. But where there
+is an abundance, either the temptation to trespass disappears, or we
+fail to recognize our loss. As we cannot very well dispense with the
+small boy and his sister, I am in favor of providing them
+bountifully with all the good things that climate and circumstance
+will afford. It is a truism that conscience is never strengthened by
+an empty stomach.
+
+A mile, in this country, is 5280 feet, and if trees are set 40 feet
+apart--which is allowing sufficient room for them to grow during an
+ordinary lifetime--we get 133 per mile in a single row; but where
+the roads are three to four rods wide, two rows may be planted, one
+on each side, or 266 per mile. With such kinds as the Persian walnut
+and American and foreign chestnuts, we can safely estimate the crop,
+when the trees are twenty years old, at a half bushel per tree, or
+66 bushels for a single row, and 133 for a double row per mile. With
+grafted trees of either kind we may count on double the quantity
+named, presuming, of course, that the trees are given proper care.
+But to be on the safe side, let us keep our estimate down to the
+half-bushel mark per tree, and with this crop, at the moderate price
+of four dollars per bushel, we would get $264 from the crop on a
+single row, and double this sum, or $528, for the crop on a double
+row--with a fair assurance that the yield would increase steadily
+for the next hundred years or more; while the cost of gathering and
+marketing the nuts is no greater, and in many instances much less
+than that of the ordinary grain crops. At the expiration of the
+first half century, one-half of the trees may be removed, if they
+begin to crowd, and the timber used for whatever purpose it may best
+be adapted. The remaining trees would probably improve, on account
+of having more room for development.
+
+There has been a steady increase in the demand, and a corresponding
+advance in the price of all kinds of edible nuts, during the past
+three or four decades, and this is likely to continue for many years
+to come, because consumers are increasing far more rapidly than
+producers; besides, the forests, which have long been the only
+source of supply of the native kinds, are rapidly disappearing,
+while there has not been, as yet, any special effort to make good
+the loss, by replanting or otherwise. The dealers in such articles
+in our larger cities assure me that the demand for our best kinds of
+edible nuts is far in excess of the supply, and yet not one
+housewife or cook in a thousand in this country has ever attempted
+to use nuts of any kind in the preparation of meats and other dishes
+for the table, as is so generally practiced in European and Oriental
+countries.
+
+The question may be asked, if the demand is sufficient to warrant
+the planting of the hardy nut trees extensively along our highways
+or elsewhere. In answer to such a question it may be said that we
+not only consume all of the edible nuts raised in this country, but
+import millions of pounds annually of the very kinds which thrive
+here as well as in any other part of the world.
+
+I have before me the records of our imports from the year 1790 to
+1894, but as I purpose dealing more with the present and future than
+with the distant past, I will refer here only to the statistics of
+the four years of the present decade, leaving out all reference to
+the tropical nuts, which are not supposed to be adapted to our
+climate.
+
+Of almonds, not shelled, and on which there is a protective duty of
+three cents per pound, we imported from 1890 to the close of 1893,
+12,443,895 pounds, valued at $1,100,477.65. Of almonds, shelled, on
+which the duty is now five cents, we imported 1,326,633 pounds. The
+total value of both kinds for the four years, amounted to
+$1,716,277.32. Whether this high protective duty is to remain or not
+is uncertain, but it is quite evident that it has had very little
+effect in stimulating the cultivation of this nut except in
+circumscribed localities on the Pacific coast.
+
+Of filberts and walnuts, not shelled, and with a duty of two cents
+per pound, we imported during the same years from eleven to fifteen
+million pounds annually, or a total for the four years of 54,526,181
+pounds, and in addition about two million pounds of the shelled
+kernels, on which the duty was six cents (now four) per pound. The
+total value of these importations amounted to $3,176,085.34.
+
+I do not find the European chestnut mentioned in any list of
+imports, although an immense quantity must be received from France,
+Italy and Spain every year, and they are probably imported under the
+head of miscellaneous nuts, not specially provided for, and upon
+which the duty was two cents per pound in 1890-'91, but was later
+reduced to one and a half cents.
+
+Under the head "miscellaneous nuts," or all other shelled and
+unshelled "not specially provided for," there was imported during
+the period named 6,442,908 pounds, valued at $235,976.05. The total
+for all kinds of edible nuts imported was $7,124,575.82. These
+figures are sufficient to prove that we are neglecting an
+opportunity to largely engage in and extend a most important and
+profitable industry. It is true that in the Southern States
+considerable attention has been given, of late, to the preservation
+of the old pecan nut trees and the planting of young stock, but it
+will be many years before the increase from this source can overtake
+the ever-increasing demand for this delicious native nut.
+Californians are also making an effort to raise several foreign
+varieties of edible nuts on a somewhat extensive scale, but all
+these widely scattered experiments are mere drops in the ocean of
+our wants. Under such conditions I ask, in all seriousness, if it is
+not about time that our farmers and rural population generally began
+to count their worthless and unproductive possessions, in the form
+of roadside and other shade trees--which have probably cost fully as
+much to secure, plant and care for during the few or many years
+since they were set out, as would have been expended upon the most
+beautiful and valuable nut-bearing kinds. If our ancestors were at
+fault in the selection of trees for planting, we need not expect
+that posterity will excuse us for continuing and repeating their
+folly, especially when our dear-bought experience should teach us
+better.
+
+At the present time there might be some difficulty in procuring, at
+the nurseries, a choice selection of nut trees in any considerable
+quantity, suited to roadside planting, because heretofore there has
+been little demand for such stock; and nurserymen are only human,
+and conduct their establishments on business principles, propagating
+the kind of trees in greatest demand, regardless of their intrinsic
+or future value to purchasers. They will also continue producing
+such stock just so long as the demand will warrant it, and further,
+it is but natural that they should sometimes recommend and advise
+their customers to purchase worthless, and even pestiferous kinds,
+such as the ailanthus and white poplar, because the profits in
+raising these trees are large and there is little danger of loss in
+transplanting. But if purchasers will insist on having better kinds
+and refuse to accept any other, they will soon be accommodated; and
+if not, then let everyone who owns a plot of ground become his own
+propagator of trees. It is not beyond the ability of any moderately
+intelligent man (or woman, for that matter) to raise nut trees, and
+as readily as one could potatoes or corn.
+
+Where farmers want a row of trees along the roadside, to be utilized
+for line fence posts, they cannot possibly find any kinds better
+adapted for this purpose than chestnut, walnut and hickory; and
+these will give just as dense a shade, and look as well--besides, in
+a few years they may yield enough to pay the taxes on the entire
+farm, the crop increasing in amount and value not only during the
+lifetime of the planter, but that of many generations of his
+descendants.
+
+This appeal to the good sense of our rural population is made in all
+sincerity and with the hope that it will be heeded by every man who
+has a spark of patriotism in his soul, and who dares show it in his
+labors, and by setting up a few milestones in the form of
+nut-bearing trees along the roadsides--if for no other purpose than
+the present pleasure of anticipating the gratification such
+monuments will afford the many who are certain to pass along these
+highways years hence.
+
+It is surely not good policy to enrich other nations at the expense
+of our own people, as we are now doing in sending millions of
+dollars annually to foreign countries in payment for such luxuries
+as edible nuts that could be readily and profitably produced at
+home. There need be no fear of an overproduction of such things, no
+matter how many may engage in their cultivation, because in such
+industries many will resolve to do, and even make an attempt, but a
+comparatively small number will reach any marked degree of success.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE ALMOND.
+
+
+Amygdalus, _Tournefort_. Name supposed to be derived from _amysso_,
+to lacerate, because of the prominent sharp, knifelike margin of one
+edge of the deeply pitted, wrinkled nut. Martius, an Italian
+botanist, suggests that the name came from the Hebrew word _shakad_,
+signifying vigilant, or to awake, because after the rigors of winter
+the almond tree is one of the earliest to hail the coming of spring,
+with its flowers. The common English name is from the Latin
+_amandola_, corrupted from _amygdala_. In French it is _amandier_;
+in German, _mandel_; Portuguese, _amendoa_; Spanish, _almendro_;
+Italian, _amandola_, _mandalo_, _mandorla_, etc.; Dutch, _amendel_;
+Chinese, _him-ho-gin_.
+
+Under the natural classification of plants the almond belongs to the
+order _Rosace�_, and in the tribe _Drupace�_. Linn�us placed the
+peach and almond in the same genus, and they are now generally
+considered to be only varieties of one species,--the wild almond
+tree is probably the parent from which all the cultivated peaches
+and nectarines have descended. In most of our modern botanical works
+these fruits are classed as a sub-section of _Prunus_, the plum.
+They are mainly deciduous shrubs, or small trees. The flowers are
+variable, both in size and color; but in the almond they are usually
+somewhat larger than in the peach, almost sessile, and from separate
+scaly buds on the shoots of the preceding season, appearing in early
+spring, before or with the unfolding leaves, the latter being folded
+lengthwise in the bud. Leaves three to four inches long, tapering,
+finely serrate, with few or no glands at the base of the blade, as
+seen in many varieties of the common peach. Fruit clothed with a
+fine dense pubescence in both peach and almond; but in the latter
+the pulpy envelope becomes dry and fibrous at maturity, cracking
+open irregularly, allowing the rough and deeply indented nuts to
+drop out; while in the peach the pulpy part becomes soft, juicy and
+edible, the reverse of the almond. The nectarine is only a
+smooth-skinned peach.
+
+=History of the Almond.=--As with most of our long-cultivated fruits
+and nut trees, very little is now known of the early history or
+origin of the almond, and even its native country has not been
+positively determined, although it is supposed to be indigenous to
+parts of Northern Africa and the mountainous region of Asia.
+Theophrastus, who wrote a history of plants about three centuries
+before the Christian era, mentions the almond as the only tree in
+Greece that produces blossoms before the leaves. From Greece it was
+introduced into Italy, where the nuts were called _nuces gr�c�_, or
+Greek nuts.
+
+Columella, about the middle of the first century of our era, was the
+earliest Roman writer to mention the almond as distinct from the
+peach. From Italy this nut was slowly disseminated, making its way
+northward mainly through France, reaching Great Britain as late as
+1538 (_Hortus Kewensis_). But its cultivation has never extended in
+Britain, beyond sheltered gardens and orchard houses, owing to the
+cool and otherwise uncongenial climate, and the same is true of
+Northern France and other regions to the eastward in Europe. But in
+the south of France, also in Italy, Spain, Sicily, and throughout
+the Mediterranean countries, both in Europe and Africa, the almond
+thrives, and has long been extensively cultivated. These nuts are an
+important article of commerce, immense quantities being exported by
+Spain, mainly from Valencia, while the so-called Jordan almond comes
+from Malaga, as very few are raised in the valley of the Jordan.
+Bitter almonds come principally from Mogador in Morocco.
+
+As for almond culture in the United States, very little is to be
+said further than that, while we have few experiments to refer to as
+having been made east of the Rocky Mountains, not one of our great
+pomologists, in their published works, has ever given any reason for
+the almost entire neglect of this nut. Mr. Wm. H. White, author of
+"Gardening for the South" (1868), throws no light upon the subject,
+merely describing a few of the well-known varieties of the almond.
+Downing's "Fruit and Fruit Trees of America," Thomas' "American
+Fruit Culturist," Barry's "Fruit Garden," and a score of other
+standard pomological works may be consulted, without obtaining
+therefrom any information in regard to the culture of this nut
+further than to be assured that the hard-shelled varieties are hardy
+in the North wherever the peach tree thrives, and the thin, or paper
+shelled, succeed only in warm climates. All these authors agree in
+saying that the propagation and cultivation of the almond is the
+same as practiced with the peach.
+
+Coming down to recent years for information in regard to almond
+culture, we find H. E. Van Deman, pomologist to the Department of
+Agriculture, dismissing the subject in his report for 1892, as
+follows:
+
+    "I only mention this nut to state to all experimenters that it
+    is useless to try to grow the almond of commerce this side of
+    the Rocky mountains, except, possibly, in New Mexico and
+    southwestern Texas. This is thoroughly established by many
+    reports from those who have tried it in nearly every State and
+    for many years past. It is too tender in the North and does not
+    bear in the South. In California it is an eminent success.
+
+    "The flavor of the hard-shelled almond, so far as I have tested
+    it, is little or no better than a peach kernel, and is therefore
+    practically worthless. The tree of this variety is about as
+    hardy as the peach, and bears quite freely. The attention paid
+    to the almond in the Atlantic and Central States might well be
+    given to other nuts."
+
+This is certainly a very easy way of disposing of the cultivation of
+a nut which has so long figured among our importations from European
+countries; besides, no experiments are cited, experimenters named,
+or reasons given why almond culture is a failure in the Southern
+States. But fortunately there are men in the South who are able and
+ready to give reasons for their opinions and statements, in regard
+to the cultivation of crops or plants with which they have become
+familiar through personal experience. When I asked Mr. P. J.
+Berckmans, Augusta, Ga., president of the American Pomological
+Society, for information on this point, he promptly replied as
+follows:
+
+    "The reason that almonds are not cultivated in Georgia and other
+    Southern States is because of their early blooming, as spring
+    frosts usually destroy all the blossoms. We have tried many
+    varieties of the soft-shell without success. The hard-shell will
+    occasionally bear a crop of fruit, as it blooms later, and the
+    blooms seem to resist cold better than the other varieties. In
+    middle Florida soft-shell almonds are sometimes successful, but
+    they have been tried so sparingly that I cannot obtain any
+    satisfactory reports."
+
+Admitting, as we do, that President Berckmans' long experience in
+the cultivation of nut and fruit trees in the South enables him to
+speak with authority on this subject, still, we have some
+encouragement for continuing experiments with the almond in regions
+known to be favorable for the cultivation of its near relative, the
+peach. Furthermore, experiments seem to be wanting with the almond
+in the more elevated regions of the northern line of Southern
+States, also in Maryland, Delaware and southern New Jersey, near the
+seacoast, or other large bodies of water, which, as is well known,
+have considerable influence in retarding the early blooming of fruit
+trees, as well as warding off late spring and early autumn frosts.
+
+It is scarcely reasonable to suppose that a region of country as
+extensive as that of one-half of the Middle and all of the Southern
+States, with a range of climate admitting of the successful
+cultivation of such hardy fruits as the apple and pear, and from
+these down to the pineapple and cocoa-nut, should not yield a
+locality or localities admirably adapted to the cultivation of the
+half-hardy almond tree. It is no doubt true that there are extensive
+regions in the South where late spring frosts are exceedingly
+troublesome, and sometimes disastrously so, to fruit growers; but
+even these have their limits, as shown in the vast quantity and
+variety of fruits annually produced in the Southern States. But
+great local variations in climate are natural to all countries in
+the temperate zone, and we frequently find the most favorable and
+the unfavorable for fruit culture within a few miles of each other.
+
+If there are not thousands and tens of thousands of acres of land
+located in favorable positions between Virginia and Florida, adapted
+to produce the commercial almond in some of its varieties, then we
+must confess that the study of climatology is of little use to the
+pomologist. Furthermore, all the varieties of the so-called
+hard-shelled almonds which thrive in our northern States are not
+worthless, neither are the kernels of all of them "bitter," and even
+if they were, they would still be worth cultivating, else we would
+not import such vast quantities from Morocco to supply the demand.
+
+If none of the thin-shelled varieties heretofore tried in the South
+are successful, it is time that either our experiment stations or
+individual horticulturists made some attempt to produce those that
+are adapted to that region of country. But until we have some more
+definite information than heretofore disseminated, in regard to
+almond culture in the South, it is safe to conclude that failures in
+the past have been due mainly to want of judgment, or knowledge of
+varieties and of positions for the orchard, with, perhaps, some
+neglect in care and cultivation.
+
+In California almond culture has been pushed with vigor for several
+decades, but at first with rather indifferent results, because
+growers depended upon noted European varieties, which, as experience
+proved, were not adapted to the soil and climate of the country. In
+a paper read before the American Pomological Society at its session
+held at Sacramento, Cal., Jan. 16-18, 1895, Prof. E. J. Wickson, of
+the University of California, alluded to this subject of almond
+culture in the State as follows:
+
+    "In no branch of this effort for improved varieties has our
+    success been more marked than in the development of seedling
+    almonds. The achievements of A. T. Hatch in this line are too
+    well known to require but a passing allusion. It is not too much
+    to say that this work rescued almond culture to California. When
+    he began, the almond, because of almost universal failure of the
+    old varieties, was a jest and a byword in our horticulture.
+    Nine-tenths of all the almonds planted during the preceding
+    twenty-five years had gone for firewood or were carrying the
+    foliage of the prune to conceal their hated stems. At the
+    present time, through the dissemination of Mr. Hatch's
+    varieties, the almond, in all regions decently adapted to the
+    tree, is productive and profitable and has a future."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. A CALIFORNIA ALMOND ORCHARD.]
+
+That almond culture in California is rapidly becoming an important
+and successful industry, we have an ocular demonstration in the tons
+of these valuable nuts received from there in the past few years,
+and placed on sale in Eastern markets. If one man, by his individual
+efforts, can revolutionize or establish a great industry in a region
+as large as the State of California, it is not too much to expect
+that something of the kind could be done elsewhere, with the
+combined efforts of several men. If the varieties heretofore tried
+in the East are unsuited to the climate, it is certainly within the
+range of probabilities that others better adapted to surrounding
+conditions can be produced. The native grape, raspberry and
+strawberry have had a history similar to the almond, but now all are
+extensively and successfully cultivated.
+
+=Propagation of the Almond.=--The propagation of the almond is
+identical with that of the peach: that is, from seed to procure new
+varieties, or by budding the more desirable ones, when obtained,
+upon seedling almond, peach or plum stocks. The half-wild
+hard-shelled almond is probably the most congenial and best stock
+for this purpose, but seedlings of the peach are most generally
+employed because the most abundant and cheapest. Under certain
+conditions, such as cold, heavy, moist soils, and where rather
+dwarfish trees are desired, the plum may be employed with advantage
+as a stock, but it is not to be recommended for general orchard
+culture. In mild climates seedlings of the best of the soft-shelled
+varieties may be raised and planted in orchards without budding, but
+the nuts from such trees are likely to be somewhat variable in size
+and quality, although the trees will usually prove to be as healthy
+and productive as those subjected to artificial modes of
+propagation. If, however, the grower desires a uniform product, he
+must resort to the usual means of obtaining it; that is, multiplying
+superior or distinct varieties by budding, either upon peach, almond
+or other stocks. It is advisable, as well as exceedingly important,
+for all who intend or feel inclined to cultivate almonds in regions
+where the adaptation of this nut has not been fully established by
+years of practical experience, that seedlings should be raised in
+large numbers, and from these a selection be made to meet the
+requirements of the climate and other conditions under which they
+are to be propagated and grown. If spring frosts have been
+heretofore inimical to the cultivation of the almond, then the
+production of late-blooming varieties would be a remedy. There will
+also be variations in the season of ripening; some may come on too
+early, others far too late for special localities, but all these
+faults or variations may be readily overcome by raising seedlings,
+and then selecting for propagation those coming nearest fulfilling
+the requirements of local conditions or circumstances. It is by such
+experiments and means that fruit culture has reached its present
+position in this and all other countries, where it is practiced as
+an art or industrial pursuit. Varieties that have become exceedingly
+popular and profitable in one locality or country, may not have
+succeeded elsewhere, and this holds good with all cultivated plants.
+
+In making experiments with the almond in regions where it has not
+been cultivated, but under conditions which appear to be favorable,
+I would certainly advise testing the well-known varieties first, and
+if these fail, then see what can be done in the way of producing new
+ones adapted to the locality and climate.
+
+=Raising Seedlings for Stocks.=--In warm or moderately mild climates
+the nuts, whether peach or almond, may be planted soon after they
+are gathered in the fall, but should the weather continue warm and
+moist the nuts will sometimes sprout prematurely and the young
+sprouts get frosted later in the season, and for this reason it is
+better to store them in a cool room, packed in dry sand or soil,
+until the approach of steady cold weather, and then plant. Having
+lost choice kinds of nuts from being in too great haste in getting
+them into the ground in the fall, I am prompted to give this warning
+to those who have had no experience in raising nut trees. If not
+convenient to plant in the fall, nuts of all kinds may be packed in
+barrels, boxes, or similar vessels, mixed with or stratified with
+sharp sand or light soil, then stored in a dry, cool place,--a very
+cool cellar will answer, but in my experience, out of doors is
+preferable,--and in the shade of some evergreen tree or on the north
+side of a building, and there banked over with earth just sufficient
+to keep the nuts at an equably low temperature. It is advisable to
+have a few small holes in the bottom of the barrels or boxes, to
+insure proper drainage, should any considerable amount of water get
+in at the top; but this will not occur if the vessels are properly
+covered with boards when placed in position for winter.
+
+It must also be kept in mind that mice, squirrels and chipmunks are
+fond of almonds and other kinds of edible nuts, and if placed where
+these little rodents can find them, they are sure to take a share,
+or perhaps the entire store, before their visits are discovered. I
+have known field mice to dig down under boxes of nuts, enlarge the
+holes left for drainage, and spend the winter among the chestnuts
+which I had put away for planting in spring. The safest way is to
+place fine wire netting on the bottom of the box, and then cover it
+with the same. Owing to the abundance of mice and other little
+nut-eating animals, I have never dared to plant out nuts in the
+fall, and so have always stored them in sand, but out of doors
+during the winter, and well covered with earth. In other localities
+it may be safe to sow in autumn, and if protection from vermin is
+required, coat the nuts with gas tar, the same as practiced by
+farmers in protecting seed corn against the attacks of crows and
+other corn-pulling birds. One pint of warm tar will be sufficient
+for a bushel of nuts, and the application is readily made by placing
+the nuts in a barrel, pouring the tar on them, and stirring with a
+stick until every nut is coated. To prevent the tar sticking to the
+hands in planting, dust the nuts with dry wood ashes, land plaster,
+or fine dry sand.
+
+If peach stones are to be planted for stocks they may be put into
+the ground as soon as ready in autumn, because they are rarely
+disturbed by vermin; or if more convenient, mix with common soil,
+and in heaps, in the open ground, and leave in this position until
+spring, then pick out as they begin to sprout, and plant. The
+hard-shelled almond may be treated in the same way, only they are
+not to be handled quite as roughly as peach stones, and for
+protection it is best to put them in barrels or boxes, as described
+above.
+
+When ready for planting take out the nuts and drop them in shallow
+drills, one every ten or twelve inches, then cover with about two
+inches of soil. It is to be supposed, of course, that a seed bed has
+been prepared, by thorough working over and enriching, if necessary,
+in advance of planting. The distance between the drills or rows
+should be sufficient to admit of cultivating the plants with a horse
+or mule, and cultivator, during the summer, and if this is done and
+the soil stirred often enough to keep down all weeds, the stocks
+should become large enough to admit of budding the first season; if
+not, then this operation must be deferred until the following year.
+But in case the seedlings are raised from choice varieties and to be
+left in their natural condition for fruiting, they may be lifted
+when one or two seasons old and set where they are to remain
+permanently.
+
+=The Season for Budding.=--So much depends upon climate, location,
+and variation of seasons, that no special date or time can be given
+for budding trees of any kind, but it is always to be done while the
+stocks are in active growth, because the bark must part freely from
+the wood underneath, in order to admit of inserting the bud under
+it. If the buds are set too early in the season there is danger of a
+premature growth; that is, of pushing out a shoot in the fall
+instead of remaining dormant until the following spring. Under
+certain conditions, however, and for special purposes, it may be
+advisable to force the buds as soon as they have formed a union with
+the stock, but as a rule, in the propagation of hardy and half-hardy
+trees, it is better to keep the buds dormant during the cool or cold
+winter months.
+
+Here in the Northern States we usually begin to look over our stocks
+during the latter part of July or first week in August, and note
+their progress and condition. Should they show the least signs of
+cessation of growth, we begin budding them, and push the work as
+rapidly as possible. If the season is a wet one the stocks may
+continue to grow and remain in good condition for budding until the
+middle of September; but in a dry season they may cease to grow in
+August, and it is these variable conditions which gives to the close
+observer and man of experience such an advantage over the novice in
+the propagation of plants. It is better to begin budding too early
+than to be a few days too late.
+
+The operation called budding consists in taking a bud, with a small
+portion of the bark adjoining, from one plant, and inserting it in
+another, or in some other part of the same plant from which it was
+taken. The physiological principles which govern the operation are,
+that there must exist an affinity between the plant from which the
+bud is taken and the one upon which it is to be placed, and the
+nearer the relationship the more readily will it unite and the more
+perfect the union. For instance, the cultivated peach and almond are
+supposed to be of the same origin, and descendants of one original
+species; consequently there is a close relationship between the
+varieties of both sections, and their seedlings may be employed
+indiscriminately for stocks. The next nearest relatives in the
+family line are the plums (_Prunus_), some of which answer very well
+as stocks for the almond, although very rarely used for this
+purpose. The next group in the line of botanical relationship are
+the cherries (_Prunus cerasus_), but these are too far removed to be
+employed as stocks for either the peach or almond.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. BUDDING KNIFE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3. YANKEE BUDDING KNIFE.]
+
+For budding are necessary a small knife for preparing the buds for
+insertion and making an incision in the bark of the stock to admit
+them; and a quantity of some material to tie around the stock, so as
+to hold the bud in place. Budding knives are made after various
+patterns; one that is commonly used has an ivory or bone handle,
+made very thin at the end, that is used to peel the bark from the
+stock where the bud is to be inserted (Fig. 2). Another form of
+budding knife is made with a horn handle, and a small tapering piece
+of ivory fastened in the end. These knives, of various shapes and
+sizes, can be had at the seed stores; but another and quite a
+different form of budding knife is shown in Fig. 3, and is known as
+the "Yankee budding knife." It is merely a small one-bladed pocket
+knife with a thin blade, round at the end. The cutting portion
+extends about one-third around the end of the blade and two-thirds
+of its length, leaving the lower part dull. Although this form of
+budding knife has been in constant use in some of the older
+nurseries in this country for nearly a century, it does not appear
+to have been manufactured for the general trade, but only on special
+orders for nurserymen. It is so simple a knife, however, that with a
+little grinding almost any small one-bladed pocket knife can be
+transformed into one of these handy budding knives. The rounded end
+of the blade is used for lifting the bark, and for rapid work it is
+far more convenient than any form of knife that must be reversed in
+the hand every time a bud is inserted. In addition, a polished bit
+of steel is smoother and far less likely to lacerate the alburnous
+matter between the bark and wood than the best piece of bone or
+ivory. It may be said, however, that it is immaterial what form of
+knife is employed, provided it has a keen edge and is dexterously
+used.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4. PREPARED SHOOT.]
+
+The material most commonly used in times past for tying in the bud
+is the inner bark of the linden or basswood tree, usually called
+bass, and always to be procured in the form of mats, or as prepared
+from our indigenous basswoods and kept on sale at the seed stores.
+Recently, however, another excellent tying material has come into
+use, known in the trade as raffia or roffia. It is the cuticle of
+the Jupati palms. One species (_Raphia t�digera_) is a native of the
+lower valley of the Amazon and Orinoco, and another (_R. Ruffia_) of
+Madagascar and adjacent islands. Raffia is somewhat softer and more
+pliable than the ordinary bass, although it does not hold its form
+quite as well; but it is so cheap, soft and strong, that it has
+become very popular, and is extensively used for budding and many
+other purposes. But if none of these tying materials are at hand,
+the inner bark of the persimmon, corn husks, cotton twine, woolen
+yarn, or even strips of old muslin and calico may be employed with
+equally as good results, although not as handy and convenient for
+such purposes. The amateur, with only a few stocks to bud, can
+readily improvise implements and materials for doing the work, even
+if they are not of the regulation type. In selecting buds, the young
+shoots of the present season's growth are preferred, and these
+should be taken from the most healthy and vigorous branches of
+bearing trees, if possible. The leaves should be immediately
+removed, not by breaking or pulling off with the hand, but by
+severing the leaf-stalks with a knife, as shown in Fig. 4. If the
+leaves have fallen from the twig, the buds may be too ripe, with
+some kinds of plants, but with the almond, and where only a few
+leaves near the base have dropped, all may be used with fair
+success. If there are any soft and immature buds on the upper part
+of the shoot, or any undeveloped ones at the base, they should be
+rejected. Success in budding depends very largely upon the condition
+of the stocks at the time the operation is performed. Unless the sap
+is flowing and in sufficient abundance to allow the bark to part or
+peel readily from the wood underneath, the bud is certain to fail.
+If the buds used should happen to be a little over-ripe or wholly
+dormant when placed in direct contact with the living tissues and
+the juices of the stock, they will absorb moisture and nutriment,
+and be as likely to unite and live as under opposite conditions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5. INCISION FOR BUD.]
+
+In performing the operation of budding, the following rules may be
+observed: Take the twig from which the buds are to be removed, in
+the left hand, with the small end pointing under the left arm;
+insert the knife-blade half an inch, or a little more, below the
+bud, cutting through the bark and a little into the wood; pass the
+knife under the bud, and bring it out about the same distance above
+it, taking off the bud with the bark, and a thin slice of wood
+attached, as at _c_, Fig. 4. Then, if using the Yankee budding
+knife, or one of similar form, let the forefinger clasp the lower
+part of the blade, make the horizontal incision in the stock first,
+and from this an incision downward about an inch long,--or it may be
+twice this length without doing any harm,--being careful not to cut
+too deep. Lift up the edge of the bark by passing the back of the
+end of the blade (without removing it) up to the horizontal
+incision. Lift the bark on the other side in the same manner, the
+two incisions making a wound in the stock resembling the letter T,
+as shown in Fig. 5. If other forms of budding knives are used, the
+thin end of the ivory handle is thrust under the bark, raising it
+sufficiently to admit the bud. The budder holds the bud between the
+thumb and forefinger of his left hand while making the incision in
+the stock; and as the knife leaves it he places the lower point of
+the bark attached to the bud under the bark of the stock before this
+falls back into place, and thrusts it down into position. If the
+upper end of the bark attached to the bud does not pass completely
+under the bark of the stock, it must be cut across, so as to allow
+that which remains with the bud to fall into place and rest firmly
+on the wood of the stock, as shown in Fig. 6.
+
+When the bud is in position and fitted to the stock, as shown, wind
+the raffia, or other material used, around the stock, both above and
+below, covering the entire incision, leaving only the bud and part
+of leafstalk uncovered. Of course experienced propagators have their
+own individual systems and modes of operation, but the above may be
+taken as a safe guide for the amateur budder. The ligatures should
+be loosened or removed as soon as the bud has become firmly united
+with the stock, which will usually be in ten or fifteen days, if at
+all. When the buds have failed, others may be inserted, provided, of
+course, the stocks are in condition to admit of the operation.
+Exceptions, however, may be made where the budding has been done so
+late in the season that the stock has ceased to grow by the time the
+buds have taken, and in such cases the ligatures may be left on
+later and removed any time before winter. In cold climates the snow,
+ice and water are likely to get in around the bud if the ligatures
+are not removed. But where the stocks are vigorous and the buds set
+early, there will be danger of the ligatures cutting into the bark
+as the stocks swell or increase in diameter, unless they are
+loosened or entirely removed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6. BUD IN POSITION.]
+
+Under ordinary circumstances budded stocks should not be headed back
+until the following spring, and then should be cut off two or three
+inches above the inserted bud; and when this pushes into growth, all
+suckers and sprouts below and above it should be rubbed off as they
+appear, for the object is to throw the entire strength of the stock
+into this one bud, and when this has made a growth of two or three
+feet the short stump of the stock above the base of the shoot may be
+carefully removed with a sharp knife. This is usually done the last
+of July or first of August, which gives time for the healing of the
+wound before the close of the growing season. Sometimes it may be
+necessary to place small stakes by the side of these shoots for
+their support and to prevent breaking at the point of union with the
+stock; but this will rarely be necessary, except in very exposed
+situations.
+
+If the young trees make a fairly good growth they will be ready for
+planting out in the orchard the following spring, and one-year-old
+almond trees are usually preferable for transplanting than older. It
+is not advisable to prune these young trees during the growing
+season the first summer, but allow all the side shoots or branches
+to grow unchecked, for by so doing we secure a more stocky plant, if
+not as tall a one, than we would if trimming up was practiced. But
+when the trees are taken up for transplanting, in the late fall or
+early spring, then they may be pruned and the lateral branches cut
+off close to the main stem, leaving a naked rod, and if low-headed
+trees are desired (and they usually are), cut back the main stem to
+about three feet from the ground. If the young trees have made a
+growth of from four to six feet, then prune away the lateral
+branches to a hight of three feet or a little more, and cut in all
+branches above this point to within four to six inches of the main
+stem, leaving the buds on these stumps to form the head of the tree.
+Four or five branches at the top of the stem will be sufficient for
+the foundation for an open, round-headed tree, or in what may be
+termed a vase form, which is the best for almonds.
+
+=Soil and Exposure for Almonds.=--The almond requires a warm, rather
+light and well-drained soil. Cold, heavy clays, and low, moist
+soils, whether light or heavy, are always to be avoided for the
+almond and closely allied trees. That the soil should be moderately
+rich is, of course, a condition required with all cultivated nut and
+fruit trees, but over-stimulation may result in excessive and
+immature growth late in the season, this leaving the twigs in such a
+state that they will be unable to resist even a few degrees of
+frost, to which they may be subjected the ensuing winter. In what
+are generally termed mild climates, or where the temperature seldom
+goes more than four to six degrees below the freezing point, hardy
+trees, if they have made a late growth, are often injured more than
+they would have been in a colder climate, with early matured wood.
+There are many kinds of what we consider very hardy trees and shrubs
+here in the North, that are very likely to be winterkilled or
+severely frosted when grown at the South, simply because the
+conditions are such that they do not ripen up in time to resist the
+cold.
+
+In touching upon the subject of location for an almond orchard east
+of the Mississippi, I should be inclined to relegate this valuable
+nut to semi-tropical Florida, were it not for the fact that almost a
+score of ornamental species and varieties of the same genus,--to say
+nothing of the widely cultivated peach,--flourish over a very wide
+range of country and climate, and nowhere better than near the
+Atlantic ocean in the Middle and some of the Northern States. It is
+also generally conceded that several of what are called hard-shelled
+varieties thrive and bear fruit in nearly all of our best
+peach-growing regions. From all that I have been able to learn of
+almond culture, and with my own limited experience with this nut,
+experiments are wanting to prove that it cannot be successfully
+cultivated in the peach-growing region of the Eastern States. I will
+not say "profitably" cultivated, for this is a rather vague term
+when applied to horticultural operations of any kind. Success is not
+synonymous with profit; in fact, it is frequently quite the
+opposite, and an abundant crop may mean glutted markets and a
+corresponding loss to the producer. But, to return to location, the
+principal cause of failure in almond culture, where it has been
+tried in the older States, seems to be the early blooming of the
+trees and subsequent destruction of the embryo fruit by frosts. To
+avoid this, high, open, airy situations, and even the north side of
+hills, would certainly be preferable to southern slopes and
+protected locations, especially in the South or where the
+temperature in winter does not go low enough to kill the wood of the
+previous season's growth. Theoretically, we might suppose that there
+are many locations favorable to almond culture in the elevated
+regions of North Carolina and Tennessee, as well as in the northern
+tier of counties in Alabama and Georgia. But in the absence of
+carefully conducted experiments in these regions, we have only to
+wait for their consummation at some future time, to prove the truth
+or falsity of our theory.
+
+In the rich, warm valleys of New Mexico, Arizona and California,
+congenial locations are plentiful, inasmuch as almost every variety
+of climate is at hand, with a temperature ranging from that of
+perpetual summer to the opposite extreme, and all to be found within
+a few miles, and frequently to be found in the same county. Under
+such conditions, it rests with the would-be cultivator to decide
+upon the kinds of fruits desired, then to seek a location best
+adapted to his purpose.
+
+If, as claimed,--but not proven,--there are no limited or extended
+areas fitted for almond culture east of the Mississippi river, there
+are certainly plenty of such west of it, awaiting the industrious
+and intelligent nut culturist. Almond orchards have been planted in
+California and Arizona, and the quality of the nuts, as well as the
+quantity, is very satisfactory; but a greater number and more
+extensive orchards are needed to meet the home demand.
+
+=Planting and Pruning.=--In planting and pruning the almond tree the
+same system should be adopted as with its near relative, the peach.
+One-year-old budded trees are preferred for planting in an orchard,
+to older, except in the case of seedlings, then two-year-old may be
+selected, because these are seldom larger than one-year budded
+trees. The trees should be set fifteen to eighteen feet apart,
+varying the distance according to variety, soil, and other local
+conditions, and it is best to place them in rows and at right
+angles, in order to admit of cultivating both ways, as it is termed,
+thereby saving as much hand labor as possible. For the first two or
+three years after planting, all weeds and grass should be kept away
+from the stems and over the roots, either by frequent hoeing, or
+covering with a mulch. The best way, perhaps, to prevent the growth
+of weeds, is to use the land among the trees for some low-growing
+crops, such as beans, tomatoes, melons or potatoes, then see that
+the workmen, when hoeing these crops, hoe up the weeds and grass
+about the trees at the same time. We might reasonably suppose that
+the most careless cultivator of trees would think of this, but,
+unfortunately, extended observation proves quite the contrary, and
+it is scarcely possible to go through any very extensive
+fruit-growing region without seeing many such instances of neglect.
+A square yard or more of tough sward is frequently left for years
+undisturbed about the stems of all the trees in an orchard, while
+the little annual plants growing near by, and not worth, at an
+extreme valuation, five cents each, are cultivated with the greatest
+care.
+
+The first pruning of the trees should be done at the time of
+transplanting from the nursery rows, as directed on a preceding
+page, and from the top of the stem only three or four shoots allowed
+to grow the first season, all others being rubbed off as soon as
+they appear, or when they have made a growth of two or three inches.
+These three or four upper branches are to become the foundation of
+the future head of the tree, and should be allowed to grow unchecked
+the first season; the next spring cut back one-half to two-thirds of
+their original length. This pruning will force out strong side or
+lateral shoots near the base, thus giving a sturdy foundation to
+build upon later, the pruner keeping in mind that the weaker the
+growth the more severe should be the pruning. Better leave a few
+strong buds, from which vigorous shoots will be produced, than a
+great number succeeded by many feeble twigs. If blossoms and fruit
+appear on the young two-year-old trees, a limited number may be left
+to mature, although no considerable crop ought to be gathered before
+the third year.
+
+In after years a somewhat different system of pruning may be
+adopted, keeping in view the fact that the fruit buds and fruit are
+always produced on the young shoots of the previous season's growth,
+and for this reason an annual renewal of such parts of the tree is
+absolutely required, in order to secure a good crop on trees of any
+age. In some localities and countries it may be possible that almond
+trees produce a crop every year; but this is scarcely to be expected
+anywhere. Consequently a system of pruning should be followed which
+will conform to the variations of circumstances and conditions; and
+this brings us to the consideration of--
+
+=The Proper Time to Prune.=--If the growth of the trees and their
+fruiting were always uniform, then we might readily adopt some
+invariable system and season for pruning; but as we are dealing with
+uncertainties, our rules must be equally flexible and variable. If
+the season is favorable, and the trees bloom freely and fruit sets
+abundantly, we may proceed to prune as soon as the embryo nuts are
+as large as peas,--but only cutting back some of the largest bearing
+shoots, and thinning out others here and there, just enough to
+equalize and evenly distribute the crop through the head of the
+tree. But in case the frost or cold of winter has destroyed the crop
+for the season, then as soon as this is discovered, prune and cut
+back all the shoots and branches sufficient to insure a vigorous
+growth of young bearing wood for the ensuing year. Under this system
+of pruning we fix the time as after blooming in the spring, in order
+to have our work correspond to circumstances and conditions, and
+where there is a crop in prospect the pruning is comparatively
+light; but if there is to be no fruit, or but little, then one
+should aim to produce an abundance of bearing shoots for the
+following season. In other words, we prune severely in non-bearing
+years, whether they occur alternately or otherwise; but this system
+is only applicable to trees like the almond and peach, which produce
+their fruit on the shoots of the preceding year's growth.
+
+
+VARIETIES OF THE ALMOND.
+
+Almonds are usually divided into three groups, viz.: Bitter,
+hard-shelled, and soft, or paper-shelled. In each there are many
+varieties, although they are rarely known in market except by the
+general name of the group to which they belong. If they are soft,
+hard or bitter, this is sufficient designation for commercial
+purposes, with, perhaps, the addition of the name of country in
+which they were grown, or that of the city or seaport from whence
+exported.
+
+=Bitter Almond=, _Amygdalus communis amara_.--The varieties of this
+group are not specifically distinct, and some have soft, thin
+shells, while others are thick and hard; but the kernels are very
+bitter, hence the name. But in the countries where these almonds are
+most extensively cultivated, as in the South of France, Austria,
+Spain and Greece, the trees are generally raised from the nut, and,
+as might be expected, the crop produced under such conditions is
+exceedingly variable, the nuts being large or small, and the shells
+of various degrees of hardness, with an occasional tree producing
+both bitter and sweet kerneled nuts. These wilding trees are, in the
+main, more hardy than the improved varieties, hence are largely
+employed as stocks for the better sorts, as well as for the plum and
+apricot. It is also claimed that, as a rule, the bitter almond trees
+bloom later in the spring than those of the other two groups, and
+for this reason are not so liable to be injured by spring frosts.
+The trees are hardy in all of our most favorable peach-growing
+regions of the Middle and Northern States, but some of the varieties
+ripen rather too late for localities north of the latitude of New
+York city. All this, however, and other obstacles, will soon
+disappear, whenever the time arrives for our horticulturists to take
+up almond culture and pursue it with half the zeal they have the
+cultivation of the peach and many other kinds of fruits.
+
+=Hard-Shelled Almond=, _A. c. dulcis_, or sweet-kerneled
+almond.--The varieties of this group, as a whole, differ from those
+of the next only in the firmness of their shells, which are
+moderately firm, with a slightly rough and deeply pitted surface, as
+shown in Fig. 7. Varieties of this group are fully as large as, and
+perhaps a little longer than the thin-shelled, and the kernels are
+fully as valuable when removed and sold as shelled almonds. It may
+require a little more labor to crack and remove the kernels for
+market, but the difference is scarcely worth taking into
+consideration by the grower.
+
+The common sweet, hard-shelled almond thrives in peach-growing
+regions as far north as Central New York, and I well remember of
+seeing trees loaded with these nuts, in my boyhood days, in the
+western part of the State. The late Patrick Barry, in the Fruit
+Garden, when referring to this nut, says: "This is a hardy and
+productive tree, succeeding well in the climate of Western New York,
+and still farther north. Nut very large, with a hard shell and a
+large sweet kernel; ripe here (Rochester) about the first of
+October. The tree is very vigorous, has smooth, glaucous leaves, and
+when in bloom in the spring is more brilliant and showy than any
+other fruit tree."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. HARD-SHELLED ALMOND.]
+
+Nearly every one of our noted horticulturists who have said anything
+about almond culture in the North, agree with Mr. Barry in regard to
+the beauty of this tree and its productiveness; but it is well to
+keep in mind that it is no more to be depended upon than the peach,
+and the barren years will far outnumber the bearing ones. But the
+almond is probably as certain here as in France, where it is
+cultivated extensively as an article of commerce, although a full
+crop once in about five years is about all that is expected. We can
+probably do much better than this, especially if proper attention is
+given to the production of new varieties adapted to our climate, as
+has been done in California with the almond, and here in the East
+with the peach and many other kinds of fruits; and when such have
+been secured, proceed to multiply them in the usual mode of budding
+upon seedling stocks.
+
+=Soft, or Brittle-Shelled=, _A. c. fragilis_.--In this group we have
+many distinct varieties, besides others which are known by local
+names, but have no permanent and pronounced distinguishing
+characteristics that would aid in separating them, should this be
+desired. The most common form, widely known as the sweet-kerneled
+thin-shelled (Fig. 8), is one of the oldest in cultivation in
+European countries. The flowers usually appear with the leaves, or
+before they unfold, and are large and of a pale rose color. The tree
+is rather tender for latitudes north of Philadelphia, but succeeds
+southward, and westward to the Pacific, if late frosts do not come
+to destroy the flowers or embryo nuts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8. THIN-SHELLED ALMOND.]
+
+=Large Fruited Almond=, _A. c. macrocarpa_.--This is an old French
+variety, and perhaps most widely known as the Sultana, although the
+latter name is often applied in market to almost every variety of
+sweet almond. The leaves of the genuine variety are much broader
+than those of the preceding groups, and are smooth and deep green.
+Flowers very large and showy, of a pale rose color, and always
+appear in spring before the leaves, and for this reason it has long
+been cultivated in England as an ornamental tree. Fruit large,
+depressed or flattened at the base, but pointed at the top. Shell
+rather hard and firm, and will withstand rough handling and
+transportation long distances. Kernel very sweet and tender, hence
+highly prized everywhere. There are several sub-varieties; one,
+known as the Pistache almond, is highly esteemed for the table, on
+account of its delicate flavor, although it is very small and not
+popular for commercial purposes.
+
+=The Peach Almond=, _A. c. persicoides_.--This is another old
+variety, described by Du Hamel about the middle of the last century,
+under the name of _Amandier-Pecher_, or peach-leaved almond. Leaves
+similar to those of the common peach. Fruit ovate, obtuse; husk
+slightly succulent; shell of a yellowish color, and the kernel
+sweet-flavored and excellent. Du Hamel says the fruit varies widely,
+even upon the same tree or branch, some having a dry, thin husk,
+while on others it is soft and fleshy, somewhat like that of the
+peach. As the almond and peach are of the same species, it would not
+be at all strange if an occasional variety raised from the seed of
+either class should diverge towards, or even pass completely over to
+a closely allied group.
+
+From the varieties found in the forementioned groups we must seek to
+find, or produce therefrom, those which will succeed in this country
+wherever it may be thought desirable to attempt the cultivation of
+this nut. So far as my knowledge extends, no attempts have, as yet,
+been made to produce distinct American varieties in the Eastern
+States, as with its near relative, the peach, but all the almonds
+thus far cultivated here are of well-known foreign varieties.
+Perhaps the demand for almond trees has not been sufficient
+heretofore to encourage very extended experiments in this direction,
+but I cannot believe that our people will continue for another
+century to import millions of pounds annually of almonds if it is
+possible to raise them in this country. That it is possible on the
+Pacific coast has already been fully demonstrated, but we want to
+see the field greatly enlarged, and give the people of the Eastern
+States a share in what is evidently soon to become a large and
+profitable industry.
+
+=Ornamental Varieties of the Almond.=--These are only referred to
+because some of the many in cultivation belong to the groups
+producing the most valuable nuts, but the greater part of the purely
+ornamental varieties are worthless for other purposes. _Amygdalus
+cochinchinensis_ grows to quite a large tree in its native country,
+or thirty to forty feet high; flowers small, white, produced in long
+racemes; tender._ A. orientalis_, a small shrub, with grayish or
+hoary leaves, and small rose-colored flowers; sometimes cultivated
+under the name of _argentea_, or Silvery almond. _A. incana_ (hoary)
+is another dwarf species, from the Caucasus, with solitary red
+flowers. _A. nana_ and _A. pumila_ are oriental species of very
+dwarf shrubs, with either red or white flowers. The double-flowering
+varieties of these have long been inhabitants of our gardens.
+
+=Properties and Uses.=--For domestic purposes the almond is highly
+esteemed wherever it is known, and is employed in hundreds of
+different ways in the preparation of appetizing dishes and dainties
+for the table. In countries where this nut is in cultivation, it is
+brought to the table in the half-opened green husk, for at this time
+the kernels are just passing from the milky stage, and are
+considered more readily digested than later, or when fully ripe. But
+it is only when they are fully mature that they are gathered for
+market, and after thorough drying they are placed in strong sacks
+and distributed among dealers in all parts of the world. But only
+certain varieties are exported in this condition, and principally
+those with very thin shells, because these are most in demand, for
+the table and dessert, where the almond is not a home product. Other
+sweet varieties, whether with very hard or very tender shells, are
+cracked and only the kernels exported. The importation of shelled
+almonds into this country is somewhat in excess of the unshelled,
+and as they are of greater value per pound, the duty levied is
+proportionally higher. There is also a great saving to the importer
+and consumer,--not only in freight, but the extraction of the
+kernels is done in countries where labor is abundant and cheap.
+Whether the almond shells are used for any purpose in European
+countries, or are considered as wholly a waste product, I have been
+unable to learn, but it is asserted, and by men whose word is worthy
+of credence, that almond shells ground into a fine golden colored
+flour, is much used in this country for adulterating red pepper,
+cinnamon and other spices.
+
+Almonds are not only used extensively at all times and seasons, by
+persons of all ages and sexes, at table and elsewhere, but they are
+employed largely in the making of fancy confectionery with sugar, or
+in the form of salted almonds, the kernels having been first
+thoroughly steamed or scalded, to remove the skin, and then rolled
+or dusted with fine salt. Prepared in this way they are usually
+considered more readily digestible and healthful than in their
+natural state.
+
+Sweet almonds are also valued in the form of emulsions, as a
+medicine in pulmonary disorders, and the oil of almonds is a common
+standard article in the stock of druggists everywhere, as it enters
+into the composition of cosmetics, syrups, pastes and powders of
+various kinds.
+
+The kernels of the wild bitter almond contain a poisonous principle
+known as hydrocyanic or Prussic acid, which does not exist in the
+sweet varieties, although found in their leaves and the bark of
+their twigs. But as bitter almonds are not palatable, there is
+little danger of anyone being poisoned from eating them, should
+these nuts ever be cultivated here for any special purpose, as in
+other countries.
+
+=Insects and Diseases.=--Whenever the almond tree becomes common
+here in orchards it will doubtless suffer from the attacks of the
+same kinds of natural enemies as affect the peach. One of the most
+widely distributed of these pests is the common peach-tree borer.
+The parents of these borers are small, slender-bodied, bluish,
+transparent-winged moths, the male somewhat smaller than the female.
+These moths usually appear in this latitude during the month of
+June, and the female deposits her eggs on the stems of the trees
+near the surface of the ground, or a little below it if she can find
+a convenient opening to suit her purpose. The eggs deposited soon
+hatch, and the young larv� bore through the tender bark at this
+point, and when fairly under it, branch off, cutting galleries
+through the soft alburnum underneath. When a number of these borers
+are at work on the same tree they sometimes girdle and kill it the
+first season, especially if it is young or a small specimen. But if
+the tree is not killed outright it will show, by the check to its
+growth, that borers are at work. The borers continue feeding
+throughout the remainder of the season, and up to the time freezing
+weather sets in for the winter, and if not full grown at this time
+they will finish their growth early in spring, then crawl to near
+the outside, or just under the old bark, and there spin a thin
+cocoon, in which they are transformed to the pupal stage, remaining
+in this form for a few weeks, then issuing in the winged or moth
+stage.
+
+In the line of preventives and remedies there is nothing better than
+clean cultivation about the trees, and annual examination of each
+tree early in summer and the crushing of every borer found. The next
+best thing, in the way of a preventive, is to wrap the stems from a
+little below the surface of the ground to a foot or more above it
+with heavy paper, cloth, or bark of some kind, to keep the moth from
+laying her eggs on the bark of the tree. I have used common tar
+paper for this purpose, not only because it is very cheap and does
+not decay when exposed to the weather, but the exhalation or odor of
+tar seems to be offensive to the moths. In the use of this material
+I have never found that it was in the least injurious to the bark
+underneath. Painting the stems with soap, cement, clay, or even
+common mineral paints, will answer very well if a little care is
+given to keeping down the number of insects by removing the larger
+part of the borers with knife or gouge.
+
+In recent years a pest known as the "shot-hole borer" (_Scolytus
+rugulosus_) has appeared in many and widely separated localities, in
+both the Eastern and Western States, attacking the almond, peach and
+plum tree. It is supposed to have been introduced from Europe with
+imported nursery stock, and thence rapidly distributed, by similar
+means, through the country. In its perfect stages it is a minute
+brown beetle, about one-twelfth of an inch long and one-thirtieth of
+an inch in diameter. This pest appears about midsummer, boring
+numerous minute holes through the bark and into the sapwood
+underneath, and in this the female deposits her eggs, and from these
+are hatched the little grubs found later feeding on the soft inner
+bark and alburnous matter beneath it. From every hole made in the
+bark a small globule of gum will soon appear, drying upon the
+surface--thence onward until autumn--and glistening in the sun, an
+immutable sign of the presence of a minute but destructive enemy.
+
+When the beetles and their eggs are once in possession there is no
+practical way known of removing them, and the best thing to be done
+is to cut down and burn every infested tree, and just as soon as it
+is known to be in this condition. There are also several indigenous
+species of bark beetles, which will very likely attack almond trees
+as soon as they are as abundant as peach trees, but all may be
+destroyed with the same, or very similar weapons and materials.
+
+What are called preventives consist mainly of substances to be
+applied to the stems in a semi-liquid form, and of such a nature as
+to be offensive to the beetles because of their odor, taste, or
+because so hard that the insects cannot cut through them with their
+mandibles. Common lime whitewash, soft soap, whale-oil soap, or a
+thin mineral paint made of pure linseed oil, will answer very well
+for this purpose if applied often enough to keep the bark constantly
+coated.
+
+Of the fungous diseases affecting the almond in this country, very
+little is as yet known, although we may safely include under this
+head all those that have been inimical to the peach, for the
+transition from this tree to the almond would only be a natural
+sequence. The peach-leaf curl (_Taphrina deformans_) would not be
+far from home on the almond leaf, neither could we expect that
+almond orchards would be wholly exempt from that mysteriously
+distributed and uncontrollable disease known as "peach yellows."
+
+In California an almond-leaf blight has already appeared and
+seriously affected the trees in some of the orchards. It is caused
+by a fungus known as _Cercospora circumscissa_ Sacc. This fungus
+attacks the leaves and young twigs, causing the former to fall off
+early in the season, thereby checking the growth of the tree and
+preventing the maturing of the fruit. It is thought that remedies
+may be applied to check this disease, and there will probably be
+some form of copper solution employed for destroying it, as with
+various species of fungi on other kinds of fruit trees.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE BEECHNUT.
+
+
+Fagus, _Linn._ The Beech. The Latin name of the genus (_Fagus_)
+supposed to be an equivalent of the Greek phegos, an oak, or it may
+be derived from _phago_, to eat; the nuts of this tree having been
+used as food by man in all ages and countries where it is a native.
+The modern English name, beech, was probably derived from the
+Anglo-Saxon _bece_ or _boc_; in Dutch it is _beuk_; French, _hetre_;
+Icelandic, _beyk_; Danish, _bog_; Swedish, _bok_; German, _buche_ or
+_buoche_; Russian, _buk_; Italian, _faggio_; Armenian, _fao_; and in
+Welsh _ffawydd_.
+
+The beech belongs to the order _Cupulifer�_, or oak family. The
+genus contains about fifteen species of handsome deciduous and
+evergreen trees, or shrubs, very widely distributed throughout the
+temperate and colder regions of both the northern and southern
+hemispheres. Male flowers are bell-shaped, in long-stalked drooping
+heads; calyx five to seven cleft, containing numerous stamens.
+Female flowers two to four in a cluster on the summit of the
+scaly-bracted peduncle; the inside scales uniting, forming a
+four-lobed involucre of imbricated bracts, the whole becoming at
+maturity a somewhat prickly, scaly bur, within which are found a
+pair of sharp-edged triangular nuts, containing a tender and
+sweet-flavored kernel.
+
+=History of the Beech.=--The common beeches of both Europe and North
+America are so closely related that the two species may be
+considered as one for all practical purposes, such as propagation,
+cultivation, and value of the wood and nuts. It is true, however,
+that our native beech is not environed with ancient myths and
+stories of love and war, neither is it celebrated in poetry and
+song, yet it has, doubtless, played just as noble a part in human
+affairs among the pre-historic races of America as those recorded of
+its European contemporary. As the beech in Europe is found in the
+forests of Great Britain, Norway, Sweden, France, Germany, and
+southward to Constantinople, Palestine, Asia Minor and Armenia, it
+was well known and highly appreciated by all the early inhabitants
+of these countries, and is frequently referred to by the earlier
+writers of Greece and Rome who touch upon the rural affairs of their
+times. It is supposed that Theophrastus refers to the beech under
+the name of _Oxua_, and Dioscorides as _Phegos_, and the latter
+author places it among the oaks, in which he was not far out of the
+way, because the beech is a member of the oak family in our modern
+classification. Virgil and Pliny speak highly of the little
+triangular nuts, and the people of their times set considerable
+value upon beech-nuts as an article of food. Pliny also assures us
+that at the siege of Chios, the besieged inhabitants lived for some
+time entirely on these nuts. We are inclined to think, however, that
+both Virgil and Pliny are in error when they tell us that the beech
+was propagated by being grafted on the chestnut. They were probably
+led astray in this by some romancing gardener of their time, for we
+even have some of the same ilk with us at this day. Pliny refers to
+the beech several times in his writings, and places a much higher
+value upon this nut than he does upon the chestnut; in fact, speaks
+rather contemptuously of the latter, and seems to be surprised that
+nature should have taken such care of the nuts, which he calls
+"_vilissima_," as to enclose them with a prickly involucre or bur.
+
+But my limited space will not allow of tracing the history of the
+beech from ancient to modern times, although it has always been
+esteemed as food for man, as well as for wild and domesticated
+animals. Swine fattened on beech and oak mast have for ages been
+noted for their excellent flesh, and the value of many an old estate
+in Great Britain was determined more upon the mast the forest
+produced, than the area or number of square miles they contained.
+
+As a monumental tree the beech has no rival, for its smooth gray
+bark, perennial and almost unchangeable, has ever been a convenient
+place to register challenges to enemies, epitaphs, epithets, and
+probably more frequently than all, the initials of the name of some
+loved one, who might possibly pass that way and find her name
+engraved on the beechen tree. I doubt much if there is a beech grove
+in all Europe or in America, within a convenient distance of a city,
+country village or schoolhouse, on which the bark of the trees is
+not scarified by the knives of boys in recording the initials of
+their own names, and those of their favorites of the opposite sex.
+These living registers were long ago recognized by the poets, and
+more than eighteen centuries ago Virgil admits it in these lines:
+
+    "Or shall I rather the sad verse repeat,
+    Which on the beech's bark I lately writ."
+
+In more modern times Tasso hints of the same habit, in _Jerusalem
+Delivered_, to wit:
+
+    "On the smooth beechen rind, the pensive dame
+    Carves in a thousand forms her Tancred's name."
+
+That the Spanish youths were not oblivious to their opportunities
+for recording the names of their favorites we must assume to be
+true, from the lines of Don Luis de Gongora, who tells us that:
+
+    "Not a beech but bears some cipher,
+       Tender word, or amorous text.
+    If one vale sounds Angelina,
+       Angelina sounds the next."
+
+=Propagation of the Beech.=--The beech, in all its species and
+varieties, may be propagated by the usual modes, viz.: By seed,
+layers, budding and grafting. The seeds, when gathered, should be
+mixed with clean, sharp, moist sand, placed in boxes, and then
+stored in a cool or cold place and carefully protected from mice,
+until the time arrives for sowing in spring. They may also be sown
+in the fall and lightly covered with leaf mold or other light soil,
+but unless coated with tar or some offensive poisonous substance,
+vermin of some form will be very likely to find them and leave few
+to grow. Seedlings are used for stocks upon which to work the many
+varieties in cultivation; but as I am not writing this for the
+encouragement of propagators of purely ornamental trees, I will omit
+giving any very extended description of the different modes of
+propagating the beech, further than to say that should remarkably
+fine varieties with extra-sized nuts be discovered or produced, they
+can be perpetuated and multiplied by the same processes adopted for
+other kinds of nut trees.
+
+=Soil and Location.=--The beeches of Northern countries, in their
+many varieties, thrive best in a cool, moist soil, for their roots
+rarely penetrate very deeply, but spread out widely and near the
+surface, forming an intricate network, which will try the patience
+of the woodman who attempts to clear away a forest of beech and
+break up the ground. In this country, as well as in Europe, the
+beech thrives in calcareous soils, or what is usually termed
+limestone regions; consequently, when transplanted or raised in
+sandy soils, or on the red sandstone formation, light applications
+of lime are usually found very beneficial; but more than all, the
+beech requires moisture, and if not planted in a moist soil the
+surface over the roots should be kept constantly covered with some
+kind of mulch.
+
+=Species and Varieties of the Beech.=--In the Dictionary of
+Gardening, edited by George Nicholson, of the Royal Botanic Gardens,
+Kew, England, the following species of Fagus are briefly described,
+viz:
+
+_F. antarctica._--Leaves ovate, blunt, glabrous, attenuated at the
+base, doubly dentate, alternate, petiolate, one and a half inches
+long. A small deciduous tree or shrub, with rugged, tortuous
+branches. Native of Tierra del Fuego, S. A.
+
+_F. betuloides_ (birch-like). Evergreen beech.--Leaves ovate,
+elliptic, obtuse crenulate, leathery, shining glabrous, round at the
+base or short footstalks. An evergreen tree, native of Tierra del
+Fuego, S. A.
+
+_F. ferruginea_ (rusty). American beech.--Leaves ovate, acuminate,
+thickly toothed, downy beneath, ciliate on the margin. A large
+deciduous tree, very closely resembling the common European species,
+from which it is distinguished by its longer, thinner and less
+shining leaves.
+
+_F. obliqua_ (oblique). Chile beech.--Leaves ovate, oblong, oblique,
+somewhat rhomboid, blunt, doubly serrated, entire at the base,
+attenuated into the petiole, and somewhat downy. A hardy deciduous
+tree, native of the cooler elevated regions of Chile, S. A.
+
+_F. sylvatica_ (sylvan). European beech.--Leaves oblong, ovate,
+obscurely toothed; margin ciliate. A well-known large deciduous
+tree, widely distributed in Europe from Norway southward to Asia
+Minor. From this species a large number of ornamental varieties have
+been produced, many of them merely accidental variations of the wild
+forms of the forests, while others have originated in the seedbeds
+of nurserymen. But so far as I am aware, no variety has ever been
+introduced bearing superior or improved forms of nuts.
+
+Our American beech (_F. ferruginea_) is a widely distributed tree,
+extending from Nova Scotia in the north, south to Florida, and
+westward to Wisconsin and Missouri. Formerly it was exceedingly
+abundant, but like many other of our most valuable forest trees, it
+is disappearing before the axe of the woodman, who has always found
+a ready sale for beech timber. It is used in the manufacture of
+plane stocks, shoe lasts, handles for paring chisels, and hundreds
+of similar articles. Beech wood is hard, firm, and takes a good
+polish, but is not very flexible. It makes excellent fuel, and ranks
+next in value to hard maple and hickory for this purpose. In the
+more northern States and where the beech grows to its largest size,
+the heartwood is usually of a reddish color; but here in New Jersey
+and farther south, the wood is usually white almost to the center of
+the tree, no matter how large it may be. The color of the wood,
+however, does not in any way detract from its value, for fuel and
+many other purposes, although some European dendrologists have been
+deceived into supposing that the white beech was almost or quite
+worthless. Loudon, in _Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum_, Vol.
+III, in referring to our beech, says: "The wood of the white beech
+is little valued in America, even for fuel; and the bark is used for
+tanning, but is little esteemed," etc. But if any one, in these
+later years, has had occasion to purchase beech timber for any
+purpose, he has probably learned, from the price charged, that it is
+esteemed, even for such base purposes as firewood.
+
+I am not, however, attempting to extol the American beech as a
+timber tree, but ask that it be given a place among the select
+ornamental nut-bearing kinds. And I think every farmer who has a
+pasture lot could afford a place for at least one beech tree, and if
+there is a low, moist spot in the field, or a stony corner, this
+will be a suitable place for such a tree; and the horses, cattle or
+sheep out in pasture during hot days in summer will be very grateful
+for the shade which a wide-spreading specimen will give them. It may
+be that the owner of said pasture may recall the lines of Garcilaso:
+
+         "But in calm idlesse laid,
+         Supine in the cool shade
+    Of oak or ilex, beech or pendant pine,
+         Sees his flocks feeding stray,
+         Whitening a length of way,
+    Or numbers up his homeward-tending kine."
+
+He may be sure of one thing, and that is, the beech-nuts produced by
+one or many trees will always be acceptable to the children, and of
+these hungry mortals there is likely to be a few, at least, roaming
+about in ages to come, as in times past.
+
+The beech is not really a desirable tree to plant on a lawn or near
+one's dwelling, because of its persistent foliage, which clings to
+the twigs very late in winter, and the rustling of the wind through
+the dry leaves is not soothing to one's nerves, although not quite
+as dismal as the moaning pines. In summer, and until late in autumn,
+the American beech is a noble and graceful tree,--and if I may be
+allowed the expression, one of the cleanest of trees; its large,
+thin, bright-green and glossy leaves retain none of the dust and
+cast-off material of other trees which may be floating through the
+air, but are ever bright and pure. The tree has naturally
+wide-spreading and somewhat drooping branches, and should be given
+plenty of room for development when planted for the nuts or as an
+ornamental tree. Its leaves and the small slender branchlets (Fig.
+9) are eaten with avidity by all kinds of farm animals;
+consequently, protection may be required until the trees have
+reached a hight to be safe from such depredators.
+
+Beech seedlings do not usually come into bearing in less than twenty
+to thirty years, but as no one in this country has ever attempted to
+cultivate this tree for its nuts, or search our forests for
+precocious and superior varieties, we have to admit that the field
+remains unexplored, and as barren of results as it was when our
+ancestors first discovered America. Every hunter, woodman, farmer
+and botanist who has roamed through forests where the beech trees
+grow, is well aware of the fact that distinct varieties are not at
+all rare, some having nuts twice the size of others in the same
+woods or groves, and it is possible and probable that some nut
+culturist in the near future will find time to select these choice
+wild varieties for cultivation and propagation. It would not, in my
+opinion, be beneath the dignity of our national department of
+agriculture, or some of its numerous costly annexes, to occasionally
+take into consideration the natural products of this great country,
+and determine, by a series of experiments, whether or no they were
+not worthy of attention.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9. BEECHNUT LEAF, BUR AND NUT.]
+
+=Insects Injurious to the Beech.=--No disease has, as yet, been
+known to seriously affect the beech, and as for insect enemies, it
+probably has a less number than any other denizen of our forests. It
+is true that transplanted trees, and those left exposed by cutting
+away protecting neighbors, are sometimes attacked by borers in the
+stem, branches and twigs, but these enemies naturally follow in the
+train of debility, it being one of the immutable economic laws of
+nature to hasten the demise and decomposition of the half-starved or
+otherwise enfeebled members of both the animal and vegetable
+kingdom.
+
+Isolated beech trees growing by the roadsides in parks and fields
+are occasionally attacked by a large grayish, long-horn beetle, the
+_Goes pulverulenta_. It is about one inch long, and a rather sturdy
+beetle of a light grayish color, and usually infests the branches,
+but may occasionally attack the main stem. It is not abundant, and
+has seldom been found infesting the beech. There are also two or
+three borers of the Buprestis family of beetles which occasionally
+attack beech trees. They are distinguished by the broad heads and
+flattened bodies of the grubs, and they work just beneath the bark
+in the sapwood, causing dead patches, mainly on the south side of
+the stem and larger branches. If the dead bark is removed and the
+wounds painted they will soon heal over, unless the tree is
+suffering for moisture and nutrients at the roots. A few twig
+borers, with an occasional colony of caterpillars on the leaves,
+embody about all the insect enemies of the beech calling for any
+special attention, but there are a host of different species and
+kinds ever ready to pounce upon a sickly or dead tree, whether found
+in the field or forest.
+
+=Properties and Uses.=--The beechnut has been so long and favorably
+known that very little need be said here in regard to its properties
+and uses. In the forests it affords food for many kinds of birds,
+such as the wild turkey, partridge or grouse, and especially the
+pigeon, and immense flocks of these collect in the beech forests in
+autumn to feed upon the nuts. Deer are very fond of these nuts, and
+so are all of the squirrel family, and the little ground squirrel or
+chipmunk, _Tamias striatus_, of our Northern States, gives us a good
+practical lesson in the way of preserving the nuts over winter.
+These little rodents pack away the nuts in small pockets in their
+burrows and from two to three feet below the surface, where they are
+protected from excessive moisture and any considerable change of
+temperature. The chipmunk always stores the nuts in the ground, and
+not in hollow logs, as is sometimes asserted. The deer-mouse
+(_Hesperomys leucopus_), however, does select such places for
+putting away his winter's supply, but more frequently he chooses a
+hollow in the stem of some old tree, and several feet from the
+ground. Unlike the chipmunk, this mouse cleans the shells from the
+kernels, storing only the latter, and I have often found a quart or
+more when cutting down trees in winter. These kernels are usually so
+clean, bright, and free from odor, that it is to be feared the
+finder always confiscates them for his own use.
+
+As the beechnut contains considerable oil, many schemes have been
+set on foot, in European countries, for its extraction and use as a
+salad oil. Early in the last century (1721) Aaron Hill, an English
+poet, proposed to pay off the national debt from the profits to be
+derived from the manufacture of beechnut oil; but his scheme fell
+through, like many others of its kind. It is also stated that Henry
+Fielding, so well known by his delightful stories of English
+society, once speculated rather largely on the manufacture of
+beechnut oil. In France, however, beechnut oil was formerly made in
+considerable quantities, and used in cooking fish and as a salad
+oil. In Silesia it is used by the country people instead of butter,
+and the cakes which remain from the pressure are given to fatten
+swine, oxen and poultry. The forests of Eu and of Cr�cy, in the
+department of the Oise, it is stated by Duhamel du Monceau, have
+yielded, in a single season, more than 2,000,000 bushels of mast,
+but probably this referred to all kinds of nuts, and not beech-nuts
+alone. Years later, or in 1779, Michaux states that the forests of
+Compi�gne, near the Verberie department of the Somme, afforded oil
+enough to supply the wants of the district for more than half a
+century. In some parts of France beech-nuts are roasted and served
+as a substitute for coffee. Many of these old forests have
+disappeared, but other kinds of nut trees are still being planted in
+France, and the product is simply enormous, and a source of wealth
+to the peasant, as well as the owners of extensive forests and
+orchards.
+
+The beechnut has never been an article of commerce in this country,
+and it is rarely seen on sale in either country villages or our
+larger cities, not because of its scarcity or want of demand, but
+all that the country boys and girls find time to gather are wanted
+for their own pleasure and use. Picking up beech-nuts among the
+leaves in a forest, or even after raking off the leaves and then
+whipping the trees, is, at best, slow and rather tedious work, as I
+know full well from experience, and only once do I remember of
+having secured a rounded half bushel as the sum total of many raids
+on the beech trees in the neighborhood. But as the beechnut is the
+diamond among the larger and less precious gems of our forests, we
+should set a higher value upon it because small and rather difficult
+to obtain.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+CASTANOPSIS.
+
+California chestnut. Western chinquapin. Evergreen chestnut.
+
+
+Castanopsis, Spach. Name derived from _Castanea_, the chestnut.
+Order, _Cupulifer�_. A genus of evergreen shrubs and trees,
+intermediate between the oaks (_Quercus_) and the chestnuts
+(_Castanea_). There are about a dozen species indigenous to Eastern
+Asia and the adjacent islands. Blume, in "Flora Javae," Vol. II,
+1828-36, describes three species under _Castanea_, which he found in
+the mountains and more elevated regions of the Javanese islands.
+Very little, however, is known of these oriental evergreen chestnuts
+outside of the herbariums of professional botanists, and they are
+rarely referred to, even in standard botanical dictionaries, or
+dictionaries of gardening, and when mentioned they are usually
+placed in the genus _Castanea_. Edouard Spach, a half-century or
+more ago, gave a synopsis of the genus, for which he proposed the
+name of _Castanopsis_, and although not recognized by botanists in
+general for a number of years, it is now accepted by botanical
+authorities everywhere. We have but one indigenous species, and this
+on the Pacific coast, viz:
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10. LEAVES AND NUT OF CASTANOPSIS CHRYSOPHYLLA.]
+
+_Castanopsis chrysophylla_, A. de Candolle. _Castanea chrysophylla_,
+Douglas. _Castanea sempervirens_, Kellogg.
+
+    "Leaves coriaceous, evergreen, lanceolate or oblong, one to four
+    inches long, acuminate or only acutish (Fig. 10), cuneate at
+    base and shortly petioled, entire green and glabrous above or
+    somewhat scurfy, densely scurfy beneath, with none or few yellow
+    scales; male aments one to three inches long, densely pubescent;
+    styles three, stout, glabrous, divergent; fruiting involucre
+    with stout divergent spines (Fig. 11) one-half to one inch long,
+    subverticillately many branched; nut usually solitary, obversely
+    triangular, six lines long."--"Geological Survey of California,"
+    Botany, Vol. II, p. 100.
+
+    "This handsome broad-leaved evergreen tree is indigenous to the
+    elevated regions, from Monterey, California, northward to the
+    Columbia river in Oregon. It is also common in the Sierra
+    Nevadas at elevations of six thousand feet, but in its southern
+    limits rarely below ten thousand feet elevation."--C. S. Sargent
+    ("Woods of the United States").
+
+In the warmer and drier regions of California it is a mere shrub two
+to six feet high, and these dwarf forms have, in some instances,
+been described as varieties. As, for instance, _Castanea
+chrysophylla_, var. _minor_, Bentham; _C. chrysophylla_, var.
+_minor_, A. de Candolle; and _C. chrysophylla_, var. _pumila_,
+Vasey. But northward, where the climate is more moist, it becomes a
+large tree fifty to one hundred and twenty feet high, with a stem
+two to three feet in diameter. In its wide variation in habit of
+growth, this western chinquapin is similar to our Eastern dwarf
+chestnut, which is mainly a low shrub in the more Southern States,
+but becomes a fair-sized tree in the Middle States, or near its
+northern limits.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11. CASTANOPSIS BUR.]
+
+I have introduced the Western chinquapin here among the nut-bearing
+trees, not with the idea that it will ever be extensively cultivated
+for its edible nuts, but because it is a beautiful broad-leaved
+evergreen tree, and of which we have far too few kinds in
+cultivation to give warmth and a cheerful aspect to our gardens and
+pleasure grounds in winter. It is true that, so far as can be
+learned at this time, no extended experiments have ever been made to
+introduce or cultivate the Castanopsis in the Atlantic States,
+consequently nothing positive is known as to whether it will succeed
+here or not. In its northernmost range it thrives in forests among
+many kinds of trees and shrubs that are already common in our
+gardens, and this leads me to think that specimens or seeds of this
+tree procured from the mountains of northern Oregon will withstand
+the rigors of our climate.
+
+Mr. S. B. Parsons writes me that he first saw _Castanopsis
+chrysophylla_ in Kew Gardens (Eng.) thirty-five years ago, and
+procured specimens, which were planted in his gardens at Flushing,
+N. Y., but they failed, presumably because not hardy. It may be that
+his specimens were raised from nuts procured in the warmer part of
+California, and, as with many other Pacific coast plants, proved to
+be tender, while later introductions of the same species collected
+in colder localities have proved hardy here. In my experience I have
+found a great difference in the hardiness of trees and plants
+obtained from the higher and lower levels of the mountains from
+Colorado westward to the Coast range, for in those regions
+acclimation extending over thousands of years has developed and
+fixed certain physiological attributes, which enables them to
+readily adapt themselves to similar conditions elsewhere, especially
+in the line of temperature. It may make no difference to those who
+want plants for warm climates, whether they are obtained from
+mountain or valley, but it certainly does to those who value
+hardiness above all other merits.
+
+In horticultural matters we are supposed to confine ourselves within
+certain natural lines in making experiments, but if we fail in one,
+or one hundred, it proves little beyond the bare fact that we have
+not been successful. I have experimented enough to have become
+somewhat wary of deciding that a thing cannot be done, or is
+impossible, because of my own and others' failures. Every practical
+horticulturist can call to mind many productions which had evaded
+the pursuit of experimenters for decades and even centuries.
+
+For specimens of the nuts, burs and plants of this handsome
+nut-bearing tree I am indebted to Mr. J. J. Harden, of Stayton,
+Oregon, who informs me that it grows in the mountains near by to a
+very large size, and among such well-known kinds of shrubs and trees
+as _Rhamnus Purshianus_, _Cornus Nuttalli_, _Corylus rostrata_, and
+various species of conifers which are now more or less common in our
+Eastern gardens and parks. The twigs and leaves are shown in Fig.
+10, and below a nut, and in Fig. 11 a bur, all of natural size. The
+small conical nut is slightly triangular, with a rather firm,
+brittle shell, not fibrous as in the acorn and chestnut. The burs
+are produced singly, but sometimes several on a twig, and when
+mature, instead of opening by valves, as in the true chestnut, they
+break up irregularly. The kernels are sweet and excellent flavored,
+and are sought for by various kinds of birds, as well as by all the
+squirrel tribe, and for this reason it is very difficult to procure
+specimens, unless gathered before they are fully ripe. The nuts do
+not mature the first season, but pass the winter in a partly
+developed stage, usually ripening the second year about midsummer
+or, in northern Oregon, in July.
+
+It is quite probable that this Castanopsis, when planted in the
+Atlantic States, will require a little shade or protection, like the
+American holly and similar broad-leaved evergreens, and while it may
+not thrive anywhere north of Delaware and Maryland, it is worth
+trying, as the sole native representative of a genus containing
+several species of noble evergreen trees.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE CHESTNUT.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12. CHESTNUT FLOWERS.]
+
+Castanea, _Tournefort_. The ancient classical name derived either
+from Castanis, a town in Thessaly, or one in Pontius, as historians
+disagree in regard to its derivation. The genus belongs to the order
+_Cupulifer�_.
+
+Male flowers irregularly clustered in long, naked, cylindrical
+catkins from the axils of the leaves and on the new shoots of the
+season. Calyx five or six parted; stamens or pollen-bearing organs
+seven to fifteen; anther two-celled. On old, mature trees, the male
+catkins are usually crowded near the end of the short new twigs, as
+shown in Fig. 12, the terminal one productive; but on young thrifty
+trees, wide apart. Female flowers always on and near the base of a
+late-developed male catkin, sometimes two or three together,--or
+even six or eight on the chinquapins,--oval or ovoid, scaly,
+prickly, two- to four-valved involucre or bur; calyx usually with a
+four- to six-lobed border crowning the three- to seven-celled ovary;
+stigmas bristle-shaped, and as many in number as there are cells in
+the ovary. Shell of the nut leathery, not brittle, ovoid, two or
+more together in the larger species, in others solitary, or only one
+in a bur. Kernel very thick, fleshy, and somewhat plaited, sweet and
+edible.
+
+Both male and female flowers appear late in spring, the males
+usually exceedingly so, exhaling a slightly nauseating odor. The
+productive male catkins appear the latest, their base becoming the
+rachis or stalk supporting the burs, this rather anomalous
+arrangement appearing to be a natural provision to secure
+fertilization in case the earlier catkins failed.
+
+The genus _Castanea_, as now restricted, contains shrubs and large
+trees, with simple, alternate deciduous leaves, coarsely serrate,
+with pointed spiny teeth. Indigenous, and widely distributed over
+northern Africa, southern Europe, Asia and the eastern half of the
+United States.
+
+The common English name of this nut is supposed to be derived from
+the Anglo-Saxon _cystel_, chestnut, and _cyst-beam_ or
+_cisten-beam_, chestnut tree; Old English, _chastein_ or _chesten_;
+Old German, _chestinna_ or _kestinna_; Modern German, _kestene_ or
+_kastanie_; French, _castaigne_ or _chataigne_; Provencal,
+_castanha_; Spanish, _castana_; Italian, _castagna_, from the Latin
+_castanea_.
+
+=History of the Chestnut.=--The so-called European chestnut is
+supposed to be indigenous to Asia Minor, Armenia, Caucasus and
+northern Africa, and from these countries it was introduced and
+became naturalized throughout the greater part of temperate Europe,
+where it has been cultivated from time immemorial. The Romans are
+supposed to have distributed it northward through France and Great
+Britain, and in the latter country there were trees centuries ago of
+such large size that many of the early English authors claimed this
+tree was indigenous. But in the absence of any natural forests of
+chestnut, the claim had to be abandoned. In parts of France, Italy
+and Spain, the chestnut has become thoroughly naturalized and, as we
+may say, run wild, but as one of the early investigators says, in
+speaking of the abundance of old chestnut trees on the Apennines,
+they are generally scattered over the surface like trees on a
+well-arranged lawn, and not crowded and massed, as they would be in
+a state of nature or in a forest. On the south side of the Alps the
+trees grow up to an altitude of twenty-five hundred feet, and on the
+Pyrenees some two or three hundred feet higher.
+
+There are old trees of immense size almost everywhere in the milder
+regions of Europe, and the celebrated monarchs of Etna have been
+many times described by travelers. The largest measure one hundred
+and eighty feet in circumference near the root. All the early Roman
+writers who have anything to say about rural affairs, mention the
+chestnut as one of their valuable trees, producing nuts used for
+various purposes. Pliny enumerates eight varieties, but Columella
+appears to place more value upon the timber, especially the sprouts,
+for stakes, than he does on the nuts. But long before the Romans
+began to cultivate the chestnut, the Greeks held it in high esteem
+under the name of _Sardianos Balanos_ or Sardis nut, and still later
+it was called _Dios Balanos Lopimon_.
+
+The European chestnut has been so frequently and extensively
+referred to by ancient and modern authors that it would not be at
+all difficult to fill a large volume with brief extracts from their
+works, but my aim is not so much to show what has been done with
+this nut in other countries as what we may do with it here. All
+nations who have any experience with it admit its value as food for
+many wild and domesticated animals, as well as for the human race,
+and we know, from our long experience with the native species, that
+it is highly esteemed wherever known, although it must be admitted
+that our sparse population and the abundance of other kinds of food,
+have tended to make us careless and neglectful of the indigenous
+chestnut.
+
+It may be well, before dismissing this brief history of the
+chestnut, to add that while nearly all the ancient authors, in
+referring to it, employed its present scientific name of _Castanea_,
+still, when botanists first attempted what has since been recognized
+as the scientific classification of plants, many of them placed the
+chestnut in the same genus as the beech, retaining the generic name
+of _Fagus_ for both.
+
+Linn�us, in his _Systema Natur�_, 1766, Vol. II, p. 630, describes
+two species of the chestnut and one of beech in the genus _Fagus_,
+although Tournefort, in his "History of Plants Growing About Paris,"
+published seventy years before that of Linn�us, had recognized the
+distinctive characteristics of these two groups of nut trees, and he
+adopted the present name of _Castanea_ for the generic name of the
+chestnut, and _Fagus_ for that of the beech. But nearly all of the
+English and earlier American botanists adopted and followed Linn�us
+in his classification, ignoring the works of the earlier as well as
+contemporaneous continental botanists. I merely refer to this matter
+of botanical nomenclature because some of my readers may have
+occasion to consult the earlier authors who describe American
+plants, as, for instance, such works as John Clayton's "Flora of
+Virginia," 1739, Thomas Walter's "Flora Caroliniana," 1787, or
+Humphrey Marshall's "American Grove," 1785. In all of these, and
+others, the chestnut is described as a species of beech (_Fagus_).
+
+=Propagation of the Chestnut.=--The usual mode of propagating the
+chestnut is from seed, when trees are wanted for general planting or
+for stocks upon which to graft improved and rare varieties. Under
+some conditions and circumstances, it is best to plant the nuts soon
+after they are ripe in autumn, and this appears to be the most
+natural method; in fact, it is the way in which forests have been
+produced and are constantly renewed and perpetuated, when man does
+not interfere to prevent it. But nature is in no hurry in such
+matters, while man always is, because his time is limited;
+consequently, in our attempts at the multiplication and cultivation
+of plants we aim to save both time and material, therefore cannot
+afford to adopt nature's slow and wasteful processes.
+
+The principal objection to planting chestnuts in the fall is the
+danger of having them destroyed by vermin, which abound almost
+everywhere. There is also danger of the nuts sprouting prematurely
+in the autumn, and of the young growth being killed by cold or by
+excessive moisture during late fall rains. But these natural enemies
+and obstacles prevent an excess in number and the overcrowding of
+trees in our forests. It is, no doubt, possible and practicable to
+smear the nuts with poisonous substances, or those sufficiently
+offensive to prevent the depredations of vermin, but taking all
+things into consideration, I am decidedly in favor of preserving the
+nuts in bulk and in a dormant state until the season arrives for
+insuring a rapid and continuous growth, and then planting them. To
+do this in our cold northern climate, as well as in the South,
+requires more care and attention with chestnuts than with the
+harder-shelled kinds, like the walnut and hickory nut. As a rule, it
+may be said that all the hardy kinds of nuts sprout at a rather low
+temperature and a few degrees above the freezing point, and for this
+reason it is well to select as cool a spot in the open ground as
+possible for their winter quarters, and then examine them as early
+as can be done conveniently in the spring.
+
+In this matter of manipulating and preserving chestnuts for
+planting, as well as what follows in regard to transplanting,
+pruning and grafting, I shall give my own practice, with results;
+and while it may differ from that of other propagators, it is one
+evolved from long experience, many successes, and a few failures.
+
+=Gathering and Assorting Nuts.=--When the nuts begin to ripen and
+fall, gather as soon as possible, and if the trees are on your own
+grounds and will admit of such an operation, thrash them and secure
+the entire crop at once. The object of this early gathering is to
+collect the false and weevil-infested specimens and destroy them.
+But in whatever way the nuts are collected, they should be stored in
+the shade and in shallow boxes, or spread out on a tight floor; but
+the better way would be on screens over a floor, and then when the
+grubs worked their way downward through the nuts and screen, they
+would fall upon the floor, from which they could be taken up and
+burned or otherwise destroyed. The nuts, while on the screen or
+other receptacle, should be stirred over daily for two or three
+weeks, and by that time they will be in good condition for either
+planting or packing away for the winter. But before finally
+disposing of the nuts in either way, they should be carefully looked
+over, and every shrunken specimen, as well as all with punctured
+shells from which the grubs have escaped, removed from among the
+sound stock, because these damaged nuts are not only useless, but
+are very likely to decay and affect all with which they come in
+contact. It is not to be expected that by such means or handling we
+can get rid of all the grubs enclosed in the nuts when gathered, for
+there will always be a few not more than half grown at the time, and
+these will remain hidden in the nuts until midwinter, or later, but
+the greater part of the brood will reach maturity within two or
+three weeks after the nuts are ripe. Of course, what is said here
+about chestnut weevils is only applicable to chestnuts grown in this
+country, but all species and varieties, when planted here, are
+subject to the attacks of this pest--at least, everywhere in the
+Eastern and Southern States.
+
+Having assorted the nuts carefully, the sound ones should be
+reserved for planting; these should be mixed with or stratified with
+moist, sharp sand, and stored in boxes of convenient size for
+handling and examination, whenever this is required. In preparing
+the boxes, bore a number of small holes through the bottom, and over
+each of these lay a piece of a broken flower-pot, brick or stone,
+then cover the bottom one inch deep with the moist sand, and on this
+place a single layer of nuts, then fill in all interstices with
+sand, and also use enough more to fairly cover the layer; and
+proceed in this way until all the nuts are disposed of or the box is
+full, covering the top layer one or two inches deep, because the
+sand will settle some after the work seems complete. The boxes may
+be covered with fine wire netting or with narrow strips of boards,
+fitting these so that mice cannot get in, but should not be
+air-tight. They may then be buried in the open ground, selecting
+some knoll or dry spot for this purpose, for the nuts should not be
+placed where they will be submerged, or even be watersoaked, at any
+time during the fall, winter or early spring. If no such spot is
+conveniently near, then set the boxes on the top of the ground, and
+on the north side of some building or in the shade of an evergreen
+tree, and bank over with soil, covering the boxes a foot deep. If
+the spot selected is under the eaves of a building, place boards
+over the heap of soil, to carry off the water, for the object is to
+keep the nuts moderately moist, cool, and where they will not be
+subjected to frequent changes of temperature. In our Northern States
+the nuts, under such conditions, usually become frozen during the
+coldest weather, but this does not injure them if the sand is moist
+and they remain frozen, as there will be no danger of germination;
+while if kept too warm, they may start to grow before the seedbed is
+ready, in spring, for their reception. I have tried keeping the nuts
+mixed with sand in a cool cellar, also in outbuildings, but have not
+found any other place so certain as pits in the open ground.
+
+=Seedbed and Soil.=--It is well to have the seedbed prepared the
+previous autumn, but it is not absolutely necessary. The soil for
+the bed should be light, either sandy or loamy, and if not rich,
+made so by adding very old and fine stable manure, or leaf mold from
+the forest--I prefer the latter, as it is the most natural for all
+kinds of seedling nut trees. Whatever fertilizing materials are
+used, they should be placed on or near the surface, and never worked
+in deeply, for our aim should be the production of side or lateral
+fibers, and not coarse perpendicular roots. Furthermore, seedling
+nut trees grown on light, sandy soils or in pure leaf mold, produce
+a far greater number of small fibrous roots than on heavy soils, and
+this is a decided advantage with those which are to be transplanted.
+
+=Planting the Nuts.=--When the time arrives for planting, take the
+nuts from their winter quarters, and after sifting out the sand, sow
+or drop them in drills, covering about two inches deep with fine
+soil. With the small native varieties my practice has been to sow in
+wide drills; that is, those made with the blade of a common garden
+hoe, and of the same width, the nuts being scattered along the
+bottom two to three inches apart.
+
+The soil is then drawn in over them and pressed down with the back
+of the hoe, or by passing a light garden roller over the surface. If
+the size of the seedbed is not limited, or only a small quantity of
+nuts are to be sown, then the single row would be preferable,
+because less hand weeding will be needed to subdue the weeds, and
+for all the larger varieties I should certainly recommend it,
+because they are of a more stocky growth. The distance allowed
+between the drills will depend somewhat upon the implements to be
+employed in cultivation, as well as how long the seedlings are to
+remain in the seedbed before transplanting, but from two to three
+feet will be found convenient for the ordinary modes of cultivation.
+
+If the seedlings make a fair average growth the first season they
+will be from one to three feet high in the autumn, and as soon as
+the leaves have fallen they may be taken up, or allowed to remain
+until the following spring and then lifted. But if, from any cause,
+they have made a feeble growth, it is better to let them remain in
+the seedbed another year. Where large quantities of seedlings are
+raised they are usually taken up with a tree-digger drawn by a span
+of horses or mules, but with only a few hundred or a thousand to
+dig, a common spade will answer every purpose; and if, when removed
+from the seedbed, they are found to have produced long perpendicular
+taproots, these should be shortened to about one-half their original
+length. For instance, if these taproots are taken up entire and are
+eighteen to twenty inches long, cut away the lower half, whether it
+consists of one or more long perpendicular roots, as this pruning
+will force the plants to produce a greater number of lateral roots,
+and it is upon these we depend mainly for keeping our trees alive
+and vigorous if transplanted when larger and older. All side
+branches should be pruned off close to the main stem, for we aim to
+favor the latter in its growth upward until it reaches the required
+hight for either grafting or forming the future head of the tree.
+
+In taking up seedlings, it is not safe to leave them for any
+considerable time exposed to the sun and drying winds, and they
+should be carried either to a shed or other building while being
+pruned, and also covered with blankets in the field, except during
+moist, cloudy days. A very little drying of the small fibers on such
+plants is always more or less injurious.
+
+=Planting in Nursery Rows.=--After the seedlings have been taken
+from the seedbed and pruned, they should be set out in nursery rows,
+four feet apart, and the plants about eighteen inches in the row.
+Trenches should be opened for the reception of the plants, and wide
+enough to allow all the roots to be spread out in a natural
+position; and it is well to set a little deeper than the seedlings
+were in the seedbed, because newly plowed ground will settle some
+after the planting is finished, although the soil should always be
+packed firmly about the stems of newly set trees, whether large or
+small. The more frequent and thorough the cultivation during the
+ensuing summer, the more rapid will be the growth of the trees.
+
+If the transplanted seedlings have produced any considerable number
+of side branches,--and especially, low down,--these may be pruned
+off at any time during the summer, for our object is usually to
+secure straight, upright stems for grafting the following spring, if
+they are large and tall enough; if not, we may delay this operation
+for another year. Of course, small chestnut stocks may be grafted
+close to the ground, but there is nothing really gained by this, for
+a good strong stock will push a cion forward more in one season than
+a weak stock in two or three seasons. But when the stocks have
+reached a diameter of from three-eighths to one-half an inch three
+or four feet from the ground, they may be grafted, but I would
+prefer to have them a little over than under these sizes.
+
+=Stocks From the Forests.=--It is not necessary for a man who may
+need a few chestnut stocks for experimental or other purposes, to
+wait until they can be grown from the nut, because these can always
+be purchased at the nurseries; but if one does not wish to incur
+even this small outlay, it may be avoided by obtaining a supply from
+the forests, provided there are any in the neighborhood where
+chestnut seedlings are to be found, and the owner will permit their
+removal. The best wild stocks are usually to be found in recent
+clearings, or where the larger trees have been cut off for timber,
+and the underbrush, composed of seedlings and sprouts, is left to
+grow up again into a forest. There are many thousands of acres in
+New Jersey, New York, and other Eastern States, from which the
+timber is cut every twenty or thirty years, and no further attention
+paid to the land or what it produces. Wherever such clearings are
+found containing chestnut trees, good stocks can usually be procured
+by selecting those varying from one to two inches in diameter at the
+ground, and if the soil in which they are growing is rather poor and
+stony they will usually have pretty good roots, if carefully taken
+up. They should be pruned to a single stem, and this cut off at a
+hight of from five to six feet or less, then planted where they are
+to remain permanently. Such stocks, if carefully taken up and
+planted, will throw out numerous sprouts from their stems during the
+summer, but all should be rubbed off while small and tender, except
+three or four at the top, and the following spring, if wanted for
+this purpose, they may be grafted in the same way as the young
+stocks growing in the nursery, thereby saving three or four years of
+time in securing bearing trees. Having often employed such wildings
+for stocks with just as good results as with those raised from the
+nuts in nursery rows, I am inclined to recommend them, where
+obtainable, knowing that there are thousands of farmers and owners
+of small places in the country who can do likewise, but may have
+never thought it practicable to transplant nut trees from the
+forest, although well aware of the fact that elms, maples, and
+similar kinds were obtained there, and in immense numbers, for
+planting in the streets of villages and alongside country highways.
+
+=The Season for Grafting.=--The proper time for grafting the
+chestnut is in early spring, just as the buds begin to swell, but
+not until all danger of freezing weather is past, although light
+frosts will not seriously injure newly set cions. The grafting may
+be continued while the leaves are unfolding, provided the cions were
+cut early and stored in a cool place, where they remain in a dormant
+state until used. I usually cut the shoots wanted for this purpose
+during the late fall or winter, and then pack them away in a cool
+cellar between layers of damp moss (_sphagnum_) to be obtained in
+almost any swamp. Cions may be taken from the tree on the same day
+that they are used, but there is some risk in this, because we
+cannot control the weather, and a week of warm rain in spring may
+delay us in grafting, while it is pushing our stocks into leaf; and
+then, our dormant cions are available, while those on the trees are
+not, owing to their expanded and tender buds.
+
+The shoots used for cions are those of the previous season's growth,
+or as usually termed, one-year-old wood; and in selecting these,
+endeavor to get such as are plump, well ripened and firm. If taken
+from young and very thrifty chestnut trees, there is likely to be a
+considerable portion of the upper end of the shoot that is rather
+soft, spongy and immature, and this should be discarded, as it would
+be a waste of time to use it. Of course, I am supposing that the
+grafter is so fortunate as to be able to make his own selection of
+the wood desired; if not, then he may be compelled to do the best he
+can with that obtained elsewhere.
+
+=Grafting Materials.=--The really essential materials and implements
+required in grafting nut trees are few in number. Grafting wax must
+be provided, and while there are many different compositions used
+for this purpose, I much prefer, for ordinary work in the open air,
+a wax made after the old formula, and as follows: Take one pound of
+common rosin, one-half pound of beeswax, and one-quarter of a pound
+of beef tallow; melt together and stir enough to insure the thorough
+intermingling of the ingredients, and then set away to cool, or pour
+into cold water and work up into cakes or rolls and wrap in paper
+until wanted for use. Larger quantities may be made if required,
+preserving the same proportions of the materials used. If to be used
+immediately in grafting chestnuts and similar trees, then procure
+some sheets of tough Manilla paper of only moderate thickness, and
+cut this up into sheets about six inches wide and a foot long. While
+the fresh-made wax is melted, take an old and rather stiff paint
+brush, dip it into the hot wax and coat the papers thinly with it,
+and then spread them out on shelves or elsewhere to cool, and let
+them remain undisturbed until wanted for use. Any thin kind of cloth
+may be used instead of paper, but I prefer the latter because it
+will yield to the pressure of the enlarging stock and cion when
+growth begins, and it will not be necessary to examine the grafted
+stock so frequently during the summer to prevent girdling, as is
+usually the case when a tougher material is employed for wrappers.
+Before these waxed sheets are taken into the field for use, lay each
+one separately on a piece of board with the waxed side up, and with
+the point of a sharp knife cut them crossways into narrow strips of
+from one-half to three-fourths of an inch wide. But for convenience
+in handling, insert the point of the knife a half-inch from one
+edge, but cut the other clean through, so that the whole sheet of
+strips can be lifted together.
+
+In early spring there is usually more or less windy weather, and if
+waxed sheets of paper are taken out into the field unprotected they
+are very likely to become tangled up and useless. To prevent this,
+procure a number of large but very shallow paper boxes, such as can
+usually be had at the stores and groceries of almost any village,
+and in these place a single layer of the cut waxed sheets, where
+they will be protected from wind and dust until removed for
+immediate use.
+
+Other kinds of grafting wax can, of course, be used, and are usually
+procurable at the seed stores or made at home, and I have given
+their composition and the formulas for their manufacture in my work,
+"The Propagation of Plants;" but, as I have already said, this old
+standard kind of wax is just as good as any other, although a little
+more troublesome to use on account of its sticky consistency. Raffia
+or bass may be employed as ligatures for holding the cions in place,
+then covered with Leport's or other kinds of liquid grafting wax;
+but when these are employed it will be necessary to examine the
+grafted trees frequently, in order to cut the ligatures to prevent
+girdling.
+
+The best implement for grafting is a common broad-blade pocket
+knife. One with a blade three to three and a half inches long and
+three-fourths of an inch wide, is a handy size. It should be of the
+best material for grafting chestnuts, because the wood of this tree
+is coarse-grained, and so filled with siliceous matter that it soon
+dulls the keenest blade, and the grafter will, of necessity, have to
+use his whetstone frequently. In grinding the knife-blade have the
+sides a true level, from the back to the edge, especially the
+underside when to be held in the right hand with the edge towards
+the body. The importance of having a blade of this form will soon
+become apparent when the grafter attempts to make a true sloping cut
+on either stock or cion, and it would be well for the novice to
+practice for an hour or two in splicing some worthless twigs before
+commencing upon more valuable material, for even an expert workman
+is very likely to make some awkward dissections and joints when out
+of practice. The professional propagator of plants may think such
+details are unimportant, but I wish to impress upon the amateur that
+in grafting nut trees we are dealing with kinds that will not
+respond satisfactorily to such free manipulations as the apple and
+pear; consequently, better and more careful handling is required to
+insure success.
+
+When ready to begin operations in the field, take out a quantity of
+the shoots to be used for cions, and keep them wrapped in damp cloth
+or packed in a box, basket or other receptacle with wet moss, to
+prevent drying. If any considerable number of stocks are to be
+grafted, then an assistant or two will be required, for the grafter
+cannot be alternately handling the knife and cions and wax, and do
+good work, but if he only inserts the cions and his assistant
+applies the waxed ligatures, the operation will proceed more rapidly
+and satisfactorily.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13. SPLICE GRAFT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14. SPLICE GRAFT INSERTED.]
+
+=Modes of Grafting.=--The only two modes of grafting that I shall
+recommend for the chestnut are the splice or whip graft, and the
+cleft or wedge graft. In the splice graft, the cion and stock should
+be of about the same diameter, but if there is any difference let it
+be in favor of the stock, and this the largest. In this mode of
+grafting, the stock is cut off with an upward slope, exposing two or
+three inches of wood; and about midway on this slope a small cleft
+or incision is made, forming what is called a "tongue." The cion is
+then cut in the same way from the upper end downward, with a
+corresponding incision, as seen in Fig. 13. Then the two are neatly
+fitted together, the tongue on one entering the cleft on the other,
+making a close joint, as shown in Fig. 14. The bark of the cion and
+stock should be exactly even on one side at least; and if they are
+of the same size, so much the better, for then they will be even on
+both sides; but we cannot expect to secure such perfect joints on
+every stock, or any considerable number, although we aim to do so as
+frequently as possible. When the cion is fitted, the waxed paper is
+applied by placing one end of the strip at or near the base of the
+splice, then wind it spirally and firmly upward until the entire
+wound is covered. If one of the waxed strips is not enough use
+another, for it will do no harm if they are double on a part or all
+over the joint. The cion should not be much over four inches long,
+and a less length is preferable, but not so convenient for handling.
+One good prominent bud on each cion is sufficient, and this left
+near the upper end, but on short-jointed wood we may use cions with
+two or more buds without greatly increasing their length. After the
+cion is in place and every part of the splice is carefully sealed
+with the waxed paper, place a small piece or a little wax on the
+upper end of the cion, just enough to cover the exposed wound and
+prevent evaporation of the natural moisture or sap in the wood. I
+have found, in practice, that this sealing the end of the cion is
+time well spent; in fact, to leave any of the wood cells exposed to
+the air endangers the success of the operation.
+
+Young shoots from a quarter of an inch in diameter up to
+five-eighths may be used for cions, in splice grafting; and with a
+little care in the selection of stocks, or by cutting them off a few
+inches higher or lower, we may readily manage to have them nearly of
+the same diameter to match our cions, whether they are large or
+small, and such unions will soon heal over, leaving no scar at the
+point where the two have been joined.
+
+If the new growth or shoot to be employed as a cion is slender and
+feeble, then the base of the cion may be of two-year-old wood,
+leaving just a bud or two on the upper end of the one-year shoot.
+But it will seldom be necessary to employ such cions in grafting the
+chestnut, although it may occur when seeking to secure wood for
+propagation, from very old trees which have made only a feeble
+annual growth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15. STOCK.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16. CION.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+=Cleft Grafting.=--This method is employed principally upon stocks
+or branches of trees too large for splicing. The stock is first cut
+off at the point where it is desirable to insert the cion; then
+split with a knife, being careful to divide it, so that the edges
+will be kept smooth, and not rough and ragged (Fig. 15). When the
+knife blade is withdrawn, the cleft may be kept open with a hard
+wood wedge, if the stock is too large to admit of opening it with
+the point of the knife when ready to insert the cion. The cion may
+be three or four inches long, containing two or more buds; the lower
+end is cut wedge-shape, as shown in Fig. 16, and slightly the
+thickest on the side to be set against the bark of the stock. In
+stocks of an inch or more in diameter, two cions, one on each side,
+may be inserted (Fig. 17), and if both grow one should be cut away,
+else the tree, in later years, will be very likely to divide or
+break apart at this point. In stocks of an inch or less in diameter,
+one cion is sufficient, the top of the stock to be cut off with an
+upward slope, as shown in Fig. 18. After the cions are inserted, the
+entire exposed surface of the wood must be covered with grafting wax
+or waxed paper, and usually both may be employed with benefit. All
+the various forms of grafting in the open air, as described in my
+work on the "Propagation of Plants," may be employed on the
+chestnut, but the two here given will probably answer just as well
+as others for those who may have occasion to propagate this tree.
+
+=Success in Grafting.=--The question has been asked many times, and
+will, no doubt, be frequently repeated, "What percentage of cions
+should one accustomed to grafting make grow?" As there are no
+statistics upon which to base an answer to the question, I can only
+give my own personal experience, and this leads me to say that
+seventy-five per cent may be considered an excellent, if not a high
+average. In some seasons this has been exceeded by at least ten per
+cent, while in others it has fallen as much or more below, with no
+apparent reason for the difference. Ninety-five per cent of the
+cions may push their buds, or even make a growth of several inches,
+then begin to die off; consequently, the time to count your
+successfully grafted trees is in the autumn, and not in spring or
+midsummer, as it is to be feared some are in the habit of doing when
+making a report upon what they call success in grafting nut trees.
+
+=Growth of Cions.=--Cions set in strong stocks usually make a very
+rapid and vigorous growth, and if left unchecked, there is danger of
+loss by being broken or blown off by strong winds during the summer
+and autumn. To prevent this as much as possible, it has been my
+practice to pinch off the ends of the young shoots when they are
+about two feet long. Lateral shoots will then push out freely, and
+in some seasons it may be necessary to check their growth in the
+same way later. On feeble stocks, or those quite small, and with the
+less vigorous growing varieties, no summer pinching or pruning will
+be required. My experimental grounds are well protected upon the
+north and west, not only by rising ground, but by Norway spruce and
+American arbor vit� hedges twice as high as the grafted chestnut
+trees in the nursery rows, and yet almost every season some of the
+stronger-growing grafts are blown out or broken off by the wind.
+After the first season there is little danger of injury, probably
+because the union between cion and stock has become stronger.
+
+=Grafting Chestnut Sprouts.=--In grafting the vigorous sprouts that
+always spring up from the stumps of old trees that have been
+recently cut down, we may reasonably expect a prodigious growth of
+the cion the first season, as well as in succeeding ones, and if all
+goes well with them we will secure large bearing trees in a very few
+years, but such stocks are only available where old trees are
+sacrificed for their timber or other purposes. Having a few such
+sprouts on my place, they have been utilized from time to time in
+testing some of the newer varieties. In one instance I allowed the
+cion, set on a sprout about one inch in diameter, six feet from the
+base, to grow unchecked throughout the season, as it was in a
+protected position, and in the fall the entire length of the main
+stem and lateral branches was sixty-five feet, and all from one bud
+on a cion set early in the spring. The third year this tree bore
+about a peck of very large nuts, to which I shall have occasion to
+refer again under "Injurious Insects."
+
+=Grafting Large Trees.=--Grafting large chestnut trees with stems of
+six inches or more in diameter, and with large spreading heads, is
+possible, but far from being economical or practicable, especially
+if the trees stand out where they will get the full sweep of
+prevailing winds. By cutting off and grafting a few of the branches
+at a time for several seasons in succession, one may, in a few
+years, succeed in getting the entire head grafted, but there is
+constant danger of some of the cions being broken out if they make a
+vigorous growth, leaving a distorted and ill-shapen tree. Having
+experimented somewhat in this line with variable success, I am not
+inclined to recommend it, because ten trees can be raised to a
+bearing age on moderate-sized stocks with less labor, and the
+results will be more satisfactory.
+
+=Budding Chestnuts.=--I have frequently tried budding chestnut
+stocks as described for the almond, and extensively employed with
+other kinds of fruit trees. But the results of my experiments have
+been unsatisfactory, although buds were set from very early in
+summer until late in the fall, also on young and old wood; but so
+few have taken and remained alive over winter that my personal
+experience in this mode of propagation will not justify its
+recommendation to others. Perhaps there is some secret connected
+with the operation that I have not yet discovered, but which is
+known to other propagators. Of course, budding with semi-dormant
+wood and buds in spring, as soon as the bark will peel from the
+wood, is practicable, but there is really nothing to be gained by
+this mode of propagation over that of grafting.
+
+=Transplanting and Pruning.=--There is no tree that will bear or
+withstand more severe pruning than the chestnut. If trees of one or
+five hundred years of age are cut down, the stumps are sure to throw
+up an immense number of sprouts from adventitious buds, as these are
+readily produced at almost any point on the sapwood or alburnum
+under the bark; and yet, with this inherent vitality and faculty of
+recuperation, the chestnut tree does not naturally, like many other
+deciduous kinds, throw up suckers from the roots. Keeping this
+peculiarity in mind, the cultivator has only to use his pruning
+knife freely upon the trees to secure almost any form desired. But
+after the trees have become well established, very little pruning
+will be required, except to occasionally thin out or remove a
+rambling branch, to secure a well-balanced and shapely head to the
+tree.
+
+In transplanting from the nursery rows, after grafting, and
+especially if the trees are of some considerable size and large
+enough to set where they are to remain permanently, there is sure to
+be a loss of roots, and those that are preserved are likely to
+remain for a short time inactive and incapable of absorbing
+nutrients from the soil to which they are transferred, or until new
+rootlets are produced. Under these conditions we aim to favor the
+roots by removing or cutting back the greater part of the branches.
+No matter how carefully such trees are lifted and their roots
+protected during the operation of transplanting, it will check the
+growth, and the best and most practical restorative is severe
+pruning of the top, and every young shoot of the previous season's
+growth should be cut back to within three or four inches of its
+base. I am presuming that the trees have been grafted only one year,
+but if older, and the cions were set high enough to begin the
+formation of the head of the tree, then the entire young growth may
+be cut away and some of the older wood, but of course not below the
+graft. All broken roots must be cut off; and the ends of the larger
+ones, roughly severed with the spade or other implements employed in
+digging, should have their wounds smoothed with a sharp knife.
+
+Frequent transplanting and root-pruning young nursery stock tends to
+keep up a proper root system, and an abundance of small fibrous
+roots near the main stem, and trees so treated are worth much more,
+if to be transplanted later, than those left undisturbed; but while
+the latter may be twice the size of the former when of the same age,
+they are not worth half as much to the purchaser, or for
+transplanting in our own grounds.
+
+=Staking Transplanted Trees.=--This is always necessary for recently
+planted trees, if they are of any considerable size, or from six
+feet high and upwards. If not supported by stakes they are sure to
+be swayed about, if not thrown over, by strong winds in summer. A
+strong stake, two or three inches in diameter, would better be set
+at the time of planting the tree, thereby avoiding breaking off or
+crushing the roots, as frequently happens when stakes are driven
+down among them later in the season. Set the stakes or drive into
+the subsoil six inches from the stem, then use strips of cloth,
+sacks, carpet, or some similar material, for tying, because hard
+cord or twine will be very likely to cut through the tender bark
+from the constant swaying about of the stems. Wind the strips around
+the stem, and then cross between it and the stake once or twice, to
+prevent the tree from pressing against or coming in contact with the
+stake. Renew the stakes and tying materials, if necessary, until the
+trees become firmly established, and provided with lateral roots
+large enough to keep them in an upright position.
+
+=Mulching.=--Placing a few forkfuls of coarse stable manure,
+half-rotted straw, leaves, or any similar material, on the surface
+about the stems of recently planted trees, will prove very
+beneficial, in not only keeping down the weeds, but aiding greatly
+in retaining moisture in the soil about the roots. The application
+of some such material as a mulch is all the more important with the
+chestnut, because these trees are always to be planted in a
+naturally dry and well drained soil.
+
+=Distance Between Trees.=--How far apart chestnut trees should be
+planted will depend very much upon the species and varieties, some
+growing to immense trees, while others are only fair-sized shrubs at
+maturity. But for the larger-growing varieties, forty to fifty feet
+between the trees is none too much space, when planted for their
+nuts and not for timber. If set in a single row along the public
+highways, farm lanes or around the outbuildings, to serve as shade
+or ornament, and for their nuts, then about forty feet will answer
+very well for the larger-growing species; and I will add that, in my
+opinion, all the larger kinds of nut trees will give better returns
+if placed in such positions, than when set in orchards or in compact
+masses. When set in single rows or widely scattered, they are less
+liable to be attacked by insects and diseases, while they will still
+serve the double purpose of being both ornamental and useful. I must
+admit, however, that in my experimental grounds the trees are
+planted only twenty feet apart, but with the expectation of soon
+cutting out every alternate specimen.
+
+=Soil and Climate.=--The chestnut thrives best in light,
+well-drained soils, and those containing a large proportion of sand
+or decomposed quartz, slate, or volcanic scoria; but it is rarely
+found, nor does it succeed, in heavy clays, limestone soils, or on
+the rich western prairies, where we might think it would grow most
+luxuriantly. That limestone soils are inimical to the chestnut has
+often been disputed, but my own observations, which have been
+somewhat extensive in years and range of country, rather confirm the
+impression that this tree avoids land containing any considerable
+percentage of lime. It is true that chestnut groves, and sometimes
+extensive forests, are found on hills and ridges overlying
+limestone, but a careful examination of the soil among the trees
+will show that it is a drift deposit containing little or no lime.
+Such groves can be found in all the southern tier of counties of New
+York, also among the hills of northern and western parts of New
+Jersey, and thence west and south along the Blue Ridge and Alleghany
+mountains to the Carolinas, and westward in Tennessee and Kentucky.
+The chestnut is sometimes found in New Jersey and other northern
+Atlantic States growing in considerable abundance near streams only
+a few feet above sea level, but when found in such situations the
+subsoil is invariably sand, gravel or porous shale.
+
+The range of climate in which the native sweet chestnut thrives is
+quite extensive, as it is found sparingly in Maine in latitude 44�,
+extending westward,--but not very abundant on this line,--through
+New England and New York, crossing the Niagara river, skirting the
+north shore of Lake Erie in Canada, and thence into southern
+Michigan, but does not reach Illinois. From this line southward it
+increases in abundance in Virginia, western North Carolina and
+eastern Tennessee and Kentucky. But in following this tree southward
+we meet another indigenous species, widely known as the chinquapin
+(_Castanea pumila_). This species is indigenous to southern New
+Jersey, and sparingly in parts of Pennsylvania, becoming more
+plentiful as we proceed southward, the two species named overlapping
+and in part occupying the same region; but the chinquapin extends
+further south, and also to the westward, near its northern limits
+crossing the Mississippi into southern Missouri, then extends south
+again, becoming quite abundant in Arkansas.
+
+The European chestnut, in its many varieties, extends over about the
+same number of degrees of latitude in Europe as our species do here,
+although reaching a higher latitude in countries bordering on the
+Atlantic, as shown in the old chestnut trees of England. The
+Oriental chestnut has also a very wide range, but the limits are not
+so well known as those of the European and American species; but a
+study of its geographical distribution is of considerable
+importance, now that we are importing these nuts for cultivation.
+The same is also true of the European varieties, and the cultivator
+who neglects to take this matter into consideration will fail to
+secure whatever advantages may have accrued from acclimation, an
+agency which, undoubtedly, has been active and continuous in
+modifying and changing the primary characteristics of these plants
+during unknown ages.
+
+To more fully impress upon the reader the importance of care in the
+selection of materials to be employed in any pursuit with which he
+is not perfectly familiar, I am prompted to relate the story of my
+first personal experience in chestnut culture, as it may serve as a
+warning to others who may attempt to raise these nuts in a cold
+climate.
+
+At the time of purchasing the farm which has been my home for the
+past thirty years, nut trees of various kinds were on my list of
+things wanted, and the chestnut occupied a leading position,
+probably because there were already many old and large native trees
+on the place. My first planting consisted of a number of imported
+seedlings, obtained from a well-known French nursery. The trees were
+three or four years old, very stocky and vigorous, and they made a
+good growth the first season; but the following winter the young
+shoots were all frozen down to old wood, with the exception of one
+tree, and thinking that this might prove hardy, cions were taken
+from it and set in thrifty sprouts growing in a grove near by. The
+cions made rapid growth, and from one of these I soon had a large
+tree, which remained in good health for twenty years, but during all
+that time it produced but one bur, containing two half-developed
+nuts. Why it was unfruitful I do not pretend to know, but it was
+certainly not for want of company, for it had large native chestnut
+trees all about it, and these bearing heavy crops. The seedling
+trees planted in the orchard also failed to be fruitful, and were
+finally dug up and burned. Thus ended my first experiment in the
+cultivation of the European chestnut. Had my location been farther
+south and in a milder climate, the experiment might have ended
+differently, but I am relating experience, and not attempting to
+guess what might have been the results under more favorable
+conditions. In the meantime, however, I had seen a few trees of the
+Japan chestnut bearing on Long Island, and had received specimens of
+the Numbo and Paragon, two now well-known and superior varieties of
+the European species, although raised in this country. These
+varieties were secured, and succeeded so well that I have continued
+to add others from time to time, or as soon as trees or cions were
+obtainable.
+
+The success which appears to have attended the propagation and
+dissemination of these two varieties of European parentage has
+awakened considerable interest in chestnut culture, besides
+attracting the attention of those interested in such matters to the
+fact that there are many old trees of the same or similar origin
+scattered about the country, awaiting the coming nut culturist to
+propagate them and make known their merits.
+
+It may be well, before leaving this subject, to remind the novice in
+chestnut culture that seedlings of these hardy and productive
+descendants of the European species will not come true from the nut
+or seed, and while it will be admitted that the chances are somewhat
+better for procuring a hardy variety from such nuts than from those
+imported, still, there is no certainty of any considerable number
+being equal in hardiness or other respects to the parent tree. There
+is an inherent tendency, in tree seedlings of all kinds, to revert
+to the wild form or type, and the chestnut is no exception to this
+rule.
+
+=Species of Chestnut.=--What is called a "species," among plants, is
+a particular form or type supposed to have descended from one
+original stock, whether this was composed of one or more
+individuals. But variations doubtless occurred at the first
+inception or multiplication of the original, but so long as the
+offsprings do not differ so widely as to be untraceable to the
+proemial types, they are held to be varieties of one species.
+
+Whether all the chestnuts found in the various countries of the
+world are descendants of one original tree or group of trees is now
+beyond our ability to determine; consequently, what are now termed
+species rests very much upon the opinions of botanists, as may
+readily be demonstrated by consulting the works of hundreds of
+authors who have essayed to describe and classify the plants of any
+locality or country, and this, too, without reaching an absolute
+finality acceptable to their contemporaries, or at all likely to
+share a better fate with posterity.
+
+For many years after botany began to be recognized as a science, the
+common American sweet chestnut was considered a distinct species,
+but in recent years it has been relegated to the position of a
+widely distributed variety of the European chestnut, and it is so
+described and classified in most of the botanical works of the
+present time, and under such names as _Castanea vesca_, variety
+_Americana_; _Castanea sativa_, variety _Americana_; _Castanea
+vulgaris_, variety _Americana_, etc.
+
+The Asiatic species or varieties--under whichever cognomen we may
+find them described in botanical works--have fared little better
+than our American kinds, for some botanists have described the Japan
+chestnut as a distinct species, while others only as a widely
+divergent variety of the common European chestnut.
+
+I regret that there should be any need of giving so much space to
+this matter of species and varieties, yet presuming that far the
+larger number of my readers will not be professional botanists, nor
+persons with a botanical library at hand to consult for unfamiliar
+terms, I have thought this explanation in regard to classification
+might assist them in making clear the apparent confusion of names
+which, in the main, are only synonyms. Furthermore, I purpose
+retaining some of the older specific names of the distinct groups of
+varieties, whether it be strictly in accord with the ideas of
+eminent authorities or otherwise, because it will be more convenient
+to do so, and certain phases will thus be made clearer to the
+practical cultivators of nut trees, for whom this work is written.
+My wish is to assist those who do not know, but want to learn how to
+obtain, plant and make nut trees grow and bear remunerative crops.
+
+CASTANEA AMERICANA (_American sweet chestnut_).--Leaves
+oblong-lanceolate, serrate, with rather coarse teeth, each
+terminated with a feeble prickle or spine; smooth on both sides
+(Fig. 19). Burs thickly covered with sharp, branching spines a half
+inch long or less, from a fleshy green envelope, becoming hard and
+somewhat woody; opening by four valves or divisions when mature.
+Usually three nuts in each bur, the center one flattened by
+compression, the two outer ones plano-convex. Shell tough and
+leathery, dark brown, smooth, or more or less inverted, with a
+silvery pubescence from the point downward; variable in size from
+five-eighths to an inch in diameter. Kernel sweet and fine-grained.
+A very large and common tree in the Middle and Northern States,
+living to a great age.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19. AMERICAN CHESTNUT LEAF.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20. SPIKE OF BURS OF BUSH CHINQUAPIN. _C.
+nana._]
+
+CASTANEA NANA (_bush chinquapin_).--Leaves oval-lanceolate, serrate,
+with feeble prickles on teeth and often wanting; pale green above
+and white tomentose underneath. Burs in racemes, small; husk thin,
+opening by two divisions or lobes, instead of four, as in the last
+species; spines short, somewhat scattering, sessile or very
+short-stalked; nuts small, pointed, brown, smooth, thin-shelled,
+solitary or only one in a bur. Kernel fine-grained, sweet and
+delicious. Common from North Carolina southward to Florida, in dry
+soils and barrens. A medium-sized shrub or low-spreading bush,
+rarely reaching a hight of ten feet, the slender twigs usually
+tomentose. A spike of burs and leaves of this species are seen in
+Fig. 20.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21. SPIKE OF CHINQUAPIN CHESTNUT BUR. _C.
+pumila._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22. SINGLE BUR, NUT AND LEAF OF CHINQUAPIN
+CHESTNUT. _C. pumila._]
+
+CASTANEA PUMILA (_chinquapin chestnut_).--Leaves oblong-lanceolate,
+short or acutely pointed, coarsely serrate, with incurved pointed
+teeth, green above, tomentose underneath. Burs in racemes (Fig. 21),
+two-valved. Sometimes the burs are single, as shown in Fig. 22.
+Spines branching from a short stalk; nuts solitary, ovoid, pointed,
+with dark-brown polished shell. Kernel fine-grained, sweet and
+excellent. A medium-sized tree twenty to forty feet high; in rich
+soils from New Jersey, Southern Pennsylvania and southward, to
+Georgia, and sparingly westward to Arkansas.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23. JAPAN CHESTNUT LEAF.]
+
+CASTANEA SATIVA OR VESCA (_European chestnut_).--Leaves
+oblong-lanceolate, pointed, coarsely serrate, with rather long
+incurved spines on the teeth; smooth on both sides, but glossy and
+dark green above; thicker and of more substance than in any other
+species. Burs very large, with thick husk, and long, stout,
+branching spines, from a woody stem at the base; shell of nut thick,
+tough and leathery, of a dark mahogany brown; kernel enclosed in a
+rather tough but thin skin that is usually intensely bitter, a
+characteristic that readily distinguishes this from any of our
+species. Trees of large size, rather stocky; young shoots coarse,
+with smooth bark; buds prominent, glossy, and of a light
+yellowish-brown color.
+
+CASTANEA JAPONICA (_Japan chestnut_).--Leaves lanceolate-oblong
+(Fig. 23), finely serrate, indentations shallow, and the teeth
+slender pointed; pale green above and silvery or rusty white
+underneath. Burs with a very thin husk; spines short, widely
+branching from a short stem. Nuts large to very large, usually three
+in a bur; shell thin, and of a light brown color; the inner skin
+thin, fibrous, but not as bitter as in the European varieties, and
+the kernel somewhat finer grained and sweeter. Trees of moderate
+growth and are said to rarely exceed fifty feet high in Japan. The
+growth is slender in comparison with the European or American
+chestnut, and the habit is decidedly bushy, the new growth of the
+season usually producing a number of lateral twigs late in summer.
+The leaves here seem to be more persistent, probably because the
+season is not long enough to insure thorough ripening.
+
+The reader will please bear in mind that this description of the
+Japan chestnut is drawn from the introduced varieties or those
+raised from the imported nuts, and not from the trees growing in
+their native habitats. All the varieties that I have seen appear to
+belong to one type or species, and they come from the warmer parts
+of that country; but Prof. Sargent, in his "Forest Flora of Japan,"
+says that while the largest nuts appear in the markets of Kobe and
+Osaka, from whence they come to this country, there are varieties
+offered for sale in the markets of Aomori, which is much further
+north, and these, he thinks, would produce a more hardy race of
+varieties than those we have already received from that country. As
+a race, all the Japan chestnuts are very precocious, the trees
+coming into bearing early whether raised from the nut or propagated
+by grafting.
+
+=Native Varieties.= (Group One).--While it is well known that our
+American sweet chestnut varies widely in the size, flavor, form,
+color and general appearance of the nuts, no special effort has been
+made to select and perpetuate the most distinct and valuable
+varieties. This is to be regretted, inasmuch as the opportunities
+for making such selections, and preserving and propagating those
+most worthy of it, are rapidly passing away with the destruction of
+our chestnut forests; but there is still time to do something in
+this direction, and perhaps save a few varieties as valuable as
+those already destroyed. It is to be hoped that every man who knows
+of a large variety, will either propagate it himself, or point it
+out to some one who is sufficiently interested to do so. If proper
+attention was given to the raising of seedlings, we might soon
+secure many improved native varieties, and I would urge this mode of
+propagation upon all whose circumstances and surroundings will admit
+of it, and especially upon the young men who possess the talent and
+inclination to make such experiments; for there is a wide and
+fertile field open to them, and they can scarcely fail to reap a
+rich reward for their labors, if applied with earnestness and a
+moderate amount of intelligence.
+
+BURLESS CHESTNUT.--This is a peculiar variety or freak, in which the
+burs are merely shallow cups upon which the nuts rest, and at no
+stage of their growth are they enclosed in a husk or bur. The nuts
+are small and usually perfect, but being unprotected they are preyed
+upon by birds and squirrels as soon as the kernels are well formed,
+few escaping to reach maturity. This chestnut is of no economic
+value, but is worth preserving as an illustration of extremes in
+variation. The original tree was found in the forest near Freehold,
+Green Co., N. Y., by Mr. Harry Bagley, to whom I am indebted for
+cions sent me in the spring of 1885. Another and very similar
+variety was found about the same time on Staten Island, N. Y., and
+this also has been propagated, to a limited extent, as a curiosity.
+
+HATHAWAY.--A very large and handsome native variety, and one of the
+very best. A strong and vigorous grower, and productive. Raised by
+Mr. B. Hathaway, the veteran and widely known pomologist of Little
+Prairie Ronde, Mich. Some thirty years ago Mr. Hathaway purchased a
+half bushel of native chestnuts of a dealer in Ohio, and from these
+raised a large number of trees for sale; but a few were reserved for
+planting out on his own grounds, and when these came into bearing
+the one named here was selected for propagation, because of its
+large size and productiveness.
+
+PHILLIPS.--A large and handsome variety of excellent flavor, with a
+very smooth, dark-brown shell. Grafted trees exceedingly vigorous,
+upright growth, as well as precocious and productive. The original
+tree is growing in the grounds of the late Whitman Phillips, at
+Ridgewood, N. J. Several years ago my attention was called to a
+number of large varieties of the chestnut growing in and near the
+village, and from these I obtained cions for propagation; but I name
+only one at this time, reserving the others until more fully tested.
+
+This is rather an insignificant number of varieties to be named
+among the many hundreds that are to be found in almost every town or
+neighborhood where the chestnut is a native, and yet I have been
+able to find only one named in nurserymen's catalogues as being
+propagated by grafting. It is true that nearly all dealers in trees
+offer seedling American chestnuts, which may mean good, bad or
+indifferent varieties when the trees come into bearing. Among all of
+the many thousands that have been raised and planted in the East and
+West, beyond the natural range of the chestnut, as, for instance, in
+Missouri, Kansas and Iowa, there must be some distinct and valuable
+varieties worthy of names and propagation. There are not only
+distinct varieties to be found in every forest, but in some
+instances the entire product of an extended area of country are
+distinct in their color, size, and general appearance of the nuts
+produced; as, for instance, in the woolly chestnuts of the Piedmont
+district of Virginia, these being so nearly covered with a white
+down that they remind one of popcorn. Hundreds of bushels of these
+woolly chestnuts come to our markets, and among them I have often
+found very large specimens, but so far as known, no effort has been
+made to perpetuate them.
+
+So far as can now be determined, the wild or original European
+chestnut was much inferior in its flavor, and little, if any, larger
+than our American sweet chestnut; but by continued selections of the
+largest for planting, and propagation by grafting, it has attained
+to its present size and excellence; but this system of improving our
+native varieties has scarcely, as yet, been attempted, a fact which
+does not, in the least, redound to our credit.
+
+BUSH CHINQUAPIN (_C. nana._ Muhlenberg).--Of this I do not know of
+any named varieties in cultivation. Plants are occasionally seen in
+cultivated grounds, and I have one in my garden growing in a
+sheltered position, where it has fruited for several years. It is a
+pretty, round-headed, silvery-leaved bush, about six feet high;
+ornamental, if not specially valuable for other purposes, although
+the little sweet nuts are always acceptable. As a rule, the
+seedlings of this species are not hardy in the Northern States, but
+an occasional one will survive if planted in a light, porous soil
+and a protected situation.
+
+COMMON CHINQUAPIN (_C. pumila._ Miller).--This is a small tree,
+sometimes thirty to forty feet high; found sparingly as far north as
+central New Jersey, and on Long Island. It is more common in
+cultivation than the bush chinquapin, probably because more hardy
+and better known, but I do not know of any improved varieties that
+have been disseminated under distinct names except the one
+hereinafter described.
+
+Among many seedlings raised, of this species, I have selected one
+which good judges of such things have thought worthy of propagation,
+and as I do not raise plants for sale, no one will be likely to
+accuse me of having any selfish motives, further than a pardonable
+pride in producing something worthy of perpetuation. Furthermore, as
+an earnest of my confidence in its merits, I have distributed it
+under my own name.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24. BURS OF FULLER'S CHINQUAPIN. ONE-HALF
+NATURAL SIZE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25. FULLER'S CHINQUAPIN. FIVE YEARS OLD FROM
+NUT.]
+
+FULLER'S CHINQUAPIN.--Leaves large, broadly oval, pointed, coarsely
+serrate, pale green above, clear silvery white below. Bark on main
+stem; branches and twigs smooth, light gray, with numerous white
+dots. The young twigs thick and stocky, cylindrical, with moderately
+prominent, grayish buds. Burs in long racemes (Fig. 24), very large
+for this species; spines long, strong, branching and sharp. Nuts
+only one in each bur, rather short, broad, top-shaped, with blunt
+point; shell very smooth, glossy, almost black; kernel fine-grained
+and sweet. Ripens early, or with the earliest of the native sweet
+chestnuts. The original tree is only six years old, twice
+transplanted, and is now ten feet high, with a head fully as broad,
+and as shown in Fig. 25. Although growing in a rather exposed
+position, it has never been injured by low temperature in winter or
+a high one in summer. It has thus far been the most rapid-growing
+chestnut tree in my grounds, although given no special care. Whether
+it will eventually become a large tree, or soon cease to extend, is,
+of course, a question to be answered at some future time, but from
+present indications this tree will be well worthy of cultivation as
+an ornamental shade tree, even if we leave out of the account its
+rapid growth, productiveness, and delicious little nuts, which will
+be very acceptable for home use, if not possessing any great
+commercial value.
+
+=European Varieties.=--In the use of this term I wish it understood
+that the varieties named and described in this group are all of
+American origin; that is, raised in this country from seed. At the
+same time they are descendants of the European species. They are, in
+other words, "Survivals of the fittests," the few that have survived
+the many being raised from imported nuts (perhaps one out of a
+thousand) that tests and time have shown were adapted to our
+climate. There may be many other varieties scattered about the
+country which are worthy of a name and of propagation, but I can
+speak only of those I have been able to procure, or that have been
+brought to my notice.
+
+In describing the following varieties, and in seeking to get at the
+facts relating to their origin, name and history, the reader will
+please bear in mind that there has been no previous attempt to
+arrange or classify these semi-American varieties. Furthermore,
+there is much confusion in regard to the true names of a number of
+them, and the most I can say is that I have endeavored, under the
+circumstances, to get as near the truth as possible. Could I defer
+writing this chapter ten years, some moot points might be cleared
+up, but as this is out of the question I must follow the light
+already in my possession.
+
+To Mr. John R. Parry, of Parry, N. J., I am greatly indebted, not
+only for specimens of new and rare varieties, but also notes
+relating to the history of several of the older ones.
+
+COMFORT.--Burs very large, broad, somewhat flattened; spines very
+strong and long, branching; nuts very broad, with short point, and
+shell covered from base to point with scattering silky hairs,
+thicker at upper end. In quality, about the same as in the ordinary
+varieties of the species, but to some persons' taste it is better,
+having less astringency in the skin surrounding the kernel. Origin
+uncertain, but said to have been grown for many years at Germantown,
+a suburb of Philadelphia, Pa., where the Paragon chestnut was
+discovered. The Comfort certainly closely resembles the Paragon, but
+I have not had an opportunity of fruiting trees under the two names
+side by side, as would be necessary to determine their identity or
+difference, if they are really distinct.
+
+COOPER.--A very large variety; has been in cultivation for several
+years in Camden Co., N. J., but up to the present time the trees
+have not been propagated for sale, although I am informed by Mr.
+John R. Parry that there are a large number under cultivation. The
+tree is described as of a broad spreading habit, with enormously
+large leaves, and immensely productive. Nuts very large, smooth and
+glossy, with little fuzz near the top. In quality they may be
+considered excellent for a variety of this class. The burs are very
+large, and this is its greatest or only fault; for when nearly
+mature they absorb and retain such a quantity of water during heavy
+rains, in addition to the original weight and the enclosed nuts,
+that the trees are liable to be broken down by strong winds.
+
+CORSON.--Burs of immense size; spines an inch or more in length,
+from a stout, woody, irregularly branching stem, resting on the
+moderately thin husk. Nuts extra large, usually three in a bur;
+shell dark brown, somewhat ridged; the upper end or point of the
+shell densely covered with a white, almost woolly, pubescence, or
+fuzz as it is usually termed. This is a remarkably large and fine
+variety and of good quality. Originated with Mr. Walter H. Corson,
+Plymouth Meeting, Montgomery Co., Pa.
+
+DAGER.--A large variety originated near Wyoming, Delaware, from seed
+of the Ridgely. My specimen trees are good vigorous growers, and
+hardy, but have not, as yet, produced fruit. It is said that the
+nuts are of fair quality, but not as good as the best of its class.
+
+MONCUR.--Another seedling of the Ridgely, raised on the farm of Mr.
+Frank Moncur, near Dover, Del. The original tree is about thirty
+years old. Described as smaller than its parent, but of better
+quality.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26. BUR OF NUMBO CHESTNUT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27. SPINES OF NUMBO CHESTNUT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28. NUMBO CHESTNUT.]
+
+NUMBO.--Burs medium, and distinctly long pointed before opening, as
+shown in Fig. 26, the four divisions of the burs extending an inch
+or more beyond the nut as they open. This is an exceptional form of
+the bur, and will enable almost any person to recognize the variety
+with bearing trees. Spines only medium in length (Fig. 27), and not
+as strong as in most other varieties of this species. Nuts very
+large (Fig. 28), smooth, decidedly pointed, light brown when first
+mature, and of good flavor. Tree hardy and a vigorous, free grower,
+and is very productive even when young. The original tree is now
+some forty years old, and is one of a large number raised from
+imported nuts, by the late Mahlon Moon, of Morrisville, Pa.
+
+MILLER'S DUPONT.--Burs large, spines long and strong but not as
+stout as in some of the closely related varieties. Nut medium, and
+kernel of fair quality. A promising variety. Origin unknown.
+Received from Jos. Evans, Delaware Co., Pa.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29. PARAGON CHESTNUT BUR. (_One-half natural
+size._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30. SPINES OF PARAGON CHESTNUT BUR.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31. PARAGON CHESTNUT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32. FOUR YEAR OLD PARAGON CHESTNUT TREE.]
+
+PARAGON.--Burs of immense size, often five inches and more in
+lateral diameter; distinctly flattened on the top, or cushion shape
+(Fig. 29); spines an inch in length, widely and irregularly
+branching from a stout stem springing from a thick, fleshy husk, as
+shown in Fig. 30, the whole making an involucre or bur out of
+proportion to the nuts within. Nuts of large size, slightly
+depressed at the top (Fig. 31), and they are usually broader than
+long; shell very dark brown, slightly ridged, and covered with a
+fine but not very conspicuous pubescence. Kernel sweet,
+fine-grained, and of superior flavor for one of this species. Tree
+hardy, exceedingly precocious and productive when grafted on strong,
+healthy stock. A four-year-old tree on my grounds is shown in Fig.
+32. It was loaded with nuts in the fall of 1894. This is one of the
+best of its class. Origin somewhat in doubt, but it is claimed that
+the late W. L. Shaffer, of Philadelphia, raised it from a foreign
+nut planted in his garden, and who, some eighteen years or more ago,
+gave cions to W. H. Engle, of Marietta, Pa. Mr. Engle has since
+propagated and disseminated this variety quite extensively under its
+present name, but should further investigation prove it to be
+distinct and that it was raised by Mr. Shaffer, then it should
+certainly bear his name, and Paragon become a synonym. No more
+appropriate monument could possibly be erected in honor of a
+distinguished horticulturist like the late Mr. Shaffer, than a
+chestnut tree, nor could his memory be perpetuated under more
+pleasant and agreeable surroundings than to have his name linked
+inseparably with such an excellent and valuable variety.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33. OPEN BUR OF THE RIDGELY CHESTNUT.]
+
+RIDGELY.--Burs large, with dense spines, but not as long as those of
+the Paragon. Nuts large, pointed; shell dark brown, with very little
+pubescence, and this mainly at the point (Fig. 33). In quality this
+variety ranks very near, if not the equal of, the best of its class,
+and it has been highly commended, by those who have been acquainted
+with it, for many years.
+
+The origin of the Ridgely, as recorded, leaves the question of name
+a debatable one. Some sixty years ago a Mr. Dupont, of Wilmington,
+Del., gave or sent to Mr. D. M. Ridgely, of Dover, Del., a sprouted
+chestnut, and this was planted and became the original tree of the
+variety under consideration. It has been called Dupont, because he
+raised the nut and kept it over winter and until it sprouted; then
+it passed into the care of Mr. Ridgely, who thenceforward gave it
+his attention. The tree is now of immense size, and some seasons has
+produced more than five bushels of nuts, selling at eleven dollars
+per bushel. It is quite probable that the Dupont family were the
+first to raise European chestnut trees to a bearing size in this
+country, for some of its members were settled in Delaware before the
+war of the Revolution. Pierre Samuel Dupont de Nemours, during the
+French ministry of Vergennes, was employed in forming the treaty of
+1783, in which the independence of the United States was formally
+recognized by England. In 1795 (Am. encyclopedia) he came to this
+country and joined his sons, who had become successful manufacturers
+of gunpowder at or near Wilmington, Del., where their descendants,
+or at least some of them, are still engaged in the same business. If
+any of the old and original chestnut trees have escaped the numerous
+"powder mill explosions" which have frequently occurred in that
+neighborhood, they are probably much older than the Ridgely. I am
+also inclined to believe that a very large majority of all the hardy
+chestnut trees of the European species scattered about the country
+are the direct descendants of the old Dupont stock.
+
+SCOTT.--Burs large, with long branching spines. Nuts from the
+original tree, as received the past season, are only of medium size,
+but said to be much larger on younger trees. Shell dark brown,
+smooth, with a little fuzz around the point. As my specimen tree has
+not, as yet, fruited, I am unable to say anything of its
+productiveness from personal experience, but in a note from Mr.
+William Parry, under date of Oct. 15, 1894, he says: "I send
+specimens of the Scott chestnuts, grown by Judge Scott, of
+Burlington, N. J. The crop is about gone and it was with difficulty
+I could get these, which are about the average size; earlier in the
+season many are larger. Judge Scott has grown those nuts for market
+several years. The original tree was bought by his father many years
+ago from the nursery of Thomas Hancock. He bought three trees for
+Spanish chestnuts, planted them in a row about thirty feet apart,
+and the one from which these nuts were obtained happened to be in
+the middle. It is now a large tree, the trunk about five feet in
+diameter. It is a regular and heavy bearer. Judge Scott has
+propagated and planted an orchard from this variety, and claims
+among its important features, large size and early
+bearing,--two-year grafts generally produce nuts; immense
+productiveness and good quality; beautiful, glossy, mahogany color;
+freedom from fuzz, and an almost entire exemption from the attacks
+of the chestnut weevil. While the crop of two trees standing on
+either side of the Scott is badly damaged by worms, it is the
+exception to find a wormy nut among the Scott.
+
+    "The crop sells readily at ten to twelve dollars per bushel.
+    This year (1894) some sold as low as eight dollars, the lowest
+    ever known for this variety."
+
+STYER.--Burs large, round; spines long, branching, but not as coarse
+as those of Comfort. Nuts medium to large, decidedly pointed, and
+the point fuzzy. Shell dark brown, with a few longitudinal stripes,
+but not ridged. A handsome nut of good quality. This variety has
+been distributed under the name of Hannum. The original tree, which
+is a mammoth in size, is still standing on the farm of a Mr. Hannum,
+near Concordville, Delaware Co., Penn. But Mr. T. Walter Styer, of
+the same place, is propagating and introducing it as the Styer.
+
+Some of the varieties in this group may not prove to be distinct,
+and later they will be relegated to their proper place as synonyms,
+but I have thought it best to record them by the names under which
+they have been received. In writing these descriptions I have had
+the nuts and leaves before me, but there may be characters
+overlooked which will become more conspicuous as the grafted trees
+become older and more mature. The Dager chestnut, from Delaware, is
+a promising variety, disseminated through the Department of
+Agriculture, but as I have not seen the nuts at this writing, a
+description is necessarily omitted.
+
+Among the French varieties of this species which are said to succeed
+admirably in California, a large proportion would probably do
+equally well in Delaware and further south. Among those worthy of
+trial I may name the _Avant Chataigne_, _Comale_, _Exalade_, _Green
+of Lemousin_, _Grosse Pr�coce_, _Jaune Rousse_, _Lyons_, _Merle_,
+_Nouzillard_, _Quercy_, etc. I have tried some of these, but with
+such indifferent results that they were abandoned. Cultivators of
+nut trees located in a milder climate, should take advantage of
+whatever improvements there have been made in Europe, by importing
+grafted trees or cions. There are a few ornamental varieties of the
+European chestnut, but none worthy of any special attention.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34. JAPAN GIANT CHESTNUT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35. SPINES OF JAPAN CHESTNUT.]
+
+JAPAN CHESTNUTS.--The first authentic account I have been able to
+find of the introduction of the Japan chestnut into this country, is
+of a number of trees received by S. B. Parsons & Co., Flushing, N.
+Y., 1876, from the late Thos. Hogg, who, as is well known to all
+horticulturists, spent several years in Japan collecting many rare
+kinds of trees and shrubs, which were shipped direct to Parsons &
+Co. The chestnut trees received in 1876 fruited two years later, or
+in 1878, and soon attracted attention, on account of the large size
+and excellent quality of the nuts and the precocious habits of the
+trees.
+
+The success of this typical variety of the Japanese species, as I
+have assumed to designate it, proved that there were oriental
+chestnuts--heretofore untested in this country--that were certainly
+worthy of an attempt to obtain. This variety, introduced by the
+Messrs. Parsons & Co., does not appear to have been disseminated
+under any distinct varietal name, but merely bears the rather
+meaningless one of Japan chestnut, and for the purpose of giving it
+a position where it may be recognized--by name at least--from other
+varieties more recently introduced, I shall take the liberty of
+calling it "Parsons' Japan."
+
+Soon after it became known that the oriental chestnuts would succeed
+in this country, the fruit growers and nurserymen of California
+began to import and plant these nuts, shipping an occasional lot to
+their customers in the Eastern States, and from these hundreds of
+seedlings have been raised and distributed, under the general name
+of Japan chestnut. Among the nuts imported there are some of
+extraordinary size, even larger than anything of the kind obtained
+from Europe, as shown in Fig. 34, natural size, and from a specimen
+received direct from Japan. Some of the nurserymen who have secured
+these very large nuts for planting, offer the seedlings raised
+therefrom under such names as Mammoth and Giant Japan, but as there
+is no certainty, and scarcely a probability, that such seedlings
+will produce nuts as large as those planted, the names are rather
+misleading, although proper enough if given to grafted varieties of
+large size. When an extra-fine variety is produced from the nut, it
+should, of course, be preserved and propagated in the usual way.
+
+The late Wm. Parry, of Parry, N. J., was one of the first nurserymen
+to attempt to produce new varieties of the Japan chestnut in this
+country, and his sons have continued his experiments in this
+direction. Others may have been equally successful, but I have been
+unable to obtain any satisfactory reports from those to whom I have
+applied for information; consequently, I can only say that the
+following, with few exceptions, originated at the Wm. Parry
+nurseries.
+
+ADVANCE (Parry).--Burs medium, slightly flattened on top; spines
+medium, short, almost sessile, as shown in Fig. 35, and this is a
+characteristic of all the Japan chestnuts; branching and widely
+separated on a very thin husk. Nuts very large; shell a light
+yellowish brown, with a few slight darker streaks from base to apex.
+Quality excellent for one of this species. Ripens early, and long
+before touched by frost.
+
+ALPHA (Parry).--Very similar to the last, but ripens earlier, which
+would be an advantage in some localities. Tree vigorous and
+productive.
+
+BETA (Parry).--Bur medium; spines rather long and thin for one of
+this group, set on a thin husk. Nut large; shell light brown,
+smooth, with a slight trace of pubescence near the tip. The leaves
+are shallow and coarsely serrate, and on some the teeth or
+serratures are entirely wanting. Ripens a little later than the
+Alpha, or about the first of October in northern New Jersey.
+
+EARLY RELIANCE (Parry).--Burs medium, with short, almost deflexed
+spines, on an exceedingly thin husk. Nuts large, more pointed than
+in the last, and of a lighter color the past season, but this may
+not be constant, and may be due to the long and severe drouth of the
+summer of 1894. Usually three nuts in a bur, and sometimes four or
+five, but I do not consider this increase in number a merit in any
+variety, for where there are more than three they are likely to be
+of small size and very much deformed. The original tree of the
+Reliance is enormously productive, and a regular bearer.
+
+FELTON.--A seedling of the common Japanese chestnut, raised by J. W.
+Killen, of Felton, Delaware.
+
+GIANT JAPAN (Parry).--Burs large to extra large for a variety of
+this species, with medium low branching spines on a very thin,
+parchment-like husk. Nuts extra large, usually only two in a bur,
+often only one, and about two inches broad, much depressed at the
+top, with a short point set in an irregular depression or basin.
+Shell dark mahogany color, more or less ribbed; kernel coarse
+grained, as is usual in the extra large varieties of nearly all
+species of the chestnut. This is probably the largest variety of the
+Japanese chestnut raised in this country, of which grafted trees are
+obtainable at this time. There may be others equally as large, but
+if so they are unknown to the writer.
+
+KILLEN.--Of the Japan species, and described as very large, the nuts
+over two inches in diameter and of fair quality. Raised by J. W.
+Killen, of Felton, Del.
+
+PARSONS' JAPAN.--Burs medium, with rather thick-set and long spines.
+Nuts large, one inch and a half broad, curving regularly to a point;
+shell smooth, almost glossy, brown, with faint stripes of a darker
+shade extending from base to apex. In quality the kernel is far
+better than most of the European varieties, being finer grained and
+sweeter. When grafted on strong stocks the trees come into bearing
+early, or in two or three years. This is the best known, and
+probably the most widely distributed variety, of the Japanese
+species in this country, having been introduced, as I have stated
+elsewhere, in 1876.
+
+PARRY'S SUPERB (Parry).--Burs broad, cushion-shaped, or much
+flattened on top, with extra long, widely branching spines from
+single or multiple stems, very much as in the European varieties.
+But the thin husk, the nuts, and the growth of tree, wood and
+leaves, stamp it as a pure Japanese variety. Nuts large, broader
+than long, with a decided sharp woody point; almost entirely
+destitute of even a sign of pubescence. A very promising and
+distinct variety.
+
+SUCCESS (Parry).--Burs very large, broad, with only a few short,
+scattering, branching spines on the top, thicker toward the base; on
+a thin, parchment-like husk, and this is so thin that it sometimes
+cracks open and exposes the nuts within before they are fully ripe.
+Nuts extra large, nearly equal to the Giant, but of a more regular
+and symmetrical form, being nearly as long as broad, tapering to a
+point. Shell smooth, dark brown, with a slight pubescence about the
+point. Usually three nuts in a bur; an ideal variety in every
+respect.
+
+There is a variety of the Japan chestnut recently much lauded under
+the name of Mammoth or Burbank, which is said to be of immense size,
+and as sweet as the common American chestnut.
+
+=Injurious Insects.=--The chestnut tree is rarely attacked by
+insects. It is true that grubs may occasionally be found boring into
+the wood or cutting sinuous burrows under the bark, but this is
+mainly in trees weakened by exposure, in removing protecting
+companions, as when removing forests, or by plowing up and
+destroying the roots, in cultivating the land about them; but the
+attacks of insects upon such specimens is nature's way of getting
+rid of the feeble and least valuable, making room for the healthy
+and strong. But my thirty years' residence in a chestnut grove leads
+me to think that this nut tree is exceedingly free from wood borers
+of any kind.
+
+Entomologists, however, have noted several instances of insect
+depredations upon individual trees, by a few species of the
+long-horn beetles, three or four in all, but these occur so rarely
+that they are scarcely worthy of notice as pests of the chestnut.
+There are also several species of caterpillars occasionally found
+feeding on the leaves of this tree, also some sucking bugs or tree
+hoppers, and two or three kinds of plant lice, but none of these
+have, as yet, become at all formidable enemies, or likely to become
+so later. But the chestnut has one enemy which is so abundant and
+destructive to the nuts as to call for an extended notice. I refer
+to the common native chestnut weevil (_Balaninus carytripes_,
+Boheman). The little fat, white, round, legless grubs, nearly or
+quite a half-inch long, must be familiar to every person who has
+handled or eaten chestnuts raised in this country, whether of the
+exotic or native varieties. The parents of this grub are oval-shaped
+beetles about one-half inch long or less; wing covers, body and legs
+densely covered with a short yellow down, and from the front or
+thorax there extends a long, slightly curved, slender snout (Fig.
+36), sometimes nearly an inch in length in the females, but usually
+less in the males. The mouth parts are at the extreme end of this
+snout or proboscis, and the female, with her mandibles, it is
+claimed, reaches down among the chestnut spines and gnaws a hole in
+the husk, into which she drops an egg; and when this hatches, the
+minute grub cuts its way through the green husk and into the nut,
+the hole made in its progress closing up behind, leaving no mark or
+scar. Although I have taken hundreds of these weevils on chestnut
+trees, I never have been so fortunate as to take one in the act of
+ovipositing, but have come so near it as to find the ovipositor
+still extended as the insect crawled out from among the spines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36. CHESTNUT WEEVIL.]
+
+The chestnut weevil usually appears in great numbers soon after the
+trees bloom in spring, but they continue to come out all through the
+summer; I have occasionally found them late in September, which
+probably accounts for finding small and half-grown grubs in the nuts
+as they ripen and fall from the trees. These late grubs often remain
+in the nuts all winter, but the greater part escape earlier, or very
+soon after the crop is ripe. The grubs crawl out of the nuts and
+work their way into the ground to a depth of from a few inches to
+two feet, much depending upon the nature of the soil. Having very
+powerful jaws, they readily cut through a layer of leaves or soft
+wood, and I have known them to cut holes in sheets of dry cork.
+These grubs remain in the ground until the following season, then
+come forth in their winged or weevil stage, except the belated,
+broods, or those that have not reached full size in the autumn;
+these remain in the ground the entire summer, coming out late in the
+fall, or pass over until the second year, as I have proved by
+burying the grubs in a barrel sunk in the ground, covering the top
+with fine wire netting, to prevent the escape of the weevils as they
+emerged from time to time during the season.
+
+As a rule, we find only one grub in a nut, of the American sweet
+chestnut, but in the larger varieties of the European and Japanese,
+two or more is not unusual, which rather favors the idea that the
+female weevil does possess something akin to reason, which guides
+her in locating stores of food available for her progeny. I have
+never observed that the weevils had any choice among varieties, all
+being subject to their attacks alike, provided all were growing in
+equally favorable positions. But if the trees are of different
+sizes, some tall and others short, some exposed to the winds and
+others protected, then the ravages of this pest will, no doubt, be
+as variable as the surrounding conditions. As the weevils emerge
+from the ground in spring or early summer, they will naturally seek
+the nuts most convenient and on the small trees, then those on the
+lower branches of the larger ones, while those on the upper part of
+the tree, where they are fully exposed to the winds, may wholly
+escape the attacks of these pests. This leads me to think that
+whoever attempts to cut off native chestnut forests, with the
+expectation of renewal with the larger varieties, by grafting the
+sprouts, will find the chestnut weevil a rather formidable enemy. I
+have found it so on a limited number of trees in my own grounds,
+that are grown from grafted sprouts near large native specimens, the
+weevils destroying nearly every nut; but out in the field, away from
+the woods, and where the young trees are scattered and exposed to
+the full sweep of the winds, the nuts are sound and free from insect
+enemies. The only remedy is to collect and destroy the weevils,
+which is not a serious matter where only the larger varieties are
+cultivated.
+
+=Diseases of the Chestnut.=--I have never noticed any special
+disease among chestnuts, neither do I find any mentioned in European
+works on forestry. The nearest approach to any such malady being
+recorded as having appeared in this country, is found in a paragraph
+in Hough's "Report on Forestry," 1877, p. 470, where the author
+copies from Prof. W. C. Kerr, State Geologist, North Carolina, as
+follows: "The chestnut was formerly abundant in the Piedmont region,
+down to the country between the Catawba and Yadkin rivers, but
+within the last thirty years they have mostly perished. They are now
+found east of the Blue Ridge only, on higher ridges and spurs of the
+mountains. They have suffered injury here, and are dying out both
+here and beyond the Blue Ridge. They are much less fruitful than
+they were a generation ago, and the crop is much more uncertain."
+
+While there is nothing said about any chestnut disease in the
+paragraph quoted, we only infer that the author intended to convey
+the idea that the trees were suffering from some endemic malady,
+although it may have been due to long drouths, insect depredators,
+or other causes. A few years later Mr. Hough, in his "Elements of
+Forestry," refers to the subject again, and admits that "the cause
+of the malady is unknown." But as chestnuts continue to come to our
+markets in vast quantities from the Piedmont regions, there must be
+a goodly number of healthy trees remaining.
+
+=Uses.=--The economic value of the chestnut, as food for mankind and
+the lower animals, has been, and is still, so well known, that no
+extended dissertation or compilation of historic instances of its
+usefulness are required here. For almost two thousand years it has
+been an important article of food throughout southern Europe, and in
+some of the mountainous districts it is almost the "staff of life"
+among the poorer people, who not only use these nuts in their raw
+state, but roasted, boiled, stewed, and even dried and ground into
+flour, from which a coarse but nutritious kind of cake or bread is
+made. These nuts are also used in the same way by the poorer classes
+of China and Japan, and probably in other oriental countries. In
+France, Italy, Spain and Portugal, the chestnut crop is of immense
+importance, not only for domestic use, but commercially, because all
+surplus is wanted by other nations, who are ever ready to take a
+share, and pay a good round price for the same.
+
+In this country chestnuts are mainly used as a luxury or a kind of
+pocket lunch for the children, as they are rarely brought to the
+table, and it is very doubtful if the American housewife, or our
+cooks,--unless foreign born and bred,--know anything about preparing
+these delicious nuts for comestible purposes. Cereals, meats, fruits
+and vegetables have always been so abundant and cheap in this
+country, that the poorest of the poor could indulge in them without
+stint or limit; but all this will change sooner or later, and when
+our population has doubled or trebled, the edible nuts must become
+of much more importance than now, and a roast turkey stuffed with
+chestnuts may figure as the ideal of gastronomic art.
+
+As our native chestnuts are now annually consumed by the thousands
+of bushels, and the imported varieties by millions of pounds, and
+all as a mere luxury,--not a necessity nor an article which we could
+not dispense with without any serious inconvenience,--we may well
+consider what the future demand must be, and make haste to meet it
+with an abundant supply.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+FILBERT OR HAZELNUT.
+
+
+Corylus, _Tournefort_. Name from _korys_, a hood, helmet or bonnet,
+in reference to the form of the calyx or husk enclosing the nut.
+Order, _Corylace�_. Deciduous trees or low shrubs. Male flowers
+appearing in the autumn in pendulous cylindrical catkins two inches
+or more in length, with a two-cleft calyx partly united with the
+bracts or scales. These catkins remain on the plants all winter,
+becoming fully developed, and shedding their pollen early the
+following spring. Female flowers minute, entirely hidden within the
+buds during the winter, but early in spring their bright red,
+thread-like stigmas push out from the tips of the lateral or
+terminal buds. Ovary two-celled, with one ovule in each. Nut
+globular, ovoid or oblong, often in clusters, but each enclosed in a
+leafy, two- or three-valved husk, fringed or deeply notched at the
+upper end. Leaves broadly heart-shaped, serrate, with sturdy, short
+leaf-stalks. The filbert and hazel always bloom before the leaves
+appear in spring, and the male catkins usually open and begin to
+scatter their pollen in this latitude during warm days in March, the
+females soon following, their bright-red stigmas pushing out from
+the ends of the buds, but as soon as fertilization has been
+consummated they shrivel and disappear. The trees may then remain
+leafless for weeks following, and yet produce a heavy crop of fruit.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37. LARGE FILBERT.]
+
+The common English name, filbert, is from "full-beard." All the
+varieties with husks extending beyond the nut, and with fringed
+edges, are filberts (Fig. 37); while those with husks shorter than
+the nuts (Fig. 38) are hazels, from the old Anglo-Saxon word,
+_h�sel_, a hood or bonnet. The parentage, size, form or quality of
+the nut, is not to be considered in this classification, for when
+the nuts are ripe and fallen from the husks, there is nothing left
+to distinguish the hazelnuts from filberts, unless a person is
+sufficiently familiar with a variety to know to which group it
+belongs. In France these nuts are known under the general name of
+_Noysette_; while in Germany it is _Haselnuss_; in Holland
+_Hazelnoot_; and in Italy _Avellana_, from Avellana, a city of
+Naples, near which there is a valley where these nuts have been
+extensively cultivated for many centuries.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38. LARGE SEEDLING HAZELNUT.]
+
+=History of the Filbert.=--It is claimed that the filbert was first
+known to the Romans as _Nux Pontica_, because introduced from
+Pontus; but it must have become naturalized throughout southern
+Europe in very early times. But the Italian name of _Avellana_
+appears to have been applied to the wild hazel of Britain, long
+before Linn�us adopted it as the specific name of the indigenous
+species. John Evelyn, one of the most careful and learned of English
+arboriculturists of his time, in referring to these nuts, in his
+"Sylva," 1664, says: "I do not confound the filbert Pontic,
+distinguished by its beard, with our foresters or bald hazelnuts,
+which, doubtless, we had from abroad, bearing the names of _Avelan_
+or _Avelin_, as I find in some ancient records and deeds in my
+custody, where my ancestors' names were written Avelan, _alias_
+Evelin."
+
+The filbert has been celebrated in prose and poetry from ancient
+times, as we may infer from a remark of Virgil, who says that it has
+been more honored "than the vine, the myrtle, or even the bay
+itself" (Eclogue vii).
+
+The supposed occult power of a forked twig of the hazel as a
+divining-rod (_virgula divinatoria_) for finding hidden treasures,
+veins of metals, subterranean streams of water, and even pointing
+out criminals, is, of course, purely mythical, although so solemnly
+attested by many learned men in the past; and I would not consider
+this myth worthy of a notice here were it not for the fact that it
+was early imported into this country, and is still firmly believed
+by many persons among our rural population. It is true that the
+supposed attributes of the European hazel have been transferred to
+different plants in this country, mainly to the peach and our
+indigenous witch-hazel (_Hamamelis Virginiana_), but the myth still
+lives, a legitimate descendant of an Old World nut tree.
+
+There is little to be said in regard to the history of the filbert
+and hazelnut in this country, but it is quite likely that both of
+the European species, and many varieties, were brought here and
+planted by the early settlers in the Eastern States, and bushes of
+the same could have been seen in many gardens a hundred years ago;
+but I have been unable to find any account of extensive plantings of
+these nuts, although nurserymen, all along, have been offering
+choice varieties to their customers. In the main, our pomologists
+have either remained silent in regard to these nuts, or, at most,
+referred to them very briefly in their published works.
+
+William Prince, of Flushing, N. Y., in a "Short Treatise on
+Horticulture," published in 1828, refers to the filbert as follows:
+
+    "This shrub or, in some cases, tree, accommodates itself to
+    every exposition, and to every variety of soil, but prefers a
+    moist loam on a sandy bottom, with a northern exposure. It is
+    easily multiplied by seeds, layers or inoculation. In fact,
+    these nuts, which are vended in large quantities in our markets,
+    grow as well in our climate as the common hazelnut, and produce
+    very abundantly. Such being the case, it is hoped, ere long,
+    sufficient will be produced from our soil to supersede the
+    necessity of importation, as plantations of this tree would
+    amply remunerate the possessor; or if planted as a hedge, would
+    be found to be very productive. A single bush of the Spanish
+    filbert in my garden has produced a half-bushel annually."
+
+Mr. Prince then names a few of the best varieties, which are about
+the same as those recommended at the present time, and he was, no
+doubt, honest in recommending filbert culture to his countrymen, for
+his own limited experience proved that the trees would grow here and
+fruit abundantly.
+
+A. J. Downing, in the first edition of his "Fruits and Fruit Trees
+of America," 1845, says: "The Spanish filbert, common in many of our
+gardens, is a worthless, nearly barren variety; but we have found
+the better English sorts productive and excellent in this climate
+(Newburg, N. Y.), and at least a few plants of these should have a
+place in all our gardens." If a few plants will succeed in a garden,
+then we might reasonably suppose that the number might be safely
+increased, and this was the idea of Mr. Prince, and many other
+writers on the subject since his time, but I fail to find any record
+of extended experiments with these nuts in this country, and as
+there must be some good reason for this neglect, perhaps my own
+experience in the cultivation of the filbert and hazel, to be given
+in succeeding pages, may throw some light on this question.
+
+=Propagation.=--Filberts are readily propagated by almost all the
+modes employed in the multiplication of ordinary fruit trees and
+shrubs. The nuts are not at all delicate, and may be planted in the
+fall, or stored in a cool place, mixed with sand or sphagnum, and
+then put out in spring, always selecting a rather light and rich
+soil for a seed bed, and in such beds plants from one to three feet
+high may be obtained the first season. The seedlings produce such a
+mass of fine roots that they are readily transplanted without danger
+of loss. Varieties are perpetuated and multiplied by budding,
+grafting, suckers, layers, and some grow quite readily from cuttings
+made of the young, vigorous shoots, cut up into proper lengths in
+the fall, and then buried in the ground until the following spring,
+then planted out in trenches, as usually practiced with currants,
+grapes and similar plants. The method of propagation most generally
+practiced in Europe and this country is by suckers, and as the
+cultivated varieties of the filbert usually produce these from the
+base of their stems in profusion, there is no lack of material;
+besides, they make as strong, healthy and productive plants as can
+be procured in any other way. To secure an extra number of roots on
+these suckers, they should be banked up with a few inches in depth
+of good rich soil, or old manure, about midsummer, and then late in
+the autumn dig down to the base and remove with knife or chisel,
+after which they may be headed down to about fifteen or eighteen
+inches, and heeled-in for the winter, to be planted out in nursery
+rows early in spring. If a greater number of sprouts are wanted than
+the plants naturally produce, the main stem may be cut down; but
+this will seldom be necessary, because the young transplanted
+suckers will usually produce more or less new ones the first season,
+all of which can be utilized for multiplying the stock if they are
+wanted.
+
+=Soil, Location and Climate.=--European varieties of the filbert
+thrive best in what may be termed a rich loam, with a dry subsoil.
+If the soil is too moist, the trees are inclined to run too much to
+wood, producing less fruit. In the famous nut orchards of Kent,
+England, the soil is loam upon a dry, sandy rock. The trees in these
+orchards are manured at least once in two years, especially after
+they reach the full bearing age. Almost any good soil that is rich
+enough to produce a good crop of corn, and is not submerged in
+winter, will answer for the filbert in this country.
+
+In selecting a location for a filbert orchard, an open, airy one
+would probably be preferable to a spot so sheltered as to cause the
+flowers to appear so early as to be injured by frosts. Furthermore,
+I would warn cultivators to keep as far away as possible from any
+hedgerows or plantation of the wild native hazel bushes, for these
+are always loaded with disease germs that are fatal to the foreign
+species. We might reasonably suppose that filberts would succeed
+better in the Southern than in the Northern States, but if the
+experience of those who have tried them there count for anything,
+then these nuts are not adapted to the South, owing to the fact that
+the flowers almost invariably push out during warm days in winter,
+and these are destroyed later by frosts. In the more elevated
+regions of the northern border of the Southern, and in similar
+locations in the Middle States, these nuts will doubtless thrive, or
+at least the climate will prove congenial. The more equable the
+climate and free from extremes in temperature, the better; but the
+most important element in this country is moisture, especially in
+summer, when the nuts are filling out; and the best way to supply
+this, where irrigation cannot be practiced, is to keep the ground
+around the trees continually covered with a mulch of leaves or other
+coarse vegetable matter.
+
+=Planting and Pruning.=--The space to be allowed between the plants,
+when set out for bearing, will, of course, depend very much upon the
+size they are expected to attain. Those varieties which assume and
+remain in the bush form may be planted very close together, or not
+more than six to eight feet between the plants; but those which
+become small trees must be given more room. The larger European
+sorts, which are at present the only ones worth cultivating for
+their nuts, should be set ten or twelve feet apart, and the rows
+fifteen to sixteen feet, then if properly pruned they will shade the
+ground and be in a convenient form for gathering the crop. The trees
+may be planted in the orchard when quite small, and some kind of
+vegetable crop grown among them for the first two or three years,
+but I would prefer keeping the plants in nursery rows until they
+were four or five feet high, and then transplant to the orchard, and
+set a short, stout stake by the side of each, to keep the main stem
+in an upright position until the tree is well established.
+
+The first pruning,--except removing suckers from those in the
+nursery rows,--will be the heading back of the main or central stem
+to a hight of two or three feet, for the purpose of laying the
+foundation, as it were, of the head of the future tree. Three or
+four of the larger branches, which will push out from near the top
+of the severed main stem, are to be selected to form the top, and
+all others removed. Small lateral branches or twigs will spring out
+from the larger or main ones, and in this way the head of a bearing
+tree is formed. But before attempting to prune a mature or fruitful
+tree, we must consider the mode of fructification, for the filbert
+does not bear nuts on the young growth of the season, as in the
+chestnut, but on the small branchlets or spur-like twigs of the
+preceding season, or, as we may say, on the one-year-old twigs. The
+small fruiting twigs are seldom more than four to six inches long,
+and sometimes almost every well-developed bud on these contain
+pistillate flowers and embryo nuts, either singly or in clusters. In
+pruning the bearing trees, the main point to be observed is to head
+back the strong leading shoots, to prevent the trees growing too
+tall, as well as to force out the side or lateral twigs as fruiting
+wood for the ensuing year. If the heads of the trees become too much
+crowded to admit light and air to the center, some of the larger
+branches must be removed entire. The best time to prune is in early
+spring, when the trees are in bloom, for at this season we can
+readily determine the injured from the sound male catkins, and
+preserve enough of these to insure perfect fertilization. It is not
+necessary, however, that there should be healthy pollen-bearing
+catkins on every tree in an orchard, for if one in a dozen is well
+supplied, there will be sufficient to fertilize the flowers of all
+growing near by. It often happens, in our rather severe climate,
+that the catkins of some trees or varieties are winterkilled, while
+the pistillate flowers enclosed in the buds escape injury, and when
+this occurs it is well to have some hardy variety at hand, from
+which pollen can be obtained when needed. The inferior varieties are
+usually the most hardy, and the wild European hazel or our northern
+beaked hazel, will usually escape injury where all the large
+improved sorts fail, and it requires but a few minutes' labor to cut
+branches bearing sound catkins, and scatter these about through the
+heads of trees requiring such assistance to make them fruitful.
+
+
+SPECIES OF AMERICAN HAZELS.
+
+CORYLUS AMERICANA (Walters). Common hazel bush.--Leaves roundish,
+heart-shaped, pointed, coarsely serrate; husk somewhat downy, with a
+wide, flattened, fringed border extending beyond the roundish nut.
+Shell rather thick and brittle; kernel sweet and good, but the nut
+is too small to be considered of much value. A low shrub, with many
+stems springing from the roots. Young shoots and twigs downy and
+glandular-hairy. Common in woods and old fields from Canada to
+Florida.
+
+CORYLUS ROSTRATA (Aiton). Beaked hazel.--Leaves ovate or oblong,
+somewhat heart-shaped, pointed, doubly serrate; husk extending an
+inch or more beyond the round or ovoid nut, forming before it opens
+a long tubular beak, hence the name. The husk is densely covered
+with nettle-like bristles, which are quite irritating to tender
+hands. The nuts are small, usually growing in clusters at the ends
+of the twigs, only a few coming to maturity. A low shrub or small
+tree, usually growing in a dense clump, not spreading from
+subterranean stems, as in the last species. Common on rather firm
+and rich soil along the borders of streams, in the northern border
+States, and southward on the Alleghanies, but most abundant in the
+north through Canada, and westward to the Pacific in Washington and
+Oregon, where, in the mountains, it often assumes the tree form,
+growing to a hight of twenty-five to thirty feet, with a stem from
+four to six inches in diameter. The wood is light, soft, and very
+white to the center. It also extends southward to central
+California, but here it is only a small bush, this form having been
+described under the name of _Corylus rostrata_, var. Californica, A.
+de C. This species probably reaches its highest development in the
+Cascade range, in northern Oregon. The same or a closely allied
+species of the hazel extends far into northern Asia. There are no
+improved varieties of either of our native species of the hazel in
+cultivation.
+
+
+EUROPEAN SPECIES OF CORYLUS.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39. CONSTANTINOPLE HAZEL.]
+
+CORYLUS AVELLANA (Linn.). Common hazelnut.--Leaves roundish,
+heart-shaped, pointed, coarsely and unevenly serrate; husk
+bell-shaped, spreading, with a fringed or deeply cut margin. The
+original form of this nut is supposed to have been ovate or oval,
+but with a plant indigenous to such a wide range of climate and
+country, and one that has been so long under cultivation,--running
+wild in many localities where it is not a native,--it would be very
+difficult at this time to determine its primary botanical
+characters. A common shrub or small tree throughout the greater part
+of Europe and Asia.
+
+CORYLUS COLURNA (Linn.).--Constantinople hazel. Leaves roundish
+ovate, heart-shaped; husk double, the inner one divided into three
+deeply cleft divisions, the outer with many long, slender, curved
+segments, giving to the calyx or husk a fringed appearance, but
+leaving the end of the nut fully exposed (Fig. 39). Nuts small, and
+for this reason rarely cultivated. Native of Asia Minor, where the
+tree attains a hight of from fifty to sixty feet. It is, however,
+hardy in France and England, and was introduced into the latter
+country some three hundred years ago, probably by Clusius, who
+received either nuts or plants from Constantinople, hence its
+present name.
+
+There are several other hazels and filberts, so distinct from the
+two common European types that botanists have, in a few instances,
+been inclined to elevate them to the rank of species, and among
+these I may name _Corylus heterophylla_, or various-leaved filbert,
+from eastern Asia, also the _Corylus ferox_, or spiny filbert, which
+has a long and deeply cut or fringed husk. It is a native of the
+Sheopur mountain in Nepaul. But from the two common European
+species, _C. Avellana_ and _C. Colurna_, and their hybrids, many
+hundreds of varieties have been raised, and from among these we may
+readily select a dozen possessing all the distinct and estimable
+properties to be found in this genus of nut-bearing plants; to
+multiply names without securing anything of intrinsic value, is but
+a waste of time and labor on the part of the cultivator.
+
+As we have no popular varieties of American origin, I am compelled
+to consult European catalogues in making a selection of those most
+promising for cultivation here, and this is, perhaps, an advantage,
+inasmuch as our transatlantic cousins have had a long experience and
+abundant opportunities for determining the merits of the varieties
+they recommend. If hardiness and adaptation to our soil and climate
+are to be taken into account, in making a selection, then we may
+fail for the want of experienced guides, as it is undeniable that
+very few persons in this country have ever attempted to conduct
+extended experiments in the cultivation of either the native or
+European species and varieties of the hazel.
+
+Taking this view of the situation, I shall avail myself of the small
+but select list of varieties given in that standard work, "The
+Dictionary of Gardening," edited by Mr. George Nicholson, of the
+Royal Gardens, Kew, England.
+
+
+SELECT LIST OF VARIETIES.
+
+ALBA, OR WHITE FILBERT.--Considered in England one of the best
+varieties in cultivation. From the peculiar structure of the husk,
+which contracts rather than opens at the outer edge, this filbert
+can be kept longer in its cover than most others. As fashion demands
+that fresh filberts must be brought to the table in their husks,
+this variety deserves special attention. It is also known as
+Avelinier Blanche, Wrotham Park, etc.
+
+COSFORD, OR MISS YOUNG'S THIN-SHELLED.--Nut oblong, of excellent
+quality; husk hairy, deeply cut, about as long as the nut. Highly
+valued on account of the thinness of the shell.
+
+CRISPA, OR FRIZZLED FILBERT.--Shell thin, somewhat flattened; husk
+richly and curiously frizzled throughout, open wide at the mouth,
+and hanging about as long again as the nut. Ripens late, and one of
+the most productive.
+
+DOWNTON LARGE SQUARE.--Nut very large; shell thick and well-filled;
+husk smooth, shorter than the nut. A peculiarly formed semi-square
+nut, of the best quality.
+
+LAMBERT'S FILBERT (_Corylus tubulosa_).--Nut large, oblong; shell
+thick and strong, the kernel being covered with a red skin; husk
+long, rather smooth, serrated at the edges, longer than the nut. A
+fine, strong-growing, free-fruiting variety. It is quite popular in
+California, where it has been in cultivation for twenty years or
+more under the name of Red Aveline. Specimens I have received from
+there were not as large as those raised in England, but this can be
+accounted for by the difference in climate. This variety is
+cultivated in Europe under various local names, as, for instance,
+Great Cob, Kentish Cob, Filbert Cob, and Large Bond Cob.
+
+GRANDIS, OR ROUND COB-NUT.--Nut large, short, slightly compressed,
+very thick and hard; husk shorter than the fruit, much frizzled and
+hairy. This is supposed to be the true Barcelona nut of commerce,
+and is one of the finest grown. This is the large round hazel or
+filbert so largely imported for the trade in this country. It has
+many synonyms, and among them we may record Downton, Dwarf Prolific,
+Great Cob and Round Cob.
+
+PURPLE-LEAVED FILBERT.--Usually cultivated as an ornamental shrub in
+this country, but under proper treatment it is one of the most
+valuable for its fruit. Leaves very large, and of a deep purple
+color. Nuts and husk of the same color, which they retain until cut
+by frosts. Nuts large, an inch in length; husks much longer than the
+nut, and slightly hairy. The catkins are tender and become
+winterkilled in our Northern States, but if the pistillate flowers
+are fertilized by pollen from some more hardy plant, this
+purple-leaved filbert is exceedingly prolific. I have gathered
+eighty nuts from a small bush in my garden, the flowers of which had
+been fertilized from another variety in early spring.
+
+RED FILBERT. Red Hazel, Avelinier Rouge.--Nut medium ovate, not long
+as in the _tubulosa_, or Lambert's filbert; shell thick; husk long
+and hispid. A very productive variety of good quality.
+
+SPANISH FILBERT.--Nut very large, oblong; shell thick; husk smooth,
+longer than the nut. A very large variety, sometimes confounded with
+the Round cob-nut and its synonyms.
+
+
+PERSONAL EXPERIENCE WITH FILBERTS.
+
+Believing that our failures are often of far more value, in the line
+of education, than our successes, I shall not hesitate to place my
+own on record as guideposts to those who may be seeking the most
+direct road to success in nut culture. Having had a rather extended
+and expensive experience in the cultivation of filberts, I propose
+giving a brief account of it here, with the hope that it may save
+some other enthusiast from losing time and money.
+
+My attention was first specially drawn to these nuts in 1858,--while
+a resident of the city of Brooklyn, N. Y.,--by a neighbor who had a
+moderately large garden, on three sides of which he had planted a
+row of English filberts. These trees, at the time, had attained a
+hight of about fifteen feet, with broad, open heads, and they rarely
+failed to produce a heavy crop of nuts, which sold readily at very
+remunerative prices, for as they were always gathered in the husks
+and sold by the pound, the amount obtained from these few trees
+seemed to be enormous, considering the small space they occupied in
+this garden. The owner of these filbert trees, being an Englishman
+by birth, never tired of showing his English filberts to visitors,
+and of descanting upon their value, as well as upon the stupid
+indifference of the Yankees in neglecting the cultivation of these
+valuable nuts. I imbibed enough of my neighbor's enthusiasm to
+secure a good stock of his plants, a few years later, for
+cultivation in my grounds here. The third year after planting, quite
+a number of the bushes produced a fair crop of nuts, but I noticed
+that an occasional shoot was affected with blight, and these were
+immediately cut out and burned. The next season more of the branches
+were affected, and from these the blight extended downward on the
+main stems, and when these were cut away the sprouts from below made
+a very vigorous and apparently healthy growth, some reaching a hight
+of six feet the first season, but a year or two later these were
+also attacked and destroyed by blight.
+
+Finding that the filberts in my grounds were doomed, I visited my
+old neighbor in Brooklyn, hoping to learn something of the origin or
+cause of the disease; but the blight had invaded his garden, and not
+a tree remained. On my return from this visit I had every filbert
+and hazel plant on my place dug up and burned, thinking by such
+means to stamp out the disease. After waiting ten years, I thought
+it time to try filberts again, and to be certain of securing pure
+and healthy plants, I concluded to raise them from the nuts, and
+sent an order for a few pounds of the largest and best variety to be
+found in the celebrated filbert orchards of Kent, Eng. In due time
+the nuts arrived, and they were very large, and all of one variety,
+as ordered. They were mixed with sand and buried in the garden until
+the following spring, then sown thinly in shallow drills and covered
+with about two inches of rich soil.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40. ENGLISH FILBERT ORCHARD, FIVE YEARS FROM
+SEED.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42. EXTRA LARGE HAZEL SEEDLING OR ROUND ENGLISH
+FILBERT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41. VARIETIES OF FILBERTS AND HAZEL SEEDLINGS.]
+
+At the close of the first season the plants were from one to two
+feet high and quite stocky, with a mass of small fibrous roots. The
+next spring they were transplanted into nursery rows, and set about
+one foot apart. The third spring I laid out about one acre for a
+specimen filbert orchard, and after the ground had been thoroughly
+prepared, the plants were set ten feet apart in the row, and twelve
+between the rows. No crop was planted among the trees, but the
+ground was kept clean and free from weeds during the summer, with
+cultivator and harrow. All suckers springing from the base of the
+stems were removed as soon as they appeared, and under such
+treatment the plants made a vigorous growth. Two years later quite a
+number of the trees came into bearing, these showing that I was
+likely to have nearly as many varieties in my orchard as there were
+trees. Some of the varieties might be better than the parent, but
+the greater part were certain to be inferior in size. The fourth
+year after planting in the orchard the trees gave me a heavy crop of
+nuts, and they made a fine appearance as one looked down between the
+long rows, as shown in Fig. 40. But this season my old enemy, the
+filbert blight, appeared again, and branches and main stems began to
+blacken and the leaves to wither. But I had bushels of nuts and in
+great variety, and by sending specimen baskets of the long-husk
+varieties to dealers in New York, learned that there was an almost
+unlimited demand for such nuts, at prices ranging from thirty to
+seventy-five cents per pound, if sent to market in their fresh,
+half-ripened husk; but later on, when the nuts have fallen out and
+become thoroughly ripened, as when imported, ten cents a pound may
+be considered an average price for the larger varieties. Several of
+these are shown in Fig. 41, of natural size and form. Another
+extra-large hazel is shown in Fig. 42. The fifth year after
+planting, my specimen filbert orchard had suffered so much from
+blight that it appeared as shown in Fig. 43; but a few dozen trees
+have been reserved, the rest being removed and reduced to ashes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43. FILBERT ORCHARD STRUCK WITH BLIGHT, FIFTH
+YEAR FROM SEED.]
+
+=Name and Nature of the Filbert Blight.=--The reader must not
+suppose that one who has spent as much time and money as the writer
+in experimenting with these nuts, would make no effort to discover
+the origin and name of such a virulent disease, and means of
+destroying it if these were known. For many years I had been well
+aware of its presence in nearly all of the nurseries of the older
+States, as well as in the public parks and private gardens. In the
+meantime I had diligently examined the reports of the Division of
+Vegetable Pathology of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, as well
+as the hundreds of bulletins of the various State experiment
+stations, treating of the fungous diseases of plants, all without
+finding a hint or reference to this widely distributed and
+destructive blight of the filbert. I also sent many specimens of the
+diseased twigs and branches to professional mycologists, with no
+better results. With the nature of the disease, its mode of
+multiplication and distribution, I had become somewhat familiar, but
+the information sought was: Had it ever been described and given a
+scientific name, and if so, where, and by whom? This much of its
+history had somehow escaped me, and, as it would appear from the
+following correspondence, the chances were none too good of finding
+it.
+
+In reply to an inquiry directed to the U. S. Department of
+Agriculture, Division of Vegetable Pathology, I received the
+following:
+
+
+  WASHINGTON, D. C., Aug. 4, 1894.
+
+  DEAR SIR:
+
+    Your letter of Aug. 2, relating to the disease of the filbert,
+    is at hand. In reply I have to say that we have not investigated
+    this trouble, and are therefore unable to furnish you with any
+    definite information upon it. Specimens of the disease, as you
+    describe it, have never been, so far as I know, referred to the
+    Division, nor am I able to find any record of any such disease
+    in foreign or domestic literature. If you will send us specimens
+    we shall be pleased to examine them and furnish you a report. We
+    should also be pleased to have any information from you in
+    regard to the manner in which the disease works. Very truly,
+
+  B. T. GALLOWAY, _Chief of Division_.
+
+The specimens requested were forwarded promptly by mail, and in the
+absence of the Chief of Division, they fell into the hands of one of
+his assistants, who reported as follows:
+
+
+
+       DEAR SIR:
+
+    Your letter of Aug. 7 is received, together with the specimens.
+    The stems of the _Corylus_ are affected with one of the
+    Pyrenomycetes. _Cryptospora anomala_, Pk. The fungus is
+    described in "North American Pyrenomycetes," by Ellis and
+    Everhart, p. 531. It attacks _Corylus Americana_, but appears to
+    be worst on the European varieties, as you say. The pustules
+    appear first on the young branches, and later on the older ones
+    and on the trunk. The roots are not killed.
+
+    The only remedy known is to cut out and burn the diseased stems.
+    Whether Bordeaux mixture or any other copper solution will
+    protect the shrub from attack, is not known. So far as I know,
+    it has not been tried. It is probable, however, that if the
+    stems were thoroughly sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture they
+    would be protected from attack. The mycelium of the fungus grows
+    into the cambium and practically girdles the stems. The black
+    pustules contain the spores.
+
+  Very truly yours,
+
+  ALBERT F. WOODS, _Acting Chief_.
+
+
+On the receipt of this note of Prof. Woods, I looked up Ellis and
+Everhart's work, a voluminous one of over 800 octavo pages,
+published by the authors at Newfield, N. J. This filbert blight is
+briefly described under the scientific name of _Cryptospora
+anomala_, Pk., but Prof. Peck writes me that "the description was
+made from specimens discovered near Albany, N. Y., in May, 1874. In
+1882 this description was republished by Saccardo, in his "Syllage
+Fungorum," Vol. I, p. 470, under the name of _Cryptosporella
+anomala_. The original name in Report 28, p. 72, was _Diatrype
+anomala_. In 1892 Ellis and Everhart, in "Pyrenomycetes of North
+America," p. 531, changed the name again, making it _Cryptospora
+anomala_." So at present we have the names of this fungus in the
+following order:
+
+  _Diatrypes anomal_, Peck, 1876.
+  _Cryptosporella anomala_, Sacc., 1882.
+  _Cryptospora anomala_, E. and E., 1892.
+
+Ellis and Everhart, after giving scientific description, add,
+
+    "On living stems of _Corylus Americana_, Albany, N. Y. (Peck),
+    Iowa (Holoway), on _Corylus Avellana_, Newfield, N. J. The
+    pustules appear first on the smaller branches, and are serrately
+    arranged along one side of the branch; afterwards they appear
+    also on the larger branches and on the trunk itself, and in the
+    course of two or three years the part of tree above ground is
+    entirely killed. The roots, however, still retain their
+    vitality, and continue to send up each year a luxuriant growth
+    of new shoots, destined to be destroyed the succeeding year by
+    the inexorable pest. The imported trees seem to be more
+    injuriously affected than the native species."
+
+The observations of Ellis and Everhart and Prof. Woods accord with
+my own, but I may say that the infested branches often show the
+presence of the mycelium in the bark and alburnum,--by a slight
+shrinking,--weeks or months before the pustules appear, for these
+are merely indications of the last stage in the life of the fungus,
+and with the throwing off the spores from these pustules the old
+parasite perishes.
+
+The pustules, when fully open, are from one-sixteenth to one-eighth
+of an inch in diameter, usually round, but sometimes slightly oval
+in form, and placed mainly in almost straight rows lengthways of the
+branch, as shown in Fig. 44. These pustules appear on wood of all
+ages, from two years upward, and in what may be termed patches,
+ranging from a few inches to a foot or more in length, and more
+frequently on the upper side than the underside of the branches.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44. HAZEL FUNGUS.]
+
+This fungus is undoubtedly indigenous, and its host plant is the
+common American hazel (_C. Americana_). From a very careful search,
+I have not been able to find any clump of these bushes of any
+considerable size that was entirely free from pustulous stems. But
+on these wild plants it seems to do but little harm, for if a stem
+is killed, another soon springs up from the roots to take its place;
+but when this fungus invades our orchards and gardens and attacks
+filbert trees, we recognize it as an implacable enemy. How far the
+spores of this fungus are likely to be carried by the wind,
+transported on the clothes of a person, or the hair of domestic
+animals, I do not know, but it certainly is not safe to plant the
+susceptible species and varieties within a mile of the wild hazel
+bushes, unless the planter is prepared to use fungicides freely on
+his trees. There are certain phases of this filbert blight that are
+rather obscure and scarcely explainable; as, for instance, its
+virulence among some species and varieties, and almost if not total
+absence among others. So far as my observation extends, I have never
+found it attacking the native beaked hazel (_Corylus rostrata_), and
+my correspondents in the Northwest and in the Pacific States assure
+me that no blight on the hazel has, as yet, been found there, and
+its absence is probably due to the fact that the common hazel (_C.
+Americana_) is not an inhabitant of these regions.
+
+In a neighbor's garden just across the highway from my own, there
+are, at this time, four old European hazelnut trees, fully twenty
+feet high and as many years old. They are of two varieties: one a
+small round nut, the other a long, slender nut, but neither of much
+value, because of their small size. The trees, however, are
+perfectly healthy, never having suffered from the blight, although
+these four are all that remain of a long row of choice European
+varieties all planted at the same time. Blight destroyed the better
+varieties, while these inferior ones continue to thrive and are
+exceedingly productive.
+
+This native fungus that causes blight in the hazels is but one of a
+large number of similar maladies which have appeared and often
+worsted the horticulturist, in his endeavor to introduce and
+cultivate foreign species and varieties of plants, and like the
+tropical fevers, they may pass unnoticed among the natives, but are
+terribly fatal to immigrants from cooler climates. The disease so
+well known as the black knot (_Otthia morbosa_, Schu.), and widely
+destructive to the European varieties of the plum, and Morello
+cherries, has existed for ages among our native plums and black
+cherries, doing comparatively little harm; but it seems to protest,
+by its virulence, against the introduction of some foreign species.
+The same is true with various blights and rusts which attack the
+exotic pear, apple, quince, peach, and other of the larger fruits,
+and we have only to ascend the scale a few degrees from the
+microscopic fungi to the microscopic insects, to meet on the very
+threshold of this realm the minute but unconquerable grape louse
+(_Phylloxera vastatrix_), which for more than two centuries has
+prevented the successful cultivation of the European varieties of
+the grape in the open air everywhere east of the Rocky mountains in
+North America; although this minute insect has ever been present and
+a constant parasite of the indigenous species of the grape, but
+scarcely affecting the health of its host. The plum curculio,
+chestnut and hickory weevils, bean weevil, and many other similar
+species of insects appear to be ever protesting against the
+introduction of exotic plants, as well as the improvement of our
+indigenous kinds.
+
+It is this blight, and nothing else, that has prevented the
+extensive cultivation of the improved varieties of the European
+filbert and hazelnut in this country, and not the uncongenial soil
+and climate, as has been so often "officially" proclaimed by men
+whose theories are far greater than their practical knowledge of
+such subjects. Men whose experience with these nuts has been limited
+to a few isolated bushes or trees in gardens or nurseries, where
+they were protected, or beyond the reach of the spores of the blight
+fungus, as has already been noted in the experience of Prince,
+Downing, Barry, and my neighbor Butler, of Brooklyn, could scarcely
+understand why others should remain so indifferent to such a
+promising industry, or why the demand for the trees remained so
+limited, with scarcely an attempt to plant filbert orchards anywhere
+in this country. Nurserymen have continued to offer the choice
+varieties at low prices per plant, and to advise their customers to
+cultivate filberts extensively, even to setting them in hedgerows;
+and yet home-grown filberts remain as rare in our markets as they
+were a hundred years ago, and all due to the simple reason that the
+insidious filbert blight still scatters its spores unrestrained.
+
+With the present almost universal employment of various fungicides
+for the destruction of blights, mildews and rusts on cultivated
+fruits and vegetables, we may confidently assert that the diseases
+of the filbert may be readily controlled by the same means. The
+spraying of the trees with Bordeaux mixture and other copper
+solutions will certainly destroy the fungus spores, and with these
+out of the way filbert culture may become of as much importance and
+as popular here as it is in certain countries of Europe. In my own
+experience I have found no other nut tree (barring always the
+blight) that has been more satisfactory. The plants come forward
+rapidly, fruiting freely and abundantly when young, and if properly
+trained, the crop can be gathered with little labor, and as it is
+ready for use a month or more in advance of the arrival of fresh
+nuts from abroad, the home market during the time is at our command.
+
+The number of applications of the fungicides that will be necessary
+during the season to rid the trees of blight, or the strength of the
+copper solution used, will depend somewhat upon circumstances and
+the condition of the subjects operated upon. If the trees are
+growing near hedges of wild hazels, where there is a constant or
+annual influx of the fungus spores, then greater care will be
+required to suppress them than if the trees are some distance from
+such sources of contagion; and it may be well for those
+contemplating planting filbert orchards, to examine their
+surroundings carefully in advance, in order to avoid local
+blight-breeding plants, and have these destroyed if any are found. I
+would also warn the cultivator against collecting branches of the
+wild hazel in the spring, carrying pollen-bearing catkins to be
+employed in fertilizing the pistillate flowers of the cultivated
+varieties, for by such means blight spores may be readily introduced
+into orchard and garden.
+
+It will seldom be necessary to practice artificial fertilization,
+where any considerable number of trees are grown near together,
+because if ninety per cent. of the male catkins are winterkilled,
+the few remaining will be sufficient to supply pollen for the
+pistillate flowers. In my grounds filberts have never failed to
+produce annual crops after reaching a bearing age, although they
+have been subjected to great extremes of temperature in winter. One
+year the trees were in full bloom the last week in February, and
+although cold weather followed, the protected pistillate flowers
+were not injured. The winters of 1894 and 1895 were among the
+severest, in the way of continuous low temperature, I have ever
+experienced here, and while the filberts did not bloom until the
+first week in April, the crop proved to be abundant.
+
+=Insects Injurious to Filberts.=--My personal observations lead me
+to believe that the filberts and hazels are, in this country,
+remarkably free from the depredations of noxious insects. Two
+species of nut weevils have been reported as breeding in the wild
+hazelnuts, viz., _Balaninus obtusus_, and _B. nasicus_, but among
+the many bushels of the European varieties of the filbert produced
+in my grounds I have never found one infested by a weevil or other
+insect. In Europe a nut weevil (_B. nucum_) is said to be very
+destructive to the wild hazel, often invading the filbert orchards,
+and this we can readily believe, because they are not at all
+uncommon in the imported nuts, but fortunately have not, as yet,
+become naturalized in this country.
+
+The great hazel-leaf beetle, or as more generally known, elm-leaf
+beetle (_Monocesta coryli_), has been known in a few instances to
+attack and defoliate large patches of the wild hazel bushes, but
+this insect seems to prefer the elm, hence is rarely found on the
+hazels. But should it ever invade our filbert orchards, it can be
+readily destroyed by dusting or spraying the trees with Paris green,
+London purple, or other well-known insecticides. There may be an
+occasional invasion of caterpillars, like the tent worms, spanworms,
+leaf rollers of various species, and what are called leaf miners,
+but as these infest almost all kinds of deciduous trees and shrubs,
+we cannot consider them specially injurious to the filberts and
+hazels.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+HICKORY NUTS.
+
+
+Hicoria, _Rafinesque_. Name probably derived from the aboriginal or
+Indian word hickery, or hickory, the common name for these nuts
+among the tribes formerly inhabiting the Middle and Southern
+Atlantic States.
+
+=Order=, _Juglandace�_ (Walnut family).--Native deciduous trees of
+large size, with compound serrate leaves with an odd number of
+leaflets, varying from five to fifteen in the different species, the
+three terminal ones usually much the largest, the lower ones on
+opposite sides of the rather stout leafstalk. Male catkins slender,
+cylindrical, pendulous, two to six inches long, three in a cluster,
+on a naked peduncle or stalk (Fig. 46) springing from the base of
+the terminal buds of the previous season's twigs, and just below the
+first set of new leaves in spring; calyx unequally three-parted;
+stamens three to eight. Female flowers two or more in a cluster,
+from the end of the new growth of the season, which becomes the
+common peduncle or fruit-stalk of a single nut or cluster of nuts.
+The flowers are destitute of petals; stigma short, broad, and
+four-lobed; husk fleshy or leathery, smooth, very thick in some
+species and thin in others, partly or wholly four-lobed, opening in
+some, allowing the nut to drop out at maturity, in others adhering,
+falling off entire when ripe. Nuts with hard, bone-like shell, round
+or oblong, smooth or deeply four to six angled, somewhat flattened
+or compressed in most of the species; kernel two-lobed, oily, sweet
+and delicious, as in the common shellbark hickory, or extremely
+bitter, as in the bitter nut.
+
+=History.=--The early white settlers of the Atlantic States found
+the hickory nut in common use among the Indians, who gathered and
+stored them in large quantities in the fall, for food during the
+winter months, and while our ancestors who sought to make homes in
+the western wilderness may have appreciated these luxuries, they
+needed land for cultivation, and to secure it the forests were
+destroyed, with no thought of preserving trees that would yield food
+for themselves or succeeding generations. Not only were the forests
+cleared away, as things to be banished from sight and mind, but as
+the hickories yielded superior timber for various agricultural and
+other implements, as well as for fuel, they were often sought for
+and utilized in advance of the general clearing of wood lands, and
+the first to feel the woodman's axe.
+
+William Bartram, in the account of his travels through the Southern
+Atlantic States, from 1773 to 1778, and published in Philadelphia in
+1791, says, in referring to these nuts, that they are held "in great
+estimation with the present generation of Indians, particularly
+_Juglans exaltata_, commonly called shellbarked hickory; the Creeks
+store up the latter in their towns. I have seen above an hundred
+bushels of these nuts belonging to one family. They pound them to
+pieces, and then cast them into boiling water, which, after passing
+through fine strainers, preserves the most oily part of the liquid;
+this they call by a name which signifies 'hickory milk;' it is as
+sweet and rich as fresh cream, and is an ingredient in most of their
+cookery, especially in hominy and corn cakes."
+
+We can readily imagine what a delicious liquid hickory milk must be
+in which to cook hominy, rice, and similar kinds of grain; and there
+would be no danger from tuberculosis in this natural product of the
+vegetable kingdom. Perhaps at some future day, when milch cows are
+as rare in this country as they have been for ages in China and
+Japan, hickory milk will come into vogue again and be more highly
+valued by our people than it ever was by the aborigines.
+
+While we have no romantic tales to repeat in which either hickory
+trees or the nuts have played an important part, yet we can well
+imagine that such delicious food must, in ages past, as well as in
+our own times, have been a coveted luxury, enjoyed at many a social
+gathering of friends and neighbors. Many a country boy and girl has
+welcomed the early autumn frosts, because they announced the opening
+of the nutting season, reminding them of the long winter evenings
+near at hand, and that the industrious and nimble squirrel was a
+sharp competitor in the nutting field; consequently, no time could
+be wasted if a store of such luxuries was to be gathered for home
+use, or to be sent to city or village market for the benefit of less
+fortunate consumers. It is to be hoped that this source of pleasure
+and profit may continue long after the original forests of our
+country have disappeared, and through the preservation and planting
+of the noble food-bearing hickories by the roadsides, in orchards,
+also for shelter, shade and ornament. Valuable as hickory timber and
+hickory nuts have always been to the inhabitants of this country, we
+might reasonably suppose that there would be many thousands of these
+trees planted every year, in order to keep up a supply and make good
+the annual loss sustained in the destruction constantly going on in
+our forests. But no such plantings appear to have been undertaken in
+our Northern States, and only quite recently in the Southern, where
+the pecan nut is attracting considerable attention, on account of
+the increase in demand, and the advance in price obtained for them
+in the markets. Furthermore, with the many millions of dollars
+expended by the general government to encourage the planting,
+preservation and cultivation of forest trees, no special
+encouragement has been extended to the nut-bearing kinds, and the
+man who plants a cottonwood or worthless willow is given as much
+credit as though he planted and reared a tree a thousand times more
+valuable to himself and the country at large.
+
+This may not be a very creditable phase of nut culture in the United
+States, but it is history, nevertheless, and to attempt to suppress
+it would merely be encouraging negligence, which has already become
+so general that the inferior varieties of hickory nuts command a
+much higher price in our markets than the very choicest did a few
+years ago.
+
+The nomenclature of the walnut family has been subjected to various
+revisions by botanists, during the present century, and there are
+probably others yet to follow in the near or distant future. In all
+other standard botanical works published prior to 1817-1818, the
+hickories were classed with the butternut, black walnut and Persian
+walnut, and under the generic name of _Juglans_. But in the year
+1818 Mr. Thomas Nuttall, an eminent English botanist, who had given
+years to wandering through our forests and studying American plants,
+separated the hickories from the older genus of _Juglans_, placing
+them in a new one, to which he gave the name of _Carya_, from an
+ancient Greek name of the walnut tree. This classification of
+Nuttall's was immediately adopted by the botanists of his time, and
+has been observed, scarcely without question, by the authors of all
+the numerous botanical works published in America and Europe during
+the past seventy-five years. But now we are informed by some of our
+noted botanists that, in deference to the law of priority dominant
+in matters scientific, Nuttall's name for this genus must be
+abandoned, inasmuch as Mr. C. S. Rafinesque, an erratic Frenchman
+possessing considerable ability for botanical research, and who came
+to this country several years before Nuttall,--as some recent
+investigations appear to prove,--defined the distinct
+characteristics of the hickories, and not only proposed, but
+published the name _Hicoria_ for this genus in 1817, while Nuttall's
+_Carya_ did not appear until one year later, viz.: 1818. For these
+dates I am mainly indebted to Dr. N. L. Britton, who appears to have
+been delving among "first editions" of the works of the authors
+named (Bulletin, Torrey Botanical Club, 1888).
+
+It seems strange, however, at this late date, that such eminent
+botanists as the late Dr. John Torrey and Dr. Asa Gray, who were
+both intimately acquainted with, in fact associates of, Rafinesque,
+should have ignored his rights in regard to the name of _Hicoria_,
+if he was really entitled to the honor of founding this genus and
+separating the hickories from the _Juglans_. But for some good
+reason they left the matter in abeyance, for their successors to
+settle. Dr. Torrey does, in a way, recognize Rafinesque, in his
+"Catalogue of Plants Within Thirty Miles of the City of New York,"
+published in 1819, but in a manner which shows that he had no
+confidence in Rafinesque's claim, but did approve of Nuttall's
+classifications and name of _Carya_, for on page 74 he refers to the
+hickories as follows: "_Carya_, Nuttall; _Hickoria_, Rafinesque."
+
+From this it appears that Dr. Torrey did not adopt _Hicoria_ as the
+proper mode of spelling this word, but retained the letter k in
+giving it a Latin form. This is not strange, inasmuch as Rafinesque
+had no settled form of his own, and varied the spelling at different
+times; as, for instance, _Scoria_, _Hicoria_, _Hickorius_ and
+_Hicorius_. It is but reasonable to suppose that Dr. Torrey was
+familiar with Rafinesque's earlier writings, and also whether his
+proposed generic name of _Scoria_, in 1808, was legitimate, or a
+misspelling of _Hicoria_, as suggested by Dr. Britton. But of one
+thing we may rest assured, and that is, Dr. Torrey would not
+knowingly detract from, nor fail to give every man full credit for
+his labors in any branch of natural history or elsewhere, and he
+certainly must have known Rafinesque in all his eccentricities and
+moods, for when in New York city he was usually the guest of Dr.
+Torrey, and these relations continued for many years.
+
+A few of our leading botanists, having recently decided that
+Rafinesque's name of _Hicoria_ must be restored, in deference to the
+laws of priority, and Nuttall's _Carya_ be relegated to the position
+of a synonym, I have concluded to adopt it in this work, although I
+am well aware that a large majority of our botanists have protested
+against this change, probably because of the confusion it is likely
+to cause in the botanical literature of our times. My own reason for
+adopting _Hicoria_ is not so much from any special reverence to the
+laws of priority, but because it is derived from an old American
+Indian name, and for all such I have a profound regard, and would
+retain and adopt them whenever and wherever they are at all
+appropriate to products indigenous to this country. The hickories
+being purely American, and unknown to Greece or Greeks, a
+semi-native name is all the more acceptable. It is not to be
+expected that botanical quibbles are of any special interest to the
+practical nut culturist, for a pecan or a shellbark hickory will
+taste just as sweet and command as high a price in market under one
+scientific name as another; but the cultivator may have occasion to
+look up the botanical name of his trees in some school botany, or
+other botanical work, and fail to find it, in the absence of some
+guide to the various changes that have been made in the name of the
+genus, as well as in the name of the synonyms of the different
+species. Then, again, propagators and dealers in trees are prone to
+employ unfamiliar names, whether they are old or new, this adding to
+the confusion, without benefit to either purchaser or cultivator.
+
+To assist those who may have occasion to consult these pages for
+either the common or botanical names of the different species of the
+hickory, I shall endeavor to give the greater part of those compiled
+by Prof. C. S. Sargent (Tenth Census), Dr. Britton, and other
+eminent authorities whose works I have had occasion to consult in
+writing this treatise. It is not certain, however, that these
+revisions and readjustments of the scientific names of this genus of
+trees will remain undisturbed for any considerable number of years,
+for we have "many men of many minds" at work in the line of
+botanical research, and it can scarcely be expected that all will
+reach the same conclusion, either in fact or fancy; besides, it is
+often difficult, if not wholly impossible, to determine a species
+from the description given by the earlier botanists, for they are
+generally very brief and vague, and will often apply equally well to
+two or more species of the same genus. In some instances not a word
+is given in the way of description, merely a name, as in "Bartram's
+Travels" (1791), where he speaks of _Juglans exaltata_, a
+tall-growing hickory found in the region through which he was
+traveling, and we now know that it may have been any one of two or
+three species indigenous to the Southern States.
+
+Under such confusing circumstances I shall make no claim of
+infallibility in applying names to species, but attempt no more than
+my predecessors have in the same direction, and my contemporaries
+are now attempting, i. e., make as close a guess as possible as to
+the species or variety of hickory which the earlier authors intended
+to name and briefly describe. The date of publication of some of the
+earlier works consulted are given, as an earnest of my desire to
+assent to the law of priority in such matters.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45. FOURTEEN YEARS OLD PECAN TREE IN
+MISSISSIPPI.]
+
+PECAN NUT, ILLINOIS NUT (_Hicoria Pecan._ Marshall).--Leaves with
+thirteen to fifteen leaflets, oblong-lanceolate, serrate, pointed;
+nuts mostly oblong, smooth; husk thin, somewhat four-angled and
+four-valved, these at maturity shrinking, and falling apart when
+dropping to the ground. Shell of nut generally thin, smooth or
+slightly corrugated, varying widely in both form and size from less
+than one inch in length to nearly or quite two inches, abruptly
+blunt, or long and sharp pointed; the two-lobed cotyledon or kernel
+oily, sweet and delicious. A large, tall, but usually slender tree,
+with smooth or slightly furrowed bark, as seen in Fig. 45. Mainly
+indigenous to river bottoms in the Southern and Southwestern States,
+extending northward to Indiana, Illinois, Missouri and Southern
+Iowa.
+
+Synonyms and their authors:
+
+  _Juglans Pecan_, Marshall, Arboretum Americanum, 1785.
+  _Juglans Pecan_, Walter, 1787.
+  _Juglans oliv�formis_, Willdenow, 1809.
+  _Carya oliv�formis_, Nuttall, 1818.
+  _Juglans Illinoiensis_, Wangenheim, 1787.
+  _Juglans angustifolia_, Aiton, Hortus Kewensis.
+  _Juglans rubra_, G�rtner.
+  _Juglans cylindrica_, Lamarck.
+
+SHELLBARK OR SHAGBARK HICKORY (_Hicoria alba_. Clayton).--Leaflets
+mostly five, occasionally seven, the three upper ones
+obovate-lanceolate, the lower pair much smaller and
+oblong-lanceolate, as shown in Fig. 46, all taper-pointed, finely
+serrate, and slightly downy underneath. Terminal buds large and
+scaly. Fruit globose, somewhat depressed; husk smooth, very thick,
+firm, scarcely shrinking at maturity, but opening and falling with
+the nuts when ripe. Nuts variable in size, mainly thin-shelled,
+white, compressed or flattened, four-angled, with deep corrugations,
+blunt, rarely sharp-pointed; kernel large, sweet and excellent. One
+of the most common and popular of the indigenous edible nuts,
+collected in large quantities as they ripen in autumn, for home use
+and for sale, as the demand for this excellent nut is almost
+unlimited. A large tree, fifty to eighty feet high, and stem one to
+three feet in diameter, with a shaggy or scaly bark, which on old
+trees may be readily pulled off in long, shell-like plates. Timber
+well known as valuable for many purposes. This species has a very
+wide range, of from Maine to Florida in the Eastern States, and
+westward to Minnesota, thence southward through eastern Kansas,
+Missouri, Indian Territory and eastern Texas.
+
+Synonyms:
+
+  _Juglans alba_, Clayton, Flora Virginica, 1739.
+  _Juglans alba ovata_, Miller, Gard. Dict., 1754.
+  _Juglans alba_, Linn., Spec. pl., 1754.
+  _Juglans alba ovata_, Marshall, 1785.
+  _Juglans compressa (?)_, Willdenow, 1809.
+  _Juglans exaltata (?)_, Bartram, 1791.
+  _Juglans alba_, Nuttall, 1818.
+  _Juglans_ var. _microcarpa_, Nuttall.
+  _Juglans squamosa (?)_, Lamarck.
+  _Juglans ovalis (?)_, Wangenheim.
+
+Although Clayton, as with most of the earlier botanists, fails to
+give any description of the foliage of the hickories he mentions,
+and all have the affix _alba_ (white), yet his reference to the form
+of the nut and the scaly bark of the tree is sufficient to enable us
+to identify the species as that of our common shellbark hickory of
+the Atlantic States, which extends through the regions where he
+gathered his botanical specimens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46. LEAF AND STERILE CATKINS OF SHELLBARK
+HICKORY.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47. WESTERN SHELLBARK.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48. SECTION WESTERN SHELLBARK.]
+
+BIG SHELLBARK, THICK OR WESTERN SHELLBARK, ETC. (_Hicoria
+laciniosa._ Michaux).--Leaflets seven to nine, obovate-oblong,
+finely serrate, roughish-downy or pubescent beneath. Buds large,
+composed of rather loose grayish scales; the young twigs stout, with
+a gray bark, most noticeable in winter. Fruit large, oval to oblong,
+usually four-ribbed above the middle, with depressions between; husk
+thick, somewhat spongy, shrinking at maturity, and splitting open
+from top downward. Nut large, with prominent ridges, and strongly
+pointed, but slightly compressed at the sides, as seen in Fig. 47;
+shell thick and of a dull yellowish color; kernel moderately large,
+as shown across section of nut in Fig. 48, but much smaller in
+proportion to the size of the nut than in the two preceding species,
+but it is sweet, well flavored, and easily removed from the shell
+when cracked. The very large size of these nuts makes them a
+favorite, especially where the pecan and the true shellbarks are not
+plentiful. These nuts were formerly known as the Springfield or
+Gloucester nut. A very large tree, sixty to eighty feet high, and
+two to four feet in diameter, with thick, scaly bark, the scales
+somewhat thicker than in the common shellbark hickory of the
+Atlantic States. A rare tree, except in the valleys west of the
+Alleghanies, although it is reported to have been found in Chester
+county, Pennsylvania, and thence west to southern Indiana, Illinois,
+Missouri, eastern Kansas, and the Indian Territory. Plentiful in the
+bottom lands along the Ohio, Mississippi and lower Missouri.
+Elliott, in "Botany of South Carolina and Georgia" (1824), says it
+is rare in the low country of Carolina, but he does not say that it
+is found plentiful anywhere in the South. That he was sometimes in
+doubt in regard to the identification of this and other species may
+be inferred from his remark, namely: "The greater part of our
+hickories resemble each other so closely in their leaves and vary so
+much in their fruit that it is very difficult to discriminate the
+species."
+
+It is this difficulty of identification which has led to so much
+confusion in the application of the specific names, for the earlier
+botanists rarely had an opportunity of a close and careful
+examination of the trees or other plants which they attempted to
+describe. In relation to the species under consideration, we find
+that the specific name of _sulcata_, so long in use, was adopted by
+Nuttall, from some earlier or contemporaneous author,--a system he
+followed with all the different species of the hickory, but without,
+in some instances, any discrimination or regard to their adaptation
+or validity. If there was anything to show that Willdenow (1796) had
+this Western shellbark in mind, or that he or his correspondents in
+this country had ever seen or collected it, then we might adopt the
+name of _sulcata_ as the original and true one; but in the absence
+of such information, with a full and accurate description of the
+species and its habitats by Michaux, under the name of _laciniosa_,
+I think, in common justice to one of the most eminent dendrologists
+who ever visited this country, the name given should stand as the
+true one for this species. See Michaux, "North American Sylva," Vol.
+I, p. 128.
+
+Synonyms:
+
+  _Juglans sulcata (?)_, Willdenow, 1796.
+  _Juglans laciniosa_, Michaux, 1810.
+  _Carya sulcata_, Nuttall, 1818.
+  _Carya cordiformis_, Koch, Dendrologie.
+
+The three preceding species are probably the only ones worthy of
+propagation for their fruit, or that have and are likely to yield
+varieties of any considerable economic value; but as it is important
+that the nut culturist should know the materials he is using, and
+whether they be of the best or otherwise, I shall admit all the
+species, without regard to their merits or value for cultivation.
+
+MOCKER NUT, BULL NUT, BIG-BUD HICKORY, KING NUT, WHITE-HEART
+HICKORY, ETC. (_Hicoria tomentosa._ Michaux).--Leaflets mostly
+seven, occasionally nine, large, oblong-obovate, rather long
+pointed, slightly serrate, smooth on both sides while young,
+becoming roughish downy underneath when fully developed in summer;
+leaf-stalks and catkins also somewhat downy. Fruit medium to very
+large, round or ovoid, with a very thick woody husk, which splits
+nearly or quite down to the base, but usually falling with the
+enclosed nut entire, or bursting open as they strike the ground. Nut
+very thick shelled, smooth, or strongly four to six angled, white at
+first, but becoming a dull brown when exposed to the light. The
+kernel is sweet, but so small and firmly imbedded in the thick shell
+that it is only to be removed in minute sections, but this is
+successfully accomplished by the squirrels, who often throw down the
+entire crop from large trees before the shells harden, and then pack
+them away in the ground, in old logs, and under the leaves, where
+they will not dry for some weeks or months later. An exceedingly
+variable species, especially in the size and form of the nuts; on
+some trees they are scarcely an inch in diameter, while on others
+they are nearly or quite two inches, but always with such a thick,
+hard shell as to be nearly worthless for their meats. The largest of
+these nuts I have ever seen grow in central and western New York,
+where they are called "King" or "Bull" nuts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49. LEAF OF PIGNUT.]
+
+The trees grow to a very large size, or from sixty to eighty feet
+high, and two to three feet in diameter, with a thick, deeply
+furrowed bark, not scaly. The wood is white, heavy, tough, and
+nearly as valuable as the common shellbark hickory. The terminal
+buds, and especially those on the young seedlings and suckers
+springing up in clearings, are very large, round, short, and covered
+with brownish scales, hence one of the local names of big-bud
+hickory.
+
+A widely distributed species, or from the valley of the St. Lawrence
+to Florida, and along the great lakes to Nebraska, and thence
+southward to Texas. Unlike most of the other hickories, this species
+seems to prefer thin soils, rocky sandstone ridges, and here in New
+Jersey almost disappearing in the rich bottom lands along our creeks
+and rivers; at least, this is its habit here in the northern part of
+the State.
+
+Synonyms:
+
+  _Juglans alba (?)_, Linn., 1754.
+  _Juglans tomentosa_, Michaux, 1810.
+  _Carya tomentosa_, Nuttall, 1818.
+  _Carya tomentosa_ var. _maxima_, Nuttall.
+  _Carya alba_, Koch, Dendrologie.
+
+PIGNUT, HOGNUT, BROWN HICKORY, BLACK HICKORY, SWITCH-BUD HICKORY
+(_Hicoria glabra._ Miller).--Leaflets five to seven, mostly seven
+(Fig. 49), ovate-lanceolate, serrate, smooth; fruit pear-shaped or
+roundish-obovate; husk very thin, splitting about half way down into
+four sections or valves, these usually remaining attached to the nut
+for some time after falling, in fact, may often be found within the
+husk all through the winter; shell of nut moderately thin but tough,
+with a small, bitterish-sweet kernel. A large, rather slender tree
+in similar and same localities as the last, with a close bark but
+not so deeply furrowed as in the mocker nut (_H. tomentosa_). Of no
+special value except as a timber tree, and its slow growth makes it
+less deserving of attention than those species that bear large and
+edible nuts.
+
+Synonyms:
+
+  _Juglans glabra_, Miller, 1768.
+  _Juglans alba acuminata_, Marshall, 1785.
+  _Juglans obcordata_, Lamarck.
+  _Juglans porcina_, Michaux.
+  _Juglans pyriformis_, Muhlenberg.
+  _Juglans porcina_, var. _obcordata_, Pursh.
+  _Juglans porcina_, var. _pyriformis_, Pursh.
+  _Carya porcina_, Nuttall.
+  _Carya glabra_, Torrey.
+  _Carya amara_, var. _porcina_, Darby.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50. BITTERNUT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51. BITTERNUT.]
+
+BITTERNUT, SWAMP HICKORY, PIGNUT (_Hicoria minima._
+Marshall).--Leaflets seven to eleven, oblong-lanceolate, serrate,
+smooth and thin; fruit globular, with distinct ridges at the seams
+(Fig. 50); the husk very thin, and at maturity splitting about
+halfway to the base, the four divisions becoming reflexed in
+maturing, but not separating and falling apart as in the
+thicker-husk species. Nut broadest at the top, sharp-pointed,
+obcordata (Fig. 51), slightly depressed; shell very thin, smooth,
+white; kernel intensely bitter when fully ripe, but greedily eaten
+by squirrels when fresh or in a half milky state. Usually a
+medium-sized, graceful tree, with smooth bark, slender twigs, and
+small, oblong buds covered with a dense yellow pubescence in winter.
+It grows in moist soils, along streams and borders of swamps, and
+near springs on hill-sides, from Maine to Florida, and westward to
+Minnesota, Nebraska and Kansas. Humphrey Marshall described this
+species so accurately in his "American Grove," under the name of
+_Juglans minima_, p. 68, that there is no good reason to doubt its
+identity, nor question the validity of this name, which should
+remain as the true and original one, and all others of later date be
+placed among the synonyms.
+
+Synonyms:
+
+  _Juglans_ (_alba_) _minima_, Marshall, 1785.
+  _Juglans cordiformis_, Wangenheim, 1787.
+  _Juglans angustifolia_, Lamarck, 1791.
+  _Juglans amara_, Michaux, 1810.
+  _Hickorius amarus_, Rafinesque, 1817.
+  _Carya amara_, Nuttall, 1818.
+
+NUTMEG HICKORY (_Hicoria myristic�formis._ Michaux).--Leaflets five
+to seven, ovate-lanceolate, pointed, quite smooth on both sides, the
+terminal leaflet sessile, not stalked; fruit oval; husk wrinkled and
+rough, thick; nut small, oval, short-pointed; the shell furrowed and
+very hard, and of a brownish color marked with white lines. Michaux
+says: "The shell is so thick that it constitutes two-thirds of the
+volume of the nut, which, consequently, is extremely hard, and has a
+minute kernel. It is inferior to the pignut."
+
+A medium-size tree with slender branches, found in a few localities
+in South Carolina, near swamps and borders of streams, and westward
+to Arkansas, where it reaches its greatest development. This hickory
+has been so rarely seen by botanists that Michaux's specific name,
+given it more than eighty years ago, has fared a better fate than
+those of our more common and abundant species; consequently, I have
+only one synonym to record, viz.: _Carya amara_, var.
+_myristic�formis_, Cooper, in Smithsonian Report, 1858.
+
+WATER HICKORY, SWAMP HICKORY, BITTER PECAN (_Hicoria aquatica._
+Michaux).--Leaflets nine to thirteen, generally eleven, narrow and
+obliquely lanceolate-pointed, slightly serrate, thin and smooth;
+fruit globular or somewhat egg-shaped, four-ribbed; husk thin,
+dividing at maturity down to the base; nut thin-shelled,
+four-angled; kernel much wrinkled and very bitter. This is closely
+allied to if not a more Southern form of our common bitternut. A
+small tree in swamps and river bottoms from North Carolina south to
+Florida, and west to Texas.
+
+Synonyms:
+
+  _Juglans aquatica_, Michaux.
+  _Hicorius integrifolia_, Rafinesque.
+  _Carya aquatica_, Nuttall.
+  _Carya integrifolia_, Sprengel.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52. LARGE, LONG PECAN NUT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53. OVAL PECAN NUT.]
+
+=Varieties of the Hickories.=--Every one who has ever had occasion
+to gather or examine hickory nuts in the forest, or has seen them in
+market, must be aware of the fact that there is an almost endless
+variety of each and all the different species. But as it is only the
+varieties of the pecan and thick- and thin-shelled shagbark
+hickories that are likely to be of any economic value to the nut
+culturist, all others will be omitted. Of the first or pecan nut the
+natural varieties are not only exceedingly numerous, but vary widely
+in size, form, thickness of shell, and productiveness of the
+individual trees. In some the nuts are produced singly or in pairs,
+and from this number up to clusters of seven or eight; these
+large-clustered and extra-prolific varieties are most worthy of
+special attention, especially when the nuts are of good size and
+thin-shelled, as in the large, long pecan (Fig. 52). From this size
+they vary, as shown in Figs. 53, 54, 55. Some of the wild varieties
+have received local names, and a very few propagated by grafting,
+which is probably the most practical means known of multiplying
+them, and at the same time preserving their varietal
+characteristics. Choice and extra fine ones are constantly being
+discovered and brought to notice, and doubtless many more will
+follow as the old fields and forests of the South and West are
+explored; besides, there are many thousands of seedling trees now
+under cultivation, and from these we may expect some marked
+variations from the original or wild forms. In Bulletin 105, of the
+North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station for 1894, and in
+Report of Assistant Pomologist of U. S. Department of Agriculture
+for same year, we find the following-named varieties of pecans:
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54. SMALL OVAL.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55. LITTLE MOBILE.]
+
+ALBA.--Size below medium, cylindrical, with pointed apex; cracking
+qualities good; shell of medium thickness; corky shell lining thick,
+adhering to the kernel; kernel plump, light colored; quality good.
+
+BILOXI (W. R. Stuart, Ocean Springs, Miss.).--Medium size,
+cylindrical, pointed at each end; surface quite regular, light
+brown; shell thin; cracking qualities medium; kernel plump, with
+yellowish-brown surface; free from astringency, of good quality, and
+keeps well without becoming rancid. Introduced several years ago by
+W. R. Stuart as Mexican Paper Shell, but the name has since been
+changed to Biloxi.
+
+COLUMBIAN (W. R. Stuart, Ocean Springs, Miss.).--Large, cylindrical,
+somewhat compressed at the middle, rounding at the base; pointed and
+somewhat four-sided at the crown; shell rather heavy; cracking
+qualities medium; quality good. In size and form this nut closely
+resembles Mammoth, which was introduced in 1890 by Richard
+Frotscher, of New Orleans, La.
+
+EARLY TEXAN (Louis Biediger, Idlewild, Tex.).--Size above medium,
+short, cylindrical, with rounded base and blunt conical crown; shell
+quite thick, shell lining thick, astringent; cracking qualities
+medium; kernel not very plump, of mild, nutty flavor; quality good.
+
+GEORGIA MELON.--Size above medium, short, rather blunt at apex;
+cracking quality medium; shell rather thick; kernel plump, brown;
+meat yellow, moderately tender, pleasant, good.
+
+GONZALES (T. V. Munson, Denison, Tex.).--Above medium size, with
+firm, clear shell; quality excellent. Originated in Gonzales county,
+Tex.
+
+HARCOURT.--Size medium, short, slightly acorn-shaped; cracking
+qualities medium; shell rather thick, but very smooth inside; kernel
+short, very plump; meat yellow, very tender, rich, very good.
+
+LONGFELLOW.--Size medium, oblong, cylindrical, somewhat irregular,
+enlarging from base to near crown, then sharply conical to the apex;
+cracking qualities not first-class; shell of medium thickness;
+kernel plump but rather thin, light-colored; meat white, sweetish,
+rich, good.
+
+PRIMATE (W. R. Stuart, Ocean Springs, Miss.)--Of medium size,
+slender, rather long; shell thin; quality good; ripens in September,
+thirty days before other nuts.
+
+RIBERA.--Size above medium, oblong ovate; cracking qualities good;
+shell thin; kernel plump, light brown, free from the bitter, red,
+corky growth which adheres to the shell; meat yellow, tender, with
+rich, delicate, pleasant flavor.
+
+FAUST.--A South Carolina variety of medium to large size, medium
+shell and good quality.
+
+FROTSCHER.--A Louisiana variety of large size, very thin shell, and
+plump kernel of good quality.
+
+JEWETT.--From Mississippi; a large, long nut, rather irregular;
+shell medium; quality very good.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56. STUART.]
+
+STUART.--A large, roundish, oblong nut from Mississippi (Fig. 56).
+
+TURKEY EGG.--A variety from Florida; large and thin-shelled.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57. VAN DEMAN.]
+
+VAN DEMAN.--A large variety from Mississippi, of oblong form and
+thin shell (Fig. 57).
+
+From other sources we collect other names, namely:
+
+IDLEWILD.--An oval shaped nut from Idlewild, Texas. Report of U. S.
+Department of Agriculture, 1890.
+
+RISIEN.--A very broad, thick variety, about one inch in diameter,
+very blunt at both ends. From San Saba, Texas (Fig. 58).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58. RISIEN.]
+
+A peculiar shaped pecan nut is shown in Fig. 59, from Louisiana,
+sent under the name of Lady Finger.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59. LADY FINGER.]
+
+From the report of the Georgia State Horticultural Society, 1893, we
+obtain certain local names without description, as, for instance,
+Turkey Egg, Mexican, Colorado, Pride of the Coast, etc. Col. W. R.
+Stuart, of Ocean Springs, Miss., who has been called the "father of
+pecan culture" in that State, and is the author of "The Pecan and
+How to Grow it," adds two more varieties to the above list, viz.:
+Beauty and Columbia; the latter, as figured in the book named, is a
+very large variety, tapering from a broad base to a sharp point.
+Judge Samuel Miller, of Bluffton, Mo., found some very large and
+fine varieties of the pecan in his neighborhood several years ago,
+on the farm of a man named Meyers, and he purchased the nuts from
+the tree bearing the largest in the grove and planted them, and the
+seedlings have since been distributed under the name of "Meyers'
+Pecan."
+
+Judge Miller kindly sent me a quantity of these nuts, from which I
+raised some fifty or more trees, and all have thus far been
+uninjured by the cold of our severest winters. From my own
+experience in raising pecan trees, and I may add, that of some of my
+neighbors, those grown from nuts gathered in the more Southern
+States are almost invariably tender here in the North; but those
+raised from thoroughly acclimated trees, along the northern limits
+of this species, will give us a hardy race, and probably allow of
+extending their cultivation far north of their natural range. Those
+who intend to try pecan culture in the Northern States should bear
+this in mind, and secure nuts and cions from hardy acclimated trees.
+
+=Varieties of the Shellbark.=--Of this species (_H. alba_) there are
+as many distinct natural varieties as of the pecan, and while local
+or neighborhood names are plentiful enough, they have not, except in
+a very few instances, been placed on record in agricultural reports
+or other publications. Three small thin-shelled varieties are named
+in the Report of the Pomologist of the U. S. Department of
+Agriculture for 1891, viz.: Milford, Shimar and Leaming, but neither
+has been propagated, and they are probably not worthy of it, because
+there are plenty of larger ones with thin shells which would be far
+more valuable for cultivation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60. THE ORIGINAL HALES' PAPER-SHELL HICKORY
+TREE.]
+
+A careful research extending over a period of a quarter of a century
+yields only a solitary instance of the propagation and dissemination
+of a variety of the shellbark hickory, and this one is Hales'
+Paper-shell, which I named, described and figured in the _Rural
+New-Yorker_, Nov. 19, 1870, p. 382, Vol. XXII. I am thus particular
+in regard to time and place, because years hence these facts may be
+of more importance than at the present day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61. HALES' HICKORY.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62. SECTION OF HALES' HICKORY.]
+
+The original tree of this remarkable variety is growing upon the
+farm of Mr. Henry Hales, near Ridgewood, N. J., and on bottom land
+within a few rods of the Saddle river. The tree is probably more
+than a hundred years old, and is about seventy-five feet high, and
+nearly two feet in diameter at the base, and of the shape shown in
+Fig. 60, taken from a sketch made in the fall of 1894. There are a
+large number of the shellbark hickories growing near by, and while
+there are several excellent and very large varieties among them, the
+one I have named is by far the largest and most distinct in form,
+and with the thinnest shell; in fact, the shell is much thinner than
+in many of the pecan nuts that reach our Northern markets from the
+South. The size and form of these nuts is clearly shown in Fig. 61,
+while the thin shell and thick, plump kernel is seen in the
+cross-section, Fig. 62. It will be noticed that these nuts differ
+from the ordinary varieties of this species in the absence of the
+sharp ridges and depressions running from base to point, the surface
+of the shell being broken up into irregular, wavy lines, somewhat
+resembling the shell of the more common varieties of the Persian
+walnuts. I have occasionally seen very similar varieties,--but of
+smaller size,--among the mixed lots of hickory nuts on sale in our
+city markets, also oblong nuts, as shown in Fig. 63, but of course
+there is no way of tracing these to the trees producing them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63. LONG SHELLBARK HICKORY.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64. SHELLBARK MISSOURI.]
+
+Another merit, in addition to the large size and thin shell of the
+Hales' Paper-shell, is its keeping qualities, the kernels rarely
+becoming rancid, even when two or more years old, and from a long
+acquaintance with this nut and hundreds of other varieties gathered
+from all parts of the United States, I am inclined to place it at
+the head of the list, and as the most valuable sort as yet
+discovered. It is true, however, that I have found in the forests,
+and also received, many very large and superior nuts of this
+species, that are well worthy of propagation and cultivation, but
+they have been, in the main, of the typical form, and not of so
+distinct a type as this Paper-shell. Judge Miller sent me a few nuts
+of a shellbark found in Missouri, that were even larger, and with
+fully as thin shell as that of the Hales' (Fig. 64), but upon making
+further inquiries in regard to the tree that produced them, I
+learned that an incoming railroad line had destroyed it, and thus
+one more tree of inestimable value had been sacrificed in the march
+of this progressive age.
+
+=Varieties of the Western Shellbark.=--The typical form of the thick
+or Western shellbark (_H. laciniosa_) has already been shown on a
+preceding page, but some remarkable and valuable varieties have been
+found in the Western States, and no doubt others will be, when more
+attention is paid than at present to the natural food products of
+our forests. The tendency of this species, in its variations, is
+usually in the direction of an elongation of the nuts, even when
+there is no decrease in the thickness of the shell, as shown in Fig.
+65, taken from one of a number of long varieties collected in the
+Western States; and while they do not possess any special merit,
+they attract attention, owing to their unusual form.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65. LONG WESTERN SHELLBARK.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66. FRESH NUSSBAUMER HYBRID.]
+
+NUSSBAUMER'S HYBRID.--Several years ago I received a specimen of a
+very remarkable nut from Judge Samuel Miller, of Bluffton, Mo.,
+under the name of "Nussbaumer's Hybrid Pecan." Judge Miller informed
+me that he had received it from Mr. J. J. Nussbaumer, Mascoutah, St.
+Clair Co., Ill., who claimed that it was a hybrid between the pecan
+and the large western shellbark hickory (_H. laciniosa_). I had an
+illustration made of this specimen, and it appeared, with a brief
+description, in the _American Agriculturist_ for Dec., 1884, p. 546.
+Soon after receiving the specimen nut from Judge Miller I opened
+correspondence with Mr. Nussbaumer, and learned from him that only
+one tree bearing such nuts had ever been found, and this was of
+large size, six and a half feet in circumference, and about fifty
+feet high, the bark somewhat like that of the hickory but nearer the
+pecan. Mr. Nussbaumer sent me specimens of the green nuts with
+leaves and twigs, from the original tree. The nuts, however, of that
+season (1884), were badly infested with the "hickory-shuck worm"
+(_Grapholitha caryana_, Fitch), and these had so ruined the shucks,
+and even eaten into the shells of the nuts, that few of the
+specimens received were fully developed. But from two nuts I had a
+sketch made while they were fresh and of natural size, as shown in
+Fig. 66, the dark, irregular marks on the husks showing where the
+shuck worm had attacked them. One of these nuts is shown in Fig. 67,
+also natural size. I planted one of the nuts, from which I now have
+a tree about ten feet high, but although ten years old it has not
+fruited, and, so far as I can judge from its appearance, is a pure
+Western shellbark, with no indication of hybridity; but of course
+this does not prove that the original or parent tree is not a
+hybrid, as claimed by Mr. Nussbaumer, Judge Miller, and, if I am
+rightly informed, Prof. T. J. Burrill, of the University of
+Illinois.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67. NUSSBAUMER'S HYBRID.]
+
+However widely opinions may differ in regard to the origin of this
+variety, it is certainly a most remarkable nut, and I regret that
+the exact location of the original tree has entirely escaped my most
+careful seeking; and of late years I have been unable to learn
+anything of Mr. Nussbaumer, further than that he had moved from
+Mascoutah to Okawville, Ill., the last letter received from him
+being dated Dec. 13, 1887. In one of his letters he said that he had
+raised a large number of seedlings from this supposed hybrid, and if
+these are still alive they would be of much scientific interest,
+especially if any of them showed the distinct characteristics of
+either of the supposed parents.
+
+It would certainly be a pity to have such a remarkable nut lost to
+the world, because if propagated by grafting or by any other mode to
+insure perpetuating its varietal characteristics, its value could
+scarcely be estimated. The nuts are as thin-shelled as the common
+pecan, the kernel sweet and good, and in addition, the tree is a
+native of a northern State, and would, no doubt, prove as hardy as
+our common shellbark hickories.
+
+THE FLOYD PECAN.--This is another supposed-to-be hybrid, and of the
+same species of hickory as the last; but the one nut which I
+received differed from the Nussbaumer by being somewhat larger, and
+the shell with more prominent ridges and a little thicker. It was
+said to have been found somewhere in southern Indiana by a Mr.
+Floyd, who, believing it to be of great value, refused to give any
+information likely to aid any one else to locate the original tree,
+neither would he part with any of the nuts except the one specimen
+which eventually came into my hands. Of course all horticulturists
+know that seedlings raised from such freaks among nut trees are far
+too uncertain to be of much value, but ignorance in such matters
+often leads the possessor of an article slightly differing from the
+ordinary to permit his imagination to warp his good sense.
+
+=Cultivation of the Hickories.=--The hickories have been so seldom
+planted in our Northern States for any purpose, that anything like a
+systematic cultivation of these trees is a thing almost unknown. Of
+course there is no good reason why the hickories should not be
+multiplied and cultivated as well as other kinds of trees, but in
+some unknown way the idea became prevalent that these trees could
+not be transplanted with any assurance of success, and this has been
+kept alive, either through ignorance or by those whose interest led
+them to encourage the planting of the rapid-growing and easily
+propagated kinds, instead of those which, though less profitable to
+the producer, would be of far greater value to the purchaser. It
+must be admitted, however, that the hickories are not so tenacious
+of life as the willows, poplars, elms and similar kinds of trees,
+requiring more care in their cultivation if they are to be
+transplanted when of a proper size for setting along roadsides or
+elsewhere, for shade and ornament, but they are certainly no more
+difficult to make live than the beech, oak, tulip and various
+species of the magnolia.
+
+The slow growth of the hickories while young is another objection
+often urged as a fault of these trees, but there is nothing lost but
+time in waiting, and this passes just as swiftly whether we plant
+trees that may in ten years yield a golden harvest, or nothing but
+leaves; besides, the hickories respond as readily to stimulants and
+good care generally as the common fruit trees of our orchards. While
+the farmers of our Northern States are generally quite indifferent
+as to what becomes of their old hickory trees, and seldom attempt to
+preserve the wild seedlings that spring up in the fields and on the
+borders of forests, their fellow countrymen of the Southern States
+have, within the past two or three decades, discovered that they
+possess an inexhaustible source of wealth in their common pecan nut.
+Formerly these trees were sacrificed whenever a choice piece of
+tough timber was wanted, and often merely to secure the entire crop
+of nuts without waiting for nature to drop them within reach; but
+the advent of many lines of railroads, steamboats, and other means
+of communication with the great cities and their markets, has
+changed this inclination to destroy into one of preservation. The
+old pecan trees are not only appreciated as a source of income, but
+thousands and tens of thousands of seedlings are now annually raised
+and planted, to insure larger returns in the near or distant future.
+In fact, pecan culture has already become an important industry in
+several of the Southern States, although in point of age it is
+little more than a fledgling. We have no statistics to show what the
+annual crop averages in pounds or bushels, but it must be something
+enormous if we make our estimate from the quantities received and
+distributed in the Northern States. But with all the efforts put
+forth to secure a supply of these nuts, and the high prices they
+command at both wholesale and retail, the demand seems to keep well
+in advance of the supply, and this will, in all probability,
+continue as our population increases. In the way of demand, the same
+is true with our northern species of the shellbark hickories, which
+were formerly very abundant, but of late years have become rather
+scarce, for reasons too obvious to call for any explanation at this
+time.
+
+In selecting a location for planting and cultivating the hickories,
+including the pecan, a moist, deep soil is certainly preferable to
+any other, especially for the three species and their varieties most
+promising for this purpose, because we find them growing wild in
+such situations and soils. But while these naturally deep, rich and
+moist soils are to be preferred, no one need hesitate to plant
+hickories on light, dry, and even poor soils, if they are properly
+enriched, or a few shovelfuls of fine old stable manure is
+thoroughly mixed with the earth in which the roots are set, and then
+a mulch applied to the surface to keep the soil moist. Almost any
+old waste fibrous material, such as leaves, straw, hay, weeds or
+coarse manure, will answer for mulching newly planted trees, and it
+should be applied to a depth of three or four inches, and renewed
+annually, or as often as necessary to prevent the growth of grass or
+weeds growing within three or four feet of the stem of the tree. In
+all dry climates and soils mulching should be considered an
+important operation, not to be omitted until the trees are from six
+to ten years old, and it may usually be continued a longer time with
+benefit.
+
+=Propagation.=--All the species of the hickory are very readily
+grown from nuts gathered when ripe and planted within a few weeks;
+or they may be mixed with or stratified between layers of sand and
+light soil and buried in the open ground for the winter, and the
+planting deferred until the following spring. They are not at all
+delicate and will withstand considerable drying and neglect, and
+will grow, if stored in a cool cellar, without being packed in
+either soil, sand or other material. But as I have had no occasion
+to determine how much neglect these nuts will withstand, nor to what
+extremes of adverse conditions it is safe to subject them, I shall
+leave investigation in this direction to others, because in general
+practice no valuable seed or plant grows any too readily and freely
+to satisfy the cultivator, and for this reason I recommend either
+planting hickory nuts in the fall, or burying them between layers of
+light soil or sand, sifting out and planting early the following
+spring. If any considerable quantity is to be planted they should be
+dropped three or four inches apart in shallow trenches and covered
+about two inches deep. The distance between the rows may be from two
+to three feet, depending upon the implements to be used in their
+cultivation.
+
+The soil for a seedbed should, of course, be made rich and deep, or
+the same as recommended for chestnuts, and all the means usually
+employed to assist the growth of cultivated plants are applicable to
+nut trees. I may also add that cutworms, white grubs and other
+noxious insects are enemies of nut-tree seedlings as well as garden
+vegetables. The seedling hickories should be treated as advised for
+chestnuts; that is, dug up when one or, at the latest, two years
+old, and their central or taproot shortened to at least one-half
+their original length, and then reset in nursery rows, and at a
+distance of twelve to fifteen inches apart in the row. If grown in
+ordinary upland, the transplanted seedlings will make a better
+growth if heavily mulched than under the usual system of clean
+cultivation, and it is usually less expensive; besides, by keeping
+the surface of the soil cool and moist, we encourage and assist the
+production of fibrous lateral roots, which, as a rule, are none too
+abundant on seedling hickories, no matter under what conditions or
+system of cultivation they are raised.
+
+When the seedlings have grown in the nursery rows two or three
+years, they will probably be large enough for planting where they
+are to remain permanently; but if, for any reason, they are not
+disposed of, then they should be again transplanted,--the larger
+roots shortened,--and re-set in good rich soil. The object of
+transplanting is to insure the production of small fibrous roots,
+and a frequent renewal of the same, close to the main stem or stock,
+as long as the trees remain in the nursery, whether this be two or
+twenty years. This is somewhat of an expensive operation, but the
+value of stock thus handled is enhanced far more than the cost of
+such transplanting, and purchasers are, or at least should be,
+willing to pay a fair price for such trees.
+
+It is the natural habit of the hickories, as well as many other
+kinds of deciduous trees, to produce in their earlier stages of
+growth rather large, deeply penetrating, naked roots, with few small
+fibers, and in this condition they are not so readily and
+successfully transplanted as the kinds possessing a more ramified
+root system. This, perhaps, has misled many persons to believe that
+certain kinds of trees, like the hickories, could not be moved at
+all, or at least not with any assurance of being made to live. This
+idea has become so prevalent among inexperienced cultivators, and, I
+regret to add, often reiterated by theorists, that it has
+discouraged many who otherwise would have raised and planted nut
+trees in preference to other kinds.
+
+Admitting that it is the general habit of most kinds of forest trees
+to produce deeply penetrating taproots, when grown from seed, it
+proves nothing more than that these parts may be of some importance
+to the plants while they are young, and under natural conditions,
+yet they are not absolutely necessary, and, at most, are only
+temporary organs, like the tails of tadpoles, always disappearing
+with maturity.
+
+Any one at all observing, and having had an opportunity of examining
+limited or extended areas of forest trees thrown over by hurricanes,
+must have noticed that no tree of any considerable size and age
+possessed a taproot, but had been for years kept in its upright
+position by lateral brace-roots, and through these it had also
+obtained nutriment from the surface soil. Some of my correspondents
+in the South have expressed their surprise at not finding any trace
+of the original central roots on old pecan trees, when blown over by
+severe wind storms. But it is the same everywhere with forest trees
+and where the soil is naturally loose and moist: the principal or
+supporting roots spread out widely and remain near the surface, and
+the central roots or taproots disappear much earlier than in dry
+soils.
+
+In multiplying trees under artificial conditions, we remove the
+taproots, not only for convenience in transplanting, but also to
+hasten and increase the production of surface lateral roots, and
+more than this, we lessen the years of luxuriant sterility, securing
+earlier fruiting by such operations as root pruning and frequent
+transplanting.
+
+=Budding and Grafting.=--I have never known of an instance of
+successful budding of the hickory, at least in the ordinary way
+during the summer months. What is called "annular budding" in early
+spring with buds of the previous season, is said to have been
+successfully practiced with the pecan at the South, but this mode of
+propagation is more of the nature of grafting than of what is
+usually understood as budding. But I have been unable to obtain any
+statistics in regard to the proportion of buds that any propagator
+or experimenter has made live by this or other modes of propagation.
+Col. Stuart says, in "The Pecan," p. 45, "There is a method known as
+'annular budding,' which proves quite successful." He then proceeds
+to describe the operation, as given in all works on the propagation
+of trees and plants during the past hundred years or more, but not a
+word to indicate what he considers a "success,"--whether it be once
+or fifty times in a hundred, or if he ever succeeded in making an
+annular bud unite to the stock; I am more inclined to think that he
+never did, than otherwise.
+
+In Bulletin No. 105, "Nut Culture for North Carolina," issued from
+the N. C. State Experiment Station, 1894, Mr. W. A. Taylor,
+Assistant Pomologist U. S. Department of Agriculture, in referring
+to budding and grafting of these trees, says: "These latter
+operations are less successful with the pecan than most fruit trees,
+though they are by no means impossible to accomplish. On seedlings
+one or two years old annular budding in early summer succeeds best."
+But here again we are left in doubt in regard to what the writer
+considers "a success." Then, again, the line between the "possible"
+and "impossible," in horticultural matters, is a rather difficult
+one to determine, and Mr. Taylor fails to cite a single instance in
+which either annular or any other form of either budding or grafting
+had been successfully practiced. The Bulletins issued from the
+Division of Pomology of the Department of Agriculture, give us no
+information whatever on this subject of propagation of the
+hickories, further than to repeat the old formulas of annular,
+splice and cleft grafting; but as to results they have always been
+provokingly silent.
+
+Having been repeatedly assured, by men who presumed to know, that
+the pecan tree was successfully propagated in the South by grafting,
+and many thousands annually raised in this way, it seems strange
+that such plants are so rarely offered by nurserymen. Seedlings of
+choice varieties are, of course, abundant enough, but a man might,
+with as much propriety, offer seedling Bartlett pears or Baldwin
+apples, as pecan trees, expecting to perpetuate varieties. In
+corresponding with Mr. P. J. Berckmans, of the Fruitland Nurseries
+of Augusta, Ga., whose experience and acquaintance with the fruits
+of the South are, without doubt, in advance of any other
+horticulturist of the past or even the present generation, in reply
+to my request for information on grafting pecans, he writes: "For
+the past five or six years we have grafted various varieties of the
+pecan nuts. I do not know of any other nurseryman South who offers
+grafted trees. I presume the reason of this is, the great difficulty
+in having the grafts take, as we seldom have more than fifteen to
+twenty-five per cent. grow. We usually crown graft in February,
+using one-year-old seedlings grown in nursery rows. Owing to the
+small percentage of grafts which grow, grafted trees must,
+necessarily, be quite expensive, and for this reason there are so
+few attempts made in this method of propagation."
+
+Mr. Berckmans makes no reference to annular budding of the pecan, so
+strongly and frequently recommended by the several writers already
+quoted, although I am certain that he is as familiar with this mode
+of propagation as any one else, and would have practiced it had he
+found it in any way superior to crown grafting. From all that I have
+been able to learn through a rather extended correspondence, in
+regard to the propagation of the pecan nut tree in the South, I
+conclude that they are occasionally and sparingly grafted, but with
+such indifferent results that they are not at all numerous in either
+orchards or nurseries.
+
+From certain remarks of Col. Stuart, in his essay on "Pecan
+Culture," I infer that he has sold grafted trees, for he says:
+
+    "It costs no more to care for the grove of choice trees than of
+    poor ones; then, again, the grafted or budded ones come into
+    profitable bearing three years earlier than seedlings. Here is a
+    case in point: Last November (1892) we paid, in cash, two
+    hundred and forty-eight dollars for the nuts which grew upon one
+    tree, the crop of one year. The tree is twenty inches through at
+    its base, and forty-five feet high; such a size tree would grow
+    in twenty or twenty-five years. Now small nuts from the same
+    size tree will sell for not more than fifteen to twenty dollars.
+    Another tree only ten years old bore thirteen and a half dollars
+    worth. These choice nuts are such as we grow seedlings from; we
+    sell a great many more seedlings than we do grafted or budded
+    trees, simply because they are so much cheaper, and people in
+    general do not realize that such a vast difference exists
+    between the profits of seedling and grafted or budded trees; but
+    such is the case, and such it will always remain for aught we
+    can see."
+
+Soon after I published the description of the Hales' Paper-shell
+hickory in 1870, requests for cions were received from nurserymen
+and many amateur horticulturists, who were anxious to try their
+skill in grafting this excellent variety. Mr. Hales generously
+responded, and sent cions to a large number of correspondents in
+various parts of the country, because he was desirous of having the
+variety preserved and propagated. During the following ten years the
+old original tree was kept pretty well pruned, in filling orders for
+cions; those sent to nurserymen were to be raised on shares,
+one-half of all the successfully grafted trees to be returned to Mr.
+Hales. Being a near neighbor, my opportunities for keeping informed
+as to the result of this arrangement was all that I could desire. To
+one nursery firm in central New York Mr. Hales sent about one
+thousand cions per annum for four successive years, and in return
+received just four feeble grafted plants as his share of the total
+product of the four thousand cions. But as the four plants received
+soon died, he closed that account as one of total loss. Previously,
+however, he had sent a quantity of cions to Mr. J. R. Trumpy, of the
+Kissena Nurseries, Flushing, N. Y., whose skill as a propagator of
+ligneous plants is probably second to that of no man in this
+country; the result proved that our faith in the man was not
+misplaced, for Mr. Hales received for his share of the experiment
+something over two dozen grafted trees, and most of these are now
+handsome specimens ten to twenty feet high. Just what percentage of
+the cions set were made to unite and grow I have not been informed,
+but the experiment was, doubtless, rather unsatisfactory as a
+commercial transaction.
+
+In addition to the plants sent to Mr. Hales, there have been quite a
+number distributed among the customers of the nurseries named;
+consequently, we are pretty well assured of the perpetuation of this
+remarkably fine variety, even when the original tree succumbs to old
+age, or should it be accidentally destroyed. I am inclined to give
+Mr. Trumpy credit for being the first man to graft the shellbark
+hickory in this or any other country, and make the cions unite and
+grow, for I have failed to find any instance of success in this mode
+of propagating these trees, prior to his with the Hales'
+Paper-shell.
+
+In reply to a note sent him a few months since, asking: "How did or
+do you graft the hickories?" he replied as follows:
+
+    "I put the hickory stocks in pots in the spring, and graft them
+    the following spring, say in April, and in the house. The cions
+    are cut during the winter, so as to keep them in good order
+    until wanted for use. I find it is better to operate in April
+    than earlier in the winter. I also graft them out of doors about
+    the beginning of May, when the stocks are growing. They will
+    succeed very well out of doors, provided the stocks are large
+    enough for the cions. Any kind of grafting will do, but crown
+    grafting is the best. I have not done much of late in the way of
+    grafting hickories in the nursery, not having suitable stocks;
+    besides, when the weather becomes warm enough for outside work,
+    vegetation pushes far too rapidly to give a man a chance to do
+    much of this kind of grafting."
+
+Since the above was written and while these pages were being put in
+type, Mr. Jackson Dawson, of the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain,
+Mass., has given his method of grafting the hickories, in _Garden
+and Forest_, Feb. 19, 1896, as follows:
+
+    "My method," writes Mr. Dawson, "has been to side-graft, using a
+    cion with part of the second year's wood attached, binding it
+    firmly and covering it with damp sphagnum until the union has
+    been made. The best time I have found for the operation under
+    glass has been during February, and the plants have been kept
+    under glass until midsummer, and wintered the first year in a
+    cold frame. In all the genera I find certain species which may
+    be called free stocks,--that is, stocks which take grafts more
+    readily than others. Thus, nearly all the oaks will graft
+    readily on _Quercus Robur_; the birches will graft more easily
+    on _Betula alba_ than on others; so of the hickories,
+    observation has led me to believe that the best stock is the
+    bitternut, _Hicoria minima_. This species grows almost twice as
+    rapidly as the common shagbark hickory, and while young the
+    cambium is quite soft. I should advise anyone who wishes to
+    propagate hickories on a large scale to grow stocks of this
+    species in boxes not more than four inches deep. In this way all
+    the roots can be saved and there will be no extreme taproot, and
+    when shaken out of the boxes the plants are easily established
+    in pots and ready for grafting. If taken up in the ordinary way
+    from the woods, it requires almost two years to get them well
+    rooted, and often the stocks die for want of roots after the
+    grafts have really taken. If grown in rich soil, the stocks will
+    be large enough to use in one or two years. I should then pot
+    them early in the fall, keeping them from heavy frosts, and
+    bringing them into the house about the first of January, and as
+    soon as they begin to make roots. I should side-graft them close
+    to the collar and plunge them in sphagnum moss, leaving the top
+    bud of the graft out to the air. The graft ought to be well
+    united about the last of March, when the plants should be taken
+    from the sphagnum and set in the body of the house to finish
+    their growth."
+
+All who have had any experience in the propagation of trees by
+grafting in spring, are well aware of the flight of time, in the
+hurry of work that must be done in a few days or not at all. It is
+true that the season for grafting may be prolonged or extended a
+little by cutting the cions in winter and storing them in a cool,
+moist place, where they remain dormant after vegetation has started
+in the open air; but this does not affect the stocks, and these may
+come on slowly or rapidly, varying with the seasons, and the grafter
+must not only watch for opportune moments, but take his chances of
+striking the right time and conditions, in order to be successful.
+With such hard wood trees as the hickories it is better to be a
+little ahead of time than a few days too late, for frosts, and even
+quite a severe freeze, will not injure a dormant cion, and under the
+most favorable conditions the union between stock and cion is a
+rather slow process. For this reason I advise giving as much time as
+possible, and while I do not claim to having had any personal
+experience as a grafter, in the South, still I am inclined to think
+that grafting in the fall, and not later than December, would be
+preferable to later in winter or spring. By giving the cion and
+stock two or three months in which to form granulations and
+cohesion, there would be more certainty of success. Of course, I now
+refer to what is called crown grafting on the root below the surface
+of the ground, and when the cion is fixed in place with the usual
+ligatures of waxed paper or cloth, the soil is drawn back into place
+and the cion entirely covered with it, but very lightly over the
+terminal bud.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68. CROWN GRAFTING ON ROOTS OF THE HICKORY.]
+
+Where small stocks are not at hand, the roots of large trees may be
+severed and the end partly lifted towards the surface, as shown in
+Fig. 68, and when grafted, allowed to remain in position until the
+following season, and then taken up entire or with roots enough to
+insure future growth. The same or a similar process may be practiced
+to propagate a choice variety of the hickory, and a mere severing of
+the roots will insure the production of suckers from near the
+severed end, as shown in Fig. 69.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69. SPROUTS FROM SEVERED HICKORY ROOTS.]
+
+In grafting isolated stocks in this way, a small or large stake
+should be placed by the side of each, to indicate their position,
+and also protect them from being trampled upon. I make this
+suggestion because, in my own experience, it has often proved
+successful with various kinds of hard-wooded trees and shrubs that
+failed when grafted in the spring. Here in the North it is rather
+difficult, as well as expensive, to protect cions set in the open
+ground in the fall; but in the South it is different, and a handful
+of almost any coarse litter would be sufficient to prevent severe
+freezing.
+
+But grafting in the fall in the open ground is unnecessary, where
+small seedling stocks are used in the propagation of any kind of
+tree; in fact, nurserymen do very little grafting of this kind in
+spring, for they learned, by long experience, that the most
+economical and certain method of multiplying such trees is to take
+up the stocks in the fall, and then graft them indoors during the
+winter, having stocks and cions stored in cool cellars or pits,
+where they will be readily accessible when wanted. Apples, pears,
+quinces, grapes, and many other kinds of hardy trees, shrubs and
+vines are now extensively propagated by grafting during the winter
+months, and I do not know of any good reason why the hickories and
+other closely allied nut trees should not be multiplied in this way.
+I have tried it, on a limited scale, with the shellbark hickories,
+and with fair success, and in my opinion it is the only way by which
+the hickories, including the pecan, can be multiplied cheaply enough
+to become of commercial importance.
+
+The small stocks of one or two years old should be taken up in the
+fall, and then crown grafted any time from December to March in the
+Northern States, but the earlier the better; then pack away the
+grafted stocks in moss or soil, in a cool cellar, or heel-in
+elsewhere, as, for instance, in pits or frames, where they will not
+be frozen, and yet cool enough to prevent active growth.
+
+In the spring the grafted stocks should be planted out in nursery
+rows, and deep enough to have the top of the cion just level with
+the surface after the soil has been settled about it by a shower or
+heavy rains. The plants must be handled with care, so as not to
+disturb the cions. Mulching will, of course, be beneficial in dry
+seasons, and especially if the stocks are set in ordinary
+well-drained soils. In selecting wood for cions, twigs of the
+previous season's growth are usually preferred, but it is not
+necessary, nor is it advisable to discard all except the extreme end
+of the shoot or that containing a terminal bud, as some writers have
+advised, to prevent rapid loss of moisture by evaporation, for a
+drop of wax will seal the end of a cion as thoroughly and
+effectually as a natural bud; besides, the lower part of the annual
+twigs is often more firm and really better for grafting than the
+upper and less sturdy wood, and the lateral buds on it will push
+just as readily as the terminal one. The cion may be three or four
+inches long, and contain two or more buds. The sealing of the upper
+end of a cion that is not protected by a terminal bud is certainly
+important with all of the hickories, for in this genus of trees the
+pith is large and continuous, not intersected or cut off by a thin
+partition of wood at the joints, as seen in many trees, shrubs and
+vines. This large and continuous pith in the hickories is another
+reason why the cions succeed best if set below the crown and in or
+on the fleshy roots having no pith. They may be set on one side, as
+in splice grafting, or in the center, or in a cleft made for their
+reception with a sharp knife, then bound with waxed paper, or
+wrapped with bass, raffia, or other similar material, and afterwards
+covered with melted wax to exclude air and water from the joints and
+wounds.
+
+In this mode of grafting hickories it is not necessary to employ the
+entire root or stock, if it is of large size, for a single cion; for
+pieces of from six to twelve inches long, containing a few lateral
+fibers, will answer the purpose, and it will be found, in practice,
+that these sections of the large fleshy roots contain so much
+vitality that, if the cions set in them fail to grow, they will
+throw up sprouts from adventitious buds during the ensuing summer.
+Almost any fair-sized piece of root left in the ground, when digging
+up hickory trees large or small, is pretty certain to throw up
+sprouts, this not only showing their great vitality, but that
+propagation by root cuttings is perfectly practicable and may be
+utilized whenever and wherever it may be desirable. The man who
+attempts to raise hickories from root cuttings must have patience,
+for very frequently the cuttings will remain apparently dormant in
+the ground one entire season before the sprouts appear above the
+surface. I will also add that this slow or retarded germination
+frequently occurs with the nuts, especially if they have become
+somewhat dry before planting.
+
+For commercial purposes root-grafting small stock, as described,
+during the fall and winter, gives promise of being the best and most
+practicable system of multiplying varieties; but there is much yet
+to be learned in regard to details, and hundreds of carefully
+conducted experiments may be necessary to determine the exact time,
+condition and mode of operation. It may be that very early grafting
+is better than late, or that we have not, as yet, found the best
+species for stocks, and that a half-ripened one will be preferable
+to one fully matured. Neither has it, as yet, been determined what
+kind of material is best in which to store the grafted roots: sand,
+soil or sphagnum (moss) from the swamps; or whether they should be
+kept very moist, or comparatively dry; very cold, or moderately
+warm. Here is a wide field for experiments, and a most interesting
+one; for the successful propagation of the hickories by any mode
+that will insure the perpetuation and rapid multiplication of
+varieties, means millions of dollars added to the wealth of the
+country.
+
+=Age of Fruiting.=--We hear much of the precociousness of pecan
+trees in the South, and many are reported as coming into bearing at
+the age of six to ten years from the time of planting the nut; but
+these are probably exceptional instances of early fruiting and not
+the rule, although in a favorable soil and climate it is to be
+expected that such trees will push forward more rapidly than under
+less favorable conditions. Grafted trees will, of course, produce
+fruit in less time than seedlings, and as this mode of propagation
+becomes more general, and repeated in a direct ancestral line, the
+cions for each successive generation of trees being taken from
+mature or bearing specimens, the precocious and productive habit
+will eventually become intensified, as it has been in all of our
+long-cultivated fruit trees propagated by artificial methods. We
+have so intensified the productiveness of many kinds of cultivated
+fruits by selection, that it has become more of a fault, than a
+merit to be encouraged.
+
+The nut trees are amenable to the same physiological laws as other
+kinds, and in their propagation by grafting with cions from bearing
+specimens we hasten maturity in the offspring. This has been fully
+demonstrated in many varieties of the Persian walnuts and European
+chestnuts. Here in the Northern States we have had so little
+experience with grafted hickories of any species, that really
+nothing is yet known as to how they will respond to this mode of
+propagation, further than that they grow rapidly and give promise of
+being fruitful. Seedling trees are, as a rule, of slow growth,
+rarely attaining a bearing age and size under twenty years, and with
+the shellbarks thirty or forty years usually pass before anything
+like a crop of nuts is gathered. Something may be gained, in the way
+of time, by frequent transplantings and pruning, but more by
+grafting seedlings from old and mature trees. Two grafts of the
+Hales' hickory commenced bearing at the age of sixteen years.
+
+=Planting for Profit.=--There are, doubtless, many thousands of
+acres of half-denuded woodlands in almost every State in the Union,
+both North and South, that could be readily utilized for growing
+hickory timber, and much of such lands is almost useless for other
+purposes; but timber culture and forestry is a subject which I have
+discussed elsewhere,[1] while the object of this work is to aid my
+readers in producing something that may be utilized as food. When
+the hundreds and thousands of miles of our public highways are
+shaded with hickory and other nut-bearing trees of the best species
+and varieties, it will be time enough to begin planting such kinds
+elsewhere. As roadside trees they cannot fail to be profitable,
+largely enhancing the value of adjoining land; for in addition to
+being equally as ornamental as other kinds, they yield fruit always
+in demand at remunerative prices. The three species of the hickory
+and their varieties recommended for cultivation all thrive best in
+moist soils, but by occasional watering or thorough mulching they
+will succeed almost anywhere, especially in naturally dry locations.
+
+[Footnote 1: Practical Forestry.]
+
+=Insect Enemies.=--The hickories, as with all other nut-bearing
+trees, have numerous insect enemies, but these are neither so
+numerous nor destructive as to seriously interfere with their growth
+in general, or with their productiveness. Insects may occasionally
+become exceedingly numerous in certain localities for a few years,
+then suddenly or slowly disappear; but this we must expect, as one
+of the coexisting phases of all agricultural pursuits.
+
+Collectively the hickories have no considerable number of
+destructive insect enemies, but if we count all the species of the
+various orders that have been found occasionally, or otherwise,
+feeding on the leaves, buds, fruit, twigs, bark, or boring in the
+solid wood, they make a very formidable list of names, or about one
+hundred and seventy-five in all; but fully ninety per cent. of these
+depredators are scarcely known, except to a few professional
+entomologists, and unless they become more destructive in the future
+than they are at present, or have been in years past, nut culturists
+have little to fear from their depredations. Among the most common
+species of insects injurious to the hickory, the following may prove
+most annoying to the cultivator.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.]
+
+THE HICKORY-TWIG GIRDLER (_Oncideres cingulatus._ Say).--A small
+yellowish-gray beetle, a little less than an inch long, usually
+appearing in this latitude during August, the females depositing
+their eggs in the twigs of from a quarter to a half-inch in
+diameter. On old large trees the loss of a few or many of these is
+scarcely noticed; but on young seedlings or grafted stock it is
+quite a different affair, for on such plants the females usually
+select the leader in preference to the lateral twigs in which to
+deposit their eggs. The female girdles the twigs for the purpose of
+providing proper and acceptable food for her progeny; that is, first
+the green, then the slowly drying, then the perfectly hard, seasoned
+hickory or whatever kind she may have attacked. Selecting a suitable
+twig, she rests upon it, usually with head downward (Fig. 70), and
+with her mandibles cuts out a ring of bark about one-twelfth of an
+inch wide, and deep enough to reach the firm wood underneath. The
+place selected for this annular incision may be only a few inches
+from the terminal bud, or a foot below it, and in some instances she
+will cut two incisions on the same twig some distance apart, but
+usually there is only one on a twig. While cutting this incision she
+will sometimes rest long enough from her labors to deposit an egg in
+the bark above. The number of eggs she deposits in the twig is
+probably variable, but three full-grown grubs is the most I have
+ever found, and the larger proportion examined had only one. This
+girdling of the twig prevents the flow of sap, and the leaves soon
+wither and drop off, and the bark and wood shrivel and become hard
+and dry; but in the meantime the eggs have hatched and the minute
+grubs have bored their way through the soft bark and reached the
+pith, feeding in this while acquiring size and strength of jaws that
+will enable them to consume more solid food later and during the
+succeeding winter, spring and summer. Some do not reach maturity
+until the second summer; at least, in this latitude, as I have found
+after very careful observation and while collecting many hundreds of
+specimens. I will say, however, that this insect is usually referred
+to by entomologists as rather rare, and in general it is, but some
+years ago, in an old clearing near by where there was a great number
+of young hickory seedlings and sprouts, it was for a season or two
+very abundant; then it suddenly disappeared, and I have not taken a
+half-dozen specimens since. The grubs bore out the wood in the
+infested twig, and in most instances so completely as to leave only
+a thin shell of the wood or bark, by the time they have reached
+maturity and are ready to pass into their imago or perfect-winged
+stage.
+
+This species of twig girdler also attacks the apple, pear,
+persimmon, elm, and other kinds of trees, and with those like the
+apple, with a soft and brittle wood, the girdled twigs are
+frequently broken off by the winds; but this rarely occurs with the
+hickories, and we can usually find the stumps remaining on the trees
+years after the beetles have emerged. The only way to keep this pest
+in check is to cut off and burn the girdled twigs any time before
+the larv� have reached maturity, and as the girdled dead twigs are
+readily seen, the gathering is not difficult, from medium-sized
+trees.
+
+THE PAINTED HICKORY BORER (_Cyllene pictus._ Drury).--This is,
+perhaps, one of the most common and widely distributed of all the
+hickory borers, but, so far as my observations have extended, it
+rarely attacks young or healthy trees of any age; in fact, I have
+never found it in or about growing trees, but I have seen it, by the
+thousands, breeding in decaying specimens and in hickory cordwood
+cut during the winter months and ranked up in shady places. A
+hickory tree cut down in fall or winter, and left on the ground or
+cut up into cordwood, is pretty sure to attract this borer early in
+spring, the females swarming over the bark, depositing their eggs
+upon it, and by the ensuing autumn the wood will be fairly
+honeycombed if this insect is at all abundant. The general color of
+the beetle is black, and the size as shown in Fig. 71. There are
+three narrow, whitish bands across the top of the thorax, and one
+slightly broader band at the extreme point of the wing-covers; but
+the next band is in the form of an inverted V; the point of the
+[Inverted V] does not quite touch the broad lateral band, as in the
+closely allied species known as the locust borer (_C. robini�_),
+with which it is often confounded; besides, in the latter the
+markings are of a deep yellow, and not white or of a faint yellowish
+tinge. The hickory borer always appears in spring, and the locust
+borer in the fall, not later than September in this part of the
+country. Below or behind the V-shaped band there are three others,
+but all broken up into mere dots, and not continuous.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71. HICKORY BORER.]
+
+In the South, and especially in Texas, there is a somewhat smaller
+but closely allied species (_Cyllene crinicornis_) that attacks the
+pecan tree and its wood in the same way as our common hickory borer,
+but in the Southern or Southwestern species the bands on the
+wing-covers are all interrupted or broken up into small white spots
+or dots. I have no remedy to suggest, further than to cut down old,
+infested trees, and to haul the wood out into the sun and spread it
+out where it will quickly dry and become seasoned. If the felled
+tree and wood is stripped of its bark as soon as cut, the female
+beetles will not deposit their eggs upon it.
+
+There are other long-horned beetles (_Cerambycid�_) that are
+occasionally found breeding in the hickories, and among these may be
+named the Belted Chion (_Chion cinctus_), Tiger Goes (_Goes
+tigrinus_), Beautiful Goes (_Goes pulchra_), and the Orange Sawyer
+(_Elaphidion inerme_), but they are usually quite too rare to be
+considered as very destructive insects.
+
+HICKORY-BARK BORER (_Scolytus 4-spinosus._ Say).--Only once within
+my memory has this minute but destructive beetle appeared in any
+considerable numbers in my neighborhood, although I have
+occasionally received a few specimens from correspondents in various
+parts of the country, even as far west as the Pacific coast in
+Washington. This borer is a very small, cylindrical, dark brown
+beetle, about one-fifth of an inch or less in length, and
+one-sixteenth in diameter. The hind part of the body is quite blunt
+(truncate), the males having four short but distinct blunt spines,
+two on each side, projecting from the hind part of the abdomen,
+hence the name "4-spinosus." In the females these spines are absent,
+otherwise they closely resemble the males. These bark borers usually
+appear here in the Northern States the last of June or early in
+July, and both sexes attack hickory trees of all species, but appear
+to prefer the old and nearly mature trees to the young and small
+with thinner bark. After boring through the bark and reaching the
+soft cambium layer underneath, upon which these insects feed, the
+female cuts a vertical channel in this substance, of little over an
+inch in length.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72. BURROWS OF HICKORY SCOLYTUS.]
+
+This burrow is a little larger than the diameter of her body, and
+along on both sides she deposits her eggs, to the number of ten to
+thirty, placing about an equal number on each side. When these eggs
+hatch, the young larv� begin to feed on the soft material by which
+they are surrounded, making minute burrows at first, and at nearly
+right angles with the parent one; but as they increase in size they
+are forced to diverge, those above the center working upward, and
+those below downward, as shown in Fig. 72. These burrows enlarge as
+the grubs increase in size, as shown, most of them reaching their
+full development by the time cold weather sets in, but some do not
+cease feeding until spring, then pass to the pupal stage, and later
+to the perfect or beetle form, and from the extreme end of these
+burrows they bore a hole straight out to the surface, and are then
+ready to begin the cycle of life again, either on the tree from
+which they have emerged, or others near by. Some fifteen years ago I
+noticed that the leaves of some of the old hickory trees on my place
+were turning yellow prematurely, and upon examination I found the
+bark perforated with minute holes not larger than small bird shot,
+indicating the presence of the bark borer under consideration. Seven
+of the very largest and, presumably, the oldest, appeared to be
+affected, and these were immediately cut down and stripped of their
+bark, exposing the little grubs to the air and attacks of
+insect-eating birds. These trees appeared to have been infested for
+several years, as there was scarcely a spot on the surface of the
+wood that had not been scarified with this pest. Since the
+destruction of these trees I have not been troubled with bark
+borers, although there are still a number of very old and large
+hickories thriving in the same grove. The only remedy I can suggest
+is to cut down infested trees as soon as they are discovered, and
+also encourage the insect-eating birds to remain in and near the nut
+groves.
+
+There are several other species of bark borers that occasionally
+attack hickories, one of these, the _Chramesus icori�_, Leconte,
+infests the small twigs, while another, the _Sinoxylon basilare_,
+say, after boring through the bark, continues its course far into
+the heartwood, showing a preference for this kind of food instead of
+the living tissues. These pests, however, are rarely constant, but
+very erratic, in their attacks, and while they may be rather
+abundant on a few or many trees a season or two, they then
+disappear, and not one may be seen for several decades.
+
+THE HICKORY-SHUCK WORM (_Grapholitha caryana._ Fitch).--The parent
+of this pest is a minute moth of the family _Tortricid�_, the small
+caterpillars mining and boring the green husks, and sometimes into
+the immature shell, causing the nuts to wither and drop off
+prematurely, although an occasional one may reach maturity, even in
+its scarified condition. This insect appears to be somewhat rare in
+the East, but very abundant some years in the West, where it is
+frequently destructive to the thick shellbark hickory and pecan. The
+first fresh specimens of the Nussbaumer Hybrid pecan nut (referred
+to on a preceding page) were so badly bored and scarified by this
+worm when received, that they would have been nearly or quite
+worthless for either planting or other purposes. As this insect
+attacks the nuts on the very largest trees in the forest and
+elsewhere, I cannot suggest any other remedy than to gather the
+immature and infested nuts as they fall, and burn them, with their
+contents.
+
+Among the larger Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) there are many
+species, the caterpillars of which occasionally feed on the leaves
+of the hickories, but not exclusively; consequently, they cannot be
+considered as the special enemies of this genus of trees. When they
+do attack them, it is as much due to accident as design. This is
+certainly true with the great Luna moth (_Attacus luna_) and the
+American silk worm (_Telea polyphemus_), and various species of the
+Catocala, as well as the Tent caterpillar (_Clisiocampa sylvatica_).
+
+There is also a hickory-nut weevil, closely allied to the species
+infesting the chestnut; and while not quite as large, its habits are
+similar, and its ravages may be checked by the same or similar
+means. The grubs bore into the green nuts, causing some to fall
+before half-grown; others may remain in the nuts until they are ripe
+and gathered in the autumn; consequently, perforated hickory nuts
+are not at all rare, even on the stands of venders in our cities.
+
+Bud worms, leaf miners, leaf rollers and plant lice,--and among the
+latter several gall-making species,--are to be found on the
+hickories; but with all these natural enemies to contend with, the
+hickories thrive, grow, and yield their fruits in greater or less
+abundance. To enumerate, describe and illustrate all the insects
+known to be enemies of the hickory would require a large volume, but
+fortunately there are many special works published on the insects
+injurious to vegetation, and these are readily obtainable by all who
+may have occasion to consult their pages.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE WALNUT.
+
+
+Juglans. The ancient Latin name, first used by Pliny, contracted
+from _Jovis glans_, the nut of Jove or Jupiter. A genus of about
+eight species, three or four of these indigenous to the United
+States.
+
+=Order=, _Juglandace�_ (Walnut family).--Medium to large deciduous
+trees with odd-pinnate leaves; leaflets from fifteen to twenty-one,
+serrate, mainly oblong and pointed. The sexes of flowers separate
+(mon�cious) on the same tree, the males in pendulous green
+cylindrical catkins two to three inches long, solitary or in pairs,
+sessile,--not stalked, as in the hickories,--issuing from the
+one-year-old twigs, and at the upper edge of the scar left by the
+falling leaf of the previous season (Fig. 73), showing that the male
+organs emanate from an aggregation of bud-cells in the axils of the
+leaves during the preceding summer and autumn. Female flowers
+terminal on the new growth in spring, also single, in clusters, and
+occasionally in long pendulous racemes with a four-cleft calyx, four
+minute petals and two thick curved stigmas. Fruit round or oblong
+(Fig. 74); husk thin, drying up without opening by seams, as in the
+hickories. Shell of nut either rough and deeply corrugated, with
+sharp-pointed ridges, or quite smooth, with an undulating, wavy
+surface, very thick in some species and thin in others; kernel two-
+or indistinctly four-lobed, united at the apex, fleshy, rich and
+oily.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73. PERSIAN WALNUT, SHOWING POSITION OF SEXUAL
+ORGANS.]
+
+=History.=--The common walnut, so long and widely known in commerce
+under various names, such as Persian, English, French, Italian and
+European walnuts, also as Madeira nut, and recently Chile walnut,
+are now all believed to have descended from trees native of Persia,
+most plentiful in the province of Ghilan on the Caspian sea, between
+latitude 35� and 40�, hence the old Grecian name of the fruit, viz.:
+Persicon and Basilicon, or Persian Royal nut, probably because
+either introduced by the Greek monarchs, or sent to them by the
+Persian kings. Later,--according to Pliny,--the Greeks called the
+trees _Caryon_, on account of the strong scent of the foliage, and
+from this name Nuttall coined his word, _Carya_, for our indigenous
+hickories, as explained in the preceding chapter. It should also be
+noted here that the elder Michaux, in 1782-4, was the first modern
+botanist to visit the province of Ghilan, and he determined, by
+personal investigation, that this species of the walnut was really
+indigenous to that region of country, along with the peach and
+apricot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74. BEARING BRANCH OF ENGLISH WALNUT.]
+
+Earlier European authors claim that the walnut was first introduced
+into Italy by Vitellius (emperor) early in the first century of the
+Christian Era,--but this is uncertain,--the Romans giving it the
+name of _Juglandes_, or the nut of Jove or Jupiter, both being the
+same mythical personage. The nuts, at this early day, were highly
+prized, and also the wood of the tree, the latter being even more
+valuable than that of the citron (orange and lemon). Ovid wrote a
+poem about these nuts, entitled _De Nuce_, from which we learn that
+boys were employed to, or did of their own accord, knock off these
+nuts; and that at marriages walnuts were thrown by the bride and
+bridegroom among the children, a ceremony which was supposed to
+indicate that the bridegroom had left off his boyish amusements, and
+that the bride was no longer a votary of Diana, and it is quite
+probable that the French word for nuptials, _des n�ces_, was derived
+from this ancient custom. The ancients also believed that walnuts
+possessed powerful medicinal properties, even to the curing of
+hydrophobia; but in these latter days they have lost most of their
+curative virtues, in the opinion of the medical fraternity.
+
+As with the chestnut, the planting of the walnut extended northward
+into Gaul (France), hence the earlier name of Gaul nuts, which
+became corrupted into walnuts by the English-speaking people. The
+Italian name is _Noci_; in France, _Noyer_; and the Germans, with
+their usual habit of compounding names, call it _walnuss-baum_ or
+walnut tree.
+
+Joannis De Loureiro, in his work on the plants of China, "Flora
+Cochinchinensis," published in 1790, claims that this Persian walnut
+is also a native of the northern provinces of China, with two other
+species which he describes (p. 573), adding, however, that one of
+these is cultivated in Cochin China, and the other is found wild in
+the mountains.
+
+The wild form of this world-wide-famous nut is, doubtless, quite
+different from the varieties with which we are familiar, for two
+thousand years or more of continuous cultivation and selections have
+greatly changed the character of these nuts, as well as the habit of
+the trees. The nuts from the wild trees are said to have a rather
+thick shell, and to be much smaller than the best of the improved
+cultivated varieties, or very like those we now obtain in China and
+Japan. The Persian walnut, in its many varieties, has been planted
+almost everywhere in Europe as far north as Warsaw, but does not
+appear to have run wild and become naturalized, as with many other
+kinds of fruit and forest trees. In Great Britain it has probably
+been cultivated ever since the invasion of the country by the
+Romans, although a much later date is named by some of our modern
+horticultural authorities. Dodoens (1552), Gerarde (1597), Parkinson
+(1629), and other of our early authors of works on cultivated
+plants, speak of the Persian walnut as common in various countries
+of Europe, Great Britain included. John Evelyn, in his "Sylva"
+(1664), says:
+
+    "In Burgundy, walnut trees abound where they stand, in the
+    meadows of goodly lands, at sixty and a hundred feet distance,
+    and so far as hurting the crop, they are looked upon as great
+    preservers, keeping the ground warm, nor do the roots hinder the
+    plow."
+
+Evelyn, no doubt, had read what Pliny had said on this point, viz.:
+
+    "Even the oak will not thrive near the walnut tree; which, if it
+    be true, may be owing to the interference of their roots in the
+    subsoil; but it is certain that neither grass nor field nor
+    garden crops thrive well under the walnut."
+
+Evelyn was far too good a gardener and close observer to fall into
+the error of attributing noxious properties to the walnut tree,
+although Pliny's assertion, which has no foundation beyond his
+imagination, has been many times repeated in these days of supposed
+general intelligence. Small plants may fail, under the shade of
+large trees, or when deprived of moisture by the roots of such
+trees, but the walnut is no exception to the rule; in fact, such
+deep-rooted kinds are less injurious than those with roots nearer
+the surface. Evelyn, in continuing his account of the walnut in
+Germany, says:
+
+    "Whenever they fell a tree, which is only the old, decayed, they
+    always plant a young one near him, and, in several places
+    betwixt Hanau and Frankfort, no young farmer whatsoever is
+    permitted to marry a wife till he bring proof that he is a
+    father of such a stated number of walnut trees; and the law is
+    inviolably observed to this day, for the extraordinary benefit
+    which this tree affords the inhabitants."
+
+What a pity that some such custom could not have prevailed during
+the past century in the United States. The author from whom I have
+just quoted adds that the Bergstrasse, which extends from Heidelberg
+to Darmstadt, is all planted with walnuts.
+
+Cold winters, however, have occasionally played havoc with the
+walnut trees in Europe, and one of these occurred in 1709, when the
+greater part of the trees were seriously injured, especially in
+Switzerland, Germany and France. Many trees were cut down for their
+timber, which is always in great demand for gun-stocks and
+furniture. Certain Dutch capitalists, foreseeing the scarcity of
+walnut timber, bought up all they could procure, and years
+afterwards sold it at a greatly advanced price. In the year 1720 an
+act was passed in France to prevent the exportation of walnut
+timber, and this led to the planting of these trees more extensively
+than at any previous date; this practice has continued to the
+present time, hence the immense revenue secured from the exportation
+of these nuts. The people of the United States are good customers
+for the surplus stock of Europe, and will probably so continue,
+until we wake up to a sense of our folly of perpetually buying
+articles that could be readily produced at home, and at a very large
+profit.
+
+=Persian Walnut in America.=--The date of the first experiment in
+planting this nut in this country is now probably unknown, but the
+oldest tree that I have been able to find with anything like a
+satisfactory history, is still growing vigorously at Washington
+Heights, on Manhattan Island, near 160th street and St. Nicholas
+avenue. I gave a brief history of this noble monarch of its race in
+the _American Garden_ for September, 1888, from which the following
+account is condensed:
+
+    "In 1758 Roger Morris, an English gentleman, built a spacious
+    mansion on his estate, at what, in later years, became known as
+    Washington Heights. His grounds were well laid out for that
+    time, and many rare foreign trees and shrubs planted, among them
+    several, as then called, English walnuts. Whether these trees
+    were raised from the nuts, or plants of some size imported, is
+    not now known. Mr. Morris may have procured the seedlings from
+    the Prince Nursery, Flushing, L. I., for this famous garden was
+    established in 1713, or forty-five years previous to the
+    building of the Morris mansion and the planting of the grounds
+    about it.
+
+    "At that period no one doubted the hardiness of the so-called
+    English walnut in America, and as most of the nuts and trees
+    procured for planting came from acclimated stock in Great
+    Britain or the cooler region of Europe, success usually attended
+    such experiments. Our pioneers and horticulturists fully
+    expected that the trees would thrive and bear nuts in abundance,
+    and time has shown that they were not mistaken, although we
+    frequently see it stated at this late day, that the Persian
+    walnut is not hardy north of the latitude of Washington,
+    Philadelphia, or other cities south of New York.
+
+    "One hundred and thirty-eight years have rolled by since walnut
+    trees were planted at Washington Heights, and at least one of
+    the originals has escaped destruction and holds its head aloft,
+    defying the tempests which frequently sweep over that elevated
+    and exposed spot on Manhattan Island. This veritable patriarch
+    of its race in America is a monster in size, its stem between
+    four and five feet in diameter at the base and more than
+    seventy-five feet high, with wide-spreading branches.
+
+    "In the summer of 1776 the Battle of Long Island was fought, and
+    the American forces were compelled to retreat in confusion to
+    New York, thence northward up the island; but when they reached
+    Fort Washington, not far from the eleventh milestone on the old
+    Albany post road, they made a stand and proceeded to entrench
+    themselves at that place. This was in September, 1776, and
+    General Washington took possession of the Morris mansion near
+    by, making it his headquarters, and, as this was at the season
+    when the walnuts had reached an edible stage, we may safely
+    presume, from his well-known predilection for such delicacies,
+    that he tested the quality of the Morris walnuts. One hundred
+    and twenty years later I am writing this, with some fresh
+    specimens of nuts before me from that same old tree.
+
+    "This old patriarch has cast its shade over many a noted person
+    in its time, for in 1810 the Morris estate passed into the hands
+    of Madame Jumel, a lady long famous for her hospitality and the
+    good cheer she extended to the surviving patriots of the
+    Revolution. From 1810 to the time of her death, 1865, Madame
+    Jumel's household always had an abundance of walnuts from the
+    old tree, and one of the workmen on the place informed me that
+    about two cartloads was considered a fair annual crop."
+
+It cannot be many years before this old tree will meet the same fate
+that has overtaken many of its younger contemporaries which were
+once growing in the neighborhood, for with the rush for building
+lots and the opening of new streets and avenues, trees are usually
+in the way, and in such cases even patriarchs are not sacred, nor do
+they command much respect from our urban population.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: Since writing the above, and while these pages are
+being put in type, accidentally I learn with regret that the old
+Morris walnut tree has been destroyed.]
+
+A half-century ago there was quite a large number of walnut trees
+scattered about on the northern half of Manhattan Island, many of
+these probably descendants of the old Morris trees, but of this
+nothing definite is now known. A number of persons whose ages
+permitted them to scan the early days of the present century, have
+assured me that in their childhood they had often collected walnuts
+from goodly sized trees on farms, from Harlem northward on the
+island. The largest number of Persian walnut trees planted in any
+one place was on the Tieman farm at Manhattanville, these being set
+out as roadside trees, some of which are still standing, although in
+the march of improvements they must soon disappear. These trees have
+always been noted for their productiveness, bearing a full crop
+every alternate year, and a lighter one in what is termed the "off
+season."
+
+While the old Morris walnut tree, and the large number growing on
+the Tieman estate, and scores of others scattered about New York
+city and its suburbs, have been, and many still are, living
+witnesses of the fact that varieties of the Persian walnut will
+thrive in this latitude, certain horticultural authors and essayists
+have continually asserted the contrary.
+
+Mr. F. J. Scott, in his superb and voluminous work, "Suburban Home
+Grounds," in speaking of this species of the walnut, says, p. 351:
+
+    "Though greatly valued in England and on the continent for its
+    beauty, as well as for its nuts, its want of hardiness in the
+    Northern States, and lack of any peculiar beauty in the South,
+    has prevented its culture to any great extent in this country.
+    South of Philadelphia it may be grown with safety."
+
+This seems strange language to have come from such an eminent
+authority as the late Mr. Scott, inasmuch as he must have passed a
+hundred times within sight, if not in the very shadow of the rows of
+old walnut trees growing at Manhattanville, when going from New York
+city to Newburgh, where he studied landscape gardening under the
+lamented A. J. Downing, and to whom the work from which I have
+quoted is dedicated. It is quite evident, however, that our author,
+like many others, failed to see things that should have interested
+him.
+
+As an offset to Mr. Scott's idea of the northern limit for the
+successful cultivation of this nut, I may refer to the work of Mr.
+George Jacques, "Practical Treatise on Fruit Trees, Adapted to the
+Interior of New England," published at Worcester, Mass., 1849. In
+referring to the European walnut, p. 238, he says:
+
+    "It is perfectly hardy on Long Island, and to the south of New
+    York, and as far north as the city of Charlestown in this State
+    (Mass.), where there may be seen, in the enclosure of a
+    residence on Harvard street, two fine trees of this kind, either
+    of them much taller and larger than our large-sized apple trees.
+    We have eaten nuts from these trees well ripened and fully equal
+    to any of those imported. The trees often bear a crop of some
+    bushels."
+
+It is unnecessary to search for further proof to show that certain
+excellent varieties of the Persian walnut do thrive and bear
+abundantly in our Northern States; not, perhaps, in the extreme
+boreal borders of New England, nor in those of the northwest, but
+the acclimated sorts are pretty safe as far north as 42� of
+latitude, and in protected locations may crowd up a half degree
+more. I have found very productive trees of this nut in northern New
+Jersey, several in Bergen county, others in Passaic, and thence
+southward, and while they are few in number, they are sufficient to
+prove that this tree is adapted to the soil and climate of the
+entire State. We seldom find more than one or two trees in any
+garden, and these are probably more the result of accident than
+design, their owners seeming to be satisfied in possessing something
+in the way of a tree not common in the neighborhood, never thinking
+that it might be well to plant enough of such trees to have them
+become a source of revenue. The parentage of quite a number of these
+bearing trees is readily traced to the Morris and Tieman stock,
+showing that these old trees are of a hardy and prolific race, which
+are well worthy of perpetuation for cold climates. Very old and
+large walnut trees are reported as growing in Pennsylvania and other
+of the Middle States, but they are far from being numerous. It has
+long been claimed that this species of nut succeeded best in the
+Southern States, and it is probably true, especially with the tender
+varieties; but for some reason, unknown to me, they have not been
+planted there in sufficient numbers to have, as yet, become of any
+commercial importance.
+
+During the past twenty-five years these nuts have been more
+extensively planted in California than elsewhere in the United
+States, and we may expect soon to know something definite in regard
+to results. Nearly all of the favorite French varieties have been
+introduced, and are now being tested in different parts of the
+State, and it is quite likely that the greater part will succeed,
+although some of the early-blooming sorts may fail in localities
+subject to late spring frosts. Previous to the introduction of
+grafted trees of the named varieties, the only trees of this kind
+planted in California were seedlings raised from the common imported
+nuts; but I have no statistics at hand to determine the date of the
+first plantings of this kind.
+
+Of late years there has been received, at some of our seaports, and
+especially at New York, some quite large consignments of walnuts
+from South America, under the name of "Chile walnuts," but they are
+only varieties of the Persian raised in Chile. They are generally of
+good size, moderately thin shelled, with plump kernels of excellent
+flavor. They are in great demand for confectionery, and are really
+better for such purposes than the larger and fancy bleached walnuts
+imported under the somewhat general name of Grenobles, or French
+walnuts. Owing to the difference of climate, these Chile walnuts
+arrive here late in winter, or about the time those coming from
+European countries the previous autumn begin to become somewhat
+stale.
+
+Of our native species of this genus (_Juglans_), the almost
+everywhere common butternut ranks first in flavor and general
+estimation, but owing to its hard, rough shell, and the difficulty
+in extracting the kernel, it has never become of any considerable
+importance, although usually found in our markets in limited
+quantities. Of course, it is a general favorite in the country, and
+wherever found in sufficient quantities the boys and girls lay up a
+goodly supply for winter use; and cracking butternuts during the
+long winter evenings is a pastime and pleasure not to be ignored nor
+forgotten. The flavor of the butternut is far more delicate, and
+better, than any of the Persian species, but the difficulty in
+extracting the rather small kernel is a serious objection.
+
+The black walnut has a larger kernel, in proportion to its size,
+than the butternut, and it is not so difficult to extract when the
+nuts are dry, but the flavor is too rank for most palates, although
+it has often been referred to as excellent by the earlier botanists
+who visited this country; but it has never been considered of much
+value until quite recently, or since the manufacturers of
+confectionery discovered that heat somewhat subdued the rank flavor,
+and now many tons of the meats are annually consumed in candies and
+walnut cakes. I am credibly informed that cracking black walnuts and
+shipping the meats to our larger cities has become quite an
+extensive industry in several of the Middle and Western States. We
+have two other but smaller native species of the walnut that will be
+described further on, under the head Species and Varieties.
+
+=Propagation of Walnuts.=--The propagation of the walnut in the
+natural way, or by seed, is exceedingly simple, for the nuts grow
+readily and freely if planted soon after they are ripe, or any time
+before they become old and the kernels shriveled. It is, of course,
+best to plant them while fresh, but they are not at all delicate,
+and may be transported a long distance in a dry condition without
+seriously affecting their vitality. If walnuts are given the same
+care as recommended in the preceding pages for other kinds of nuts,
+so much the better.
+
+The seedlings of walnuts, like those of other species, usually
+produce long taproots, and if grown in a compact soil, these will
+have few small lateral fibers the first season, as shown in Fig. 75;
+but when taken up and the vertical main root shortened at _a_, and
+then replanted, they produce fibrous roots in abundance. The trees
+of almost any age from one to twenty years old, are not at all
+difficult to make live when transplanted, provided the branches or
+tops of the trees are reduced, to correspond with loss of roots in
+digging up at the time of removal. It may be well to give a word of
+caution to the novice in nut culture about pruning nut trees in
+spring, after the sap begins to flow; for if done at this time they
+will bleed freely and leave unhealthy wounds and black, unsightly
+spots on the bark. Prune walnuts in summer or early in winter, to
+give time for the wounds to season before the buds swell in spring.
+If young trees are to be dug up, prune after they are taken from the
+ground, then the sap will not flow from the wounds. This is true of
+all deciduous trees, vines and shrubs. If the trees have few small
+roots when taken up, prune severely; but if roots are abundant,
+little pruning will be required. It is seldom, however, in
+transplanting walnuts, that the pruning need be as severe as
+recommended for the chestnut; in fact, having transplanted walnuts
+of various species, and of all ages from one to twenty years,
+without the loss of a plant, I have come to the conclusion that they
+are pretty safe trees to handle, in this climate, at least, if not
+elsewhere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75. SEEDLING WALNUT.]
+
+In seeking walnuts from a distance, for planting anywhere in the
+Middle or Northern States, it will be well to learn something in
+advance about the climate in which the nuts are raised; for it would
+be folly to send for either trees or nuts to a warm or semi-tropical
+region, like that of southern France or Spain, for a stock to
+cultivate in a climate as cold as that of New York, New Jersey, and
+States on the same line westward. We might, perchance, from such
+importation, secure one hardy plant in a hundred or thousand, but
+there would be no certainty of even this small number.
+
+This idea of acclimation and adaptation of trees to conditions and
+climate should not be overlooked by the nut culturist, no matter
+from what source he procures his stock, whether from abroad, or some
+distant region of his own country. If it can be obtained from a
+region where it has been growing under conditions similar to those
+to which it is to be transferred for cultivation, then the chances
+of success will certainly be largely augmented. Acclimation is a
+slow process; in fact, too slow for us to expect to secure any
+appreciable advantages from it in a lifetime, but in nature we seek
+final results, leaving time out of the question.
+
+In raising seedling trees we cannot expect much more than a
+reproduction of the species, and not that of the parent tree. Plants
+that have been subjected to unnatural conditions and surroundings,
+as usual under cultivation, are far more likely to show a wider
+range of variation in the seedlings than those growing wild in their
+native habitats; but even the latter cannot be depended upon to
+reproduce exact types from seed. In other words, there is nothing
+certain about seedling nut trees; the large nuts may produce trees
+bearing very small ones, the early-ripening give late ones, the tall
+dwarf trees and the precocious fruiting some of the most tardy
+varieties; and yet, with all this uncertainty, we still think it
+best to select for planting the best nuts obtainable, _i. e._, best
+and most promising for the conditions under which the seedlings are
+to be grown.
+
+For the multiplication and perpetuation of choice varieties we must
+resort to artificial modes of propagation, mainly by budding and
+grafting. These modes, however, while the best at present known, are
+so difficult and uncertain in cool climates,--even in the hands of
+the most skilful propagators,--that grafted walnut trees have never
+been very plentiful in the nurseries of this or other countries with
+which we have commercial relations. In the south of France
+nurserymen appear to have been more successful in the propagation of
+walnuts by budding and grafting, than elsewhere; but in the northern
+provinces, as well as in Great Britain, we hear little of this mode
+of propagation. So difficult has this mode of propagating the walnut
+been considered in England, that Thomas Andrew Knight, president of
+the London Horticultural Society, early in the present century
+discouraged all attempts to propagate this tree by such means; but
+later, in a paper read before the Society April 7, 1818, he admits
+to having changed his mind, especially in regard to budding the
+walnut, and says:
+
+    "The buds of trees of almost every species succeed with most
+    certainty when inserted on the shoots of the same year's growth;
+    but the walnut tree appears to afford an exception; possibly, in
+    some measure, because its buds contain within themselves, in the
+    spring, all the leaves which the tree bears in the following
+    summer, whence its annual shoots cease to elongate soon after
+    its buds unfold; all its buds of each season are also,
+    consequently, very nearly of the same age, and long before any
+    have acquired the proper degree of maturity for being removed,
+    the annual branches have ceased to grow longer or to produce new
+    foliage.... To obviate the disadvantage arising from the
+    preceding circumstances, I adopted means of retarding the period
+    of the vegetation of the stocks comparatively with that of the
+    bearing tree: and by these means I became partially successful.
+    There are, at the base of the annual shoots of the walnut and
+    other trees, where these join the year-old wood, many minute
+    buds which are almost concealed in the bark, and which rarely or
+    never vegetate but in the event of the destruction of the large
+    prominent buds which occupy the middle and opposite end of the
+    annual wood. By inserting in each stock one of these minute buds
+    and one of the large prominent kind, I had the pleasure to find
+    that the minute buds took freely, while the large all failed
+    without a single exception."
+
+From the above and other remarks of Mr. Knight, in the paper read by
+him, I infer that he kept the stocks in pots stored in a cool place
+in spring, until he could obtain shoots of the season from bearing
+trees, and from these minute undeveloped axillary buds for inserting
+in the stocks. These buds, as he informs us, are inserted in the
+wood of the preceding season, and near the summit or top. He does
+not give any directions for holding the buds in place, whether by
+waxed or plain bass ligatures; the former, however, would probably
+be preferable, for the purpose of excluding the air and water.
+
+Some twenty years later (1838) J. C. Loudon, in "Arboretum
+Britannicum," etc., refers to the propagation of the walnut as
+follows:
+
+    "Much has been written on the subject by French authors, from
+    which it appears that in the north of France, and in cold
+    countries generally, the walnut does not bud or graft easily by
+    any mode; but that in the south of France and north of Italy it
+    may be budded or grafted by different modes, with success. At
+    Metz, the Baron de Tschoudy found the flute method (Fig. 76)
+    almost the only one which he could practice with success. By
+    this mode an entire ring of bark, containing one or more buds,
+    is removed from a twig on a tree to be multiplied, and
+    transferred to the stock, and made to fit as shown. If the ring
+    is too large, a slice may be cut off; and if too small, a piece
+    of the bark of the stock may be left to fill the space."
+
+Both stock and parent tree must be in about the same condition or
+stage of growth when this ring budding is done, in order that the
+bark containing the bud may peel off freely from the wood, and this
+is always in the spring, soon after the buds begin to unfold and the
+sap is in motion. Loudon says that in Dauphine, France, young plants
+in the nurseries are budded chiefly by this mode, which succeeds
+best the closer the operation is performed to the collar of the
+plant; and the same is true in grafting, the nearer the root the
+better, as has been found by experience with hickories.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76. FLUTE BUDDING.]
+
+Charles Baltet, in his "L'Art de Greffer," recommends grafting in
+the usual mode of crown grafting, also flute or ring grafting, in
+April or May, and ordinary cleft grafting close to the root and at
+the forks of the branches, etc. He says that the cion should be cut,
+as much as possible, obliquely across the pith, so that it may be
+exposed on one side only. He also advises using cions whose base
+consists of wood of two years' growth, and these furnished with a
+terminal bud. He cautions propagators against grafting early-growing
+kinds upon those of later vegetation. If walnuts of any of the
+native or foreign species have been successfully propagated by
+budding or grafting, at any of the nurseries in our Eastern States,
+it has not been made known in the nurserymen's catalogues.
+
+Michael Floy, who early in the present century had quite extensive
+grounds devoted to fruit and ornamental trees, near what is now the
+center of New York city, as we learn from his "Guide to the
+Orchard," published in 1833, claims, in this work, that the Persian
+walnuts thrive well in this country, but admits that he had never
+succeeded in grafting the trees, and with the hickories had no
+better success, although he had tried them many times; but he adds:
+
+    "Still I do not say it is impossible either to bud or graft
+    them; but there is something peculiar about it, for both the bud
+    and graft turn black when cut, almost instantaneously. Others
+    may succeed better, but let them try it before they affirm it
+    upon hearsay; they may succeed very well by inarching."
+
+Coming down to the present day, in our search for facts and
+information in regard to the propagation of varieties of the walnut,
+we may find it interesting to visit California, which, of all the
+States of the Union, is perhaps the best adapted to nut culture in
+general; besides, a larger number of nut trees of various kinds have
+been planted there than elsewhere in this country. It is in
+California that we find such men as Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, an
+enthusiastic propagator and cultivator of fruit and nut trees, and
+especially of the latter, if we may judge by his works and writings
+on this branch of horticulture,--and so far as I have been able to
+learn, he is the only nurseryman in the United States who has
+grafted walnut trees of many different varieties for sale.
+
+In regard to modes of propagation, Mr. Gillet says that the common
+mode of shield budding, as employed on fruit trees, fails entirely
+with small walnuts from one to three years from the seed, and it
+does but seldom succeed even on larger stocks. When tried on large,
+old stocks, he advises removing all the wood from the inner side of
+the strip of bark on which the bud is situated, and at the same time
+have this strip not less than two inches long and as broad as
+possible. He describes his mode of grafting walnuts, which does not
+differ materially from those already given. That he has never
+attained any very remarkable results may be inferred from the
+following:
+
+        "We will add that the 'grafted walnuts' that we offer were
+    grafted expressly for us, regardless of cost, by the most
+    reliable firm to be found in the walnut district in France,
+    through a process discovered several years ago, and which we
+    will briefly describe for the benefit of people who may be
+    inclined to try this new method of grafting very young walnuts.
+
+    "One-year-old seedlings of the size of the little finger, or
+    about one-half inch in diameter at the butt, are selected, the
+    root cut back short enough to permit the planting of the trees
+    in pots of three inches in depth; the trees, previously to being
+    potted, are grafted with cions exactly of the same size, whip or
+    cleft grafting being used; the pots are then taken to a hot or
+    propagating house, and a glass bell set over them to prevent the
+    outside air getting to the grafts, the temperature of the house
+    being kept day and night, at least for fifteen days, or till the
+    grafting has taken, to 70� F. When the grafts are well taken and
+    growing, the glass bells are removed, and the grafts allowed to
+    grow three or four inches, before the little grafted trees are
+    set out in nursery rows; it may be preferable, especially in
+    certain parts of the country, to keep the trees in the pots till
+    the ensuing spring. Forty to fifty per cent of the grafts will
+    succeed, and it is the best that can be done.
+
+    "This mode of grafting the walnut, besides requiring a hothouse,
+    needs the care of a skillful person to make it succeed. So are
+    grafted the little trees that we import from France, and that we
+    plant in nursery rows and offer to the public."
+
+For other modes of root grafting, I refer the reader to those
+recommended for the hickories, in the preceding chapter. Propagating
+walnuts by layers is practicable, where the small trees have been
+cut down to force out new shoots near the surface of the ground,
+then bent down and covered with soil in the usual method of layering
+woody plants.
+
+=Planting and Pruning.=--The plants will produce a greater number of
+fibrous roots if the nuts are planted in light, loose, but rich
+soil, than in a heavy, tenacious one; but with all kinds it is best
+to transplant when one or two years old, and cut off a portion of
+the taproots, as recommended for the hickories. When removed from
+the nursery rows for final planting, prune away nearly or quite all
+side branches, leaving only the terminal bud if the trees are not
+more than six to eight feet high. After final planting where the
+trees are to remain permanently, very little pruning will ever be
+required, further than to cut away branches that may cross each
+other, or to shorten some to give proper form to the head. No tree
+in cultivation requires less pruning than walnuts.
+
+As a genus of trees the walnuts flourish best in deep, rich loam,
+rather light than heavy, and in this country require considerable
+moisture at the roots, and some, like the butternut, succeed best in
+bottomlands, near creeks and larger streams. If the soil is
+naturally too dry for such trees, the fault can be readily remedied
+by the use of some form of mulch applied to the surface of the soil
+around the stem after planting, renewing this annually, or oftener
+if necessary, until the trees are large enough to shade the ground.
+
+Walnut trees, as well as the closely allied hickories, are well
+adapted for roadside planting, and when set in such positions are
+far less likely to be injured by insects than when planted in
+orchards or large groups, besides serving a double purpose, being
+ornamental as well as useful. They may also be planted around
+buildings, and where other and less valuable trees are generally
+grown. There are also millions of acres of rocky hill-sides and old
+fields which might be utilized for nut orchards, and if rather
+widely scattered over such land they would prove beneficial in
+shading the pasture grasses. First of all, however, let us have rows
+of these trees along all our country roads, after which it will be
+time enough to begin planting them elsewhere.
+
+
+SPECIES AND VARIETIES OF WALNUTS.
+
+=Native of the United States= (_Juglans cinerea._ Linn.). Butternut.
+White Walnut.--Leaflets fifteen to nineteen, oblong-lanceolate and
+sharp-pointed, rounded at the base, downy, especially on the
+underside, petioles covered with viscid hairs; fruit oblong, two or
+more inches in length, with a clammy husk, not opening when ripe,
+but closely adhering to the deeply corrugated and rough, thick
+shell. Trees with wide-spreading branches, and of medium hight, or
+from forty to fifty feet, but in deep forests sometimes sixty to
+seventy, with stems two to three feet in diameter. A common tree in
+moist soils almost everywhere, from the Canadas southward to the
+highlands of northern Georgia, Alabama, and sparingly in Mississippi
+and Arkansas, and all the States bordering the Mississippi river
+northward to Minnesota. A valuable timber tree, with soft, light
+wood, much used of late for furniture and inside house finishing. In
+early times the inner bark was employed for making a yellow dye,
+also as a medicine, the extract being a mild cathartic, hence one of
+the specific names, _Cathartica_.
+
+Synonyms.
+
+  _Juglans oblonga alba_, Marshall.
+  _Juglans cathartica_, Michaux.
+  _Carya cathartica_, Barton, 1818.
+  _Wallia cinerea_, Alefeld, 1861.
+
+=Varieties of the Butternut.=--There are to be found many varieties
+of the butternut, varying mainly in the size of the nuts, and only
+slightly in the thickness of the shell; but I am not aware that any
+of these have ever been propagated, all the trees in cultivation or
+elsewhere having been grown from the nuts. This nut is, no doubt,
+susceptible of great improvement, as well as others of the genus,
+and it is worthy of being experimented with for that purpose,
+especially in cold, northern climates, where there are few or no
+other kinds of edible nuts. Probably the most direct and surest way
+to secure improved varieties is by hybridizing, taking the butternut
+for the female parent, and the Persian walnut for the male. Hybrids
+between these two species are already known, and they will, no
+doubt, become more plentiful as soon as skillful horticulturists are
+encouraged to produce them. Several hybrid walnuts of other species
+are figured and described by European horticulturists, but, so far
+as known, they are mainly accidental productions, and not the result
+of any direct effort of man; nature, in this instance, merely giving
+a hint of the possible, leaving us to avail ourselves of the lesson
+if we feel so inclined.
+
+J. Le Conte, in a list of four hundred and fifty plants, collected
+by him on the island of New York (Manhattan), and published in the
+"Medical and Philosophical Register," Vol. II, 1812, mentions a
+hybrid walnut among the number. Dr. John Torrey, in "Catalogue of
+Plants," etc., 1819, refers to this tree under the name of _Juglans
+hybrida_, and says that it is growing near where Eighth avenue
+intersects the road called Lake Tours, about three miles from the
+city, and is a large tree. This specimen probably disappeared long
+ago, and we have no means now of determining its origin or between
+what two species it was a hybrid.
+
+Recently Prof. C. S. Sargent has discovered other hybrid walnuts in
+the neighborhood of Boston, and figured and described one in _Garden
+and Forest_ for Oct. 31, 1894. He says:
+
+    "My attention was first called to the fact by observing that a
+    tree which I had supposed was a so-called English walnut
+    (_Juglans regia_), in the grounds connected with the Episcopal
+    school of Harvard college, at Cambridge, was not injured by the
+    cold of the severest winters, although _Juglans regia_ generally
+    suffers from cold here, and rarely grows to a large size. This
+    individual is really a noble tree; the trunk forks, about five
+    feet above the surface of the ground, into two limbs, and
+    girths, at the point where its diameter is smallest, fifteen
+    feet and two inches. The divisions of the trunk spread slightly
+    and form a wide, round-topped head of pendulous branches of
+    unusual symmetry and beauty, and probably sixty to seventy feet
+    high. A closer examination of this tree showed that it was
+    hardly to be distinguished from _Juglans regia_ in habit, in the
+    character of the bark, or in the form and coloring of the
+    leaves, and that the oblong nut, with its thick shell deeply
+    sculptured into narrow ridges, was the slightly modified nut of
+    our native butternut, _Juglans regia_. Two other trees with the
+    same peculiarities were afterwards found. One is a large,
+    wide-spreading specimen, with a trunk diameter of four feet
+    three inches about two feet above the surface of the ground, and
+    just below the point where it divides into three large limbs.
+    This is on the grounds of Mr. Eben Bacon of Jamaica Plain, and
+    is supposed to have been planted between fifty and sixty years
+    ago. The other has a tall, straight trunk, with a diameter of
+    three feet one inch at three feet above the surface of the
+    ground, and is growing on a farm near Houghton's Pond, in
+    Milton, at the base of the southeastern slope of the Blue
+    Hills."
+
+That there should be hybrid walnuts is nothing strange or wonderful,
+and we often marvel that there should be so few of them in regions
+where two or more species are growing in close proximity in the same
+forest, or elsewhere, but from whence came these specimens in
+Massachusetts is somewhat of a mystery. We may safely conclude,
+however, that the hybridizing did not occur there, but somewhere
+else, and either the nuts or small seedling trees were introduced
+and planted where these hybrid specimens are now growing. It is
+possible that they are descendants of the old hybrid walnut tree of
+New York city, mentioned by Le Conte and Dr. Torrey, some one having
+sent nuts or seedlings to friends in Massachusetts, and the three
+trees described by Prof. Sargent are merely those which have
+survived until the present day, these retaining the hybrid
+characteristics of their parent. These hybrids may or may not
+possess any special economic value, but they are of considerable
+scientific interest, and for this reason alone are well worthy of
+careful preservation and extensive propagation.
+
+_Butternut Sugar._--It has often been claimed that sugar can be made
+from the native butternut tree, and while it is true that the
+sweetish sap flows readily from wounds made in this tree in early
+spring, the amount and quality of sugar to be obtained from it is
+scarcely worthy of serious attention. In my boyhood days butternut
+syrup and sugar were considered as "sticky jokes" of the sugar camp.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77. FLOWERING BRANCH OF HYBRID WALNUT.
+
+_J. regia_ � _J. Californica_.]
+
+=Hybrids in California.=--Mrs. Ninetta Eames, writing, in the
+_American Agriculturist_, of new varieties of walnuts in California,
+refers to certain species and varieties growing in that State, as
+follows:
+
+     "On one of the avenues in Santa Rosa there are some dozen or so
+    ornamental shade trees, which invariably attract the passers. It
+    is not only that they are uncommonly beautiful, but that there
+    is something unfamiliar about them. One unhesitatingly
+    pronounces them 'walnuts,' from their unmistakable likeness to
+    both the English walnut and the native species found growing
+    along the streams of middle and southern California. They are,
+    in fact, a cross between the _Juglans regia_ and _J.
+    Californica_, the wild black walnut of this State. In its
+    appearance, this magnificent hybrid is nicely balanced between
+    both parents, but it is superior to either of them in beauty and
+    luxuriance of foliage, and in its phenomenal growth. There is,
+    indeed, but one tree, the eucalyptus, that grows more rapidly.
+    In speaking of this quality in the new walnut, Mr. Luther
+    Burbank says: 'It often excels the combined growth of both
+    parents, adding twelve to sixteen feet to its hight in one year.
+    Given like conditions, a budded six-year-old hybrid is twice as
+    large as a black walnut at twenty years of age.'
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78. HYBRID WALNUT. _J. nigra_ � _J.
+Californica_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79. HYBRID WALNUT, SHELL REMOVED. _J. nigra_ �
+_J. Californica_.]
+
+    "The clean cut, bright green leaves make a remarkable showing,
+    being all the way from two feet to a yard in length, and of
+    graceful, drooping habit (Fig. 77). They are sweet-scented,
+    too,--a delightful fragrance, resembling that of June apples.
+    Another admirable feature of this hybrid walnut is its smooth,
+    grayish bark, with white marblings not unlike the Eastern sugar
+    maple. The wood is compact, with lustrous, satiny grain, and
+    takes an elegant polish, which gives it unmistakable commercial
+    value. Like the majority of hybrids, though blossoming freely it
+    yields a scant crop of nuts, one or two annually on a single
+    tree, and this only after twelve years of persistent barrenness.
+    The seed, when planted, goes back to its parent
+    distinctiveness,--one-half turning out to be English walnuts and
+    the other half black walnuts,--the true hybrid being only
+    reproduced by grafting on a thrifty young _Juglans Californica_.
+
+    "Another handsome novelty in shade trees, is a hybrid from the
+    _Juglans nigra_, or well-known Eastern black walnut, and _J.
+    Californica_ (Figs. 78 and 79). It makes a charming ornamental
+    tree, and bears, in its season, a prolific crop of unusually
+    large nuts, which have little value except in the eyes of school
+    children. Several of these hybrids are growing in Santa Rosa,
+    and present an interesting study to the pomologist.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80. JUGLANS SIEBOLDIANA RACEME.]
+
+    "A still more unique species of the walnut genus is the _Juglans
+    Sieboldiana_, a Japanese walnut which grows abundantly in the
+    mountainous districts of the island of Yesso, and also in the
+    more southern divisions of the empire. Several of these
+    remarkable trees are to be found in the Kew gardens, but only
+    one specimen is said to be growing in America, and this has
+    recently come into profuse bearing on the Burbank experimental
+    farm, eight miles from Santa Rosa, California. According to good
+    authority, this Japanese walnut not only attains its greatest
+    perfection in this favored climate, but it thrives equally well
+    in countries too cold for the common walnut, _J. regia_. In its
+    wild state in Japan, the _Juglans Sieboldiana_ (whose curious
+    raceme of nuts is shown in Fig. 80) makes a wide-spreading tree
+    about fifty feet in hight, with pale, furrowed bark; nuts an
+    inch and a half long, with a diameter one-third less, and a
+    kernel having much the flavor of the common walnut. The tree
+    bearing so thriftily on California soil, suggests its possible
+    value as a marketable nut, while it already furnishes a
+    remarkable addition to horticultural interests."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81. BLACK WALNUT IN HUSK.]
+
+JUGLANS NIGRA, Linn. Black Walnut.--Leaflets eleven to seventeen,
+rarely more; ovate-lanceolate, smooth above, moderately pubescent
+beneath, pointed, somewhat heart-shaped at the base; leaf-stalks
+slightly downy, usually of a pale purplish color early in the
+season, especially on young trees; fruit large, mostly globose (Fig.
+81); husk thin, roughly dotted; shell thick, hard, deeply and
+unevenly corrugated with rough, sharp ridges and points (Fig. 82);
+kernel large, sweet, but usually with a strong, rather rank taste,
+but less oily than the butternut. Trees grow to an immense size,
+with deeply furrowed bark; wood dark colored, valuable for cabinet
+work, inside finishing, gun stocks, etc. Common in deep, rich soils,
+from western Massachusetts west to southern Minnesota, and southward
+to Florida. Most abundant west of the Alleghany mountains, and
+especially in the rich valleys of the Western States distant from
+railroads and water communication; elsewhere the trees have long
+since been cut for their timber. I have only one synonym to record,
+and this is scarcely worthy of notice, viz.: _Wallia nigra_.
+(Alefeld in "Bonplandia," 1861.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82. JUGLANS NIGRA, HUSK REMOVED.]
+
+=Varieties of the Black Walnut.=--As with the butternut, there are
+no varieties of the black walnut in cultivation; at least, none
+propagated by means which will insure the perpetuation of their
+varietal characteristics. It is true that there are plenty of wild
+varieties to be found, these varying widely in size and form, and
+somewhat in thickness of their shell, as well as the ease with which
+the kernels may be extracted, but none of these have been
+perpetuated by artificial means. Among the earliest varieties
+recognized by botanists, one was called Oblong Black Walnut,
+_Juglans nigra oblonga_, by Miller, 1754, and perhaps in earlier
+editions of the "Gardener's Dictionary." He says this is from
+Virginia, and only a variety of the common black walnut. Marshall,
+in 1785, describes this "black oblong fruited walnut," and adds:
+"There are, perhaps, some other varieties." These oblong, or, more
+correctly speaking, oval nuts, often sharp-pointed at both ends, are
+rather plentiful at this time. There are rarely any considerable
+number of bushels reaching market from Virginia and adjacent States,
+among which these oval or oblong nuts cannot be found. I have a
+number before me measuring from one inch to one and a quarter in
+diameter, and from one and a half to nearly two inches in length.
+Other varieties found, perhaps, in the same lot, are broader than
+long, or one and seven-eighths inches broad, by one and one-half in
+vertical diameter. These measurements are of the cleaned shell,
+after the husks have been removed.
+
+For several years a "thin-shelled black walnut" has been offered by
+at least two nurserymen, in whose catalogues they are described as
+"with unusually thin shells, the kernels coming out whole." I have
+endeavored to ascertain the origin of this variety, but failed, for
+both of the nursery firms who advertised the frees for sale admit
+that they do not know from whom they obtained the nuts planted, or
+where the original tree is growing. As the trees offered are only
+seedlings, there is no certainty that they will produce nuts with
+"thin shells." We can safely drop this supposed variety from the
+list until something definite is known about it.
+
+JUGLANS CALIFORNICA, Watson. California Walnut.--Leaflets in from
+five to eight pairs, more or less downy, but sometimes smooth,
+oblong-lanceolate, sharp-pointed, narrowing upward from near the
+base, two to two and a half inches long. Male catkins much larger
+than in our Eastern species, or from four to eight inches, often in
+pairs. Fruit round, slightly compressed, three-fourths to one inch
+and a quarter in diameter; husk thin, slightly dotted or roughened;
+shell dark brown, very faintly sculptured (Fig. 83), almost smooth,
+thick, the kernel filling two broad cavities upon each side; edible
+and fairly good. A tree or large shrub in the vicinity of San
+Francisco and along the Sacramento (where it is sometimes
+cultivated), growing to the hight of forty to sixty feet, and two to
+four feet in diameter; ranging southward to Santa Barbara, and
+eastward through southern Arizona to New Mexico and Sonora (Thurber,
+"Botany of California"). This species has been considered by some
+botanists as only a variety of the next, or _Juglans rupestris_,
+var. _Major_, Torrey. Scarcely hardy in the latitude of New York
+city, except an occasional seedling from nuts gathered along the
+northern limits of the species, or from the cooler elevated regions
+of the Pacific slope. It is of no special value, only adding one
+more edible nut tree to the list.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83. JUGLANS CALIFORNICA.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84. JUGLANS RUPESTRIS, SHOWING SMALL KERNEL.]
+
+JUGLANS RUPESTRIS, Engelmann. Texas Walnut. New Mexico
+Walnut.--Leaflets thirteen to twenty-five, smooth, bright green,
+small, narrow, and long-pointed; male catkins short, or about two
+inches long, and quite slender; fruit round or oblate; husk thin,
+nearly smooth; nut small, one-half to three-fourths of an inch in
+diameter; shell very thick, rather deeply furrowed, the narrow
+grooves on the greater part continuous from base to apex, the broad
+edges of the ridges smooth, not jagged as in the butternut and black
+walnut. Kernel sweet and good, but so small (Fig. 84) as not to be
+worth the trouble of extracting. A small and neat tree twenty to
+forty feet high, native of the bottom lands of the Colorado in
+Texas, and throughout the western part of the State, extending
+through southern and central New Mexico to Arizona. In New Mexico it
+reaches an elevation of seven or eight thousand feet, though the
+climate is often severe, the temperature dropping to zero and below
+during the winter. Seedlings raised from nuts obtained near the
+northern limits of this species in Texas and New Mexico would
+probably be hardy in most of the Northern States, but they are
+scarcely worth cultivating for their nuts, owing to the small size
+and thick shell; but as the trees are neat and graceful they are
+worthy of a place among other useful and ornamental kinds. An
+occasional bearing tree of this Texas walnut may be seen in the
+gardens and parks of the Eastern States, and probably in some of the
+Western, but I have no direct information in regard to their
+locations or age.
+
+Synonyms:
+
+  _Juglans rupestris_, Torrey.
+  _Juglans Californica_, Watson, Bot. California.
+
+=Oriental Walnuts.=--How few or many species of the walnut are
+indigenous to China, Korea, Japan and other Oriental countries it
+would be very difficult to determine, with our present limited
+knowledge of the forests of that part of the world. The few
+botanists who have had opportunities of studying the flora of those
+regions do not agree as to names or number of species of the genus.
+Loureiro, in his "Flora Cochinchinensis" (1788), names three species
+as indigenous to China, viz.: _Juglans regia_ in the northern part,
+but this is now considered very doubtful; _Juglans Camirium_,
+Rhumphius, a medium-sized, heart-shaped nut, the trees found in the
+forests, and also under cultivation; _Juglans Catappa_, a large
+forest tree in the Cochin China mountains, with oblong, edible nuts,
+with husk and shell of nuts of a reddish color. Many years later
+Siebold describes a Japan walnut under the name of _Juglans
+Japonica_, and still later the Russian botanist, Maxiomowicz,
+renames this, in honor of Siebold, _Juglans Sieboldiana_, and
+describes another native of Japan as _Juglans cordiformis_. But
+prior to any of the authors named, Thunberg had described a Japan
+walnut under the name of _Juglans nigra_, probably the same as
+Loureiro's species, with reddish husk, but as this name had already
+been given to an American species it had to be dropped. Maxiomowicz
+also describes what he supposed to be a distinct species, found in
+the forests of Mandshuria under the name of _J. Mandshurica_ (1872),
+but it is doubtful if it is anything more than one of the many wild
+forms of the species found widely distributed over eastern Asia. The
+red or black fruited walnut of Loureiro (_J. Catappa_), and
+Siebold's black walnut (_J. nigra_), are probably the same as the
+Ailantus-leaved (_J. ailantifolia_), recently described in
+Nicholson's "Dictionary of Gardening," London, Eng., 1884, the
+origin of which is said to be uncertain. It is _Juglans
+Mandshurica_, Maxim, in Alphonse Lavall�e's "Catalogue of Arboretum
+Segrezianum." As described in this work, the young fruit is
+violet-red, and produced in long pendulous clusters, the latter
+being one of the marked characteristics of these Oriental walnuts.
+But whether we admit that there is but one or a dozen species of
+these Eastern walnuts, it cannot be of any special interest to the
+practical nut culturist, for to him their economic and commercial
+value is of more importance than scientific nomenclature.
+
+Up to the present time we have only succeeded in obtaining two
+species of these walnuts, or perhaps only one species and one
+variety; but we certainly have two distinct forms, both coming from
+Japan, and distributed under the names given them by Maxiomowicz,
+viz.:
+
+JUGLANS SIEBOLDIANA (Siebold Walnut).--Leaflets sessile, usually
+fifteen, five to seven inches long, oblong-pointed, thin, soft,
+downy, serratures very shallow, pale green above and somewhat
+lighter beneath; footstalks densely clothed with clammy hairs; fruit
+in long pendulous clusters of a half dozen to a dozen, one and a
+half inches or more long by a little more than one inch broad in the
+middle; husk thin, downy or clammy; nut somewhat compressed, the
+point usually bending to one side; shell smooth, with two shallow
+grooves from base upward on the sides opposite to the sharp,
+prominent ridges at the seams of the two lobes, the shell ending in
+a strong, sharp point (Fig. 85). The shell is very hard and thick;
+the kernel small, sweet, oily, resembling in taste our common
+butternut; tree a rapid and stocky grower, the coarse shoots and
+large leaves resembling those of the Ailantus tree at first, but
+soon spreading branches appear, forming an open, roundish head. The
+seedlings, as raised here, are abundantly supplied with small
+fibrous roots, which insures transplanting with safety. Apparently
+perfectly hardy in our Northern States, as I have heard no
+complaints of winter-killing of the young trees, although they are
+now widely distributed and in considerable numbers, but none, so far
+as I have been able to learn, have reached a bearing age here in the
+North.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85. JUGLANS SIEBOLDIANA.]
+
+Mr. P. C. Berckmans, of Augusta, Ga., in writing me under date of
+Dec. 3, 1894, says:
+
+    "Last year we fruited _Juglans Sieboldiana_ trees four years
+    from the seed. Fruit was produced in long clusters, and trees
+    exceedingly ornamental, but this year these same trees were
+    killed to the ground on the 26th of March, after they had set a
+    crop of fruit and made a young growth of more than twelve
+    inches. This untimely frost may not happen again in years, but
+    it goes to show that many varieties of trees which are
+    considered hardy further north, are sometimes destroyed here by
+    spring frosts."
+
+As these Japanese and Chinese walnuts are natives of cold climates
+they may be better adapted to the Northern than Southern States, but
+there is no locality entirely exempt from late spring frosts, as
+most farmers and fruit growers learned to their cost the past
+season. There can be little doubt of this species of walnut being
+the one described by Rhumphius under the name of _J. Camirium_, and
+more fully later by Loureiro, as already noted; but having come to
+us from Japan as Siebold's walnut, this name will answer as well as
+any other, even if it is not the proper one.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86. JUGLANS CORDIFORMIS.]
+
+JUGLANS CORDIFORMIS, Maxim.--In foliage and growth of tree this is
+almost, if not absolutely, identical with the last; the difference
+observed is in the nuts, which are also produced in pendulous
+clusters. The form of the nut is almost round (Fig. 86), rather
+blunt-pointed, but the shell is deeply and unevenly furrowed, and
+indented somewhat like our black walnut; the ridges, however, are
+not as sharp. The specimens I have received from various sources are
+not as large as the Siebold, and the shell not quite as thick, but
+the kernel is small. I may note here that there appears to be some
+confusion in regard to this variety or species, for in several
+nurserymen's catalogues this form of nut is figured as Siebold's,
+and the one that I have described under that name is called
+_Cordiformis_. The specimens received from California, Japan, and
+also from Mr. Berckmans, correspond with the names here given, but
+further investigations may show that they should be reversed. The
+one I have received as _Cordiformis_ is, doubtless, the nut
+described by Loureiro as _J. Catappa_, as an ovate-oblong nut, with
+a fibrous, leathery, reddish husk.
+
+While I do not suppose that these Oriental walnuts will ever become
+of any considerable commercial value, they are worth planting for
+shade and ornamental trees. They are rather precocious, coming into
+bearing at an early age, and the nuts are not only edible, but will
+always be an acceptable addition to the unimportant although
+agreeable household supplies.
+
+=Persian Walnuts.= _Juglans regia_, Linn. Royal Walnut, Madeira Nut,
+English Walnut, French Walnut, Chile Walnut, etc.--Leaflets five to
+nine, oval, smooth, pointed, slightly serrate; fruit round or
+slightly oval; husk thin, green, of a leathery texture, becoming
+brittle and cleaving from the nut when ripe and dry; nut
+roundish-oval, smallest at the top; shell smooth, with slight
+indentations, thin, two-valved, readily parting at the seams; kernel
+large, wrinkled and corrugated, the two lobes separated below with a
+thin, papery partition, but united at the top; sweet, oily, and
+generally esteemed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87. SMALL FRUITED WALNUT.]
+
+This species has been in cultivation many centuries, and in
+different countries and climates, and under such variable conditions
+that many of the varieties have departed widely from the normal
+type. There are now an almost innumerable number of varieties,
+varying greatly in size and form. Some are not larger than a
+good-sized pea, as seen in the "Small Fruited Walnut" (Fig. 87),
+while others are nearly as large as a man's fist, as in the
+thick-shelled or "Gibbous Walnut" (Fig. 92), while in others the nut
+is greatly elongated, as in the "Barthere Walnut" (Fig. 88), and
+hundreds of other intermediate forms. There are also varieties that
+bloom early in spring, others late. Some are very hardy, others
+quite tender in cold climates. There are also dwarf and
+tall-growing, as well as the precocious and tardy fruiting
+varieties. But very few of these have ever been cultivated in our
+Eastern States, consequently little is known of their value here;
+but more may be in the near future, when our horticulturists and
+farmers begin to plant nut trees as freely as they have other kinds,
+or are awakened to the fact that such trees can be made a source of
+pleasure and profit.
+
+Here in the Northern States our main dependence for hardy and
+productive trees of this species will be upon seedlings or cions
+from those acclimated specimens which have already been thoroughly
+tested and found to be both hardy and prolific. There are plenty of
+these, as I have stated elsewhere, and they are well worthy of
+attention and multiplication until something better is produced or
+discovered. In the meantime, the most promising European varieties
+could be imported and tested, although it is not probable that those
+originating in southern France and Italy would be of much value for
+planting in the latitude of New York city or north of it, but south
+of this line the chances of success would be somewhat greater; and
+to escape injury from late spring frosts, the more elevated regions
+are preferable to the lower and warmer anywhere in the Southern
+States. In anticipation of the question being asked, I will say
+that, at present, I do not know of any nurseryman in the Eastern
+States who propagates or imports named varieties of walnuts for
+sale. Of course, seedlings of these are offered, but it is well
+known that there is but a remote chance of these coming true from
+seed. Even the little dwarf French walnut _Pr�parturiens_, or Early
+Prolific, cannot be depended upon to produce dwarf or early bearing
+trees beyond the first generation from the nut, and these must be
+the product of grafted trees, to insure this much. The following
+list contains the names of only a few of the most noted varieties,
+the greater part having originated in Europe.
+
+AILANTUS-LEAVED WALNUT. See Oriental walnuts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88. BARTHERE WALNUT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89. CHABERTE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90. CHILE WALNUT.]
+
+BARTHERE WALNUTS. See Fig. 88.--A very long nut, pointed at both
+ends. Shell thin; kernel large and of excellent flavor. Named after
+M. Barthere, a horticulturist of Toulouse, France, who discovered it
+growing among a number of other trees; consequently, its origin is a
+mystery. M. Barthere says that it is very productive, and even the
+seedlings of this variety begin to bear very early.
+
+CHABERTE.--An old standard French variety, of an oval shape; medium
+size, with very full and rich flavored kernel (Fig. 89). The tree
+buds and blooms late, therefore especially valuable in localities
+where late spring frosts are likely to occur.
+
+CHILE WALNUT.--This name is given, in a general way, to all the
+walnuts received in our markets from South America. The nuts are
+usually of good size, with a dark grayish shell; thin but firm, with
+plump kernels of excellent flavor. These nuts arrive in February and
+March. Many of the Chile walnuts have three valves (Fig. 90),
+instead of the normal two. Such freaks are occasionally found among
+the European varieties, also in the native hickories, but these
+tri-valved nuts appear to be very abundant among the Chile walnuts.
+
+CLUSTER WALNUT. RACEMOSA OR SPICATA.--Described by Mr. Gillet as a
+variety of the Persian walnut, producing medium, thin-shelled nuts
+in long clusters of from eight to twenty-eight. He also says that he
+introduced it into this country, but from whence we are not
+informed. Lavell�e (1877) records it as a variety of _J. regia_,
+under the name of _racemosa_, giving its synonym as _Juglans
+Californica_ of the horticulturists. I have not found it mentioned
+elsewhere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91. CUT-LEAVED WALNUT.]
+
+CUT-LEAVED WALNUT.--A variety with deeply cut leaves; very
+ornamental, as seen in Fig. 91. Nuts quite small, but of good
+quality.
+
+FRANQUETTE.--Another old standard French variety, with large,
+elongated-oval nuts with a distinct point. Shell thin; kernel large,
+and of rich flavor. The tree blooms late; valuable for planting in
+the South.
+
+GANT OR BIJOU WALNUT.--A remarkable variety on account of its
+extraordinary size. The shell is thin, with rather deep furrows,
+those of the largest size being made into ladies' companions, where
+to stow away gloves or handkerchiefs, hence the name "Gant" walnut.
+The kernel, though, does not correspond to the size of the shell
+(Gillet).
+
+GIBBOUS WALNUT (Fig. 92).--This is a very large variety, supposed to
+be a hybrid, raised in France many years ago. It is of little value,
+as the shell is very thick and kernel small. Valuable mainly for its
+immense size.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92. GIBBOUS WALNUT.]
+
+KAGHAZI.--This is supposed to be a variety of the Persian walnut, of
+fair size, with a very thin shell. The tree blooms very late in
+spring, and for this reason is recommended for localities where
+there is danger from injury by frost. The tree is said to be a very
+rapid grower, and much more hardy than the general run of varieties
+of this species. I have been unable to learn its origin, but it has
+been planted quite extensively in California, and some of our
+Eastern nurserymen are offering the seedling trees for sale, but
+whether they will possess the merits of the original or not must be
+determined by experience.
+
+LARGE-FRUITED PR�PARTURIENS.--A sub-variety of the Pr�parturiens,
+originating with Mr. Felix Gillet of California.
+
+LATE PR�PARTURIENS.--Also originated with Mr. Gillet. Valuable
+because the trees bloom late in spring. Nuts described as of medium
+size, but with full kernels of excellent quality.
+
+MAYETTE.--Very large (Fig. 93), with a light-colored shell of
+moderate thickness. Kernel plump, readily extracted whole, as shown
+in Fig. 94, sweet, and a rich, nutty flavor. Tree blooms late and is
+very productive. An old and standard French variety.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93. MAYETTE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94. KERNEL OF WALNUT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95. J. REGIA OCTOGONA.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96. CROSS SECTION.]
+
+MESANGE OR PAPER-SHELL.--This nut has the thinnest shell of any
+variety known; it derives its name of Mesange from a little lark of
+that name, that goes to the kernel through the tender shell. Tree
+very productive, and the kernel quite rich in oil. We do not,
+however, recommend the growing of this variety for market, on
+account of the thinness of the shell, which breaks off too easily in
+handling the nuts, or even when they drop on the ground (Felix
+Gillet).
+
+MEYLAN WALNUT.--A French variety that originated near the little
+village of Meylan, in the vicinity of which it is quite extensively
+cultivated for home use and export.
+
+OCTOGONA.--Of uncertain origin, but very much resembles one of the
+Oriental species in the form and sculpture of the shell (Fig. 95).
+The shell is also very thick, as shown in the cross section (Fig.
+96). Of no special value.
+
+PARISIENNE WALNUT.--Although this was named for the city of Paris it
+did not originate there, but in the South of France. It is a large
+and rather broad variety, with a firm but thin shell (Fig. 97) and
+excellent flavored kernel. It is reported that this variety succeeds
+in California, also in the South wherever tried. The trees leaf out
+late in spring and are rarely injured by frosts, and are remarkably
+productive.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97. PARISIENNE.]
+
+PR�PARTURIENS. Precocious Dwarf Prolific.--A French variety of a
+dwarf habit, and the plants noted for bearing when very young. A
+correspondent of _The Garden_ (London, Eng.), referring to this
+variety some years ago, says:
+
+    "It is precocious on account of the singular and exceptional
+    fact that it is born almost an adult; in fact, it is nothing
+    uncommon to see a tree in its third year bearing excellent
+    fruit."
+
+He does not say, however, whether he refers to seedlings or grafted
+plants, but we may presume the latter or those raised from layers,
+for cultivators who have experimented with seedlings have found that
+they possess a strong tendency to revert to the original or tree
+form. This may not show itself very strongly in the first generation
+if the nuts are obtained from grafted trees of some age, but in the
+second and third generation the early-fruiting and dwarf are usually
+entirely lost. The only certain way of securing the true variety is
+by grafting or layering, but it is to be feared that very few trees
+propagated by these modes are in cultivation, at least in the
+Eastern States, although nurserymen have been offering Pr�parturiens
+walnut trees in their catalogues during the past fifty years. In one
+now before me, published in New York city in 1844, trees of this
+walnut are offered at one dollar each, or about what is charged for
+seedlings at the present time. As nothing is said in the catalogues
+about the mode of propagation, we infer that they are seedlings, as
+grafted trees would be worth more than one dollar. The nuts of this
+dwarf walnut are of medium size, thin-shelled and of excellent
+flavor; valuable for gardens of limited extent.
+
+SEROTINA. Late Walnut, St. John Walnut.--A very peculiar sort,
+inasmuch as it is the latest of all to bud and bloom in spring, and
+yet it pushes forward so rapidly that the nuts are ripe with others
+in the fall. They are of medium size (Fig. 98), with a rather hard
+shell, but the kernel is plump and good flavored. The tree is very
+productive, and sure to escape late spring frosts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98. SEROTINA OR ST. JOHN.]
+
+VILMORIN.--This is claimed to be a hybrid between some variety of
+_J. regia_ and our native black walnut, _J. nigra_. Scarcely known
+outside of France.
+
+VOUREY.--A new and splendid variety raised near Vourey, a small town
+in southeast France. It has much the same shape and qualities of the
+Parisienne walnut (Gillet).
+
+VARIEGATED WALNUT.--A handsome variety, with young branches covered
+with dark-green bark spotted with gray, and often striped
+longitudinally with yellow. The leaves resemble those of the common
+walnut; the fruit is of a light yellowish-green streaked with darker
+green, and reminds one closely of certain varieties of pears which,
+in common with this variety, frequently have their young branches
+striped in a similar manner. Propagated by grafting or layers. (_The
+Garden._)
+
+WEEPING WALNUT.--A tree with pendulous twigs and branches. Quite
+ornamental, but not especially valuable for its fruit. Hardy in
+England.
+
+In addition to those described, there are a large number of
+varieties, which may be worth importing and testing in this country,
+by those who may feel inclined to make experiments with these nuts.
+Probably some of those highly extolled by earlier writers are now
+lost, but this cannot be determined until a careful search through
+the old European gardens has been made.
+
+Among the early-fruiting or precocious varieties we find an account
+of one raised by Anthony Carlisle, of England, as recorded in a
+paper read at a meeting of the Horticultural Society of London,
+March 3, 1812. Mr. Carlisle planted six nuts in March, 1802, these
+having been received from Mr. Thomas Wedgewood of Blandford. Six
+years later, or in 1808, one of the seedlings bore and matured ten
+walnuts, and the next season (1809) upwards of fifty, and in 1810
+one hundred and twelve, the tree at that age being nineteen feet
+seven and one-half inches high. Another variety, under the name of
+Highflyer walnut, is described in the Transactions of the same
+society, Vol. IV, 1822, p. 517. The nuts sent to the society were
+grown in the town of Thetford, and are described as a long oval,
+with a shell so very thin that the slightest pressure of the fingers
+crushes it. I find that this Highflyer walnut is mentioned in the
+recently published "Dictionary of Gardening," but whether obtainable
+in English nurseries or not we are left in doubt.
+
+I refer to these English varieties mainly to show that some of the
+very best and thinnest-shelled walnuts have been grown in cool
+climates, and are not confined entirely to the warm or
+semi-tropical, as many persons seem to suppose and even claim to be
+the fact. It is principally from these English walnuts, as they are
+usually termed, that our hardy old-bearing trees, referred to
+elsewhere, have been produced, and, doubtless, many more will be,
+when we begin to pay some attention to this very valuable nut. It is
+also quite likely that when our horticulturists look about for
+choice acclimated varieties for propagation, they will be found
+right here in the grounds of next-door neighbors, and there may be
+no necessity of sending to Europe or elsewhere for either nuts or
+trees.
+
+At present there is much confusion and uncertainty in regard to the
+identity and nomenclature of both species and varieties of the
+walnut, and it must remain so until they are collected from all
+countries and climes, of which they are either native or into which
+they have been introduced, and when so collected, and fruiting
+specimens produce, it will not be difficult to classify and
+determine their synonyms. This will be an undertaking scarcely to be
+expected of the individual nut culturist, but is within the
+legitimate line of the arboretum, and of public botanical gardens
+located in both cold and warm climates, thereby securing a division
+of labor, and at the same time avoiding the uncertainty of trying to
+produce practical results under uncongenial conditions and
+surroundings.
+
+=Husking Walnuts.=--The husks of nearly all the varieties of the
+Persian and Oriental walnuts part from their shells freely when
+fully ripened and dried, but in a few varieties the husks are rather
+persistent, requiring force and friction for their removal. This may
+be accomplished by placing them in bags and shaking, or in barrels
+and rolling, until the nuts are scraped clean. But the better way,
+where there is any considerable quantity of nuts to be operated
+upon, is to take a strong barrel or cask, and so arrange it on
+standards that it can be rapidly revolved with a crank attached to
+one end. Of course, the cask must have its two heads left in place,
+and an opening made in the side to admit the nuts and remove them
+when cleaned. Almost any man handy with tools can make such a
+cleaner and polisher in a few hours, and if stored in a dry place it
+will last for several years. With butternuts and black walnuts the
+husks are much tougher, and they should be thrown into heaps in the
+open air, and turned over occasionally until the husks become
+softened sufficiently to permit of their removal, in case they are
+to be sent to market. Ordinary threshing machines may be used for
+cleaning the husks from black walnuts, by removing about one-half
+the teeth, or enough to allow the nuts to pass through without
+breaking their shells.
+
+Most of the hickories drop from the husk, leaving the nut clean; but
+in some varieties of the pecan the inner part of the husk adheres
+rather tenaciously, and they sell better if cleaned; besides, some
+have rather rough and thick shells, and a little scraping and
+polishing adds much to their appearance. The revolving cask, either
+worked by hand or other power, is an excellent implement for
+preparing these nuts for market, and if the husk is very persistent,
+a little dry sand thrown in will aid in cleaning and polishing.
+Sometimes these nuts are subjected to what is called the soapstone
+polish, leaving the shells very smooth, with a greasy feel. The
+French walnuts, which are extensively imported under the general
+name of Grenoble walnuts, are usually bleached with sulphur before
+they are shipped, and while this adds nothing to the quality of the
+kernel, the sulphur is an excellent insecticide and fungicide, and
+may be of some use on that account; but otherwise it is likely to be
+more injurious than beneficial. As bleaching both walnuts and
+almonds is often insisted upon by dealers, I give the process
+suggested by Director Hilgard, of the California Agricultural
+Experiment Station, which he believes will prove more satisfactory
+than the one usually employed, and is as follows:
+
+    "The nuts, placed in small baskets (such as the Chinese use for
+    carrying), are dipped for about five minutes in a solution
+    containing to every fifty gallons of water six pounds of
+    bleaching powder and twelve pounds of sal soda. They are then
+    rinsed with a hose, and after draining, again dipped into
+    another solution containing one per cent of bisulphite of lime;
+    after the nuts have assumed the desired tint, they are again
+    rinsed with water and then dried. Instead of the second dipping,
+    the nuts may be sulphured (fumigated) for ten or fifteen
+    minutes. The cost of fifty gallons of chlorine dip will be about
+    forty cents; the same bulk of the bisulphite dip, probably
+    considerably less. The time occupied in handling one batch (two
+    dips) is from twelve to fifteen minutes."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99. THE CATERPILLAR.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100. THE REGAL WALNUT MOTH--CITHERONIA REGALIS.]
+
+=Insect Enemies.=--The walnut is attacked by the same kinds of
+insects that infest the hickories, with, perhaps, a few exceptions;
+as, for instance, the bark beetles and the nut weevils. The leaves
+appear to be more or less acceptable food for the caterpillars that
+feed on the hickories, and the same insecticides and means employed
+for destroying these pests on one will answer for the other.
+
+The caterpillars of some of the smaller kinds of moths are, as a
+rule, far more destructive to the leaves than the larger, and their
+ravages often escape notice until it is too late for the use of
+preventives, or for their destruction with insecticides.
+
+Ever since I became connected with the New York city press, some
+thirty odd years ago, scarcely a season has passed during which one
+or more specimens of the Regal walnut caterpillar (_Citheronia
+regalis_), shown in Fig. 99, have not been received from some
+correspondent who had found them crawling down the stem or on the
+ground near a walnut tree. Such a large caterpillar would naturally
+attract the attention of almost any person, but to the timid its
+appearance is exceedingly ferocious and repulsive, while to the
+entomologist it is a beautiful and interesting creature, and far
+more likely to be handled with care than injured. This caterpillar
+is of a green color, and transversely banded across each of the
+rings with pale blue. The head and legs are of an orange color, also
+the long spine or horns, with the points tipped with black. It is
+certainly very formidable in appearance, but perfectly harmless, and
+may be handled with impunity. The parent moth (Fig. 100) has fore
+wings of an olive color, ornamented with small yellow spots and
+veined with red lines. The hind wings are orange-red, with two large
+irregular yellow patches before, and a row of wedge-shaped olive
+colored spots between the veins behind. Although this insect appears
+to be widely distributed over the country, and the caterpillars feed
+on the walnuts and occasionally on the hickory, it has never been
+known to be sufficiently numerous to attract any special attention.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS NUTS--EDIBLE AND OTHERWISE.
+
+In the following list of plants there are a few that in no way can
+be considered as related to the true nut-bearing trees and shrubs;
+but as the word "nut" has been attached as a prefix or affix in
+commerce, or elsewhere, they are admitted, even if for no other
+purpose than to designate their true position in the vegetable
+kingdom. For convenience, they are recorded in alphabetical order,
+the most familiar of the common names--where there are more than
+one--being given precedence, the botanical or scientific following,
+with a brief description, as my limited space will not permit of
+anything more extended.
+
+It is not claimed that this catalogue of nuts is complete, but it is
+probably as near it as any heretofore compiled and published, and it
+may serve as the basis for a better and more extended one at some
+future time.
+
+ACORN, OR OAK NUT.--The fruit of the oak, Quercus (_Cupulifer�_),
+mon�cious, evergreen and deciduous trees and shrubs, with alternate
+and simple straight-veined leaves. A very large genus, of about two
+hundred and fifty species, mainly in the temperate region of the
+northern hemisphere. There are some forty species native of the
+United States. The nuts are, on the whole, rather too harsh and
+bitter flavored to be esteemed or considered edible by civilized
+nations at the present day, but in former times some of the oak nuts
+were often an important article among the garnered food of the
+household. They were used--and are still, in some countries--boiled,
+roasted, and even ground and made into bread and cakes. They have
+also been used as a substitute for coffee, and for malt in making
+beer. Strabo says that in the mountains of Spain the inhabitants
+ground their acorns into meal, and Pliny affirms that in his time
+acorns were brought to the table with the dessert, in Spain. Every
+student of English history is well aware of the importance of the
+acorn, not only as food for man, in Great Britain, in the time of
+the Druids, and later, but also for feeding swine, deer, and other
+wild and domesticated animals. But with the advance of civilization
+and the production of better food, the oak nut ceased to be classed
+among the important culinary supplies. There are, however, a few
+species of the oak yielding nuts fairly edible in their raw state,
+and these are much improved by roasting. The best of those among our
+native species are to be found in the varieties of the white oaks of
+the North, and in the evergreen (_Quercus virens_) of the Southern
+States. But with so many far superior species of edible nuts, it is
+very doubtful if any of the oaks will ever be cultivated for their
+fruit.
+
+AUSTRALIAN CHESTNUT.--The seeds of a large tree, native of
+Australia, the _Castanospermum australe_, the name of the genus
+being derived from _Kastanon_, chestnut, and _sperma_, a seed,
+because the seeds resemble, in size and taste, the common chestnut.
+But the tree belongs to the bean family (_Leguminos�_), and the
+seeds are produced in large, long pods. They are about an inch and a
+half broad, somewhat flattened, and of the color of a chestnut when
+ripe. They are roasted and eaten by the natives, but are rather
+unpalatable to those who have been accustomed to something better in
+the way of edible nuts. These seeds are also known as "Moreton Bay
+chestnuts."
+
+AUSTRALIAN HAZELNUT.--The fruit of _Macadamia ternifolia_
+(_Proteace�_). There are two species, both evergreen trees or tall
+shrubs confined to eastern Australia. The fruit is a kind of drupe
+with a fleshy exterior, enclosing a hard shelled nut, not unlike a
+small walnut. The kernel, when mature, has a rich and agreeable
+flavor, much like but richer than the hazelnut, hence one of its
+local names, for it is also known as "Queensland nut." This nut tree
+would probably thrive in southern Florida, and in the warmer parts
+of California.
+
+BEN NUT.--Fruit of _Moringa aptera_ (_Moringe�_). Small, unarmed
+trees; only three species in the order, these inhabiting tropical
+Asia, northern Africa and the West Indies. The one producing the ben
+nuts grows from fifteen to twenty feet high, and is found in upper
+Egypt, Syria and Arabia. The seeds,--or nuts, as they are
+called,--are produced in capsules or seed-pods about a foot long,
+and while not edible, an oil is expressed from them which is largely
+used in the manufacture of perfumery, and known in commerce as ben
+oil. Another species, the _M. pterygosperma_, or winged-seeded
+Moringa, is known as the horse-radish tree, the bark of the roots
+being used as a substitute for horse-radish.
+
+BETEL NUT OR PINANG.--The fruit of a lofty palm, _Areca Catechu_
+(_Palmace�_). A native of Cochin China, the Malayan Peninsula, and
+adjacent islands. A slender-stemmed palm, with regular pinnate
+leaves and long, narrow leaflets. The fruit is produced on an erect,
+fleshy spike, each fruit about the size of a hen's egg, with a
+thick, fibrous rind or husk, enclosing a hard nut somewhat like an
+ordinary nutmeg. These are used by being cut into small pieces or
+slices, then rolled up in a leaf of the betel pepper (_Piper
+betel_), a little lime sprinkled over it, and then chewed or held in
+the mouth, as practiced by those who use tobacco for chewing. This
+habit of chewing the betel nut is said to be almost universal among
+the Malayan races, all carrying a box containing the nut leaf and
+lime. These nuts are shipped in large quantities to countries where
+they do not grow, and the habit of chewing them has spread
+enormously, of late years, and is likely to increase, as it has with
+tobacco; and the effect upon the users is said to be very similar,
+although some authorities claim that the betel is the most injurious
+of the two, having a far more deleterious effect upon the teeth and
+gums. But this may be due to the use of the lime. Travelers in
+countries where these nuts are in common use tell wonderful tales
+about the invigorating effects of the betel, and how their
+assistants and followers are enabled, by its use, to perform the
+most exhausting labor for days at a time, which, without it, would
+be impossible. We have no doubt that the users of tobacco will claim
+just as much for this narcotic weed, and probably could produce as
+many trustworthy witnesses in support of it. The betel is, like
+tobacco, a narcotic stimulant, and causes giddiness in persons
+unaccustomed to it, excoriates the mouth, and is so burning that
+Western nations will be slow to adopt this Eastern habit.
+
+BLADDER NUT.--A rather inappropriate name for the seed pods and
+small seeds of one of our common large deciduous shrubs, the
+_Staphylea trifolia_. It is sometimes planted for ornament. The
+small white flowers are produced in hanging racemes, succeeded by
+large bladdery pods, hence its common name.
+
+BRAZIL NUT.--The fruit of _Bertholletia excelsa_, a lofty tree of
+the myrtle family (_Myrtace�_). The tree attains a height of from
+one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet, with stems three to four
+feet in diameter. The leaves are broad, smooth, and about two feet
+long, rather thick, and of the texture of leather. The fruit is
+produced mainly on the uppermost branches, and is globular, four to
+six inches in diameter, with a brittle husk on the outside, and
+within this a hard, tough, woody shell, fully one-half inch thick,
+containing a large number of the closely packed, three-sided, rough
+nuts, about an inch and a half to two inches or over in length, as
+seen in Fig. 101. The kernels are very white, solid and oily. When
+mature the fruit falls entire, and the natives of the country
+collect them, splitting the shells to obtain the nuts. An occasional
+entire fruit is sent to other countries, as a curiosity, or for the
+cabinet of some botanist. The Brazil nut is not only indigenous to
+Brazil, but also of Guiana, Venezuela (forming immense forests on
+the Orinoco, where they are called Juvia), and southward on the Rio
+Negra and in the valley of the Amazon. In fact, the supply appears
+to be inexhaustible; the only difficulty is in getting the nuts from
+the forests to some point where they can be shipped out of the
+country. The principal export is from Para, but there are many
+smaller cities and towns where a load of these nuts may be obtained
+on short notice. A very superior oil may be obtained from the nuts,
+by pressure, but the principal use for them is for desserts and
+confectionery. They are always abundant in our city markets.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101. BRAZIL NUT.]
+
+BREAD NUT.--The fruit of a large tree, the _Brosimum Alicastrum_, of
+the bread fruit family (_Artocarpace�_), native of the West Indies,
+but best known in Jamaica. The botanical authorities disagree in
+regard to this species, some claiming that it is a large tree, with
+wood similar to mahogany; others that it is only a small shrub, only
+five or six feet high. It has lance-shaped leaves, male and female
+flowers in globular heads, and usually on separate trees. The fruit
+is about the size of a plum, containing one seed or nut, which is
+only edible after roasting.
+
+BUFFALO NUT.--See Oil nut.
+
+BUTTERNUT.--See Souari nut.
+
+BYZANTIUM NUT.--See Filberts, Chap. VI.
+
+CANDLE NUTS.--A small evergreen tree, the _Aleurites triloba_ of the
+spurgewort family (_Euphorbiace�_). It is a native of most warm
+countries of the East: India, Malay, southern Japan, and nearly all
+the islands of the Pacific ocean, and in some of these it is
+cultivated for the fruit, which is about two inches in diameter. In
+the center there is a hard nut, very oily, with the flavor of the
+walnut. The oil obtained from these nuts is in common use among the
+natives of the Polynesian islands. In the Hawaiian group the kernels
+are strung on a small, dry stick, which serves the purpose of a
+wick, and then one end lighted, as with an ordinary tallow or wax
+candle, hence probably the common name of candle nut. These nuts are
+said to be used in the same way in India. Large quantities of oil is
+also expressed from them and used for various purposes, and
+occasionally small quantities are exported to European countries.
+
+CAPE CHESTNUT.--The name of a beautiful evergreen ornamental tree,
+native of south Africa, and recently introduced into European
+gardens from the Cape of Good Hope, hence its common, and its
+specific scientific name, _Calodendron capense_. It belongs to the
+Rue family (_Rutace�_). The flowers are red, produced in long
+terminal racemes, the tree growing about forty feet high, and said
+to be one of the finest trees of that part of Africa. It is now
+under trial in Florida. Why called a chestnut I have been unable to
+discover.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102. THE CASHEW NUT.]
+
+CASHEW NUT.--A large shrub or small tree, native of the West Indies,
+and for this reason often referred to as the "Western Cashew," or
+_Anacardium occidentale_. It belongs to the Terebinth family
+(_Anacardium_), consequently is closely related to our native poison
+sumachs (_Rhus_). The tree is an evergreen, with entire
+feather-veined leaves; flowers of a reddish color, very small,
+sweet-scented, and produced in terminal panicles. The fruit is
+kidney-shaped, and borne on a fleshy receptacle, and when ripe of
+reddish or yellow color. The nut proper is enclosed in a leathery
+covering, consisting of two layers, between which is deposited a
+thick, caustic, oily substance, exceedingly acrid; but this is
+eliminated by heat, so that when the kernels are roasted they have a
+pleasant flavor and are highly esteemed for dessert. Some care is
+required in roasting these nuts, as the fumes given off during this
+operation cause inflammation of the eyes. The nuts also yield an
+excellent oil, very similar to the best olive oil. Although
+originally found only in the West Indies, this nut is now widely
+distributed throughout the tropical countries of the East; in fact,
+naturalized in all hot climates, and is also under trial in southern
+Florida.
+
+CAUCASIAN WALNUT. WINGED WALNUT.--The winged fruit of _Pterocarya
+fraxinifolia_, also known as _P. Caucasica_ of nurserymen's
+catalogues. It belongs to the walnut family (_Juglandace�_), and is
+a tree growing thirty to forty feet high, somewhat resembling the
+common ash (_Fraxinus_). It is a pretty, hardy, ornamental tree,
+thriving only in moist soils. Seeds on winged nuts produced in long,
+drooping racemes, but of no special value. Introduced into England
+from Caucasus in 1800, and now plentiful here in nurseries.
+
+CHESTNUT.--See Chapter V; also Horse-chestnut, and Moreton Bay,
+Tahiti and Water chestnuts.
+
+CHOCOLATE NUT OR BEAN.--The seeds of a small tropical tree,
+_Theobroma Cacao_, of the chocolate nut family (_Sterculiace�_).
+Indigenous to tropical America, but now cultivated more or less
+extensively in all hot climates. The tree grows from fifteen to
+twenty feet high, with long, pointed, smooth leaves. The flowers are
+small, yellow, and produced from the old wood of both stems and
+branches, succeeded by a pod-like fruit six to ten or more inches
+long, containing fifty to a hundred seeds, resembling beans more
+than they do nuts. When the fruit is ripe it is gathered, at which
+time the seeds are covered with a gum-like substance, and to remove
+this they are subjected to a slight fermentation, after which they
+are dried in the sun, this giving them their usual brown color.
+Chocolate nut trees are extensively cultivated in Brazil, New
+Grenada, Trinidad, and, in fact, throughout tropical America, and
+their cultivation is, upon the whole, very profitable, as the demand
+is almost unlimited.
+
+CLEARING NUT.--This is an East India name for the seeds of
+_Strychnos potatorum_, a plant belonging to the well-known nux
+vomica family (_Loganiace�_). It is a small tree, native of India,
+the wood of which is used for various purposes. The fruit is about
+the size of a cherry, and contains one seed; this is dried, and used
+for clearing muddy water, this being effected by rubbing one of the
+little nuts around the sides of the vessel that is to be filled,
+after which the water is poured in, and then, through some unknown
+agency, all the foreign matter settles, leaving the liquid perfectly
+pure, clear and wholesome.
+
+COCOANUT.--One of the most widely-known and largest of edible nuts;
+the product of _Cocos nucifera_, a lofty, tree-like palm (_Palm�_ or
+_Palmace�_). It is a native of tropical Africa, India, Malay, and of
+nearly all the islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans. It only
+thrives near the seacoast or where the sea breezes reach it,
+requiring no special care after the nuts and young plants once
+become established in a congenial soil. The coco palm grows from
+fifty to one hundred feet high, with pinnate leaves from ten to
+twenty feet long. The nuts are produced in clusters of a dozen or
+more, and when full grown are somewhat triangular and a foot long,
+the outer coat or husk composed of a tough fiber. The nuts, when
+cleaned of their husks, are too well known to call for a further
+description here. In countries where these nuts are plentiful, their
+contents form nearly the entire food of the natives, the milky fluid
+serving for drink, and the more solid parts as a substitute for meat
+and bread. The cocoa-nut utilized in more ways, and for a greater
+variety of purposes, than any other kind known, and it would require
+a volume to briefly enumerate them. Of recent years there have been
+plantations made of this nut on the coast of southern Florida, and
+one of the most extensive of these is by a man from New Jersey, but
+I have not heard from him of late, or seen any reports as to the
+results of his experiments. It is reported that there are about
+250,000 cocoa-nut trees now growing in Florida.
+
+COCOANUT, DOUBLE.--This is the fruit of another lofty palm,
+_Lodoicea Sechellarum_, and is usually considered the largest member
+of the order. It is a native of the Seychelles islands, in the
+Indian ocean. It is said to reach a hight of a hundred feet, with a
+stem two feet in diameter. The fruit is a large, oblong nut, with a
+rather thin rind or husk, and when this is removed the nut appears
+to be double, or two oblong nuts firmly united, a kind of twin
+formation, the entire nut weighing from thirty to forty pounds.
+These immense nuts are produced in bunches of eight to ten, the
+cluster sometimes weighing from three to four hundred pounds. It is
+supposed that these nuts require about ten years to grow and mature.
+They are useless as food, but the shells are manufactured into
+various useful articles by the natives, and they are also
+transported to other countries and valued as curiosities. There is a
+great demand for the leaves of this palm for making hats, baskets,
+etc., and as the trees have to be cut down to obtain them, they are
+becoming rather scarce.
+
+COLA NUT, KOLA NUT OR GOORA NUT.--The fruit of a small tree, native
+of the warmer parts of western Africa, and known to botanists as
+_Cola acuminata_, and of the Sterculiad family (_Sterculiace�_). In
+its native country it grows thirty to forty feet high. The leaves
+are oblong-elliptical, six to eight inches long, and pointed
+(acuminate), and from this it probably derived its specific name.
+The flowers are yellow, and produced in axillary racemes, and
+succeeded by simple bean-like pods, each containing several nut-like
+seeds, which the natives call cola or goora nuts. These nuts have
+long been an article of trade among the native tribes of Africa,
+they being valued for their supposed efficacy in allaying thirst,
+promoting digestion, giving strength, and preventing exhaustion
+during the performance of hard manual labor. This tree was early
+introduced into the West Indies and Brazil, but its reputation in
+Africa does not appear to have been sustained it its Western
+habitat.
+
+COQUILLA NUT.--The fruit of the Piassaba palm, _Attalea funifera_, a
+native of Brazil, where it grows about thirty feet high. The fruit
+is produced in bunches, and are each about three inches long,
+covered with a thin rind. The nut is very hard, and is used as a
+substitute for bone and ivory in the manufacture of articles for the
+household.
+
+COQUITO NUT.--This is the fruit of the wing-leaved palm of Chile,
+JUB�A SPECTABILIS. It is a moderately tall species, and closely
+resembles, in general habit, the date palm. The nuts are edible, but
+they are of secondary importance, this palm being valued mainly for
+the sweet sap issuing from the stem when cut down, this continuing
+to exude from it for weeks after it is severed from the roots. The
+sap is gathered and boiled, and when reduced to the consistency of
+molasses becomes an article of commerce, under the name of Meil de
+Palma or palm honey.
+
+CREAM NUT.--A local name of Brazil nut.
+
+DAWA NUT.--See Litchi nut.
+
+EARTH NUT, OR EARTH CHESTNUT, ETC.--A small, low-growing, herbaceous
+plant of the carrot family (_Umbellifer�_), common in waste or
+uncultivated grounds in Great Britain and other countries of
+northern Europe. Formerly botanists supposed there were two species,
+but of late only one, the _Bunium bulbocastanum_. On the roots there
+are small, nut-like tubers, of a sweetish taste, and they are eaten
+by children, either in the raw state or after being roasted. These
+tubers have various local names, and in addition to the above, they
+are called kipper nuts, and pig nuts in England, but a familiar
+local name in Scotland is lousy nuts, because it is said that eating
+them is sure to breed lice. But this story may have been invented by
+parents to deter their children from digging and eating the roots of
+wild plants. Willdenow, in naming this species, certainly recognized
+its edible qualities, and that children were fond of it, else he
+would not have called it an earth chestnut,--_bulbo_, bulb, and
+_castanum_ from _castanea_, the chestnut.
+
+ELK NUT.--See Oil nut.
+
+FISTICKE NUT.--See Pistacia nut.
+
+FOX NUT.--The seeds of a floating, annual aquatic plant, the
+_Euryale ferox_, native of India, and belonging to the water lily
+family (_Nymph�ace�_). It is a handsome plant, with leaves about two
+feet in diameter, of a rich purple on the underside, with thorn-like
+spines on the veins. Flowers deep violet-red. The seeds of this
+species are eaten by the natives, the same as the aborigines of this
+country gathered the seeds of our indigenous _Nelumbium luteum_,
+under the name of water chinquapin, using them for food in the late
+fall and winter.
+
+GINKGO NUT.--The large, round, white, somewhat flattened, nut-like
+seeds of the now common maidenhair tree, or _Ginkgo biloba_, also
+known as _Salisburia adiantifolia_ of some nurserymen's catalogues
+and many recent botanical works. The former, however, is the older
+and correct scientific name. This tree is a native of China and
+Japan, and of a slender, sparsely branched habit, growing from fifty
+to eighty feet high in its native countries. It is a deciduous,
+cone-bearing (_Conifer�_) tree, with two-lobed, fan-shaped leaves
+two to three inches broad, divided about halfway down from the top.
+The male and female flowers are on separate trees, and to secure
+seed or nuts both sexes must be grown near together. The ginkgo was
+introduced into European gardens in 1754, and there are now many
+fruiting specimens, especially in France, from whence the nuts have
+long been secured for planting, by nurserymen and others interested
+in tree culture. There are very few bearing trees in this country,
+and one in Washington, D. C., has been fruiting for a number of
+years. In China and Japan the seeds or nuts are valued for their
+edible qualities, but they have a kind of disagreeable, balsamic
+taste in their raw state, although this is dispelled by roasting,
+after which they are quite sweet and palatable. As the trees do not
+begin to bear until of considerable age, and the nuts are inferior
+to many other kinds, I do not think the ginkgo will ever become very
+popular in this country as a nut tree.
+
+GOORA NUT.--See Cola nut.
+
+GORGON NUT.--See Fox nut.
+
+GROUNDNUT.--The small, globular tubers of the dwarf three-leaved
+ginseng, _Aralia trifolia_, are called groundnuts in some of our
+Northern States, and they are frequently sought for, dug up and
+eaten by children, as I know from personal experience. The plant
+belongs to the ginseng family (_Araliace�_), and is closely related
+to the true five-leaved ginseng (_Aralia quinquefolia_), but our
+groundnut has only three leaves, instead of five; besides, it is a
+somewhat smaller plant, rarely more than six to eight inches high.
+When the scattered seed sprout in spring, they send down a long,
+slender, thread-like rootstock, to a depth of from four to six
+inches, and at the bottom of this the small tuber is produced. It
+has a somewhat pungent taste, but this only whets the appetite of a
+boy when on a hunt for ground nuts.
+
+GROUNDNUT.--The tubers of one of the most widely distributed
+climbing plants of the Eastern States, and common in low, wet
+grounds almost everywhere, from Canada to Florida, and westward to
+the Mississippi. This plant is described in most of the botanical
+works of the present day under the name of _Apios tuberosa_, and it
+belongs to the Pulse family (_Leguminos�_), and is closely related
+to the common and well-known wistarias, although much smaller and of
+a more slender habit. It is a smooth, perennial, twining vine, with
+pinnate leaves, and dense racemes or clusters of small
+brownish-purple pea-shaped flowers. The subterranean rootstocks bear
+long strings of edible tubers, from one to two inches long, and from
+an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, somewhat variable in
+shape, dark brown on the outside, but white within. When boiled or
+roasted these tubers have a rich, farinaceous, nutty flavor. This
+tuber or groundnut is the one described by Mr. Thomas Herriot, the
+historiographer of Sir Walter Raleigh's expedition to Virginia in
+1585, under the Indian name of "Openawk." He says: "These roots are
+round, some as large as walnuts, others much larger; they grow in
+damp soil, many hanging together, as fixed on ropes; they are good
+food, either boiled or roasted." These tubers are to be found in the
+swamps and damp soils of Virginia at this day, just as they were at
+the time of Herriot's visit, but many modern historians have tried
+to make out that Raleigh's colonists found our common potato among
+the Indians at that time, although I have never been able to find a
+scrap of trustworthy history to support such a claim, or that
+Raleigh himself ever planted or cultivated the American potato in
+Ireland or England, or, in fact, ever tasted one of these tubers.
+
+GROUNDNUT.--See Peanut or Goober.
+
+HAZELNUT, OR CHILE HAZEL.--This is merely a local English name for
+the fruit of a small evergreen tree, native of Chile, S. A., where
+it is known as Guevina, and this has been adopted as the name of the
+genus, adding the specific name of the European hazel, so we have
+_Guevina Avellana_, although in some botanical works it may be found
+under the name of _Qudria heterophylla_. It belongs to the Protea
+family (_Proteace�_). It has white, hermaphrodite flowers, in long
+axillary racemes; these are succeeded by coral-red fruit about the
+size of a large cherry; the stone or nut-like seeds being edible are
+largely used by the Chileans. They are said to taste like the hazel,
+hence the name. Trees are hardy in the southwest of England, and
+would probably succeed here in the Southern States. It has been
+planted and found to thrive in California. Readily propagated from
+seed or green cuttings under glass.
+
+HORSE-CHESTNUT.--The fruit of a genus of deciduous ornamental trees
+and shrubs, native of Asia and North America. The common
+horse-chestnut, or _�sculus Hippocastanum_, is a native of Asia, and
+was introduced into Europe over three hundred years ago, its large,
+smooth seeds and prickly husks probably suggesting both its common
+and scientific names, although these trees do not even belong to the
+same order as the true edible chestnuts (_Castanea_), but to the
+soapworts (_Sapindace�_). It is supposed that the prefix, "horse,"
+was derived from a custom among the Turks, of giving the nuts to
+horses as a medicine when these animals were afflicted with a cough
+or inclined to become wind-broken. In southern Europe they are
+sometimes fed to cows to increase the flow of milk, and at one time
+they were employed for making paste for book binders. They are
+scarcely edible, although containing considerable farinaceous
+matter, owing to the presence of a bitter narcotic principle. Our
+native species, better known as Buckeyes, with both smooth and
+prickly fruit, are equally worthless as food.
+
+IVORY NUT.--There are two species of palms producing nuts hard
+enough to be employed as a substitute for ivory, in the manufacture
+of small articles of domestic use. But the one best known to
+commerce under the name of ivory nut is the fruit of _Phytelephas
+macrocarpa_, native of New Granada and other parts of Central
+America. This palm is a low-growing and almost decumbent species,
+the stem seldom more than six to eight inches in diameter; but the
+leaves are of immense length, or from fifteen to twenty feet,
+growing in bundles, or clusters. The fruit consists of about forty
+nuts, enclosed in a rough, spiny husk, of a globular form, produced
+on a short footstalk growing from the axis of the leaves, the whole
+bunch weighing from twenty to thirty pounds. They are two inches
+long, slightly triangular, and covered with a thin, pulpy coat,
+which becomes dry, papery and brittle when thoroughly dried, but
+when in its green state it is sometimes utilized by the natives for
+making a favorite beverage. The ripe nuts are very solid, hard, and
+when polished resemble ivory. Immense quantities of these nuts are
+imported into this country, as well as Europe, and used as a
+substitute for bone and ivory for making buttons, toys, and similar
+small articles.
+
+JESUIT CHESTNUT.--See Water chestnut.
+
+JICARA NUT.--A local name, in some of the Central American States
+for the Calabash (_Crescentia Cujete_). A low-growing, rather rough
+tree, with simple leaves, usually three growing together on a broad
+leafstalk. The fruit is extremely variable, both in size and form,
+but mainly globose, and two to four inches in diameter. The shell is
+very hard, and largely used for drinking cups, and these are
+sometimes highly ornamented on the outside. The kernel is scarcely
+edible, but is used by the natives as a medicine.
+
+JUBA NUT.--See Coquito nut.
+
+JUVIA NUT.--See Brazil nut.
+
+KIPPER NUT.--See Earth chestnut.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103. LITCHI OR LEECHEE NUT.]
+
+LITCHI NUT OR LEECHEE NUT.--I am inclined to think that the affix of
+"nut" to this Oriental fruit is an Americanism, and not used
+elsewhere. There are three distinct species of this fruit known
+among the Chinese, under the name of Litchi, Longan or Long-yen, and
+Rambutan, all the product of the Nepheliums, a genus of the
+soapberry family (_Sapindace�_). By some of the earlier botanical
+works the litchi is placed either in the genus _Dimocarpus_ or
+_Euphoria_. Within the past few years this fruit has appeared in our
+markets, in consequence of the increased trade with Oriental
+countries, and facilities for rapid transit across the continent.
+The litchi is a globular fruit, about one inch in diameter (Fig.
+103), with a thin, chocolate-brown colored shell covered with
+wart-like protuberances. When fresh the shell is filled with a
+white, jelly-like pulp, in the center of which there is one rather
+large, smooth brown seed. The pulp is of a most delicious sub-acid
+flavor, but it is often rather dry and stale in the nuts which reach
+us from China and Japan. The tree producing this fruit is seldom
+more than twenty-five feet high, with rather sturdy twigs and
+branches, the leaves composed of about seven oblong pointed
+leaflets. This is said to be one of the most popular of Oriental
+fruits, and the trees would probably succeed in many of the Southern
+States and in California. It is now on trial in Florida, having been
+introduced there in 1886. It has been fruited in England many times,
+but always under glass, where the plants receive protection and
+artificial heat. A full description of this species, accompanied by
+a superb colored plate of the _Nephelium_ or _Dimocarpus Longana_,
+appeared in the "Transactions of the London Horticultural Society,"
+1818, p. 402. There are not only a large number of species of the
+Nepheliums bearing edible fruit, but, as might be expected from
+their long and extensive cultivation, many local varieties,
+especially in the southern provinces of China and throughout the
+islands of tropical Asia. The Dawa of the Fiji islands is the fruit
+of _N. pinnatum_, a tree growing sixty feet high, and forming
+extensive forests on those islands. At some future time we may be
+receiving the dawas under the name of Fiji nuts.
+
+LOUSY NUT.--See Earth chestnut.
+
+MARKING NUT.--The seeds of _Semecarpus Anacardium_, an evergreen
+tree of the cashew-nut family (_Anacardiace�_), native of tropical
+Asia, and especially Ceylon. It has large, oblong leaves, and grows
+about fifty feet high, and the fruit is produced on a fleshy
+receptacle. The natives roast and eat these nuts, and the black
+juice obtained from the green fruit is used for marking cloth, hence
+the common name. The juice is also mixed with lime to make an
+excellent indelible ink, also for a kind of varnish.
+
+MIRITI NUT OR ITA PALM NUT.--These are the Indian names of the fruit
+of a lofty palm tree, the _Mauritia flexuosa_, of the swamps along
+the Orinoco river, also in wet soils at higher elevations. This
+giant palm grows to a hight of a hundred and fifty feet, with an
+immense crown of large, fan-shaped leaves, and just beneath these
+the fruit appears in a pendulous cluster eight to ten feet long,
+containing several bushels, weighing, altogether, from one to three
+hundred pounds. The individual nuts are about the size of an
+ordinary apple, with a very smooth shell, somewhat veined or
+streaked. The natives of the country not only use the farinaceous
+kernels of these nuts as food, but obtain a saccharine material from
+the pith, out of which they make wine by fermentation. The petioles
+of the leaves also furnish them with a strong fiber, used as
+thread-cord, and for various other purposes.
+
+MORETON BAY CHESTNUT.--See Australian chestnut.
+
+MONKEY-POT NUT.--See Sapucaia nut.
+
+MYROBALAN NUT.--This name is applied rather indiscriminately to the
+fruits of several species of the genus _Terminalia_, which are, in
+the main, large trees of the Myrobalan family (_Combretace�_). They
+are native of India, Malay, Fiji, and, in fact, almost all the
+islands of the Pacific in warm latitudes. The fruits are similar to
+large plums, but slightly angular, containing a hard, nut-like seed.
+They are used principally for tanning leather, and also for making
+ink similar to that made from oak galls. The kernels of all the
+species are edible, and are eaten by the natives. In the Fiji
+islands the _Terminalia Catappa_ is a favorite tree with the
+natives, and they plant it near the houses. The kernels of this
+species have the flavor of the sweet almond.
+
+NICKAR NUT.--The seeds of two species of _Guilandina_, a genus of
+the bean family (_Leguminos�_). They are climbing plants, with
+hard-wooded, prickly stems, forming almost impenetrable thickets
+near the seacoast in the East Indies and other tropical countries.
+They have become widely distributed, as the pods readily float when
+they drop into the water. The pods are about three inches long, very
+prickly, containing seeds or nuts about the size of small marbles,
+and exceedingly hard; but in time the water softens them, after
+which they sprout and grow when cast upon the shore by the waves.
+The two species are distinguished mainly by the color of the nuts,
+those of _G. Bonduc_ being yellow, and those of _G. Bonducella_
+gray, or with a reddish tint. Of no value or use except as botanical
+curiosities.
+
+NITTA OR NUTTA NUT.--The native African name of the seeds of _Parkia
+Africana_, a tree of the sensitive-tree section of the bean family
+(_Leguminos�_). It grows about forty feet high, and has compound
+winged leaves. It has become naturalized in the West Indies. The
+pods grow in clusters, the seeds imbedded in a yellowish, sweet
+pulp, like the carob or St. John's bread, and the negroes are very
+fond of them. In the Soudan the seeds are roasted, and then allowed
+to ferment in water until they are soft and putrid, after which they
+are washed, pounded and dried, then made up into cakes to be used as
+a sauce for different kinds of food. It is supposed that the African
+traveler, Mungo Park, first brought these seeds or nuts to the
+notice of Europeans, and Robert Brown named the genus _Parkia_ in
+his honor.
+
+NUTMEG.--A name applied to the fruits of a large number of trees,
+and of different orders of plants. The true nutmegs of commerce are
+the fruits of trees belonging to the genus _Myristica_, and of the
+family _Myristicace�_. The oldest and best known of these is the _M.
+fragrans_, a small, widely branching tree, growing twenty to
+twenty-five feet high, and supposed to be indigenous to the Indian
+Archipelago. The fruit is about the size of an ordinary walnut, with
+a thick rind, which, upon opening, at maturity, discloses a reddish
+aril covering the nut within. This aril or husk is the mace of
+commerce, while the true nutmeg is the center or hard seed (nut).
+The Brazil nutmeg is longer than the true species, and is sold under
+the name of long nutmeg, and is the fruit of _M. fatua_. Another
+species, the _M. otoba_, is cultivated in Madagascar, but is
+scarcely known in commerce.
+
+Another species, the _M. sebifera_, is a common tree in the forests
+of Guiana, North Brazil, and up into Panama. It is utilized
+principally for the oil extracted from the nuts, obtained by
+macerating them in water, the oil rising to the surface, and as it
+cools skimmed off.
+
+The seeds of several species of conifers and laurels are known,
+either locally or in commerce, as nutmegs, or are used as a
+substitute for the true nutmeg. There are three different kinds of
+trees, native of Guiana, in addition to the one already named, the
+seeds of which are employed as a spice or medicine. One of these is
+the _Acrodiclidium camara_. These nuts are known in commerce as
+"Ackawai nutmegs," and are used mainly as a cure for diarrh�a and
+colic. Another is the seed of the _Aydendron Cujumary_ tree, and
+they are known in commerce as "Cujumary beans," although they are
+not, strictly speaking, a bean, and the same is true of the
+so-called "Puchurim beans," from the same country, for they are the
+fruit of _Nectandy Puchury_, a small tree of the laurel family. They
+are used as a tonic, and considered highly stimulating.
+
+_Clove Nutmeg_, or Madagascar nutmeg of commerce, is the fruit of
+_Agathophyllum aromaticum_, a small evergreen tree, indigenous to
+Madagascar.
+
+_Brazilian Nutmegs_ are the highly aromatic seeds of _Cryptocarya
+moschata_, or _Atherosperma moschata_ of some botanists. It is a
+lofty tree, native of Brazil. The aromatic nuts are used as a
+substitute for nutmegs, but are very inferior to the genuine.
+
+_Peruvian Nutmeg, or Plum Nutmeg._--The seeds of a large evergreen
+tree with aromatic foliage, like our common sassafras, and for this
+reason is sometimes called Chilean or Peruvian sassafras. The seeds
+are of no more economic value than those of our native sassafras. It
+is known under various botanical names, but _Laurelia sempervirens_
+is, perhaps, the most familiar.
+
+_California Nutmeg_, or _Stinking Nutmeg_, is the nut-like seed of
+_Torreya Californica_, a small tree of the yew family (_Taxace�_).
+The fruit is from an inch to an inch and a half long, with a fleshy
+rind enclosing a hard, long nut, which is slightly grooved like a
+nutmeg. The fruit, leaves and wood are strongly scented, hence the
+name of "stinking nutmeg," or "stinking yew." Another species, the
+_T. taxifolia_, is a native of Florida.
+
+OIL NUT.--The fruit of a low-branching, deciduous native shrub,
+growing three to ten feet high, with alternate leaves and small
+greenish flowers in terminal spikes. It is the _Pyrularia oleifera_
+of Gray, and _Hamiltonia oleifera_ of Muhlenberg. The fruit is in
+the form of a pear-shaped drupe, about an inch long, the small seed
+or nut with an oily kernel of strong acrid taste; of no value. This
+shrub is found on shady banks in the mountains of Pennsylvania, and
+southward into Georgia.
+
+PARADISE NUT.--See Sapucaia nut.
+
+PEANUT, GROUNDNUT, GOOBER.--The well-known fruit of _Arachis
+hypog�a_, a low-growing annual belonging to the pulse or pea family
+(_Leguminos�_), supposed to be a native of South America, but now
+extensively cultivated in nearly all semi-tropical countries and
+wherever the summers are long enough to insure the ripening of the
+seeds. Extensively cultivated in Virginia, south and westward. Too
+well known to require any further comment or notice here.
+
+PECAN NUT.--See Chap. VII.
+
+PEKEA NUT.--See Souari nut.
+
+PERUVIAN NUT.--See Nutmegs.
+
+PHYSIC NUT.--The seeds of _Jatropha Curcas_, a small tree of the
+spurgewort family (_Euphorbiace�_). It is native of some of the West
+Indies and warmer parts of South America, but now cultivated in
+other tropical countries for its seeds, which yield an oil used for
+the same purposes as castor oil, but rather more powerful and
+drastic. The seeds have a nutty flavor, but are rather dangerous if
+eaten in any considerable quantities, and death has been known to
+follow excess in this direction.
+
+PHYSIC NUT.--In "Bartram's Travels," he refers to a seed or nut of a
+plant he found growing in Florida under this name, p. 41, as
+follows: " ... some very curious new shrubs and plants, particularly
+the physic nut or Indian olive. The stems arise, many from a root,
+two or three feet high; the leaves sit opposite, on very short
+petioles; they are broad, lanceolate, entire and undulated, having a
+smooth surface, of a deep green color. From the bosom of each leaf
+is produced a single oval drupe, standing erect on long slender
+stems; it has a large kernel and thin pulp. The fruit is yellow when
+ripe, and about the size of an olive. The Indians, when they go in
+pursuit of deer, carry this fruit with them, supposing that it has
+the power of charming or drawing that creature to them, from whence,
+with traders, it has obtained the name of physic nut, which means,
+with them, charming, conjuring or fascinating."
+
+To what kind of fruit Bartram referred under the name of "physic
+nut," is not certain, but his description of the plant comes very
+near that of the American olive (_Olea Americana_), but the fruit of
+this and other closely allied plants of the same family are not
+"yellow" when ripe, but purple.
+
+PIGNUT, OR HOGNUT.--See chapter on Hickory.
+
+PINE NUT.--A name applied indiscriminately to the many species of
+pine trees (_Pinus_) bearing seeds large enough to be conveniently
+used as food. In southern Europe, and especially in Italy and the
+south of France, the seeds of the stone pine (_Pinus Pinea_) have
+been extensively used as food, from the earliest times down to the
+present day. Nearly all the ancient authors refer to them as among
+the valuable products of the country. Macrobius, in his story of the
+_Saturnalia_, speaks of the cones as _Nuces vel Poma Pinea_. These
+pine nuts are called _Pinocchi_ in Italy and Sicily, and
+occasionally a few reach this country, where the Italian name has
+been corrupted into Pinolas. These seeds or nuts are used for
+desserts, puddings and cakes, also eaten raw at table, as with
+almonds. They have a slight taste of turpentine, but it is not
+strong enough to be at all disagreeable.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 104. BRANCH OF NUT PINE.]
+
+In this country we have several native species bearing very large
+edible seeds, and they are known in the West under the general name
+of _Pi�on_, or nut pines. The best of these nuts, to my taste, are
+the seeds of _Pinus edulis_, so named by the late Dr. Engelmann,
+because of its large, sweet and edible seeds. It is a small,
+low-growing tree, more or less common on dry hills and slopes, from
+Colorado southward through New Mexico, and into western Texas. The
+seeds of _Pinus Parryana_ and _Pinus cembroides_, of Arizona and
+Lower California, are also called Pi�ons, and largely gathered by
+the Indians. Farther east and north, we find the one-leaved pine
+(_Pinus monophylla_), and although the seeds are much smaller than
+those of _P. edulis_, they were formerly gathered in immense
+quantities by the Indians, to help eke out their often scanty winter
+store of food. Occasionally a small quantity of these pine nuts is
+sent to Eastern markets, but rarely, unless ordered early in the
+season. The trees of _P. edulis_ and _P. monophylla_ are perfectly
+hardy here, and worth cultivating for ornament, as well as their
+nuts, although their slow growth is a rather severe test of one's
+patience. Fig. 104 shows a Pi�on branch.
+
+PISTACHIO NUT.--Historically, this is a very ancient nut, for Bible
+commentators claim that it is the one sent by Jacob into Egypt. It
+is the fruit of a small, deciduous tree of the cashew family
+(_Anacardiace�_), a native of western Asia, but many centuries ago
+it had become naturalized in Palestine and throughout the
+Mediterranean regions. It has shining evergreen winged leaves, and
+the bark on the young twigs is brown, becoming russet-colored with
+age. There are several different species, but the one producing the
+nuts of commerce is the _Pistacia vera_, having brownish-green
+flowers in loose panicles, and these are succeeded by bunches of
+reddish fruit, about an inch long, with an oblique or bent point.
+The nuts have a double shell, the outer one usually red, the inner
+one smooth and brittle; the kernel is pale green, sweet, and of
+rather pleasant taste. There are a number of varieties, differing
+only slightly in form and size. This nut has been cultivated
+sparingly in Great Britain since 1570, but the climate is not quite
+warm enough to insure its ripening in the open air. It would
+probably succeed throughout the greater part of California, as well
+as in the extreme Southern States, but Mr. Berckmans writes me that
+it is not hardy in his grounds at Augusta, Ga. There is a species of
+pistacia known as _P. Mexicana_, found in central Mexico, and
+extending as far north as San Diego, in California, according to the
+report of Dr. Cooper (Botany of California, Vol. I, p. 109).
+
+QUANDANG NUT.--A medium size Australian tree, the _Santalum
+acuminatum_, of the sandalwood family (_Santalace�_). It produces a
+plum-like fruit, which is best known in its native country as the
+quandang nut. It is used as a preserve, but is little known, except
+in or near its native habitats.
+
+QUEENSLAND NUT.--See Australian hazelnut.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105. PARADISE OR SAPUCAIA NUT.]
+
+SAPUCAIA NUT.--The Brazilian name of, at least, two species of large
+forest trees growing in the valley of the Amazon and its
+tributaries. The best known of these is the _Lecythis Zabucajo_, a
+lofty tree of the myrtle family (_Myrtace�_). It is closely allied
+to the more common Brazil nut of commerce. The sapucaia nuts are
+produced in an urn-shaped, woody capsule, which has received the
+name of Monkey-pot, because when these capsules ripen the lid at the
+top is suddenly liberated, emitting a sharp sound, which, as heard
+by the monkeys, gives them notice that the nuts are falling, and
+that the first on the ground becomes the fortunate possessor of the
+largest number. The capsules or pots are about six inches in
+diameter, and the lid opening at the top about two inches. The nuts,
+which are packed very closely in the shell, are about one inch in
+diameter, and two to three in length, with a thin, brown, and very
+much wrinkled and twisted shell (Fig. 105). The kernel is white,
+sweet, oily, and somewhat more delicate in flavor than that of the
+common Brazil nut. In New York city these nuts are sold under the
+name of Paradise nuts. But this is probably only a local name, for I
+have been unable to find it in any botanical work. These nuts rarely
+come to this country in any considerable quantities; a few hundred
+pounds at a time would be considered a large consignment.
+
+SASSAFRAS NUT.--See Nutmeg, Chilean.
+
+SASSAFRAS NUT.--See Nutmeg, Puchury.
+
+SNAKE NUT.--A large, roundish fruit, about the size of the black
+walnut, the product of the _Ophiocaryon paradoxum_, a large tree of
+the soapberry family (_Sapindace�_), native of British Guiana. This
+nut takes its name of "Snake nut," from the peculiar form of the
+embryo of the seed, which is curled up spirally. The Indians,
+thinking there must be some virtue in form, use these nuts as an
+antidote for snake bites, although, so far as known to science, they
+do not possess any medicinal properties.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106. SOUARI NUT.]
+
+SOUARI NUT, OR BUTTERNUT.--This nut, like the last, is a native of
+British Guiana, and is the fruit of the _Caryocar nuciferum_, a
+noble tree, growing a hundred feet high, having large, broad,
+trifoliate leaves, resembling those of our common horse-chestnut,
+but not quite as broad. The flowers are very large, and, with the
+tube, fully a foot long, of a deep purple on the outside, and yellow
+within. They are composed of five thick, fleshy petals, and as showy
+as some of our best and brightest-colored magnolias. The flowers are
+produced in terminal clusters or corymbs, succeeded by a large,
+round, four-celled fleshy fruit five to six inches in diameter; but
+as some of the embryo nuts usually fail to grow, it changes the form
+of the fruit as it enlarges towards maturity, and only one or two of
+the nuts mature and ripen, very much as frequently occurs in both
+the sweet and horse-chestnuts. The nuts are affixed to a central
+axis, and are of a rounded, subreniform shape, and even flattened to
+an almost sharp edge on one side, and broadly truncate at the scar
+(hilum) where they are attached to the pericarp or central axis. The
+shell is of a deep brown color, embossed, as it were, with smooth
+tubercles. They are from two to two and a half inches or more in
+their broadest diameter, as shown in Fig. 106. The kernel or meat is
+pure white, soft, rich and oily, with a pleasant flavor. This nut is
+a rarity in our markets, and Mr. H. R. Davy of New York, to whom I
+am indebted for a specimen, as well as other rare kinds, assures me
+that in his forty-five years' experience as a dealer in foreign
+fruits and nuts, he has never known of but one lot, and that one
+consisted of about one-half bushel, brought into his store by a
+sailor, who only knew their common South American name. These nuts
+are more frequently seen in European seaports than in those of this
+country.
+
+SOUTH SEA CHESTNUT.--See Tahitian chestnut.
+
+TAHITIAN CHESTNUT.--The seeds of a tree known in the South Sea
+islands by the native name of Toi, but to botanists as _Inocarpus
+edulis_. It belongs to the bean family (_Leguminos�_). The tree
+grows sixty to eighty feet high, and when young the stems are fluted
+like a Grecian column, but as they increase with age the projections
+extend outward, until they form a kind of buttress all around the
+lower part, gradually decreasing upward. This so-called chestnut
+tree has yellow flowers, succeeded by fibrous pods containing one
+large seed or nut, which, when roasted or boiled, resembles the
+chestnut in taste. The nuts have a different local name in almost
+every one of the Pacific islands where it is at all abundant.
+
+TAVOLA NUT.--See Myrobalan nut.
+
+TALLOW NUT.--A local and nearly obsolete name for the fruit of the
+Ogeechee lime or sour gum tree (_Nyssa capitata_) of the swamps of
+Florida, Georgia and westward. The fruit is about an inch long,
+resembling a small plum, the pulp having an agreeable acid taste.
+Bartram, p. 94, refers to this fruit under the name of "Tallow nut,"
+but why so called is not explained.
+
+TALLOW NUT.--The fruit of the Chinese Tallow tree, _Stillingia
+sebifera_, of the spurgewort family (_Euphorbiace�_), a native of
+China, where it is, as well as in some of the warmer parts of
+America, extensively cultivated. It has been planted in a few
+localities in the Southern States, and appears to thrive. It is a
+small tree thirty to forty feet high, with rhomboid tapering leaves
+and a three-celled capsuled fruit, each cell containing only a
+single seed thickly coated with a yellow, tallow-like substance,
+hence its common name. This tallow or grease is used for making
+soap, burning in lamps, and also for dressing cloth.
+
+TEMPERANCE NUT.--An English name of cola nut.
+
+TORREY NUT.--The hard, nut-like seeds of _Torreya nucifera_, of
+Siebold, or _Taxus nucifera_, of K�mpfer, and _Caryotaxus nucifera_,
+of Zuccarini, a tree native of Japan, where these nuts are eaten by
+the Japanese, either raw or roasted. An oil is also extracted from
+the nuts, for use in cooking or for burning in lamps. This Japanese
+tree belongs to the same genus as the so-called California nutmeg
+(see Nutmeg) and our Florida stinking cedar (_T. taxifolia_), also
+the great Chinese cedar (_T. grandis_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107. WATER CHESTNUT.]
+
+WATER CHESTNUT.--Also known as water caltrops. The seeds of several
+species of water plants of the genus _Trapa_, of the evening
+primrose family (_Onagrace�_). In southern Europe and eastward there
+is a species found in ponds, the seeds of which are called Jesuit
+chestnuts (_T. natans_), and in India and Ceylon a closely allied
+one, the Singhara-nut plant (_T. bispinosa_), while in Lago Maggiore
+there is another (_T. verbanensis_), but all may be varieties of one
+and the same species, including the _Trapa bicornis_, a two-horned
+water chestnut, extensively used in China and Japan as food under
+various local names. In China they are called Ling, and of late
+years have been occasionally imported and sold, more as curiosities
+than for eating. These seeds or nuts are of a dark brown color, and
+of the form and size shown in Fig. 107, resembling, in miniature,
+the skull of an ox with abbreviated horns. When fresh, the kernel is
+of an agreeable nutty flavor.
+
+WATER CHESTNUT, OR CHINQUAPIN.--The seeds of the large yellow water
+lily (_Nelumbium luteum_), a very common plant in small ponds in the
+West and South, but more rare in the East. The seeds are about the
+size and shape of small acorns, and produced in a large, top-shaped,
+fleshy receptacle. They are edible, and are supposed to have been
+extensively used as food by the aborigines of this country.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+Ackawai nutmeg, 274
+
+Acorn, 254
+
+Acrodiclidium camara, 274
+
+�sculus hippocastanum, 268
+
+Agathophyllum aromaticum, 274
+
+Aleurites triloba, 259
+
+Almond, 12
+  bitter, 34
+  budding, bud in position, 28
+    incision for bud, 27
+    budding knife, 24
+    budding knife, Yankee, 24
+    prepared shoot of buds, 26
+    season for budding, 22
+  culture in California, 17
+  history of the, 13
+  insects and diseases, 39
+    Cercospora circumscissa, 43
+    Goes pulverulenta, 52
+    Scolytus rugulosus, 42
+    Taphrina deformans, 43
+  orchard in California, 18
+  planting and pruning, 32
+  propagation of the, 19
+  properties and uses of, 39
+  pruning, 33
+  raising seedlings for stocks, 20
+  soil and exposure for the, 30
+  varieties, 34
+    hard-shelled, 35, 36
+    large-fruited, 37
+    ornamental varieties, 38
+    peach, 37
+    soft or brittle-shelled, 36
+    sweet, 40
+    thin-shelled, 37
+
+Amygdalus argentea, 39
+  Cochinchinensis, 38
+  communis amara, 34
+    dulcis, 35
+    fragilis, 36
+    macrocarpa, 37
+    persicoides, 37
+  incana, 39
+  nana, 39
+  orientalis, 39
+
+Anacardium occidentale, 260
+
+Apios tuberosa, 267
+
+Arachis hypog�a, 275
+
+Aralia trifolia, 266
+
+Areca catechu, 256
+
+Atherosperma moschata, 274
+
+Attalea funifera, 264
+
+Australian chestnut, 255
+
+Australian hazelnut, 256
+
+Aydendron cujumary, 274
+
+
+Beech, American, 48
+  Chile, 48
+  European, 48
+  evergreen, 48
+  history of, 44
+  injurious insects, 52
+  properties and uses, 52
+  propagation of, 47
+  soil and location for the, 47
+  species and varieties, 48
+
+Beechnut, 44
+  leaf, bur and nut, 51
+
+Ben nut, 256
+
+Bertholletia excelsa, 267
+
+Betel nut, 256
+
+Bladder nut, 257
+
+Brazil nut, 257
+
+Brazilian nutmegs, 273, 274
+
+Bread nut, 258
+
+Brosimum alicastrum, 258
+
+Buffalo nut, 259
+
+Bunium bulbocastanum, 265
+
+Butternut, 259, 280
+
+Byzantium nut, 259
+
+
+California chestnut, 55
+
+California nutmeg, 275
+
+Calodendron Capense, 259
+
+Candle nut, 259
+
+Cape chestnut, 259
+
+Caryocar nuciferum, 280
+
+Caryotaxus nucifera, 283
+
+Cashew nut, 260
+
+Castanea chrysophylla var. minor, 57
+
+Castanea chrysophylla var. pumila, 57
+
+Castanea sempervirens, 55
+
+Castanopsis, 55
+  bur, 57
+  chrysophylla, 55
+  leaves and nuts, 56
+
+Castanospermum Australe, 255
+
+Caucasian walnut, 261
+
+Chestnut, 60
+  budding, 80
+  diseases of the, 116
+  distance between trees, 82
+  European varieties of, 99
+    Comfort, 100
+    Cooper, 100
+    Corson, 100
+    Dager, 101
+    Moncur, 101
+    Numbo, 102
+      spines of, 102
+    Miller's Dupont, 102
+    Paragon, 102
+      bur, 103
+      nut, 104
+      spines of, 103
+      tree, four years old, 105
+    Ridgely, 104
+      bur, 106
+    Scott, 107
+    Styer, 108
+  flowers, 61
+  French variety of the, 108
+  gathering and assorting, 65
+  grafting, 71
+    cleft, 77
+    growth of cion, 78
+    large trees, 79
+    materials, 72
+    modes of, 75
+    season for, 71
+    splice, 75
+    sprouts, 79
+    success in, 78
+    wax, 72
+  history of the, 62
+  insects injurious to, 113
+    Balaninus carytripes, 113
+    weevil, 114
+  Japan, 109
+    Advance, 110
+    Alpha, 111
+    Beta, 111
+    Early Reliance, 111
+    Felton, 111
+    Giant, 110, 111
+    Killen, 112
+    Parsons, 112
+    Parry's Superb, 112
+    Success, 112
+  mulching, 82
+  native varieties of the, 94
+    burless, 94
+    bush chinquapin, 96
+    common chinquapin, 97
+    Fuller's chinquapin, 97
+      chinquapin burs, 97
+      chinquapin tree, 98
+    Hathaway, 95
+    Phillips, 95
+  planting, 68
+    in nursery rows, 69
+  propagation of the, 64
+  seedbed and soil for, 67
+  soil and climate for, 83
+  species of, 86
+    American, 88
+  species bush chinquapin, 89
+    Castanea Americana, 88
+      Japonica, 93
+      nana, 89
+      pumila, 90, 91
+      sativa, 91
+      vesca, 91
+    European, 91
+    Japan, 93
+      leaf, 92
+  staking transplanted trees, 81
+  stocks from the forests, 70
+  transplanting and pruning, 80
+  uses of, 119
+
+Chile hazelnut, 268
+
+Chocolate nut or bean, 261
+
+Clearing nut, 262
+
+Clove nutmeg, 274
+
+Cocoanut, 262
+  double, 263
+
+Cocos nucifera, 262
+
+Cola acuminata, 264
+  nut, 264
+
+Coquito nut, 264
+
+Coquilla nut, 264
+
+Cream nut, 265
+
+Crescentia cujete, 269
+
+Cryptocarya moschata, 274
+
+Cujumary beans, 274
+
+
+Dawa nut, 265
+
+Dimocarpus longana, 271
+
+
+Earth nut, 265
+  chestnut, 265
+
+Elk nut, 265
+
+Euryale ferox, 265
+
+Evergreen chestnut, 55
+
+
+Fagus antarctica, 48
+  betuloides, 48
+  ferruginea, 48
+  obliqua, 48
+  sylvatica, 48
+
+Fisticke nut, 265
+
+Filbert or hazelnut, 118
+
+Fox nut, 265
+
+
+Galeruca calmariensis, 5
+
+Ginkgo biloba, 265
+  nut, 265
+
+Goober, 275
+
+Goora nut, 264
+
+Gorgon nut, 266
+
+Groundnut, 266, 267, 275
+
+Guevina Avellana, 268
+
+Guilandina bouduc, 273
+  bonducella, 273
+
+
+Hamiltonia oleifera, 275
+
+Hazelnut or filbert, 118
+  American species of hazel, 126
+    beaked hazel, 127
+    Corylus Americana, 126
+    Corylus rostrata, 127
+  Asiatic species of hazel, 128
+    C. ferox & heterophylla, 128
+  blight, 138
+    Cryptospora anomala, 139
+    fungus, 141
+  European species of, 127
+    Constantinople hazel, 129
+    Corylus Avellana, 127
+      Colurna, 128
+      tubulosa, 130
+  history of the filbert, 120
+  insects injurious to filberts, 145
+  personal experience with filberts, 132
+  planting and pruning filberts, 124
+  propagation of the filbert, 122
+  soil, location, etc., for filberts, 123
+  varieties of filbert and hazel seedlings, 135
+  varieties extra large hazel seedling, 136
+  varieties large filbert, 119
+    large seedling hazelnut, 120
+    select list of, 130
+    Alba or white filbert, 130
+    Cosford, or Miss Young's thin-shelled, 130
+    Crispa, or frizzled filbert, 130
+    Downton, large square, 130
+    Grandis, or round cob-nut, 131
+    Lambert's filbert, 130
+    Purple-leaved filbert, 131
+    red filbert, red hazel, etc., 131
+    Spanish filbert, 132
+
+Horse-chestnut, 268
+
+Hickory nuts, 147
+  age of fruiting the, 193
+  big bud, 160
+  big shellbark, 157
+  bitter pecan, 165
+  bitternut, 163, 164
+  brown, 162
+  budding and grafting, 183
+    crown, on roots, 189
+    sprouts from roots, 190
+  Carya amara var. myristic�formis, 165
+  Carya oliv�formis, 155
+  cultivation of the, 177
+  Hicoria pecan and synonyms, 155
+  Hicoria alba, 155
+     "     "   synonyms, 157
+  Hicoria aquatica, 165
+     "       "     synonyms, 166
+  Hicoria glabra, 162
+     "      "    synonyms, 164
+  Hicoria laciniosa, 157
+     "        "     synonyms, 159
+  Hicoria minima, 164
+     "      "    synonyms, 165
+  Hicoria myristic�formis, 165
+  Hicoria tomentosa, 160
+     "        "     synonyms, 162
+  history of the, 148
+  hognut, 162
+  Illinois nut, 155
+  insect enemies of the, 195
+    American silk worm, 202
+    Attacus luna, 202
+    belted chion, 199
+    bud worm, 202
+    burrows of scolytus, 200
+    Catocala, 202
+    Chion cinctus, 199
+    Chramesus icori�, 201
+    Clisiocampa sylvatica, 202
+    Cyllene crinicornis, 198
+      pictus, 198
+      robini�, 198
+    Elaphidion inerme, 199
+    Goes, beautiful, 199
+      pulchra, 199
+      tiger, 199
+      tigrinus, 199
+    Grapholitha caryana, 201
+    bark borer, 199
+    nut weevil, 202
+    shuck worm, 201
+    twig girdler, 196
+    leaf miners, 202
+    leaf rollers, 202
+    locust borer, 198
+    luna moth, 202
+    Oncideres cingulatus, 196
+    orange sawyer, 199
+    painted borer, 198
+    plant lice, 202
+    Scolytus 4-spinosus, 199
+    Sinoxylon basilare, 201
+    Telea polyphemus, 202
+    tent caterpillar, 202
+    Tortricid�, 201
+  king nut, 160
+  mocker nut, 160
+  Pecan nut, 155
+    varieties of, 167
+      Alba, 167
+      Biloxi, 167
+      Colorado, 169
+      Columbian, 167
+      Early Texan, 168
+      Faust, 168
+      Frotscher, 168
+      Georgia Melon, 168
+      Gonzales, 168
+      Harcourt, 168
+      Idlewild, 169
+      Jewett, 169
+      Lady Finger, 169
+      large, long, 167
+      Little Mobile, 167
+      Longfellow, 168
+      Pride of the Coast, 169
+      Primate, 168
+      Mexican, 169
+      Meyers, 170
+      Ribera, 168
+      Risien, 169
+      Stuart, 169
+      Turkey Egg, 169
+      Van Deman, 169
+  pignut 162, 164
+  planting for profit, 194
+  propagation of the, 180
+  shellbark or shagbark, 155
+    varieties of, 170
+      Hales' paper-shell, 172
+      long hickory, 173
+      from Missouri, 173
+    Western, varieties of, 174
+      Floyd pecan, 177
+      long, 174
+      Nussbaumer's, 174-176
+  species and varieties, 224
+  swamp hickoria, 164, 165
+  switch bud, 162
+  thick, or western shellbark,  157, 158
+  white-heart, 160
+
+
+Inocarpus edulis, 282
+
+Introduction, 1
+
+Importation of nuts, 8
+
+Imported nuts, value of, 9
+
+Ita palm nut, 271
+
+Ivory nut, 269
+
+
+Jesuit chestnuts, 269, 283
+
+Jicara nut, 269
+
+Juba nut, 270
+
+Jub�a spectabilis, 264
+
+Juvia nut 258, 270
+
+
+Kipper nut, 270
+
+Kola nut, 264
+
+
+Laurelia sempervirens, 275
+
+Lecythis Zabucajo, 279
+
+Leechee nut, 270
+
+Litchi nut, 270
+
+Lodoicea Sechellarum, 263
+
+Longan, 270
+
+Longyen, 270
+
+Lousy nut, 271
+
+
+Macadamia ternifolia, 256
+
+Madagascar nutmeg, 274
+
+Marking nut, 271
+
+Mauritia flexuosa, 271
+
+Miriti nut, 271
+
+Miscellaneous nuts, 254
+
+Monkey-pot nut, 272
+
+Moreton Bay chestnuts, 255
+
+Moringa optera, 256
+  pterygosperma, 256
+
+Myristica fatua, 273
+  fragrans, 273
+  otoba, 274
+  sebifera, 274
+
+Myrobalan nut, 272
+
+
+Nectandy puchury, 274
+
+Nelumbium luteum, 284
+
+Nephelium pinnatum, 271
+
+Nepheliums, 271
+
+Nickar nut, 272
+
+Nittar, or Nutta, 273
+
+Nuces vel Poma Pinea, 277
+
+Nutmeg, 273
+
+Nutmeg hickory, 165
+
+Nyssa capitata, 282
+
+
+Oak nut, 254
+
+Oil nut 265, 275
+
+Olea Americana, 276
+
+Openawk, 267
+
+Ophiocaryon paradoxum, 280
+
+
+Paradise nut, 275
+
+Parkia Africana, 273
+
+Peanut, 275
+
+Pekea nut, 275
+
+Peruvian nut, 275
+  nutmeg, 274
+
+Phytelephas macrocarpa, 269
+
+Physic nut, 276
+
+Pinang, 256
+
+Pine nut, 276
+
+Pinocchi, 277
+
+Pinolas, 277
+
+Pinon, 277
+
+Pinus cembroides, 277
+  edulis, 277
+  monophylla, 278
+  Parryana, 277
+  pinea, 276
+
+Piper betel, 256
+
+Pistacia Mexicana, 278
+  vera, 278
+
+Pistachio nut, 278
+
+Plum nutmeg, 274
+
+Pterocarya fraxinifolia, 261
+
+Puchurim beans, 274
+
+Pyrularia oleifera, 275
+
+
+Quandang nut, 279
+
+Qudria heterophylla, 268
+
+Queensland nut, 256
+
+Quercus virens, 255
+
+
+Raffia, or Roffia, 25
+
+Rambutan, 270
+
+
+Salisburia adiantifolia, 265
+
+Santalum acuminatum, 279
+
+Sapucaia nut, 279
+
+Sardis nut, 63
+
+Sassafras nut, 280
+
+Semecarpus anacardium, 271
+
+Singhara-nut plant, 283
+
+Snake nut, 280
+
+Sonari nut, 280
+
+South Sea chestnut, 282
+
+Staphylea trifolia, 257
+
+Stillingia sebifera, 282
+
+Stinking nutmeg, 275
+
+Strychnos potatorum, 262
+
+
+Tahitian chestnut, 282
+
+Tallow nut, 282
+
+Tavola nut, 282
+
+Taxus nucifera, 283
+
+Temperance nut, 283
+
+Terminalia Catappa, 272
+
+Theobroma cacao, 261
+
+Torrey nut, 283
+
+Torreya Californica, 275
+  nucifera, 283
+
+Trapa bicornis, 283
+  bispinosa, 283
+  natans, 283
+  verbanensis, 283
+
+
+Walnut, 203
+  American, 224
+    black, 232
+    black, in husk, 232
+      varieties of, 233
+    butternut, 224
+      sugar, 227
+      varieties of, 225
+    California, 234
+    Carya cathartica, 225
+    Juglans Californica, 234
+      cathartica, 225
+      cinerea, 224
+      hybrida, 225
+      oblonga alba, 225
+      nigra, 232
+      nigra, husk removed, 233
+      nigra oblonga, 233
+      rupestris, 235
+    New Mexico, 235
+    Texas, 235
+    Wallia cinerea, 225
+    white, 224
+  budding and grafting, 218
+    flute, 220
+  history, 203
+  husking, 250
+  hybrids in California, 227
+    flowering branch of, 228
+    Juglans Californica, 229
+      Sieboldiana, 231, 237
+  insect enemies of the, 251
+    Citheronia regalis, 252
+    Regal walnut moth, 252
+  Jovis glans, 203
+  Juglans, 203
+  Oriental, 236
+    Juglans ailantifolia, 237
+      Camirium, 236
+      Catappa, 236
+      cordiformis, 239
+      Japonica, 236
+      Mandshurica, 237
+  Persian, 204
+    in America, 209
+  Persian, Barthere, 242
+    Chaberte, 242
+    Chile, 240, 242
+    Cluster, 243
+    Cut-leaved, 243
+    English, 240
+    Franquette, 243
+    French, 240
+    Gant, or Bijou, 243
+    Juglans regia, 240
+      regia octogona, 245
+      serotina, 247
+    Kaghazi, 244
+    Large-fruited Pr�parturiens, 244
+    Late Pr�parturiens, 244
+    Late, 247
+    Madeira nut, 240
+    Mayette, 245
+    Mesange, or paper-shell, 245
+    Meylan, 246
+    Octogona, 246
+    Parisienne, 246
+    Pr�parturiens, 246
+    Precocious, 246
+    Racemosa, or Spicata, 243
+    Royal, 240
+    Small fruited, 240
+    St. John, 247
+    Variegated, 248
+    Vilmorin, 247
+    Vourey, 247
+    Weeping, 248
+  planting and pruning, 223
+  propagation of, 215
+  seedling, 216
+
+Water chestnut, 269, 283, 284
+  chinquapin, 284
+  hickory, 165
+
+Western cashew, 260
+  chinquapin, 55
+
+Winged-seeded moringa, 256
+
+Winged walnut, 261
+
+
+
+
+  SENT FREE ON APPLICATION.
+
+  DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE
+
+  --OF--
+
+  RURAL BOOKS,
+
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+  PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED, AND GIVING FULL DESCRIPTIONS OF
+  NEARLY 600 WORKS ON THE FOLLOWING SUBJECTS:
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+
+      Dogs, Horses, Riding, Etc.,
+
+                 Poultry, Pigeons, and Bees,
+
+                                   Angling and Fishing,
+
+  Boating, Canoeing, and Sailing,
+
+             Field Sports and Natural History,
+
+                                 Hunting, Shooting, Etc.,
+
+    Architecture and Building,
+
+                   Landscape Gardening,
+
+                            Household and Miscellaneous.
+
+  PUBLISHERS AND IMPORTERS:
+
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+
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+
+  =Books will be Forwarded, postpaid, on receipt of Price.=
+
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+
+
+STANDARD BOOKS.
+
+=Mushrooms: How to Grow Them.=
+
+    Any one who has an ordinary house cellar, woodshed or barn, can
+    grow Mushrooms. This is the most practical work on the subject
+    ever written, and the only book on growing Mushrooms published
+    in America. The author describes how he grows Mushrooms, and how
+    they are grown for profit by the leading market gardeners, and
+    for home use by the most successful private growers. Engravings
+    drawn from nature expressly for this work. By Wm. Falconer.
+    Cloth. Price, postpaid. 1.50
+
+=Land Draining.=
+
+    A Handbook for Farmers on the Principles and Practice of
+    Draining, by Manly Miles, giving the results of his extended
+    experience in laying tile drains. The directions for the laying
+    out and the construction of tile drains will enable the farmer
+    to avoid the errors of imperfect construction, and the
+    disappointment that must necessarily follow. This manual for
+    practical farmers will also be found convenient for references
+    in regard to many questions that may arise in crop growing,
+    aside from the special subjects of drainage of which it treats.
+    Cloth, 12mo. 1.00
+
+=Allen's New American Farm Book.=
+
+    The very best work on the subject; comprising all that can be
+    condensed into an available volume. Originally by Richard L.
+    Allen. Revised and greatly enlarged by Lewis F. Allen. Cloth,
+    12mo. 2.50
+
+=Henderson's Gardening for Profit.=
+
+    By Peter Henderson. The standard work on Market and Family
+    Gardening. The successful experience of the author for more than
+    thirty years, and his willingness to tell, as he does in this
+    work, the secret of his success for the benefit of others,
+    enables him to give most valuable information. The book is
+    profusely illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 2.00
+
+=Henderson's Gardening for Pleasure.=
+
+    A guide to the amateur in the fruit, vegetable and flower
+    garden, with full descriptions for the greenhouse, conservatory
+    and window garden. It meets the wants of all classes in country,
+    city and village who keep a garden for their own enjoyment
+    rather than for the sale of products. By Peter Henderson. Finely
+    Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 2.00
+
+=Johnson's How Crops Grow.=
+
+    New Edition. A Treatise on the Chemical Composition, Structure
+    and Life of the Plant. Revised Edition. This book is a guide to
+    the knowledge of agricultural plants, their composition, their
+    structure and modes of development and growth; of the complex
+    organizations of plants, and the use of the parts; the
+    germination of seeds, and the food of plants obtained both from
+    the air and the soil. The book is a valuable one to all real
+    students of agriculture. With numerous illustrations and tables
+    of analysis. By Prof. Samuel W. Johnson of Yale College. Cloth,
+    12mo. 2.00
+
+=Johnson's How Crops Feed.=
+
+    A Treatise on the Atmosphere and the Soil, as related in the
+    Nutrition of Agricultural Plants. This volume--the companion and
+    complement to "How Crops Grow"--has been welcomed by those who
+    appreciate the scientific aspects of agriculture. Illustrated.
+    By Prof. Samuel W. Johnson. Cloth, 12mo. 2.00
+
+=Market Gardening and Farm Notes.=
+
+    By Barnet Landreth. Experiences and Observations for both North
+    and South, of interest to the Amateur Gardener, Trucker and
+    Farmer. A novel feature of the book is the calendar of farm and
+    garden operations for each month of the year; the chapters on
+    fertilizers, transplanting, succession and rotation of crops,
+    the packing, shipping and marketing of vegetables, will be
+    especially useful to market gardeners. Cloth, 12mo. 1.00
+
+=Forest Planting.=
+
+    A Treatise on the Care of Woodlands and the Restoration of the
+    Denuded Timber-Lands on Plains and Mountains. By H. Nicholas
+    Jarchow, LL. D. The author has fully described those European
+    methods which have proved to be most useful in maintaining the
+    superb forests of the old world. This experience has been
+    adapted to the different climates and trees of America, full
+    instructions being given for forest planting on our various
+    kinds of soil and subsoil, whether on mountain or valley.
+    Illustrated, 12mo. 1.50
+
+=Harris' Talks on Manures.=
+
+    By Joseph Harris, M. S., author of "Walks and Talks on the
+    Farm," "Harris on the Pig," etc. Revised and enlarged by the
+    author. A series of familiar and practical talks between the
+    author and the Deacon, the Doctor, and other neighbors, on the
+    whole subject of manures and fertilizers; including a chapter
+    especially written for it, by Sir John Bennet Lawes of
+    Rothamsted, England. Cloth, 12mo. 1.75
+
+=Truck Farming at the South.=
+
+    A work which gives the experience of a successful grower of
+    vegetables or "truck" for Northern markets. Essential to any one
+    who contemplates entering this promising field of Agriculture.
+    By A. Oemler of Georgia. Illustrated, cloth, 12mo. 1.50
+
+=Sweet Potato Culture.=
+
+    Giving full instructions from starting the plants to harvesting
+    and storing the crop. With a chapter on the Chinese Yam. By
+    James Fitz, Keswich, Va., author of "Southern Apple and Peach
+    Culture." Cloth, 12mo. .60
+
+=Heinrich's Window Flower Garden.=
+
+    The author is a practical florist, and this enterprising volume
+    embodies his personal experiences in Window Gardening during a
+    long period. New and enlarged edition. By Julius J. Heinrich.
+    Fully illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. .75
+
+=Greenhouse Construction.=
+
+    By Prof. L. R. Taft. A complete treatise on Greenhouse
+    structures and arrangements of the various forms and styles of
+    Plant Houses for professional florists as well as amateurs. All
+    the best and most approved structures are so fully and clearly
+    described that anyone who desires to build a Greenhouse will
+    have no difficulty in determining the kind best suited to his
+    purpose. The modern and most successful methods of heating and
+    ventilating are fully treated upon. Special chapters are devoted
+    to houses used for the growing of one kind of plants
+    exclusively. The construction of hotbeds and frames receives
+    appropriate attention. Over one hundred excellent illustrations,
+    specially engraved for this work, make every point clear to the
+    reader and add considerably to the artistic appearance of the
+    book. Cloth, 12mo. 1.50
+
+=Bulbs and Tuberous-Rooted Plants.=
+
+    By C. L. Allen. A complete treatise on the History, Description,
+    Methods of Propagation and full Directions for the successful
+    culture of Bulbs in the garden, Dwelling and Greenhouse. As
+    generally treated, bulbs are an expensive luxury, while, when
+    properly managed, they afford the greatest amount of pleasure at
+    the least cost. The author of this book has for many years made
+    bulb growing a specialty, and is a recognized authority on their
+    cultivation and management. The illustrations which embellish
+    this work have been drawn from nature, and have been engraved
+    especially for this book. The cultural directions are plainly
+    stated, practical and to the point. Cloth, 12mo. 2.00
+
+=Henderson's Practical Floriculture.=
+
+    By Peter Henderson. A guide to the successful propagation and
+    cultivation of florists' plants. The work is not one for
+    florists and gardeners only, but the amateur's wants are
+    constantly kept in mind, and we have a very complete treatise on
+    the cultivation of flowers under glass, or in the open air,
+    suited to those who grow flowers for pleasure as well as those
+    who make them a matter of trade. Beautifully illustrated. New
+    and enlarged edition. Cloth, 12mo. 1.50
+
+=Long's Ornamental Gardening for Americans.=
+
+    A Treatise on Beautifying Homes, Rural Districts and Cemeteries.
+    A plain and practical work at a moderate price, with numerous
+    illustrations and instructions so plain that they may be readily
+    followed. By Elias A. Long, Landscape Architect. Illustrated,
+    Cloth, 12mo. 2.00
+
+=The Propagation of Plants.=
+
+    By Andrew S. Fuller. Illustrated with numerous engravings. An
+    eminently practical and useful work. Describing the process of
+    hybridizing and crossing species and varieties, and also the
+    many different modes by which cultivated plants may be
+    propagated and multiplied. Cloth, 12mo. 1.50
+
+=Parsons on the Rose.=
+
+    By Samuel B. Parsons. A treatise on the propagation, culture and
+    history of the rose. New and revised edition. In his work upon
+    the rose, Mr. Parsons has gathered up the curious legends
+    concerning the flower, and gives us an idea of the esteem in
+    which it was held in former times. A simple garden
+    classification has been adopted, and the leading varieties under
+    each class enumerated and briefly described. The chapters on
+    multiplication, cultivation and training are very full, and the
+    work is altogether one of the most complete before the public.
+    Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 1.00
+
+=Henderson's Handbook of Plants.=
+
+    This new edition comprises about fifty per cent. more genera
+    than the former one, and embraces the botanical name,
+    derivation, natural order, etc., together with a short history
+    of the different genera, concise instructions for their
+    propagation and culture, and all the leading local or common
+    English names, together with a comprehensive glossary of
+    Botanical and Technical terms. Plain instructions are also given
+    for the cultivation of the principal vegetables, fruits and
+    flowers. Cloth, large 8vo. 4.00
+
+=Barry's Fruit Garden.=
+
+    By P. Barry. A standard work on Fruit and Fruit Trees; the
+    author having had over thirty years' practical experience at the
+    head of one of the largest nurseries in this country. New
+    edition revised up to date. Invaluable to all fruit growers.
+    Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 2.00
+
+=Fulton's Peach Culture.=
+
+    This is the only practical guide to Peach Culture on the
+    Delaware Peninsula, and is the best work upon the subject of
+    peach growing for those who would be successful in that culture
+    in any part of the country. It has been thoroughly revised and a
+    large portion of it rewritten, by Hon. J. Alexander Fulton, the
+    author, bringing it down to date. Cloth, 12mo. 1.50
+
+=Strawberry Culturist.=
+
+    By Andrew S. Fuller. Containing the History, Sexuality, Field
+    and Garden Culture of Strawberries, forcing or pot culture, how
+    to grow from seed, hybridizing, and all information necessary to
+    enable everybody to raise their own strawberries, together with
+    a description of new varieties and a list of the best of the old
+    sorts. Fully illustrated. Flexible cloth, 12mo. .25
+
+=Fuller's Small Fruit Culturist.=
+
+    By Andrew S. Fuller. Rewritten, enlarged, and brought fully up
+    to the present time. The book covers the whole ground of
+    propagating Small Fruits, their culture, varieties, packing for
+    market, etc. It is very finely and thoroughly illustrated, and
+    makes an admirable companion to "The Grape Culturist," by the
+    same well known author. 1.50
+
+=Fuller's Grape Culturist.=
+
+    By A. S. Fuller. This is one of the very best of works on the
+    Culture of the Hardy Grapes, with full directions for all
+    departments of propagation, culture, etc., with 150 excellent
+    engravings, illustrating planting, training, grafting, etc.
+    Cloth, 12mo. 1.50
+
+=Quinn's Pear Culture for Profit.=
+
+    Teaching How to Raise Pears intelligently, and with the best
+    results, how to find out the character of the soil, the best
+    methods of preparing it, the best varieties to select under
+    existing conditions, the best modes of planting, pruning,
+    fertilizing, grafting, and utilizing the ground before the trees
+    come into bearing, and finally of gathering and packing for
+    market. Illustrated. By P. T. Quinn, practical horticulturist.
+    Cloth, 12mo. 1.00
+
+=Husmann's American Grape Growing and Wine-Making.=
+
+    By George Husmann of Talcoa vineyards, Napa, California. New and
+    enlarged edition. With contributions from well known
+    grape-growers, giving a wide range of experience. The author of
+    this book is a recognized authority on the subject. Cloth, 12mo.
+    1.50
+
+=White's Cranberry Culture.=
+
+    Contents:--Natural History.--History of Cultivation.--Choice of
+    Location.--Preparing the Ground.--Planting the
+    Vines.--Management of Meadows.--Flooding.--Enemies and
+    Difficulties Overcome.--Picking.--Keeping.--Profit and
+    Loss.--Letters from Practical Growers.--Insects Injurious to the
+    Cranberry. By Joseph J. White, a practical grower. Illustrated.
+    Cloth, 12mo. New and revised edition. 1.25
+
+=Fuller's Practical Forestry.=
+
+    A Treatise on the Propagation, Planting and Cultivation, with a
+    description and the botanical and proper names of all the
+    indigenous trees of the United States, both Evergreen and
+    Deciduous, with Notes on a large number of the most valuable
+    Exotic Species. By Andrew S. Fuller, author of "Grape
+    Culturist," "Small Fruit Culturist," etc. 1.50
+
+=Stewart's Irrigation for the Farm, Garden and Orchard.=
+
+    This work is offered to those American Farmers and other
+    cultivators of the soil who, from painful experience, can
+    readily appreciate the losses which result from the scarcity of
+    water at critical periods. By Henry Stewart. Fully illustrated.
+    Cloth, 12mo. 1.50
+
+=Quinn's Money in the Garden.=
+
+    By P. T. Quinn. The author gives in a plain, practical style,
+    instructions on three distinct, although closely connected
+    branches of gardening--the kitchen garden, market garden, and
+    field culture, from successful practical experience for a term
+    of years. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 1.50
+
+=Roe's Play and Profit in My Garden.=
+
+    By E. P. Roe. The author takes us to his garden on the rocky
+    hill-sides in the vicinity of West Point, and shows us how out
+    of it, after four years' experience, he evoked a profit of
+    $1,000, and this while carrying on pastoral and literary labor.
+    It is very rarely that so much literary taste and skill are
+    mated to so much agricultural experience and good sense. Cloth,
+    12mo. 1.50
+
+=The New Onion Culture.=
+
+    By T. Greiner. This new work is written by one of our most
+    successful agriculturists, and is full of new, original, and
+    highly valuable matter of material interest to every one who
+    raises onions in the family garden, or by the acre for market.
+    By the process here described a crop of 2000 bushels per acre
+    can be as easily raised as 500 or 600 bushels in the old way.
+    Paper, 12mo. .50
+
+=The Dairyman's Manual.=
+
+    By Henry Stewart, author of "The Shepherd's Manual,"
+    "Irrigation," etc. A useful and practical work, by a writer who
+    is well known as thoroughly familiar with the subject of which
+    he writes. Cloth, 12mo. 2.00
+
+=Allen's American Cattle.=
+
+    Their History, Breeding and Management. By Lewis F. Allen. This
+    book will be considered indispensable by every breeder of live
+    stock. The large experience of the author in improving the
+    character of American herds adds to the weight of his
+    observations and has enabled him to produce a work which will at
+    once make good his claims as a standard authority on the
+    subject. New and revised edition. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 2.50
+
+=Profits in Poultry.=
+
+    Useful and ornamental Breeds and their Profitable Management.
+    This excellent work contains the combined experience of a number
+    of practical men in all departments of poultry raising. It is
+    profusely illustrated and forms a unique and important addition
+    to our poultry literature. Cloth, 12mo. 1.00
+
+=The American Standard of Perfection.=
+
+    The recognized standard work on Poultry in this country, adopted
+    by the American Poultry Association. It contains a complete
+    description of all the recognized varieties of fowls, including
+    turkeys, ducks and geese; gives instructions to judges; glossary
+    of technical terms and nomenclature. It contains 244 pages,
+    handsomely bound in cloth, embellished with title in gold on
+    front cover. $1.00
+
+=Stoddard's An Egg Farm.=
+
+    By H. H. Stoddard. The management of poultry in large numbers,
+    being a series of articles written for the AMERICAN
+    AGRICULTURIST. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. .50
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Nut Culturist, by Andrew S. Fuller
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+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
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+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Nut Culturist, by Andrew S. Fuller.</title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Nut Culturist, by Andrew S. Fuller
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Nut Culturist
+       A Treatise on Propogation, Planting, and Cultivation of
+              Nut Bearing Trees and Shrubs Adapted to the Climate of the
+              United States
+
+Author: Andrew S. Fuller
+
+Release Date: November 10, 2011 [EBook #37968]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NUT CULTURIST ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charlene Taylor, Kathryn Lybarger and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 525px;"> <img src="images/frontisgs.png" alt="" height="800" width="525" /></div>
+<hr />
+<h2>THE</h2>
+<h1>NUT CULTURIST</h1>
+<h2>A TREATISE</h2>
+<h4>ON THE</h4>
+<h3>PROPAGATION, PLANTING AND CULTIVATION</h3>
+<h3>OF NUT-BEARING TREES AND SHRUBS</h3>
+<h4>ADAPTED TO THE</h4>
+<h2>CLIMATE OF THE UNITED STATES,</h2>
+<h4>WITH THE SCIENTIFIC AND COMMON NAMES OF</h4>
+<h3>THE FRUITS KNOWN</h3>
+<h4>IN COMMERCE AS EDIBLE OR OTHERWISE USEFUL NUTS</h4>
+<hr style="width: 15%" />
+<h3>By ANDREW S. FULLER,</h3>
+<p class="center"><i>Author of the &quot;Grape Culturist,&quot; &quot;Small Fruit Culturist,&quot; &quot;Practical Forestry,&quot;</i></p>
+<p class="center"><i>&quot;Propagation of Plants,&quot; etc., etc.</i></p>
+<hr style="width: 15%" />
+<h3><i>ILLUSTRATED</i></h3>
+<hr style="width: 15%" />
+<h4>NEW YORK</h4>
+<h3>ORANGE JUDD COMPANY</h3>
+<h4>1896</h4>
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p>
+<h4> <span class="smcap">Copyright, 1896,</span></h4>
+<h4> <span class="smcap">BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY</span><br />
+</h4>
+<hr />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span>
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2>
+<p>Believing that the time is opportune for making an
+    effort to cultivate all kinds of edible and otherwise useful
+    nut-bearing trees and shrubs adapted to the soil and
+    climate of the United States, thereby inaugurating a
+    great, permanent and far-reaching industry, the following
+    pages have been penned, and with the hope of encouraging
+    and aiding the farmer to increase his income
+    and enjoyments, without, to any appreciable extent,
+    adding to his expenses or labors. With this idea in
+    mind, I have not advised the general planting of nut
+    orchards on land adapted to the production of grain and
+    other indispensable farm crops, but mainly as roadside
+    trees and where desired for shade, shelter and ornament,
+    being confident that when all such positions are occupied
+    with choice nut-bearing trees, to the exclusion of those
+    yielding nothing of intrinsic value, there will have
+    been added many millions of dollars to the wealth of
+    the country, as well as a vast store of edible and delicious
+    food.</p>
+<p>This work has not been written for the edification,
+    or the special approbation, of scientific botanists, but for
+    those who, in the opinion of the writer, are most likely
+    to profit by a treatise of this kind. Unfamiliar terms
+    have been omitted wherever simple common words
+    would answer equally as well in conveying the intended
+    information. There being no work of this kind published
+    in this country that would serve as a guide, I
+    have been compelled to formulate a plan of my own,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span> and to describe all the newer varieties from the best
+    specimens obtainable, and these may not, in all cases,
+    have been perfect. Under such circumstances, this
+    work must necessarily be incomplete, and especially
+    where the possessors of claimed-to-be new and valuable
+    varieties have either refused or failed to give any information
+    in regard to them. On the contrary, however,
+    I must acknowledge my indebtedness to many correspondents,
+    who have so generously placed specimens of
+    both trees and nuts of rare new varieties in my hands
+    for testing and describing, as well as assisting me in
+    tracing their history and origin.</p>
+<p>That this treatise may become the pioneer of many
+    other and better works on nut culture is the sincere
+    wish of</p>
+<p style="text-align: right"> THE AUTHOR.</p>
+<p style="text-align: left"> <span class="smcap">Ridgewood, N. J., 1896.</span> </p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+<div align="center">
+    <table id="table2" summary="toc" style="border-collapse: collapse;"
+ border="0">
+        <tbody>
+            <tr>
+                <td>&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="right"><span>Page.</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td colspan="2" align="center">CHAPTER I.</td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">INTRODUCTION</a>,</span></td>
+                <td align="right">1</td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td>&nbsp;</td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td colspan="2" align="center">CHAPTER II. </td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">The Almond</a></span>, </td>
+                <td align="right">12</td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td>&nbsp;</td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td colspan="2" align="center">CHAPTER III. </td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">The Beechnut</a></span>, </td>
+                <td align="right">44</td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td>&nbsp;</td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td colspan="2" align="center">CHAPTER IV. </td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">Castanopsis</a></span>, </td>
+                <td align="right">55</td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td>&nbsp;</td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td colspan="2" align="center">CHAPTER V. </td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">The Chestnut</a></span>, </td>
+                <td align="right">60</td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td>&nbsp;</td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td colspan="2" align="center">CHAPTER VI. </td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">Filbert Or Hazelnut</a></span>, </td>
+                <td align="right">118</td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td>&nbsp;</td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td colspan="2" align="center">CHAPTER VII. </td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Hickory Nuts</a></span>, </td>
+                <td align="right">147</td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td>&nbsp;</td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td colspan="2" align="center">CHAPTER VIII. </td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">The Walnut</a></span>, </td>
+                <td align="right">203</td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td>&nbsp;</td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td colspan="2" align="center">CHAPTER IX. </td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="left"><span class="smcap"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">Miscellaneous Nuts</a>&mdash;Edible and Otherwise</span>, </td>
+                <td align="right">254</td>
+            </tr>
+        </tbody>
+    </table>
+</div>
+<p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+<div align="center">
+    <table id="table1" summary="loi" style="border-collapse: collapse;" border="0">
+        <tbody>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right">Fig. </td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="right">Page.</td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._1.">1.</a> </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>A California almond orchard,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 18</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._2.">2.</a> </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Budding knife, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 24</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._3.">3.</a> </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Yankee budding knife, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 24</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._4">4.</a> </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Prepared shoot,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 26</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._5">5</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Incision for bud, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 27</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._6.">6.</a> </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Bud in position, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 28</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._7.">7</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Hard-shelled almond,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 36</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._8">8</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Thin-shelled almond,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 37</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._9">9</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Beechnut leaf, bur and nut, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 51</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._10">10</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Leaves and nut of Castanopsis chrysophylla,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 56</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._11">11</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Castanopsis bur,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 57</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._12">12</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Chestnut flowers, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 61</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._13">13</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Splice graft,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 75</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._14">14</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Splice graft inserted, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 75</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._15">15</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Stock, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 77</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._16">16</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Cion,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 77</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._17">17</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Two cions inserted,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 77</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._17">18</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>One cion inserted,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 77</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._19">19</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>American chestnut leaf,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 88</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._20">20</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Spike of burs of bush chinquapin (<span class="italics">Castanea nana</span>),</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 89</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._21">21</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Spike of chinquapin chestnut bur (<span class="italics">C. pumila</span>),</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 90</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._22">22</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Single bur, nut and leaf of chinquapin chestnut (<span style="font-style: italic">C. pumila</span>),</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 91</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._23">23</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Japan chestnut leaf,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 92</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._24">24</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Burs of Fuller's chinquapin (one-half natural size),</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 97</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._25">25</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Fuller's chinquapin, five years old from nut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 98</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._26">26</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Bur of Numbo chestnut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 101</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._27">27</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Spines of Numbo chestnut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 102</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._28">28</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Numbo chestnut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 102</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._29">29</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Paragon chestnut bur (one-half natural size),</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 103</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._30">30</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Spines of Paragon chestnut bur,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 103</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._31">31</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Paragon chestnut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 104</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._32">32</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Four-year-old Paragon chestnut tree, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 105</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._33">33</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Open bur of the Ridgely chestnut, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 106</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._34">34</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Japan Giant chestnut, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 110</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._35">35</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Spines of Japan chestnut, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 110</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._36">36</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Chestnut weevil, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 114</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._37">37</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Large filbert, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 119</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._38">38</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Large seedling hazelnut, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 120</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._39">39</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Constantinople hazel, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 129</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._40">40</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>English filbert orchard, five years from seed, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 134</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._41">41</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Varieties of filberts and hazel seedlings, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 135</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._42">42</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Extra large hazel seedling or round English filbert, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 136</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._43">43</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Filbert orchard struck with blight, fifth year from seed, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 137</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._44">44</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Hazel fungus, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 141</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._45">45</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Fourteen-years-old pecan tree in Mississippi, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 154</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._46">46</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Leaf and sterile catkins of shellbark hickory, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 156</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._47">47</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Western shellbark, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 158</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._48">48</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Section Western shellbark, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 158</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._49">49</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Leaf of pignut, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 161</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._50">50</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Bitternut branch and leaf, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 163</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._51">51</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Bitternut, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 164</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._52">52</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Large, long pecan nut, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 166</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._53">53</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Oval pecan nut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 166</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._54">54</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Small oval pecan nut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 167</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._55">55</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Little Mobile pecan nut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 167</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._56">56</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Stuart pecan nut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 169</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._57">57</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Van Deman pecan nut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 169</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._58">58</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Risien pecan nut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 169</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._59">59</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Lady Finger pecan nut, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 169</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._60">60</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>The original Hales' Paper-shell hickory tree, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 171</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._61">61</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Hales' hickory, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 172</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._62">62</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Section of Hales' hickory, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 172</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._63">63</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Long shellbark hickory,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 173</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._64">64</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Shellbark Missouri,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 173</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._65">65</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Long Western shellbark,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 174</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._66">66</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Fresh Nussbaumer hybrid,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 175</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._67">67</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Nussbaumer's hybrid, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 176</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._68">68</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Crown grafting on roots of the hickory, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 189</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._69">69</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Sprouts from severed hickory roots, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 190</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._70">70</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>The hickory-twig girdler, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 196</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._71">71</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Hickory borer, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 198</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._72">72</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Burrows of hickory scolytus, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 200</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._73">73</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Persian walnut, showing position of sexual organs,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 204</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._74">74</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Bearing branch of English walnut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 205</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._75">75</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Seedling walnut, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 216</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._76">76</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Flute budding,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 220</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._77">77</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Flowering branch of hybrid walnut, </span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 228</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._78">78</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Hybrid walnut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 230</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._79">79</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Hybrid walnut, shell removed,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 230</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._80">80</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Juglans Sieboldiana raceme,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 231</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._81">81</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Black walnut in husk,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 232</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._82">82</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Juglans nigra, husk removed,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 233</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._83">83</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Juglans Californica,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 235</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._84">84</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Juglans rupestris, showing small kernel,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 235</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._85">85</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Juglans Sieboldiana,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 238</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._86">86</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Juglans cordiformis,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 239</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._87">87</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Small fruited walnut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 240</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._88">88</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Barthere walnut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 242</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._89">89</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Chaberte walnut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 242</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._90">90</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Chile walnut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 242</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._91">91</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Cut-leaved walnut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 243</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._92">92</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Gibbons walnut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 244</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._93">93</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Mayette walnut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 245</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._94">94</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Kernel of walnut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 245</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._95">95</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Juglans regia octogona,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 245</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._96">96</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Cross section,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 245</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._97">97</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Parisienne walnut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 246</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._98">98</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>Serotina or St. John walnut,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 247</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><span><a href="#FIG._99">99</a>. </span></td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left"><span>The caterpillar of the regal walnut moth,</span></td>
+                <td align="right"><span> 252</span></td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><a href="#FIG._100">100</a>. </td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left">The regal walnut moth&mdash;Citheronia regalis, </td>
+                <td align="right">252</td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><a href="#FIG._101">101</a>. </td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left">Brazil nut, </td>
+                <td align="right">258 </td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><a href="#FIG._102">102</a>. </td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left">The cashew nut, </td>
+                <td align="right">260 </td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><a href="#FIG._103">103</a>. </td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left">Litchi or Leechee nut, </td>
+                <td align="right">270 </td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><a href="#FIG._104">104</a>. </td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left">Branch of nut pine, </td>
+                <td align="right">277 </td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><a href="#FIG._105">105</a>. </td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left">Paradise or sapucaia nut, </td>
+                <td align="right">279 </td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><a href="#FIG._106">106</a>. </td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left">Souari nut, </td>
+                <td align="right">281 </td>
+            </tr>
+            <tr>
+                <td align="right"><a href="#FIG._107">107</a>. </td>
+                <td align="left">&nbsp;</td>
+                <td align="left">Water chestnut, </td>
+                <td align="right">283</td>
+            </tr>
+        </tbody>
+    </table>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp; </p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+<h3>INTRODUCTION.</h3>
+<p>No special amount of prophetic acumen is required
+    to foresee that the time will soon come when the people
+    of this country must necessarily place a much higher
+    value upon all kinds of food than they do at present, or
+    have done in the past. In this we are pre-supposing
+    that in the natural course of events, our population will
+    continue to increase in nearly the same ratio it has since
+    we assumed the responsibilities of an independent nation.</p>
+<p>The very existence of animal life on this planet depends
+    upon the quantity and quality of available food,
+    and while some sentimentalists may assume to ignore
+    and even attempt to deprecate the animal desires of
+    their race, nature compels us to recognize the fact that
+    there can be no fire without fuel, and the great and useful
+    intellectual powers of man are the emanations of the
+    animal tissues of a well-nourished brain. The brawny
+    arm that rends the rock and hurls the fragments aside,
+    gets its power through the same channel and from the
+    same source as those of other members of society, whatever
+    the nature of their calling; for mankind is built
+    upon one universal and general plan, varied though it
+    may be in some of the minor details of construction.
+    We certainly have no cause to fear that the theories of
+    Malthus, in regard to the overpopulation of the earth
+    as a whole, will ever be verified in the experience of the
+    human race, because with necessity comes industry, also
+    the inventions of devices to enable us to avoid just such
+    dangers, and if these fail to keep pace with our wants<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> and needs, wars, earthquakes, drouths, floods, and contagious,
+    epidemic and other diseases, become the weapons
+    which nature employs to prevent overpopulation. But
+    we cannot deny that nature does sometimes encourage or
+    permit a somewhat redundant population in certain
+    favorable countries and localities, and then follows a
+    struggle for existence, and food becomes the paramount
+    object in life. To ward off danger of this kind and
+    keep the supply in excess of the demand, is a problem
+    which should seriously engage the attention of every
+    one who takes the least interest in the general welfare of
+    his countrymen, even though the day of want or scarcity
+    of food may be very far distant.</p>
+<p>Among the various sources of acceptable and nutritious
+    food products heretofore almost entirely neglected
+    in this country, the edible nuts stand preëminently and
+    conspicuously in the foreground, awaiting the skill
+    and attention of all who seek pleasure and profit&mdash;to
+    be derived from the products of the soil. For many
+    centuries these nuts have held a prominent position
+    among the desirable and valuable food products of various
+    European and Oriental countries; not only because
+    they were important and almost indispensable in making
+    up the household supplies of all classes of the people,
+    but often because available for filling a depleted purse,
+    and the thing needful for this purpose has, in the main,
+    been received from far-distant nations, who through indifference
+    and neglect failed to provide themselves with
+    such a simple and valuable article as the edible nuts.</p>
+<p>Much as we may boast of our immense natural resources
+    and advantages, we have not, as yet, availed ourselves
+    of one-half of those we possess, and the remainder
+    is still awaiting our attention. We also neglect to avail
+    ourselves of the many superior domestic traits and practices
+    of the foreign nations with whom we are in constant
+    communication. It may be that the absence of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> incentives has made us careless and indifferent in regard
+    to a day of need, which in all probability will come to
+    us sooner or later; but whatever the cause, the fact remains
+    that we have been spending millions annually on
+    worthless articles and sentimental problems and projects,
+    which have brought us neither riches nor honor; in
+    truth, to use a homely phrase, we have been following
+    the bellwether in nearly all of our rural affairs and pursuits.
+    As a natural result we are spending millions for
+    imported articles of everyday use which might easily
+    and with large profit be produced at home, and in many
+    instances the most humiliating part of the transaction is
+    that we send our money to people who do not purchase
+    any of our productions and almost ignore us in commercial
+    matters. I am not referring to those products ill-adapted
+    to our climate, nor to those which, owing to
+    scarcity and high price of labor, we are unable to produce
+    profitably, but to such nuts as the almond, walnut and
+    chestnut, which we can raise as readily as peaches,
+    apples and pears. There certainly can be no excuse for
+    the neglect of such nut trees on the score of cost of
+    labor in propagation and planting, because our streets
+    and highways are lined and shaded with equally as expensive
+    kinds, although they are absolutely worthless
+    for any other purpose than shade or shelter, yielding
+    nothing in the way of food for either man or beast.
+    Can any one invent a reasonable excuse for planting
+    miles and miles of roadside trees of such kinds as elm,
+    maple, ash, willow, cottonwood, and a hundred other
+    similar kinds, where shellbark hickory, chestnut, walnut,
+    pecan and butternut would thrive just as well,
+    cost no more, and yet yield bushels of delicious and
+    highly prized nuts, and this annually or in alternate
+    years, continuing and increasing in productiveness for one, two or more centuries. Aside from the intrinsic
+    value of such trees, they are, in the way of ornament,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> just as beautiful as, and in many instances much superior
+    to those yielding nothing in the way of food except, perhaps,
+    something for noxious insects.</p>
+<p>I am not attempting to pose as the one wise man
+    engaged in rural affairs, but am merely recounting my personal
+    observation and experience, having in my younger
+    days taken the advice of my elders, and at a time when
+    a hint of the future value of nut trees would have been
+    worth more than a paid-up life insurance policy. But
+    as the hint was not given, I selected for roadside trees
+    ash, maples, tulip, magnolias, and other popular kinds,
+    all of which thrived, and by the time they were twenty
+    years old began to be admired for their beauty, although
+    their roots were spreading into the adjoining field, robbing
+    the soil of the nutriment required for less vigorous-growing
+    plants. Later, however, the discovery was
+    made that I was paying very dearly for a crop of leaves
+    and sentiment, neither of which was salable or available
+    for filling one's purse. When thirty years of age
+    the very best of my roadside trees were probably worth
+    two dollars each for firewood, or one dollar more than
+    the nurseryman's price at the time of planting. The
+    greater part of these trees, however, have since been cremated,
+    a few being left as reminders of the misdirected
+    labors of youth and inexperience.</p>
+<p>In this matter of following a leader in tree-planting
+    along the highways, it appears to be a predominant trait
+    of our rural population and as old as the settlement of
+    this country, for nowhere is it more pronounced than in
+    the New England States, where the American elms
+    attracted the attention of the Pilgrims and their contemporaries
+    and descendants, and even continued down
+    to the present day. No one will deny that the
+    American elm is a noble tree in appearance, is easily
+    transplanted and of rapid growth, and yet it is one of
+    the most worthless for any economic purpose. It may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> be that its worthlessness for other purposes made it all
+    the more acceptable for streets and roadsides, the better
+    kinds being reserved for firewood, fencing, furniture,
+    and the manufacture of agricultural and other implements.
+    But whatever the cause or object, the elm became
+    the one tree generally selected for planting in
+    parks, villages, cities, and along roadsides in the country,
+    not only in the older but in many of the newer
+    States. From present indications, however, the glory
+    of this much over-praised tree is on the wane, for the
+    imported elm-leaf beetle (<i>Galeruca calmariensis</i>) is
+    slowly but surely spreading over the country, defoliating
+    the elms of all species and varieties, and it is a question
+    whether we should bless this insect for the work it is
+    doing or look upon it as a pest. Perhaps future generations
+    will sing pæons in its praise, and they certainly
+    will have reasons for rejoicing if better and more useful
+    kinds are planted in the places now occupied by the
+    worthless elms.</p>
+<p>In other localities some pioneer or leader in roadside
+    ornamentation selected or recommended some species
+    of maple, linden, catalpa, poplar or willow, but it
+    made little or no difference as to kind, because, as a rule,
+    all his neighbors followed without a thought or question
+    in regard to adaptation to soil, climate, or fitness in the
+    local or surrounding scenery, or of its future economic
+    value. The result of this want of taste and forethought
+    may be seen in whatever direction one travels throughout
+    the older and more thickly settled portions of this
+    country.</p>
+<p>Had the early settlers of the New England States
+    planted shellbark hickories, or even the native chestnut,
+    in place of the American elm, they would not only have
+    had equally as beautiful trees for shade and ornament,
+    but the nutritious nuts would scarcely have failed to bring
+    bright cheer to many a household and money to fill oft-depleted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> purses, while their descendants would have
+    blessed them for their forethought. Of course there are
+    other valuable kinds of nuts which thrive over the
+    greater part of the New England States, but I refer only
+    to the two, which were so abundant in the forests that
+    one or both could have been obtained for the mere cost
+    of transplanting. But it is not fair to prate about the
+    remissness and follies of our ancestors, unless we can
+    show by our works that wisdom has come down to us
+    through their experience.</p>
+<p>What is true of the New England is equally true of
+    all the older States, and is rapidly becoming so in many
+    of the newer, little attention being paid to the intrinsic
+    value of the wood or the product of the trees planted
+    along the highways. There are also millions of acres of
+    wild lands not suitable for cultivation, but well adapted
+    to the growth of trees, whether of the nut-bearing or
+    other kinds. But for the present I will omit further
+    reference to the planting of nut trees except on the line
+    of the highways, just where other kinds have long been
+    in vogue and are still being cultivated for shade and
+    ornament,&mdash;with no thought, perhaps, on the part of
+    the planter, that both could be obtained in the nut trees,
+    with something of more intrinsic value added. The nut
+    trees which grow to a large size are as well adapted for
+    planting along roadsides, in the open country, as other
+    kinds that yield nothing in the way of food for either
+    man or beast. They are also fully as beautiful in form
+    and foliage, and in many instances far superior, to the
+    kinds often selected for such purposes.</p>
+<p>The only objection I have heard of as being urged
+    against planting fruit and nut trees along the highway
+    is that they tempt boys and girls&mdash;as well as persons of
+    larger growth&mdash;to become trespassers; but this only applies
+    to where there is such a scarcity that the quantity
+    taken perceptibly lessens the total crop. But where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> there is an abundance, either the temptation to trespass
+    disappears, or we fail to recognize our loss. As we cannot
+    very well dispense with the small boy and his sister,
+    I am in favor of providing them bountifully with all the
+    good things that climate and circumstance will afford.
+    It is a truism that conscience is never strengthened by
+    an empty stomach.</p>
+<p>A mile, in this country, is 5280 feet, and if trees
+    are set 40 feet apart&mdash;which is allowing sufficient room
+    for them to grow during an ordinary lifetime&mdash;we get
+    133 per mile in a single row; but where the roads are
+    three to four rods wide, two rows may be planted, one
+    on each side, or 266 per mile. With such kinds as the
+    Persian walnut and American and foreign chestnuts, we
+    can safely estimate the crop, when the trees are twenty
+    years old, at a half bushel per tree, or 66 bushels for a
+    single row, and 133 for a double row per mile. With
+    grafted trees of either kind we may count on double the
+    quantity named, presuming, of course, that the trees
+    are given proper care. But to be on the safe side, let us
+    keep our estimate down to the half-bushel mark per
+    tree, and with this crop, at the moderate price of four
+    dollars per bushel, we would get $264 from the crop on a
+    single row, and double this sum, or $528, for the crop
+    on a double row&mdash;with a fair assurance that the yield
+    would increase steadily for the next hundred years or
+    more; while the cost of gathering and marketing the
+    nuts is no greater, and in many instances much less
+    than that of the ordinary grain crops. At the expiration
+    of the first half century, one-half of the trees may
+    be removed, if they begin to crowd, and the timber used
+    for whatever purpose it may best be adapted. The remaining
+    trees would probably improve, on account of
+    having more room for development.</p>
+<p>There has been a steady increase in the demand,
+    and a corresponding advance in the price of all kinds of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> edible nuts, during the past three or four decades, and
+    this is likely to continue for many years to come, because
+    consumers are increasing far more rapidly than
+    producers; besides, the forests, which have long been
+    the only source of supply of the native kinds, are rapidly
+    disappearing, while there has not been, as yet, any
+    special effort to make good the loss, by replanting or
+    otherwise. The dealers in such articles in our larger
+    cities assure me that the demand for our best kinds of
+    edible nuts is far in excess of the supply, and yet not
+    one housewife or cook in a thousand in this country has
+    ever attempted to use nuts of any kind in the preparation
+    of meats and other dishes for the table, as is so generally
+    practiced in European and Oriental countries.</p>
+<p>The question may be asked, if the demand is sufficient
+    to warrant the planting of the hardy nut trees extensively
+    along our highways or elsewhere. In answer
+    to such a question it may be said that we not only consume
+    all of the edible nuts raised in this country, but
+    import millions of pounds annually of the very kinds
+    which thrive here as well as in any other part of the
+    world.</p>
+<p>I have before me the records of our imports from
+    the year 1790 to 1894, but as I purpose dealing more
+    with the present and future than with the distant past,
+    I will refer here only to the statistics of the four years
+    of the present decade, leaving out all reference to the
+    tropical nuts, which are not supposed to be adapted to
+    our climate.</p>
+<p>Of almonds, not shelled, and on which there is a
+    protective duty of three cents per pound, we imported
+    from 1890 to the close of 1893, 12,443,895 pounds, valued
+    at $1,100,477.65. Of almonds, shelled, on which
+    the duty is now five cents, we imported 1,326,633 pounds.
+    The total value of both kinds for the four years, amounted
+    to $1,716,277.32. Whether this high protective duty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> is to remain or not is uncertain, but it is quite evident
+    that it has had very little effect in stimulating the cultivation
+    of this nut except in circumscribed localities on
+    the Pacific coast.</p>
+<p>Of filberts and walnuts, not shelled, and with a
+    duty of two cents per pound, we imported during the
+    same years from eleven to fifteen million pounds annually,
+    or a total for the four years of 54,526,181 pounds,
+    and in addition about two million pounds of the shelled
+    kernels, on which the duty was six cents (now four) per
+    pound. The total value of these importations amounted
+    to $3,176,085.34.</p>
+<p>I do not find the European chestnut mentioned in
+    any list of imports, although an immense quantity must
+    be received from France, Italy and Spain every year,
+    and they are probably imported under the head of miscellaneous
+    nuts, not specially provided for, and upon
+    which the duty was two cents per pound in 1890-'91,
+    but was later reduced to one and a half cents.</p>
+<p>Under the head &quot;miscellaneous nuts,&quot; or all other
+    shelled and unshelled &quot;not specially provided for,&quot; there
+    was imported during the period named 6,442,908 pounds,
+    valued at $235,976.05. The total for all kinds of edible
+    nuts imported was $7,124,575.82. These figures are
+    sufficient to prove that we are neglecting an opportunity
+    to largely engage in and extend a most important and
+    profitable industry. It is true that in the Southern
+    States considerable attention has been given, of late, to
+    the preservation of the old pecan nut trees and the planting
+    of young stock, but it will be many years before the
+    increase from this source can overtake the ever-increasing
+    demand for this delicious native nut. Californians
+    are also making an effort to raise several foreign varieties
+    of edible nuts on a somewhat extensive scale, but
+    all these widely scattered experiments are mere drops in
+    the ocean of our wants. Under such conditions I ask,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> in all seriousness, if it is not about time that our farmers
+    and rural population generally began to count their
+    worthless and unproductive possessions, in the form of
+    roadside and other shade trees&mdash;which have probably
+    cost fully as much to secure, plant and care for during
+    the few or many years since they were set out, as would
+    have been expended upon the most beautiful and valuable
+    nut-bearing kinds. If our ancestors were at fault
+    in the selection of trees for planting, we need not expect
+    that posterity will excuse us for continuing and repeating
+    their folly, especially when our dear-bought experience
+    should teach us better.</p>
+<p>At the present time there might be some difficulty
+    in procuring, at the nurseries, a choice selection of nut
+    trees in any considerable quantity, suited to roadside
+    planting, because heretofore there has been little demand
+    for such stock; and nurserymen are only human,
+    and conduct their establishments on business principles,
+    propagating the kind of trees in greatest demand, regardless
+    of their intrinsic or future value to purchasers.
+    They will also continue producing such stock just so
+    long as the demand will warrant it, and further, it is
+    but natural that they should sometimes recommend and
+    advise their customers to purchase worthless, and even
+    pestiferous kinds, such as the ailanthus and white poplar,
+    because the profits in raising these trees are large
+    and there is little danger of loss in transplanting. But
+    if purchasers will insist on having better kinds and refuse
+    to accept any other, they will soon be accommodated;
+    and if not, then let everyone who owns a plot of
+    ground become his own propagator of trees. It is not
+    beyond the ability of any moderately intelligent man (or
+    woman, for that matter) to raise nut trees, and as readily
+    as one could potatoes or corn.</p>
+<p>Where farmers want a row of trees along the roadside,
+    to be utilized for line fence posts, they cannot possibly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> find any kinds better adapted for this purpose than
+    chestnut, walnut and hickory; and these will give just as
+    dense a shade, and look as well&mdash;besides, in a few years
+    they may yield enough to pay the taxes on the entire
+    farm, the crop increasing in amount and value not only
+    during the lifetime of the planter, but that of many
+    generations of his descendants.</p>
+<p>This appeal to the good sense of our rural population
+    is made in all sincerity and with the hope that it
+    will be heeded by every man who has a spark of patriotism
+    in his soul, and who dares show it in his labors, and
+    by setting up a few milestones in the form of nut-bearing
+    trees along the roadsides&mdash;if for no other purpose
+    than the present pleasure of anticipating the gratification
+    such monuments will afford the many who are
+    certain to pass along these highways years hence.</p>
+<p>It is surely not good policy to enrich other nations
+    at the expense of our own people, as we are now doing
+    in sending millions of dollars annually to foreign countries
+    in payment for such luxuries as edible nuts that
+    could be readily and profitably produced at home. There
+    need be no fear of an overproduction of such things, no
+    matter how many may engage in their cultivation, because
+    in such industries many will resolve to do, and
+    even make an attempt, but a comparatively small number
+    will reach any marked degree of success.</p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+<h3>THE ALMOND.</h3>
+<p>Amygdalus, <i>Tournefort</i>. Name supposed to be derived
+    from <i>amysso</i>, to lacerate, because of the prominent
+    sharp, knifelike margin of one edge of the deeply pitted,
+    wrinkled nut. Martius, an Italian botanist, suggests
+    that the name came from the Hebrew word <i>shakad</i>, signifying
+    vigilant, or to awake, because after the rigors of
+    winter the almond tree is one of the earliest to hail the
+    coming of spring, with its flowers. The common English
+    name is from the Latin <i>amandola</i>, corrupted from <i>amygdala</i>. In French it is <i>amandier</i>; in German, <i>mandel</i>; Portuguese, <i>amendoa</i>; Spanish, <i>almendro</i>;
+    Italian, <i>amandola</i>, <i>mandalo</i>, <i>mandorla</i>, etc.; Dutch, <i>amendel</i>; Chinese, <i>him-ho-gin</i>.</p>
+<p>Under the natural classification of plants the almond
+    belongs to the order <i>Rosaceæ</i>, and in the tribe <i>Drupaceæ</i>.
+    Linnæus placed the peach and almond in the same
+    genus, and they are now generally considered to be only
+    varieties of one species,&mdash;the wild almond tree is probably
+    the parent from which all the cultivated peaches
+    and nectarines have descended. In most of our modern
+    botanical works these fruits are classed as a sub-section
+    of <i>Prunus</i>, the plum. They are mainly deciduous
+    shrubs, or small trees. The flowers are variable, both
+    in size and color; but in the almond they are usually
+    somewhat larger than in the peach, almost sessile, and
+    from separate scaly buds on the shoots of the preceding
+    season, appearing in early spring, before or with the
+    unfolding leaves, the latter being folded lengthwise in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> the bud. Leaves three to four inches long, tapering,
+    finely serrate, with few or no glands at the base of the
+    blade, as seen in many varieties of the common peach.
+    Fruit clothed with a fine dense pubescence in both peach
+    and almond; but in the latter the pulpy envelope becomes
+    dry and fibrous at maturity, cracking open irregularly,
+    allowing the rough and deeply indented nuts to
+    drop out; while in the peach the pulpy part becomes
+    soft, juicy and edible, the reverse of the almond. The
+    nectarine is only a smooth-skinned peach.</p>
+<p><strong>History of the Almond.</strong>&mdash;As with most of our
+    long-cultivated fruits and nut trees, very little is now
+    known of the early history or origin of the almond, and
+    even its native country has not been positively determined,
+    although it is supposed to be indigenous to parts
+    of Northern Africa and the mountainous region of Asia.
+    Theophrastus, who wrote a history of plants about three
+    centuries before the Christian era, mentions the almond
+    as the only tree in Greece that produces blossoms before
+    the leaves. From Greece it was introduced into Italy,
+    where the nuts were called <i>nuces græcæ</i>, or Greek nuts.</p>
+<p>Columella, about the middle of the first century of
+    our era, was the earliest Roman writer to mention the
+    almond as distinct from the peach. From Italy this
+    nut was slowly disseminated, making its way northward
+    mainly through France, reaching Great Britain as late
+    as 1538 (<i>Hortus Kewensis</i>). But its cultivation has
+    never extended in Britain, beyond sheltered gardens and
+    orchard houses, owing to the cool and otherwise uncongenial
+    climate, and the same is true of Northern France
+    and other regions to the eastward in Europe. But in
+    the south of France, also in Italy, Spain, Sicily, and
+    throughout the Mediterranean countries, both in Europe
+    and Africa, the almond thrives, and has long been extensively
+    cultivated. These nuts are an important article
+    of commerce, immense quantities being exported by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> Spain, mainly from Valencia, while the so-called Jordan
+    almond comes from Malaga, as very few are raised in
+    the valley of the Jordan. Bitter almonds come principally
+    from Mogador in Morocco.</p>
+<p>As for almond culture in the United States, very
+    little is to be said further than that, while we have few
+    experiments to refer to as having been made east of the
+    Rocky Mountains, not one of our great pomologists,
+    in their published works, has ever given any reason for
+    the almost entire neglect of this nut. Mr. Wm. H.
+    White, author of &quot;Gardening for the South&quot; (1868),
+    throws no light upon the subject, merely describing a
+    few of the well-known varieties of the almond. Downing's
+    &quot;Fruit and Fruit Trees of America,&quot; Thomas'
+    &quot;American Fruit Culturist,&quot; Barry's &quot;Fruit Garden,&quot;
+    and a score of other standard pomological works may be
+    consulted, without obtaining therefrom any information
+    in regard to the culture of this nut further than to be
+    assured that the hard-shelled varieties are hardy in the
+    North wherever the peach tree thrives, and the thin, or
+    paper shelled, succeed only in warm climates. All these
+    authors agree in saying that the propagation and cultivation
+    of the almond is the same as practiced with the
+    peach.</p>
+<p>Coming down to recent years for information in
+    regard to almond culture, we find H. E. Van Deman,
+    pomologist to the Department of Agriculture, dismissing
+    the subject in his report for 1892, as follows:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;I only mention this nut to state to all experimenters
+        that it is useless to try to grow the almond of commerce
+        this side of the Rocky mountains, except, possibly,
+        in New Mexico and southwestern Texas. This is
+        thoroughly established by many reports from those who
+        have tried it in nearly every State and for many years
+        past. It is too tender in the North and does not bear in
+        the South. In California it is an eminent success.</p>
+    <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p>
+    <p>&quot;The flavor of the hard-shelled almond, so far as I
+        have tested it, is little or no better than a peach kernel,
+        and is therefore practically worthless. The tree of this
+        variety is about as hardy as the peach, and bears quite
+        freely. The attention paid to the almond in the Atlantic
+        and Central States might well be given to other nuts.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>This is certainly a very easy way of disposing of the
+    cultivation of a nut which has so long figured among
+    our importations from European countries; besides, no
+    experiments are cited, experimenters named, or reasons
+    given why almond culture is a failure in the Southern
+    States. But fortunately there are men in the South
+    who are able and ready to give reasons for their opinions
+    and statements, in regard to the cultivation of crops or
+    plants with which they have become familiar through
+    personal experience. When I asked Mr. P. J. Berckmans,
+    Augusta, Ga., president of the American Pomological
+    Society, for information on this point, he promptly
+    replied as follows:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;The reason that almonds are not cultivated in
+        Georgia and other Southern States is because of their
+        early blooming, as spring frosts usually destroy all the
+        blossoms. We have tried many varieties of the soft-shell
+        without success. The hard-shell will occasionally
+        bear a crop of fruit, as it blooms later, and the blooms
+        seem to resist cold better than the other varieties. In
+        middle Florida soft-shell almonds are sometimes successful,
+        but they have been tried so sparingly that I cannot
+        obtain any satisfactory reports.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Admitting, as we do, that President Berckmans'
+    long experience in the cultivation of nut and fruit trees
+    in the South enables him to speak with authority on
+    this subject, still, we have some encouragement for continuing
+    experiments with the almond in regions known
+    to be favorable for the cultivation of its near relative,
+    the peach. Furthermore, experiments seem to be wanting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> with the almond in the more elevated regions of the
+    northern line of Southern States, also in Maryland, Delaware
+    and southern New Jersey, near the seacoast, or
+    other large bodies of water, which, as is well known,
+    have considerable influence in retarding the early blooming
+    of fruit trees, as well as warding off late spring and
+    early autumn frosts.</p>
+<p>It is scarcely reasonable to suppose that a region
+    of country as extensive as that of one-half of the Middle
+    and all of the Southern States, with a range of climate
+    admitting of the successful cultivation of such hardy
+    fruits as the apple and pear, and from these down to the
+    pineapple and cocoa-nut, should not yield a locality or
+    localities admirably adapted to the cultivation of the
+    half-hardy almond tree. It is no doubt true that there
+    are extensive regions in the South where late spring
+    frosts are exceedingly troublesome, and sometimes disastrously
+    so, to fruit growers; but even these have their
+    limits, as shown in the vast quantity and variety of
+    fruits annually produced in the Southern States. But
+    great local variations in climate are natural to all countries
+    in the temperate zone, and we frequently find the
+    most favorable and the unfavorable for fruit culture
+    within a few miles of each other.</p>
+<p>If there are not thousands and tens of thousands of
+    acres of land located in favorable positions between Virginia
+    and Florida, adapted to produce the commercial
+    almond in some of its varieties, then we must confess
+    that the study of climatology is of little use to the
+    pomologist. Furthermore, all the varieties of the so-called
+    hard-shelled almonds which thrive in our northern
+    States are not worthless, neither are the kernels
+    of all of them &quot;bitter,&quot; and even if they were, they
+    would still be worth cultivating, else we would not
+    import such vast quantities from Morocco to supply the
+    demand.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p>
+<p>If none of the thin-shelled varieties heretofore tried
+    in the South are successful, it is time that either our experiment
+    stations or individual horticulturists made some
+    attempt to produce those that are adapted to that region
+    of country. But until we have some more definite information
+    than heretofore disseminated, in regard to almond
+    culture in the South, it is safe to conclude that failures
+    in the past have been due mainly to want of judgment,
+    or knowledge of varieties and of positions for the orchard,
+    with, perhaps, some neglect in care and cultivation.</p>
+<p>In California almond culture has been pushed with
+    vigor for several decades, but at first with rather indifferent
+    results, because growers depended upon noted
+    European varieties, which, as experience proved, were
+    not adapted to the soil and climate of the country. In
+    a paper read before the American Pomological Society
+    at its session held at Sacramento, Cal., Jan. 16-18, 1895,
+    Prof. E. J. Wickson, of the University of California,
+    alluded to this subject of almond culture in the State as
+    follows:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;In no branch of this effort for improved varieties
+        has our success been more marked than in the
+        development of seedling almonds. The achievements of
+        A. T. Hatch in this line are too well known to require
+        but a passing allusion. It is not too much to say that
+        this work rescued almond culture to California. When
+        he began, the almond, because of almost universal failure
+        of the old varieties, was a jest and a byword in our
+        horticulture. Nine-tenths of all the almonds planted
+        during the preceding twenty-five years had gone for
+        firewood or were carrying the foliage of the prune to
+        conceal their hated stems. At the present time, through
+        the dissemination of Mr. Hatch's varieties, the almond,
+        in all regions decently adapted to the tree, is productive
+        and profitable and has a future.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> <img src="images/fig1.jpg"
+  alt="" height="449" width="700" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._1." id="FIG._1.">FIG. 1.</a> A CALIFORNIA ALMOND ORCHARD.</span></div>
+<p>That almond culture in California is rapidly becoming
+    an important and successful industry, we have an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a><br />
+    <a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> ocular demonstration in the tons of these valuable nuts
+    received from there in the past few years, and placed on
+    sale in Eastern markets. If one man, by his individual
+    efforts, can revolutionize or establish a great industry in
+    a region as large as the State of California, it is not too
+    much to expect that something of the kind could be
+    done elsewhere, with the combined efforts of several
+    men. If the varieties heretofore tried in the East are
+    unsuited to the climate, it is certainly within the range
+    of probabilities that others better adapted to surrounding
+    conditions can be produced. The native grape,
+    raspberry and strawberry have had a history similar to
+    the almond, but now all are extensively and successfully
+    cultivated.</p>
+<p><strong>Propagation of the Almond.</strong>&mdash;The propagation
+    of the almond is identical with that of the peach: that
+    is, from seed to procure new varieties, or by budding
+    the more desirable ones, when obtained, upon seedling
+    almond, peach or plum stocks. The half-wild hard-shelled
+    almond is probably the most congenial and best
+    stock for this purpose, but seedlings of the peach are
+    most generally employed because the most abundant and
+    cheapest. Under certain conditions, such as cold,
+    heavy, moist soils, and where rather dwarfish trees are
+    desired, the plum may be employed with advantage as a
+    stock, but it is not to be recommended for general
+    orchard culture. In mild climates seedlings of the best
+    of the soft-shelled varieties may be raised and planted in
+    orchards without budding, but the nuts from such trees
+    are likely to be somewhat variable in size and quality,
+    although the trees will usually prove to be as healthy
+    and productive as those subjected to artificial modes of
+    propagation. If, however, the grower desires a uniform
+    product, he must resort to the usual means of obtaining
+    it; that is, multiplying superior or distinct varieties by
+    budding, either upon peach, almond or other stocks.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> It is advisable, as well as exceedingly important, for
+    all who intend or feel inclined to cultivate almonds in
+    regions where the adaptation of this nut has not been
+    fully established by years of practical experience, that
+    seedlings should be raised in large numbers, and from
+    these a selection be made to meet the requirements of
+    the climate and other conditions under which they are
+    to be propagated and grown. If spring frosts have been
+    heretofore inimical to the cultivation of the almond,
+    then the production of late-blooming varieties would be
+    a remedy. There will also be variations in the season
+    of ripening; some may come on too early, others far too
+    late for special localities, but all these faults or variations
+    may be readily overcome by raising seedlings, and
+    then selecting for propagation those coming nearest fulfilling
+    the requirements of local conditions or circumstances.
+    It is by such experiments and means that fruit
+    culture has reached its present position in this and all
+    other countries, where it is practiced as an art or industrial
+    pursuit. Varieties that have become exceedingly
+    popular and profitable in one locality or country, may
+    not have succeeded elsewhere, and this holds good with
+    all cultivated plants.</p>
+<p>In making experiments with the almond in regions
+    where it has not been cultivated, but under conditions
+    which appear to be favorable, I would certainly advise
+    testing the well-known varieties first, and if these fail,
+    then see what can be done in the way of producing new
+    ones adapted to the locality and climate.</p>
+<p><strong>Raising Seedlings for Stocks.</strong>&mdash;In warm or
+    moderately mild climates the nuts, whether peach or
+    almond, may be planted soon after they are gathered in
+    the fall, but should the weather continue warm and
+    moist the nuts will sometimes sprout prematurely and
+    the young sprouts get frosted later in the season, and
+    for this reason it is better to store them in a cool room,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> packed in dry sand or soil, until the approach of steady
+    cold weather, and then plant. Having lost choice kinds
+    of nuts from being in too great haste in getting them
+    into the ground in the fall, I am prompted to give this
+    warning to those who have had no experience in raising
+    nut trees. If not convenient to plant in the fall, nuts
+    of all kinds may be packed in barrels, boxes, or similar
+    vessels, mixed with or stratified with sharp sand or light
+    soil, then stored in a dry, cool place,&mdash;a very cool cellar
+    will answer, but in my experience, out of doors is preferable,&mdash;and
+    in the shade of some evergreen tree or on
+    the north side of a building, and there banked over with
+    earth just sufficient to keep the nuts at an equably low
+    temperature. It is advisable to have a few small holes
+    in the bottom of the barrels or boxes, to insure proper
+    drainage, should any considerable amount of water get
+    in at the top; but this will not occur if the vessels are
+    properly covered with boards when placed in position
+    for winter.</p>
+<p>It must also be kept in mind that mice, squirrels
+    and chipmunks are fond of almonds and other kinds of
+    edible nuts, and if placed where these little rodents can
+    find them, they are sure to take a share, or perhaps the
+    entire store, before their visits are discovered. I have
+    known field mice to dig down under boxes of nuts, enlarge
+    the holes left for drainage, and spend the winter
+    among the chestnuts which I had put away for planting
+    in spring. The safest way is to place fine wire netting
+    on the bottom of the box, and then cover it with the
+    same. Owing to the abundance of mice and other little
+    nut-eating animals, I have never dared to plant out nuts
+    in the fall, and so have always stored them in sand, but
+    out of doors during the winter, and well covered with
+    earth. In other localities it may be safe to sow in
+    autumn, and if protection from vermin is required, coat
+    the nuts with gas tar, the same as practiced by farmers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> in protecting seed corn against the attacks of crows and
+    other corn-pulling birds. One pint of warm tar will be
+    sufficient for a bushel of nuts, and the application is
+    readily made by placing the nuts in a barrel, pouring the
+    tar on them, and stirring with a stick until every nut is
+    coated. To prevent the tar sticking to the hands in
+    planting, dust the nuts with dry wood ashes, land plaster,
+    or fine dry sand.</p>
+<p>If peach stones are to be planted for stocks they
+    may be put into the ground as soon as ready in autumn,
+    because they are rarely disturbed by vermin; or if more
+    convenient, mix with common soil, and in heaps, in the
+    open ground, and leave in this position until spring,
+    then pick out as they begin to sprout, and plant. The
+    hard-shelled almond may be treated in the same way,
+    only they are not to be handled quite as roughly as peach
+    stones, and for protection it is best to put them in barrels
+    or boxes, as described above.</p>
+<p>When ready for planting take out the nuts and drop
+    them in shallow drills, one every ten or twelve inches,
+    then cover with about two inches of soil. It is to be supposed,
+    of course, that a seed bed has been prepared, by
+    thorough working over and enriching, if necessary, in
+    advance of planting. The distance between the drills
+    or rows should be sufficient to admit of cultivating the
+    plants with a horse or mule, and cultivator, during the
+    summer, and if this is done and the soil stirred often
+    enough to keep down all weeds, the stocks should become
+    large enough to admit of budding the first season;
+    if not, then this operation must be deferred until the
+    following year. But in case the seedlings are raised from
+    choice varieties and to be left in their natural condition
+    for fruiting, they may be lifted when one or two seasons
+    old and set where they are to remain permanently.</p>
+<p><strong>The Season for Budding.</strong>&mdash;So much depends
+    upon climate, location, and variation of seasons, that no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> special date or time can be given for budding trees of
+    any kind, but it is always to be done while the stocks
+    are in active growth, because the bark must part freely
+    from the wood underneath, in order to admit of inserting
+    the bud under it. If the buds are set too early in
+    the season there is danger of a premature growth; that
+    is, of pushing out a shoot in the fall instead of remaining
+    dormant until the following spring. Under certain conditions,
+    however, and for special purposes, it may be
+    advisable to force the buds as soon as they have formed
+    a union with the stock, but as a rule, in the propagation
+    of hardy and half-hardy trees, it is better to keep the
+    buds dormant during the cool or cold winter months.</p>
+<p>Here in the Northern States we usually begin to
+    look over our stocks during the latter part of July or
+    first week in August, and note their progress and condition.
+    Should they show the least signs of cessation of
+    growth, we begin budding them, and push the work as
+    rapidly as possible. If the season is a wet one the stocks
+    may continue to grow and remain in good condition for
+    budding until the middle of September; but in a dry
+    season they may cease to grow in August, and it is these
+    variable conditions which gives to the close observer and
+    man of experience such an advantage over the novice in
+    the propagation of plants. It is better to begin budding
+    too early than to be a few days too late.</p>
+<p>The operation called budding consists in taking a
+    bud, with a small portion of the bark adjoining, from
+    one plant, and inserting it in another, or in some other
+    part of the same plant from which it was taken. The
+    physiological principles which govern the operation are,
+    that there must exist an affinity between the plant from
+    which the bud is taken and the one upon which it is to
+    be placed, and the nearer the relationship the more
+    readily will it unite and the more perfect the union.
+    For instance, the cultivated peach and almond are supposed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> to be of the same origin, and descendants of one
+    original species; consequently there is a close relationship
+    between the varieties of both sections, and their
+    seedlings may be employed indiscriminately for stocks.
+    The next nearest relatives in the family line are the
+    plums (<i>Prunus</i>), some of which answer very well as
+    stocks for the almond, although very rarely used for
+    this purpose. The next group in the line of botanical
+    relationship are the cherries (<i>Prunus cerasus</i>), but these
+    are too far removed to be employed as stocks for either
+    the peach or almond.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig2.jpg"
+  alt="" height="117" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._2." id="FIG._2.">FIG. 2.</a> BUDDING KNIFE.</span> </div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig3.jpg" alt="" height="125" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._3." id="FIG._3.">FIG. 3.</a> YANKEE BUDDING KNIFE.</span> </div>
+<p>For budding are necessary a small knife for preparing
+    the buds for insertion and making an incision in the
+    bark of the stock to admit them; and a quantity of
+    some material to tie around the stock, so as to hold the
+    bud in place. Budding knives are made after various
+    patterns; one that is commonly used has an ivory or
+    bone handle, made very thin at the end, that is used to
+    peel the bark from the stock where the bud is to be inserted
+    (Fig. 2). Another form of budding knife is made
+    with a horn handle, and a small tapering piece of ivory
+    fastened in the end. These knives, of various shapes
+    and sizes, can be had at the seed stores; but another and
+    quite a different form of budding knife is shown in Fig.
+    3, and is known as the &quot;Yankee budding knife.&quot; It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> merely a small one-bladed pocket knife with a thin
+    blade, round at the end. The cutting portion extends
+    about one-third around the end of the blade and two-thirds
+    of its length, leaving the lower part dull. Although
+    this form of budding knife has been in constant
+    use in some of the older nurseries in this country for
+    nearly a century, it does not appear to have been manufactured
+    for the general trade, but only on special orders
+    for nurserymen. It is so simple a knife, however, that
+    with a little grinding almost any small one-bladed pocket
+    knife can be transformed into one of these handy budding
+    knives. The rounded end of the blade is used for
+    lifting the bark, and for rapid work it is far more convenient
+    than any form of knife that must be reversed in
+    the hand every time a bud is inserted. In addition, a
+    polished bit of steel is smoother and far less likely to
+    lacerate the alburnous matter between the bark and
+    wood than the best piece of bone or ivory. It may be
+    said, however, that it is immaterial what form of knife
+    is employed, provided it has a keen edge and is dexterously
+    used.</p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 238px;"> <img src="images/fig4.jpg" alt="" title="" height="650" width="258" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._4" id="FIG._4">FIG. 4</a>. PREPARED SHOOT.</span> </div>
+<p>The material most commonly used in times past for
+    tying in the bud is the inner bark of the linden or basswood
+    tree, usually called bass, and always to be procured
+    in the form of mats, or as prepared from our
+    indigenous basswoods and kept on sale at the seed stores.
+    Recently, however, another excellent tying material has
+    come into use, known in the trade as raffia or roffia. It is
+    the cuticle of the Jupati palms. One species (<i>Raphia
+    tædigera</i>) is a native of the lower valley of the Amazon
+    and Orinoco, and another (<i>R. Ruffia</i>) of Madagascar and
+    adjacent islands. Raffia is somewhat softer and more
+    pliable than the ordinary bass, although it does not hold
+    its form quite as well; but it is so cheap, soft and strong,
+    that it has become very popular, and is extensively used
+    for budding and many other purposes. But if none of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> these tying materials are at hand, the inner bark of the
+    persimmon, corn husks, cotton twine, woolen yarn, or
+    even strips of old muslin and calico may be employed
+    with equally as good results, although not as handy and
+    convenient for such purposes. The amateur, with only
+    a few stocks to bud, can readily
+    improvise implements and materials
+    for doing the work, even if
+    they are not of the regulation type.
+    In selecting buds, the young shoots
+    of the present season's growth
+    are preferred, and these should be
+    taken from the most healthy and
+    vigorous branches of bearing trees,
+    if possible. The leaves should be
+    immediately removed, not by
+    breaking or pulling off with the
+    hand, but by severing the leaf-stalks
+    with a knife, as shown in
+    Fig. 4. If the leaves have fallen
+    from the twig, the buds may be
+    too ripe, with some kinds of
+    plants, but with the almond, and
+    where only a few leaves near the
+    base have dropped, all may be
+    used with fair success. If there
+    are any soft and immature buds
+    on the upper part of the shoot, or
+    any undeveloped ones at the base,
+    they should be rejected. Success
+    in budding depends very largely
+    upon the condition of the stocks at the time the operation
+    is performed. Unless the sap is flowing and in
+    sufficient abundance to allow the bark to part or peel
+    readily from the wood underneath, the bud is certain to
+    fail. If the buds used should happen to be a little over-ripe<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> or wholly dormant when placed in direct contact
+    with the living tissues and the juices of the stock,
+    they will absorb moisture and nutriment, and be as
+    likely to unite and live as under opposite conditions.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 180px;"> <img src="images/fig5.jpg" alt="" title="" height="400" width="180" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._5" id="FIG._5">FIG. 5</a>. INCISION FOR BUD.</span> </div>
+<p>In performing the operation of budding, the following
+    rules may be observed: Take the twig from which
+    the buds are to be removed, in the left hand, with the
+    small end pointing under the left arm; insert the knife-blade
+    half an inch, or a little more, below the bud, cutting
+    through the bark and a little into the wood; pass
+    the knife under the bud, and bring it out
+    about the same distance above it, taking off
+    the bud with the bark, and a thin slice of
+    wood attached, as at <i>c</i>, Fig. 4. Then, if
+    using the Yankee budding knife, or one of
+    similar form, let the forefinger clasp the
+    lower part of the blade, make the horizontal
+    incision in the stock first, and from this an
+    incision downward about an inch long,&mdash;or
+    it may be twice this length without doing
+    any harm,&mdash;being careful not to cut too
+    deep. Lift up the edge of the bark by passing
+    the back of the end of the blade (without
+    removing it) up to the horizontal incision.
+    Lift the bark on the other side in the
+    same manner, the two incisions making a wound in the
+    stock resembling the letter T, as shown in Fig. 5. If
+    other forms of budding knives are used, the thin end of
+    the ivory handle is thrust under the bark, raising it
+    sufficiently to admit the bud. The budder holds the
+    bud between the thumb and forefinger of his left hand
+    while making the incision in the stock; and as the knife
+    leaves it he places the lower point of the bark attached
+    to the bud under the bark of the stock before this falls
+    back into place, and thrusts it down into position. If
+    the upper end of the bark attached to the bud does not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> pass completely under the bark of the stock, it must be
+    cut across, so as to allow that which remains with the
+    bud to fall into place and rest firmly on the wood of the
+    stock, as shown in Fig. 6.</p>
+<p>When the bud is in position and fitted to the stock,
+    as shown, wind the raffia, or other material used, around
+    the stock, both above and below, covering the entire
+    incision, leaving only the bud and part of leafstalk uncovered.
+    Of course experienced propagators have their
+    own individual systems and modes of operation, but the
+    above may be taken as a safe guide for the
+    amateur budder. The ligatures should be
+    loosened or removed as soon as the bud
+    has become firmly united with the stock,
+    which will usually be in ten or fifteen
+    days, if at all. When the buds have failed,
+    others may be inserted, provided, of course,
+    the stocks are in condition to admit of the
+    operation. Exceptions, however, may be
+    made where the budding has been done so
+    late in the season that the stock has ceased
+    to grow by the time the buds have taken,
+    and in such cases the ligatures may be left
+    on later and removed any time before
+    winter. In cold climates the snow, ice
+    and water are likely to get in around the bud if the
+    ligatures are not removed. But where the stocks are
+    vigorous and the buds set early, there will be danger
+    of the ligatures cutting into the bark as the stocks swell
+    or increase in diameter, unless they are loosened or entirely
+    removed.</p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 220px;"> <img src="images/fig6.jpg" alt="" title="" height="400" width="220" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._6." id="FIG._6.">FIG. 6.</a> BUD IN POSITION.</span> </div>
+<p>Under ordinary circumstances budded stocks should
+    not be headed back until the following spring, and then
+    should be cut off two or three inches above the inserted
+    bud; and when this pushes into growth, all suckers and
+    sprouts below and above it should be rubbed off as they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> appear, for the object is to throw the entire strength of
+    the stock into this one bud, and when this has made a
+    growth of two or three feet the short stump of the stock
+    above the base of the shoot may be carefully removed
+    with a sharp knife. This is usually done the last of
+    July or first of August, which gives time for the healing
+    of the wound before the close of the growing season.
+    Sometimes it may be necessary to place small stakes by
+    the side of these shoots for their support and to prevent
+    breaking at the point of union with the stock; but
+    this will rarely be necessary, except in very exposed
+    situations.</p>
+<p>If the young trees make a fairly good growth they
+    will be ready for planting out in the orchard the following
+    spring, and one-year-old almond trees are usually
+    preferable for transplanting than older. It is not advisable
+    to prune these young trees during the growing
+    season the first summer, but allow all the side shoots or
+    branches to grow unchecked, for by so doing we secure
+    a more stocky plant, if not as tall a one, than we would
+    if trimming up was practiced. But when the trees are
+    taken up for transplanting, in the late fall or early
+    spring, then they may be pruned and the lateral
+    branches cut off close to the main stem, leaving a naked
+    rod, and if low-headed trees are desired (and they usually
+    are), cut back the main stem to about three feet
+    from the ground. If the young trees have made a
+    growth of from four to six feet, then prune away the
+    lateral branches to a hight of three feet or a little more,
+    and cut in all branches above this point to within four
+    to six inches of the main stem, leaving the buds on these
+    stumps to form the head of the tree. Four or five
+    branches at the top of the stem will be sufficient for the
+    foundation for an open, round-headed tree, or in what
+    may be termed a vase form, which is the best for
+    almonds.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p>
+<p><strong>Soil and Exposure for Almonds.</strong>&mdash;The almond
+    requires a warm, rather light and well-drained soil.
+    Cold, heavy clays, and low, moist soils, whether light or
+    heavy, are always to be avoided for the almond and
+    closely allied trees. That the soil should be moderately
+    rich is, of course, a condition required with all cultivated
+    nut and fruit trees, but over-stimulation may result
+    in excessive and immature growth late in the season,
+    this leaving the twigs in such a state that they will
+    be unable to resist even a few degrees of frost, to which
+    they may be subjected the ensuing winter. In what are
+    generally termed mild climates, or where the temperature
+    seldom goes more than four to six degrees below the
+    freezing point, hardy trees, if they have made a late
+    growth, are often injured more than they would have
+    been in a colder climate, with early matured wood.
+    There are many kinds of what we consider very hardy
+    trees and shrubs here in the North, that are very likely
+    to be winterkilled or severely frosted when grown at
+    the South, simply because the conditions are such that
+    they do not ripen up in time to resist the cold.</p>
+<p>In touching upon the subject of location for an
+    almond orchard east of the Mississippi, I should be
+    inclined to relegate this valuable nut to semi-tropical
+    Florida, were it not for the fact that almost a score of
+    ornamental species and varieties of the same genus,&mdash;to
+    say nothing of the widely cultivated peach,&mdash;flourish
+    over a very wide range of country and climate, and
+    nowhere better than near the Atlantic ocean in the Middle
+    and some of the Northern States. It is also generally
+    conceded that several of what are called hard-shelled
+    varieties thrive and bear fruit in nearly all of our best
+    peach-growing regions. From all that I have been able
+    to learn of almond culture, and with my own limited
+    experience with this nut, experiments are wanting to
+    prove that it cannot be successfully cultivated in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> peach-growing region of the Eastern States. I will not
+    say &quot;profitably&quot; cultivated, for this is a rather vague
+    term when applied to horticultural operations of any
+    kind. Success is not synonymous with profit; in fact,
+    it is frequently quite the opposite, and an abundant
+    crop may mean glutted markets and a corresponding
+    loss to the producer. But, to return to location, the
+    principal cause of failure in almond culture, where it
+    has been tried in the older States, seems to be the early
+    blooming of the trees and subsequent destruction of the
+    embryo fruit by frosts. To avoid this, high, open, airy
+    situations, and even the north side of hills, would certainly
+    be preferable to southern slopes and protected
+    locations, especially in the South or where the temperature
+    in winter does not go low enough to kill the wood
+    of the previous season's growth. Theoretically, we might
+    suppose that there are many locations favorable to almond
+    culture in the elevated regions of North Carolina
+    and Tennessee, as well as in the northern tier of counties
+    in Alabama and Georgia. But in the absence of carefully
+    conducted experiments in these regions, we have only to
+    wait for their consummation at some future time, to
+    prove the truth or falsity of our theory.</p>
+<p>In the rich, warm valleys of New Mexico, Arizona
+    and California, congenial locations are plentiful, inasmuch
+    as almost every variety of climate is at hand, with
+    a temperature ranging from that of perpetual summer
+    to the opposite extreme, and all to be found within a
+    few miles, and frequently to be found in the same
+    county. Under such conditions, it rests with the would-be
+    cultivator to decide upon the kinds of fruits desired,
+    then to seek a location best adapted to his purpose.</p>
+<p>If, as claimed,&mdash;but not proven,&mdash;there are no
+    limited or extended areas fitted for almond culture east
+    of the Mississippi river, there are certainly plenty of such
+    west of it, awaiting the industrious and intelligent nut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> culturist. Almond orchards have been planted in California
+    and Arizona, and the quality of the nuts, as well
+    as the quantity, is very satisfactory; but a greater
+    number and more extensive orchards are needed to meet
+    the home demand.</p>
+<p><strong>Planting and Pruning.</strong>&mdash;In planting and pruning
+    the almond tree the same system should be adopted
+    as with its near relative, the peach. One-year-old budded
+    trees are preferred for planting in an orchard, to
+    older, except in the case of seedlings, then two-year-old
+    may be selected, because these are seldom larger than
+    one-year budded trees. The trees should be set fifteen
+    to eighteen feet apart, varying the distance according to
+    variety, soil, and other local conditions, and it is best to
+    place them in rows and at right angles, in order to admit
+    of cultivating both ways, as it is termed, thereby
+    saving as much hand labor as possible. For the first
+    two or three years after planting, all weeds and grass
+    should be kept away from the stems and over the roots,
+    either by frequent hoeing, or covering with a mulch.
+    The best way, perhaps, to prevent the growth of weeds,
+    is to use the land among the trees for some low-growing
+    crops, such as beans, tomatoes, melons or potatoes, then
+    see that the workmen, when hoeing these crops, hoe up
+    the weeds and grass about the trees at the same time.
+    We might reasonably suppose that the most careless cultivator
+    of trees would think of this, but, unfortunately,
+    extended observation proves quite the contrary, and it
+    is scarcely possible to go through any very extensive
+    fruit-growing region without seeing many such instances
+    of neglect. A square yard or more of tough sward is
+    frequently left for years undisturbed about the stems
+    of all the trees in an orchard, while the little annual
+    plants growing near by, and not worth, at an extreme
+    valuation, five cents each, are cultivated with the greatest
+    care.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p>
+<p>The first pruning of the trees should be done at the
+    time of transplanting from the nursery rows, as directed
+    on a preceding page, and from the top of the stem only
+    three or four shoots allowed to grow the first season, all
+    others being rubbed off as soon as they appear, or when
+    they have made a growth of two or three inches. These
+    three or four upper branches are to become the foundation
+    of the future head of the tree, and should be allowed
+    to grow unchecked the first season; the next spring cut
+    back one-half to two-thirds of their original length.
+    This pruning will force out strong side or lateral shoots
+    near the base, thus giving a sturdy foundation to build
+    upon later, the pruner keeping in mind that the weaker
+    the growth the more severe should be the pruning.
+    Better leave a few strong buds, from which vigorous
+    shoots will be produced, than a great number succeeded
+    by many feeble twigs. If blossoms and fruit appear on
+    the young two-year-old trees, a limited number may be
+    left to mature, although no considerable crop ought to
+    be gathered before the third year.</p>
+<p>In after years a somewhat different system of pruning may be adopted, keeping
+    in view the fact that the fruit buds and fruit are always produced on the young
+    shoots of the previous season&#39;s growth, and for this reason an annual renewal of
+    such parts of the tree is absolutely required, in order to secure a good crop on
+    trees of any age. In some localities and countries it may be possible that
+    almond trees produce a crop every year; but this is scarcely to be expected
+    anywhere. Consequently a system of pruning should be followed which will conform
+    to the variations of circumstances and conditions; and this brings us to the
+    consideration of&mdash;</p>
+<p><strong>The Proper Time to Prune.</strong>&mdash;If the growth of
+    the trees and their fruiting were always uniform, then
+    we might readily adopt some invariable system and season
+    for pruning; but as we are dealing with uncertainties,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> our rules must be equally flexible and variable. If the
+    season is favorable, and the trees bloom freely and fruit
+    sets abundantly, we may proceed to prune as soon as
+    the embryo nuts are as large as peas,&mdash;but only cutting
+    back some of the largest bearing shoots, and thinning
+    out others here and there, just enough to equalize and
+    evenly distribute the crop through the head of the tree.
+    But in case the frost or cold of winter has destroyed
+    the crop for the season, then as soon as this is discovered,
+    prune and cut back all the shoots and branches
+    sufficient to insure a vigorous growth of young bearing
+    wood for the ensuing year. Under this system of pruning
+    we fix the time as after blooming in the spring, in
+    order to have our work correspond to circumstances and
+    conditions, and where there is a crop in prospect the
+    pruning is comparatively light; but if there is to be no
+    fruit, or but little, then one should aim to produce an
+    abundance of bearing shoots for the following season.
+    In other words, we prune severely in non-bearing years,
+    whether they occur alternately or otherwise; but this
+    system is only applicable to trees like the almond and
+    peach, which produce their fruit on the shoots of the
+    preceding year's growth.</p>
+<h3>VARIETIES OF THE ALMOND.</h3>
+<p>Almonds are usually divided into three groups, viz.:
+    Bitter, hard-shelled, and soft, or paper-shelled. In
+    each there are many varieties, although they are
+    rarely known in market except by the general name
+    of the group to which they belong. If they are soft,
+    hard or bitter, this is sufficient designation for commercial
+    purposes, with, perhaps, the addition of the name
+    of country in which they were grown, or that of the
+    city or seaport from whence exported.</p>
+<p><strong>Bitter Almond</strong>, <i>Amygdalus communis amara</i>.&mdash;The
+    varieties of this group are not specifically distinct,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> and some have soft, thin shells, while others are thick
+    and hard; but the kernels are very bitter, hence the
+    name. But in the countries where these almonds are
+    most extensively cultivated, as in the South of France,
+    Austria, Spain and Greece, the trees are generally raised
+    from the nut, and, as might be expected, the crop produced
+    under such conditions is exceedingly variable, the
+    nuts being large or small, and the shells of various degrees
+    of hardness, with an occasional tree producing
+    both bitter and sweet kerneled nuts. These wilding
+    trees are, in the main, more hardy than the improved
+    varieties, hence are largely employed as stocks for the
+    better sorts, as well as for the plum and apricot. It is
+    also claimed that, as a rule, the bitter almond trees
+    bloom later in the spring than those of the other two
+    groups, and for this reason are not so liable to be injured
+    by spring frosts. The trees are hardy in all of our most
+    favorable peach-growing regions of the Middle and
+    Northern States, but some of the varieties ripen rather
+    too late for localities north of the latitude of New York
+    city. All this, however, and other obstacles, will soon
+    disappear, whenever the time arrives for our horticulturists
+    to take up almond culture and pursue it with half
+    the zeal they have the cultivation of the peach and many
+    other kinds of fruits.</p>
+<p><strong>Hard-Shelled Almond</strong>, <i>A. c. dulcis</i>, or sweet-kerneled
+    almond.&mdash;The varieties of this group, as a
+    whole, differ from those of the next only in the firmness
+    of their shells, which are moderately firm, with a slightly
+    rough and deeply pitted surface, as shown in Fig. 7.
+    Varieties of this group are fully as large as, and perhaps
+    a little longer than the thin-shelled, and the kernels are
+    fully as valuable when removed and sold as shelled
+    almonds. It may require a little more labor to crack
+    and remove the kernels for market, but the difference is
+    scarcely worth taking into consideration by the grower.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p>
+<p>The common sweet, hard-shelled almond thrives in
+    peach-growing regions as far north as Central New York,
+    and I well remember of seeing trees loaded with these
+    nuts, in my boyhood days, in the western part of the
+    State. The late Patrick Barry, in the Fruit Garden,
+    when referring to this nut, says: </p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;This is a hardy and
+        productive tree, succeeding well in the climate of Western
+        New York, and still farther north. Nut very large,
+        with a hard shell and a large sweet kernel; ripe here
+        (Rochester) about the first of October.
+        The tree is very vigorous, has
+        smooth, glaucous leaves, and when
+        in bloom in the spring is more brilliant
+        and showy than any other fruit
+        tree.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 224px;"> <img src="images/fig7.jpg" alt="" title="" height="350" width="224" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._7." id="FIG._7.">FIG. 7.</a> HARD-SHELLED ALMOND.</span></span> </div>
+<p>Nearly every one of our noted
+    horticulturists who have said anything
+    about almond culture in the
+    North, agree with Mr. Barry in regard
+    to the beauty of this tree and
+    its productiveness; but it is well to
+    keep in mind that it is no more to
+    be depended upon than the peach, and the barren years
+    will far outnumber the bearing ones. But the almond
+    is probably as certain here as in France, where it is cultivated
+    extensively as an article of commerce, although
+    a full crop once in about five years is about all that is
+    expected. We can probably do much better than this,
+    especially if proper attention is given to the production
+    of new varieties adapted to our climate, as has been done
+    in California with the almond, and here in the East with
+    the peach and many other kinds of fruits; and when
+    such have been secured, proceed to multiply them in the
+    usual mode of budding upon seedling stocks.</p>
+<p><strong>Soft, or Brittle-Shelled</strong>, <i>A. c. fragilis</i>.&mdash;In
+    this group we have many distinct varieties, besides<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> others which are known by local names, but have no
+    permanent and pronounced distinguishing characteristics
+    that would aid in separating them, should this be
+    desired. The most common form, widely known as the
+    sweet-kerneled thin-shelled (Fig. 8), is one of the oldest
+    in cultivation in European countries.
+    The flowers usually appear with the
+    leaves, or before they unfold, and are
+    large and of a pale rose color. The
+    tree is rather tender for latitudes north
+    of Philadelphia, but succeeds southward,
+    and westward to the Pacific,
+    if late frosts do not come to destroy
+    the flowers or embryo nuts.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 216px;"> <img src="images/fig8.jpg" alt="" title="" height="350" width="216" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._8" id="FIG._8">FIG. 8.</a> THIN-SHELLED
+    ALMOND.</span></span> </div>
+<p><strong>Large Fruited Almond</strong>, <i>A. c.
+    macrocarpa</i>.&mdash;This is an old French
+    variety, and perhaps most widely
+    known as the Sultana, although the
+    latter name is often applied in market to almost every
+    variety of sweet almond. The leaves of the genuine
+    variety are much broader than those of the preceding
+    groups, and are smooth and deep green. Flowers very
+    large and showy, of a pale rose color, and always appear
+    in spring before the leaves, and for this reason it has long
+    been cultivated in England as an ornamental tree. Fruit
+    large, depressed or flattened at the base, but pointed at
+    the top. Shell rather hard and firm, and will withstand
+    rough handling and transportation long distances. Kernel
+    very sweet and tender, hence highly prized everywhere.
+    There are several sub-varieties; one, known as
+    the Pistache almond, is highly esteemed for the table,
+    on account of its delicate flavor, although it is very small
+    and not popular for commercial purposes.</p>
+<p><strong>The Peach Almond</strong>, <i>A. c. persicoides</i>.&mdash;This is
+    another old variety, described by Du Hamel about the
+    middle of the last century, under the name of <i>Amandier-Pecher</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> or peach-leaved almond. Leaves similar to those
+    of the common peach. Fruit ovate, obtuse; husk
+    slightly succulent; shell of a yellowish color, and the
+    kernel sweet-flavored and excellent. Du Hamel says
+    the fruit varies widely, even upon the same tree or
+    branch, some having a dry, thin husk, while on others
+    it is soft and fleshy, somewhat like that of the peach.
+    As the almond and peach are of the same species, it
+    would not be at all strange if an occasional variety raised
+    from the seed of either class should diverge towards, or
+    even pass completely over to a closely allied group.</p>
+<p>From the varieties found in the forementioned
+    groups we must seek to find, or produce therefrom, those
+    which will succeed in this country wherever it may be
+    thought desirable to attempt the cultivation of this nut.
+    So far as my knowledge extends, no attempts have, as
+    yet, been made to produce distinct American varieties in
+    the Eastern States, as with its near relative, the peach,
+    but all the almonds thus far cultivated here are of well-known
+    foreign varieties. Perhaps the demand for
+    almond trees has not been sufficient heretofore to encourage
+    very extended experiments in this direction, but
+    I cannot believe that our people will continue for another
+    century to import millions of pounds annually of
+    almonds if it is possible to raise them in this country.
+    That it is possible on the Pacific coast has already been
+    fully demonstrated, but we want to see the field greatly
+    enlarged, and give the people of the Eastern States a
+    share in what is evidently soon to become a large and
+    profitable industry.</p>
+<p><strong>Ornamental Varieties of the Almond.</strong>&mdash;These
+    are only referred to because some of the many in cultivation
+    belong to the groups producing the most valuable
+    nuts, but the greater part of the purely ornamental varieties
+    are worthless for other purposes. <i>Amygdalus cochinchinensis</i> grows to quite a large tree in its native country,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> or thirty to forty feet high; flowers small, white,
+    produced in long racemes; tender.<i> A. orientalis</i>, a
+    small shrub, with grayish or hoary leaves, and small
+    rose-colored flowers; sometimes cultivated under the
+    name of <i>argentea</i>, or Silvery almond. <i>A. incana</i> (hoary)
+    is another dwarf species, from the Caucasus, with solitary
+    red flowers. <i>A. nana</i> and <i>A. pumila</i> are oriental species
+    of very dwarf shrubs, with either red or white flowers.
+    The double-flowering varieties of these have long
+    been inhabitants of our gardens.</p>
+<p><strong>Properties and Uses.</strong>&mdash;For domestic purposes
+    the almond is highly esteemed wherever it is known,
+    and is employed in hundreds of different ways in the
+    preparation of appetizing dishes and dainties for the
+    table. In countries where this nut is in cultivation, it
+    is brought to the table in the half-opened green husk,
+    for at this time the kernels are just passing from the
+    milky stage, and are considered more readily digested
+    than later, or when fully ripe. But it is only when they
+    are fully mature that they are gathered for market, and
+    after thorough drying they are placed in strong sacks
+    and distributed among dealers in all parts of the world.
+    But only certain varieties are exported in this condition,
+    and principally those with very thin shells, because
+    these are most in demand, for the table and dessert,
+    where the almond is not a home product. Other sweet
+    varieties, whether with very hard or very tender shells,
+    are cracked and only the kernels exported. The importation
+    of shelled almonds into this country is somewhat
+    in excess of the unshelled, and as they are of
+    greater value per pound, the duty levied is proportionally
+    higher. There is also a great saving to the importer
+    and consumer,&mdash;not only in freight, but the extraction of
+    the kernels is done in countries where labor is abundant
+    and cheap. Whether the almond shells are used for
+    any purpose in European countries, or are considered as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> wholly a waste product, I have been unable to learn, but
+    it is asserted, and by men whose word is worthy of
+    credence, that almond shells ground into a fine golden
+    colored flour, is much used in this country for adulterating
+    red pepper, cinnamon and other spices.</p>
+<p>Almonds are not only used extensively at all times
+    and seasons, by persons of all ages and sexes, at table
+    and elsewhere, but they are employed largely in the
+    making of fancy confectionery with sugar, or in the form
+    of salted almonds, the kernels having been first thoroughly
+    steamed or scalded, to remove the skin, and then
+    rolled or dusted with fine salt. Prepared in this way
+    they are usually considered more readily digestible and
+    healthful than in their natural state.</p>
+<p>Sweet almonds are also valued in the form of emulsions,
+    as a medicine in pulmonary disorders, and the oil
+    of almonds is a common standard article in the stock of
+    druggists everywhere, as it enters into the composition
+    of cosmetics, syrups, pastes and powders of various
+    kinds.</p>
+<p>The kernels of the wild bitter almond contain a
+    poisonous principle known as hydrocyanic or Prussic
+    acid, which does not exist in the sweet varieties, although
+    found in their leaves and the bark of their twigs. But
+    as bitter almonds are not palatable, there is little danger
+    of anyone being poisoned from eating them, should
+    these nuts ever be cultivated here for any special purpose,
+    as in other countries.</p>
+<p><strong>Insects and Diseases.</strong>&mdash;Whenever the almond
+    tree becomes common here in orchards it will doubtless
+    suffer from the attacks of the same kinds of natural enemies
+    as affect the peach. One of the most widely distributed
+    of these pests is the common peach-tree borer.
+    The parents of these borers are small, slender-bodied,
+    bluish, transparent-winged moths, the male somewhat
+    smaller than the female. These moths usually appear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> in this latitude during the month of June, and the
+    female deposits her eggs on the stems of the trees near
+    the surface of the ground, or a little below it if she can
+    find a convenient opening to suit her purpose. The
+    eggs deposited soon hatch, and the young larvæ bore
+    through the tender bark at this point, and when fairly
+    under it, branch off, cutting galleries through the soft
+    alburnum underneath. When a number of these borers
+    are at work on the same tree they sometimes girdle and
+    kill it the first season, especially if it is young or a small
+    specimen. But if the tree is not killed outright it will
+    show, by the check to its growth, that borers are at
+    work. The borers continue feeding throughout the
+    remainder of the season, and up to the time freezing
+    weather sets in for the winter, and if not full grown at
+    this time they will finish their growth early in spring,
+    then crawl to near the outside, or just under the old
+    bark, and there spin a thin cocoon, in which they are
+    transformed to the pupal stage, remaining in this form
+    for a few weeks, then issuing in the winged or moth
+    stage.</p>
+<p>In the line of preventives and remedies there is
+    nothing better than clean cultivation about the trees,
+    and annual examination of each tree early in summer
+    and the crushing of every borer found. The next best
+    thing, in the way of a preventive, is to wrap the stems
+    from a little below the surface of the ground to a foot or
+    more above it with heavy paper, cloth, or bark of some
+    kind, to keep the moth from laying her eggs on the bark
+    of the tree. I have used common tar paper for this
+    purpose, not only because it is very cheap and does not
+    decay when exposed to the weather, but the exhalation
+    or odor of tar seems to be offensive to the moths. In
+    the use of this material I have never found that it was
+    in the least injurious to the bark underneath. Painting
+    the stems with soap, cement, clay, or even common<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> mineral paints, will answer very well if a little care is
+    given to keeping down the number of insects by removing
+    the larger part of the borers with knife or gouge.</p>
+<p>In recent years a pest known as the &quot;shot-hole
+    borer&quot; (<i>Scolytus rugulosus</i>) has appeared in many and
+    widely separated localities, in both the Eastern and
+    Western States, attacking the almond, peach and plum
+    tree. It is supposed to have been introduced from
+    Europe with imported nursery stock, and thence rapidly
+    distributed, by similar means, through the country. In
+    its perfect stages it is a minute brown beetle, about one-twelfth
+    of an inch long and one-thirtieth of an inch in
+    diameter. This pest appears about midsummer, boring
+    numerous minute holes through the bark and into the
+    sapwood underneath, and in this the female deposits
+    her eggs, and from these are hatched the little grubs
+    found later feeding on the soft inner bark and alburnous
+    matter beneath it. From every hole made in the bark
+    a small globule of gum will soon appear, drying upon
+    the surface&mdash;thence onward until autumn&mdash;and glistening
+    in the sun, an immutable sign of the presence of a
+    minute but destructive enemy.</p>
+<p>When the beetles and their eggs are once in possession
+    there is no practical way known of removing them,
+    and the best thing to be done is to cut down and burn
+    every infested tree, and just as soon as it is known to be
+    in this condition. There are also several indigenous
+    species of bark beetles, which will very likely attack
+    almond trees as soon as they are as abundant as peach
+    trees, but all may be destroyed with the same, or very
+    similar weapons and materials.</p>
+<p>What are called preventives consist mainly of substances
+    to be applied to the stems in a semi-liquid form,
+    and of such a nature as to be offensive to the beetles
+    because of their odor, taste, or because so hard that the
+    insects cannot cut through them with their mandibles.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> Common lime whitewash, soft soap, whale-oil soap, or a
+    thin mineral paint made of pure linseed oil, will answer
+    very well for this purpose if applied often enough to
+    keep the bark constantly coated.</p>
+<p>Of the fungous diseases affecting the almond in this
+    country, very little is as yet known, although we may
+    safely include under this head all those that have been
+    inimical to the peach, for the transition from this tree
+    to the almond would only be a natural sequence. The
+    peach-leaf curl (<i>Taphrina deformans</i>) would not be far
+    from home on the almond leaf, neither could we expect
+    that almond orchards would be wholly exempt from
+    that mysteriously distributed and uncontrollable disease
+    known as &quot;peach yellows.&quot;</p>
+<p>In California an almond-leaf blight has already appeared
+    and seriously affected the trees in some of the
+    orchards. It is caused by a fungus known as <i>Cercospora
+    circumscissa</i> Sacc. This fungus attacks the leaves and
+    young twigs, causing the former to fall off early in the
+    season, thereby checking the growth of the tree and preventing
+    the maturing of the fruit. It is thought that
+    remedies may be applied to check this disease, and there
+    will probably be some form of copper solution employed
+    for destroying it, as with various species of fungi on other
+    kinds of fruit trees.</p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+<h3>THE BEECHNUT.</h3>
+<p>Fagus, <i>Linn.</i> The Beech. The Latin name of the
+    genus (<i>Fagus</i>) supposed to be an equivalent of the Greek
+    phegos, an oak, or it may be derived from <i>phago</i>, to eat;
+    the nuts of this tree having been used as food by man
+    in all ages and countries where it is a native. The
+    modern English name, beech, was probably derived
+    from the Anglo-Saxon <i>bece</i> or <i>boc</i>; in Dutch it is <i>beuk</i>;
+    French, <i>hetre</i>; Icelandic, <i>beyk</i>; Danish, <i>bog</i>; Swedish, <i>bok</i>; German, <i>buche</i> or <i>buoche</i>; Russian, <i>buk</i>; Italian, <i>faggio</i>; Armenian, <i>fao</i>; and in Welsh <i>ffawydd</i>.</p>
+<p>The beech belongs to the order <i>Cupuliferæ</i>, or oak
+    family. The genus contains about fifteen species of
+    handsome deciduous and evergreen trees, or shrubs, very
+    widely distributed throughout the temperate and colder
+    regions of both the northern and southern hemispheres.
+    Male flowers are bell-shaped, in long-stalked drooping
+    heads; calyx five to seven cleft, containing numerous
+    stamens. Female flowers two to four in a cluster on the
+    summit of the scaly-bracted peduncle; the inside scales
+    uniting, forming a four-lobed involucre of imbricated
+    bracts, the whole becoming at maturity a somewhat
+    prickly, scaly bur, within which are found a pair of
+    sharp-edged triangular nuts, containing a tender and
+    sweet-flavored kernel.</p>
+<p><strong>History of the Beech.</strong>&mdash;The common beeches of
+    both Europe and North America are so closely related
+    that the two species may be considered as one for all
+    practical purposes, such as propagation, cultivation, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> value of the wood and nuts. It is true, however, that
+    our native beech is not environed with ancient myths
+    and stories of love and war, neither is it celebrated in
+    poetry and song, yet it has, doubtless, played just as
+    noble a part in human affairs among the pre-historic
+    races of America as those recorded of its European contemporary.
+    As the beech in Europe is found in the
+    forests of Great Britain, Norway, Sweden, France, Germany,
+    and southward to Constantinople, Palestine, Asia
+    Minor and Armenia, it was well known and highly appreciated
+    by all the early inhabitants of these countries,
+    and is frequently referred to by the earlier writers of
+    Greece and Rome who touch upon the rural affairs of
+    their times. It is supposed that Theophrastus refers to
+    the beech under the name of <i>Oxua</i>, and Dioscorides
+    as <i>Phegos</i>, and the latter author places it among the
+    oaks, in which he was not far out of the way, because
+    the beech is a member of the oak family in our modern
+    classification. Virgil and Pliny speak highly of the
+    little triangular nuts, and the people of their times set
+    considerable value upon beech-nuts as an article of food.
+    Pliny also assures us that at the siege of Chios, the besieged
+    inhabitants lived for some time entirely on these
+    nuts. We are inclined to think, however, that both
+    Virgil and Pliny are in error when they tell us that
+    the beech was propagated by being grafted on the
+    chestnut. They were probably led astray in this by
+    some romancing gardener of their time, for we even
+    have some of the same ilk with us at this day. Pliny
+    refers to the beech several times in his writings, and
+    places a much higher value upon this nut than he does
+    upon the chestnut; in fact, speaks rather contemptuously
+    of the latter, and seems to be surprised that nature
+    should have taken such care of the nuts, which he calls
+    &quot;<i>vilissima</i>,&quot; as to enclose them with a prickly involucre
+    or bur.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p>
+<p>But my limited space will not allow of tracing the
+    history of the beech from ancient to modern times,
+    although it has always been esteemed as food for man,
+    as well as for wild and domesticated animals. Swine fattened
+    on beech and oak mast have for ages been noted
+    for their excellent flesh, and the value of many an old
+    estate in Great Britain was determined more upon the
+    mast the forest produced, than the area or number of
+    square miles they contained.</p>
+<p>As a monumental tree the beech has no rival, for
+    its smooth gray bark, perennial and almost unchangeable,
+    has ever been a convenient place to register challenges
+    to enemies, epitaphs, epithets, and probably more
+    frequently than all, the initials of the name of some
+    loved one, who might possibly pass that way and find
+    her name engraved on the beechen tree. I doubt much
+    if there is a beech grove in all Europe or in America,
+    within a convenient distance of a city, country village or
+    schoolhouse, on which the bark of the trees is not scarified
+    by the knives of boys in recording the initials of
+    their own names, and those of their favorites of the opposite
+    sex. These living registers were long ago recognized
+    by the poets, and more than eighteen centuries
+    ago Virgil admits it in these lines:</p>
+<p style="text-align: left; margin-left: 20%">&quot;Or shall I rather the sad verse repeat,<br />
+    Which on the beech's bark I lately writ.&quot;<br />
+</p>
+<p>In more modern times Tasso hints of the same habit,
+    in <i>Jerusalem Delivered</i>, to wit:</p>
+<p style="text-align: left; margin-left: 20%">&quot;On the smooth beechen rind, the pensive dame<br />
+    Carves in a thousand forms her Tancred's name.&quot;<br />
+</p>
+<p>That the Spanish youths were not oblivious to their
+    opportunities for recording the names of their favorites
+    we must assume to be true, from the lines of Don Luis
+    de Gongora, who tells us that:</p>
+<p style="text-align: left; margin-left: 20%">&quot;Not a beech but bears some cipher,<br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Tender word, or amorous text.</span><br />
+    If one vale sounds Angelina,<br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">Angelina sounds the next.&quot;</span><br />
+</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p>
+<p><strong>Propagation of the Beech.</strong>&mdash;The beech, in all
+    its species and varieties, may be propagated by the usual
+    modes, viz.: By seed, layers, budding and grafting.
+    The seeds, when gathered, should be mixed with clean,
+    sharp, moist sand, placed in boxes, and then stored in a
+    cool or cold place and carefully protected from mice,
+    until the time arrives for sowing in spring. They may
+    also be sown in the fall and lightly covered with leaf
+    mold or other light soil, but unless coated with tar or
+    some offensive poisonous substance, vermin of some
+    form will be very likely to find them and leave few
+    to grow. Seedlings are used for stocks upon which
+    to work the many varieties in cultivation; but as I
+    am not writing this for the encouragement of propagators
+    of purely ornamental trees, I will omit giving
+    any very extended description of the different modes
+    of propagating the beech, further than to say that
+    should remarkably fine varieties with extra-sized nuts be
+    discovered or produced, they can be perpetuated and
+    multiplied by the same processes adopted for other kinds
+    of nut trees.</p>
+<p><strong>Soil and Location.</strong>&mdash;The beeches of Northern
+    countries, in their many varieties, thrive best in a cool,
+    moist soil, for their roots rarely penetrate very deeply, but
+    spread out widely and near the surface, forming an intricate
+    network, which will try the patience of the woodman
+    who attempts to clear away a forest of beech and
+    break up the ground. In this country, as well as in
+    Europe, the beech thrives in calcareous soils, or what is
+    usually termed limestone regions; consequently, when
+    transplanted or raised in sandy soils, or on the red sandstone
+    formation, light applications of lime are usually
+    found very beneficial; but more than all, the beech requires
+    moisture, and if not planted in a moist soil the
+    surface over the roots should be kept constantly covered
+    with some kind of mulch.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p>
+<p><strong>Species and Varieties of the Beech.</strong>&mdash;In the
+    Dictionary of Gardening, edited by George Nicholson,
+    of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, the following
+    species of Fagus are briefly described, viz:</p>
+<p><i>F. antarctica.</i>&mdash;Leaves ovate, blunt, glabrous, attenuated
+    at the base, doubly dentate, alternate, petiolate,
+    one and a half inches long. A small deciduous tree or
+    shrub, with rugged, tortuous branches. Native of Tierra
+    del Fuego, S. A.</p>
+<p><i>F. betuloides</i> (birch-like). Evergreen beech.&mdash;Leaves
+    ovate, elliptic, obtuse crenulate, leathery, shining
+    glabrous, round at the base or short footstalks. An
+    evergreen tree, native of Tierra del Fuego, S. A.</p>
+<p><i>F. ferruginea</i> (rusty). American beech.&mdash;Leaves
+    ovate, acuminate, thickly toothed, downy beneath, ciliate
+    on the margin. A large deciduous tree, very closely
+    resembling the common European species, from which
+    it is distinguished by its longer, thinner and less shining
+    leaves.</p>
+<p><i>F. obliqua</i> (oblique). Chile beech.&mdash;Leaves ovate,
+    oblong, oblique, somewhat rhomboid, blunt, doubly serrated,
+    entire at the base, attenuated into the petiole, and
+    somewhat downy. A hardy deciduous tree, native of
+    the cooler elevated regions of Chile, S. A.</p>
+<p><i>F. sylvatica</i> (sylvan). European beech.&mdash;Leaves oblong,
+    ovate, obscurely toothed; margin ciliate. A well-known
+    large deciduous tree, widely distributed in Europe
+    from Norway southward to Asia Minor. From this species
+    a large number of ornamental varieties have been
+    produced, many of them merely accidental variations of
+    the wild forms of the forests, while others have originated
+    in the seedbeds of nurserymen. But so far as I am
+    aware, no variety has ever been introduced bearing
+    superior or improved forms of nuts.</p>
+<p>Our American beech (<i>F. ferruginea</i>) is a widely
+    distributed tree, extending from Nova Scotia in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> north, south to Florida, and westward to Wisconsin and
+    Missouri. Formerly it was exceedingly abundant, but
+    like many other of our most valuable forest trees, it is
+    disappearing before the axe of the woodman, who has
+    always found a ready sale for beech timber. It is used in
+    the manufacture of plane stocks, shoe lasts, handles for
+    paring chisels, and hundreds of similar articles. Beech
+    wood is hard, firm, and takes a good polish, but is not
+    very flexible. It makes excellent fuel, and ranks next
+    in value to hard maple and hickory for this purpose.
+    In the more northern States and where the beech grows
+    to its largest size, the heartwood is usually of a reddish
+    color; but here in New Jersey and farther south, the
+    wood is usually white almost to the center of the tree,
+    no matter how large it may be. The color of the wood,
+    however, does not in any way detract from its value, for
+    fuel and many other purposes, although some European
+    dendrologists have been deceived into supposing that the
+    white beech was almost or quite worthless. Loudon, in <i>Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum</i>, Vol. III, in referring
+    to our beech, says: &quot;The wood of the white
+    beech is little valued in America, even for fuel; and
+    the bark is used for tanning, but is little esteemed,&quot; etc.
+    But if any one, in these later years, has had occasion to
+    purchase beech timber for any purpose, he has probably
+    learned, from the price charged, that it is esteemed,
+    even for such base purposes as firewood.</p>
+<p>I am not, however, attempting to extol the American
+    beech as a timber tree, but ask that it be given a
+    place among the select ornamental nut-bearing kinds.
+    And I think every farmer who has a pasture lot could
+    afford a place for at least one beech tree, and if there is
+    a low, moist spot in the field, or a stony corner, this
+    will be a suitable place for such a tree; and the horses,
+    cattle or sheep out in pasture during hot days in summer
+    will be very grateful for the shade which a wide-spreading<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> specimen will give them. It may be that
+    the owner of said pasture may recall the lines of
+    Garcilaso:</p>
+<p style="text-align: left; margin-left: 20%"><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&quot;But in calm idlesse laid,</span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Supine in the cool shade</span><br />
+    Of oak or ilex, beech or pendant pine,<br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Sees his flocks feeding stray,</span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Whitening a length of way,</span><br />
+    Or numbers up his homeward-tending kine.&quot;<br />
+</p>
+<p>He may be sure of one thing, and that is, the beech-nuts
+    produced by one or many trees will always be acceptable
+    to the children, and of these hungry mortals
+    there is likely to be a few, at least, roaming about in
+    ages to come, as in times past.</p>
+<p>The beech is not really a desirable tree to plant on
+    a lawn or near one's dwelling, because of its persistent
+    foliage, which clings to the twigs very late in winter,
+    and the rustling of the wind through the dry leaves is
+    not soothing to one's nerves, although not quite as dismal
+    as the moaning pines. In summer, and until late
+    in autumn, the American beech is a noble and graceful
+    tree,&mdash;and if I may be allowed the expression, one of
+    the cleanest of trees; its large, thin, bright-green and
+    glossy leaves retain none of the dust and cast-off material
+    of other trees which may be floating through the
+    air, but are ever bright and pure. The tree has naturally
+    wide-spreading and somewhat drooping branches,
+    and should be given plenty of room for development
+    when planted for the nuts or as an ornamental tree. Its
+    leaves and the small slender branchlets (Fig. 9) are eaten
+    with avidity by all kinds of farm animals; consequently,
+    protection may be required until the trees have reached
+    a hight to be safe from such depredators.</p>
+<p>Beech seedlings do not usually come into bearing in
+    less than twenty to thirty years, but as no one in this
+    country has ever attempted to cultivate this tree for its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> nuts, or search our forests for precocious and superior
+    varieties, we have to admit that the field remains unexplored,
+    and as barren of results as it was when our ancestors
+    first discovered
+    America. Every hunter,
+    woodman, farmer
+    and botanist who has
+    roamed through forests
+    where the beech
+    trees grow, is well
+    aware of the fact that
+    distinct varieties are
+    not at all rare, some
+    having nuts twice the
+    size of others in the
+    same woods or groves,
+    and it is possible and
+    probable that some
+    nut culturist in the
+    near future will find
+    time to select these
+    choice wild varieties
+    for cultivation and
+    propagation. It
+    would not, in my opinion,
+    be beneath the
+    dignity of our national
+    department of agriculture,
+    or some of its
+    numerous costly annexes,
+    to occasionally
+    take into consideration
+    the natural products
+    of this great
+    country, and determine, by a series of experiments,
+    whether or no they were not worthy of attention.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 440px;"> <img src="images/fig9.jpg" alt="" height="858" width="440" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._9" id="FIG._9">FIG. 9. </a>BEECHNUT LEAF, BUR AND NUT.</span></span> </div>
+<p><strong>Insects Injurious to the Beech.</strong>&mdash;No disease
+    has, as yet, been known to seriously affect the beech,
+    and as for insect enemies, it probably has a less number
+    than any other denizen of our forests. It is true that
+    transplanted trees, and those left exposed by cutting
+    away protecting neighbors, are sometimes attacked by
+    borers in the stem, branches and twigs, but these enemies
+    naturally follow in the train of debility, it being
+    one of the immutable economic laws of nature to hasten
+    the demise and decomposition of the half-starved or
+    otherwise enfeebled members of both the animal and
+    vegetable kingdom.</p>
+<p>Isolated beech trees growing by the roadsides in
+    parks and fields are occasionally attacked by a large
+    grayish, long-horn beetle, the <i>Goes pulverulenta</i>. It is
+    about one inch long, and a rather sturdy beetle of a
+    light grayish color, and usually infests the branches,
+    but may occasionally attack the main stem. It is not
+    abundant, and has seldom been found infesting the
+    beech. There are also two or three borers of the Buprestis
+    family of beetles which occasionally attack beech
+    trees. They are distinguished by the broad heads and
+    flattened bodies of the grubs, and they work just beneath
+    the bark in the sapwood, causing dead patches, mainly
+    on the south side of the stem and larger branches. If
+    the dead bark is removed and the wounds painted they
+    will soon heal over, unless the tree is suffering for moisture
+    and nutrients at the roots. A few twig borers, with
+    an occasional colony of caterpillars on the leaves, embody
+    about all the insect enemies of the beech calling for any
+    special attention, but there are a host of different species
+    and kinds ever ready to pounce upon a sickly or dead
+    tree, whether found in the field or forest.</p>
+<p><strong>Properties and Uses.</strong>&mdash;The beechnut has been so
+    long and favorably known that very little need be said
+    here in regard to its properties and uses. In the forests<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> it affords food for many kinds of birds, such as the wild
+    turkey, partridge or grouse, and especially the pigeon,
+    and immense flocks of these collect in the beech forests
+    in autumn to feed upon the nuts. Deer are very fond
+    of these nuts, and so are all of the squirrel family, and
+    the little ground squirrel or chipmunk, <i>Tamias striatus</i>,
+    of our Northern States, gives us a good practical lesson
+    in the way of preserving the nuts over winter. These
+    little rodents pack away the nuts in small pockets in
+    their burrows and from two to three feet below the surface,
+    where they are protected from excessive moisture
+    and any considerable change of temperature. The chipmunk
+    always stores the nuts in the ground, and not in
+    hollow logs, as is sometimes asserted. The deer-mouse
+    (<i>Hesperomys leucopus</i>), however, does select such places
+    for putting away his winter's supply, but more frequently
+    he chooses a hollow in the stem of some old tree,
+    and several feet from the ground. Unlike the chipmunk,
+    this mouse cleans the shells from the kernels,
+    storing only the latter, and I have often found a quart
+    or more when cutting down trees in winter. These kernels
+    are usually so clean, bright, and free from odor,
+    that it is to be feared the finder always confiscates them
+    for his own use.</p>
+<p>As the beechnut contains considerable oil, many
+    schemes have been set on foot, in European countries,
+    for its extraction and use as a salad oil. Early in the
+    last century (1721) Aaron Hill, an English poet, proposed
+    to pay off the national debt from the profits to be
+    derived from the manufacture of beechnut oil; but his
+    scheme fell through, like many others of its kind. It is
+    also stated that Henry Fielding, so well known by his
+    delightful stories of English society, once speculated
+    rather largely on the manufacture of beechnut oil. In
+    France, however, beechnut oil was formerly made in
+    considerable quantities, and used in cooking fish and as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> a salad oil. In Silesia it is used by the country people
+    instead of butter, and the cakes which remain from the
+    pressure are given to fatten swine, oxen and poultry.
+    The forests of Eu and of Crécy, in the department of
+    the Oise, it is stated by Duhamel du Monceau, have
+    yielded, in a single season, more than 2,000,000 bushels
+    of mast, but probably this referred to all kinds of nuts,
+    and not beech-nuts alone. Years later, or in 1779,
+    Michaux states that the forests of Compiègne, near the
+    Verberie department of the Somme, afforded oil enough
+    to supply the wants of the district for more than half a
+    century. In some parts of France beech-nuts are roasted
+    and served as a substitute for coffee. Many of these old
+    forests have disappeared, but other kinds of nut trees
+    are still being planted in France, and the product is
+    simply enormous, and a source of wealth to the peasant,
+    as well as the owners of extensive forests and orchards.</p>
+<p>The beechnut has never been an article of commerce
+    in this country, and it is rarely seen on sale in either
+    country villages or our larger cities, not because of its
+    scarcity or want of demand, but all that the country
+    boys and girls find time to gather are wanted for their
+    own pleasure and use. Picking up beech-nuts among
+    the leaves in a forest, or even after raking off the leaves
+    and then whipping the trees, is, at best, slow and rather
+    tedious work, as I know full well from experience, and
+    only once do I remember of having secured a rounded
+    half bushel as the sum total of many raids on the beech
+    trees in the neighborhood. But as the beechnut is the
+    diamond among the larger and less precious gems of our
+    forests, we should set a higher value upon it because
+    small and rather difficult to obtain.</p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+<h3>CASTANOPSIS.</h3>
+<p class="center">California chestnut. Western chinquapin. Evergreen
+    chestnut.</p>
+<p>Castanopsis, Spach. Name derived from <i>Castanea</i>,
+    the chestnut. Order, <i>Cupuliferæ</i>. A genus of evergreen
+    shrubs and trees, intermediate between the oaks
+    (<i>Quercus</i>) and the chestnuts (<i>Castanea</i>). There are
+    about a dozen species indigenous to Eastern Asia and
+    the adjacent islands. Blume, in &quot;Flora Javae,&quot; Vol. II,
+    1828-36, describes three species under <i>Castanea</i>, which
+    he found in the mountains and more elevated regions of
+    the Javanese islands. Very little, however, is known of
+    these oriental evergreen chestnuts outside of the herbariums
+    of professional botanists, and they are rarely referred
+    to, even in standard botanical dictionaries, or
+    dictionaries of gardening, and when mentioned they are
+    usually placed in the genus <i>Castanea</i>. Edouard Spach,
+    a half-century or more ago, gave a synopsis of the genus,
+    for which he proposed the name of <i>Castanopsis</i>, and
+    although not recognized by botanists in general for a
+    number of years, it is now accepted by botanical authorities
+    everywhere. We have but one indigenous species,
+    and this on the Pacific coast, viz:</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> <img src="images/fig10.jpg" alt="" height="658" width="650" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._10" id="FIG._10">FIG. 10.</a> LEAVES AND NUT OF CASTANOPSIS CHRYSOPHYLLA.</span></span> </div>
+<p><i>Castanopsis chrysophylla</i>, A. de Candolle. <i>Castanea
+    chrysophylla</i>, Douglas. <i>Castanea sempervirens</i>,
+    Kellogg.</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;Leaves coriaceous, evergreen, lanceolate or oblong,
+        one to four inches long, acuminate or only acutish (Fig.
+        10), cuneate at base and shortly petioled, entire green
+        and glabrous above or somewhat scurfy, densely scurfy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> beneath, with none or few yellow scales; male aments
+        one to three inches long, densely pubescent; styles three,
+        stout, glabrous, divergent; fruiting involucre with stout
+        divergent spines (Fig. 11) one-half to one inch long,
+        subverticillately many branched; nut usually solitary,
+        obversely triangular, six lines long.&quot;&mdash;&quot;Geological Survey
+        of California,&quot; Botany, Vol. II, p. 100.</p>
+    <p>&quot;This handsome broad-leaved evergreen tree is indigenous
+        to the elevated regions, from Monterey, California,
+        northward to the Columbia river in Oregon. It is
+        also common in the Sierra Nevadas at elevations of six<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> thousand feet, but in its southern limits rarely below
+        ten thousand feet elevation.&quot;&mdash;C. S. Sargent (&quot;Woods of
+        the United States&quot;).</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>In the warmer and drier regions of California it is
+    a mere shrub two to six feet high, and these dwarf forms
+    have, in some instances, been described as varieties.
+    As, for instance, <i>Castanea chrysophylla</i>, var. <i>minor</i>,
+    Bentham; <i>C. chrysophylla</i>, var. <i>minor</i>, A. de Candolle;
+    and <i>C. chrysophylla</i>, var. <i>pumila</i>, Vasey. But northward,
+    where the climate
+    is more moist, it
+    becomes a large tree
+    fifty to one hundred
+    and twenty feet high,
+    with a stem two to
+    three feet in diameter.
+    In its wide variation
+    in habit of growth,
+    this western chinquapin
+    is similar to our
+    Eastern dwarf chestnut,
+    which is mainly
+    a low shrub in the
+    more Southern States,
+    but becomes a fair-sized tree in the Middle States, or
+    near its northern limits.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 350px;"> <img src="images/fig11.jpg" alt="" title="" height="391" width="350" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._11" id="FIG._11">FIG. 11</a>. CASTANOPSIS BUR.</span></span> </div>
+<p>I have introduced the Western chinquapin here
+    among the nut-bearing trees, not with the idea that
+    it will ever be extensively cultivated for its edible nuts,
+    but because it is a beautiful broad-leaved evergreen tree,
+    and of which we have far too few kinds in cultivation to
+    give warmth and a cheerful aspect to our gardens and
+    pleasure grounds in winter. It is true that, so far as
+    can be learned at this time, no extended experiments
+    have ever been made to introduce or cultivate the Castanopsis
+    in the Atlantic States, consequently nothing positive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> is known as to whether it will succeed here or not.
+    In its northernmost range it thrives in forests among
+    many kinds of trees and shrubs that are already common
+    in our gardens, and this leads me to think that specimens
+    or seeds of this tree procured from the mountains
+    of northern Oregon will withstand the rigors of our
+    climate.</p>
+<p>Mr. S. B. Parsons writes me that he first saw <i>Castanopsis
+    chrysophylla</i> in Kew Gardens (Eng.) thirty-five
+    years ago, and procured specimens, which were planted
+    in his gardens at Flushing, N. Y., but they failed, presumably
+    because not hardy. It may be that his specimens
+    were raised from nuts procured in the warmer part
+    of California, and, as with many other Pacific coast
+    plants, proved to be tender, while later introductions of
+    the same species collected in colder localities have proved
+    hardy here. In my experience I have found a great difference
+    in the hardiness of trees and plants obtained
+    from the higher and lower levels of the mountains from
+    Colorado westward to the Coast range, for in those regions
+    acclimation extending over thousands of years has
+    developed and fixed certain physiological attributes,
+    which enables them to readily adapt themselves to similar
+    conditions elsewhere, especially in the line of temperature.
+    It may make no difference to those who want
+    plants for warm climates, whether they are obtained
+    from mountain or valley, but it certainly does to those
+    who value hardiness above all other merits.</p>
+<p>In horticultural matters we are supposed to confine
+    ourselves within certain natural lines in making experiments,
+    but if we fail in one, or one hundred, it proves
+    little beyond the bare fact that we have not been successful.
+    I have experimented enough to have become
+    somewhat wary of deciding that a thing cannot be done,
+    or is impossible, because of my own and others' failures.
+    Every practical horticulturist can call to mind many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> productions which had evaded the pursuit of experimenters
+    for decades and even centuries.</p>
+<p>For specimens of the nuts, burs and plants of this
+    handsome nut-bearing tree I am indebted to Mr. J. J.
+    Harden, of Stayton, Oregon, who informs me that it
+    grows in the mountains near by to a very large size, and
+    among such well-known kinds of shrubs and trees as <i>Rhamnus Purshianus</i>, <i>Cornus Nuttalli</i>, <i>Corylus rostrata</i>,
+    and various species of conifers which are now more or
+    less common in our Eastern gardens and parks. The
+    twigs and leaves are shown in Fig. 10, and below a nut,
+    and in Fig. 11 a bur, all of natural size. The small conical
+    nut is slightly triangular, with a rather firm, brittle
+    shell, not fibrous as in the acorn and chestnut. The burs
+    are produced singly, but sometimes several on a twig, and
+    when mature, instead of opening by valves, as in the true
+    chestnut, they break up irregularly. The kernels are
+    sweet and excellent flavored, and are sought for by various
+    kinds of birds, as well as by all the squirrel tribe, and
+    for this reason it is very difficult to procure specimens,
+    unless gathered before they are fully ripe. The nuts do
+    not mature the first season, but pass the winter in a
+    partly developed stage, usually ripening the second year
+    about midsummer or, in northern Oregon, in July.</p>
+<p>It is quite probable that this Castanopsis, when
+    planted in the Atlantic States, will require a little shade
+    or protection, like the American holly and similar broad-leaved
+    evergreens, and while it may not thrive anywhere
+    north of Delaware and Maryland, it is worth trying, as
+    the sole native representative of a genus containing several
+    species of noble evergreen trees.</p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+<h3>THE CHESTNUT.</h3>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/fig12.jpg" alt="" height="972" width="600" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._12" id="FIG._12">FIG. 12</a>. CHESTNUT FLOWERS.</span></span> </div>
+<p>Castanea, <i>Tournefort</i>. The ancient classical name
+    derived either from Castanis, a town in Thessaly, or one
+    in Pontius, as historians disagree in regard to its derivation.
+    The genus belongs to the order <i>Cupuliferæ</i>.</p>
+<p>Male flowers irregularly clustered in long, naked,
+    cylindrical catkins from the axils of the leaves and on
+    the new shoots of the season. Calyx five or six parted;
+    stamens or pollen-bearing organs seven to fifteen; anther
+    two-celled. On old, mature trees, the male catkins
+    are usually crowded near the end of the short new twigs,
+    as shown in Fig. 12, the terminal one productive; but
+    on young thrifty trees, wide apart. Female flowers
+    always on and near the base of a late-developed male
+    catkin, sometimes two or three together,&mdash;or even six or
+    eight on the chinquapins,&mdash;oval or ovoid, scaly, prickly,
+    two- to four-valved involucre or bur; calyx usually with
+    a four- to six-lobed border crowning the three- to seven-celled
+    ovary; stigmas bristle-shaped, and as many in
+    number as there are cells in the ovary. Shell of the nut
+    leathery, not brittle, ovoid, two or more together in the
+    larger species, in others solitary, or only one in a bur.
+    Kernel very thick, fleshy, and somewhat plaited, sweet
+    and edible.</p>
+<p>Both male and female flowers appear late in spring,
+    the males usually exceedingly so, exhaling a slightly nauseating
+    odor. The productive male catkins appear the
+    latest, their base becoming the rachis or stalk supporting
+    the burs, this rather anomalous arrangement appearing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a><br />
+    <a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> to be a natural provision to secure fertilization in
+    case the earlier catkins failed.</p>
+<p>The genus <i>Castanea</i>, as now restricted, contains
+    shrubs and large trees, with simple, alternate deciduous
+    leaves, coarsely serrate, with pointed spiny teeth. Indigenous,
+    and widely distributed over northern Africa,
+    southern Europe, Asia and the eastern half of the
+    United States.</p>
+<p>The common English name of this nut is supposed
+    to be derived from the Anglo-Saxon <i>cystel</i>, chestnut,
+    and <i>cyst-beam</i> or <i>cisten-beam</i>, chestnut tree; Old English, <i>chastein</i> or <i>chesten</i>; Old German, <i>chestinna</i> or <i>kestinna</i>; Modern German, <i>kestene</i> or <i>kastanie</i>; French, <i>castaigne</i> or <i>chataigne</i>; Provencal, <i>castanha</i>; Spanish, <i>castana</i>; Italian, <i>castagna</i>, from the Latin <i>castanea</i>.</p>
+<p><strong>History of the Chestnut.</strong>&mdash;The so-called European
+    chestnut is supposed to be indigenous to Asia
+    Minor, Armenia, Caucasus and northern Africa, and
+    from these countries it was introduced and became naturalized
+    throughout the greater part of temperate Europe,
+    where it has been cultivated from time immemorial.
+    The Romans are supposed to have distributed it
+    northward through France and Great Britain, and in
+    the latter country there were trees centuries ago of such
+    large size that many of the early English authors claimed
+    this tree was indigenous. But in the absence of any
+    natural forests of chestnut, the claim had to be abandoned.
+    In parts of France, Italy and Spain, the chestnut
+    has become thoroughly naturalized and, as we may
+    say, run wild, but as one of the early investigators says,
+    in speaking of the abundance of old chestnut trees on
+    the Apennines, they are generally scattered over the
+    surface like trees on a well-arranged lawn, and not
+    crowded and massed, as they would be in a state of
+    nature or in a forest. On the south side of the Alps the
+    trees grow up to an altitude of twenty-five hundred feet,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> and on the Pyrenees some two or three hundred feet
+    higher.</p>
+<p>There are old trees of immense size almost everywhere
+    in the milder regions of Europe, and the celebrated
+    monarchs of Etna have been many times described
+    by travelers. The largest measure one hundred
+    and eighty feet in circumference near the root. All the
+    early Roman writers who have anything to say about
+    rural affairs, mention the chestnut as one of their valuable
+    trees, producing nuts used for various purposes.
+    Pliny enumerates eight varieties, but Columella appears
+    to place more value upon the timber, especially the
+    sprouts, for stakes, than he does on the nuts. But long
+    before the Romans began to cultivate the chestnut, the
+    Greeks held it in high esteem under the name of <i>Sardianos
+    Balanos</i> or Sardis nut, and still later it was called <i>Dios Balanos Lopimon</i>.</p>
+<p>The European chestnut has been so frequently and
+    extensively referred to by ancient and modern authors
+    that it would not be at all difficult to fill a large volume
+    with brief extracts from their works, but my aim is not
+    so much to show what has been done with this nut in
+    other countries as what we may do with it here. All
+    nations who have any experience with it admit its value
+    as food for many wild and domesticated animals, as well
+    as for the human race, and we know, from our long
+    experience with the native species, that it is highly
+    esteemed wherever known, although it must be admitted
+    that our sparse population and the abundance of
+    other kinds of food, have tended to make us careless
+    and neglectful of the indigenous chestnut.</p>
+<p>It may be well, before dismissing this brief history
+    of the chestnut, to add that while nearly all the ancient
+    authors, in referring to it, employed its present scientific
+    name of <i>Castanea</i>, still, when botanists first attempted
+    what has since been recognized as the scientific<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> classification of plants, many of them placed the chestnut
+    in the same genus as the beech, retaining the generic
+    name of <i>Fagus</i> for both.</p>
+<p>Linnæus, in his <i>Systema Naturæ</i>, 1766, Vol. II,
+    p. 630, describes two species of the chestnut and one of
+    beech in the genus <i>Fagus</i>, although Tournefort, in his
+    &quot;History of Plants Growing About Paris,&quot; published
+    seventy years before that of Linnæus, had recognized
+    the distinctive characteristics of these two groups of nut
+    trees, and he adopted the present name of <i>Castanea</i> for
+    the generic name of the chestnut, and <i>Fagus</i> for that of
+    the beech. But nearly all of the English and earlier
+    American botanists adopted and followed Linnæus in
+    his classification, ignoring the works of the earlier as
+    well as contemporaneous continental botanists. I merely
+    refer to this matter of botanical nomenclature because
+    some of my readers may have occasion to consult the
+    earlier authors who describe American plants, as, for
+    instance, such works as John Clayton's &quot;Flora of Virginia,&quot;
+    1739, Thomas Walter's &quot;Flora Caroliniana,&quot;
+    1787, or Humphrey Marshall's &quot;American Grove,&quot; 1785.
+    In all of these, and others, the chestnut is described as a
+    species of beech (<i>Fagus</i>).</p>
+<p><strong>Propagation of the Chestnut.</strong>&mdash;The usual mode
+    of propagating the chestnut is from seed, when trees are
+    wanted for general planting or for stocks upon which
+    to graft improved and rare varieties. Under some conditions
+    and circumstances, it is best to plant the nuts
+    soon after they are ripe in autumn, and this appears to
+    be the most natural method; in fact, it is the way in
+    which forests have been produced and are constantly
+    renewed and perpetuated, when man does not interfere
+    to prevent it. But nature is in no hurry in such matters,
+    while man always is, because his time is limited;
+    consequently, in our attempts at the multiplication and
+    cultivation of plants we aim to save both time and material,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> therefore cannot afford to adopt nature's slow and
+    wasteful processes.</p>
+<p>The principal objection to planting chestnuts in the
+    fall is the danger of having them destroyed by vermin,
+    which abound almost everywhere. There is also danger
+    of the nuts sprouting prematurely in the autumn, and of
+    the young growth being killed by cold or by excessive
+    moisture during late fall rains. But these natural enemies
+    and obstacles prevent an excess in number and the
+    overcrowding of trees in our forests. It is, no doubt,
+    possible and practicable to smear the nuts with poisonous
+    substances, or those sufficiently offensive to prevent
+    the depredations of vermin, but taking all things into
+    consideration, I am decidedly in favor of preserving the
+    nuts in bulk and in a dormant state until the season
+    arrives for insuring a rapid and continuous growth, and
+    then planting them. To do this in our cold northern
+    climate, as well as in the South, requires more care and
+    attention with chestnuts than with the harder-shelled
+    kinds, like the walnut and hickory nut. As a rule, it
+    may be said that all the hardy kinds of nuts sprout at a
+    rather low temperature and a few degrees above the
+    freezing point, and for this reason it is well to select as
+    cool a spot in the open ground as possible for their winter
+    quarters, and then examine them as early as can be done
+    conveniently in the spring.</p>
+<p>In this matter of manipulating and preserving
+    chestnuts for planting, as well as what follows in regard
+    to transplanting, pruning and grafting, I shall give my
+    own practice, with results; and while it may differ from
+    that of other propagators, it is one evolved from long
+    experience, many successes, and a few failures.</p>
+<p><strong>Gathering and Assorting Nuts.</strong>&mdash;When the
+    nuts begin to ripen and fall, gather as soon as possible,
+    and if the trees are on your own grounds and will admit
+    of such an operation, thrash them and secure the entire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> crop at once. The object of this early gathering is to
+    collect the false and weevil-infested specimens and destroy
+    them. But in whatever way the nuts are collected,
+    they should be stored in the shade and in shallow boxes,
+    or spread out on a tight floor; but the better way would
+    be on screens over a floor, and then when the grubs
+    worked their way downward through the nuts and screen,
+    they would fall upon the floor, from which they could
+    be taken up and burned or otherwise destroyed. The
+    nuts, while on the screen or other receptacle, should be
+    stirred over daily for two or three weeks, and by that
+    time they will be in good condition for either planting
+    or packing away for the winter. But before finally disposing
+    of the nuts in either way, they should be carefully
+    looked over, and every shrunken specimen, as well as all
+    with punctured shells from which the grubs have escaped,
+    removed from among the sound stock, because
+    these damaged nuts are not only useless, but are very
+    likely to decay and affect all with which they come in
+    contact. It is not to be expected that by such means or
+    handling we can get rid of all the grubs enclosed in the
+    nuts when gathered, for there will always be a few not
+    more than half grown at the time, and these will remain
+    hidden in the nuts until midwinter, or later, but the
+    greater part of the brood will reach maturity within two
+    or three weeks after the nuts are ripe. Of course, what
+    is said here about chestnut weevils is only applicable to
+    chestnuts grown in this country, but all species and varieties,
+    when planted here, are subject to the attacks of
+    this pest&mdash;at least, everywhere in the Eastern and
+    Southern States.</p>
+<p>Having assorted the nuts carefully, the sound ones
+    should be reserved for planting; these should be mixed
+    with or stratified with moist, sharp sand, and stored in
+    boxes of convenient size for handling and examination,
+    whenever this is required. In preparing the boxes, bore<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> a number of small holes through the bottom, and over
+    each of these lay a piece of a broken flower-pot, brick
+    or stone, then cover the bottom one inch deep with the
+    moist sand, and on this place a single layer of nuts, then
+    fill in all interstices with sand, and also use enough more
+    to fairly cover the layer; and proceed in this way until
+    all the nuts are disposed of or the box is full, covering
+    the top layer one or two inches deep, because the sand
+    will settle some after the work seems complete. The
+    boxes may be covered with fine wire netting or with narrow
+    strips of boards, fitting these so that mice cannot
+    get in, but should not be air-tight. They may then be
+    buried in the open ground, selecting some knoll or dry
+    spot for this purpose, for the nuts should not be placed
+    where they will be submerged, or even be water-soaked,
+    at any time during the fall, winter or early spring. If
+    no such spot is conveniently near, then set the boxes on
+    the top of the ground, and on the north side of some
+    building or in the shade of an evergreen tree, and bank
+    over with soil, covering the boxes a foot deep. If the
+    spot selected is under the eaves of a building, place
+    boards over the heap of soil, to carry off the water, for
+    the object is to keep the nuts moderately moist, cool,
+    and where they will not be subjected to frequent changes
+    of temperature. In our Northern States the nuts,
+    under such conditions, usually become frozen during
+    the coldest weather, but this does not injure them if the
+    sand is moist and they remain frozen, as there will be no
+    danger of germination; while if kept too warm, they
+    may start to grow before the seedbed is ready, in spring,
+    for their reception. I have tried keeping the nuts
+    mixed with sand in a cool cellar, also in outbuildings,
+    but have not found any other place so certain as pits in
+    the open ground.</p>
+<p><strong>Seedbed and Soil.</strong>&mdash;It is well to have the seedbed
+    prepared the previous autumn, but it is not absolutely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> necessary. The soil for the bed should be light, either
+    sandy or loamy, and if not rich, made so by adding very
+    old and fine stable manure, or leaf mold from the forest&mdash;I
+    prefer the latter, as it is the most natural for all
+    kinds of seedling nut trees. Whatever fertilizing materials
+    are used, they should be placed on or near the surface,
+    and never worked in deeply, for our aim should be
+    the production of side or lateral fibers, and not coarse
+    perpendicular roots. Furthermore, seedling nut trees
+    grown on light, sandy soils or in pure leaf mold, produce
+    a far greater number of small fibrous roots than on heavy
+    soils, and this is a decided advantage with those which
+    are to be transplanted.</p>
+<p><strong>Planting the Nuts.</strong>&mdash;When the time arrives for
+    planting, take the nuts from their winter quarters, and
+    after sifting out the sand, sow or drop them in drills,
+    covering about two inches deep with fine soil. With
+    the small native varieties my practice has been to sow in
+    wide drills; that is, those made with the blade of a
+    common garden hoe, and of the same width, the nuts
+    being scattered along the bottom two to three inches
+    apart.</p>
+<p>The soil is then drawn in over them and pressed
+    down with the back of the hoe, or by passing a light
+    garden roller over the surface. If the size of the seedbed
+    is not limited, or only a small quantity of nuts are
+    to be sown, then the single row would be preferable,
+    because less hand weeding will be needed to subdue the
+    weeds, and for all the larger varieties I should certainly
+    recommend it, because they are of a more stocky growth.
+    The distance allowed between the drills will depend
+    somewhat upon the implements to be employed in cultivation,
+    as well as how long the seedlings are to remain
+    in the seedbed before transplanting, but from two to
+    three feet will be found convenient for the ordinary
+    modes of cultivation.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p>
+<p>If the seedlings make a fair average growth the first
+    season they will be from one to three feet high in the
+    autumn, and as soon as the leaves have fallen they may
+    be taken up, or allowed to remain until the following
+    spring and then lifted. But if, from any cause, they
+    have made a feeble growth, it is better to let them remain
+    in the seedbed another year. Where large quantities
+    of seedlings are raised they are usually taken up
+    with a tree-digger drawn by a span of horses or mules,
+    but with only a few hundred or a thousand to dig, a
+    common spade will answer every purpose; and if, when
+    removed from the seedbed, they are found to have produced
+    long perpendicular taproots, these should be
+    shortened to about one-half their original length. For
+    instance, if these taproots are taken up entire and are
+    eighteen to twenty inches long, cut away the lower half,
+    whether it consists of one or more long perpendicular
+    roots, as this pruning will force the plants to produce a
+    greater number of lateral roots, and it is upon these we
+    depend mainly for keeping our trees alive and vigorous
+    if transplanted when larger and older. All side branches
+    should be pruned off close to the main stem, for we aim
+    to favor the latter in its growth upward until it reaches
+    the required hight for either grafting or forming the
+    future head of the tree.</p>
+<p>In taking up seedlings, it is not safe to leave them
+    for any considerable time exposed to the sun and drying
+    winds, and they should be carried either to a shed or
+    other building while being pruned, and also covered
+    with blankets in the field, except during moist, cloudy
+    days. A very little drying of the small fibers on such
+    plants is always more or less injurious.</p>
+<p><strong>Planting in Nursery Rows.</strong>&mdash;After the seedlings
+    have been taken from the seedbed and pruned, they
+    should be set out in nursery rows, four feet apart, and
+    the plants about eighteen inches in the row. Trenches<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> should be opened for the reception of the plants, and
+    wide enough to allow all the roots to be spread out in a
+    natural position; and it is well to set a little deeper than
+    the seedlings were in the seedbed, because newly plowed
+    ground will settle some after the planting is finished,
+    although the soil should always be packed firmly about
+    the stems of newly set trees, whether large or small.
+    The more frequent and thorough the cultivation during
+    the ensuing summer, the more rapid will be the growth
+    of the trees.</p>
+<p>If the transplanted seedlings have produced any
+    considerable number of side branches,&mdash;and especially,
+    low down,&mdash;these may be pruned off at any time during
+    the summer, for our object is usually to secure straight,
+    upright stems for grafting the following spring, if they
+    are large and tall enough; if not, we may delay this operation
+    for another year. Of course, small chestnut stocks
+    may be grafted close to the ground, but there is nothing
+    really gained by this, for a good strong stock will push
+    a cion forward more in one season than a weak stock in
+    two or three seasons. But when the stocks have reached
+    a diameter of from three-eighths to one-half an inch
+    three or four feet from the ground, they may be grafted,
+    but I would prefer to have them a little over than under
+    these sizes.</p>
+<p><strong>Stocks From the Forests.</strong>&mdash;It is not necessary
+    for a man who may need a few chestnut stocks for experimental
+    or other purposes, to wait until they can be
+    grown from the nut, because these can always be purchased
+    at the nurseries; but if one does not wish to
+    incur even this small outlay, it may be avoided by obtaining
+    a supply from the forests, provided there are
+    any in the neighborhood where chestnut seedlings are to
+    be found, and the owner will permit their removal. The
+    best wild stocks are usually to be found in recent clearings,
+    or where the larger trees have been cut off for timber,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> and the underbrush, composed of seedlings and
+    sprouts, is left to grow up again into a forest. There
+    are many thousands of acres in New Jersey, New York,
+    and other Eastern States, from which the timber is cut
+    every twenty or thirty years, and no further attention
+    paid to the land or what it produces. Wherever such
+    clearings are found containing chestnut trees, good
+    stocks can usually be procured by selecting those varying
+    from one to two inches in diameter at the ground, and
+    if the soil in which they are growing is rather poor and
+    stony they will usually have pretty good roots, if carefully
+    taken up. They should be pruned to a single
+    stem, and this cut off at a hight of from five to six feet
+    or less, then planted where they are to remain permanently.
+    Such stocks, if carefully taken up and planted,
+    will throw out numerous sprouts from their stems during
+    the summer, but all should be rubbed off while small
+    and tender, except three or four at the top, and the following
+    spring, if wanted for this purpose, they may be
+    grafted in the same way as the young stocks growing in
+    the nursery, thereby saving three or four years of time
+    in securing bearing trees. Having often employed such
+    wildings for stocks with just as good results as with
+    those raised from the nuts in nursery rows, I am inclined
+    to recommend them, where obtainable, knowing that
+    there are thousands of farmers and owners of small
+    places in the country who can do likewise, but may have
+    never thought it practicable to transplant nut trees from
+    the forest, although well aware of the fact that elms,
+    maples, and similar kinds were obtained there, and in
+    immense numbers, for planting in the streets of villages
+    and alongside country highways.</p>
+<p><strong>The Season for Grafting.</strong>&mdash;The proper time for
+    grafting the chestnut is in early spring, just as the buds
+    begin to swell, but not until all danger of freezing
+    weather is past, although light frosts will not seriously<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> injure newly set cions. The grafting may be continued
+    while the leaves are unfolding, provided the cions were
+    cut early and stored in a cool place, where they remain
+    in a dormant state until used. I usually cut the shoots
+    wanted for this purpose during the late fall or winter,
+    and then pack them away in a cool cellar between layers
+    of damp moss (<i>sphagnum</i>) to be obtained in almost any
+    swamp. Cions may be taken from the tree on the same
+    day that they are used, but there is some risk in this,
+    because we cannot control the weather, and a week of
+    warm rain in spring may delay us in grafting, while it is
+    pushing our stocks into leaf; and then, our dormant
+    cions are available, while those on the trees are not, owing
+    to their expanded and tender buds.</p>
+<p>The shoots used for cions are those of the previous
+    season's growth, or as usually termed, one-year-old
+    wood; and in selecting these, endeavor to get such as
+    are plump, well ripened and firm. If taken from young
+    and very thrifty chestnut trees, there is likely to be a
+    considerable portion of the upper end of the shoot that
+    is rather soft, spongy and immature, and this should be
+    discarded, as it would be a waste of time to use it. Of
+    course, I am supposing that the grafter is so fortunate
+    as to be able to make his own selection of the wood desired;
+    if not, then he may be compelled to do the best
+    he can with that obtained elsewhere.</p>
+<p><strong>Grafting Materials.</strong>&mdash;The really essential materials
+    and implements required in grafting nut trees are
+    few in number. Grafting wax must be provided, and
+    while there are many different compositions used for
+    this purpose, I much prefer, for ordinary work in the
+    open air, a wax made after the old formula, and as follows:
+    Take one pound of common rosin, one-half pound
+    of beeswax, and one-quarter of a pound of beef tallow;
+    melt together and stir enough to insure the thorough
+    intermingling of the ingredients, and then set away to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> cool, or pour into cold water and work up into cakes or
+    rolls and wrap in paper until wanted for use. Larger
+    quantities may be made if required, preserving the same
+    proportions of the materials used. If to be used immediately
+    in grafting chestnuts and similar trees, then procure
+    some sheets of tough Manilla paper of only moderate
+    thickness, and cut this up into sheets about six
+    inches wide and a foot long. While the fresh-made
+    wax is melted, take an old and rather stiff paint brush,
+    dip it into the hot wax and coat the papers thinly
+    with it, and then spread them out on shelves or elsewhere
+    to cool, and let them remain undisturbed until
+    wanted for use. Any thin kind of cloth may be used
+    instead of paper, but I prefer the latter because it will
+    yield to the pressure of the enlarging stock and cion
+    when growth begins, and it will not be necessary to examine
+    the grafted stock so frequently during the summer
+    to prevent girdling, as is usually the case when a
+    tougher material is employed for wrappers. Before these
+    waxed sheets are taken into the field for use, lay each
+    one separately on a piece of board with the waxed side
+    up, and with the point of a sharp knife cut them crossways
+    into narrow strips of from one-half to three-fourths
+    of an inch wide. But for convenience in handling,
+    insert the point of the knife a half-inch from one edge,
+    but cut the other clean through, so that the whole sheet
+    of strips can be lifted together.</p>
+<p>In early spring there is usually more or less windy
+    weather, and if waxed sheets of paper are taken out into
+    the field unprotected they are very likely to become tangled
+    up and useless. To prevent this, procure a number
+    of large but very shallow paper boxes, such as can usually
+    be had at the stores and groceries of almost any village,
+    and in these place a single layer of the cut waxed
+    sheets, where they will be protected from wind and dust
+    until removed for immediate use.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p>
+<p>Other kinds of grafting wax can, of course, be used,
+    and are usually procurable at the seed stores or made at
+    home, and I have given their composition and the formulas
+    for their manufacture in my work, &quot;The Propagation
+    of Plants;&quot; but, as I have already said, this old standard
+    kind of wax is just as good as any other, although a little
+    more troublesome to use on account of its sticky consistency.
+    Raffia or bass may be employed as ligatures for
+    holding the cions in place, then covered with Leport's
+    or other kinds of liquid grafting wax; but when these
+    are employed it will be necessary to examine the grafted
+    trees frequently, in order to cut the ligatures to prevent
+    girdling.</p>
+<p>The best implement for grafting is a common broad-blade
+    pocket knife. One with a blade three to three
+    and a half inches long and three-fourths of an inch wide,
+    is a handy size. It should be of the best material for
+    grafting chestnuts, because the wood of this tree is
+    coarse-grained, and so filled with siliceous matter that it
+    soon dulls the keenest blade, and the grafter will, of
+    necessity, have to use his whetstone frequently. In
+    grinding the knife-blade have the sides a true level, from
+    the back to the edge, especially the underside when to be
+    held in the right hand with the edge towards the body.
+    The importance of having a blade of this form will soon
+    become apparent when the grafter attempts to make a
+    true sloping cut on either stock or cion, and it would be
+    well for the novice to practice for an hour or two in
+    splicing some worthless twigs before commencing upon
+    more valuable material, for even an expert workman is
+    very likely to make some awkward dissections and joints
+    when out of practice. The professional propagator of
+    plants may think such details are unimportant, but I
+    wish to impress upon the amateur that in grafting nut
+    trees we are dealing with kinds that will not respond
+    satisfactorily to such free manipulations as the apple<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> and pear; consequently, better and more careful handling
+    is required to insure success.</p>
+<p>When ready to begin operations in the field, take
+    out a quantity of the shoots to be used for cions, and
+    keep them wrapped in damp cloth or
+    packed in a box, basket or other receptacle
+    with wet moss, to prevent drying.
+    If any considerable number of stocks are
+    to be grafted, then an assistant or two
+    will be required, for the grafter cannot
+    be alternately handling the
+    knife and cions and wax, and
+    do good work, but if he only
+    inserts the cions and his assistant
+    applies the waxed ligatures,
+    the operation will proceed
+    more rapidly and satisfactorily.</p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig13.jpg" alt="" height="530" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._13" id="FIG._13">FIG. 13</a>.
+    SPLICE GRAFT.</span></span> </div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 220px;"> <img src="images/fig14.jpg" alt="" height="715" width="220" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._14" id="FIG._14">FIG. 14</a>. SPLICE
+    GRAFT INSERTED.</span></span> </div>
+<p><strong>Modes of Grafting.</strong>&mdash;The
+    only two modes of grafting
+    that I shall recommend
+    for the chestnut are the splice
+    or whip graft, and the cleft
+    or wedge graft. In the splice
+    graft, the cion and stock
+    should be of about the same
+    diameter, but if there is any
+    difference let it be in favor of
+    the stock, and this the largest. In this
+    mode of grafting, the stock is cut off with
+    an upward slope, exposing two or three
+    inches of wood; and about midway on
+    this slope a small cleft or incision is made, forming
+    what is called a &quot;tongue.&quot; The cion is then cut in the
+    same way from the upper end downward, with a corresponding
+    incision, as seen in Fig. 13. Then the two are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> neatly fitted together, the tongue on one entering the cleft
+    on the other, making a close joint, as shown in Fig. 14.
+    The bark of the cion and stock should be exactly even on
+    one side at least; and if they are of the same size, so
+    much the better, for then they will be even on both sides;
+    but we cannot expect to secure such perfect joints on
+    every stock, or any considerable number, although we
+    aim to do so as frequently as possible. When the cion
+    is fitted, the waxed paper is applied by placing one end
+    of the strip at or near the base of the splice, then wind
+    it spirally and firmly upward until the entire wound is
+    covered. If one of the waxed strips is not enough use
+    another, for it will do no harm if they are double on a
+    part or all over the joint. The cion should not be much
+    over four inches long, and a less length is preferable,
+    but not so convenient for handling. One good prominent
+    bud on each cion is sufficient, and this left near
+    the upper end, but on short-jointed wood we may use
+    cions with two or more buds without greatly increasing
+    their length. After the cion is in place and every part
+    of the splice is carefully sealed with the waxed paper,
+    place a small piece or a little wax on the upper end of
+    the cion, just enough to cover the exposed wound and
+    prevent evaporation of the natural moisture or sap in
+    the wood. I have found, in practice, that this sealing
+    the end of the cion is time well spent; in fact, to leave
+    any of the wood cells exposed to the air endangers the
+    success of the operation.</p>
+<p>Young shoots from a quarter of an inch in diameter
+    up to five-eighths may be used for cions, in splice
+    grafting; and with a little care in the selection of stocks,
+    or by cutting them off a few inches higher or lower, we
+    may readily manage to have them nearly of the same
+    diameter to match our cions, whether they are large or
+    small, and such unions will soon heal over, leaving no
+    scar at the point where the two have been joined.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p>
+<p>If the new growth or shoot to be employed as a cion
+    is slender and feeble, then the base of the cion may be of
+    two-year-old wood, leaving just a bud or two on the
+    upper end of the one-year shoot. But it will seldom be
+    necessary to employ such cions in grafting the chestnut,
+    although it may occur when seeking to secure wood for
+    propagation, from very old trees which have made only
+    a feeble annual growth.</p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"> <img src="images/fig15.jpg" alt="" title="" height="270" width="150" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._15" id="FIG._15">FIG. 15</a>.
+    STOCK.</span></span> </div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig16.jpg" alt="" height="368" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._16" id="FIG._16">FIG. 16</a>. CION.</span></span> </div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"> <img src="images/fig17-18.jpg" alt="" height="378" width="250" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._17" id="FIG._17">FIG. 17</a>.</span> <span class="smcap">FIG. 18.</span></span> </div>
+<p><strong>Cleft Grafting.</strong>&mdash;This method is employed principally
+    upon stocks or branches of trees too large for splicing.
+    The stock is first cut off at the
+    point where it is desirable to insert the
+    cion; then split with a knife, being
+    careful to divide it, so that the edges
+    will be kept smooth, and not rough
+    and ragged (Fig. 15). When the knife
+    blade is withdrawn, the cleft may be
+    kept open with a hard wood wedge,
+    if the stock is too large to admit of
+    opening it with the point of the knife
+    when ready to insert the cion. The cion may be three
+    or four inches long, containing two or more buds; the
+    lower end is cut wedge-shape, as shown in Fig. 16, and
+    slightly the thickest on the side to be set
+    against the bark of the stock. In stocks
+    of an inch or more in diameter, two cions,
+    one on each side, may be inserted (Fig.
+    17), and if both grow one should be cut
+    away, else the tree, in later years, will be
+    very likely to divide or break apart at this
+    point. In stocks of an inch or less in diameter,
+    one cion is sufficient, the top of
+    the stock to be cut off with an upward
+    slope, as shown in Fig. 18. After the cions are inserted,
+    the entire exposed surface of the wood must be covered
+    with grafting wax or waxed paper, and usually both may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> be employed with benefit. All the various forms of
+    grafting in the open air, as described in my work on the
+    &quot;Propagation of Plants,&quot; may be employed on the
+    chestnut, but the two here given will probably answer
+    just as well as others for those who may have occasion to
+    propagate this tree.</p>
+<p><strong>Success in Grafting.</strong>&mdash;The question has been
+    asked many times, and will, no doubt, be frequently
+    repeated, &quot;What percentage of cions should one accustomed
+    to grafting make grow?&quot; As there are no statistics
+    upon which to base an answer to the question, I can
+    only give my own personal experience, and this leads me
+    to say that seventy-five per cent may be considered an
+    excellent, if not a high average. In some seasons this
+    has been exceeded by at least ten per cent, while in
+    others it has fallen as much or more below, with no
+    apparent reason for the difference. Ninety-five per cent
+    of the cions may push their buds, or even make a growth
+    of several inches, then begin to die off; consequently,
+    the time to count your successfully grafted trees is in
+    the autumn, and not in spring or midsummer, as it is to
+    be feared some are in the habit of doing when making a
+    report upon what they call success in grafting nut trees.</p>
+<p><strong>Growth of Cions.</strong>&mdash;Cions set in strong stocks
+    usually make a very rapid and vigorous growth, and if
+    left unchecked, there is danger of loss by being broken
+    or blown off by strong winds during the summer and
+    autumn. To prevent this as much as possible, it has
+    been my practice to pinch off the ends of the young
+    shoots when they are about two feet long. Lateral
+    shoots will then push out freely, and in some seasons it
+    may be necessary to check their growth in the same way
+    later. On feeble stocks, or those quite small, and with
+    the less vigorous growing varieties, no summer pinching
+    or pruning will be required. My experimental grounds
+    are well protected upon the north and west, not only by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> rising ground, but by Norway spruce and American
+    arbor vitæ hedges twice as high as the grafted chestnut
+    trees in the nursery rows, and yet almost every season
+    some of the stronger-growing grafts are blown out or
+    broken off by the wind. After the first season there is
+    little danger of injury, probably because the union between
+    cion and stock has become stronger.</p>
+<p><strong>Grafting Chestnut Sprouts.</strong>&mdash;In grafting the
+    vigorous sprouts that always spring up from the stumps
+    of old trees that have been recently cut down, we may
+    reasonably expect a prodigious growth of the cion the
+    first season, as well as in succeeding ones, and if all goes
+    well with them we will secure large bearing trees in a
+    very few years, but such stocks are only available where
+    old trees are sacrificed for their timber or other purposes.
+    Having a few such sprouts on my place, they have been
+    utilized from time to time in testing some of the newer
+    varieties. In one instance I allowed the cion, set on a
+    sprout about one inch in diameter, six feet from the
+    base, to grow unchecked throughout the season, as it
+    was in a protected position, and in the fall the entire
+    length of the main stem and lateral branches was sixty-five
+    feet, and all from one bud on a cion set early in the
+    spring. The third year this tree bore about a peck of
+    very large nuts, to which I shall have occasion to refer
+    again under &quot;Injurious Insects.&quot;</p>
+<p><strong>Grafting Large Trees.</strong>&mdash;Grafting large chestnut
+    trees with stems of six inches or more in diameter, and
+    with large spreading heads, is possible, but far from
+    being economical or practicable, especially if the trees
+    stand out where they will get the full sweep of prevailing
+    winds. By cutting off and grafting a few of the
+    branches at a time for several seasons in succession, one
+    may, in a few years, succeed in getting the entire head
+    grafted, but there is constant danger of some of the cions
+    being broken out if they make a vigorous growth, leaving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> a distorted and ill-shapen tree. Having experimented
+    somewhat in this line with variable success, I
+    am not inclined to recommend it, because ten trees can
+    be raised to a bearing age on moderate-sized stocks with
+    less labor, and the results will be more satisfactory.</p>
+<p><strong>Budding Chestnuts.</strong>&mdash;I have frequently tried
+    budding chestnut stocks as described for the almond,
+    and extensively employed with other kinds of fruit trees.
+    But the results of my experiments have been unsatisfactory,
+    although buds were set from very early in summer
+    until late in the fall, also on young and old wood; but
+    so few have taken and remained alive over winter that
+    my personal experience in this mode of propagation will
+    not justify its recommendation to others. Perhaps there
+    is some secret connected with the operation that I have
+    not yet discovered, but which is known to other propagators.
+    Of course, budding with semi-dormant wood and
+    buds in spring, as soon as the bark will peel from the wood,
+    is practicable, but there is really nothing to be gained
+    by this mode of propagation over that of grafting.</p>
+<p><strong>Transplanting and Pruning.</strong>&mdash;There is no tree
+    that will bear or withstand more severe pruning than
+    the chestnut. If trees of one or five hundred years of
+    age are cut down, the stumps are sure to throw up an
+    immense number of sprouts from adventitious buds, as
+    these are readily produced at almost any point on the
+    sapwood or alburnum under the bark; and yet, with this
+    inherent vitality and faculty of recuperation, the chestnut
+    tree does not naturally, like many other deciduous
+    kinds, throw up suckers from the roots. Keeping this
+    peculiarity in mind, the cultivator has only to use his
+    pruning knife freely upon the trees to secure almost any
+    form desired. But after the trees have become well
+    established, very little pruning will be required, except
+    to occasionally thin out or remove a rambling branch, to
+    secure a well-balanced and shapely head to the tree.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p>
+<p>In transplanting from the nursery rows, after grafting,
+    and especially if the trees are of some considerable
+    size and large enough to set where they are to remain
+    permanently, there is sure to be a loss of roots, and
+    those that are preserved are likely to remain for a short
+    time inactive and incapable of absorbing nutrients from
+    the soil to which they are transferred, or until new rootlets
+    are produced. Under these conditions we aim to
+    favor the roots by removing or cutting back the greater
+    part of the branches. No matter how carefully such
+    trees are lifted and their roots protected during the
+    operation of transplanting, it will check the growth,
+    and the best and most practical restorative is severe
+    pruning of the top, and every young shoot of the previous
+    season's growth should be cut back to within three
+    or four inches of its base. I am presuming that the
+    trees have been grafted only one year, but if older, and
+    the cions were set high enough to begin the formation of
+    the head of the tree, then the entire young growth may
+    be cut away and some of the older wood, but of course
+    not below the graft. All broken roots must be cut off;
+    and the ends of the larger ones, roughly severed with
+    the spade or other implements employed in digging,
+    should have their wounds smoothed with a sharp knife.</p>
+<p>Frequent transplanting and root-pruning young
+    nursery stock tends to keep up a proper root system,
+    and an abundance of small fibrous roots near the main
+    stem, and trees so treated are worth much more, if to be
+    transplanted later, than those left undisturbed; but
+    while the latter may be twice the size of the former
+    when of the same age, they are not worth half as much
+    to the purchaser, or for transplanting in our own
+    grounds.</p>
+<p><strong>Staking Transplanted Trees.</strong>&mdash;This is always
+    necessary for recently planted trees, if they are of any
+    considerable size, or from six feet high and upwards.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> If not supported by stakes they are sure to be swayed
+    about, if not thrown over, by strong winds in summer.
+    A strong stake, two or three inches in diameter, would
+    better be set at the time of planting the tree, thereby
+    avoiding breaking off or crushing the roots, as frequently
+    happens when stakes are driven down among them later
+    in the season. Set the stakes or drive into the subsoil
+    six inches from the stem, then use strips of cloth, sacks,
+    carpet, or some similar material, for tying, because hard
+    cord or twine will be very likely to cut through the tender
+    bark from the constant swaying about of the stems.
+    Wind the strips around the stem, and then cross between
+    it and the stake once or twice, to prevent the tree from
+    pressing against or coming in contact with the stake.
+    Renew the stakes and tying materials, if necessary, until
+    the trees become firmly established, and provided with
+    lateral roots large enough to keep them in an upright
+    position.</p>
+<p><strong>Mulching.</strong>&mdash;Placing a few forkfuls of coarse stable
+    manure, half-rotted straw, leaves, or any similar material,
+    on the surface about the stems of recently planted
+    trees, will prove very beneficial, in not only keeping
+    down the weeds, but aiding greatly in retaining moisture
+    in the soil about the roots. The application of
+    some such material as a mulch is all the more important
+    with the chestnut, because these trees are always to be
+    planted in a naturally dry and well drained soil.</p>
+<p><strong>Distance Between Trees.</strong>&mdash;How far apart chestnut
+    trees should be planted will depend very much upon
+    the species and varieties, some growing to immense
+    trees, while others are only fair-sized shrubs at maturity.
+    But for the larger-growing varieties, forty to fifty feet
+    between the trees is none too much space, when planted
+    for their nuts and not for timber. If set in a single row
+    along the public highways, farm lanes or around the
+    outbuildings, to serve as shade or ornament, and for their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> nuts, then about forty feet will answer very well for the
+    larger-growing species; and I will add that, in my opinion,
+    all the larger kinds of nut trees will give better
+    returns if placed in such positions, than when set in
+    orchards or in compact masses. When set in single
+    rows or widely scattered, they are less liable to be attacked
+    by insects and diseases, while they will still serve
+    the double purpose of being both ornamental and useful.
+    I must admit, however, that in my experimental grounds
+    the trees are planted only twenty feet apart, but with
+    the expectation of soon cutting out every alternate
+    specimen.</p>
+<p><strong>Soil and Climate.</strong>&mdash;The chestnut thrives best in
+    light, well-drained soils, and those containing a large
+    proportion of sand or decomposed quartz, slate, or volcanic
+    scoria; but it is rarely found, nor does it succeed,
+    in heavy clays, limestone soils, or on the rich western
+    prairies, where we might think it would grow most luxuriantly.
+    That limestone soils are inimical to the chestnut
+    has often been disputed, but my own observations,
+    which have been somewhat extensive in years and range
+    of country, rather confirm the impression that this tree
+    avoids land containing any considerable percentage of
+    lime. It is true that chestnut groves, and sometimes
+    extensive forests, are found on hills and ridges overlying
+    limestone, but a careful examination of the soil among
+    the trees will show that it is a drift deposit containing
+    little or no lime. Such groves can be found in all the
+    southern tier of counties of New York, also among the
+    hills of northern and western parts of New Jersey, and
+    thence west and south along the Blue Ridge and Alleghany
+    mountains to the Carolinas, and westward in
+    Tennessee and Kentucky. The chestnut is sometimes
+    found in New Jersey and other northern Atlantic States
+    growing in considerable abundance near streams only
+    a few feet above sea level, but when found in such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> situations the subsoil is invariably sand, gravel or porous
+    shale.</p>
+<p>The range of climate in which the native sweet
+    chestnut thrives is quite extensive, as it is found sparingly
+    in Maine in latitude 44°, extending westward,&mdash;but
+    not very abundant on this line,&mdash;through New England
+    and New York, crossing the Niagara river, skirting
+    the north shore of Lake Erie in Canada, and thence into
+    southern Michigan, but does not reach Illinois. From
+    this line southward it increases in abundance in Virginia,
+    western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee and
+    Kentucky. But in following this tree southward we
+    meet another indigenous species, widely known as the
+    chinquapin (<i>Castanea pumila</i>). This species is indigenous
+    to southern New Jersey, and sparingly in parts of
+    Pennsylvania, becoming more plentiful as we proceed
+    southward, the two species named overlapping and in
+    part occupying the same region; but the chinquapin
+    extends further south, and also to the westward, near its
+    northern limits crossing the Mississippi into southern
+    Missouri, then extends south again, becoming quite
+    abundant in Arkansas.</p>
+<p>The European chestnut, in its many varieties, extends
+    over about the same number of degrees of latitude
+    in Europe as our species do here, although reaching a
+    higher latitude in countries bordering on the Atlantic,
+    as shown in the old chestnut trees of England. The
+    Oriental chestnut has also a very wide range, but the
+    limits are not so well known as those of the European
+    and American species; but a study of its geographical
+    distribution is of considerable importance, now that we
+    are importing these nuts for cultivation. The same is
+    also true of the European varieties, and the cultivator
+    who neglects to take this matter into consideration will
+    fail to secure whatever advantages may have accrued
+    from acclimation, an agency which, undoubtedly, has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> been active and continuous in modifying and changing
+    the primary characteristics of these plants during unknown
+    ages.</p>
+<p>To more fully impress upon the reader the importance
+    of care in the selection of materials to be employed
+    in any pursuit with which he is not perfectly familiar,
+    I am prompted to relate the story of my first personal
+    experience in chestnut culture, as it may serve as a warning
+    to others who may attempt to raise these nuts in a
+    cold climate.</p>
+<p>At the time of purchasing the farm which has been
+    my home for the past thirty years, nut trees of various
+    kinds were on my list of things wanted, and the chestnut
+    occupied a leading position, probably because there
+    were already many old and large native trees on the
+    place. My first planting consisted of a number of imported
+    seedlings, obtained from a well-known French
+    nursery. The trees were three or four years old, very
+    stocky and vigorous, and they made a good growth the
+    first season; but the following winter the young shoots
+    were all frozen down to old wood, with the exception of
+    one tree, and thinking that this might prove hardy,
+    cions were taken from it and set in thrifty sprouts growing
+    in a grove near by. The cions made rapid growth,
+    and from one of these I soon had a large tree, which remained
+    in good health for twenty years, but during all
+    that time it produced but one bur, containing two half-developed
+    nuts. Why it was unfruitful I do not pretend
+    to know, but it was certainly not for want of company, for
+    it had large native chestnut trees all about it, and these
+    bearing heavy crops. The seedling trees planted in the
+    orchard also failed to be fruitful, and were finally dug
+    up and burned. Thus ended my first experiment in the
+    cultivation of the European chestnut. Had my location
+    been farther south and in a milder climate, the experiment
+    might have ended differently, but I am relating experience,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> and not attempting to guess what might have
+    been the results under more favorable conditions. In
+    the meantime, however, I had seen a few trees of the
+    Japan chestnut bearing on Long Island, and had received
+    specimens of the Numbo and Paragon, two now
+    well-known and superior varieties of the European species,
+    although raised in this country. These varieties
+    were secured, and succeeded so well that I have continued
+    to add others from time to time, or as soon as trees
+    or cions were obtainable.</p>
+<p>The success which appears to have attended the
+    propagation and dissemination of these two varieties of
+    European parentage has awakened considerable interest
+    in chestnut culture, besides attracting the attention of
+    those interested in such matters to the fact that there
+    are many old trees of the same or similar origin scattered
+    about the country, awaiting the coming nut culturist to
+    propagate them and make known their merits.</p>
+<p>It may be well, before leaving this subject, to remind
+    the novice in chestnut culture that seedlings of
+    these hardy and productive descendants of the European
+    species will not come true from the nut or seed, and
+    while it will be admitted that the chances are somewhat
+    better for procuring a hardy variety from such nuts
+    than from those imported, still, there is no certainty of
+    any considerable number being equal in hardiness or
+    other respects to the parent tree. There is an inherent
+    tendency, in tree seedlings of all kinds, to revert to the
+    wild form or type, and the chestnut is no exception to
+    this rule.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 280px;"> <img src="images/fig19.jpg" alt="" title="" height="650" width="280" /> <span class="caption"><span class="smcap"><a name="FIG._19" id="FIG._19">FIG. 19</a>. AMERICAN CHESTNUT
+    LEAF.</span></span> </div>
+<p><strong>Species of Chestnut.</strong>&mdash;What is called a &quot;species,&quot;
+    among plants, is a particular form or type supposed to
+    have descended from one original stock, whether this
+    was composed of one or more individuals. But variations
+    doubtless occurred at the first inception or multiplication
+    of the original, but so long as the offsprings do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> not differ so widely as to be untraceable to the proemial
+    types, they are held to be varieties of one species.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p>
+<p>Whether all the chestnuts found in the various
+    countries of the world are descendants of one original
+    tree or group of trees is now beyond our ability to determine;
+    consequently, what are now termed species rests
+    very much upon the opinions of botanists, as may readily
+    be demonstrated by consulting the works of hundreds
+    of authors who have essayed to describe and classify the
+    plants of any locality or country, and this, too, without
+    reaching an absolute finality acceptable to their contemporaries,
+    or at all likely to share a better fate with posterity.</p>
+<p>For many years after botany began to be recognized
+    as a science, the common American sweet chestnut was
+    considered a distinct species, but in recent years it has
+    been relegated to the position of a widely distributed
+    variety of the European chestnut, and it is so described
+    and classified in most of the botanical works of the present
+    time, and under such names as <i>Castanea vesca</i>, variety <i>Americana</i>; <i>Castanea sativa</i>, variety <i>Americana</i>; <i>Castanea vulgaris</i>, variety <i>Americana</i>, etc.</p>
+<p>The Asiatic species or varieties&mdash;under whichever
+    cognomen we may find them described in botanical
+    works&mdash;have fared little better than our American kinds,
+    for some botanists have described the Japan chestnut as
+    a distinct species, while others only as a widely divergent
+    variety of the common European chestnut.</p>
+<p>I regret that there should be any need of giving so
+    much space to this matter of species and varieties, yet
+    presuming that far the larger number of my readers will
+    not be professional botanists, nor persons with a botanical
+    library at hand to consult for unfamiliar terms, I
+    have thought this explanation in regard to classification
+    might assist them in making clear the apparent confusion
+    of names which, in the main, are only synonyms.
+    Furthermore, I purpose retaining some of the older specific<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> names of the distinct groups of varieties, whether
+    it be strictly in accord with the ideas of eminent authorities
+    or otherwise, because it will be more convenient to
+    do so, and certain phases will
+    thus be made clearer to the
+    practical cultivators of nut
+    trees, for whom this work is
+    written. My wish is to assist
+    those who do not know, but
+    want to learn how to obtain,
+    plant and make nut trees grow
+    and bear remunerative crops.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Castanea Americana</span> (<i>American sweet chestnut</i>).&mdash;Leaves
+    oblong-lanceolate, serrate,
+    with rather coarse teeth,
+    each terminated with a feeble
+    prickle or spine; smooth on
+    both sides (Fig. 19). Burs
+    thickly covered with sharp,
+    branching spines a half inch
+    long or less, from a fleshy
+    green envelope, becoming
+    hard and somewhat woody;
+    opening by four valves or divisions
+    when mature. Usually
+    three nuts in each bur,
+    the center one flattened by
+    compression, the two outer
+    ones plano-convex. Shell
+    tough and leathery, dark
+    brown, smooth, or more or less inverted, with a silvery
+    pubescence from the point downward; variable in size
+    from five-eighths to an inch in diameter. Kernel sweet
+    and fine-grained. A very large and common tree in the
+    Middle and Northern States, living to a great age.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig20.jpg" alt="" height="747" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._20" id="FIG._20">FIG. 20</a>. SPIKE OF BURS OF BUSH CHINQUAPIN. <i>C. nana.</i></span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Castanea Nana</span> (<i>bush chinquapin</i>).&mdash;Leaves oval-lanceolate,
+    serrate, with feeble prickles on teeth and often
+    wanting; pale
+    green above and
+    white tomentose
+    underneath.
+    Burs in racemes,
+    small; husk
+    thin, opening by
+    two divisions or
+    lobes, instead of
+    four, as in the
+    last species;
+    spines short,
+    somewhat scattering,
+    sessile or
+    very short-stalked;
+    nuts small,
+    pointed, brown,
+    smooth, thin-shelled,
+    solitary
+    or only one in a
+    bur. Kernel
+    fine-grained,
+    sweet and delicious.
+    Common
+    from North Carolina
+    southward
+    to Florida, in
+    dry soils and
+    barrens. A medium-sized
+    shrub or low-spreading
+    bush, rarely reaching a hight of ten feet, the
+    slender twigs usually tomentose. A spike of burs and
+    leaves of this species are seen in Fig. 20.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 353px;"> <img src="images/fig21.jpg" alt="" title="" height="600" width="353" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._21" id="FIG._21">FIG. 21</a>. SPIKE OF CHINQUAPIN CHESTNUT BUR. <i>C. pumila.</i></span> </div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> <img src="images/fig22.jpg" alt="" title="" height="714" width="350" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._22" id="FIG._22">FIG. 22</a>. SINGLE BUR, NUT AND LEAF OF
+    CHINQUAPIN CHESTNUT. <i>C. pumila.</i></span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Castanea Pumila</span> (<i>chinquapin chestnut</i>).&mdash;Leaves
+    oblong-lanceolate, short or acutely pointed, coarsely
+    serrate, with incurved
+    pointed
+    teeth, green above,
+    tomentose underneath.
+    Burs in racemes
+    (Fig. 21),
+    two-valved. Sometimes
+    the burs are
+    single, as shown in
+    Fig. 22. Spines
+    branching from a
+    short stalk; nuts
+    solitary, ovoid,
+    pointed, with dark-brown
+    polished
+    shell. Kernel fine-grained,
+    sweet and
+    excellent. A medium-sized
+    tree twenty
+    to forty feet high;
+    in rich soils from
+    New Jersey, Southern
+    Pennsylvania
+    and southward, to
+    Georgia, and sparingly
+    westward to
+    Arkansas.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Castanea Sativa
+    Or Vesca</span> (<i>European chestnut</i>).&mdash;Leaves
+    oblong-lanceolate,
+    pointed, coarsely serrate, with rather long incurved
+    spines on the teeth; smooth on both sides, but glossy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a><br />
+    <a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> and dark green above; thicker and of more substance
+    than in any other species. Burs very large, with thick
+    husk, and long, stout, branching spines, from a woody
+    stem at the base; shell of nut thick, tough and leathery,
+    of a dark mahogany brown; kernel enclosed in a rather
+    tough but thin skin that is usually intensely bitter, a
+    characteristic that readily distinguishes this from any of
+    our species. Trees of large size, rather stocky; young
+    shoots coarse, with smooth bark; buds prominent,
+    glossy, and of a light yellowish-brown color.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig23.jpg" alt="" height="723" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._23" id="FIG._23">FIG. 23</a>. JAPAN CHESTNUT LEAF.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Castanea Japonica</span> (<i>Japan chestnut</i>).&mdash;Leaves
+    lanceolate-oblong (Fig. 23), finely serrate, indentations
+    shallow, and the teeth slender pointed; pale green above
+    and silvery or rusty white underneath. Burs with a
+    very thin husk; spines short, widely branching from a
+    short stem. Nuts large to very large, usually three in a
+    bur; shell thin, and of a light brown color; the inner
+    skin thin, fibrous, but not as bitter as in the European
+    varieties, and the kernel somewhat finer grained and
+    sweeter. Trees of moderate growth and are said to rarely
+    exceed fifty feet high in Japan. The growth is slender
+    in comparison with the European or American chestnut,
+    and the habit is decidedly bushy, the new growth of the
+    season usually producing a number of lateral twigs late
+    in summer. The leaves here seem to be more persistent,
+    probably because the season is not long enough to insure
+    thorough ripening.</p>
+<p>The reader will please bear in mind that this description
+    of the Japan chestnut is drawn from the introduced
+    varieties or those raised from the imported nuts,
+    and not from the trees growing in their native habitats.
+    All the varieties that I have seen appear to belong to
+    one type or species, and they come from the warmer
+    parts of that country; but Prof. Sargent, in his &quot;Forest
+    Flora of Japan,&quot; says that while the largest nuts appear
+    in the markets of Kobe and Osaka, from whence they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> come to this country, there are varieties offered for sale
+    in the markets of Aomori, which is much further north,
+    and these, he thinks, would produce a more hardy race
+    of varieties than those we have already received from
+    that country. As a race, all the Japan chestnuts are
+    very precocious, the trees coming into bearing early
+    whether raised from the nut or propagated by grafting.</p>
+<p><strong>Native Varieties.</strong> (Group One).&mdash;While it is well
+    known that our American sweet chestnut varies widely
+    in the size, flavor, form, color and general appearance of
+    the nuts, no special effort has been made to select and
+    perpetuate the most distinct and valuable varieties.
+    This is to be regretted, inasmuch as the opportunities
+    for making such selections, and preserving and propagating
+    those most worthy of it, are rapidly passing away
+    with the destruction of our chestnut forests; but there
+    is still time to do something in this direction, and perhaps
+    save a few varieties as valuable as those already
+    destroyed. It is to be hoped that every man who knows
+    of a large variety, will either propagate it himself, or
+    point it out to some one who is sufficiently interested to
+    do so. If proper attention was given to the raising of
+    seedlings, we might soon secure many improved native
+    varieties, and I would urge this mode of propagation
+    upon all whose circumstances and surroundings will admit
+    of it, and especially upon the young men who possess
+    the talent and inclination to make such experiments;
+    for there is a wide and fertile field open to them, and
+    they can scarcely fail to reap a rich reward for their
+    labors, if applied with earnestness and a moderate
+    amount of intelligence.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Burless chestnut.</span>&mdash;This is a peculiar variety or
+    freak, in which the burs are merely shallow cups upon
+    which the nuts rest, and at no stage of their growth are
+    they enclosed in a husk or bur. The nuts are small and
+    usually perfect, but being unprotected they are preyed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> upon by birds and squirrels as soon as the kernels are
+    well formed, few escaping to reach maturity. This
+    chestnut is of no economic value, but is worth preserving
+    as an illustration of extremes in variation. The
+    original tree was found in the forest near Freehold,
+    Green Co., N. Y., by Mr. Harry Bagley, to whom I am
+    indebted for cions sent me in the spring of 1885.
+    Another and very similar variety was found about the
+    same time on Staten Island, N. Y., and this also has
+    been propagated, to a limited extent, as a curiosity.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Hathaway.</span>&mdash;A very large and handsome native
+    variety, and one of the very best. A strong and vigorous
+    grower, and productive. Raised by Mr. B. Hathaway,
+    the veteran and widely known pomologist of Little
+    Prairie Ronde, Mich. Some thirty years ago Mr. Hathaway
+    purchased a half bushel of native chestnuts of a
+    dealer in Ohio, and from these raised a large number of
+    trees for sale; but a few were reserved for planting out
+    on his own grounds, and when these came into bearing
+    the one named here was selected for propagation, because
+    of its large size and productiveness.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Phillips.</span>&mdash;A large and handsome variety of excellent
+    flavor, with a very smooth, dark-brown shell.
+    Grafted trees exceedingly vigorous, upright growth, as
+    well as precocious and productive. The original tree is
+    growing in the grounds of the late Whitman Phillips, at
+    Ridgewood, N. J. Several years ago my attention was
+    called to a number of large varieties of the chestnut
+    growing in and near the village, and from these I obtained
+    cions for propagation; but I name only one at
+    this time, reserving the others until more fully tested.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 395px;"> <img src="images/fig24.jpg" alt="" title="" height="500" width="395" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._24" id="FIG._24">FIG. 24</a>. BURS OF FULLER'S CHINQUAPIN.
+    ONE-HALF NATURAL SIZE.</span> </div>
+<p>This is rather an insignificant number of varieties
+    to be named among the many hundreds that are to be
+    found in almost every town or neighborhood where the
+    chestnut is a native, and yet I have been able to find
+    only one named in nurserymen's catalogues as being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> propagated by grafting. It is true that nearly all dealers
+    in trees offer seedling American chestnuts, which
+    may mean good, bad or indifferent varieties when the
+    trees come into bearing. Among all of the many thousands
+    that have been raised and planted in the East and
+    West, beyond the natural range of the chestnut, as, for
+    instance, in Missouri, Kansas and Iowa, there must be
+    some distinct and valuable varieties worthy of names
+    and propagation. There are not only distinct varieties
+    to be found in every forest, but in some instances the
+    entire product of an extended area of country are distinct
+    in their color, size, and general appearance of the
+    nuts produced; as, for instance, in the woolly chestnuts
+    of the Piedmont district of Virginia, these being so
+    nearly covered with a white down that they remind one
+    of popcorn. Hundreds of bushels of these woolly chestnuts
+    come to our markets, and among them I have often
+    found very large specimens, but so far as known, no
+    effort has been made to perpetuate them.</p>
+<p>So far as can now be determined, the wild or original
+    European chestnut was much inferior in its flavor,
+    and little, if any, larger than our American sweet chestnut;
+    but by continued selections of the largest for planting,
+    and propagation by grafting, it has attained to its
+    present size and excellence; but this system of improving
+    our native varieties has scarcely, as yet, been attempted,
+    a fact which does not, in the least, redound to
+    our credit.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Bush chinquapin</span> (<i>C. nana.</i> Muhlenberg).&mdash;Of
+    this I do not know of any named varieties in cultivation.
+    Plants are occasionally seen in cultivated grounds, and I
+    have one in my garden growing in a sheltered position,
+    where it has fruited for several years. It is a pretty,
+    round-headed, silvery-leaved bush, about six feet high;
+    ornamental, if not specially valuable for other purposes,
+    although the little sweet nuts are always acceptable. As<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> a rule, the seedlings of this species are not hardy in the
+    Northern States, but an occasional one will survive if
+    planted in a light, porous soil and a protected situation.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Common chinquapin</span> (<i>C. pumila.</i> Miller).&mdash;This
+    is a small tree, sometimes thirty to forty feet high;
+    found sparingly as far north as central New Jersey, and
+    on Long Island. It is more common in cultivation than
+    the bush chinquapin, probably because more hardy and
+    better known, but I do not know of any improved varieties
+    that have been disseminated under distinct names
+    except the one hereinafter described.</p>
+<p>Among many seedlings raised, of this species, I have
+    selected one which good judges of such things have
+    thought worthy of propagation, and as I do not raise
+    plants for sale, no
+    one will be likely
+    to accuse me of
+    having any selfish
+    motives, further
+    than a pardonable
+    pride in producing
+    something worthy
+    of perpetuation.
+    Furthermore, as
+    an earnest of my
+    confidence in its
+    merits, I have distributed
+    it under
+    my own name.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig25.jpg" alt="" height="452" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._25" id="FIG._25">FIG. 25</a>. FULLER'S CHINQUAPIN. FIVE YEARS OLD FROM NUT.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fuller's
+    chinquapin.</span>&mdash;Leaves
+    large,
+    broadly oval, pointed, coarsely serrate, pale green above,
+    clear silvery white below. Bark on main stem; branches
+    and twigs smooth, light gray, with numerous white
+    dots. The young twigs thick and stocky, cylindrical,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> with moderately prominent, grayish buds. Burs in long
+    racemes (Fig. 24), very large for this species; spines
+    long, strong, branching and sharp. Nuts only one in
+    each bur, rather short, broad, top-shaped, with blunt
+    point; shell very smooth, glossy, almost black; kernel
+    fine-grained and sweet. Ripens early, or with the earliest
+    of the native sweet chestnuts. The original tree is
+    only six years old, twice transplanted, and is now ten
+    feet high, with a head fully as broad, and as shown in
+    Fig. 25. Although growing in a rather exposed position,
+    it has never been injured by low temperature in
+    winter or a high one in summer. It has thus far been
+    the most rapid-growing chestnut tree in my grounds,
+    although given no special care. Whether it will eventually
+    become a large tree, or soon cease to extend, is, of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> course, a question to be answered at some future time,
+    but from present indications this tree will be well worthy
+    of cultivation as an ornamental shade tree, even if we
+    leave out of the account its rapid growth, productiveness,
+    and delicious little nuts, which will be very acceptable
+    for home use, if not possessing any great commercial
+    value.</p>
+<p><strong>European Varieties.</strong>&mdash;In the use of this term I
+    wish it understood that the varieties named and described
+    in this group are all of American origin; that is, raised
+    in this country from seed. At the same time they are
+    descendants of the European species. They are, in other
+    words, &quot;Survivals of the fittests,&quot; the few that have
+    survived the many being raised from imported nuts (perhaps
+    one out of a thousand) that tests and time have shown
+    were adapted to our climate. There may be many other
+    varieties scattered about the country which are worthy
+    of a name and of propagation, but I can speak only of
+    those I have been able to procure, or that have been
+    brought to my notice.</p>
+<p>In describing the following varieties, and in seeking
+    to get at the facts relating to their origin, name and
+    history, the reader will please bear in mind that there
+    has been no previous attempt to arrange or classify these
+    semi-American varieties. Furthermore, there is much
+    confusion in regard to the true names of a number of
+    them, and the most I can say is that I have endeavored,
+    under the circumstances, to get as near the truth as possible.
+    Could I defer writing this chapter ten years, some
+    moot points might be cleared up, but as this is out of
+    the question I must follow the light already in my
+    possession.</p>
+<p>To Mr. John R. Parry, of Parry, N. J., I am greatly
+    indebted, not only for specimens of new and rare varieties,
+    but also notes relating to the history of several of
+    the older ones.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Comfort.</span>&mdash;Burs very large, broad, somewhat flattened;
+    spines very strong and long, branching; nuts
+    very broad, with short point, and shell covered from
+    base to point with scattering silky hairs, thicker at upper
+    end. In quality, about the same as in the ordinary varieties
+    of the species, but to some persons' taste it is better,
+    having less astringency in the skin surrounding the
+    kernel. Origin uncertain, but said to have been grown
+    for many years at Germantown, a suburb of Philadelphia,
+    Pa., where the Paragon chestnut was discovered. The
+    Comfort certainly closely resembles the Paragon, but I
+    have not had an opportunity of fruiting trees under the
+    two names side by side, as would be necessary to determine
+    their identity or difference, if they are really
+    distinct.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig26.jpg" alt="" height="485" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._26" id="FIG._26">FIG. 26</a>. BUR OF NUMBO CHESTNUT.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Cooper.</span>&mdash;A very large variety; has been in cultivation
+    for several years in Camden Co., N. J., but up to
+    the present time the trees have not been propagated for
+    sale, although I am informed by Mr. John R. Parry
+    that there are a large number under cultivation. The
+    tree is described as of a broad spreading habit, with
+    enormously large leaves, and immensely productive.
+    Nuts very large, smooth and glossy, with little fuzz
+    near the top. In quality they may be considered excellent
+    for a variety of this class. The burs are very large,
+    and this is its greatest or only fault; for when nearly
+    mature they absorb and retain such a quantity of water
+    during heavy rains, in addition to the original weight
+    and the enclosed nuts, that the trees are liable to be
+    broken down by strong winds.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Corson.</span>&mdash;Burs of immense size; spines an inch or
+    more in length, from a stout, woody, irregularly branching
+    stem, resting on the moderately thin husk. Nuts
+    extra large, usually three in a bur; shell dark brown,
+    somewhat ridged; the upper end or point of the shell
+    densely covered with a white, almost woolly, pubescence,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> or fuzz as it is usually termed. This is a remarkably
+    large and fine variety and of good quality. Originated
+    with Mr. Walter H. Corson, Plymouth Meeting, Montgomery
+    Co., Pa.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Dager.</span>&mdash;A large variety originated near Wyoming,
+    Delaware, from seed of the Ridgely. My specimen trees
+    are good vigorous growers, and hardy, but have not, as
+    yet, produced fruit. It is said that the nuts are of fair
+    quality, but not as good as the best of its class.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Moncur.</span>&mdash;Another seedling of the Ridgely, raised
+    on the farm of Mr. Frank Moncur, near Dover, Del.
+    The original tree is about thirty years old. Described
+    as smaller than its parent, but of better quality.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> <img src="images/fig27.jpg" alt="" title="" height="250" width="350" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._27" id="FIG._27">FIG. 27</a>. SPINES OF NUMBO CHESTNUT.</span> </div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> <img src="images/fig28.jpg" alt="" title="" height="384" width="350" /><span class="caption"><a name="FIG._28" id="FIG._28">FIG. 28</a>. NUMBO CHESTNUT.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Numbo.</span>&mdash;Burs medium, and distinctly long pointed
+    before opening, as shown in Fig. 26, the four divisions of
+    the burs extending an inch or more beyond the nut as
+    they open. This is an
+    exceptional form of
+    the bur, and will enable
+    almost any person
+    to recognize the variety
+    with bearing trees.
+    Spines only medium
+    in length (Fig. 27),
+    and not as strong as in
+    most other varieties of this species. Nuts very large
+    (Fig. 28), smooth, decidedly pointed, light brown when
+    first mature, and of good flavor.
+    Tree hardy and a vigorous,
+    free grower, and is
+    very productive even when
+    young. The original tree is
+    now some forty years old,
+    and is one of a large number
+    raised from imported nuts,
+    by the late Mahlon Moon, of
+    Morrisville, Pa.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Miller's Dupont.</span>&mdash;Burs
+    large, spines long and
+    strong but not as stout as in some of the closely related
+    varieties. Nut medium, and kernel of fair quality. A
+    promising variety. Origin unknown. Received from
+    Jos. Evans, Delaware Co., Pa.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig29.jpg" alt="" height="412" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._29" id="FIG._29">FIG. 29</a>. PARAGON CHESTNUT BUR. (<i>One-half natural size.</i>)</span> </div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> <img src="images/fig30.jpg" alt="" height="279" width="400" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._30" id="FIG._30">FIG. 30</a>. SPINES OF PARAGON CHESTNUT BUR.</span> </div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig31.jpg" alt="" height="306" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._31" id="FIG._31">FIG. 31</a>. PARAGON CHESTNUT.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Paragon.</span>&mdash;Burs of immense size, often five inches
+    and more in lateral diameter; distinctly flattened on the
+    top, or cushion shape (Fig. 29); spines an inch in
+    length, widely and irregularly branching from a stout
+    stem springing from a thick, fleshy husk, as shown in
+    Fig. 30, the whole making an involucre or bur out of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> proportion to the nuts within. Nuts of large size,
+    slightly depressed at the top (Fig. 31), and they are
+    usually broader than long; shell very dark brown,
+    slightly ridged, and covered with a fine but not very
+    conspicuous pubescence. Kernel sweet, fine-grained,
+    and of superior flavor for one of this species. Tree hardy,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> exceedingly precocious and productive when grafted on
+    strong, healthy stock. A four-year-old tree on my
+    grounds is shown in Fig. 32. It was loaded with nuts
+    in the fall of 1894. This is one of the best of its class.
+    Origin somewhat in doubt, but it is claimed that the
+    late W. L. Shaffer, of Philadelphia, raised it from a foreign
+    nut planted in his garden, and who, some eighteen
+    years or more ago, gave cions to W. H. Engle, of
+    Marietta, Pa. Mr. Engle
+    has since propagated and
+    disseminated this variety
+    quite extensively under its
+    present name, but should
+    further investigation prove
+    it to be distinct and that
+    it was raised by Mr. Shaffer,
+    then it should certainly
+    bear his name, and Paragon
+    become a synonym.
+    No more appropriate monument
+    could possibly be erected in honor of a distinguished
+    horticulturist like the late Mr. Shaffer, than a
+    chestnut tree, nor could his memory be perpetuated
+    under more pleasant and agreeable surroundings than
+    to have his name linked inseparably with such an excellent
+    and valuable variety.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig32.jpg" alt="" height="532" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._32" id="FIG._32">FIG. 32</a>. FOUR YEAR OLD PARAGON CHESTNUT TREE.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Ridgely.</span>&mdash;Burs large, with dense spines, but not
+    as long as those of the Paragon. Nuts large, pointed;
+    shell dark brown, with very little pubescence, and this
+    mainly at the point (Fig. 33). In quality this variety
+    ranks very near, if not the equal of, the best of its class,
+    and it has been highly commended, by those who have
+    been acquainted with it, for many years.</p>
+<p>The origin of the Ridgely, as recorded, leaves the
+    question of name a debatable one. Some sixty years
+    ago a Mr. Dupont, of Wilmington, Del., gave or sent to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> Mr. D. M. Ridgely, of Dover, Del., a sprouted chestnut,
+    and this was planted and became the original tree
+    of the variety under consideration. It has been called
+    Dupont, because he raised the nut and kept it over winter
+    and until it sprouted; then it passed into the care of
+    Mr. Ridgely, who thenceforward gave it his attention.
+    The tree is now of immense size, and some seasons has
+    produced more than five bushels of nuts, selling at eleven
+    dollars per bushel. It is quite probable that the Dupont<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> family were the first to raise European chestnut trees to
+    a bearing size in this country, for some of its members
+    were settled in Delaware before the war of the Revolution.
+    Pierre Samuel Dupont de Nemours, during the
+    French ministry of Vergennes, was employed in forming
+    the treaty of 1783, in which the independence of the
+    United States was formally recognized by England. In
+    1795 (Am. encyclopedia) he came to this country and
+    joined his sons, who had become successful manufacturers
+    of gunpowder at or near Wilmington, Del., where
+    their descendants, or at least some of them, are still engaged
+    in the same business. If any of the old and original
+    chestnut trees have escaped the numerous &quot;powder<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> mill explosions&quot; which have frequently occurred in that
+    neighborhood, they are probably much older than the
+    Ridgely. I am also inclined to believe that a very large
+    majority of all the hardy chestnut trees of the European
+    species scattered about the country are the direct descendants
+    of the old Dupont stock.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig33.jpg" alt="" height="472" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._33" id="FIG._33">FIG. 33</a>. OPEN BUR OF THE RIDGELY CHESTNUT.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Scott.</span>&mdash;Burs large, with long branching spines.
+    Nuts from the original tree, as received the past season,
+    are only of medium size, but said to be much larger on
+    younger trees. Shell dark brown, smooth, with a little
+    fuzz around the point. As my specimen tree has not,
+    as yet, fruited, I am unable to say anything of its productiveness
+    from personal experience, but in a note from
+    Mr. William Parry, under date of Oct. 15, 1894, he
+    says: &quot;I send specimens of the Scott chestnuts, grown
+    by Judge Scott, of Burlington, N. J. The crop is about
+    gone and it was with difficulty I could get these, which
+    are about the average size; earlier in the season many
+    are larger. Judge Scott has grown those nuts for market
+    several years. The original tree was bought by his
+    father many years ago from the nursery of Thomas
+    Hancock. He bought three trees for Spanish chestnuts,
+    planted them in a row about thirty feet apart, and
+    the one from which these nuts were obtained happened
+    to be in the middle. It is now a large tree, the trunk
+    about five feet in diameter. It is a regular and heavy
+    bearer. Judge Scott has propagated and planted an
+    orchard from this variety, and claims among its important
+    features, large size and early bearing,&mdash;two-year
+    grafts generally produce nuts; immense productiveness
+    and good quality; beautiful, glossy, mahogany color; freedom
+    from fuzz, and an almost entire exemption from the
+    attacks of the chestnut weevil. While the crop of two
+    trees standing on either side of the Scott is badly damaged
+    by worms, it is the exception to find a wormy nut
+    among the Scott.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;The crop sells readily at ten to twelve dollars per
+        bushel. This year (1894) some sold as low as eight dollars,
+        the lowest ever known for this variety.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><span class="smcap">Styer.</span>&mdash;Burs large, round; spines long, branching,
+    but not as coarse as those of Comfort. Nuts medium to
+    large, decidedly pointed, and the point fuzzy. Shell
+    dark brown, with a few longitudinal stripes, but not
+    ridged. A handsome nut of good quality. This variety
+    has been distributed under the name of Hannum. The
+    original tree, which is a mammoth in size, is still standing
+    on the farm of a Mr. Hannum, near Concordville,
+    Delaware Co., Penn. But Mr. T. Walter Styer, of the
+    same place, is propagating and introducing it as the
+    Styer.</p>
+<p>Some of the varieties in this group may not prove
+    to be distinct, and later they will be relegated to their
+    proper place as synonyms, but I have thought it best to
+    record them by the names under which they have been
+    received. In writing these descriptions I have had the
+    nuts and leaves before me, but there may be characters
+    overlooked which will become more conspicuous as the
+    grafted trees become older and more mature. The
+    Dager chestnut, from Delaware, is a promising variety,
+    disseminated through the Department of Agriculture,
+    but as I have not seen the nuts at this writing, a description
+    is necessarily omitted.</p>
+<p>Among the French varieties of this species which
+    are said to succeed admirably in California, a large proportion
+    would probably do equally well in Delaware and
+    further south. Among those worthy of trial I may
+    name the <i>Avant Chataigne</i>, <i>Comale</i>, <i>Exalade</i>, <i>Green
+    of Lemousin</i>, <i>Grosse Précoce</i>, <i>Jaune Rousse</i>, <i>Lyons</i>, <i>Merle</i>, <i>Nouzillard</i>, <i>Quercy</i>, etc. I have tried some of
+    these, but with such indifferent results that they were
+    abandoned. Cultivators of nut trees located in a milder
+    climate, should take advantage of whatever improvements<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> there have been made in Europe, by importing
+    grafted trees or cions. There are a few ornamental varieties
+    of the European chestnut, but none worthy of any
+    special attention.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig34.jpg" alt="" height="400" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._34" id="FIG._34">FIG. 34</a>. JAPAN GIANT CHESTNUT.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Japan Chestnuts.</span>&mdash;The first authentic account I
+    have been able to find of the introduction of the Japan
+    chestnut into this country, is of a number of trees received
+    by S. B. Parsons &amp; Co., Flushing, N. Y., 1876,
+    from the late Thos. Hogg, who, as is well known to all
+    horticulturists, spent several years in Japan collecting
+    many rare kinds of trees and shrubs, which were shipped
+    direct to Parsons &amp; Co.  The chestnut trees received in
+    1876 fruited two years later, or in 1878, and soon attracted
+    attention, on account of the large size and excellent
+    quality of the nuts and the precocious habits of the trees.</p>
+<p>The success of this typical variety of the Japanese
+    species, as I have assumed to designate it, proved that
+    there were oriental chestnuts&mdash;heretofore untested in
+    this country&mdash;that were certainly worthy of an attempt
+    to obtain. This variety, introduced by the Messrs.
+    Parsons &amp; Co., does not appear to have been disseminated
+    under any distinct varietal name, but merely bears
+    the rather meaningless one of Japan chestnut, and
+    for the purpose of giving it a position where it may be
+    recognized&mdash;by name at least&mdash;from other varieties more
+    recently introduced, I shall take the liberty of calling it
+    &quot;Parsons' Japan.&quot;</p>
+<p>Soon after it became known that the oriental chestnuts
+    would succeed in this country, the fruit growers
+    and nurserymen of California began to import and plant
+    these nuts, shipping an occasional lot to their customers
+    in the Eastern States, and from these hundreds of seedlings
+    have been raised and distributed, under the general
+    name of Japan chestnut. Among the nuts imported
+    there are some of extraordinary size, even larger than
+    anything of the kind obtained from Europe, as shown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> in Fig. 34, natural size, and from a specimen received
+    direct from Japan. Some of the nurserymen who have
+    secured these very large nuts for planting, offer the
+    seedlings raised
+    therefrom under
+    such names as
+    Mammoth and
+    Giant Japan, but
+    as there is no
+    certainty, and
+    scarcely a probability,
+    that such
+    seedlings will
+    produce nuts as
+    large as those
+    planted, the
+    names are rather misleading, although proper enough if
+    given to grafted varieties of large size. When an extra-fine
+    variety is produced from the nut, it should, of
+    course, be preserved and propagated in the usual way.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 280px;"> <img src="images/fig35.jpg" alt="" title="" height="227" width="280" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._35" id="FIG._35">FIG. 35</a>. SPINES OF JAPAN CHESTNUT.</span> </div>
+<p>The late Wm. Parry, of Parry, N. J., was one of
+    the first nurserymen to attempt to produce new varieties
+    of the Japan chestnut in this country, and his sons have
+    continued his experiments
+    in this direction.
+    Others may have been
+    equally successful, but I
+    have been unable to obtain
+    any satisfactory reports
+    from those to
+    whom I have applied for
+    information; consequently, I can only say that the following,
+    with few exceptions, originated at the Wm.
+    Parry nurseries.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Advance</span> (Parry).&mdash;Burs medium, slightly flattened
+    on top; spines medium, short, almost sessile, as shown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> in Fig. 35, and this is a characteristic of all the Japan
+    chestnuts; branching and widely separated on a very
+    thin husk. Nuts very large; shell a light yellowish
+    brown, with a few slight darker streaks from base to
+    apex. Quality excellent for one of this species. Ripens
+    early, and long before touched by frost.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Alpha</span> (Parry).&mdash;Very similar to the last, but
+    ripens earlier, which would be an advantage in some
+    localities. Tree vigorous and productive.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Beta</span> (Parry).&mdash;Bur medium; spines rather long
+    and thin for one of this group, set on a thin husk. Nut
+    large; shell light brown, smooth, with a slight trace of
+    pubescence near the tip. The leaves are shallow and
+    coarsely serrate, and on some the teeth or serratures are
+    entirely wanting. Ripens a little later than the Alpha,
+    or about the first of October in northern New Jersey.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Early Reliance</span> (Parry).&mdash;Burs medium, with
+    short, almost deflexed spines, on an exceedingly thin
+    husk. Nuts large, more pointed than in the last, and
+    of a lighter color the past season, but this may not be
+    constant, and may be due to the long and severe drouth
+    of the summer of 1894. Usually three nuts in a bur, and
+    sometimes four or five, but I do not consider this increase
+    in number a merit in any variety, for where there
+    are more than three they are likely to be of small size
+    and very much deformed. The original tree of the Reliance
+    is enormously productive, and a regular bearer.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Felton.</span>&mdash;A seedling of the common Japanese
+    chestnut, raised by J. W. Killen, of Felton, Delaware.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Giant Japan</span> (Parry).&mdash;Burs large to extra large
+    for a variety of this species, with medium low branching
+    spines on a very thin, parchment-like husk. Nuts extra
+    large, usually only two in a bur, often only one, and
+    about two inches broad, much depressed at the top, with
+    a short point set in an irregular depression or basin.
+    Shell dark mahogany color, more or less ribbed; kernel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> coarse grained, as is usual in the extra large varieties of
+    nearly all species of the chestnut. This is probably the
+    largest variety of the Japanese chestnut raised in this
+    country, of which grafted trees are obtainable at this
+    time. There may be others equally as large, but if so
+    they are unknown to the writer.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Killen.</span>&mdash;Of the Japan species, and described as
+    very large, the nuts over two inches in diameter and of
+    fair quality. Raised by J. W. Killen, of Felton, Del.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Parsons' Japan.</span>&mdash;Burs medium, with rather thick-set
+    and long spines. Nuts large, one inch and a half
+    broad, curving regularly to a point; shell smooth,
+    almost glossy, brown, with faint stripes of a darker shade
+    extending from base to apex. In quality the kernel is
+    far better than most of the European varieties, being
+    finer grained and sweeter. When grafted on strong
+    stocks the trees come into bearing early, or in two or
+    three years. This is the best known, and probably the
+    most widely distributed variety, of the Japanese species
+    in this country, having been introduced, as I have stated
+    elsewhere, in 1876.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Parry's Superb</span> (Parry).&mdash;Burs broad, cushion-shaped,
+    or much flattened on top, with extra long,
+    widely branching spines from single or multiple stems,
+    very much as in the European varieties. But the thin
+    husk, the nuts, and the growth of tree, wood and leaves,
+    stamp it as a pure Japanese variety. Nuts large, broader
+    than long, with a decided sharp woody point; almost
+    entirely destitute of even a sign of pubescence. A very
+    promising and distinct variety.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Success</span> (Parry).&mdash;Burs very large, broad, with
+    only a few short, scattering, branching spines on the
+    top, thicker toward the base; on a thin, parchment-like
+    husk, and this is so thin that it sometimes cracks open
+    and exposes the nuts within before they are fully ripe.
+    Nuts extra large, nearly equal to the Giant, but of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> more regular and symmetrical form, being nearly as long
+    as broad, tapering to a point. Shell smooth, dark
+    brown, with a slight pubescence about the point. Usually
+    three nuts in a bur; an ideal variety in every respect.</p>
+<p>There is a variety of the Japan chestnut recently
+    much lauded under the name of Mammoth or Burbank,
+    which is said to be of immense size, and as sweet as the
+    common American chestnut.</p>
+<p><strong>Injurious Insects.</strong>&mdash;The chestnut tree is rarely
+    attacked by insects. It is true that grubs may occasionally
+    be found boring into the wood or cutting sinuous
+    burrows under the bark, but this is mainly in trees weakened
+    by exposure, in removing protecting companions,
+    as when removing forests, or by plowing up and destroying
+    the roots, in cultivating the land about them; but
+    the attacks of insects upon such specimens is nature's
+    way of getting rid of the feeble and least valuable, making
+    room for the healthy and strong. But my thirty
+    years' residence in a chestnut grove leads me to think
+    that this nut tree is exceedingly free from wood borers
+    of any kind.</p>
+<p>Entomologists, however, have noted several instances
+    of insect depredations upon individual trees, by a few
+    species of the long-horn beetles, three or four in all, but
+    these occur so rarely that they are scarcely worthy of
+    notice as pests of the chestnut. There are also several
+    species of caterpillars occasionally found feeding on the
+    leaves of this tree, also some sucking bugs or tree hoppers,
+    and two or three kinds of plant lice, but none of
+    these have, as yet, become at all formidable enemies, or
+    likely to become so later. But the chestnut has one
+    enemy which is so abundant and destructive to the nuts
+    as to call for an extended notice. I refer to the common
+    native chestnut weevil (<i>Balaninus carytripes</i>, Boheman).
+    The little fat, white, round, legless grubs, nearly or quite
+    a half-inch long, must be familiar to every person who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> has handled or eaten chestnuts raised in this country,
+    whether of the exotic or native varieties. The parents
+    of this grub are oval-shaped beetles about one-half inch
+    long or less; wing covers, body and legs densely covered
+    with a short yellow down, and from the front or thorax
+    there extends a long, slightly curved, slender snout (Fig.
+    36), sometimes nearly an inch in length in the females,
+    but usually less in the males. The mouth parts are at
+    the extreme end of this snout or proboscis, and the female,
+    with her mandibles, it is claimed, reaches down
+    among the chestnut spines and gnaws a hole
+    in the husk, into which she drops an egg;
+    and when this hatches, the minute grub cuts
+    its way through the green husk and into the
+    nut, the hole made in its progress closing
+    up behind, leaving no mark or scar. Although
+    I have taken hundreds of these weevils
+    on chestnut trees, I never have been so
+    fortunate as to take one in the act of ovipositing,
+    but have come so near it as to find
+    the ovipositor still extended as the insect crawled out
+    from among the spines.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig36.jpg" alt="" height="292" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._36" id="FIG._36">FIG. 36</a>. CHESTNUT
+    WEEVIL.</span> </div>
+<p>The chestnut weevil usually appears in great numbers
+    soon after the trees bloom in spring, but they continue
+    to come out all through the summer; I have
+    occasionally found them late in September, which probably
+    accounts for finding small and half-grown grubs in
+    the nuts as they ripen and fall from the trees. These
+    late grubs often remain in the nuts all winter, but the
+    greater part escape earlier, or very soon after the crop
+    is ripe. The grubs crawl out of the nuts and work their
+    way into the ground to a depth of from a few inches to
+    two feet, much depending upon the nature of the soil.
+    Having very powerful jaws, they readily cut through a
+    layer of leaves or soft wood, and I have known them to
+    cut holes in sheets of dry cork. These grubs remain in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> the ground until the following season, then come forth
+    in their winged or weevil stage, except the belated,
+    broods, or those that have not reached full size in the
+    autumn; these remain in the ground the entire summer,
+    coming out late in the fall, or pass over until the second
+    year, as I have proved by burying the grubs in a barrel
+    sunk in the ground, covering the top with fine wire netting,
+    to prevent the escape of the weevils as they emerged
+    from time to time during the season.</p>
+<p>As a rule, we find only one grub in a nut, of the
+    American sweet chestnut, but in the larger varieties of
+    the European and Japanese, two or more is not unusual,
+    which rather favors the idea that the female weevil does
+    possess something akin to reason, which guides her in
+    locating stores of food available for her progeny. I have
+    never observed that the weevils had any choice among
+    varieties, all being subject to their attacks alike, provided
+    all were growing in equally favorable positions.
+    But if the trees are of different sizes, some tall and
+    others short, some exposed to the winds and others protected,
+    then the ravages of this pest will, no doubt, be
+    as variable as the surrounding conditions. As the
+    weevils emerge from the ground in spring or early summer,
+    they will naturally seek the nuts most convenient
+    and on the small trees, then those on the lower branches
+    of the larger ones, while those on the upper part of the
+    tree, where they are fully exposed to the winds, may
+    wholly escape the attacks of these pests. This leads me
+    to think that whoever attempts to cut off native chestnut
+    forests, with the expectation of renewal with the
+    larger varieties, by grafting the sprouts, will find the
+    chestnut weevil a rather formidable enemy. I have
+    found it so on a limited number of trees in my own
+    grounds, that are grown from grafted sprouts near large
+    native specimens, the weevils destroying nearly every
+    nut; but out in the field, away from the woods, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> where the young trees are scattered and exposed to the
+    full sweep of the winds, the nuts are sound and free
+    from insect enemies. The only remedy is to collect and
+    destroy the weevils, which is not a serious matter where
+    only the larger varieties are cultivated.</p>
+<p><strong>Diseases of the Chestnut.</strong>&mdash;I have never noticed
+    any special disease among chestnuts, neither do I find
+    any mentioned in European works on forestry. The
+    nearest approach to any such malady being recorded as
+    having appeared in this country, is found in a paragraph
+    in Hough's &quot;Report on Forestry,&quot; 1877, p. 470, where the
+    author copies from Prof. W. C. Kerr, State Geologist,
+    North Carolina, as follows: &quot;The chestnut was formerly
+    abundant in the Piedmont region, down to the
+    country between the Catawba and Yadkin rivers, but
+    within the last thirty years they have mostly perished.
+    They are now found east of the Blue Ridge only, on
+    higher ridges and spurs of the mountains. They have
+    suffered injury here, and are dying out both here and
+    beyond the Blue Ridge. They are much less fruitful
+    than they were a generation ago, and the crop is much
+    more uncertain.&quot;</p>
+<p>While there is nothing said about any chestnut disease
+    in the paragraph quoted, we only infer that the
+    author intended to convey the idea that the trees were
+    suffering from some endemic malady, although it may
+    have been due to long drouths, insect depredators, or
+    other causes. A few years later Mr. Hough, in his
+    &quot;Elements of Forestry,&quot; refers to the subject again, and
+    admits that &quot;the cause of the malady is unknown.&quot;
+    But as chestnuts continue to come to our markets in
+    vast quantities from the Piedmont regions, there must
+    be a goodly number of healthy trees remaining.</p>
+<p><strong>Uses.</strong>&mdash;The economic value of the chestnut, as
+    food for mankind and the lower animals, has been, and
+    is still, so well known, that no extended dissertation or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> compilation of historic instances of its usefulness are
+    required here. For almost two thousand years it has
+    been an important article of food throughout southern
+    Europe, and in some of the mountainous districts it is
+    almost the &quot;staff of life&quot; among the poorer people, who
+    not only use these nuts in their raw state, but roasted,
+    boiled, stewed, and even dried and ground into flour,
+    from which a coarse but nutritious kind of cake or bread
+    is made. These nuts are also used in the same way by
+    the poorer classes of China and Japan, and probably in
+    other oriental countries. In France, Italy, Spain and
+    Portugal, the chestnut crop is of immense importance,
+    not only for domestic use, but commercially, because all
+    surplus is wanted by other nations, who are ever ready
+    to take a share, and pay a good round price for the same.</p>
+<p>In this country chestnuts are mainly used as a luxury
+    or a kind of pocket lunch for the children, as they
+    are rarely brought to the table, and it is very doubtful
+    if the American housewife, or our cooks,&mdash;unless foreign
+    born and bred,&mdash;know anything about preparing these
+    delicious nuts for comestible purposes. Cereals, meats,
+    fruits and vegetables have always been so abundant and
+    cheap in this country, that the poorest of the poor could
+    indulge in them without stint or limit; but all this will
+    change sooner or later, and when our population has
+    doubled or trebled, the edible nuts must become of much
+    more importance than now, and a roast turkey stuffed
+    with chestnuts may figure as the ideal of gastronomic
+    art.</p>
+<p>As our native chestnuts are now annually consumed
+    by the thousands of bushels, and the imported varieties
+    by millions of pounds, and all as a mere luxury,&mdash;not a
+    necessity nor an article which we could not dispense
+    with without any serious inconvenience,&mdash;we may well
+    consider what the future demand must be, and make
+    haste to meet it with an abundant supply.</p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER  VI.</h2>
+<h3>FILBERT OR HAZELNUT.</h3>
+<p>Corylus, <i>Tournefort</i>. Name from <i>korys</i>, a hood,
+    helmet or bonnet, in reference to the form of the calyx
+    or husk enclosing the nut. Order, <i>Corylaceæ</i>. Deciduous
+    trees or low shrubs. Male flowers appearing in
+    the autumn in pendulous cylindrical catkins two inches
+    or more in length, with a two-cleft calyx partly united
+    with the bracts or scales. These catkins remain on the
+    plants all winter, becoming fully developed, and shedding
+    their pollen early the following spring. Female
+    flowers minute, entirely hidden within the buds during
+    the winter, but early in spring their bright red, thread-like
+    stigmas push out from the tips of the lateral or terminal
+    buds. Ovary two-celled, with one ovule in each.
+    Nut globular, ovoid or oblong, often in clusters, but
+    each enclosed in a leafy, two- or three-valved husk,
+    fringed or deeply notched at the upper end. Leaves
+    broadly heart-shaped, serrate, with sturdy, short leaf-stalks.
+    The filbert and hazel always bloom before the
+    leaves appear in spring, and the male catkins usually
+    open and begin to scatter their pollen in this latitude
+    during warm days in March, the females soon following,
+    their bright-red stigmas pushing out from the ends of
+    the buds, but as soon as fertilization has been consummated
+    they shrivel and disappear. The trees may then
+    remain leafless for weeks following, and yet produce a
+    heavy crop of fruit.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 470px;"> <img src="images/fig37.jpg" alt="" height="540" width="470" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._37" id="FIG._37">FIG. 37</a>. LARGE FILBERT.</span> </div>
+<p>The common English name, filbert, is from &quot;full-beard.&quot;
+    All the varieties with husks extending beyond
+    the nut, and with fringed edges, are filberts (Fig. 37);<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> while those with husks shorter than the nuts (Fig. 38)
+    are hazels, from the old Anglo-Saxon word, <i>hæsel</i>, a
+    hood or bonnet. The parentage, size, form or quality
+    of the nut, is not to be considered in this classification,
+    for when the nuts are ripe and fallen from the husks,
+    there is nothing left to distinguish the hazelnuts from
+    filberts, unless a person is sufficiently familiar with a
+    variety to know to which group it belongs. In France
+    these nuts are known under the general name of <i>Noysette</i>;
+    while in Germany it is <i>Haselnuss</i>; in Holland <i>Hazelnoot</i>;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> and in Italy <i>Avellana</i>, from Avellana, a city of
+    Naples, near which there is a valley where these nuts
+    have been extensively cultivated for many centuries.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> <img src="images/fig38.jpg" alt="" height="425" width="550" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._38" id="FIG._38">FIG. 38</a>. LARGE SEEDLING HAZELNUT.</span> </div>
+<p><strong>History of the Filbert.</strong>&mdash;It is claimed that the
+    filbert was first known to the Romans as <i>Nux Pontica</i>,
+    because introduced from Pontus; but it must have become
+    naturalized throughout southern Europe in very
+    early times. But the Italian name of <i>Avellana</i> appears
+    to have been applied to the wild hazel of Britain, long
+    before Linnæus adopted it as the specific name of the
+    indigenous species. John Evelyn, one of the most careful
+    and learned of English arboriculturists of his time,
+    in referring to these nuts, in his &quot;Sylva,&quot; 1664, says:
+    &quot;I do not confound the filbert Pontic, distinguished by
+    its beard, with our foresters or bald hazelnuts, which,
+    doubtless, we had from abroad, bearing the names of <i>Avelan</i> or <i>Avelin</i>, as I find in some ancient records and
+    deeds in my custody, where my ancestors' names were
+    written Avelan, <i>alias</i> Evelin.&quot;</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p>
+<p>The filbert has been celebrated in prose and poetry
+    from ancient times, as we may infer from a remark of
+    Virgil, who says that it has been more honored &quot;than
+    the vine, the myrtle, or even the bay itself&quot; (Eclogue vii).</p>
+<p>The supposed occult power of a forked twig of the
+    hazel as a divining-rod (<i>virgula divinatoria</i>) for finding
+    hidden treasures, veins of metals, subterranean streams
+    of water, and even pointing out criminals, is, of course,
+    purely mythical, although so solemnly attested by many
+    learned men in the past; and I would not consider this
+    myth worthy of a notice here were it not for the fact
+    that it was early imported into this country, and is still
+    firmly believed by many persons among our rural population.
+    It is true that the supposed attributes of the
+    European hazel have been transferred to different plants
+    in this country, mainly to the peach and our indigenous
+    witch-hazel (<i>Hamamelis Virginiana</i>), but the myth
+    still lives, a legitimate descendant of an Old World
+    nut tree.</p>
+<p>There is little to be said in regard to the history of
+    the filbert and hazelnut in this country, but it is quite
+    likely that both of the European species, and many varieties,
+    were brought here and planted by the early settlers
+    in the Eastern States, and bushes of the same could have
+    been seen in many gardens a hundred years ago; but I
+    have been unable to find any account of extensive plantings
+    of these nuts, although nurserymen, all along, have
+    been offering choice varieties to their customers. In
+    the main, our pomologists have either remained silent in
+    regard to these nuts, or, at most, referred to them very
+    briefly in their published works.</p>
+<p>William Prince, of Flushing, N. Y., in a &quot;Short
+    Treatise on Horticulture,&quot; published in 1828, refers to
+    the filbert as follows: </p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;This shrub or, in some cases,
+        tree, accommodates itself to every exposition, and to
+        every variety of soil, but prefers a moist loam on a sandy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> bottom, with a northern exposure. It is easily multiplied
+        by seeds, layers or inoculation. In fact, these
+        nuts, which are vended in large quantities in our markets,
+        grow as well in our climate as the common hazelnut,
+        and produce very abundantly. Such being the
+        case, it is hoped, ere long, sufficient will be produced
+        from our soil to supersede the necessity of importation,
+        as plantations of this tree would amply remunerate the
+        possessor; or if planted as a hedge, would be found to
+        be very productive. A single bush of the Spanish filbert
+        in my garden has produced a half-bushel annually.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Mr. Prince then names a few of the best varieties,
+    which are about the same as those recommended at the
+    present time, and he was, no doubt, honest in recommending
+    filbert culture to his countrymen, for his own
+    limited experience proved that the trees would grow
+    here and fruit abundantly.</p>
+<p>A. J. Downing, in the first edition of his &quot;Fruits
+    and Fruit Trees of America,&quot; 1845, says: &quot;The Spanish
+    filbert, common in many of our gardens, is a worthless,
+    nearly barren variety; but we have found the better
+    English sorts productive and excellent in this climate
+    (Newburg, N. Y.), and at least a few plants of these
+    should have a place in all our gardens.&quot; If a few plants
+    will succeed in a garden, then we might reasonably suppose
+    that the number might be safely increased, and
+    this was the idea of Mr. Prince, and many other writers
+    on the subject since his time, but I fail to find any record
+    of extended experiments with these nuts in this
+    country, and as there must be some good reason for this
+    neglect, perhaps my own experience in the cultivation
+    of the filbert and hazel, to be given in succeeding pages,
+    may throw some light on this question.</p>
+<p><strong>Propagation.</strong>&mdash;Filberts are readily propagated by
+    almost all the modes employed in the multiplication of
+    ordinary fruit trees and shrubs. The nuts are not at all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> delicate, and may be planted in the fall, or stored in a
+    cool place, mixed with sand or sphagnum, and then put
+    out in spring, always selecting a rather light and rich
+    soil for a seed bed, and in such beds plants from one to
+    three feet high may be obtained the first season. The
+    seedlings produce such a mass of fine roots that they are
+    readily transplanted without danger of loss. Varieties
+    are perpetuated and multiplied by budding, grafting,
+    suckers, layers, and some grow quite readily from cuttings
+    made of the young, vigorous shoots, cut up into
+    proper lengths in the fall, and then buried in the ground
+    until the following spring, then planted out in trenches,
+    as usually practiced with currants, grapes and similar
+    plants. The method of propagation most generally
+    practiced in Europe and this country is by suckers, and
+    as the cultivated varieties of the filbert usually produce
+    these from the base of their stems in profusion, there is
+    no lack of material; besides, they make as strong,
+    healthy and productive plants as can be procured in any
+    other way. To secure an extra number of roots on these
+    suckers, they should be banked up with a few inches in
+    depth of good rich soil, or old manure, about midsummer,
+    and then late in the autumn dig down to the base
+    and remove with knife or chisel, after which they may
+    be headed down to about fifteen or eighteen inches, and
+    heeled-in for the winter, to be planted out in nursery
+    rows early in spring. If a greater number of sprouts are
+    wanted than the plants naturally produce, the main
+    stem may be cut down; but this will seldom be necessary,
+    because the young transplanted suckers will usually produce
+    more or less new ones the first season, all of which
+    can be utilized for multiplying the stock if they are
+    wanted.</p>
+<p><strong>Soil, Location and Climate.</strong>&mdash;European varieties
+    of the filbert thrive best in what may be termed a rich
+    loam, with a dry subsoil. If the soil is too moist, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> trees are inclined to run too much to wood, producing
+    less fruit. In the famous nut orchards of Kent, England,
+    the soil is loam upon a dry, sandy rock. The
+    trees in these orchards are manured at least once in two
+    years, especially after they reach the full bearing age.
+    Almost any good soil that is rich enough to produce a
+    good crop of corn, and is not submerged in winter, will
+    answer for the filbert in this country.</p>
+<p>In selecting a location for a filbert orchard, an open,
+    airy one would probably be preferable to a spot so sheltered
+    as to cause the flowers to appear so early as to be
+    injured by frosts. Furthermore, I would warn cultivators
+    to keep as far away as possible from any hedgerows
+    or plantation of the wild native hazel bushes, for
+    these are always loaded with disease germs that are fatal
+    to the foreign species. We might reasonably suppose
+    that filberts would succeed better in the Southern than
+    in the Northern States, but if the experience of those
+    who have tried them there count for anything, then
+    these nuts are not adapted to the South, owing to the
+    fact that the flowers almost invariably push out during
+    warm days in winter, and these are destroyed later by
+    frosts. In the more elevated regions of the northern
+    border of the Southern, and in similar locations in the
+    Middle States, these nuts will doubtless thrive, or at
+    least the climate will prove congenial. The more equable
+    the climate and free from extremes in temperature,
+    the better; but the most important element in this
+    country is moisture, especially in summer, when the
+    nuts are filling out; and the best way to supply this,
+    where irrigation cannot be practiced, is to keep the
+    ground around the trees continually covered with a
+    mulch of leaves or other coarse vegetable matter.</p>
+<p><strong>Planting and Pruning.</strong>&mdash;The space to be allowed
+    between the plants, when set out for bearing, will, of
+    course, depend very much upon the size they are expected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> to attain. Those varieties which assume and
+    remain in the bush form may be planted very close together,
+    or not more than six to eight feet between the
+    plants; but those which become small trees must be
+    given more room. The larger European sorts, which
+    are at present the only ones worth cultivating for their
+    nuts, should be set ten or twelve feet apart, and the
+    rows fifteen to sixteen feet, then if properly pruned they
+    will shade the ground and be in a convenient form for
+    gathering the crop. The trees may be planted in the
+    orchard when quite small, and some kind of vegetable
+    crop grown among them for the first two or three years,
+    but I would prefer keeping the plants in nursery rows
+    until they were four or five feet high, and then transplant
+    to the orchard, and set a short, stout stake by the
+    side of each, to keep the main stem in an upright position
+    until the tree is well established.</p>
+<p>The first pruning,&mdash;except removing suckers from
+    those in the nursery rows,&mdash;will be the heading back of
+    the main or central stem to a hight of two or three
+    feet, for the purpose of laying the foundation, as it
+    were, of the head of the future tree. Three or four of
+    the larger branches, which will push out from near the
+    top of the severed main stem, are to be selected to form
+    the top, and all others removed. Small lateral branches
+    or twigs will spring out from the larger or main ones,
+    and in this way the head of a bearing tree is formed.
+    But before attempting to prune a mature or fruitful
+    tree, we must consider the mode of fructification, for
+    the filbert does not bear nuts on the young growth of
+    the season, as in the chestnut, but on the small branchlets
+    or spur-like twigs of the preceding season, or, as we
+    may say, on the one-year-old twigs. The small fruiting
+    twigs are seldom more than four to six inches long, and
+    sometimes almost every well-developed bud on these contain
+    pistillate flowers and embryo nuts, either singly or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> in clusters. In pruning the bearing trees, the main
+    point to be observed is to head back the strong leading
+    shoots, to prevent the trees growing too tall, as well as
+    to force out the side or lateral twigs as fruiting wood
+    for the ensuing year. If the heads of the trees become
+    too much crowded to admit light and air to the center,
+    some of the larger branches must be removed entire.
+    The best time to prune is in early spring, when the trees
+    are in bloom, for at this season we can readily determine
+    the injured from the sound male catkins, and preserve
+    enough of these to insure perfect fertilization. It is not
+    necessary, however, that there should be healthy pollen-bearing
+    catkins on every tree in an orchard, for if one in
+    a dozen is well supplied, there will be sufficient to fertilize
+    the flowers of all growing near by. It often happens,
+    in our rather severe climate, that the catkins of
+    some trees or varieties are winterkilled, while the pistillate
+    flowers enclosed in the buds escape injury, and
+    when this occurs it is well to have some hardy variety at
+    hand, from which pollen can be obtained when needed.
+    The inferior varieties are usually the most hardy, and
+    the wild European hazel or our northern beaked hazel,
+    will usually escape injury where all the large improved
+    sorts fail, and it requires but a few minutes' labor to cut
+    branches bearing sound catkins, and scatter these about
+    through the heads of trees requiring such assistance to
+    make them fruitful.</p>
+<h2>SPECIES OF AMERICAN HAZELS.</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">Corylus Americana</span> (Walters). Common hazel
+    bush.&mdash;Leaves roundish, heart-shaped, pointed, coarsely
+    serrate; husk somewhat downy, with a wide, flattened,
+    fringed border extending beyond the roundish nut.
+    Shell rather thick and brittle; kernel sweet and good,
+    but the nut is too small to be considered of much value.
+    A low shrub, with many stems springing from the roots.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> Young shoots and twigs downy and glandular-hairy.
+    Common in woods and old fields from Canada to Florida.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Corylus Rostrata</span> (Aiton). Beaked hazel.&mdash;Leaves
+    ovate or oblong, somewhat heart-shaped, pointed, doubly
+    serrate; husk extending an inch or more beyond the
+    round or ovoid nut, forming before it opens a long tubular
+    beak, hence the name. The husk is densely covered
+    with nettle-like bristles, which are quite irritating to
+    tender hands. The nuts are small, usually growing in
+    clusters at the ends of the twigs, only a few coming to
+    maturity. A low shrub or small tree, usually growing
+    in a dense clump, not spreading from subterranean
+    stems, as in the last species. Common on rather firm
+    and rich soil along the borders of streams, in the
+    northern border States, and southward on the Alleghanies,
+    but most abundant in the north through Canada,
+    and westward to the Pacific in Washington and
+    Oregon, where, in the mountains, it often assumes the
+    tree form, growing to a hight of twenty-five to thirty
+    feet, with a stem from four to six inches in diameter.
+    The wood is light, soft, and very white to the center.
+    It also extends southward to central California, but
+    here it is only a small bush, this form having been described
+    under the name of <i>Corylus rostrata</i>, var. Californica,
+    A. de C. This species probably reaches its highest
+    development in the Cascade range, in northern Oregon.
+    The same or a closely allied species of the hazel
+    extends far into northern Asia. There are no improved
+    varieties of either of our native species of the hazel in
+    cultivation.</p>
+<h2>EUROPEAN SPECIES OF CORYLUS.</h2>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig39.jpg" alt="" height="665" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._39" id="FIG._39">FIG. 39</a>. CONSTANTINOPLE HAZEL.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Corylus Avellana</span> (Linn.). Common hazelnut.&mdash;Leaves
+    roundish, heart-shaped, pointed, coarsely and unevenly
+    serrate; husk bell-shaped, spreading, with a
+    fringed or deeply cut margin. The original form of this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> nut is supposed to have been ovate or oval, but with a
+    plant indigenous to such a wide range of climate and
+    country, and one that has been so long under cultivation,&mdash;running
+    wild in many localities where it is not a native,&mdash;it
+    would be very difficult at this time to determine its
+    primary botanical characters. A common shrub or small
+    tree throughout the greater part of Europe and Asia.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Corylus Colurna</span> (Linn.).&mdash;Constantinople hazel.
+    Leaves roundish ovate, heart-shaped; husk double,
+    the inner one divided into three deeply cleft divisions,
+    the outer with many long, slender, curved segments,
+    giving to the calyx or husk a fringed appearance, but
+    leaving the end of the nut fully exposed (Fig. 39). Nuts
+    small, and for this reason rarely cultivated. Native of
+    Asia Minor, where the tree attains a hight of from fifty
+    to sixty feet. It is, however, hardy in France and England,
+    and was introduced into the latter country some
+    three hundred years ago, probably by Clusius, who received
+    either nuts or plants from Constantinople, hence
+    its present name.</p>
+<p>There are several other hazels and filberts, so distinct
+    from the two common European types that botanists
+    have, in a few instances, been inclined to elevate them
+    to the rank of species, and among these I may name <i>Corylus heterophylla</i>, or various-leaved filbert, from eastern
+    Asia, also the <i>Corylus ferox</i>, or spiny filbert, which
+    has a long and deeply cut or fringed husk. It is a native
+    of the Sheopur mountain in Nepaul. But from the
+    two common European species, <i>C. Avellana</i> and <i>C. Colurna</i>,
+    and their hybrids, many hundreds of varieties
+    have been raised, and from among these we may readily
+    select a dozen possessing all the distinct and estimable
+    properties to be found in this genus of nut-bearing
+    plants; to multiply names without securing anything
+    of intrinsic value, is but a waste of time and labor on
+    the part of the cultivator.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p>
+<p>As we have no popular varieties of American origin,
+    I am compelled to consult European catalogues in making
+    a selection of those most promising for cultivation
+    here, and this is, perhaps, an advantage, inasmuch as
+    our transatlantic cousins have had a long experience and
+    abundant opportunities for determining the merits of
+    the varieties they recommend. If hardiness and adaptation
+    to our soil and climate are to be taken into account,
+    in making a selection, then we may fail for the
+    want of experienced guides, as it is undeniable that very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> few persons in this country have ever attempted to conduct
+    extended experiments in the cultivation of either
+    the native or European species and varieties of the hazel.</p>
+<p>Taking this view of the situation, I shall avail myself
+    of the small but select list of varieties given in that
+    standard work, &quot;The Dictionary of Gardening,&quot; edited
+    by Mr. George Nicholson, of the Royal Gardens, Kew,
+    England.</p>
+<h2>SELECT LIST OF VARIETIES.</h2>
+<p><span class="smcap">Alba, or White filbert.</span>&mdash;Considered in England
+    one of the best varieties in cultivation. From the
+    peculiar structure of the husk, which contracts rather
+    than opens at the outer edge, this filbert can be kept
+    longer in its cover than most others. As fashion
+    demands that fresh filberts must be brought to the
+    table in their husks, this variety deserves special attention.
+    It is also known as Avelinier Blanche, Wrotham
+    Park, etc.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Cosford, or Miss Young's Thin-Shelled.</span>&mdash;Nut
+    oblong, of excellent quality; husk hairy, deeply
+    cut, about as long as the nut. Highly valued on account
+    of the thinness of the shell.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Crispa, or Frizzled Filbert.</span>&mdash;Shell thin, somewhat
+    flattened; husk richly and curiously frizzled
+    throughout, open wide at the mouth, and hanging
+    about as long again as the nut. Ripens late, and one of
+    the most productive.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Downton Large Square.</span>&mdash;Nut very large; shell
+    thick and well-filled; husk smooth, shorter than the
+    nut. A peculiarly formed semi-square nut, of the best
+    quality.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Lambert's Filbert</span> (<i>Corylus tubulosa</i>).&mdash;Nut
+    large, oblong; shell thick and strong, the kernel being
+    covered with a red skin; husk long, rather smooth, serrated
+    at the edges, longer than the nut. A fine, strong-growing,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> free-fruiting variety. It is quite popular in
+    California, where it has been in cultivation for twenty
+    years or more under the name of Red Aveline. Specimens
+    I have received from there were not as large as
+    those raised in England, but this can be accounted for
+    by the difference in climate. This variety is cultivated
+    in Europe under various local names, as, for instance,
+    Great Cob, Kentish Cob, Filbert Cob, and Large Bond
+    Cob.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Grandis, or Round cob-nut.</span>&mdash;Nut large, short,
+    slightly compressed, very thick and hard; husk shorter
+    than the fruit, much frizzled and hairy. This is supposed
+    to be the true Barcelona nut of commerce, and is
+    one of the finest grown. This is the large round hazel
+    or filbert so largely imported for the trade in this country.
+    It has many synonyms, and among them we may
+    record Downton, Dwarf Prolific, Great Cob and Round
+    Cob.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Purple-Leaved filbert.</span>&mdash;Usually cultivated as
+    an ornamental shrub in this country, but under proper
+    treatment it is one of the most valuable for its fruit.
+    Leaves very large, and of a deep purple color. Nuts
+    and husk of the same color, which they retain until cut
+    by frosts. Nuts large, an inch in length; husks much
+    longer than the nut, and slightly hairy. The catkins
+    are tender and become winterkilled in our Northern
+    States, but if the pistillate flowers are fertilized by pollen
+    from some more hardy plant, this purple-leaved
+    filbert is exceedingly prolific. I have gathered eighty
+    nuts from a small bush in my garden, the flowers of
+    which had been fertilized from another variety in early
+    spring.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Red filbert.</span> Red Hazel, Avelinier Rouge.&mdash;Nut
+    medium ovate, not long as in the <i>tubulosa</i>, or Lambert's
+    filbert; shell thick; husk long and hispid. A very
+    productive variety of good quality.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Spanish filbert.</span>&mdash;Nut very large, oblong; shell
+    thick; husk smooth, longer than the nut. A very large
+    variety, sometimes confounded with the Round cob-nut
+    and its synonyms.</p>
+<h2>PERSONAL EXPERIENCE WITH FILBERTS.</h2>
+<p>Believing that our failures are often of far more
+    value, in the line of education, than our successes, I
+    shall not hesitate to place my own on record as guideposts
+    to those who may be seeking the most direct road
+    to success in nut culture. Having had a rather extended
+    and expensive experience in the cultivation of filberts, I
+    propose giving a brief account of it here, with the hope
+    that it may save some other enthusiast from losing time
+    and money.</p>
+<p>My attention was first specially drawn to these nuts
+    in 1858,&mdash;while a resident of the city of Brooklyn, N. Y.,&mdash;by
+    a neighbor who had a moderately large garden, on
+    three sides of which he had planted a row of English
+    filberts. These trees, at the time, had attained a hight
+    of about fifteen feet, with broad, open heads, and they
+    rarely failed to produce a heavy crop of nuts, which sold
+    readily at very remunerative prices, for as they were
+    always gathered in the husks and sold by the pound,
+    the amount obtained from these few trees seemed to be
+    enormous, considering the small space they occupied in
+    this garden. The owner of these filbert trees, being an
+    Englishman by birth, never tired of showing his English
+    filberts to visitors, and of descanting upon their value,
+    as well as upon the stupid indifference of the Yankees
+    in neglecting the cultivation of these valuable nuts. I
+    imbibed enough of my neighbor's enthusiasm to secure
+    a good stock of his plants, a few years later, for cultivation
+    in my grounds here. The third year after planting,
+    quite a number of the bushes produced a fair crop of
+    nuts, but I noticed that an occasional shoot was affected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> with blight, and these were immediately cut out and
+    burned. The next season more of the branches were
+    affected, and from these the blight extended downward
+    on the main stems, and when these were cut away the
+    sprouts from below made a very vigorous and apparently
+    healthy growth, some reaching a hight of six feet the
+    first season, but a year or two later these were also attacked
+    and destroyed by blight.</p>
+<p>Finding that the filberts in my grounds were doomed,
+    I visited my old neighbor in Brooklyn, hoping to learn
+    something of the origin or cause of the disease; but the
+    blight had invaded his garden, and not a tree remained.
+    On my return from this visit I had every filbert and
+    hazel plant on my place dug up and burned, thinking
+    by such means to stamp out the disease. After waiting
+    ten years, I thought it time to try filberts again, and to
+    be certain of securing pure and healthy plants, I concluded
+    to raise them from the nuts, and sent an order
+    for a few pounds of the largest and best variety to be
+    found in the celebrated filbert orchards of Kent, Eng.
+    In due time the nuts arrived, and they were very large,
+    and all of one variety, as ordered. They were mixed
+    with sand and buried in the garden until the following
+    spring, then sown thinly in shallow drills and covered
+    with about two inches of rich soil.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/fig40.jpg" alt="" height="410" width="600" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._40" id="FIG._40">FIG. 40</a>. ENGLISH FILBERT ORCHARD, FIVE YEARS FROM SEED.</span> </div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig41.jpg" alt="" height="438" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._41" id="FIG._41">FIG. 41</a>. VARIETIES OF FILBERTS AND HAZEL SEEDLINGS.</span> </div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> <img src="images/fig42.jpg" alt="" height="758" width="550" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._42" id="FIG._42">FIG. 42</a>. EXTRA LARGE HAZEL SEEDLING OR ROUND ENGLISH FILBERT.</span> </div>
+<p>At the close of the first season the plants were from
+    one to two feet high and quite stocky, with a mass of
+    small fibrous roots. The next spring they were transplanted
+    into nursery rows, and set about one foot apart.
+    The third spring I laid out about one acre for a specimen
+    filbert orchard, and after the ground had been thoroughly
+    prepared, the plants were set ten feet apart in
+    the row, and twelve between the rows. No crop was
+    planted among the trees, but the ground was kept clean
+    and free from weeds during the summer, with cultivator
+    and harrow. All suckers springing from the base of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a><br />
+    <a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> stems were removed as soon as they appeared, and under
+    such treatment the plants made a vigorous growth. Two
+    years later quite a number of the trees came into bearing,
+    these showing that I was likely to have nearly as
+    many varieties in my orchard as there were trees. Some
+    of the varieties might be better than the parent, but the
+    greater part were certain to be inferior in size. The
+    fourth year after planting in the orchard the trees gave
+    me a heavy crop of nuts, and they made a fine appearance
+    as one looked down between the long rows, as
+    shown in Fig. 40. But this season my old enemy, the
+    filbert blight, appeared again, and branches and main
+    stems began to blacken and the leaves to wither. But I
+    had bushels of nuts and in great variety, and by sending
+    specimen baskets of the long-husk varieties to dealers
+    in New York, learned that there was an almost
+    unlimited demand for such nuts, at prices ranging from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a><br />
+    <a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a><br />
+    <a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> thirty to seventy-five cents per pound, if sent to market
+    in their fresh, half-ripened husk; but later on, when
+    the nuts have fallen out and become thoroughly ripened,
+    as when imported, ten cents a pound may be considered
+    an average price for the larger varieties. Several of
+    these are shown in Fig. 41, of natural size and form.
+    Another extra-large hazel is shown in Fig. 42. The
+    fifth year after planting, my specimen filbert orchard
+    had suffered so much from blight that it appeared as
+    shown in Fig. 43; but a few dozen trees have been reserved,
+    the rest being removed and reduced to ashes.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> <img src="images/fig43.jpg" alt="" height="413" width="600" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._43" id="FIG._43">FIG. 43</a>. FILBERT ORCHARD STRUCK WITH BLIGHT, FIFTH YEAR FROM SEED.</span> </div>
+<p><strong>Name and Nature of the Filbert Blight.</strong>&mdash;The
+    reader must not suppose that one who has spent as much
+    time and money as the writer in experimenting with
+    these nuts, would make no effort to discover the origin
+    and name of such a virulent disease, and means of destroying
+    it if these were known. For many years I had
+    been well aware of its presence in nearly all of the nurseries
+    of the older States, as well as in the public parks
+    and private gardens. In the meantime I had diligently
+    examined the reports of the Division of Vegetable Pathology
+    of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, as well
+    as the hundreds of bulletins of the various State experiment
+    stations, treating of the fungous diseases of plants,
+    all without finding a hint or reference to this widely
+    distributed and destructive blight of the filbert. I also
+    sent many specimens of the diseased twigs and branches
+    to professional mycologists, with no better results.
+    With the nature of the disease, its mode of multiplication
+    and distribution, I had become somewhat familiar,
+    but the information sought was: Had it ever
+    been described and given a scientific name, and if so,
+    where, and by whom? This much of its history had
+    somehow escaped me, and, as it would appear from the
+    following correspondence, the chances were none too
+    good of finding it.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p>
+<p>In reply to an inquiry directed to the U. S. Department
+    of Agriculture, Division of Vegetable Pathology,
+    I received the following:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p style="text-align: right; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%"> <span class="smcap">Washington, D. C.</span>, Aug. 4, 1894.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p style="margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%"><span class="smcap">Dear Sir:</span><br />
+</p>
+<p style="margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%">Your letter of Aug.
+    2, relating to the disease of the filbert,
+    is at hand. In reply I have to say that we have not investigated
+    this trouble, and are therefore unable to furnish you
+    with any definite information upon it. Specimens of the disease,
+    as you describe it, have never been, so far as I know, referred
+    to the Division, nor am I able to find any record of any
+    such disease in foreign or domestic literature. If you will
+    send us specimens we shall be pleased to examine them and
+    furnish you a report. We should also be pleased to have any
+    information from you in regard to the manner in which the
+    disease
+    works.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+    Very truly,</p>
+<p style="text-align: right; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%">B. T. GALLOWAY, <i>Chief of Division</i>.</p>
+<p>The specimens requested were forwarded promptly
+    by mail, and in the absence of the Chief of Division,
+    they fell into the hands of one of his assistants, who reported
+    as follows:</p>
+<p style="text-align: right; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%"> <span class="smcap">Washington, D. C.</span>, Aug. 14, 1894.</p>
+<p style="margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%"><span class="smcap">Dear Sir:</span> </p>
+<p style="margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%">Your letter of Aug. 7 is received, together with the specimens.
+    The stems of the <i>Corylus</i> are affected with one of the
+    Pyrenomycetes. <i>Cryptospora anomala</i>, Pk. The fungus is
+    described in &quot;North American Pyrenomycetes,&quot; by Ellis and
+    Everhart, p. 531. It attacks <i>Corylus Americana</i>, but appears
+    to be worst on the European varieties, as you say. The pustules
+    appear first on the young branches, and later on the
+    older ones and on the trunk. The roots are not killed.</p>
+<p style="margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%">The only remedy known is to cut out and burn the diseased
+    stems. Whether Bordeaux mixture or any other copper
+    solution will protect the shrub from attack, is not known. So
+    far as I know, it has not been tried. It is probable, however,
+    that if the stems were thoroughly sprayed with the Bordeaux
+    mixture they would be protected from attack. The mycelium
+    of the fungus grows into the cambium and practically girdles
+    the stems. The black pustules contain the spores.</p>
+<p style="text-align: right; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%">Very
+    truly
+    yours,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <br />
+    ALBERT F. WOODS, <i>Acting Chief</i>.<br />
+</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span></p>
+<p>On the receipt of this note of Prof. Woods, I looked
+    up Ellis and Everhart's work, a voluminous one of over
+    800 octavo pages, published by the authors at Newfield,
+    N. J. This filbert blight is briefly described under the
+    scientific name of <i>Cryptospora anomala</i>, Pk., but Prof.
+    Peck writes me that &quot;the description was made from
+    specimens discovered near Albany, N. Y., in May, 1874.
+    In 1882 this description was republished by Saccardo, in
+    his &quot;Syllage Fungorum,&quot; Vol. I, p. 470, under the name
+    of <i>Cryptosporella anomala</i>. The original name in Report
+    28, p. 72, was <i>Diatrype anomala</i>. In 1892 Ellis and
+    Everhart, in &quot;Pyrenomycetes of North America,&quot; p. 531,
+    changed the name again, making it <i>Cryptospora anomala</i>.&quot;
+    So at present we have the names of this fungus
+    in the following order:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p><i>Diatrypes anomal</i>, Peck, 1876.<br />
+        <i>Cryptosporella anomala</i>, Sacc., 1882.<br />
+        <i>Cryptospora anomala</i>, E. and E., 1892.<br />
+    </p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Ellis and Everhart, after giving scientific description,
+    add,</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;On living stems of <i>Corylus Americana</i>,
+        Albany, N. Y. (Peck), Iowa (Holoway), on <i>Corylus Avellana</i>,
+        Newfield, N. J. The pustules appear first on
+        the smaller branches, and are serrately arranged along
+        one side of the branch; afterwards they appear also on
+        the larger branches and on the trunk itself, and in the
+        course of two or three years the part of tree above
+        ground is entirely killed. The roots, however, still
+        retain their vitality, and continue to send up each year
+        a luxuriant growth of new shoots, destined to be destroyed
+        the succeeding year by the inexorable pest. The
+        imported trees seem to be more injuriously affected than
+        the native species.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>The observations of Ellis and Everhart and Prof.
+    Woods accord with my own, but I may say that the infested
+    branches often show the presence of the mycelium
+    in the bark and alburnum,&mdash;by a slight shrinking,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>&mdash;
+    weeks or months before the pustules appear, for these
+    are merely indications of the last stage in the life of the
+    fungus, and with the throwing off the spores from these
+    pustules the old parasite perishes.</p>
+<p>The pustules, when fully open, are from one-sixteenth
+    to one-eighth of an inch in diameter,
+    usually round, but sometimes slightly
+    oval in form, and placed mainly in almost
+    straight rows lengthways of the branch, as
+    shown in Fig. 44. These pustules appear
+    on wood of all ages, from two years upward,
+    and in what may be termed patches, ranging
+    from a few inches to a foot or more in
+    length, and more frequently on the upper
+    side than the underside of the branches.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig44.jpg" alt="" height="614" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._44" id="FIG._44">FIG. 44</a>.
+    HAZEL FUNGUS.</span> </div>
+<p>This fungus is undoubtedly indigenous,
+    and its host plant is the common
+    American hazel (<i>C. Americana</i>). From a
+    very careful search, I have not been able to
+    find any clump of these bushes of any considerable
+    size that was entirely free from
+    pustulous stems. But on these wild plants
+    it seems to do but little harm, for if a stem
+    is killed, another soon springs up from the
+    roots to take its place; but when this fungus
+    invades our orchards and gardens and
+    attacks filbert trees, we recognize it as an
+    implacable enemy. How far the spores of
+    this fungus are likely to be carried by the
+    wind, transported on the clothes of a person,
+    or the hair of domestic animals, I do
+    not know, but it certainly is not safe to
+    plant the susceptible species and varieties
+    within a mile of the wild hazel bushes, unless the planter
+    is prepared to use fungicides freely on his trees. There
+    are certain phases of this filbert blight that are rather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> obscure and scarcely explainable; as, for instance, its
+    virulence among some species and varieties, and almost
+    if not total absence among others. So far as my observation
+    extends, I have never found it attacking the native
+    beaked hazel (<i>Corylus rostrata</i>), and my correspondents
+    in the Northwest and in the Pacific States assure
+    me that no blight on the hazel has, as yet, been found
+    there, and its absence is probably due to the fact that
+    the common hazel (<i>C. Americana</i>) is not an inhabitant
+    of these regions.</p>
+<p>In a neighbor's garden just across the highway from
+    my own, there are, at this time, four old European
+    hazelnut trees, fully twenty feet high and as many years
+    old. They are of two varieties: one a small round nut,
+    the other a long, slender nut, but neither of much value,
+    because of their small size. The trees, however, are
+    perfectly healthy, never having suffered from the blight,
+    although these four are all that remain of a long row
+    of choice European varieties all planted at the same
+    time. Blight destroyed the better varieties, while these
+    inferior ones continue to thrive and are exceedingly
+    productive.</p>
+<p>This native fungus that causes blight in the hazels
+    is but one of a large number of similar maladies which
+    have appeared and often worsted the horticulturist, in
+    his endeavor to introduce and cultivate foreign species
+    and varieties of plants, and like the tropical fevers, they
+    may pass unnoticed among the natives, but are terribly
+    fatal to immigrants from cooler climates. The disease
+    so well known as the black knot (<i>Otthia morbosa</i>, Schu.),
+    and widely destructive to the European varieties of the
+    plum, and Morello cherries, has existed for ages among
+    our native plums and black cherries, doing comparatively
+    little harm; but it seems to protest, by its virulence,
+    against the introduction of some foreign species.
+    The same is true with various blights and rusts which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> attack the exotic pear, apple, quince, peach, and other
+    of the larger fruits, and we have only to ascend the
+    scale a few degrees from the microscopic fungi to the
+    microscopic insects, to meet on the very threshold of
+    this realm the minute but unconquerable grape louse
+    (<i>Phylloxera vastatrix</i>), which for more than two centuries
+    has prevented the successful cultivation of the European
+    varieties of the grape in the open air everywhere
+    east of the Rocky mountains in North America; although
+    this minute insect has ever been present and a constant
+    parasite of the indigenous species of the grape, but
+    scarcely affecting the health of its host. The plum curculio,
+    chestnut and hickory weevils, bean weevil, and
+    many other similar species of insects appear to be ever
+    protesting against the introduction of exotic plants, as
+    well as the improvement of our indigenous kinds.</p>
+<p>It is this blight, and nothing else, that has prevented
+    the extensive cultivation of the improved varieties
+    of the European filbert and hazelnut in this country,
+    and not the uncongenial soil and climate, as has
+    been so often &quot;officially&quot; proclaimed by men whose theories
+    are far greater than their practical knowledge of
+    such subjects. Men whose experience with these nuts
+    has been limited to a few isolated bushes or trees in gardens
+    or nurseries, where they were protected, or beyond
+    the reach of the spores of the blight fungus, as has
+    already been noted in the experience of Prince, Downing,
+    Barry, and my neighbor Butler, of Brooklyn, could
+    scarcely understand why others should remain so indifferent
+    to such a promising industry, or why the demand
+    for the trees remained so limited, with scarcely an
+    attempt to plant filbert orchards anywhere in this country.
+    Nurserymen have continued to offer the choice
+    varieties at low prices per plant, and to advise their customers
+    to cultivate filberts extensively, even to setting
+    them in hedgerows; and yet home-grown filberts remain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> as rare in our markets as they were a hundred years ago,
+    and all due to the simple reason that the insidious filbert
+    blight still scatters its spores unrestrained.</p>
+<p>With the present almost universal employment of
+    various fungicides for the destruction of blights, mildews
+    and rusts on cultivated fruits and vegetables, we
+    may confidently assert that the diseases of the filbert
+    may be readily controlled by the same means. The
+    spraying of the trees with Bordeaux mixture and other
+    copper solutions will certainly destroy the fungus spores,
+    and with these out of the way filbert culture may become
+    of as much importance and as popular here as it is
+    in certain countries of Europe. In my own experience
+    I have found no other nut tree (barring always the
+    blight) that has been more satisfactory. The plants
+    come forward rapidly, fruiting freely and abundantly
+    when young, and if properly trained, the crop can be
+    gathered with little labor, and as it is ready for use a
+    month or more in advance of the arrival of fresh nuts
+    from abroad, the home market during the time is at our
+    command.</p>
+<p>The number of applications of the fungicides that
+    will be necessary during the season to rid the trees of
+    blight, or the strength of the copper solution used, will
+    depend somewhat upon circumstances and the condition
+    of the subjects operated upon. If the trees are growing
+    near hedges of wild hazels, where there is a constant or
+    annual influx of the fungus spores, then greater care
+    will be required to suppress them than if the trees are
+    some distance from such sources of contagion; and it
+    may be well for those contemplating planting filbert
+    orchards, to examine their surroundings carefully in advance,
+    in order to avoid local blight-breeding plants,
+    and have these destroyed if any are found. I would also
+    warn the cultivator against collecting branches of the
+    wild hazel in the spring, carrying pollen-bearing catkins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> to be employed in fertilizing the pistillate flowers of the
+    cultivated varieties, for by such means blight spores may
+    be readily introduced into orchard and garden.</p>
+<p>It will seldom be necessary to practice artificial fertilization,
+    where any considerable number of trees are
+    grown near together, because if ninety per cent. of the
+    male catkins are winterkilled, the few remaining will be
+    sufficient to supply pollen for the pistillate flowers.
+    In my grounds filberts have never failed to produce annual
+    crops after reaching a bearing age, although they
+    have been subjected to great extremes of temperature in
+    winter. One year the trees were in full bloom the last
+    week in February, and although cold weather followed,
+    the protected pistillate flowers were not injured. The
+    winters of 1894 and 1895 were among the severest,
+    in the way of continuous low temperature, I have ever
+    experienced here, and while the filberts did not bloom
+    until the first week in April, the crop proved to be
+    abundant.</p>
+<p><strong>Insects Injurious to Filberts.</strong>&mdash;My personal observations
+    lead me to believe that the filberts and hazels
+    are, in this country, remarkably free from the depredations
+    of noxious insects. Two species of nut weevils
+    have been reported as breeding in the wild hazelnuts,
+    viz., <i>Balaninus obtusus</i>, and <i>B. nasicus</i>, but among
+    the many bushels of the European varieties of the filbert
+    produced in my grounds I have never found one infested
+    by a weevil or other insect. In Europe a nut weevil
+    (<i>B. nucum</i>) is said to be very destructive to the wild
+    hazel, often invading the filbert orchards, and this
+    we can readily believe, because they are not at all uncommon
+    in the imported nuts, but fortunately have not,
+    as yet, become naturalized in this country.</p>
+<p>The great hazel-leaf beetle, or as more generally
+    known, elm-leaf beetle (<i>Monocesta coryli</i>), has been
+    known in a few instances to attack and defoliate large<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> patches of the wild hazel bushes, but this insect seems
+    to prefer the elm, hence is rarely found on the hazels.
+    But should it ever invade our filbert orchards, it can be
+    readily destroyed by dusting or spraying the trees with
+    Paris green, London purple, or other well-known insecticides.
+    There may be an occasional invasion of caterpillars,
+    like the tent worms, spanworms, leaf rollers of
+    various species, and what are called leaf miners, but as
+    these infest almost all kinds of deciduous trees and
+    shrubs, we cannot consider them specially injurious to
+    the filberts and hazels.</p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+<h3>HICKORY NUTS.</h3>
+<p>Hicoria, <i>Rafinesque</i>. Name probably derived from
+    the aboriginal or Indian word hickery, or hickory, the
+    common name for these nuts among the tribes formerly
+    inhabiting the Middle and Southern Atlantic States.</p>
+<p><strong>Order</strong>, <i>Juglandaceæ</i> (Walnut family).&mdash;Native deciduous
+    trees of large size, with compound serrate leaves
+    with an odd number of leaflets, varying from five to fifteen
+    in the different species, the three terminal ones
+    usually much the largest, the lower ones on opposite
+    sides of the rather stout leafstalk. Male catkins slender,
+    cylindrical, pendulous, two to six inches long, three
+    in a cluster, on a naked peduncle or stalk (Fig. 46)
+    springing from the base of the terminal buds of the previous
+    season's twigs, and just below the first set of new
+    leaves in spring; calyx unequally three-parted; stamens
+    three to eight. Female flowers two or more in a cluster,
+    from the end of the new growth of the season, which
+    becomes the common peduncle or fruit-stalk of a single
+    nut or cluster of nuts. The flowers are destitute of
+    petals; stigma short, broad, and four-lobed; husk fleshy
+    or leathery, smooth, very thick in some species and
+    thin in others, partly or wholly four-lobed, opening in
+    some, allowing the nut to drop out at maturity, in others
+    adhering, falling off entire when ripe. Nuts with hard,
+    bone-like shell, round or oblong, smooth or deeply four
+    to six angled, somewhat flattened or compressed in most
+    of the species; kernel two-lobed, oily, sweet and delicious,
+    as in the common shellbark hickory, or extremely
+    bitter, as in the bitter nut.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span></p>
+<p><strong>History.</strong>&mdash;The early white settlers of the Atlantic
+    States found the hickory nut in common use among the
+    Indians, who gathered and stored them in large quantities
+    in the fall, for food during the winter months, and
+    while our ancestors who sought to make homes in the
+    western wilderness may have appreciated these luxuries,
+    they needed land for cultivation, and to secure it the
+    forests were destroyed, with no thought of preserving
+    trees that would yield food for themselves or succeeding
+    generations. Not only were the forests cleared away, as
+    things to be banished from sight and mind, but as the
+    hickories yielded superior timber for various agricultural
+    and other implements, as well as for fuel, they were
+    often sought for and utilized in advance of the general
+    clearing of wood lands, and the first to feel the woodman's
+    axe.</p>
+<p>William Bartram, in the account of his travels
+    through the Southern Atlantic States, from 1773 to
+    1778, and published in Philadelphia in 1791, says, in
+    referring to these nuts, that they are held &quot;in great
+    estimation with the present generation of Indians, particularly <i>Juglans exaltata</i>, commonly called shellbarked
+    hickory; the Creeks store up the latter in their towns.
+    I have seen above an hundred bushels of these nuts belonging
+    to one family. They pound them to pieces, and
+    then cast them into boiling water, which, after passing
+    through fine strainers, preserves the most oily part of
+    the liquid; this they call by a name which signifies
+    'hickory milk;' it is as sweet and rich as fresh cream,
+    and is an ingredient in most of their cookery, especially
+    in hominy and corn cakes.&quot;</p>
+<p>We can readily imagine what a delicious liquid
+    hickory milk must be in which to cook hominy, rice,
+    and similar kinds of grain; and there would be no danger
+    from tuberculosis in this natural product of the vegetable
+    kingdom. Perhaps at some future day, when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> milch cows are as rare in this country as they have been
+    for ages in China and Japan, hickory milk will come
+    into vogue again and be more highly valued by our people
+    than it ever was by the aborigines.</p>
+<p>While we have no romantic tales to repeat in which
+    either hickory trees or the nuts have played an important
+    part, yet we can well imagine that such delicious food
+    must, in ages past, as well as in our own times, have
+    been a coveted luxury, enjoyed at many a social gathering
+    of friends and neighbors. Many a country boy and girl
+    has welcomed the early autumn frosts, because they announced
+    the opening of the nutting season, reminding
+    them of the long winter evenings near at hand, and that
+    the industrious and nimble squirrel was a sharp competitor
+    in the nutting field; consequently, no time could
+    be wasted if a store of such luxuries was to be gathered
+    for home use, or to be sent to city or village market for
+    the benefit of less fortunate consumers. It is to be
+    hoped that this source of pleasure and profit may continue
+    long after the original forests of our country have
+    disappeared, and through the preservation and planting
+    of the noble food-bearing hickories by the roadsides, in
+    orchards, also for shelter, shade and ornament. Valuable
+    as hickory timber and hickory nuts have always been
+    to the inhabitants of this country, we might reasonably
+    suppose that there would be many thousands of these
+    trees planted every year, in order to keep up a supply
+    and make good the annual loss sustained in the destruction
+    constantly going on in our forests. But no such
+    plantings appear to have been undertaken in our Northern
+    States, and only quite recently in the Southern,
+    where the pecan nut is attracting considerable attention,
+    on account of the increase in demand, and the advance in
+    price obtained for them in the markets. Furthermore,
+    with the many millions of dollars expended by the general
+    government to encourage the planting, preservation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> and cultivation of forest trees, no special encouragement
+    has been extended to the nut-bearing kinds, and the
+    man who plants a cottonwood or worthless willow is
+    given as much credit as though he planted and reared a
+    tree a thousand times more valuable to himself and the
+    country at large.</p>
+<p>This may not be a very creditable phase of nut culture
+    in the United States, but it is history, nevertheless,
+    and to attempt to suppress it would merely be encouraging
+    negligence, which has already become so general
+    that the inferior varieties of hickory nuts command a
+    much higher price in our markets than the very choicest
+    did a few years ago.</p>
+<p>The nomenclature of the walnut family has been
+    subjected to various revisions by botanists, during the
+    present century, and there are probably others yet to
+    follow in the near or distant future. In all other standard
+    botanical works published prior to 1817-1818, the
+    hickories were classed with the butternut, black walnut
+    and Persian walnut, and under the generic name of <i>Juglans</i>. But in the year 1818 Mr. Thomas Nuttall, an
+    eminent English botanist, who had given years to wandering
+    through our forests and studying American
+    plants, separated the hickories from the older genus of <i>Juglans</i>, placing them in a new one, to which he gave
+    the name of <i>Carya</i>, from an ancient Greek name of the
+    walnut tree. This classification of Nuttall's was immediately
+    adopted by the botanists of his time, and has
+    been observed, scarcely without question, by the authors
+    of all the numerous botanical works published in America
+    and Europe during the past seventy-five years. But
+    now we are informed by some of our noted botanists
+    that, in deference to the law of priority dominant in
+    matters scientific, Nuttall's name for this genus must
+    be abandoned, inasmuch as Mr. C. S. Rafinesque,
+    an erratic Frenchman possessing considerable ability<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> for botanical research, and who came to this country
+    several years before Nuttall,&mdash;as some recent investigations
+    appear to prove,&mdash;defined the distinct characteristics
+    of the hickories, and not only proposed, but published
+    the name <i>Hicoria</i> for this genus in 1817, while
+    Nuttall's <i>Carya</i> did not appear until one year later, viz.:
+    1818. For these dates I am mainly indebted to Dr. N.
+    L. Britton, who appears to have been delving among
+    &quot;first editions&quot; of the works of the authors named
+    (Bulletin, Torrey Botanical Club, 1888).</p>
+<p>It seems strange, however, at this late date, that
+    such eminent botanists as the late Dr. John Torrey and
+    Dr. Asa Gray, who were both intimately acquainted
+    with, in fact associates of, Rafinesque, should have ignored
+    his rights in regard to the name of <i>Hicoria</i>, if he
+    was really entitled to the honor of founding this genus
+    and separating the hickories from the <i>Juglans</i>. But for
+    some good reason they left the matter in abeyance, for
+    their successors to settle. Dr. Torrey does, in a way,
+    recognize Rafinesque, in his &quot;Catalogue of Plants Within
+    Thirty Miles of the City of New York,&quot; published in
+    1819, but in a manner which shows that he had no confidence
+    in Rafinesque's claim, but did approve of Nuttall's
+    classifications and name of <i>Carya</i>, for on page 74
+    he refers to the hickories as follows: &quot;<i>Carya</i>, Nuttall; <i>Hickoria</i>, Rafinesque.&quot;</p>
+<p>From this it appears that Dr. Torrey did not adopt <i>Hicoria</i> as the proper mode of spelling this word, but
+    retained the letter k in giving it a Latin form. This is
+    not strange, inasmuch as Rafinesque had no settled form
+    of his own, and varied the spelling at different times;
+    as, for instance, <i>Scoria</i>, <i>Hicoria</i>, <i>Hickorius</i> and <i>Hicorius</i>.
+    It is but reasonable to suppose that Dr. Torrey
+    was familiar with Rafinesque's earlier writings, and also
+    whether his proposed generic name of <i>Scoria</i>, in 1808,
+    was legitimate, or a misspelling of <i>Hicoria</i>, as suggested<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> by Dr. Britton. But of one thing we may rest assured,
+    and that is, Dr. Torrey would not knowingly detract
+    from, nor fail to give every man full credit for his labors
+    in any branch of natural history or elsewhere, and he
+    certainly must have known Rafinesque in all his eccentricities
+    and moods, for when in New York city he was
+    usually the guest of Dr. Torrey, and these relations continued
+    for many years.</p>
+<p>A few of our leading botanists, having recently decided
+    that Rafinesque's name of <i>Hicoria</i> must be restored,
+    in deference to the laws of priority, and Nuttall's <i>Carya</i> be relegated to the position of a synonym, I have
+    concluded to adopt it in this work, although I am well
+    aware that a large majority of our botanists have protested
+    against this change, probably because of the confusion
+    it is likely to cause in the botanical literature of
+    our times. My own reason for adopting <i>Hicoria</i> is not
+    so much from any special reverence to the laws of priority,
+    but because it is derived from an old American Indian
+    name, and for all such I have a profound regard,
+    and would retain and adopt them whenever and wherever
+    they are at all appropriate to products indigenous
+    to this country. The hickories being purely American,
+    and unknown to Greece or Greeks, a semi-native name
+    is all the more acceptable. It is not to be expected that
+    botanical quibbles are of any special interest to the practical
+    nut culturist, for a pecan or a shellbark hickory
+    will taste just as sweet and command as high a price in
+    market under one scientific name as another; but the
+    cultivator may have occasion to look up the botanical
+    name of his trees in some school botany, or other botanical
+    work, and fail to find it, in the absence of some guide
+    to the various changes that have been made in the name
+    of the genus, as well as in the name of the synonyms of
+    the different species. Then, again, propagators and
+    dealers in trees are prone to employ unfamiliar names,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> whether they are old or new, this adding to the confusion,
+    without benefit to either purchaser or cultivator.</p>
+<p>To assist those who may have occasion to consult
+    these pages for either the common or botanical names of
+    the different species of the hickory, I shall endeavor to
+    give the greater part of those compiled by Prof. C. S.
+    Sargent (Tenth Census), Dr. Britton, and other eminent
+    authorities whose works I have had occasion to
+    consult in writing this treatise. It is not certain, however,
+    that these revisions and readjustments of the scientific
+    names of this genus of trees will remain undisturbed
+    for any considerable number of years, for we
+    have &quot;many men of many minds&quot; at work in the line
+    of botanical research, and it can scarcely be expected
+    that all will reach the same conclusion, either in fact or
+    fancy; besides, it is often difficult, if not wholly impossible,
+    to determine a species from the description given
+    by the earlier botanists, for they are generally very brief
+    and vague, and will often apply equally well to two or
+    more species of the same genus. In some instances not
+    a word is given in the way of description, merely a
+    name, as in &quot;Bartram's Travels&quot; (1791), where he speaks
+    of <i>Juglans exaltata</i>, a tall-growing hickory found in the
+    region through which he was traveling, and we now
+    know that it may have been any one of two or three species
+    indigenous to the Southern States.</p>
+<p>Under such confusing circumstances I shall make
+    no claim of infallibility in applying names to species,
+    but attempt no more than my predecessors have in the
+    same direction, and my contemporaries are now attempting,
+    i. e., make as close a guess as possible as to the species
+    or variety of hickory which the earlier authors intended
+    to name and briefly describe. The date of publication
+    of some of the earlier works consulted are given,
+    as an earnest of my desire to assent to the law of priority
+    in such matters.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a><br />
+    <a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig45.jpg" alt="" height="694" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._45" id="FIG._45">FIG. 45</a>. FOURTEEN YEARS OLD PECAN TREE IN MISSISSIPPI.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Pecan nut</span>, <span class="smcap">Illinois nut</span> (<i>Hicoria Pecan.</i> Marshall).&mdash;Leaves
+    with thirteen to fifteen leaflets, oblong-lanceolate,
+    serrate, pointed; nuts mostly oblong, smooth;
+    husk thin, somewhat four-angled and four-valved, these
+    at maturity shrinking, and falling apart when dropping
+    to the ground. Shell of nut generally thin, smooth or
+    slightly corrugated, varying widely in both form and
+    size from less than one inch in length to nearly or quite
+    two inches, abruptly blunt, or long and sharp pointed;
+    the two-lobed cotyledon or kernel oily, sweet and delicious.
+    A large, tall, but usually slender tree, with
+    smooth or slightly furrowed bark, as seen in Fig. 45.
+    Mainly indigenous to river bottoms in the Southern and
+    Southwestern States, extending northward to Indiana,
+    Illinois, Missouri and Southern Iowa.</p>
+<p>Synonyms and their authors:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p><i>Juglans Pecan</i>, Marshall, Arboretum Americanum, 1785.<br />
+        <i>Juglans Pecan</i>, Walter, 1787.<br />
+        <i>Juglans olivæformis</i>, Willdenow, 1809.<br />
+        <i>Carya olivæformis</i>, Nuttall, 1818.<br />
+        <i>Juglans Illinoiensis</i>, Wangenheim, 1787.<br />
+        <i>Juglans angustifolia</i>, Aiton, Hortus Kewensis.<br />
+        <i>Juglans rubra</i>, Gærtner.<br />
+        <i>Juglans cylindrica</i>, Lamarck.<br />
+    </p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><span class="smcap">Shellbark or shagbark hickory</span> (<i>Hicoria alba</i>.
+    Clayton).&mdash;Leaflets mostly five, occasionally seven, the
+    three upper ones obovate-lanceolate, the lower pair much
+    smaller and oblong-lanceolate, as shown in Fig. 46, all
+    taper-pointed, finely serrate, and slightly downy underneath.
+    Terminal buds large and scaly. Fruit globose,
+    somewhat depressed; husk smooth, very thick, firm,
+    scarcely shrinking at maturity, but opening and falling
+    with the nuts when ripe. Nuts variable in size, mainly
+    thin-shelled, white, compressed or flattened, four-angled,
+    with deep corrugations, blunt, rarely sharp-pointed;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a><br />
+    <a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> kernel large, sweet and excellent. One of the most
+    common and popular of the indigenous edible nuts, collected
+    in large quantities as they ripen in autumn, for
+    home use and for sale, as the demand for this excellent
+    nut is almost unlimited. A large tree, fifty to eighty
+    feet high, and stem one to three feet in diameter, with
+    a shaggy or scaly bark, which on old trees may be readily
+    pulled off in long, shell-like plates. Timber well
+    known as valuable for many purposes. This species has
+    a very wide range, of from Maine to Florida in the Eastern
+    States, and westward to Minnesota, thence southward
+    through eastern Kansas, Missouri, Indian Territory
+    and eastern Texas.</p>
+<p>Synonyms:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p><i>Juglans alba</i>, Clayton, Flora Virginica, 1739.<br />
+        <i>Juglans alba ovata</i>, Miller, Gard. Dict., 1754.<br />
+        <i>Juglans alba</i>, Linn., Spec. pl., 1754.<br />
+        <i>Juglans alba ovata</i>, Marshall, 1785.<br />
+        <i>Juglans compressa (?)</i>, Willdenow, 1809.<br />
+        <i>Juglans exaltata (?)</i>, Bartram, 1791.<br />
+        <i>Juglans alba</i>, Nuttall, 1818.<br />
+        <i>Juglans</i> var. <i>microcarpa</i>, Nuttall.<br />
+        <i>Juglans squamosa (?)</i>, Lamarck.<br />
+        <i>Juglans ovalis (?)</i>, Wangenheim.<br />
+    </p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Although Clayton, as with most of the earlier botanists,
+    fails to give any description of the foliage of the
+    hickories he mentions, and all have the affix <i>alba</i> (white),
+    yet his reference to the form of the nut and the scaly
+    bark of the tree is sufficient to enable us to identify the
+    species as that of our common shellbark hickory of the
+    Atlantic States, which extends through the regions
+    where he gathered his botanical specimens.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig46.jpg" alt="" height="661" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._46" id="FIG._46">FIG. 46</a>. LEAF AND STERILE CATKINS OF SHELLBARK HICKORY.</span> </div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> <img src="images/fig47.jpg" alt="" title="" height="464" width="350" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._47" id="FIG._47">FIG. 47</a>. WESTERN SHELLBARK.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Big shellbark, thick or Western shellbark,
+    etc.</span> (<i>Hicoria laciniosa.</i> Michaux).&mdash;Leaflets seven to
+    nine, obovate-oblong, finely serrate, roughish-downy or
+    pubescent beneath. Buds large, composed of rather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> loose grayish scales; the young twigs stout, with a gray
+    bark, most noticeable in winter. Fruit large, oval to
+    oblong, usually four-ribbed above the middle, with depressions
+    between; husk
+    thick, somewhat spongy,
+    shrinking at maturity, and
+    splitting open from top downward.
+    Nut large, with prominent
+    ridges, and strongly
+    pointed, but slightly compressed
+    at the sides, as seen
+    in Fig. 47; shell thick and of
+    a dull yellowish color; kernel
+    moderately large, as shown
+    across section of nut in Fig.
+    48, but much smaller in proportion
+    to the size of the nut
+    than in the two preceding
+    species, but it is sweet, well flavored, and easily removed
+    from the shell when cracked. The very large size of
+    these nuts makes them a favorite, especially where the
+    pecan and the true shellbarks are
+    not plentiful. These nuts were
+    formerly known as the Springfield
+    or Gloucester nut. A very large
+    tree, sixty to eighty feet high, and
+    two to four feet in diameter, with
+    thick, scaly bark, the scales somewhat
+    thicker than in the common
+    shellbark hickory of the Atlantic
+    States. A rare tree, except in the
+    valleys west of the Alleghanies,
+    although it is reported to have
+    been found in Chester county, Pennsylvania, and thence
+    west to southern Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, eastern
+    Kansas, and the Indian Territory. Plentiful in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> bottom lands along the Ohio, Mississippi and lower Missouri.
+    Elliott, in &quot;Botany of South Carolina and
+    Georgia&quot; (1824), says it is rare in the low country
+    of Carolina, but he does not say that it is found plentiful
+    anywhere in the South. That he was sometimes in
+    doubt in regard to the identification of this and other
+    species may be inferred from his remark, namely: &quot;The
+    greater part of our hickories resemble each other so
+    closely in their leaves and vary so much in their fruit
+    that it is very difficult to discriminate the species.&quot;</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig48.jpg" alt="" title="" height="263" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._48" id="FIG._48">FIG. 48</a>. SECTION WESTERN SHELLBARK.</span> </div>
+<p>It is this difficulty of identification which has led to
+    so much confusion in the application of the specific
+    names, for the earlier botanists rarely had an opportunity
+    of a close and careful examination of the trees or
+    other plants which they attempted to describe. In relation
+    to the species under consideration, we find that the
+    specific name of <i>sulcata</i>, so long in use, was adopted by
+    Nuttall, from some earlier or contemporaneous author,&mdash;a
+    system he followed with all the different species of
+    the hickory, but without, in some instances, any discrimination
+    or regard to their adaptation or validity.
+    If there was anything to show that Willdenow (1796)
+    had this Western shellbark in mind, or that he or his
+    correspondents in this country had ever seen or collected
+    it, then we might adopt the name of <i>sulcata</i> as the original
+    and true one; but in the absence of such information,
+    with a full and accurate description of the species
+    and its habitats by Michaux, under the name of <i>laciniosa</i>,
+    I think, in common justice to one of the most eminent
+    dendrologists who ever visited this country, the name
+    given should stand as the true one for this species. See
+    Michaux, &quot;North American Sylva,&quot; Vol. I, p. 128.</p>
+<p>Synonyms:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p><i>Juglans sulcata (?)</i>, Willdenow, 1796.<br />
+        <i>Juglans laciniosa</i>, Michaux, 1810.<br />
+        <i>Carya sulcata</i>, Nuttall, 1818.<br />
+        <i>Carya cordiformis</i>, Koch, Dendrologie.<br />
+    </p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p>
+<p>The three preceding species are probably the only
+    ones worthy of propagation for their fruit, or that have
+    and are likely to yield varieties of any considerable economic
+    value; but as it is important that the nut culturist
+    should know the materials he is using, and whether
+    they be of the best or otherwise, I shall admit all the
+    species, without regard to their merits or value for
+    cultivation.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Mocker nut, bull nut, big-bud hickory, king
+    nut, white-heart hickory, etc.</span> (<i>Hicoria tomentosa.</i> Michaux).&mdash;Leaflets mostly seven, occasionally nine,
+    large, oblong-obovate, rather long pointed, slightly serrate,
+    smooth on both sides while young, becoming roughish
+    downy underneath when fully developed in summer;
+    leaf-stalks and catkins also somewhat downy. Fruit
+    medium to very large, round or ovoid, with a very thick
+    woody husk, which splits nearly or quite down to the
+    base, but usually falling with the enclosed nut entire, or
+    bursting open as they strike the ground. Nut very
+    thick shelled, smooth, or strongly four to six angled,
+    white at first, but becoming a dull brown when exposed
+    to the light. The kernel is sweet, but so small and
+    firmly imbedded in the thick shell that it is only to be
+    removed in minute sections, but this is successfully accomplished
+    by the squirrels, who often throw down the
+    entire crop from large trees before the shells harden,
+    and then pack them away in the ground, in old logs,
+    and under the leaves, where they will not dry for some
+    weeks or months later. An exceedingly variable species,
+    especially in the size and form of the nuts; on some
+    trees they are scarcely an inch in diameter, while on
+    others they are nearly or quite two inches, but always
+    with such a thick, hard shell as to be nearly worthless
+    for their meats. The largest of these nuts I have ever
+    seen grow in central and western New York, where
+    they are called &quot;King&quot; or &quot;Bull&quot; nuts.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig49.jpg" alt="" height="680" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._49" id="FIG._49">FIG. 49</a>. LEAF OF PIGNUT.</span> </div>
+<p>The trees grow to a very large size, or from sixty to
+    eighty feet high, and two to three feet in diameter, with
+    a thick, deeply furrowed bark, not scaly. The wood is
+    white, heavy, tough, and nearly as valuable as the common
+    shellbark hickory. The terminal buds, and especially
+    those on the young seedlings and suckers springing
+    up in clearings, are very large, round, short, and
+    covered with brownish scales, hence one of the local
+    names of big-bud hickory.</p>
+<p>A widely distributed species, or from the valley of
+    the St. Lawrence to Florida, and along the great lakes
+    to Nebraska, and thence southward to Texas. Unlike
+    most of the other hickories, this species seems to prefer
+    thin soils, rocky sandstone ridges, and here in New Jersey
+    almost disappearing in the rich bottom lands along
+    our creeks and rivers; at least, this is its habit here in
+    the northern part of the State.</p>
+<p>Synonyms:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p><i>Juglans alba (?)</i>, Linn., 1754.<br />
+        <i>Juglans tomentosa</i>, Michaux, 1810.<br />
+        <i>Carya tomentosa</i>, Nuttall, 1818.<br />
+        <i>Carya tomentosa</i> var. <i>maxima</i>, Nuttall.<br />
+        <i>Carya alba</i>, Koch, Dendrologie.<br />
+    </p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><span class="smcap">Pignut, hognut, brown hickory, black hickory,
+    switch-bud hickory</span> (<i>Hicoria glabra.</i> Miller).&mdash;Leaflets
+    five to seven, mostly seven (Fig. 49),
+    ovate-lanceolate, serrate, smooth; fruit pear-shaped or
+    roundish-obovate; husk very thin, splitting about half
+    way down into four sections or valves, these usually remaining
+    attached to the nut for some time after falling,
+    in fact, may often be found within the husk all through
+    the winter; shell of nut moderately thin but tough,
+    with a small, bitterish-sweet kernel. A large, rather
+    slender tree in similar and same localities as the last,
+    with a close bark but not so deeply furrowed as in the
+    mocker nut (<i>H. tomentosa</i>). Of no special value except<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a><br />
+    <a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> as a timber tree, and its slow growth makes it less deserving
+    of attention than those species that bear large
+    and edible nuts.</p>
+<p>Synonyms:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p><i>Juglans glabra</i>, Miller, 1768.<br />
+        <i>Juglans alba acuminata</i>, Marshall, 1785.<br />
+        <i>Juglans obcordata</i>, Lamarck.<br />
+        <i>Juglans porcina</i>, Michaux.<br />
+        <i>Juglans pyriformis</i>, Muhlenberg.<br />
+        <i>Juglans porcina</i>, var. <i>obcordata</i>, Pursh.<br />
+        <i>Juglans porcina</i>, var. <i>pyriformis</i>, Pursh.<br />
+        <i>Carya porcina</i>, Nuttall.<br />
+        <i>Carya glabra</i>, Torrey.<br />
+        <i>Carya amara</i>, var. <i>porcina</i>, Darby.<br />
+    </p>
+</blockquote>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 298px;"> <img src="images/fig50.jpg" alt="" height="600" width="298" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._50" id="FIG._50">FIG. 50</a>.  BITTERNUT.</span> </div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> <img src="images/fig51.jpg" alt="" title="" height="196" width="150" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._51" id="FIG._51">FIG. 51</a>. BITTERNUT.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Bitternut, swamp hickory, pignut</span> (<i>Hicoria
+    minima.</i> Marshall).&mdash;Leaflets seven to eleven, oblong-lanceolate,
+    serrate, smooth and thin; fruit globular,
+    with distinct ridges at the seams (Fig.
+    50); the husk very thin, and at maturity
+    splitting about halfway to the
+    base, the four divisions becoming reflexed
+    in maturing, but not separating and
+    falling apart as in the thicker-husk species.
+    Nut broadest at the top, sharp-pointed,
+    obcordata (Fig. 51), slightly
+    depressed; shell very thin, smooth, white; kernel intensely
+    bitter when fully ripe, but greedily eaten by
+    squirrels when fresh or in a half milky state. Usually a
+    medium-sized, graceful tree, with smooth bark, slender
+    twigs, and small, oblong buds covered with a dense yellow
+    pubescence in winter. It grows in moist soils, along
+    streams and borders of swamps, and near springs on
+    hill-sides, from Maine to Florida, and westward to Minnesota,
+    Nebraska and Kansas. Humphrey Marshall described
+    this species so accurately in his &quot;American
+    Grove,&quot; under the name of <i>Juglans minima</i>, p. 68, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> there is no good reason to doubt its identity, nor question
+    the validity of this name, which should remain as the
+    true and original one, and all others of later date be
+    placed among the synonyms.</p>
+<p>&nbsp; </p>
+<p>Synonyms:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p><i>Juglans</i> (<i>alba</i>) <i>minima</i>, Marshall, 1785.<br />
+        <i>Juglans cordiformis</i>, Wangenheim, 1787.<br />
+        <i>Juglans angustifolia</i>, Lamarck, 1791.<br />
+        <i>Juglans amara</i>, Michaux, 1810.<br />
+        <i>Hickorius amarus</i>, Rafinesque, 1817.<br />
+        <i>Carya amara</i>, Nuttall, 1818.<br />
+    </p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><span class="smcap">Nutmeg hickory</span> (<i>Hicoria myristicæformis.</i> Michaux).&mdash;Leaflets
+    five to seven, ovate-lanceolate, pointed,
+    quite smooth on both sides, the terminal leaflet sessile,
+    not stalked; fruit oval; husk wrinkled and rough,
+    thick; nut small, oval, short-pointed; the shell furrowed
+    and very hard, and of a brownish color marked with
+    white lines. Michaux says: &quot;The shell is so thick that
+    it constitutes two-thirds of the volume of the nut, which,
+    consequently, is extremely hard, and has a minute kernel.
+    It is inferior to the pignut.&quot;</p>
+<p>A medium-size tree with slender branches, found in
+    a few localities in South Carolina, near swamps and borders
+    of streams, and westward to Arkansas, where it
+    reaches its greatest development. This hickory has
+    been so rarely seen by botanists that Michaux's specific
+    name, given it more than eighty years ago, has fared a
+    better fate than those of our more common and abundant
+    species; consequently, I have only one synonym to record,
+    viz.: <i>Carya amara</i>, var. <i>myristicæformis</i>, Cooper,
+    in Smithsonian Report, 1858.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;"> <img src="images/fig52.jpg" alt="" title="" height="267" width="150" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._52" id="FIG._52">FIG. 52</a>. LARGE, LONG PECAN NUT.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Water hickory, swamp hickory, bitter pecan</span> (<i>Hicoria aquatica.</i> Michaux).&mdash;Leaflets nine to
+    thirteen, generally eleven, narrow and obliquely lanceolate-pointed,
+    slightly serrate, thin and smooth; fruit
+    globular or somewhat egg-shaped, four-ribbed; husk<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> thin, dividing at maturity down to the base; nut thin-shelled,
+    four-angled; kernel much wrinkled and very
+    bitter. This is closely allied to if not a more Southern
+    form of our common bitternut. A small tree in swamps
+    and river bottoms from North Carolina south to Florida,
+    and west to Texas.</p><div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> <img src="images/fig53.jpg" alt="" title="" height="236" width="150" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._53" id="FIG._53">FIG. 53</a>. OVAL PECAN NUT.</span> </div>
+<p>Synonyms:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p><i>Juglans aquatica</i>, Michaux.<br />
+        <i>Hicorius integrifolia</i>, Rafinesque.<br />
+        <i>Carya aquatica</i>, Nuttall.<br />
+        <i>Carya integrifolia</i>, Sprengel.<br />
+    </p>
+</blockquote>
+
+
+<p><strong>Varieties of the Hickories.</strong>&mdash;Every one who
+    has ever had occasion to gather or examine hickory nuts
+    in the forest, or has seen them in market, must be aware
+    of the fact that there is an almost endless variety of each
+    and all the different species. But as it
+    is only the varieties of the pecan and
+    thick- and thin-shelled shagbark hickories
+    that are likely to be of any economic
+    value to the nut culturist,
+    all others will be omitted.
+    Of the first or pecan
+    nut the natural varieties
+    are not only exceedingly
+    numerous, but vary widely
+    in size, form, thickness
+    of shell, and productiveness
+    of the individual
+    trees. In some the nuts
+    are produced singly or in pairs, and from this number
+    up to clusters of seven or eight; these large-clustered
+    and extra-prolific varieties are most worthy of special
+    attention, especially when the nuts are of good size and
+    thin-shelled, as in the large, long pecan (Fig. 52). From
+    this size they vary, as shown in Figs. 53, 54, 55. Some
+    of the wild varieties have received local names, and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> very few propagated by grafting, which is probably the
+    most practical means known of multiplying them, and
+    at the same time preserving their varietal characteristics.
+    Choice and extra fine ones are constantly being discovered
+    and brought to notice, and doubtless many more
+    will follow as the old fields and
+    forests of the South and West are
+    explored; besides, there are many
+    thousands of seedling trees now
+    under cultivation, and from these
+    we may expect some marked variations
+    from the original or wild
+    forms. In Bulletin 105, of the
+    North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station for
+    1894, and in Report of Assistant Pomologist of U. S.
+    Department of Agriculture for same year, we find the
+    following-named varieties of pecans:</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> <img src="images/fig54.jpg" alt="" title="" height="218" width="150" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._54" id="FIG._54">FIG. 54</a>. SMALL OVAL.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Alba.</span>&mdash;Size below medium, cylindrical, with
+    pointed apex; cracking qualities good; shell of medium
+    thickness; corky shell lining thick, adhering to the kernel;
+    kernel plump, light colored; quality good.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Biloxi</span> (W. R. Stuart, Ocean Springs, Miss.).&mdash;Medium
+    size, cylindrical, pointed at each end; surface
+    quite regular, light brown; shell thin; cracking qualities
+    medium; kernel plump, with yellowish-brown surface;
+    free from astringency, of good quality, and keeps
+    well without becoming rancid. Introduced several years
+    ago by W. R. Stuart as Mexican Paper Shell, but the
+    name has since been changed to Biloxi.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Columbian</span> (W. R. Stuart, Ocean Springs, Miss.).&mdash;Large,
+    cylindrical, somewhat compressed at the middle,
+    rounding at the base; pointed and somewhat four-sided
+    at the crown; shell rather heavy; cracking qualities
+    medium; quality good. In size and form this nut
+    closely resembles Mammoth, which was introduced in
+    1890 by Richard Frotscher, of New Orleans, La.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Early Texan</span> (Louis Biediger, Idlewild, Tex.).&mdash;Size
+    above medium, short, cylindrical, with rounded
+    base and blunt conical crown; shell quite thick, shell
+    lining thick, astringent; cracking qualities medium;
+    kernel not very plump, of mild, nutty flavor; quality
+    good.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Georgia Melon.</span>&mdash;Size above medium, short,
+    rather blunt at apex; cracking quality medium; shell
+    rather thick; kernel plump, brown; meat yellow, moderately
+    tender, pleasant, good.</p>
+  <div class="figright" style="width: 130px;"> <img src="images/fig55.jpg" alt="" title="" height="200" width="130" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._55" id="FIG._55">FIG. 55</a>. LITTLE MOBILE.</span> </div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gonzales</span> (T. V. Munson, Denison, Tex.).&mdash;Above
+    medium size, with firm, clear shell; quality excellent.
+    Originated in Gonzales county, Tex.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Harcourt.</span>&mdash;Size medium, short, slightly acorn-shaped;
+    cracking qualities medium; shell rather thick,
+    but very smooth inside; kernel short, very plump; meat
+    yellow, very tender, rich, very good.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Longfellow.</span>&mdash;Size medium, oblong, cylindrical,
+    somewhat irregular, enlarging from base to near crown,
+    then sharply conical to the apex; cracking qualities not
+    first-class; shell of medium thickness; kernel plump
+    but rather thin, light-colored; meat white, sweetish,
+    rich, good.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Primate</span> (W. R. Stuart, Ocean Springs, Miss.)&mdash;Of
+    medium size, slender, rather long; shell thin; quality
+    good; ripens in September, thirty days before other
+    nuts.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Ribera.</span>&mdash;Size above medium, oblong ovate; cracking
+    qualities good; shell thin; kernel plump, light
+    brown, free from the bitter, red, corky growth which
+    adheres to the shell; meat yellow, tender, with rich,
+    delicate, pleasant flavor.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Faust.</span>&mdash;A South Carolina variety of medium to
+    large size, medium shell and good quality.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Frotscher.</span>&mdash;A Louisiana variety of large size, very
+    thin shell, and plump kernel of good quality.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Jewett.</span>&mdash;From Mississippi; a large, long nut,
+    rather irregular; shell medium; quality very good.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig56.jpg" alt="" title="" height="333" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._56" id="FIG._56">FIG. 56</a>. STUART.</span> </div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig57.jpg" alt="" title="" height="379" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._57" id="FIG._57">FIG. 57</a>. VAN DEMAN.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Stuart.</span>&mdash;A large, roundish, oblong nut from Mississippi
+    (Fig. 56).</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Turkey Egg.</span>&mdash;A
+    variety from Florida;
+    large and thin-shelled.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Van Deman.</span>&mdash;A
+    large variety from Mississippi,
+    of oblong form
+    and thin shell (Fig. 57).</p>
+<p>From other sources
+    we collect other names,
+    namely:</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Idlewild.</span>&mdash;An oval
+    shaped nut from Idlewild,
+    Texas. Report of
+    U. S. Department of
+    Agriculture, 1890.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Risien.</span>&mdash;A very broad, thick variety, about one
+    inch in diameter, very blunt at both ends. From San
+    Saba, Texas (Fig. 58).</p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig58.jpg" alt="" title="" height="324" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._58" id="FIG._58">FIG. 58</a>. RISIEN.</span> </div>
+<p>A peculiar shaped
+    pecan nut is shown in
+    Fig. 59, from Louisiana,
+    sent under the name of
+    Lady Finger.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig59.jpg" alt="" title="" height="374" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._59" id="FIG._59">FIG. 59</a>. LADY FINGER.</span> </div>
+<p>From the report of
+    the Georgia State Horticultural
+    Society, 1893, we
+    obtain certain local names
+    without description, as,
+    for instance, Turkey Egg,
+    Mexican, Colorado, Pride
+    of the Coast, etc. Col. W. R. Stuart, of Ocean Springs,
+    Miss., who has been called the &quot;father of pecan culture&quot;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> in that State, and is the author of &quot;The Pecan and
+    How to Grow it,&quot; adds two more varieties to the above
+    list, viz.: Beauty and Columbia; the latter, as figured
+    in the book named, is a very large variety, tapering
+    from a broad base to a sharp point. Judge Samuel Miller,
+    of Bluffton, Mo., found some very large and fine
+    varieties of the pecan in his neighborhood several years
+    ago, on the farm of a man named Meyers, and he purchased
+    the nuts from the tree bearing the largest in
+    the grove and planted them, and the seedlings have
+    since been distributed under the name of &quot;Meyers'
+    Pecan.&quot;</p>
+<p>Judge Miller kindly sent me a quantity of these
+    nuts, from which I raised some fifty or more trees, and
+    all have thus far been uninjured by the cold of our severest
+    winters. From my own experience in raising pecan
+    trees, and I may add, that of some of my neighbors,
+    those grown from nuts gathered in the more Southern
+    States are almost invariably tender here in the North;
+    but those raised from thoroughly acclimated trees, along
+    the northern limits of this species, will give us a hardy
+    race, and probably allow of extending their cultivation
+    far north of their natural range. Those who intend to
+    try pecan culture in the Northern States should bear
+    this in mind, and secure nuts and cions from hardy acclimated
+    trees.</p>
+<p><strong>Varieties of the Shellbark.</strong>&mdash;Of this species
+    (<i>H. alba</i>) there are as many distinct natural varieties as
+    of the pecan, and while local or neighborhood names are
+    plentiful enough, they have not, except in a very few
+    instances, been placed on record in agricultural reports
+    or other publications. Three small thin-shelled varieties
+    are named in the Report of the Pomologist of the U. S.
+    Department of Agriculture for 1891, viz.: Milford,
+    Shimar and Leaming, but neither has been propagated,
+    and they are probably not worthy of it, because there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a><br />
+    <a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> are plenty of larger ones with thin shells which would
+    be far more valuable for cultivation.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 392px;"> <img src="images/fig60.jpg" alt="" height="600" width="392" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._60" id="FIG._60">FIG. 60</a>. THE ORIGINAL HALES' PAPER-SHELL HICKORY TREE.</span> </div>
+<p>A careful research extending over a period of a
+    quarter of a century yields only a solitary instance of
+    the propagation and dissemination of a variety of the
+    shellbark hickory, and this one is Hales' Paper-shell,
+    which I named, described and figured in the <i>Rural New-Yorker</i>,
+    Nov. 19, 1870, p. 382, Vol. XXII. I am thus
+    particular in regard to time and place, because years
+    hence these facts may be of more importance than at
+    the present day.</p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> <img src="images/fig61.jpg" alt="" title="" height="308" width="250" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._61" id="FIG._61">FIG. 61</a>. HALES' HICKORY.</span> </div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 220px;"> <img src="images/fig62.jpg" alt="" title="" height="328" width="220" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._62" id="FIG._62">FIG. 62</a>. SECTION OF HALES' HICKORY.</span> </div>
+<p>The original tree of this remarkable variety is growing
+    upon the farm of Mr. Henry Hales, near Ridgewood,
+    N. J., and on bottom land within a few rods of the
+    Saddle river. The tree is probably more than a hundred
+    years old, and is about seventy-five feet high, and
+    nearly two feet in diameter at the base, and of the shape
+    shown in Fig. 60, taken from a sketch made in the fall
+    of 1894. There
+    are a large number
+    of the shellbark
+    hickories growing
+    near by, and while
+    there are several
+    excellent and very
+    large varieties
+    among them, the
+    one I have named
+    is by far the largest and most distinct in form, and with
+    the thinnest shell; in fact, the shell is much thinner
+    than in many of the pecan nuts that reach our Northern
+    markets from the South. The size and form of these
+    nuts is clearly shown in Fig. 61, while the thin shell and
+    thick, plump kernel is seen in the cross-section, Fig. 62.
+    It will be noticed that these nuts differ from the ordinary
+    varieties of this species in the absence of the sharp<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> ridges and depressions running from base to point, the
+    surface of the shell being broken up into irregular, wavy
+    lines, somewhat resembling the shell of the more common
+    varieties of the Persian walnuts. I have occasionally
+    seen very similar varieties,&mdash;but
+    of smaller size,&mdash;among the mixed lots
+    of hickory nuts on sale in our city
+    markets, also oblong nuts, as shown
+    in Fig. 63, but of course there is no
+    way of tracing these to the trees producing
+    them.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 230px;"> <img src="images/fig63.jpg" alt="" height="368" width="230" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._63" id="FIG._63">FIG. 63</a>. LONG SHELLBARK HICKORY.</span> </div>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 260px;"> <img src="images/fig64.jpg" alt="" height="345" width="260" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._64" id="FIG._64">FIG. 64</a>. SHELLBARK MISSOURI.</span> </div>
+<p>Another merit, in addition to the
+    large size and thin shell of the Hales'
+    Paper-shell, is its keeping qualities,
+    the kernels rarely becoming rancid,
+    even when two or more years old, and
+    from a long acquaintance with this
+    nut and hundreds of other varieties gathered from all
+    parts of the United States, I am inclined to place it at
+    the head of the list, and as the most valuable sort as yet
+    discovered. It is true, however,
+    that I have found in the forests,
+    and also received, many very large
+    and superior nuts of this species,
+    that are well worthy of propagation
+    and cultivation, but they have
+    been, in the main, of the typical
+    form, and not of so distinct a type
+    as this Paper-shell. Judge Miller
+    sent me a few nuts of a shellbark
+    found in Missouri, that were even
+    larger, and with fully as thin shell
+    as that of the Hales' (Fig. 64), but upon making
+    further inquiries in regard to the tree that produced
+    them, I learned that an incoming railroad line had
+    destroyed it, and thus one more tree of inestimable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> value had been sacrificed in the march of this progressive
+    age.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig65.jpg" alt="" title="" height="440" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._65" id="FIG._65">FIG. 65</a>. LONG WESTERN SHELLBARK.</span> </div>
+<p><strong>Varieties of the Western Shellbark.</strong>&mdash;The
+    typical form of the thick or Western shellbark (<i>H. laciniosa</i>)
+    has already been shown on a preceding page,
+    but some remarkable and valuable varieties have been
+    found in the Western States, and no doubt others will
+    be, when more attention is paid than at present to the
+    natural food products of our forests. The tendency of
+    this species, in its variations, is usually in the direction
+    of an elongation of the nuts,
+    even when there is no decrease
+    in the thickness of the shell,
+    as shown in Fig. 65, taken
+    from one of a number of long
+    varieties collected in the Western
+    States; and while they do
+    not possess any special merit,
+    they attract attention, owing
+    to their unusual form.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig66.jpg" alt="" height="832" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._66" id="FIG._66">FIG. 66</a>. FRESH NUSSBAUMER HYBRID.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Nussbaumer's Hybrid.</span>&mdash;Several
+    years ago I received
+    a specimen of a very remarkable
+    nut from Judge Samuel
+    Miller, of Bluffton, Mo., under
+    the name of &quot;Nussbaumer's
+    Hybrid Pecan.&quot; Judge Miller informed me that he
+    had received it from Mr. J. J. Nussbaumer, Mascoutah,
+    St. Clair Co., Ill., who claimed that it was a hybrid
+    between the pecan and the large western shellbark hickory
+    (<i>H. laciniosa</i>). I had an illustration made of this
+    specimen, and it appeared, with a brief description, in
+    the <i>American Agriculturist</i> for Dec., 1884, p. 546.
+    Soon after receiving the specimen nut from Judge Miller
+    I opened correspondence with Mr. Nussbaumer, and
+    learned from him that only one tree bearing such nuts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a><br />
+    <a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> had ever been found, and this was of large size, six and
+    a half feet in circumference, and about fifty feet high,
+    the bark somewhat like that of the hickory but nearer
+    the pecan. Mr. Nussbaumer sent me specimens of the
+    green nuts with leaves and twigs, from the original tree.
+    The nuts, however, of that season (1884), were badly
+    infested with the &quot;hickory-shuck worm&quot; (<i>Grapholitha
+    caryana</i>, Fitch), and these had so ruined the shucks,
+    and even eaten into the shells of the nuts, that few of
+    the specimens received were fully developed. But from
+    two nuts I had a sketch made while they were fresh and
+    of natural size, as shown in Fig.
+    66, the dark, irregular marks on
+    the husks showing where the
+    shuck worm had attacked them.
+    One of these nuts is shown in Fig.
+    67, also natural size. I planted
+    one of the nuts, from which I now
+    have a tree about ten feet high,
+    but although ten years old it has
+    not fruited, and, so far as I can
+    judge from its appearance, is a
+    pure Western shellbark, with no
+    indication of hybridity; but of
+    course this does not prove that
+    the original or parent tree is not
+    a hybrid, as claimed by Mr. Nussbaumer, Judge Miller,
+    and, if I am rightly informed, Prof. T. J. Burrill, of
+    the University of Illinois.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 260px;"> <img src="images/fig67.jpg" alt="" title="" height="411" width="260" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._67" id="FIG._67">FIG. 67</a>. NUSSBAUMER'S HYBRID.</span> </div>
+<p>However widely opinions may differ in regard to
+    the origin of this variety, it is certainly a most remarkable
+    nut, and I regret that the exact location of the
+    original tree has entirely escaped my most careful seeking;
+    and of late years I have been unable to learn anything
+    of Mr. Nussbaumer, further than that he had
+    moved from Mascoutah to Okawville, Ill., the last letter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> received from him being dated Dec. 13, 1887. In one
+    of his letters he said that he had raised a large number
+    of seedlings from this supposed hybrid, and if these are
+    still alive they would be of much scientific interest, especially
+    if any of them showed the distinct characteristics
+    of either of the supposed parents.</p>
+<p>It would certainly be a pity to have such a remarkable
+    nut lost to the world, because if propagated by
+    grafting or by any other mode to insure perpetuating its
+    varietal characteristics, its value could scarcely be estimated.
+    The nuts are as thin-shelled as the common
+    pecan, the kernel sweet and good, and in addition, the
+    tree is a native of a northern State, and would, no
+    doubt, prove as hardy as our common shellbark hickories.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">The Floyd pecan.</span>&mdash;This is another supposed-to-be
+    hybrid, and of the same species of hickory as the
+    last; but the one nut which I received differed from
+    the Nussbaumer by being somewhat larger, and the shell
+    with more prominent ridges and a little thicker. It
+    was said to have been found somewhere in southern Indiana
+    by a Mr. Floyd, who, believing it to be of great
+    value, refused to give any information likely to aid any
+    one else to locate the original tree, neither would he
+    part with any of the nuts except the one specimen which
+    eventually came into my hands. Of course all horticulturists
+    know that seedlings raised from such freaks
+    among nut trees are far too uncertain to be of much
+    value, but ignorance in such matters often leads the
+    possessor of an article slightly differing from the ordinary
+    to permit his imagination to warp his good sense.</p>
+<p><strong>Cultivation of the Hickories.</strong>&mdash;The hickories
+    have been so seldom planted in our Northern States for
+    any purpose, that anything like a systematic cultivation
+    of these trees is a thing almost unknown. Of course
+    there is no good reason why the hickories should not be
+    multiplied and cultivated as well as other kinds of trees,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> but in some unknown way the idea became prevalent
+    that these trees could not be transplanted with any assurance
+    of success, and this has been kept alive, either
+    through ignorance or by those whose interest led them
+    to encourage the planting of the rapid-growing and
+    easily propagated kinds, instead of those which, though
+    less profitable to the producer, would be of far greater
+    value to the purchaser. It must be admitted, however,
+    that the hickories are not so tenacious of life as the
+    willows, poplars, elms and similar kinds of trees, requiring
+    more care in their cultivation if they are to be transplanted
+    when of a proper size for setting along roadsides
+    or elsewhere, for shade and ornament, but they are certainly
+    no more difficult to make live than the beech, oak,
+    tulip and various species of the magnolia.</p>
+<p>The slow growth of the hickories while young is
+    another objection often urged as a fault of these trees,
+    but there is nothing lost but time in waiting, and this
+    passes just as swiftly whether we plant trees that may in
+    ten years yield a golden harvest, or nothing but leaves;
+    besides, the hickories respond as readily to stimulants
+    and good care generally as the common fruit trees of our
+    orchards. While the farmers of our Northern States
+    are generally quite indifferent as to what becomes of
+    their old hickory trees, and seldom attempt to preserve
+    the wild seedlings that spring up in the fields and on
+    the borders of forests, their fellow countrymen of the
+    Southern States have, within the past two or three
+    decades, discovered that they possess an inexhaustible
+    source of wealth in their common pecan nut. Formerly
+    these trees were sacrificed whenever a choice piece of
+    tough timber was wanted, and often merely to secure
+    the entire crop of nuts without waiting for nature to
+    drop them within reach; but the advent of many lines
+    of railroads, steamboats, and other means of communication
+    with the great cities and their markets, has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> changed this inclination to destroy into one of preservation.
+    The old pecan trees are not only appreciated as a
+    source of income, but thousands and tens of thousands
+    of seedlings are now annually raised and planted, to
+    insure larger returns in the near or distant future. In
+    fact, pecan culture has already become an important
+    industry in several of the Southern States, although in
+    point of age it is little more than a fledgling. We have
+    no statistics to show what the annual crop averages in
+    pounds or bushels, but it must be something enormous
+    if we make our estimate from the quantities received
+    and distributed in the Northern States. But with all
+    the efforts put forth to secure a supply of these nuts,
+    and the high prices they command at both wholesale
+    and retail, the demand seems to keep well in advance of
+    the supply, and this will, in all probability, continue as
+    our population increases. In the way of demand, the
+    same is true with our northern species of the shellbark
+    hickories, which were formerly very abundant, but of
+    late years have become rather scarce, for reasons too
+    obvious to call for any explanation at this time.</p>
+<p>In selecting a location for planting and cultivating
+    the hickories, including the pecan, a moist, deep soil is
+    certainly preferable to any other, especially for the three
+    species and their varieties most promising for this purpose,
+    because we find them growing wild in such situations
+    and soils. But while these naturally deep, rich
+    and moist soils are to be preferred, no one need hesitate
+    to plant hickories on light, dry, and even poor soils, if
+    they are properly enriched, or a few shovelfuls of fine
+    old stable manure is thoroughly mixed with the earth in
+    which the roots are set, and then a mulch applied to
+    the surface to keep the soil moist. Almost any old
+    waste fibrous material, such as leaves, straw, hay, weeds
+    or coarse manure, will answer for mulching newly planted
+    trees, and it should be applied to a depth of three or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> four inches, and renewed annually, or as often as necessary
+    to prevent the growth of grass or weeds growing
+    within three or four feet of the stem of the tree. In all
+    dry climates and soils mulching should be considered an
+    important operation, not to be omitted until the trees
+    are from six to ten years old, and it may usually be continued
+    a longer time with benefit.</p>
+<p><strong>Propagation.</strong>&mdash;All the species of the hickory are
+    very readily grown from nuts gathered when ripe and
+    planted within a few weeks; or they may be mixed with
+    or stratified between layers of sand and light soil and
+    buried in the open ground for the winter, and the planting
+    deferred until the following spring. They are not
+    at all delicate and will withstand considerable drying
+    and neglect, and will grow, if stored in a cool cellar,
+    without being packed in either soil, sand or other material.
+    But as I have had no occasion to determine how
+    much neglect these nuts will withstand, nor to what
+    extremes of adverse conditions it is safe to subject them,
+    I shall leave investigation in this direction to others,
+    because in general practice no valuable seed or plant
+    grows any too readily and freely to satisfy the cultivator,
+    and for this reason I recommend either planting hickory
+    nuts in the fall, or burying them between layers of light
+    soil or sand, sifting out and planting early the following
+    spring. If any considerable quantity is to be
+    planted they should be dropped three or four inches
+    apart in shallow trenches and covered about two inches
+    deep. The distance between the rows may be from two
+    to three feet, depending upon the implements to be used
+    in their cultivation.</p>
+<p>The soil for a seedbed should, of course, be made
+    rich and deep, or the same as recommended for chestnuts,
+    and all the means usually employed to assist the
+    growth of cultivated plants are applicable to nut trees.
+    I may also add that cutworms, white grubs and other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> noxious insects are enemies of nut-tree seedlings as well
+    as garden vegetables. The seedling hickories should
+    be treated as advised for chestnuts; that is, dug up
+    when one or, at the latest, two years old, and their
+    central or taproot shortened to at least one-half their
+    original length, and then reset in nursery rows, and at
+    a distance of twelve to fifteen inches apart in the row.
+    If grown in ordinary upland, the transplanted seedlings
+    will make a better growth if heavily mulched than under
+    the usual system of clean cultivation, and it is usually
+    less expensive; besides, by keeping the surface of
+    the soil cool and moist, we encourage and assist the production
+    of fibrous lateral roots, which, as a rule, are
+    none too abundant on seedling hickories, no matter
+    under what conditions or system of cultivation they
+    are raised.</p>
+<p>When the seedlings have grown in the nursery rows
+    two or three years, they will probably be large enough
+    for planting where they are to remain permanently; but
+    if, for any reason, they are not disposed of, then they
+    should be again transplanted,&mdash;the larger roots shortened,&mdash;and
+    re-set in good rich soil. The object of transplanting
+    is to insure the production of small fibrous
+    roots, and a frequent renewal of the same, close to the
+    main stem or stock, as long as the trees remain in the
+    nursery, whether this be two or twenty years. This
+    is somewhat of an expensive operation, but the value of
+    stock thus handled is enhanced far more than the cost
+    of such transplanting, and purchasers are, or at least
+    should be, willing to pay a fair price for such trees.</p>
+<p>It is the natural habit of the hickories, as well as
+    many other kinds of deciduous trees, to produce in their
+    earlier stages of growth rather large, deeply penetrating,
+    naked roots, with few small fibers, and in this condition
+    they are not so readily and successfully transplanted as
+    the kinds possessing a more ramified root system. This,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> perhaps, has misled many persons to believe that certain
+    kinds of trees, like the hickories, could not be moved at
+    all, or at least not with any assurance of being made to
+    live. This idea has become so prevalent among inexperienced
+    cultivators, and, I regret to add, often reiterated
+    by theorists, that it has discouraged many who
+    otherwise would have raised and planted nut trees in
+    preference to other kinds.</p>
+<p>Admitting that it is the general habit of most kinds
+    of forest trees to produce deeply penetrating taproots,
+    when grown from seed, it proves nothing more than
+    that these parts may be of some importance to the plants
+    while they are young, and under natural conditions, yet
+    they are not absolutely necessary, and, at most, are only
+    temporary organs, like the tails of tadpoles, always disappearing
+    with maturity.</p>
+<p>Any one at all observing, and having had an opportunity
+    of examining limited or extended areas of forest
+    trees thrown over by hurricanes, must have noticed that
+    no tree of any considerable size and age possessed a taproot,
+    but had been for years kept in its upright position
+    by lateral brace-roots, and through these it had also
+    obtained nutriment from the surface soil. Some of my
+    correspondents in the South have expressed their surprise
+    at not finding any trace of the original central
+    roots on old pecan trees, when blown over by severe
+    wind storms. But it is the same everywhere with forest
+    trees and where the soil is naturally loose and moist:
+    the principal or supporting roots spread out widely and
+    remain near the surface, and the central roots or taproots
+    disappear much earlier than in dry soils.</p>
+<p>In multiplying trees under artificial conditions, we
+    remove the taproots, not only for convenience in transplanting,
+    but also to hasten and increase the production
+    of surface lateral roots, and more than this, we lessen
+    the years of luxuriant sterility, securing earlier fruiting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> by such operations as root pruning and frequent
+    transplanting.</p>
+<p><strong>Budding and Grafting.</strong>&mdash;I have never known of
+    an instance of successful budding of the hickory, at least
+    in the ordinary way during the summer months. What
+    is called &quot;annular budding&quot; in early spring with buds
+    of the previous season, is said to have been successfully
+    practiced with the pecan at the South, but this mode of
+    propagation is more of the nature of grafting than of
+    what is usually understood as budding. But I have
+    been unable to obtain any statistics in regard to the proportion
+    of buds that any propagator or experimenter has
+    made live by this or other modes of propagation. Col.
+    Stuart says, in &quot;The Pecan,&quot; p. 45, &quot;There is a method
+    known as 'annular budding,' which proves quite successful.&quot;
+    He then proceeds to describe the operation,
+    as given in all works on the propagation of trees and
+    plants during the past hundred years or more, but not a
+    word to indicate what he considers a &quot;success,&quot;&mdash;whether
+    it be once or fifty times in a hundred, or if he
+    ever succeeded in making an annular bud unite to the
+    stock; I am more inclined to think that he never did,
+    than otherwise.</p>
+<p>In Bulletin No. 105, &quot;Nut Culture for North Carolina,&quot;
+    issued from the N. C. State Experiment Station,
+    1894, Mr. W. A. Taylor, Assistant Pomologist U. S.
+    Department of Agriculture, in referring to budding and
+    grafting of these trees, says: &quot;These latter operations
+    are less successful with the pecan than most fruit trees,
+    though they are by no means impossible to accomplish.
+    On seedlings one or two years old annular budding in
+    early summer succeeds best.&quot; But here again we are
+    left in doubt in regard to what the writer considers &quot;a
+    success.&quot; Then, again, the line between the &quot;possible&quot;
+    and &quot;impossible,&quot; in horticultural matters, is a rather
+    difficult one to determine, and Mr. Taylor fails to cite a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> single instance in which either annular or any other
+    form of either budding or grafting had been successfully
+    practiced. The Bulletins issued from the Division of
+    Pomology of the Department of Agriculture, give us no
+    information whatever on this subject of propagation of
+    the hickories, further than to repeat the old formulas of
+    annular, splice and cleft grafting; but as to results they
+    have always been provokingly silent.</p>
+<p>Having been repeatedly assured, by men who presumed
+    to know, that the pecan tree was successfully
+    propagated in the South by grafting, and many thousands
+    annually raised in this way, it seems strange that
+    such plants are so rarely offered by nurserymen. Seedlings
+    of choice varieties are, of course, abundant enough,
+    but a man might, with as much propriety, offer seedling
+    Bartlett pears or Baldwin apples, as pecan trees, expecting
+    to perpetuate varieties. In corresponding with Mr.
+    P. J. Berckmans, of the Fruitland Nurseries of Augusta,
+    Ga., whose experience and acquaintance with the fruits
+    of the South are, without doubt, in advance of any other
+    horticulturist of the past or even the present generation,
+    in reply to my request for information on grafting
+    pecans, he writes: &quot;For the past five or six years we
+    have grafted various varieties of the pecan nuts. I do
+    not know of any other nurseryman South who offers
+    grafted trees. I presume the reason of this is, the
+    great difficulty in having the grafts take, as we seldom
+    have more than fifteen to twenty-five per cent. grow.
+    We usually crown graft in February, using one-year-old
+    seedlings grown in nursery rows. Owing to the small
+    percentage of grafts which grow, grafted trees must,
+    necessarily, be quite expensive, and for this reason there
+    are so few attempts made in this method of propagation.&quot;</p>
+<p>Mr. Berckmans makes no reference to annular budding
+    of the pecan, so strongly and frequently recommended
+    by the several writers already quoted, although<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> I am certain that he is as familiar with this mode of
+    propagation as any one else, and would have practiced
+    it had he found it in any way superior to crown grafting.
+    From all that I have been able to learn through a
+    rather extended correspondence, in regard to the propagation
+    of the pecan nut tree in the South, I conclude
+    that they are occasionally and sparingly grafted, but
+    with such indifferent results that they are not at all
+    numerous in either orchards or nurseries.</p>
+<p>From certain remarks of Col. Stuart, in his essay
+    on &quot;Pecan Culture,&quot; I infer that he has sold grafted
+    trees, for he says: </p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;It costs no more to care for the
+        grove of choice trees than of poor ones; then, again, the
+        grafted or budded ones come into profitable bearing
+        three years earlier than seedlings. Here is a case in
+        point: Last November (1892) we paid, in cash, two
+        hundred and forty-eight dollars for the nuts which grew
+        upon one tree, the crop of one year. The tree is twenty
+        inches through at its base, and forty-five feet high; such
+        a size tree would grow in twenty or twenty-five years.
+        Now small nuts from the same size tree will sell for not
+        more than fifteen to twenty dollars. Another tree only
+        ten years old bore thirteen and a half dollars worth.
+        These choice nuts are such as we grow seedlings from;
+        we sell a great many more seedlings than we do grafted
+        or budded trees, simply because they are so much
+        cheaper, and people in general do not realize that such a
+        vast difference exists between the profits of seedling and
+        grafted or budded trees; but such is the case, and such it
+        will always remain for aught we can see.&quot; </p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Soon after I
+    published the description of the Hales' Paper-shell hickory
+    in 1870, requests for cions were received from nurserymen
+    and many amateur horticulturists, who were
+    anxious to try their skill in grafting this excellent variety.
+    Mr. Hales generously responded, and sent cions to
+    a large number of correspondents in various parts of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> country, because he was desirous of having the variety
+    preserved and propagated. During the following ten
+    years the old original tree was kept pretty well pruned,
+    in filling orders for cions; those sent to nurserymen
+    were to be raised on shares, one-half of all the successfully
+    grafted trees to be returned to Mr. Hales. Being
+    a near neighbor, my opportunities for keeping informed
+    as to the result of this arrangement was all that I could
+    desire. To one nursery firm in central New York Mr.
+    Hales sent about one thousand cions per annum for four
+    successive years, and in return received just four feeble
+    grafted plants as his share of the total product of the
+    four thousand cions. But as the four plants received
+    soon died, he closed that account as one of total loss.
+    Previously, however, he had sent a quantity of cions to
+    Mr. J. R. Trumpy, of the Kissena Nurseries, Flushing,
+    N. Y., whose skill as a propagator of ligneous plants is
+    probably second to that of no man in this country; the
+    result proved that our faith in the man was not misplaced,
+    for Mr. Hales received for his share of the experiment
+    something over two dozen grafted trees, and
+    most of these are now handsome specimens ten to twenty
+    feet high. Just what percentage of the cions set were
+    made to unite and grow I have not been informed, but
+    the experiment was, doubtless, rather unsatisfactory as a
+    commercial transaction.</p>
+<p>In addition to the plants sent to Mr. Hales, there
+    have been quite a number distributed among the customers
+    of the nurseries named; consequently, we are
+    pretty well assured of the perpetuation of this remarkably
+    fine variety, even when the original tree succumbs
+    to old age, or should it be accidentally destroyed. I am
+    inclined to give Mr. Trumpy credit for being the first
+    man to graft the shellbark hickory in this or any other
+    country, and make the cions unite and grow, for I
+    have failed to find any instance of success in this mode<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> of propagating these trees, prior to his with the Hales'
+    Paper-shell.</p>
+<p>In reply to a note sent him a few months since, asking:
+    &quot;How did or do you graft the hickories?&quot; he
+    replied as follows: </p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;I put the hickory stocks in pots in
+        the spring, and graft them the following spring, say in
+        April, and in the house. The cions are cut during the
+        winter, so as to keep them in good order until wanted
+        for use. I find it is better to operate in April than
+        earlier in the winter. I also graft them out of doors
+        about the beginning of May, when the stocks are growing.
+        They will succeed very well out of doors, provided
+        the stocks are large enough for the cions. Any kind of
+        grafting will do, but crown grafting is the best. I have
+        not done much of late in the way of grafting hickories
+        in the nursery, not having suitable stocks; besides, when
+        the weather becomes warm enough for outside work, vegetation
+        pushes far too rapidly to give a man a chance to
+        do much of this kind of grafting.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Since the above was written and while these pages
+    were being put in type, Mr. Jackson Dawson, of the
+    Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass., has given his
+    method of grafting the hickories, in <i>Garden and Forest</i>,
+    Feb. 19, 1896, as follows:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;My method,&quot; writes Mr. Dawson, &quot;has been to
+        side-graft, using a cion with part of the second year's
+        wood attached, binding it firmly and covering it with
+        damp sphagnum until the union has been made. The
+        best time I have found for the operation under glass has
+        been during February, and the plants have been kept
+        under glass until midsummer, and wintered the first
+        year in a cold frame. In all the genera I find certain
+        species which may be called free stocks,&mdash;that is, stocks
+        which take grafts more readily than others. Thus,
+        nearly all the oaks will graft readily on <i>Quercus Robur</i>;
+        the birches will graft more easily on <i>Betula alba</i> than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> on others; so of the hickories, observation has led me
+        to believe that the best stock is the bitternut, <i>Hicoria
+        minima</i>. This species grows almost twice as rapidly as
+        the common shagbark hickory, and while young the
+        cambium is quite soft. I should advise anyone who
+        wishes to propagate hickories on a large scale to grow
+        stocks of this species in boxes not more than four inches
+        deep. In this way all the roots can be saved and there
+        will be no extreme taproot, and when shaken out of the
+        boxes the plants are easily established in pots and ready
+        for grafting. If taken up in the ordinary way from the
+        woods, it requires almost two years to get them well
+        rooted, and often the stocks die for want of roots after
+        the grafts have really taken. If grown in rich soil, the
+        stocks will be large enough to use in one or two years.
+        I should then pot them early in the fall, keeping them
+        from heavy frosts, and bringing them into the house
+        about the first of January, and as soon as they begin to
+        make roots. I should side-graft them close to the collar
+        and plunge them in sphagnum moss, leaving the top
+        bud of the graft out to the air. The graft ought to be
+        well united about the last of March, when the plants
+        should be taken from the sphagnum and set in the body
+        of the house to finish their growth.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>All who have had any experience in the propagation
+    of trees by grafting in spring, are well aware of the flight
+    of time, in the hurry of work that must be done in a
+    few days or not at all. It is true that the season for
+    grafting may be prolonged or extended a little by cutting
+    the cions in winter and storing them in a cool,
+    moist place, where they remain dormant after vegetation
+    has started in the open air; but this does not affect the
+    stocks, and these may come on slowly or rapidly, varying
+    with the seasons, and the grafter must not only watch
+    for opportune moments, but take his chances of striking
+    the right time and conditions, in order to be successful.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> With such hard wood trees as the hickories it is better
+    to be a little ahead of time than a few days too late, for
+    frosts, and even quite a severe freeze, will not injure a
+    dormant cion, and under the most favorable conditions
+    the union between stock and cion is a rather slow process.
+    For this reason I advise giving as much time as
+    possible, and while I do not claim to having had any
+    personal experience as a grafter, in the South, still I am
+    inclined to think that grafting in the fall, and not later
+    than December, would be preferable to later in winter
+    or spring. By giving the cion and stock two or three
+    months in which to form granulations and cohesion,
+    there would be more certainty of success. Of course, I
+    now refer to what is called crown grafting on the root
+    below the surface of the ground, and when the cion is
+    fixed in place with the usual ligatures of waxed paper or
+    cloth, the soil is drawn back into place and the cion
+    entirely covered with it, but very lightly over the terminal
+    bud.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig68.jpg" alt="" height="371" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._68" id="FIG._68">FIG. 68</a>. CROWN GRAFTING ON ROOTS OF THE HICKORY.</span> </div>
+<p>Where small stocks are not at hand, the roots of
+    large trees may be severed and the end partly lifted
+    towards the surface, as shown in Fig. 68, and when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> grafted, allowed to remain in position until the following
+    season, and then taken up entire or with roots
+    enough to insure future growth. The same or a similar
+    process may be practiced to propagate a choice variety
+    of the hickory, and a mere severing of the roots will
+    insure the production of suckers from near the severed
+    end, as shown in Fig. 69.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig69.jpg" alt="" height="469" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._69" id="FIG._69">FIG. 69</a>. SPROUTS FROM SEVERED HICKORY ROOTS.</span> </div>
+<p>In grafting isolated stocks in this way, a small or
+    large stake should be placed by the side of each, to indicate
+    their position, and also protect them from being
+    trampled upon. I make this suggestion because, in my
+    own experience, it has often proved successful with various
+    kinds of hard-wooded trees and shrubs that failed
+    when grafted in the spring. Here in the North it is
+    rather difficult, as well as expensive, to protect cions set
+    in the open ground in the fall; but in the South it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> different, and a handful of almost any coarse litter would
+    be sufficient to prevent severe freezing.</p>
+<p>But grafting in the fall in the open ground is unnecessary,
+    where small seedling stocks are used in the
+    propagation of any kind of tree; in fact, nurserymen do
+    very little grafting of this kind in spring, for they
+    learned, by long experience, that the most economical
+    and certain method of multiplying such trees is to take
+    up the stocks in the fall, and then graft them indoors
+    during the winter, having stocks and cions stored in
+    cool cellars or pits, where they will be readily accessible
+    when wanted. Apples, pears, quinces, grapes, and
+    many other kinds of hardy trees, shrubs and vines are
+    now extensively propagated by grafting during the winter
+    months, and I do not know of any good reason why
+    the hickories and other closely allied nut trees should
+    not be multiplied in this way. I have tried it, on a limited
+    scale, with the shellbark hickories, and with fair
+    success, and in my opinion it is the only way by which
+    the hickories, including the pecan, can be multiplied
+    cheaply enough to become of commercial importance.</p>
+<p>The small stocks of one or two years old should be
+    taken up in the fall, and then crown grafted any time
+    from December to March in the Northern States, but
+    the earlier the better; then pack away the grafted stocks
+    in moss or soil, in a cool cellar, or heel-in elsewhere, as,
+    for instance, in pits or frames, where they will not be
+    frozen, and yet cool enough to prevent active growth.</p>
+<p>In the spring the grafted stocks should be planted
+    out in nursery rows, and deep enough to have the top of
+    the cion just level with the surface after the soil has
+    been settled about it by a shower or heavy rains. The
+    plants must be handled with care, so as not to disturb
+    the cions. Mulching will, of course, be beneficial in
+    dry seasons, and especially if the stocks are set in ordinary
+    well-drained soils. In selecting wood for cions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> twigs of the previous season's growth are usually preferred,
+    but it is not necessary, nor is it advisable to discard
+    all except the extreme end of the shoot or that
+    containing a terminal bud, as some writers have advised,
+    to prevent rapid loss of moisture by evaporation, for a
+    drop of wax will seal the end of a cion as thoroughly
+    and effectually as a natural bud; besides, the lower part
+    of the annual twigs is often more firm and really better
+    for grafting than the upper and less sturdy wood, and
+    the lateral buds on it will push just as readily as the
+    terminal one. The cion may be three or four inches
+    long, and contain two or more buds. The sealing of
+    the upper end of a cion that is not protected by a terminal
+    bud is certainly important with all of the hickories,
+    for in this genus of trees the pith is large and
+    continuous, not intersected or cut off by a thin partition
+    of wood at the joints, as seen in many trees, shrubs and
+    vines. This large and continuous pith in the hickories
+    is another reason why the cions succeed best if set below
+    the crown and in or on the fleshy roots having no pith.
+    They may be set on one side, as in splice grafting, or in
+    the center, or in a cleft made for their reception with a
+    sharp knife, then bound with waxed paper, or wrapped
+    with bass, raffia, or other similar material, and afterwards
+    covered with melted wax to exclude air and water
+    from the joints and wounds.</p>
+<p>In this mode of grafting hickories it is not necessary
+    to employ the entire root or stock, if it is of large
+    size, for a single cion; for pieces of from six to twelve
+    inches long, containing a few lateral fibers, will answer
+    the purpose, and it will be found, in practice, that these
+    sections of the large fleshy roots contain so much vitality
+    that, if the cions set in them fail to grow, they will
+    throw up sprouts from adventitious buds during the
+    ensuing summer. Almost any fair-sized piece of root
+    left in the ground, when digging up hickory trees large<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> or small, is pretty certain to throw up sprouts, this not
+    only showing their great vitality, but that propagation
+    by root cuttings is perfectly practicable and may be utilized
+    whenever and wherever it may be desirable. The
+    man who attempts to raise hickories from root cuttings
+    must have patience, for very frequently the cuttings
+    will remain apparently dormant in the ground one entire
+    season before the sprouts appear above the surface. I
+    will also add that this slow or retarded germination frequently
+    occurs with the nuts, especially if they have
+    become somewhat dry before planting.</p>
+<p>For commercial purposes root-grafting small stock,
+    as described, during the fall and winter, gives promise
+    of being the best and most practicable system of multiplying
+    varieties; but there is much yet to be learned in
+    regard to details, and hundreds of carefully conducted
+    experiments may be necessary to determine the exact
+    time, condition and mode of operation. It may be that
+    very early grafting is better than late, or that we have
+    not, as yet, found the best species for stocks, and that a
+    half-ripened one will be preferable to one fully matured.
+    Neither has it, as yet, been determined what kind of
+    material is best in which to store the grafted roots: sand,
+    soil or sphagnum (moss) from the swamps; or whether
+    they should be kept very moist, or comparatively dry;
+    very cold, or moderately warm. Here is a wide field for
+    experiments, and a most interesting one; for the successful
+    propagation of the hickories by any mode that
+    will insure the perpetuation and rapid multiplication of
+    varieties, means millions of dollars added to the wealth
+    of the country.</p>
+<p><strong>Age of Fruiting.</strong>&mdash;We hear much of the precociousness
+    of pecan trees in the South, and many are
+    reported as coming into bearing at the age of six to ten
+    years from the time of planting the nut; but these are
+    probably exceptional instances of early fruiting and not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> the rule, although in a favorable soil and climate it is to
+    be expected that such trees will push forward more rapidly
+    than under less favorable conditions. Grafted trees
+    will, of course, produce fruit in less time than seedlings,
+    and as this mode of propagation becomes more general,
+    and repeated in a direct ancestral line, the cions for each
+    successive generation of trees being taken from mature
+    or bearing specimens, the precocious and productive
+    habit will eventually become intensified, as it has been
+    in all of our long-cultivated fruit trees propagated by
+    artificial methods. We have so intensified the productiveness
+    of many kinds of cultivated fruits by selection,
+    that it has become more of a fault, than a merit to be
+    encouraged.</p>
+<p>The nut trees are amenable to the same physiological
+    laws as other kinds, and in their propagation by
+    grafting with cions from bearing specimens we hasten
+    maturity in the offspring. This has been fully demonstrated
+    in many varieties of the Persian walnuts and
+    European chestnuts. Here in the Northern States we
+    have had so little experience with grafted hickories of
+    any species, that really nothing is yet known as to how
+    they will respond to this mode of propagation, further
+    than that they grow rapidly and give promise of being
+    fruitful. Seedling trees are, as a rule, of slow growth,
+    rarely attaining a bearing age and size under twenty
+    years, and with the shellbarks thirty or forty years usually
+    pass before anything like a crop of nuts is gathered.
+    Something may be gained, in the way of time, by frequent
+    transplantings and pruning, but more by grafting
+    seedlings from old and mature trees. Two grafts of the
+    Hales' hickory commenced bearing at the age of sixteen
+    years.</p>
+<p><strong>Planting for Profit.</strong>&mdash;There are, doubtless, many
+    thousands of acres of half-denuded woodlands in almost
+    every State in the Union, both North and South, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> could be readily utilized for growing hickory timber,
+    and much of such lands is almost useless for other purposes;
+    but timber culture and forestry is a subject
+    which I have discussed elsewhere,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> while the object of
+    this work is to aid my readers in producing something that
+    may be utilized as food. When the hundreds and thousands
+    of miles of our public highways are shaded with
+    hickory and other nut-bearing trees of the best species
+    and varieties, it will be time enough to begin planting
+    such kinds elsewhere. As roadside trees they cannot
+    fail to be profitable, largely enhancing the value of adjoining
+    land; for in addition to being equally as ornamental
+    as other kinds, they yield fruit always in demand
+    at remunerative prices. The three species of the hickory
+    and their varieties recommended for cultivation all
+    thrive best in moist soils, but by occasional watering or
+    thorough mulching they will succeed almost anywhere,
+    especially in naturally dry locations.</p>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Practical Forestry.</p>
+</div>
+<p><strong>Insect Enemies.</strong>&mdash;The hickories, as with all other
+    nut-bearing trees, have numerous insect enemies, but
+    these are neither so numerous nor destructive as to seriously
+    interfere with their growth in general, or with
+    their productiveness. Insects may occasionally become
+    exceedingly numerous in certain localities for a few
+    years, then suddenly or slowly disappear; but this we
+    must expect, as one of the coexisting phases of all agricultural
+    pursuits.</p>
+<p>Collectively the hickories have no considerable number
+    of destructive insect enemies, but if we count all the
+    species of the various orders that have been found occasionally,
+    or otherwise, feeding on the leaves, buds, fruit,
+    twigs, bark, or boring in the solid wood, they make a
+    very formidable list of names, or about one hundred and
+    seventy-five in all; but fully ninety per cent. of these <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> depredators are scarcely known, except to a few professional
+    entomologists, and unless they become more destructive
+    in the future than they are at present, or have
+    been in years past, nut culturists have little to fear from
+    their depredations. Among the most common species
+    of insects injurious to the hickory, the following may
+    prove most annoying to the cultivator. </p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> <img src="images/fig70.jpg" alt="" height="494" width="250" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._70" id="FIG._70">FIG. 70</a>.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">The hickory-twig girdler</span> (<i>Oncideres cingulatus.</i> Say).&mdash;A small yellowish-gray beetle, a little less
+    than an inch long, usually appearing in this latitude
+    during August, the females depositing their eggs in the
+    twigs of from a quarter to a half-inch in diameter.
+    On old large trees the loss of a few or
+    many of these is scarcely noticed; but on
+    young seedlings or grafted stock it is quite
+    a different affair, for on such plants the
+    females usually select the leader in preference
+    to the lateral twigs in which to deposit
+    their eggs. The female girdles the
+    twigs for the purpose of providing proper
+    and acceptable food for her progeny; that
+    is, first the green, then the slowly drying,
+    then the perfectly hard, seasoned hickory
+    or whatever kind she may have attacked.
+    Selecting a suitable twig, she rests upon
+    it, usually with head downward (Fig. 70), and with her
+    mandibles cuts out a ring of bark about one-twelfth of
+    an inch wide, and deep enough to reach the firm wood
+    underneath. The place selected for this annular incision
+    may be only a few inches from the terminal bud, or
+    a foot below it, and in some instances she will cut two
+    incisions on the same twig some distance apart, but
+    usually there is only one on a twig. While cutting this
+    incision she will sometimes rest long enough from her
+    labors to deposit an egg in the bark above. The number
+    of eggs she deposits in the twig is probably variable,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> but three full-grown grubs is the most I have ever found,
+    and the larger proportion examined had only one. This
+    girdling of the twig prevents the flow of sap, and the
+    leaves soon wither and drop off, and the bark and wood
+    shrivel and become hard and dry; but in the meantime
+    the eggs have hatched and the minute grubs have
+    bored their way through the soft bark and reached the
+    pith, feeding in this while acquiring size and strength
+    of jaws that will enable them to consume more solid
+    food later and during the succeeding winter, spring and
+    summer. Some do not reach maturity until the second
+    summer; at least, in this latitude, as I have found after
+    very careful observation and while collecting many hundreds
+    of specimens. I will say, however, that this insect
+    is usually referred to by entomologists as rather
+    rare, and in general it is, but some years ago, in an old
+    clearing near by where there was a great number of
+    young hickory seedlings and sprouts, it was for a season
+    or two very abundant; then it suddenly disappeared,
+    and I have not taken a half-dozen specimens since. The
+    grubs bore out the wood in the infested twig, and in
+    most instances so completely as to leave only a thin shell
+    of the wood or bark, by the time they have reached maturity
+    and are ready to pass into their imago or perfect-winged
+    stage.</p>
+<p>This species of twig girdler also attacks the apple,
+    pear, persimmon, elm, and other kinds of trees, and
+    with those like the apple, with a soft and brittle wood,
+    the girdled twigs are frequently broken off by the winds;
+    but this rarely occurs with the hickories, and we can
+    usually find the stumps remaining on the trees years
+    after the beetles have emerged. The only way to keep
+    this pest in check is to cut off and burn the girdled
+    twigs any time before the larvæ have reached maturity,
+    and as the girdled dead twigs are readily seen, the gathering
+    is not difficult, from medium-sized trees.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class="smcap">The painted hickory borer</span> (<i>Cyllene pictus.</i> Drury).&mdash;This is, perhaps, one of the most common and
+    widely distributed of all the hickory borers, but, so far
+    as my observations have extended, it rarely attacks
+    young or healthy trees of any age; in fact, I have never
+    found it in or about growing trees, but I have seen it,
+    by the thousands, breeding in decaying specimens and
+    in hickory cordwood cut during the winter months and
+    ranked up in shady places. A hickory tree cut down in
+    fall or winter, and left on the ground or cut up into
+    cordwood, is pretty sure to attract this borer early in
+    spring, the females swarming over the bark, depositing
+    their eggs upon it, and by the ensuing autumn the wood
+    will be fairly honeycombed if this insect is at all abundant.
+    The general color of the beetle is
+    black, and the size as shown in Fig. 71.
+    There are three narrow, whitish bands
+    across the top of the thorax, and one
+    slightly broader band at the extreme point
+    of the wing-covers; but the next band is
+    in the form of an inverted <span class="larft"> <strong>V</strong></span>; the point
+    of the <span class="larft"><strong>Λ</strong></span> does not quite touch the broad
+    lateral band, as in the closely allied species known as
+    the locust borer (<i>C. robiniæ</i>), with which it is often
+    confounded; besides, in the latter the markings are of a
+    deep yellow, and not white or of a faint yellowish tinge.
+    The hickory borer always appears in spring, and the
+    locust borer in the fall, not later than September in this
+    part of the country. Below or behind the <span class="larft"> <strong>V</strong></span>-shaped
+    band there are three others, but all broken up into mere
+    dots, and not continuous.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 130px;"> <img src="images/fig71.jpg" alt="" title="" height="164" width="130" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._71" id="FIG._71">FIG. 71</a>.
+    HICKORY BORER.</span> </div>
+<p>In the South, and especially in Texas, there is a
+    somewhat smaller but closely allied species (<i>Cyllene
+    crinicornis</i>) that attacks the pecan tree and its wood in
+    the same way as our common hickory borer, but in the
+    Southern or Southwestern species the bands on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> wing-covers are all interrupted or broken up into small
+    white spots or dots. I have no remedy to suggest, further
+    than to cut down old, infested trees, and to haul
+    the wood out into the sun and spread it out where it
+    will quickly dry and become seasoned. If the felled
+    tree and wood is stripped of its bark as soon as cut, the
+    female beetles will not deposit their eggs upon it.</p>
+<p>There are other long-horned beetles (<i>Cerambycidæ</i>)
+    that are occasionally found breeding in the hickories,
+    and among these may be named the Belted Chion (<i>Chion
+    cinctus</i>), Tiger Goes (<i>Goes tigrinus</i>), Beautiful Goes
+    (<i>Goes pulchra</i>), and the Orange Sawyer (<i>Elaphidion
+    inerme</i>), but they are usually quite too rare to be considered
+    as very destructive insects.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Hickory-bark borer</span> (<i>Scolytus 4-spinosus.</i> Say).&mdash;Only
+    once within my memory has this minute but
+    destructive beetle appeared in any considerable numbers
+    in my neighborhood, although I have occasionally
+    received a few specimens from correspondents in various
+    parts of the country, even as far west as the Pacific coast
+    in Washington. This borer is a very small, cylindrical,
+    dark brown beetle, about one-fifth of an inch or less in
+    length, and one-sixteenth in diameter. The hind part
+    of the body is quite blunt (truncate), the males having
+    four short but distinct blunt spines, two on each side,
+    projecting from the hind part of the abdomen, hence
+    the name &quot;4-spinosus.&quot; In the females these spines
+    are absent, otherwise they closely resemble the males.
+    These bark borers usually appear here in the Northern
+    States the last of June or early in July, and both sexes
+    attack hickory trees of all species, but appear to prefer
+    the old and nearly mature trees to the young and small
+    with thinner bark. After boring through the bark and
+    reaching the soft cambium layer underneath, upon
+    which these insects feed, the female cuts a vertical channel
+    in this substance, of little over an inch in length.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 380px;"> <img src="images/fig72.jpg" alt="" title="" height="526" width="380" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._72" id="FIG._72">FIG. 72</a>. BURROWS OF HICKORY SCOLYTUS.</span> </div>
+<p>This burrow is a little larger than the diameter of her
+    body, and along on both sides she deposits her eggs, to
+    the number of ten to thirty, placing about an equal
+    number on each side. When these eggs hatch, the young
+    larvæ begin to feed on the soft material by which they
+    are surrounded, making minute burrows at first, and at
+    nearly right angles with the parent one; but as they
+    increase in size they are forced to diverge, those above
+    the center working upward, and those below downward,
+    as shown in Fig. 72. These burrows enlarge as the
+    grubs increase in size, as
+    shown, most of them
+    reaching their full development
+    by the time cold
+    weather sets in, but
+    some do not cease feeding
+    until spring, then
+    pass to the pupal stage,
+    and later to the perfect
+    or beetle form, and from
+    the extreme end of these
+    burrows they bore a hole
+    straight out to the surface,
+    and are then ready
+    to begin the cycle of life
+    again, either on the tree
+    from which they have
+    emerged, or others near by. Some fifteen years ago I
+    noticed that the leaves of some of the old hickory trees
+    on my place were turning yellow prematurely, and upon
+    examination I found the bark perforated with minute
+    holes not larger than small bird shot, indicating the
+    presence of the bark borer under consideration. Seven
+    of the very largest and, presumably, the oldest, appeared
+    to be affected, and these were immediately cut down and
+    stripped of their bark, exposing the little grubs to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> air and attacks of insect-eating birds. These trees appeared
+    to have been infested for several years, as there
+    was scarcely a spot on the surface of the wood that had
+    not been scarified with this pest. Since the destruction
+    of these trees I have not been troubled with bark borers,
+    although there are still a number of very old and large
+    hickories thriving in the same grove. The only remedy
+    I can suggest is to cut down infested trees as soon as
+    they are discovered, and also encourage the insect-eating
+    birds to remain in and near the nut groves.</p>
+<p>There are several other species of bark borers that
+    occasionally attack hickories, one of these, the <i>Chramesus
+    icoriæ</i>, Leconte, infests the small twigs, while
+    another, the <i>Sinoxylon basilare</i>, say, after boring
+    through the bark, continues its course far into the heartwood,
+    showing a preference for this kind of food instead
+    of the living tissues. These pests, however, are rarely
+    constant, but very erratic, in their attacks, and while
+    they may be rather abundant on a few or many trees a
+    season or two, they then disappear, and not one may be
+    seen for several decades.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">The hickory-shuck worm</span> (<i>Grapholitha caryana.</i> Fitch).&mdash;The parent of this pest is a minute moth of
+    the family <i>Tortricidæ</i>, the small caterpillars mining and
+    boring the green husks, and sometimes into the immature
+    shell, causing the nuts to wither and drop off prematurely,
+    although an occasional one may reach maturity,
+    even in its scarified condition. This insect appears
+    to be somewhat rare in the East, but very abundant
+    some years in the West, where it is frequently destructive
+    to the thick shellbark hickory and pecan. The first
+    fresh specimens of the Nussbaumer Hybrid pecan nut
+    (referred to on a preceding page) were so badly bored
+    and scarified by this worm when received, that they
+    would have been nearly or quite worthless for either
+    planting or other purposes. As this insect attacks the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> nuts on the very largest trees in the forest and elsewhere,
+    I cannot suggest any other remedy than to gather the
+    immature and infested nuts as they fall, and burn them,
+    with their contents.</p>
+<p>Among the larger Lepidoptera (butterflies and
+    moths) there are many species, the caterpillars of which
+    occasionally feed on the leaves of the hickories, but not
+    exclusively; consequently, they cannot be considered as
+    the special enemies of this genus of trees. When they
+    do attack them, it is as much due to accident as design.
+    This is certainly true with the great Luna moth (<i>Attacus
+    luna</i>) and the American silk worm (<i>Telea polyphemus</i>),
+    and various species of the Catocala, as well as the Tent
+    caterpillar (<i>Clisiocampa sylvatica</i>).</p>
+<p>There is also a hickory-nut weevil, closely allied to
+    the species infesting the chestnut; and while not quite
+    as large, its habits are similar, and its ravages may be
+    checked by the same or similar means. The grubs bore
+    into the green nuts, causing some to fall before half-grown;
+    others may remain in the nuts until they are
+    ripe and gathered in the autumn; consequently, perforated
+    hickory nuts are not at all rare, even on the
+    stands of venders in our cities.</p>
+<p>Bud worms, leaf miners, leaf rollers and plant lice,&mdash;and
+    among the latter several gall-making species,&mdash;are
+    to be found on the hickories; but with all these natural
+    enemies to contend with, the hickories thrive, grow, and
+    yield their fruits in greater or less abundance. To enumerate,
+    describe and illustrate all the insects known to
+    be enemies of the hickory would require a large volume,
+    but fortunately there are many special works published
+    on the insects injurious to vegetation, and these are
+    readily obtainable by all who may have occasion to consult
+    their pages.</p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
+<h3>THE WALNUT.</h3>
+<p>Juglans. The ancient Latin name, first used by
+    Pliny, contracted from <i>Jovis glans</i>, the nut of Jove or
+    Jupiter. A genus of about eight species, three or four
+    of these indigenous to the United States.</p>
+<p><strong>Order</strong>, <i>Juglandaceæ</i> (Walnut family).&mdash;Medium to
+    large deciduous trees with odd-pinnate leaves; leaflets
+    from fifteen to twenty-one, serrate, mainly oblong and
+    pointed. The sexes of flowers separate (monœcious) on
+    the same tree, the males in pendulous green cylindrical
+    catkins two to three inches long, solitary or in pairs,
+    sessile,&mdash;not stalked, as in the hickories,&mdash;issuing from
+    the one-year-old twigs, and at the upper edge of the scar
+    left by the falling leaf of the previous season (Fig. 73),
+    showing that the male organs emanate from an aggregation
+    of bud-cells in the axils of the leaves during the
+    preceding summer and autumn. Female flowers terminal
+    on the new growth in spring, also single, in clusters,
+    and occasionally in long pendulous racemes with a
+    four-cleft calyx, four minute petals and two thick curved
+    stigmas. Fruit round or oblong (Fig. 74); husk thin,
+    drying up without opening by seams, as in the hickories.
+    Shell of nut either rough and deeply corrugated, with
+    sharp-pointed ridges, or quite smooth, with an undulating,
+    wavy surface, very thick in some species and thin
+    in others; kernel two- or indistinctly four-lobed, united
+    at the apex, fleshy, rich and oily.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> <img src="images/fig73.jpg" alt="" height="636" width="550" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._73" id="FIG._73">FIG. 73</a>. PERSIAN WALNUT, SHOWING POSITION OF SEXUAL ORGANS.</span> </div>
+<p><strong>History.</strong>&mdash;The common walnut, so long and
+    widely known in commerce under various names, such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> as Persian, English, French, Italian and European walnuts,
+    also as Madeira nut, and recently Chile walnut,
+    are now all believed to have descended from trees native
+    of Persia, most plentiful in the province of Ghilan on
+    the Caspian sea, between latitude 35° and 40°, hence the
+    old Grecian name of the fruit, viz.: Persicon and Basilicon,
+    or Persian Royal nut, probably because either
+    introduced by the Greek monarchs, or sent to them by
+    the Persian kings. Later,&mdash;according to Pliny,&mdash;the
+    Greeks called the trees <i>Caryon</i>, on account of the strong<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a><br />
+    <a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> scent of the foliage, and from this name Nuttall coined
+    his word, <i>Carya</i>, for our indigenous hickories, as explained
+    in the preceding chapter. It should also be
+    noted here that the elder Michaux, in 1782-4, was the
+    first modern botanist to visit the province of Ghilan, and
+    he determined, by personal investigation, that this species
+    of the walnut was really indigenous to that region
+    of country, along with the peach and apricot.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> <img src="images/fig74.jpg" alt="" height="788" width="550" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._74" id="FIG._74">FIG. 74</a>. BEARING BRANCH OF ENGLISH WALNUT.</span> </div>
+<p>Earlier European authors claim that the walnut
+    was first introduced into Italy by Vitellius (emperor)
+    early in the first century of the Christian Era,&mdash;but this
+    is uncertain,&mdash;the Romans giving it the name of <i>Juglandes</i>,
+    or the nut of Jove or Jupiter, both being the
+    same mythical personage. The nuts, at this early day,
+    were highly prized, and also the wood of the tree, the
+    latter being even more valuable than that of the citron
+    (orange and lemon). Ovid wrote a poem about these
+    nuts, entitled <i>De Nuce</i>, from which we learn that boys
+    were employed to, or did of their own accord, knock off
+    these nuts; and that at marriages walnuts were thrown
+    by the bride and bridegroom among the children, a
+    ceremony which was supposed to indicate that the
+    bridegroom had left off his boyish amusements, and
+    that the bride was no longer a votary of Diana, and
+    it is quite probable that the French word for nuptials, <i>des nôces</i>, was derived from this ancient custom.
+    The ancients also believed that walnuts possessed powerful
+    medicinal properties, even to the curing of hydrophobia;
+    but in these latter days they have lost most
+    of their curative virtues, in the opinion of the medical
+    fraternity.</p>
+<p>As with the chestnut, the planting of the walnut
+    extended northward into Gaul (France), hence the
+    earlier name of Gaul nuts, which became corrupted into
+    walnuts by the English-speaking people. The Italian
+    name is <i>Noci</i>; in France, <i>Noyer</i>; and the Germans,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> with their usual habit of compounding names, call it <i>walnuss-baum</i> or walnut tree.</p>
+<p>Joannis De Loureiro, in his work on the plants of
+    China, &quot;Flora Cochinchinensis,&quot; published in 1790,
+    claims that this Persian walnut is also a native of the
+    northern provinces of China, with two other species
+    which he describes (p. 573), adding, however, that one
+    of these is cultivated in Cochin China, and the other is
+    found wild in the mountains.</p>
+<p>The wild form of this world-wide-famous nut is,
+    doubtless, quite different from the varieties with which
+    we are familiar, for two thousand years or more of continuous
+    cultivation and selections have greatly changed
+    the character of these nuts, as well as the habit of the
+    trees. The nuts from the wild trees are said to have a
+    rather thick shell, and to be much smaller than the best of
+    the improved cultivated varieties, or very like those we
+    now obtain in China and Japan. The Persian walnut,
+    in its many varieties, has been planted almost everywhere
+    in Europe as far north as Warsaw, but does not
+    appear to have run wild and become naturalized, as with
+    many other kinds of fruit and forest trees. In Great
+    Britain it has probably been cultivated ever since the
+    invasion of the country by the Romans, although a
+    much later date is named by some of our modern horticultural
+    authorities. Dodoens (1552), Gerarde (1597),
+    Parkinson (1629), and other of our early authors of
+    works on cultivated plants, speak of the Persian walnut
+    as common in various countries of Europe, Great Britain
+    included. John Evelyn, in his &quot;Sylva&quot; (1664), says:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;In Burgundy, walnut trees abound where they stand,
+        in the meadows of goodly lands, at sixty and a hundred
+        feet distance, and so far as hurting the crop, they are
+        looked upon as great preservers, keeping the ground
+        warm, nor do the roots hinder the plow.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Evelyn, no
+    doubt, had read what Pliny had said on this point, viz.:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> </p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&nbsp; </p>
+    <p>&quot;Even the oak will not thrive near the walnut tree;
+        which, if it be true, may be owing to the interference of
+        their roots in the subsoil; but it is certain that neither
+        grass nor field nor garden crops thrive well under the
+        walnut.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Evelyn was far too good a gardener and close
+    observer to fall into the error of attributing noxious
+    properties to the walnut tree, although Pliny's assertion,
+    which has no foundation beyond his imagination, has
+    been many times repeated in these days of supposed general
+    intelligence. Small plants may fail, under the
+    shade of large trees, or when deprived of moisture by
+    the roots of such trees, but the walnut is no exception
+    to the rule; in fact, such deep-rooted kinds are less
+    injurious than those with roots nearer the surface.
+    Evelyn, in continuing his account of the walnut in Germany,
+    says:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;Whenever they fell a tree, which is only
+        the old, decayed, they always plant a young one near
+        him, and, in several places betwixt Hanau and Frankfort,
+        no young farmer whatsoever is permitted to marry
+        a wife till he bring proof that he is a father of such a
+        stated number of walnut trees; and the law is inviolably
+        observed to this day, for the extraordinary benefit which
+        this tree affords the inhabitants.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>What a pity that
+    some such custom could not have prevailed during the
+    past century in the United States. The author from
+    whom I have just quoted adds that the Bergstrasse,
+    which extends from Heidelberg to Darmstadt, is all
+    planted with walnuts.</p>
+<p>Cold winters, however, have occasionally played
+    havoc with the walnut trees in Europe, and one of these
+    occurred in 1709, when the greater part of the trees
+    were seriously injured, especially in Switzerland, Germany
+    and France. Many trees were cut down for their
+    timber, which is always in great demand for gun-stocks
+    and furniture. Certain Dutch capitalists, foreseeing
+    the scarcity of walnut timber, bought up all they could<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> procure, and years afterwards sold it at a greatly advanced
+    price. In the year 1720 an act was passed in
+    France to prevent the exportation of walnut timber, and
+    this led to the planting of these trees more extensively
+    than at any previous date; this practice has continued to
+    the present time, hence the immense revenue secured
+    from the exportation of these nuts. The people of the
+    United States are good customers for the surplus stock
+    of Europe, and will probably so continue, until we wake
+    up to a sense of our folly of perpetually buying articles
+    that could be readily produced at home, and at a very
+    large profit.</p>
+<p><strong>Persian Walnut in America.</strong>&mdash;The date of the
+    first experiment in planting this nut in this country is
+    now probably unknown, but the oldest tree that I have
+    been able to find with anything like a satisfactory history,
+    is still growing vigorously at Washington Heights,
+    on Manhattan Island, near 160th street and St. Nicholas
+    avenue. I gave a brief history of this noble monarch of
+    its race in the <i>American Garden</i> for September, 1888,
+    from which the following account is condensed:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;In 1758 Roger Morris, an English gentleman, built a spacious
+        mansion on his estate, at what, in later years, became
+        known as Washington Heights. His grounds
+        were well laid out for that time, and many rare foreign
+        trees and shrubs planted, among them several, as then
+        called, English walnuts. Whether these trees were
+        raised from the nuts, or plants of some size imported, is
+        not now known. Mr. Morris may have procured the
+        seedlings from the Prince Nursery, Flushing, L. I., for
+        this famous garden was established in 1713, or forty-five
+        years previous to the building of the Morris mansion
+        and the planting of the grounds about it.</p>
+    <p>&quot;At that period no one doubted the hardiness of the
+        so-called English walnut in America, and as most of the
+        nuts and trees procured for planting came from acclimated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> stock in Great Britain or the cooler region of
+        Europe, success usually attended such experiments.
+        Our pioneers and horticulturists fully expected that the
+        trees would thrive and bear nuts in abundance, and time
+        has shown that they were not mistaken, although we
+        frequently see it stated at this late day, that the Persian
+        walnut is not hardy north of the latitude of Washington,
+        Philadelphia, or other cities south of New York.</p>
+    <p>&quot;One hundred and thirty-eight years have rolled by
+        since walnut trees were planted at Washington Heights,
+        and at least one of the originals has escaped destruction
+        and holds its head aloft, defying the tempests which
+        frequently sweep over that elevated and exposed spot on
+        Manhattan Island. This veritable patriarch of its race
+        in America is a monster in size, its stem between four
+        and five feet in diameter at the base and more than
+        seventy-five feet high, with wide-spreading branches.</p>
+    <p>&quot;In the summer of 1776 the Battle of Long Island
+        was fought, and the American forces were compelled to
+        retreat in confusion to New York, thence northward up
+        the island; but when they reached Fort Washington, not
+        far from the eleventh milestone on the old Albany post
+        road, they made a stand and proceeded to entrench
+        themselves at that place. This was in September, 1776,
+        and General Washington took possession of the Morris
+        mansion near by, making it his headquarters, and, as
+        this was at the season when the walnuts had reached an
+        edible stage, we may safely presume, from his well-known
+        predilection for such delicacies, that he tested the quality
+        of the Morris walnuts. One hundred and twenty
+        years later I am writing this, with some fresh specimens
+        of nuts before me from that same old tree.</p>
+    <p>&quot;This old patriarch has cast its shade over many a
+        noted person in its time, for in 1810 the Morris estate
+        passed into the hands of Madame Jumel, a lady long
+        famous for her hospitality and the good cheer she extended<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> to the surviving patriots of the Revolution.
+        From 1810 to the time of her death, 1865, Madame
+        Jumel's household always had an abundance of walnuts
+        from the old tree, and one of the workmen on the place
+        informed me that about two cartloads was considered a
+        fair annual crop.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>It cannot be many years before this old tree will
+    meet the same fate that has overtaken many of its
+    younger contemporaries which were once growing in the
+    neighborhood, for with the rush for building lots and
+    the opening of new streets and avenues, trees are usually
+    in the way, and in such cases even patriarchs are not
+    sacred, nor do they command much respect from our
+    urban population.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+<div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Since writing the above, and while these pages are being put in
+        type, accidentally I learn with regret that the old Morris walnut tree
+        has been destroyed.</p>
+</div>
+<p>A half-century ago there was quite a large number
+    of walnut trees scattered about on the northern half of
+    Manhattan Island, many of these probably descendants
+    of the old Morris trees, but of this nothing definite is
+    now known. A number of persons whose ages permitted
+    them to scan the early days of the present century,
+    have assured me that in their childhood they had often
+    collected walnuts from goodly sized trees on farms, from
+    Harlem northward on the island. The largest number
+    of Persian walnut trees planted in any one place was on
+    the Tieman farm at Manhattanville, these being set out
+    as roadside trees, some of which are still standing,
+    although in the march of improvements they must soon
+    disappear. These trees have always been noted for their
+    productiveness, bearing a full crop every alternate year,
+    and a lighter one in what is termed the &quot;off season.&quot;</p>
+<p>While the old Morris walnut tree, and the large
+    number growing on the Tieman estate, and scores of
+    others scattered about New York city and its suburbs,</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p>
+<p>have been, and many still are, living witnesses of the
+    fact that varieties of the Persian walnut will thrive in
+    this latitude, certain horticultural authors and essayists
+    have continually asserted the contrary.</p>
+<p>Mr. F. J. Scott, in his superb and voluminous work,
+    &quot;Suburban Home Grounds,&quot; in speaking of this species
+    of the walnut, says, p. 351: </p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;Though greatly valued
+        in England and on the continent for its beauty, as well
+        as for its nuts, its want of hardiness in the Northern
+        States, and lack of any peculiar beauty in the South, has
+        prevented its culture to any great extent in this country.
+        South of Philadelphia it may be grown with safety.&quot; </p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>This seems strange language to have come from such an
+    eminent authority as the late Mr. Scott, inasmuch as he
+    must have passed a hundred times within sight, if not
+    in the very shadow of the rows of old walnut trees growing
+    at Manhattanville, when going from New York city
+    to Newburgh, where he studied landscape gardening
+    under the lamented A. J. Downing, and to whom the
+    work from which I have quoted is dedicated. It is quite
+    evident, however, that our author, like many others,
+    failed to see things that should have interested him.</p>
+<p>As an offset to Mr. Scott's idea of the northern
+    limit for the successful cultivation of this nut, I may
+    refer to the work of Mr. George Jacques, &quot;Practical
+    Treatise on Fruit Trees, Adapted to the Interior of
+    New England,&quot; published at Worcester, Mass., 1849.
+    In referring to the European walnut, p. 238, he says: </p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;It is perfectly hardy on Long Island, and to the south
+        of New York, and as far north as the city of Charlestown
+        in this State (Mass.), where there may be seen, in
+        the enclosure of a residence on Harvard street, two fine
+        trees of this kind, either of them much taller and larger
+        than our large-sized apple trees. We have eaten nuts
+        from these trees well ripened and fully equal to any of
+        those imported. The trees often bear a crop of some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> bushels.&quot; </p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>It is unnecessary to search for further proof
+    to show that certain excellent varieties of the Persian
+    walnut do thrive and bear abundantly in our Northern
+    States; not, perhaps, in the extreme boreal borders of
+    New England, nor in those of the northwest, but the
+    acclimated sorts are pretty safe as far north as 42°
+    of latitude, and in protected locations may crowd up a
+    half degree more. I have found very productive trees
+    of this nut in northern New Jersey, several in Bergen
+    county, others in Passaic, and thence southward, and
+    while they are few in number, they are sufficient to
+    prove that this tree is adapted to the soil and climate of
+    the entire State. We seldom find more than one or two
+    trees in any garden, and these are probably more the
+    result of accident than design, their owners seeming to
+    be satisfied in possessing something in the way of a tree
+    not common in the neighborhood, never thinking that
+    it might be well to plant enough of such trees to have
+    them become a source of revenue. The parentage of
+    quite a number of these bearing trees is readily traced
+    to the Morris and Tieman stock, showing that these old
+    trees are of a hardy and prolific race, which are well
+    worthy of perpetuation for cold climates. Very old and
+    large walnut trees are reported as growing in Pennsylvania
+    and other of the Middle States, but they are far
+    from being numerous. It has long been claimed that
+    this species of nut succeeded best in the Southern States,
+    and it is probably true, especially with the tender varieties;
+    but for some reason, unknown to me, they have
+    not been planted there in sufficient numbers to have, as
+    yet, become of any commercial importance.</p>
+<p>During the past twenty-five years these nuts have
+    been more extensively planted in California than elsewhere
+    in the United States, and we may expect soon to
+    know something definite in regard to results. Nearly
+    all of the favorite French varieties have been introduced,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> and are now being tested in different parts of the State,
+    and it is quite likely that the greater part will succeed,
+    although some of the early-blooming sorts may fail in
+    localities subject to late spring frosts. Previous to the
+    introduction of grafted trees of the named varieties, the
+    only trees of this kind planted in California were seedlings
+    raised from the common imported nuts; but I
+    have no statistics at hand to determine the date of the
+    first plantings of this kind.</p>
+<p>Of late years there has been received, at some of
+    our seaports, and especially at New York, some quite
+    large consignments of walnuts from South America,
+    under the name of &quot;Chile walnuts,&quot; but they are only
+    varieties of the Persian raised in Chile. They are generally
+    of good size, moderately thin shelled, with plump
+    kernels of excellent flavor. They are in great demand
+    for confectionery, and are really better for such purposes
+    than the larger and fancy bleached walnuts imported
+    under the somewhat general name of Grenobles, or
+    French walnuts. Owing to the difference of climate,
+    these Chile walnuts arrive here late in winter, or about
+    the time those coming from European countries the previous
+    autumn begin to become somewhat stale.</p>
+<p>Of our native species of this genus (<i>Juglans</i>), the
+    almost everywhere common butternut ranks first in
+    flavor and general estimation, but owing to its hard,
+    rough shell, and the difficulty in extracting the kernel,
+    it has never become of any considerable importance,
+    although usually found in our markets in limited quantities.
+    Of course, it is a general favorite in the country,
+    and wherever found in sufficient quantities the boys and
+    girls lay up a goodly supply for winter use; and cracking
+    butternuts during the long winter evenings is a
+    pastime and pleasure not to be ignored nor forgotten.
+    The flavor of the butternut is far more delicate, and
+    better, than any of the Persian species, but the difficulty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> in extracting the rather small kernel is a serious
+    objection.</p>
+<p>The black walnut has a larger kernel, in proportion
+    to its size, than the butternut, and it is not so difficult
+    to extract when the nuts are dry, but the flavor is too
+    rank for most palates, although it has often been referred
+    to as excellent by the earlier botanists who visited this
+    country; but it has never been considered of much value
+    until quite recently, or since the manufacturers of confectionery
+    discovered that heat somewhat subdued the
+    rank flavor, and now many tons of the meats are annually
+    consumed in candies and walnut cakes. I am credibly
+    informed that cracking black walnuts and shipping
+    the meats to our larger cities has become quite an extensive
+    industry in several of the Middle and Western States.
+    We have two other but smaller native species of the walnut
+    that will be described further on, under the head
+    Species and Varieties.</p>
+<p><strong>Propagation of Walnuts.</strong>&mdash;The propagation of
+    the walnut in the natural way, or by seed, is exceedingly
+    simple, for the nuts grow readily and freely if planted
+    soon after they are ripe, or any time before they become
+    old and the kernels shriveled. It is, of course, best to
+    plant them while fresh, but they are not at all delicate,
+    and may be transported a long distance in a dry condition
+    without seriously affecting their vitality. If walnuts
+    are given the same care as recommended in the
+    preceding pages for other kinds of nuts, so much the
+    better.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig75.jpg" alt="" title="" height="526" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._75" id="FIG._75">FIG. 75</a>. SEEDLING WALNUT.</span> </div>
+<p>The seedlings of walnuts, like those of other species,
+    usually produce long taproots, and if grown in a compact
+    soil, these will have few small lateral fibers the first season,
+    as shown in Fig. 75; but when taken up and the
+    vertical main root shortened at <i>a</i>, and then replanted,
+    they produce fibrous roots in abundance. The trees of
+    almost any age from one to twenty years old, are not at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> all difficult to make live when transplanted, provided
+    the branches or tops of the trees are reduced, to correspond
+    with loss of roots in digging up at the time of
+    removal. It may be well to give
+    a word of caution to the novice in
+    nut culture about pruning nut
+    trees in spring, after the sap begins
+    to flow; for if done at this time
+    they will bleed freely and leave
+    unhealthy wounds and black, unsightly
+    spots on the bark. Prune
+    walnuts in summer or early in
+    winter, to give time for the wounds
+    to season before the buds swell in
+    spring. If young trees are to be
+    dug up, prune after they are taken
+    from the ground, then the sap will
+    not flow from the wounds. This
+    is true of all deciduous trees,
+    vines and shrubs. If the trees
+    have few small roots when taken
+    up, prune severely; but if roots
+    are abundant, little pruning will
+    be required. It is seldom, however,
+    in transplanting walnuts,
+    that the pruning need be as severe
+    as recommended for the chestnut;
+    in fact, having transplanted walnuts
+    of various species, and of
+    all ages from one to twenty years,
+    without the loss of a plant, I have
+    come to the conclusion that they
+    are pretty safe trees to handle, in this climate, at least,
+    if not elsewhere.</p>
+<p>In seeking walnuts from a distance, for planting
+    anywhere in the Middle or Northern States, it will be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> well to learn something in advance about the climate in
+    which the nuts are raised; for it would be folly to send
+    for either trees or nuts to a warm or semi-tropical region,
+    like that of southern France or Spain, for a stock to
+    cultivate in a climate as cold as that of New York, New
+    Jersey, and States on the same line westward. We
+    might, perchance, from such importation, secure one
+    hardy plant in a hundred or thousand, but there would
+    be no certainty of even this small number.</p>
+<p>This idea of acclimation and adaptation of trees
+    to conditions and climate should not be overlooked
+    by the nut culturist, no matter from what source
+    he procures his stock, whether from abroad, or some
+    distant region of his own country. If it can be
+    obtained from a region where it has been growing
+    under conditions similar to those to which it is to
+    be transferred for cultivation, then the chances of
+    success will certainly be largely augmented. Acclimation
+    is a slow process; in fact, too slow for us to
+    expect to secure any appreciable advantages from it
+    in a lifetime, but in nature we seek final results, leaving
+    time out of the question.</p>
+<p>In raising seedling trees we cannot expect much
+    more than a reproduction of the species, and not that of
+    the parent tree. Plants that have been subjected to unnatural
+    conditions and surroundings, as usual under cultivation,
+    are far more likely to show a wider range of variation
+    in the seedlings than those growing wild in their
+    native habitats; but even the latter cannot be depended
+    upon to reproduce exact types from seed. In other
+    words, there is nothing certain about seedling nut trees;
+    the large nuts may produce trees bearing very small ones,
+    the early-ripening give late ones, the tall dwarf trees
+    and the precocious fruiting some of the most tardy varieties;
+    and yet, with all this uncertainty, we still think
+    it best to select for planting the best nuts obtainable,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> <i>i. e.</i>, best and most promising for the conditions under
+    which the seedlings are to be grown.</p>
+<p>For the multiplication and perpetuation of choice
+    varieties we must resort to artificial modes of propagation,
+    mainly by budding and grafting. These modes,
+    however, while the best at present known, are so difficult
+    and uncertain in cool climates,&mdash;even in the hands
+    of the most skilful propagators,&mdash;that grafted walnut
+    trees have never been very plentiful in the nurseries of
+    this or other countries with which we have commercial
+    relations. In the south of France nurserymen appear to
+    have been more successful in the propagation of walnuts
+    by budding and grafting, than elsewhere; but in the
+    northern provinces, as well as in Great Britain, we hear
+    little of this mode of propagation. So difficult has this
+    mode of propagating the walnut been considered in England,
+    that Thomas Andrew Knight, president of the
+    London Horticultural Society, early in the present century
+    discouraged all attempts to propagate this tree by
+    such means; but later, in a paper read before the Society
+    April 7, 1818, he admits to having changed his
+    mind, especially in regard to budding the walnut, and
+    says:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;The buds of trees of almost every species succeed
+        with most certainty when inserted on the shoots of the
+        same year's growth; but the walnut tree appears to
+        afford an exception; possibly, in some measure, because
+        its buds contain within themselves, in the spring, all
+        the leaves which the tree bears in the following summer,
+        whence its annual shoots cease to elongate soon after its
+        buds unfold; all its buds of each season are also, consequently,
+        very nearly of the same age, and long before
+        any have acquired the proper degree of maturity for
+        being removed, the annual branches have ceased to grow
+        longer or to produce new foliage.... To obviate the
+        disadvantage arising from the preceding circumstances, I<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> adopted means of retarding the period of the vegetation
+        of the stocks comparatively with that of the bearing
+        tree: and by these means I became partially successful.
+        There are, at the base of the annual shoots of the walnut
+        and other trees, where these join the year-old wood,
+        many minute buds which are almost concealed in the
+        bark, and which rarely or never vegetate but in the
+        event of the destruction of the large prominent buds
+        which occupy the middle and opposite end of the annual
+        wood. By inserting in each stock one of these minute
+        buds and one of the large prominent kind, I had the
+        pleasure to find that the minute buds took freely,
+        while the large all failed without a single exception.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>From the above and other remarks of Mr. Knight,
+    in the paper read by him, I infer that he kept the stocks
+    in pots stored in a cool place in spring, until he could
+    obtain shoots of the season from bearing trees, and from
+    these minute undeveloped axillary buds for inserting in
+    the stocks. These buds, as he informs us, are inserted
+    in the wood of the preceding season, and near the summit
+    or top. He does not give any directions for holding
+    the buds in place, whether by waxed or plain bass ligatures;
+    the former, however, would probably be preferable,
+    for the purpose of excluding the air and water.</p>
+<p>Some twenty years later (1838) J. C. Loudon, in
+    &quot;Arboretum Britannicum,&quot; etc., refers to the propagation
+    of the walnut as follows:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;Much has been written on
+        the subject by French authors, from which it appears
+        that in the north of France, and in cold countries generally,
+        the walnut does not bud or graft easily by any
+        mode; but that in the south of France and north of
+        Italy it may be budded or grafted by different modes,
+        with success. At Metz, the Baron de Tschoudy found
+        the flute method (Fig. 76) almost the only one which he
+        could practice with success. By this mode an entire
+        ring of bark, containing one or more buds, is removed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> from a twig on a tree to be multiplied, and transferred
+        to the stock, and made to fit as shown. If the ring is
+        too large, a slice may be cut off; and if too small, a
+        piece of the bark of the stock may be left to fill the
+        space.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Both stock and parent tree must be in about
+    the same condition or stage of growth when this ring
+    budding is done, in order that the bark containing the
+    bud may peel off freely from the wood, and this is always
+    in the spring, soon after the buds
+    begin to unfold and the sap is in
+    motion. Loudon says that in Dauphine,
+    France, young plants in the
+    nurseries are budded chiefly by this
+    mode, which succeeds best the closer
+    the operation is performed to the collar
+    of the plant; and the same is
+    true in grafting, the nearer the root
+    the better, as has been found by experience
+    with hickories.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig76.jpg" alt="" title="" height="411" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._76" id="FIG._76">FIG. 76</a>.
+    FLUTE BUDDING.</span> </div>
+<p>Charles Baltet, in his &quot;L'Art de
+    Greffer,&quot; recommends grafting in the
+    usual mode of crown grafting, also
+    flute or ring grafting, in April or
+    May, and ordinary cleft grafting close
+    to the root and at the forks of the
+    branches, etc. He says that the cion
+    should be cut, as much as possible,
+    obliquely across the pith, so that it may be exposed on
+    one side only. He also advises using cions whose base
+    consists of wood of two years' growth, and these furnished
+    with a terminal bud. He cautions propagators
+    against grafting early-growing kinds upon those of later
+    vegetation. If walnuts of any of the native or foreign
+    species have been successfully propagated by budding or
+    grafting, at any of the nurseries in our Eastern States, it
+    has not been made known in the nurserymen's catalogues.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span></p>
+<p>Michael Floy, who early in the present century had
+    quite extensive grounds devoted to fruit and ornamental
+    trees, near what is now the center of New York city, as
+    we learn from his &quot;Guide to the Orchard,&quot; published in
+    1833, claims, in this work, that the Persian walnuts
+    thrive well in this country, but admits that he had never
+    succeeded in grafting the trees, and with the hickories
+    had no better success, although he had tried them many
+    times; but he adds:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;Still I do not say it is impossible
+        either to bud or graft them; but there is
+        something peculiar about it, for both the bud and graft
+        turn black when cut, almost instantaneously. Others
+        may succeed better, but let them try it before they
+        affirm it upon hearsay; they may succeed very well by
+        inarching.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>Coming down to the present day, in our search for
+    facts and information in regard to the propagation of
+    varieties of the walnut, we may find it interesting to
+    visit California, which, of all the States of the Union, is
+    perhaps the best adapted to nut culture in general;
+    besides, a larger number of nut trees of various kinds
+    have been planted there than elsewhere in this country.
+    It is in California that we find such men as Felix Gillet,
+    of Nevada City, an enthusiastic propagator and cultivator
+    of fruit and nut trees, and especially of the latter,
+    if we may judge by his works and writings on this
+    branch of horticulture,&mdash;and so far as I have been able
+    to learn, he is the only nurseryman in the United States
+    who has grafted walnut trees of many different varieties
+    for sale.</p>
+<p>In regard to modes of propagation, Mr. Gillet says
+    that the common mode of shield budding, as employed
+    on fruit trees, fails entirely with small walnuts from one
+    to three years from the seed, and it does but seldom succeed
+    even on larger stocks. When tried on large, old
+    stocks, he advises removing all the wood from the inner<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> side of the strip of bark on which the bud is situated,
+    and at the same time have this strip not less than two
+    inches long and as broad as possible. He describes his
+    mode of grafting walnuts, which does not differ materially
+    from those already given. That he has never attained
+    any very remarkable results may be inferred from
+    the following:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;We will add that the 'grafted walnuts' that we
+        offer were grafted expressly for us, regardless of cost, by
+        the most reliable firm to be found in the walnut district
+        in France, through a process discovered several years
+        ago, and which we will briefly describe for the benefit of
+        people who may be inclined to try this new method of
+        grafting very young walnuts.</p>
+    <p>&quot;One-year-old seedlings of the size of the little finger,
+        or about one-half inch in diameter at the butt, are
+        selected, the root cut back short enough to permit the
+        planting of the trees in pots of three inches in depth;
+        the trees, previously to being potted, are grafted with
+        cions exactly of the same size, whip or cleft grafting
+        being used; the pots are then taken to a hot or propagating
+        house, and a glass bell set over them to prevent
+        the outside air getting to the grafts, the temperature
+        of the house being kept day and night, at least for
+        fifteen days, or till the grafting has taken, to 70° F.
+        When the grafts are well taken and growing, the glass
+        bells are removed, and the grafts allowed to grow three
+        or four inches, before the little grafted trees are set out
+        in nursery rows; it may be preferable, especially in certain
+        parts of the country, to keep the trees in the
+        pots till the ensuing spring. Forty to fifty per cent
+        of the grafts will succeed, and it is the best that can
+        be done.</p>
+    <p>&quot;This mode of grafting the walnut, besides requiring
+        a hothouse, needs the care of a skillful person to
+        make it succeed. So are grafted the little trees that we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> import from France, and that we plant in nursery rows
+        and offer to the public.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>For other modes of root grafting, I refer the reader
+    to those recommended for the hickories, in the preceding
+    chapter. Propagating walnuts by layers is practicable,
+    where the small trees have been cut down to force
+    out new shoots near the surface of the ground, then bent
+    down and covered with soil in the usual method of layering
+    woody plants.</p>
+<p><strong>Planting and Pruning.</strong>&mdash;The plants will produce
+    a greater number of fibrous roots if the nuts are planted
+    in light, loose, but rich soil, than in a heavy, tenacious
+    one; but with all kinds it is best to transplant when
+    one or two years old, and cut off a portion of the taproots,
+    as recommended for the hickories. When removed
+    from the nursery rows for final planting, prune
+    away nearly or quite all side branches, leaving only the
+    terminal bud if the trees are not more than six to eight
+    feet high. After final planting where the trees are to
+    remain permanently, very little pruning will ever be
+    required, further than to cut away branches that may
+    cross each other, or to shorten some to give proper form
+    to the head. No tree in cultivation requires less pruning
+    than walnuts.</p>
+<p>As a genus of trees the walnuts flourish best in
+    deep, rich loam, rather light than heavy, and in this
+    country require considerable moisture at the roots, and
+    some, like the butternut, succeed best in bottomlands,
+    near creeks and larger streams. If the soil is naturally
+    too dry for such trees, the fault can be readily remedied
+    by the use of some form of mulch applied to the surface
+    of the soil around the stem after planting, renewing this
+    annually, or oftener if necessary, until the trees are large
+    enough to shade the ground.</p>
+<p>Walnut trees, as well as the closely allied hickories,
+    are well adapted for roadside planting, and when set in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> such positions are far less likely to be injured by insects
+    than when planted in orchards or large groups, besides
+    serving a double purpose, being ornamental as well as
+    useful. They may also be planted around buildings,
+    and where other and less valuable trees are generally
+    grown. There are also millions of acres of rocky hill-sides
+    and old fields which might be utilized for nut
+    orchards, and if rather widely scattered over such land
+    they would prove beneficial in shading the pasture
+    grasses. First of all, however, let us have rows of these
+    trees along all our country roads, after which it will be
+    time enough to begin planting them elsewhere.</p>
+<h3>SPECIES AND VARIETIES OF WALNUTS.</h3>
+<p><strong>Native of the United States</strong> (<i>Juglans cinerea.</i> Linn.). Butternut. White Walnut.&mdash;Leaflets fifteen
+    to nineteen, oblong-lanceolate and sharp-pointed, rounded
+    at the base, downy, especially on the underside,
+    petioles covered with viscid hairs; fruit oblong, two
+    or more inches in length, with a clammy husk, not
+    opening when ripe, but closely adhering to the deeply
+    corrugated and rough, thick shell. Trees with wide-spreading
+    branches, and of medium hight, or from forty
+    to fifty feet, but in deep forests sometimes sixty to
+    seventy, with stems two to three feet in diameter. A
+    common tree in moist soils almost everywhere, from the
+    Canadas southward to the highlands of northern Georgia,
+    Alabama, and sparingly in Mississippi and Arkansas,
+    and all the States bordering the Mississippi river northward
+    to Minnesota. A valuable timber tree, with soft,
+    light wood, much used of late for furniture and inside
+    house finishing. In early times the inner bark was
+    employed for making a yellow dye, also as a medicine,
+    the extract being a mild cathartic, hence one of the
+    specific names, <i>Cathartica</i>.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p>
+<p>Synonyms.</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p><i>Juglans oblonga alba</i>, Marshall.<br />
+        <i>Juglans cathartica</i>, Michaux.<br />
+        <i>Carya cathartica</i>, Barton, 1818.<br />
+        <i>Wallia cinerea</i>, Alefeld, 1861.<br />
+    </p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Varieties of the Butternut.</strong>&mdash;There are to be
+    found many varieties of the butternut, varying mainly
+    in the size of the nuts, and only slightly in the thickness
+    of the shell; but I am not aware that any of these have
+    ever been propagated, all the trees in cultivation or elsewhere
+    having been grown from the nuts. This nut is,
+    no doubt, susceptible of great improvement, as well as
+    others of the genus, and it is worthy of being experimented
+    with for that purpose, especially in cold, northern
+    climates, where there are few or no other kinds of
+    edible nuts. Probably the most direct and surest way
+    to secure improved varieties is by hybridizing, taking
+    the butternut for the female parent, and the Persian
+    walnut for the male. Hybrids between these two species
+    are already known, and they will, no doubt, become
+    more plentiful as soon as skillful horticulturists are encouraged
+    to produce them. Several hybrid walnuts of
+    other species are figured and described by European horticulturists,
+    but, so far as known, they are mainly accidental
+    productions, and not the result of any direct
+    effort of man; nature, in this instance, merely giving a
+    hint of the possible, leaving us to avail ourselves of the
+    lesson if we feel so inclined.</p>
+<p>J. Le Conte, in a list of four hundred and fifty
+    plants, collected by him on the island of New York
+    (Manhattan), and published in the &quot;Medical and Philosophical
+    Register,&quot; Vol. II, 1812, mentions a hybrid
+    walnut among the number. Dr. John Torrey, in &quot;Catalogue
+    of Plants,&quot; etc., 1819, refers to this tree under
+    the name of <i>Juglans hybrida</i>, and says that it is growing
+    near where Eighth avenue intersects the road called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> Lake Tours, about three miles from the city, and is a
+    large tree. This specimen probably disappeared long
+    ago, and we have no means now of determining its origin
+    or between what two species it was a hybrid.</p>
+<p>Recently Prof. C. S. Sargent has discovered other
+    hybrid walnuts in the neighborhood of Boston, and figured
+    and described one in <i>Garden and Forest</i> for Oct.
+    31, 1894. He says:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;My attention was first called to
+        the fact by observing that a tree which I had supposed
+        was a so-called English walnut (<i>Juglans regia</i>), in the
+        grounds connected with the Episcopal school of Harvard
+        college, at Cambridge, was not injured by the cold of the
+        severest winters, although <i>Juglans regia</i> generally suffers
+        from cold here, and rarely grows to a large size.
+        This individual is really a noble tree; the trunk forks,
+        about five feet above the surface of the ground, into two
+        limbs, and girths, at the point where its diameter is
+        smallest, fifteen feet and two inches. The divisions of
+        the trunk spread slightly and form a wide, round-topped
+        head of pendulous branches of unusual symmetry and
+        beauty, and probably sixty to seventy feet high. A
+        closer examination of this tree showed that it was hardly
+        to be distinguished from <i>Juglans regia</i> in habit, in the
+        character of the bark, or in the form and coloring of the
+        leaves, and that the oblong nut, with its thick shell
+        deeply sculptured into narrow ridges, was the slightly
+        modified nut of our native butternut, <i>Juglans regia</i>.
+        Two other trees with the same peculiarities were afterwards
+        found. One is a large, wide-spreading specimen,
+        with a trunk diameter of four feet three inches about
+        two feet above the surface of the ground, and just below
+        the point where it divides into three large limbs. This
+        is on the grounds of Mr. Eben Bacon of Jamaica Plain,
+        and is supposed to have been planted between fifty
+        and sixty years ago. The other has a tall, straight
+        trunk, with a diameter of three feet one inch at three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> feet above the surface of the ground, and is growing on
+        a farm near Houghton's Pond, in Milton, at the base of
+        the southeastern slope of the Blue Hills.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>That there should be hybrid walnuts is nothing
+    strange or wonderful, and we often marvel that there
+    should be so few of them in regions where two or more
+    species are growing in close proximity in the same forest,
+    or elsewhere, but from whence came these specimens in
+    Massachusetts is somewhat of a mystery. We may
+    safely conclude, however, that the hybridizing did not
+    occur there, but somewhere else, and either the nuts or
+    small seedling trees were introduced and planted where
+    these hybrid specimens are now growing. It is possible
+    that they are descendants of the old hybrid walnut tree
+    of New York city, mentioned by Le Conte and Dr.
+    Torrey, some one having sent nuts or seedlings to friends
+    in Massachusetts, and the three trees described by Prof.
+    Sargent are merely those which have survived until
+    the present day, these retaining the hybrid characteristics
+    of their parent. These hybrids may or may not
+    possess any special economic value, but they are of considerable
+    scientific interest, and for this reason alone
+    are well worthy of careful preservation and extensive
+    propagation.</p>
+<p><i>Butternut Sugar.</i>&mdash;It has often been claimed that
+    sugar can be made from the native butternut tree, and
+    while it is true that the sweetish sap flows readily from
+    wounds made in this tree in early spring, the amount
+    and quality of sugar to be obtained from it is scarcely
+    worthy of serious attention. In my boyhood days butternut
+    syrup and sugar were considered as &quot;sticky jokes&quot;
+    of the sugar camp.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> <img src="images/fig77.jpg" alt="" height="845" width="550" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._77" id="FIG._77">FIG. 77</a>. FLOWERING BRANCH OF HYBRID WALNUT.<br />
+    <i>J. regia</i> × <i>J. Californica</i>.</span> </div>
+<p><strong>Hybrids in California.</strong>&mdash;Mrs. Ninetta Eames,
+    writing, in the <i>American Agriculturist</i>, of new varieties
+    of walnuts in California, refers to certain species and
+    varieties growing in that State, as follows:</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a><br />
+    <a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;On one of the avenues in Santa Rosa there are some
+        dozen or so ornamental shade trees, which invariably
+        attract the passers. It is not only that they are uncommonly
+        beautiful, but that there is something unfamiliar
+        about them. One unhesitatingly pronounces them
+        'walnuts,' from their unmistakable likeness to both
+        the English walnut and the native species found growing
+        along the streams of middle and southern California.
+        They are, in fact, a cross between the <i>Juglans regia</i> and <i>J. Californica</i>, the wild black walnut of this State. In
+        its appearance, this magnificent hybrid is nicely balanced
+        between both parents, but it is superior to either of
+        them in beauty and luxuriance of foliage, and in its
+        phenomenal growth. There is, indeed, but one tree,
+        the eucalyptus, that grows more rapidly. In speaking
+        of this quality in the new walnut, Mr. Luther Burbank
+        says: 'It often excels the combined growth
+        of both parents, adding twelve to sixteen feet to its
+        hight in one year. Given like conditions, a budded
+        six-year-old hybrid is twice as large as a black walnut
+        at twenty years of age.'</p>
+</blockquote>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig78.jpg" alt="" height="497" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._78" id="FIG._78">FIG. 78</a>. HYBRID WALNUT. <i>J. nigra</i> × <i>J. Californica</i>.</span> </div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig79.jpg" alt="" height="289" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._79" id="FIG._79">FIG. 79</a>. HYBRID WALNUT, SHELL REMOVED.<br />
+    <i>J. nigra</i> × <i>J. Californica</i>.</span> </div>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;The clean cut, bright green leaves make a remarkable
+        showing, being all the way from two feet to a yard
+        in length, and of graceful, drooping habit (Fig. 77).
+        They are sweet-scented, too,&mdash;a delightful fragrance,
+        resembling that of June apples. Another admirable
+        feature of this hybrid walnut is its smooth, grayish bark,
+        with white marblings not unlike the Eastern sugar
+        maple. The wood is compact, with lustrous, satiny
+        grain, and takes an elegant polish, which gives it unmistakable
+        commercial value. Like the majority of hybrids,
+        though blossoming freely it yields a scant crop of nuts,
+        one or two annually on a single tree, and this only after
+        twelve years of persistent barrenness. The seed, when
+        planted, goes back to its parent distinctiveness,&mdash;one-half
+        turning out to be English walnuts and the other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a><br />
+        <a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> half black walnuts,&mdash;the true hybrid being only
+        reproduced by grafting
+        on a thrifty young <i>Juglans
+        Californica</i>.</p>
+    <p>&quot;Another handsome
+        novelty in shade trees,
+        is a hybrid from the <i>Juglans nigra</i>, or well-known
+        Eastern black
+        walnut, and <i>J. Californica</i> (Figs. 78 and 79).
+        It makes a charming
+        ornamental tree, and
+        bears, in its season, a
+        prolific crop of unusually
+        large nuts, which have
+        little value except in the
+        eyes of school children.
+        Several of these hybrids
+        are growing in Santa
+        Rosa, and present an interesting
+        study to the
+        pomologist.</p>
+</blockquote>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig80.jpg" alt="" title="" height="726" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._80" id="FIG._80">FIG. 80</a>. JUGLANS SIEBOLDIANA RACEME.</span> </div>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;A still more unique
+        species of the walnut
+        genus is the <i>Juglans Sieboldiana</i>,
+        a Japanese walnut
+        which grows abundantly
+        in the mountainous
+        districts of the island
+        of Yesso, and also in the
+        more southern divisions
+        of the empire. Several
+        of these remarkable trees
+        are to be found in the
+        Kew gardens, but only one specimen is said to be growing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> in America, and this has recently come into profuse
+        bearing on the Burbank experimental farm, eight
+        miles from Santa Rosa, California. According to good
+        authority, this Japanese walnut not only attains its
+        greatest perfection in this favored climate, but it thrives
+        equally well in countries too cold for the common
+        walnut, <i>J. regia</i>. In its wild state in Japan, the <i>Juglans
+        Sieboldiana</i> (whose curious raceme of nuts is shown in
+        Fig. 80) makes a wide-spreading tree about fifty feet in
+        hight, with pale, furrowed bark; nuts an inch and a
+        half long, with a diameter one-third less, and a kernel
+        having much the
+        flavor of the common
+        walnut. The
+        tree bearing so
+        thriftily on California
+        soil, suggests its
+        possible value as a
+        marketable nut,
+        while it already furnishes
+        a remarkable
+        addition to horticultural
+        interests.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><span class="smcap">Juglans nigra</span>,
+    Linn. Black
+    Walnut.&mdash;Leaflets
+    eleven to seventeen,
+    rarely more; ovate-lanceolate, smooth above, moderately
+    pubescent beneath, pointed, somewhat heart-shaped at
+    the base; leaf-stalks slightly downy, usually of a pale
+    purplish color early in the season, especially on young
+    trees; fruit large, mostly globose (Fig. 81); husk thin,
+    roughly dotted; shell thick, hard, deeply and unevenly
+    corrugated with rough, sharp ridges and points (Fig.
+    82); kernel large, sweet, but usually with a strong,
+    rather rank taste, but less oily than the butternut.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> Trees grow to an immense size, with deeply furrowed
+    bark; wood dark colored, valuable for cabinet work,
+    inside finishing, gun stocks, etc. Common in deep, rich
+    soils, from western Massachusetts west to southern Minnesota,
+    and southward to Florida. Most abundant west
+    of the Alleghany mountains, and especially in the rich
+    valleys of the Western States distant from railroads and
+    water communication; elsewhere the trees have long
+    since been cut for their
+    timber. I have only one
+    synonym to record, and
+    this is scarcely worthy of
+    notice, viz.: <i>Wallia nigra</i>.
+    (Alefeld in &quot;Bonplandia,&quot;
+    1861.)</p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"> <img src="images/fig81.jpg" alt="" title="" height="462" width="400" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._81" id="FIG._81">FIG. 81</a>. BLACK WALNUT IN HUSK.</span> </div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig82.jpg" alt="" title="" height="348" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._82" id="FIG._82">FIG. 82</a>. JUGLANS NIGRA, HUSK
+    REMOVED.</span> </div>
+<p><strong>Varieties of the
+    Black Walnut.</strong>&mdash;As with
+    the butternut, there are no
+    varieties of the black walnut
+    in cultivation; at least,
+    none propagated by means
+    which will insure the perpetuation of their varietal characteristics.
+    It is true that there are plenty of wild varieties
+    to be found, these varying widely in size and form,
+    and somewhat in thickness of their shell, as well as the
+    ease with which the kernels may be extracted, but none
+    of these have been perpetuated by artificial means.
+    Among the earliest varieties recognized by botanists,
+    one was called Oblong Black Walnut, <i>Juglans nigra
+    oblonga</i>, by Miller, 1754, and perhaps in earlier editions
+    of the &quot;Gardener's Dictionary.&quot; He says this is from
+    Virginia, and only a variety of the common black walnut.
+    Marshall, in 1785, describes this &quot;black oblong
+    fruited walnut,&quot; and adds: &quot;There are, perhaps, some
+    other varieties.&quot; These oblong, or, more correctly
+    speaking, oval nuts, often sharp-pointed at both ends,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> are rather plentiful at this time. There are rarely any
+    considerable number of bushels reaching market from
+    Virginia and adjacent States, among which these oval or
+    oblong nuts cannot be found. I have a number before
+    me measuring from one inch to one and a quarter in
+    diameter, and from one and a half to nearly two inches
+    in length. Other varieties found, perhaps, in the same
+    lot, are broader than long, or one and seven-eighths
+    inches broad, by one and one-half in vertical diameter.
+    These measurements are of the cleaned shell, after the
+    husks have been removed.</p>
+<p>For several years a &quot;thin-shelled black walnut&quot; has
+    been offered by at least two nurserymen, in whose catalogues
+    they are described as &quot;with unusually thin shells,
+    the kernels coming out whole.&quot; I have endeavored to
+    ascertain the origin of this variety, but failed, for both
+    of the nursery firms who advertised the frees for sale
+    admit that they do not know from whom they obtained
+    the nuts planted, or where the original tree is growing.
+    As the trees offered are only seedlings, there is no certainty
+    that they will produce nuts with &quot;thin shells.&quot;
+    We can safely drop this supposed variety from the list
+    until something definite is known about it.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Juglans Californica</span>, Watson. California Walnut.&mdash;Leaflets
+    in from five to eight pairs, more or less
+    downy, but sometimes smooth, oblong-lanceolate, sharp-pointed,
+    narrowing upward from near the base, two to
+    two and a half inches long. Male catkins much larger
+    than in our Eastern species, or from four to eight inches,
+    often in pairs. Fruit round, slightly compressed, three-fourths
+    to one inch and a quarter in diameter; husk
+    thin, slightly dotted or roughened; shell dark brown,
+    very faintly sculptured (Fig. 83), almost smooth, thick,
+    the kernel filling two broad cavities upon each side; edible
+    and fairly good. A tree or large shrub in the vicinity
+    of San Francisco and along the Sacramento (where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> it is sometimes cultivated), growing to the hight of
+    forty to sixty feet, and two to four feet in diameter;
+    ranging southward to Santa Barbara, and eastward
+    through southern Arizona to New Mexico and Sonora
+    (Thurber, &quot;Botany of California&quot;). This species has
+    been considered by some botanists as only a variety of
+    the next, or <i>Juglans rupestris</i>, var. <i>Major</i>, Torrey.
+    Scarcely hardy in the latitude of
+    New York city, except an occasional
+    seedling from nuts gathered along
+    the northern limits of the species,
+    or from the cooler elevated regions
+    of the Pacific slope. It is of no
+    special value, only adding one more
+    edible nut tree to the list.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig83.jpg" alt="" title="" height="192" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._83" id="FIG._83">FIG. 83</a>. JUGLANS CALIFORNICA.</span> </div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 180px;"> <img src="images/fig84.jpg" alt="" title="" height="237" width="180" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._84" id="FIG._84">FIG. 84</a>. JUGLANS
+    RUPESTRIS, SHOWING
+    SMALL KERNEL.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Juglans Rupestris</span>, Engelmann. Texas Walnut.
+    New Mexico Walnut.&mdash;Leaflets thirteen to twenty-five,
+    smooth, bright green, small, narrow, and long-pointed;
+    male catkins short, or about two inches long, and quite
+    slender; fruit round or oblate; husk
+    thin, nearly smooth; nut small, one-half
+    to three-fourths of an inch in
+    diameter; shell very thick, rather
+    deeply furrowed, the narrow grooves on
+    the greater part continuous from base
+    to apex, the broad edges of the ridges
+    smooth, not jagged as in the butternut
+    and black walnut. Kernel sweet and
+    good, but so small (Fig. 84) as not to
+    be worth the trouble of extracting. A small and neat tree
+    twenty to forty feet high, native of the bottom lands of
+    the Colorado in Texas, and throughout the western part
+    of the State, extending through southern and central
+    New Mexico to Arizona. In New Mexico it reaches an
+    elevation of seven or eight thousand feet, though the
+    climate is often severe, the temperature dropping to zero<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> and below during the winter. Seedlings raised from
+    nuts obtained near the northern limits of this species in
+    Texas and New Mexico would probably be hardy in
+    most of the Northern States, but they are scarcely worth
+    cultivating for their nuts, owing to the small size and
+    thick shell; but as the trees are neat and graceful they
+    are worthy of a place among other useful and ornamental
+    kinds. An occasional bearing tree of this Texas
+    walnut may be seen in the gardens and parks of the
+    Eastern States, and probably in some of the Western,
+    but I have no direct information in regard to their locations
+    or age.</p>
+<p>Synonyms:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p><i>Juglans rupestris</i>, Torrey.<br />
+        <i>Juglans Californica</i>, Watson, Bot. California.<br />
+    </p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong><a name="Oriental_Walnuts." id="Oriental_Walnuts.">Oriental Walnuts.</a></strong>&mdash;How few or many species of
+    the walnut are indigenous to China, Korea, Japan and
+    other Oriental countries it would be very difficult to
+    determine, with our present limited knowledge of the
+    forests of that part of the world. The few botanists
+    who have had opportunities of studying the flora of
+    those regions do not agree as to names or number of
+    species of the genus. Loureiro, in his &quot;Flora Cochinchinensis&quot;
+    (1788), names three species as indigenous to
+    China, viz.: <i>Juglans regia</i> in the northern part, but
+    this is now considered very doubtful; <i>Juglans Camirium</i>,
+    Rhumphius, a medium-sized, heart-shaped nut, the trees
+    found in the forests, and also under cultivation; <i>Juglans
+    Catappa</i>, a large forest tree in the Cochin China
+    mountains, with oblong, edible nuts, with husk and
+    shell of nuts of a reddish color. Many years later Siebold
+    describes a Japan walnut under the name of <i>Juglans
+    Japonica</i>, and still later the Russian botanist, Maxiomowicz,
+    renames this, in honor of Siebold, <i>Juglans
+    Sieboldiana</i>, and describes another native of Japan as <i>Juglans cordiformis</i>. But prior to any of the authors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> named, Thunberg had described a Japan walnut under
+    the name of <i>Juglans nigra</i>, probably the same as Loureiro's
+    species, with reddish husk, but as this name had
+    already been given to an American species it had to be
+    dropped. Maxiomowicz also describes what he supposed
+    to be a distinct species, found in the forests of Mandshuria
+    under the name of <i>J. Mandshurica</i> (1872), but
+    it is doubtful if it is anything more than one of the
+    many wild forms of the species found widely distributed
+    over eastern Asia. The red or black fruited walnut of
+    Loureiro (<i>J. Catappa</i>), and Siebold's black walnut (<i>J.
+    nigra</i>), are probably the same as the Ailantus-leaved
+    (<i>J. ailantifolia</i>), recently described in Nicholson's
+    &quot;Dictionary of Gardening,&quot; London, Eng., 1884, the
+    origin of which is said to be uncertain. It is <i>Juglans
+    Mandshurica</i>, Maxim, in Alphonse Lavallée's &quot;Catalogue
+    of Arboretum Segrezianum.&quot; As described in
+    this work, the young fruit is violet-red, and produced in
+    long pendulous clusters, the latter being one of the
+    marked characteristics of these Oriental walnuts. But
+    whether we admit that there is but one or a dozen species
+    of these Eastern walnuts, it cannot be of any special
+    interest to the practical nut culturist, for to him their
+    economic and commercial value is of more importance
+    than scientific nomenclature.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig85.jpg" alt="" title="" height="389" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._85" id="FIG._85">FIG. 85</a>. JUGLANS SIEBOLDIANA.</span> </div>
+<p>Up to the present time we have only succeeded in
+    obtaining two species of these walnuts, or perhaps only
+    one species and one variety; but we certainly have two
+    distinct forms, both coming from Japan, and distributed
+    under the names given them by Maxiomowicz, viz.:</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Juglans Sieboldiana</span> (Siebold Walnut).&mdash;Leaflets
+    sessile, usually fifteen, five to seven inches long, oblong-pointed,
+    thin, soft, downy, serratures very shallow, pale
+    green above and somewhat lighter beneath; footstalks
+    densely clothed with clammy hairs; fruit in long pendulous
+    clusters of a half dozen to a dozen, one and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> half inches or more long by a little more than one inch
+    broad in the middle; husk thin, downy or clammy; nut
+    somewhat compressed, the point usually bending to one
+    side; shell smooth, with two shallow grooves from base
+    upward on the sides opposite to the sharp, prominent
+    ridges at the seams of the two lobes, the shell ending in
+    a strong, sharp point (Fig. 85). The shell is very hard
+    and thick; the kernel small, sweet, oily, resembling in
+    taste our common butternut; tree a rapid and stocky
+    grower, the coarse shoots and
+    large leaves resembling those of
+    the Ailantus tree at first, but
+    soon spreading branches appear,
+    forming an open, roundish head.
+    The seedlings, as raised here, are
+    abundantly supplied with small
+    fibrous roots, which insures
+    transplanting with safety. Apparently
+    perfectly hardy in our
+    Northern States, as I have heard
+    no complaints of winter-killing
+    of the young trees, although they are now widely distributed
+    and in considerable numbers, but none, so far
+    as I have been able to learn, have reached a bearing age
+    here in the North.</p>
+<p>Mr. P. C. Berckmans, of Augusta, Ga., in writing
+    me under date of Dec. 3, 1894, says:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;Last year we
+        fruited <i>Juglans Sieboldiana</i> trees four years from the
+        seed. Fruit was produced in long clusters, and trees
+        exceedingly ornamental, but this year these same trees
+        were killed to the ground on the 26th of March, after
+        they had set a crop of fruit and made a young growth of
+        more than twelve inches. This untimely frost may not
+        happen again in years, but it goes to show that many
+        varieties of trees which are considered hardy further
+        north, are sometimes destroyed here by spring frosts.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span></p>
+<p>As these Japanese and Chinese walnuts are natives
+    of cold climates they may be better adapted to the Northern
+    than Southern States, but there is no locality entirely
+    exempt from late spring frosts, as most farmers
+    and fruit growers learned to their cost the past season.
+    There can be little doubt of this species of walnut being
+    the one described by Rhumphius under the name of <i>J.
+    Camirium</i>, and more fully later by Loureiro, as already
+    noted; but having come to us from Japan as Siebold's
+    walnut, this name will answer as well as any other, even
+    if it is not the proper one.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig86.jpg" alt="" title="" height="291" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._86" id="FIG._86">FIG. 86</a>. JUGLANS
+    CORDIFORMIS.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Juglans cordiformis</span>, Maxim.&mdash;In foliage and
+    growth of tree this is almost, if not absolutely, identical
+    with the last; the difference observed
+    is in the nuts, which are also produced
+    in pendulous clusters. The
+    form of the nut is almost round
+    (Fig. 86), rather blunt-pointed, but
+    the shell is deeply and unevenly furrowed,
+    and indented somewhat like
+    our black walnut; the ridges, however,
+    are not as sharp. The specimens
+    I have received from various
+    sources are not as large as the Siebold,
+    and the shell not quite as thick, but the kernel is
+    small. I may note here that there appears to be some
+    confusion in regard to this variety or species, for in several
+    nurserymen's catalogues this form of nut is figured
+    as Siebold's, and the one that I have described under
+    that name is called <i>Cordiformis</i>. The specimens received
+    from California, Japan, and also from Mr. Berckmans,
+    correspond with the names here given, but further
+    investigations may show that they should be reversed.
+    The one I have received as <i>Cordiformis</i> is, doubtless,
+    the nut described by Loureiro as <i>J. Catappa</i>, as an
+    ovate-oblong nut, with a fibrous, leathery, reddish husk.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span></p>
+<p>While I do not suppose that these Oriental walnuts
+    will ever become of any considerable commercial value,
+    they are worth planting for shade and ornamental trees.
+    They are rather precocious, coming into bearing at an
+    early age, and the nuts are not only edible, but will
+    always be an acceptable addition to the unimportant
+    although agreeable household supplies.</p>
+<p><strong>Persian Walnuts.</strong> <i>Juglans regia</i>, Linn. Royal
+    Walnut, Madeira Nut, English Walnut, French Walnut,
+    Chile Walnut, etc.&mdash;Leaflets five to nine, oval, smooth,
+    pointed, slightly serrate; fruit round or slightly oval;
+    husk thin, green, of a leathery texture, becoming brittle
+    and cleaving from the nut when ripe and dry; nut
+    roundish-oval, smallest at the top; shell smooth, with
+    slight indentations, thin, two-valved, readily parting at
+    the seams; kernel large, wrinkled and corrugated, the
+    two lobes separated below with a thin, papery partition,
+    but united at the top; sweet, oily, and generally
+    esteemed.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> <img src="images/fig87.jpg" alt="" title="" height="171" width="150" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._87" id="FIG._87">FIG. 87</a>. SMALL FRUITED WALNUT.</span> </div>
+<p>This species has been in cultivation many centuries,
+    and in different countries and climates, and under such
+    variable conditions that many of the varieties
+    have departed widely from the normal
+    type. There are now an almost innumerable
+    number of varieties, varying greatly in
+    size and form. Some are not larger than a
+    good-sized pea, as seen in the &quot;Small
+    Fruited Walnut&quot; (Fig. 87), while others are nearly as
+    large as a man's fist, as in the thick-shelled or &quot;Gibbous
+    Walnut&quot; (Fig. 92), while in others the nut is greatly
+    elongated, as in the &quot;Barthere Walnut&quot; (Fig. 88), and
+    hundreds of other intermediate forms. There are also
+    varieties that bloom early in spring, others late. Some
+    are very hardy, others quite tender in cold climates.
+    There are also dwarf and tall-growing, as well as the
+    precocious and tardy fruiting varieties. But very few<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> of these have ever been cultivated in our Eastern
+    States, consequently little is known of their value
+    here; but more may be in the near future, when our
+    horticulturists and farmers begin to plant nut trees as
+    freely as they have other kinds, or are awakened to the
+    fact that such trees can be made a source of pleasure
+    and profit.</p>
+<p>Here in the Northern States our main dependence
+    for hardy and productive trees of this species will be
+    upon seedlings or cions from those acclimated specimens
+    which have already been thoroughly tested and found to
+    be both hardy and prolific. There are plenty of these,
+    as I have stated elsewhere, and they are well worthy of
+    attention and multiplication until something better is
+    produced or discovered. In the meantime, the most
+    promising European varieties could be imported and
+    tested, although it is not probable that those originating
+    in southern France and Italy would be of much value
+    for planting in the latitude of New York city or north
+    of it, but south of this line the chances of success
+    would be somewhat greater; and to escape injury from
+    late spring frosts, the more elevated regions are preferable
+    to the lower and warmer anywhere in the Southern
+    States. In anticipation of the question being asked, I
+    will say that, at present, I do not know of any nurseryman
+    in the Eastern States who propagates or imports
+    named varieties of walnuts for sale. Of course, seedlings
+    of these are offered, but it is well known that there
+    is but a remote chance of these coming true from seed.
+    Even the little dwarf French walnut <i>Præparturiens</i>, or
+    Early Prolific, cannot be depended upon to produce
+    dwarf or early bearing trees beyond the first generation
+    from the nut, and these must be the product of grafted
+    trees, to insure this much. The following list contains
+    the names of only a few of the most noted varieties, the
+    greater part having originated in Europe.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Ailantus-leaved walnut.</span> See <a href="#Oriental_Walnuts.">Oriental walnuts</a>.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig88.jpg" alt="" title="" height="373" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._88" id="FIG._88">FIG. 88</a>. BARTHERE WALNUT.</span> </div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig89.jpg" alt="" title="" height="259" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._89" id="FIG._89">FIG. 89</a>. CHABERTE.</span> </div>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;"> <img src="images/fig90.jpg" alt="" height="471" width="400" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._90" id="FIG._90">FIG. 90</a>. CHILE WALNUT.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Barthere walnuts.</span> See Fig. 88.&mdash;A very long
+    nut, pointed at both ends. Shell thin; kernel large and
+    of excellent flavor.
+    Named
+    after M. Barthere,
+    a horticulturist
+    of
+    Toulouse,
+    France, who
+    discovered it
+    growing among
+    a number of
+    other trees; consequently, its origin
+    is a mystery. M. Barthere says that
+    it is very productive, and even the
+    seedlings of this variety
+    begin to bear
+    very early.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Chaberte.</span>&mdash;An
+    old standard
+    French variety, of
+    an oval shape; medium
+    size, with
+    very full and rich
+    flavored kernel
+    (Fig. 89).  The
+    tree buds and blooms late, therefore especially valuable
+    in localities where late spring frosts are likely to occur.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Chile walnut.</span>&mdash;This name is given, in a general
+    way, to all the walnuts received in our markets from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> South America. The nuts are usually of good size, with
+    a dark grayish shell; thin but firm, with plump kernels
+    of excellent flavor. These nuts arrive in February and
+    March. Many of the Chile walnuts have three valves
+    (Fig. 90), instead of the normal two. Such freaks are
+    occasionally found among the European varieties, also
+    in the native hickories, but these tri-valved nuts appear
+    to be very abundant among the Chile walnuts.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Cluster walnut</span>. <span class="smcap">Racemosa or Spicata</span>.&mdash;Described
+    by Mr. Gillet as a variety of the Persian walnut,
+    producing medium, thin-shelled nuts in long clusters of
+    from eight to twenty-eight. He also says that he introduced
+    it into this country, but from whence we are not
+    informed. Lavellée (1877) records it as a variety of <i>J.
+    regia</i>, under the name
+    of <i>racemosa</i>, giving
+    its synonym as <i>Juglans
+    Californica</i> of
+    the horticulturists.
+    I have not found it
+    mentioned elsewhere.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 430px;"> <img src="images/fig91.jpg" alt="" height="405" width="430" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._91" id="FIG._91">FIG. 91</a>. CUT-LEAVED WALNUT.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Cut-leaved
+    walnut.</span>&mdash;A variety
+    with deeply cut
+    leaves; very ornamental,
+    as seen in
+    Fig. 91. Nuts quite small, but of good quality.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Franquette.</span>&mdash;Another old standard French variety,
+    with large, elongated-oval nuts with a distinct point.
+    Shell thin; kernel large, and of rich flavor. The tree
+    blooms late; valuable for planting in the South.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Gant or Bijou walnut.</span>&mdash;A remarkable variety
+    on account of its extraordinary size. The shell is thin,
+    with rather deep furrows, those of the largest size being
+    made into ladies' companions, where to stow away gloves
+    or handkerchiefs, hence the name &quot;Gant&quot; walnut.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> The kernel, though, does not correspond to the size of
+    the shell (Gillet).</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Gibbous walnut</span> (Fig. 92).&mdash;This is a very large
+    variety, supposed to be a hybrid, raised in France many
+    years ago. It is of little value, as the shell is very thick
+    and kernel small.
+    Valuable mainly for
+    its immense size.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> <img src="images/fig92.jpg" alt="" title="" height="492" width="400" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._92" id="FIG._92">FIG. 92</a>. GIBBOUS WALNUT.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Kaghazi.</span>&mdash;This
+    is supposed to
+    be a variety of the
+    Persian walnut, of
+    fair size, with a very
+    thin shell. The tree
+    blooms very late in
+    spring, and for this
+    reason is recommended
+    for localities
+    where there is danger
+    from injury by
+    frost. The tree is
+    said to be a very
+    rapid grower, and much more hardy than the general
+    run of varieties of this species. I have been unable to
+    learn its origin, but it has been planted quite extensively
+    in California, and some of our Eastern nurserymen
+    are offering the seedling trees for sale, but whether they
+    will possess the merits of the original or not must be
+    determined by experience.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Large-fruited Præparturiens.</span>&mdash;A sub-variety
+    of the Præparturiens, originating with Mr. Felix Gillet
+    of California.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Late Præparturiens.</span>&mdash;Also originated with Mr.
+    Gillet. Valuable because the trees bloom late in spring.
+    Nuts described as of medium size, but with full kernels
+    of excellent quality.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Mayette.</span>&mdash;Very large (Fig. 93), with a light-colored
+    shell of moderate thickness. Kernel plump, readily
+    extracted whole, as shown in Fig. 94, sweet, and a
+    rich, nutty flavor. Tree blooms late and is very productive.
+    An old and standard French variety.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig93.jpg" alt="" title="" height="370" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._93" id="FIG._93">FIG. 93</a>. MAYETTE.</span> </div>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig94.jpg" alt="" title="" height="314" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._94" id="FIG._94">FIG. 94</a>. KERNEL OF WALNUT.</span> </div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig95.jpg" alt="" title="" height="343" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._95" id="FIG._95">FIG. 95</a>. J. REGIA OCTOGONA.</span> </div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig96.jpg" alt="" title="" height="328" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._96" id="FIG._96">FIG. 96</a>. CROSS SECTION.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Mesange or Paper-shell.</span>&mdash;This nut has the
+    thinnest shell of any variety known; it derives its name
+    of Mesange from a little lark of that name, that goes to
+    the kernel through the tender shell. Tree very productive,
+    and the kernel quite rich in oil. We do not, however,
+    recommend the growing of this variety for market,
+    on account of the thinness of the shell, which breaks off<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> too easily in handling the nuts, or even when they drop
+    on the ground (Felix Gillet).</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Meylan Walnut.</span>&mdash;A French variety that originated
+    near the little village of Meylan, in the vicinity
+    of which it is quite extensively cultivated for home
+    use and export.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Octogona.</span>&mdash;Of uncertain origin, but very much
+    resembles one of the Oriental species in the form and
+    sculpture of the shell (Fig. 95). The shell is also very
+    thick, as shown in the cross section (Fig. 96). Of no
+    special value.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Parisienne Walnut.</span>&mdash;Although this was named
+    for the city of Paris it did not originate there, but in
+    the South of France. It is a
+    large and rather broad variety,
+    with a firm but thin shell (Fig.
+    97) and excellent flavored kernel.
+    It is reported that this
+    variety succeeds in California,
+    also in the South wherever
+    tried. The trees leaf out late
+    in spring and are rarely injured
+    by frosts, and are remarkably productive.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Præparturiens.</span> Precocious Dwarf Prolific.&mdash;A
+    French variety of a dwarf habit, and the plants noted
+    for bearing when very young. A correspondent of <i>The
+    Garden</i> (London, Eng.), referring to this variety some
+    years ago, says:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;It is precocious on account of the
+        singular and exceptional fact that it is born almost an
+        adult; in fact, it is nothing uncommon to see a tree in
+        its third year bearing excellent fruit.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p>He does not say,
+    however, whether he refers to seedlings or grafted
+    plants, but we may presume the latter or those raised
+    from layers, for cultivators who have experimented with
+    seedlings have found that they possess a strong tendency<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> to revert to the original or tree form. This may not
+    show itself very strongly in the first generation if the
+    nuts are obtained from grafted trees of some age, but in
+    the second and third generation the early-fruiting and
+    dwarf are usually entirely lost. The only certain way of
+    securing the true variety is by grafting or layering, but
+    it is to be feared that very few trees propagated by these
+    modes are in cultivation, at least in the Eastern States,
+    although nurserymen have been offering Præparturiens
+    walnut trees in their catalogues during the past fifty
+    years. In one now before me, published in New York
+    city in 1844, trees of this walnut are offered at one dollar
+    each, or about what is charged for seedlings at the
+    present time. As nothing is said in the catalogues about
+    the mode of propagation, we infer that they are seedlings,
+    as grafted trees would be worth more than one
+    dollar. The nuts of this dwarf
+    walnut are of medium size, thin-shelled
+    and of excellent flavor;
+    valuable for gardens of limited
+    extent.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Serotina.</span> Late Walnut, St.
+    John Walnut.&mdash;A very peculiar
+    sort, inasmuch as it is the latest
+    of all to bud and bloom in spring,
+    and yet it pushes forward so rapidly
+    that the nuts are ripe with
+    others in the fall. They are of medium size (Fig. 98),
+    with a rather hard shell, but the kernel is plump and
+    good flavored. The tree is very productive, and sure to
+    escape late spring frosts.</p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig97.jpg" alt="" title="" height="355" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._97" id="FIG._97">FIG. 97</a>. PARISIENNE.</span> </div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig98.jpg" alt="" title="" height="380" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._98" id="FIG._98">FIG. 98</a>. SEROTINA OR
+    ST. JOHN.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Vilmorin.</span>&mdash;This is claimed to be a hybrid between
+    some variety of <i>J. regia</i> and our native black walnut, <i>J. nigra</i>. Scarcely known outside of France.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Vourey.</span>&mdash;A new and splendid variety raised near
+    Vourey, a small town in southeast France. It has much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> the same shape and qualities of the Parisienne walnut
+    (Gillet).</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Variegated walnut.</span>&mdash;A handsome variety, with
+    young branches covered with dark-green bark spotted
+    with gray, and often striped longitudinally with yellow.
+    The leaves resemble those of the common walnut; the
+    fruit is of a light yellowish-green streaked with darker
+    green, and reminds one closely of certain varieties of
+    pears which, in common with this variety, frequently
+    have their young branches striped in a similar manner.
+    Propagated by grafting or layers. (<i>The Garden.</i>)</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Weeping walnut.</span>&mdash;A tree with pendulous twigs
+    and branches. Quite ornamental, but not especially
+    valuable for its fruit. Hardy in England.</p>
+<p>In addition to those described, there are a large
+    number of varieties, which may be worth importing
+    and testing in this country, by those who may feel
+    inclined to make experiments with these nuts. Probably
+    some of those highly extolled by earlier writers are
+    now lost, but this cannot be determined until a careful
+    search through the old European gardens has
+    been made.</p>
+<p>Among the early-fruiting or precocious varieties we
+    find an account of one raised by Anthony Carlisle, of
+    England, as recorded in a paper read at a meeting of the
+    Horticultural Society of London, March 3, 1812. Mr.
+    Carlisle planted six nuts in March, 1802, these having
+    been received from Mr. Thomas Wedgewood of
+    Blandford. Six years later, or in 1808, one of the seedlings
+    bore and matured ten walnuts, and the next season
+    (1809) upwards of fifty, and in 1810 one hundred and
+    twelve, the tree at that age being nineteen feet seven
+    and one-half inches high. Another variety, under the
+    name of Highflyer walnut, is described in the Transactions
+    of the same society, Vol. IV, 1822, p. 517. The
+    nuts sent to the society were grown in the town of Thetford,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> and are described as a long oval, with a shell so
+    very thin that the slightest pressure of the fingers
+    crushes it. I find that this Highflyer walnut is mentioned
+    in the recently published &quot;Dictionary of Gardening,&quot;
+    but whether obtainable in English nurseries or
+    not we are left in doubt.</p>
+<p>I refer to these English varieties mainly to show
+    that some of the very best and thinnest-shelled walnuts
+    have been grown in cool climates, and are not confined
+    entirely to the warm or semi-tropical, as many persons
+    seem to suppose and even claim to be the fact. It is
+    principally from these English walnuts, as they are usually
+    termed, that our hardy old-bearing trees, referred
+    to elsewhere, have been produced, and, doubtless, many
+    more will be, when we begin to pay some attention to
+    this very valuable nut. It is also quite likely that when
+    our horticulturists look about for choice acclimated
+    varieties for propagation, they will be found right here
+    in the grounds of next-door neighbors, and there may be
+    no necessity of sending to Europe or elsewhere for either
+    nuts or trees.</p>
+<p>At present there is much confusion and uncertainty
+    in regard to the identity and nomenclature of both species
+    and varieties of the walnut, and it must remain so
+    until they are collected from all countries and climes, of
+    which they are either native or into which they have
+    been introduced, and when so collected, and fruiting
+    specimens produce, it will not be difficult to classify
+    and determine their synonyms. This will be an undertaking
+    scarcely to be expected of the individual nut culturist,
+    but is within the legitimate line of the arboretum,
+    and of public botanical gardens located in both cold and
+    warm climates, thereby securing a division of labor, and
+    at the same time avoiding the uncertainty of trying to
+    produce practical results under uncongenial conditions
+    and surroundings.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span></p>
+<p><strong>Husking Walnuts.</strong>&mdash;The husks of nearly all the
+    varieties of the Persian and Oriental walnuts part from
+    their shells freely when fully ripened and dried, but in a
+    few varieties the husks are rather persistent, requiring
+    force and friction for their removal. This may be accomplished
+    by placing them in bags and shaking, or in
+    barrels and rolling, until the nuts are scraped clean.
+    But the better way, where there is any considerable
+    quantity of nuts to be operated upon, is to take a strong
+    barrel or cask, and so arrange it on standards that it
+    can be rapidly revolved with a crank attached to one
+    end. Of course, the cask must have its two heads left
+    in place, and an opening made in the side to admit the
+    nuts and remove them when cleaned. Almost any man
+    handy with tools can make such a cleaner and polisher
+    in a few hours, and if stored in a dry place it will last
+    for several years. With butternuts and black walnuts
+    the husks are much tougher, and they should be thrown
+    into heaps in the open air, and turned over occasionally
+    until the husks become softened sufficiently to permit
+    of their removal, in case they are to be sent to market.
+    Ordinary threshing machines may be used for cleaning
+    the husks from black walnuts, by removing about one-half
+    the teeth, or enough to allow the nuts to pass
+    through without breaking their shells.</p>
+<p>Most of the hickories drop from the husk, leaving
+    the nut clean; but in some varieties of the pecan the
+    inner part of the husk adheres rather tenaciously, and
+    they sell better if cleaned; besides, some have rather
+    rough and thick shells, and a little scraping and polishing
+    adds much to their appearance. The revolving cask,
+    either worked by hand or other power, is an excellent
+    implement for preparing these nuts for market, and if
+    the husk is very persistent, a little dry sand thrown in
+    will aid in cleaning and polishing. Sometimes these
+    nuts are subjected to what is called the soapstone polish,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> leaving the shells very smooth, with a greasy feel. The
+    French walnuts, which are extensively imported under
+    the general name of Grenoble walnuts, are usually
+    bleached with sulphur before they are shipped, and
+    while this adds nothing to the quality of the kernel, the
+    sulphur is an excellent insecticide and fungicide, and
+    may be of some use on that account; but otherwise it is
+    likely to be more injurious than beneficial. As bleaching
+    both walnuts and almonds is often insisted upon by
+    dealers, I give the process suggested by Director Hilgard,
+    of the California Agricultural Experiment Station, which
+    he believes will prove more satisfactory than the one
+    usually employed, and is as follows:</p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>&quot;The nuts, placed in small baskets (such as the
+        Chinese use for carrying), are dipped for about five minutes
+        in a solution containing to every fifty gallons of
+        water six pounds of bleaching powder and twelve pounds
+        of sal soda. They are then rinsed with a hose, and
+        after draining, again dipped into another solution containing
+        one per cent of bisulphite of lime; after the
+        nuts have assumed the desired tint, they are again rinsed
+        with water and then dried. Instead of the second dipping,
+        the nuts may be sulphured (fumigated) for ten or
+        fifteen minutes. The cost of fifty gallons of chlorine
+        dip will be about forty cents; the same bulk of the bisulphite
+        dip, probably considerably less. The time occupied
+        in handling one batch (two dips) is from twelve to
+        fifteen minutes.&quot;</p>
+</blockquote>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig99.jpg" alt="" height="150" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._99" id="FIG._99">FIG. 99</a>. THE CATERPILLAR.</span> </div>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> <img src="images/fig100.jpg" alt="" height="232" width="500" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._100" id="FIG._100">FIG. 100</a>. THE REGAL WALNUT MOTH&mdash;CITHERONIA REGALIS.</span> </div>
+<p><strong>Insect Enemies.</strong>&mdash;The walnut is attacked by the
+    same kinds of insects that infest the hickories, with,
+    perhaps, a few exceptions; as, for instance, the bark
+    beetles and the nut weevils. The leaves appear to be
+    more or less acceptable food for the caterpillars that
+    feed on the hickories, and the same insecticides and
+    means employed for destroying these pests on one will
+    answer for the other.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a><br />
+    <a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></p>
+<p>The caterpillars of some of the smaller kinds of
+    moths are, as a rule, far more destructive to the leaves
+    than the larger, and their ravages often escape notice
+    until it is too late for the use of preventives, or for their
+    destruction with insecticides.</p>
+<p>Ever since I became connected with the New York
+    city press, some thirty odd years ago, scarcely a season
+    has passed during which one or more specimens of the
+    Regal walnut caterpillar (<i>Citheronia regalis</i>), shown in
+    Fig. 99, have not been received from some correspondent
+    who had found them crawling down the stem or on the
+    ground near a walnut tree. Such a large caterpillar
+    would naturally attract the attention of almost any person,
+    but to the timid its appearance is exceedingly ferocious
+    and repulsive, while to the entomologist it is a
+    beautiful and interesting creature, and far more likely
+    to be handled with care than injured. This caterpillar
+    is of a green color, and transversely banded across each
+    of the rings with pale blue. The head and legs are of
+    an orange color, also the long spine or horns, with the
+    points tipped with black. It is certainly very formidable
+    in appearance, but perfectly harmless, and may be
+    handled with impunity. The parent moth (Fig. 100)
+    has fore wings of an olive color, ornamented with small
+    yellow spots and veined with red lines. The hind wings
+    are orange-red, with two large irregular yellow patches
+    before, and a row of wedge-shaped olive colored spots
+    between the veins behind. Although this insect appears
+    to be widely distributed over the country, and the caterpillars
+    feed on the walnuts and occasionally on the
+    hickory, it has never been known to be sufficiently numerous
+    to attract any special attention.</p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.</h2>
+<h3>MISCELLANEOUS NUTS&mdash;EDIBLE AND OTHERWISE.</h3>
+<p>In the following list of plants there are a few that
+    in no way can be considered as related to the true nut-bearing
+    trees and shrubs; but as the word &quot;nut&quot; has
+    been attached as a prefix or affix in commerce, or elsewhere,
+    they are admitted, even if for no other purpose
+    than to designate their true position in the vegetable
+    kingdom. For convenience, they are recorded in alphabetical
+    order, the most familiar of the common names&mdash;where
+    there are more than one&mdash;being given precedence,
+    the botanical or scientific following, with a brief description,
+    as my limited space will not permit of anything
+    more extended.</p>
+<p>It is not claimed that this catalogue of nuts is complete,
+    but it is probably as near it as any heretofore
+    compiled and published, and it may serve as the
+    basis for a better and more extended one at some future
+    time.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Acorn, or oak nut.</span>&mdash;The fruit of the oak, Quercus
+    (<i>Cupuliferæ</i>), monœcious, evergreen and deciduous
+    trees and shrubs, with alternate and simple straight-veined
+    leaves. A very large genus, of about two hundred
+    and fifty species, mainly in the temperate region of
+    the northern hemisphere. There are some forty species
+    native of the United States. The nuts are, on the
+    whole, rather too harsh and bitter flavored to be esteemed
+    or considered edible by civilized nations at the
+    present day, but in former times some of the oak nuts
+    were often an important article among the garnered food<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> of the household. They were used&mdash;and are still, in
+    some countries&mdash;boiled, roasted, and even ground and
+    made into bread and cakes. They have also been used
+    as a substitute for coffee, and for malt in making beer.
+    Strabo says that in the mountains of Spain the inhabitants
+    ground their acorns into meal, and Pliny affirms
+    that in his time acorns were brought to the table with
+    the dessert, in Spain. Every student of English history
+    is well aware of the importance of the acorn, not only
+    as food for man, in Great Britain, in the time of the
+    Druids, and later, but also for feeding swine, deer, and
+    other wild and domesticated animals. But with the
+    advance of civilization and the production of better
+    food, the oak nut ceased to be classed among the important
+    culinary supplies. There are, however, a few species
+    of the oak yielding nuts fairly edible in their raw
+    state, and these are much improved by roasting. The
+    best of those among our native species are to be found
+    in the varieties of the white oaks of the North, and in
+    the evergreen (<i>Quercus virens</i>) of the Southern States.
+    But with so many far superior species of edible nuts, it
+    is very doubtful if any of the oaks will ever be cultivated
+    for their fruit.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Australian_chestnut." id="Australian_chestnut.">Australian chestnut.</a></span>&mdash;The seeds of a large tree,
+    native of Australia, the <i>Castanospermum australe</i>, the
+    name of the genus being derived from <i>Kastanon</i>, chestnut,
+    and <i>sperma</i>, a seed, because the seeds resemble, in
+    size and taste, the common chestnut. But the tree
+    belongs to the bean family (<i>Leguminosæ</i>), and the seeds
+    are produced in large, long pods. They are about an
+    inch and a half broad, somewhat flattened, and of the
+    color of a chestnut when ripe. They are roasted and
+    eaten by the natives, but are rather unpalatable to those
+    who have been accustomed to something better in the
+    way of edible nuts. These seeds are also known as
+    &quot;Moreton Bay chestnuts.&quot;</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Australian_hazelnut." id="Australian_hazelnut.">Australian hazelnut.</a></span>&mdash;The fruit of <i>Macadamia
+    ternifolia</i> (<i>Proteaceæ</i>). There are two species, both
+    evergreen trees or tall shrubs confined to eastern Australia.
+    The fruit is a kind of drupe with a fleshy exterior,
+    enclosing a hard shelled nut, not unlike a small
+    walnut. The kernel, when mature, has a rich and
+    agreeable flavor, much like but richer than the hazelnut,
+    hence one of its local names, for it is also known as
+    &quot;Queensland nut.&quot; This nut tree would probably
+    thrive in southern Florida, and in the warmer parts of
+    California.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Ben nut.</span>&mdash;Fruit of <i>Moringa aptera</i> (<i>Moringeæ</i>).
+    Small, unarmed trees; only three species in the order,
+    these inhabiting tropical Asia, northern Africa and the
+    West Indies. The one producing the ben nuts grows
+    from fifteen to twenty feet high, and is found in upper
+    Egypt, Syria and Arabia. The seeds,&mdash;or nuts, as they
+    are called,&mdash;are produced in capsules or seed-pods about
+    a foot long, and while not edible, an oil is expressed
+    from them which is largely used in the manufacture of
+    perfumery, and known in commerce as ben oil. Another
+    species, the <i>M. pterygosperma</i>, or winged-seeded Moringa,
+    is known as the horse-radish tree, the bark of the
+    roots being used as a substitute for horse-radish.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Betel nut or pinang.</span>&mdash;The fruit of a lofty palm, <i>Areca Catechu</i> (<i>Palmaceæ</i>). A native of Cochin China,
+    the Malayan Peninsula, and adjacent islands. A slender-stemmed
+    palm, with regular pinnate leaves and long,
+    narrow leaflets. The fruit is produced on an erect,
+    fleshy spike, each fruit about the size of a hen's egg,
+    with a thick, fibrous rind or husk, enclosing a hard nut
+    somewhat like an ordinary nutmeg. These are used by
+    being cut into small pieces or slices, then rolled up in a
+    leaf of the betel pepper (<i>Piper betel</i>), a little lime sprinkled
+    over it, and then chewed or held in the mouth, as
+    practiced by those who use tobacco for chewing. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> habit of chewing the betel nut is said to be almost universal
+    among the Malayan races, all carrying a box containing
+    the nut leaf and lime. These nuts are shipped
+    in large quantities to countries where they do not grow,
+    and the habit of chewing them has spread enormously,
+    of late years, and is likely to increase, as it has with
+    tobacco; and the effect upon the users is said to be
+    very similar, although some authorities claim that the
+    betel is the most injurious of the two, having a far more
+    deleterious effect upon the teeth and gums. But this
+    may be due to the use of the lime. Travelers in countries
+    where these nuts are in common use tell wonderful
+    tales about the invigorating effects of the betel, and how
+    their assistants and followers are enabled, by its use, to
+    perform the most exhausting labor for days at a time,
+    which, without it, would be impossible. We have no
+    doubt that the users of tobacco will claim just as much
+    for this narcotic weed, and probably could produce as
+    many trustworthy witnesses in support of it. The betel
+    is, like tobacco, a narcotic stimulant, and causes giddiness
+    in persons unaccustomed to it, excoriates the
+    mouth, and is so burning that Western nations will be
+    slow to adopt this Eastern habit.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Bladder nut.</span>&mdash;A rather inappropriate name for
+    the seed pods and small seeds of one of our common
+    large deciduous shrubs, the <i>Staphylea trifolia</i>. It is
+    sometimes planted for ornament. The small white
+    flowers are produced in hanging racemes, succeeded by
+    large bladdery pods, hence its common name.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Brazil_nut." id="Brazil_nut.">Brazil nut.</a></span>&mdash;The fruit of <i>Bertholletia excelsa</i>, a
+    lofty tree of the myrtle family (<i>Myrtaceæ</i>). The tree
+    attains a height of from one hundred to one hundred
+    and fifty feet, with stems three to four feet in diameter.
+    The leaves are broad, smooth, and about two feet long,
+    rather thick, and of the texture of leather. The fruit
+    is produced mainly on the uppermost branches, and is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> globular, four to six inches in diameter, with a brittle
+    husk on the outside, and within this a hard, tough,
+    woody shell, fully one-half inch thick, containing a large
+    number of the closely packed, three-sided, rough nuts,
+    about an inch and a half to two inches or over in length,
+    as seen in Fig. 101. The kernels are very white, solid
+    and oily. When mature the fruit falls entire, and the
+    natives of the country collect them, splitting the shells
+    to obtain the nuts. An occasional entire fruit is sent to
+    other countries, as a curiosity,
+    or for the cabinet of some botanist.
+    The Brazil nut is not
+    only indigenous to Brazil, but
+    also of Guiana, Venezuela (forming
+    immense forests on the Orinoco,
+    where they are called
+    Juvia), and southward on the
+    Rio Negra and in the valley
+    of the Amazon. In fact, the
+    supply appears to be inexhaustible;
+    the only difficulty is in
+    getting the nuts from the forests
+    to some point where they
+    can be shipped out of the
+    country. The principal export
+    is from Para, but there are
+    many smaller cities and towns
+    where a load of these nuts may be obtained on short
+    notice. A very superior oil may be obtained from the
+    nuts, by pressure, but the principal use for them is for
+    desserts and confectionery. They are always abundant
+    in our city markets.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig101.jpg" alt="" title="" height="332" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._101" id="FIG._101">FIG. 101</a>. BRAZIL NUT.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Bread nut.</span>&mdash;The fruit of a large tree, the <i>Brosimum
+    Alicastrum</i>, of the bread fruit family (<i>Artocarpaceæ</i>),
+    native of the West Indies, but best known in
+    Jamaica. The botanical authorities disagree in regard<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> to this species, some claiming that it is a large tree, with
+    wood similar to mahogany; others that it is only a small
+    shrub, only five or six feet high. It has lance-shaped
+    leaves, male and female flowers in globular heads, and
+    usually on separate trees. The fruit is about the size of
+    a plum, containing one seed or nut, which is only edible
+    after roasting.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Buffalo Nut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Oil_nut.">Oil nut</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Butternut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Souari_nut">Souari nut</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Byzantium Nut.</span>&mdash;See Filberts, <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">Chap. VI</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Candle Nuts.</span>&mdash;A small evergreen tree, the <i>Aleurites
+    triloba</i> of the spurgewort family (<i>Euphorbiaceæ</i>).
+    It is a native of most warm countries of the East: India,
+    Malay, southern Japan, and nearly all the islands of the
+    Pacific ocean, and in some of these it is cultivated for
+    the fruit, which is about two inches in diameter. In
+    the center there is a hard nut, very oily, with the flavor
+    of the walnut. The oil obtained from these nuts is in
+    common use among the natives of the Polynesian islands.
+    In the Hawaiian group the kernels are strung on a
+    small, dry stick, which serves the purpose of a wick,
+    and then one end lighted, as with an ordinary tallow
+    or wax candle, hence probably the common name of
+    candle nut. These nuts are said to be used in the
+    same way in India. Large quantities of oil is also
+    expressed from them and used for various purposes,
+    and occasionally small quantities are exported to European
+    countries.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Cape chestnut.</span>&mdash;The name of a beautiful evergreen
+    ornamental tree, native of south Africa, and recently
+    introduced into European gardens from the Cape
+    of Good Hope, hence its common, and its specific scientific
+    name, <i>Calodendron capense</i>. It belongs to the
+    Rue family (<i>Rutaceæ</i>). The flowers are red, produced
+    in long terminal racemes, the tree growing about forty
+    feet high, and said to be one of the finest trees of that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> part of Africa. It is now under trial in Florida. Why
+    called a chestnut I have been unable to discover.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> <img src="images/fig102.jpg" alt="" height="446" width="350" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._102" id="FIG._102">FIG. 102</a>. THE CASHEW NUT.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap">Cashew nut.</span>&mdash;A large shrub or small tree, native
+    of the West Indies, and for this reason often referred to
+    as the &quot;Western Cashew,&quot; or <i>Anacardium occidentale</i>.
+    It belongs to the Terebinth family (<i>Anacardium</i>), consequently
+    is closely related to our native poison sumachs
+    (<i>Rhus</i>). The tree is an evergreen, with entire feather-veined
+    leaves; flowers of a reddish color, very small,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> sweet-scented, and produced in terminal panicles. The
+    fruit is kidney-shaped, and borne on a fleshy receptacle,
+    and when ripe of reddish or yellow color. The nut
+    proper is enclosed in a leathery covering, consisting of
+    two layers, between which is deposited a thick, caustic,
+    oily substance, exceedingly acrid; but this is eliminated
+    by heat, so that when the kernels are roasted they have
+    a pleasant flavor and are highly esteemed for dessert.
+    Some care is required in roasting these nuts, as the
+    fumes given off during this operation cause inflammation
+    of the eyes. The nuts also yield an excellent oil,
+    very similar to the best olive oil. Although originally
+    found only in the West Indies, this nut is now widely
+    distributed throughout the tropical countries of the
+    East; in fact, naturalized in all hot climates, and is also
+    under trial in southern Florida.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Caucasian walnut</span>. <span class="smcap">Winged walnut</span>.&mdash;The
+    winged fruit of <i>Pterocarya fraxinifolia</i>, also known as <i>P. Caucasica</i> of nurserymen's catalogues. It belongs to
+    the walnut family (<i>Juglandaceæ</i>), and is a tree growing
+    thirty to forty feet high, somewhat resembling the common
+    ash (<i>Fraxinus</i>). It is a pretty, hardy, ornamental
+    tree, thriving only in moist soils. Seeds on winged nuts
+    produced in long, drooping racemes, but of no special
+    value. Introduced into England from Caucasus in 1800,
+    and now plentiful here in nurseries.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Chestnut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#CHAPTER_V">Chapter V</a>; also <a href="#Horse-chestnut.">Horse-chestnut</a>,
+    and <a href="#Moreton_Bay">Moreton Bay</a>, <a href="#Tahitian_chestnut.">Tahiti</a> and <a href="#Water_chestnut.">Water chestnuts</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Chocolate nut or bean.</span>&mdash;The seeds of a small
+    tropical tree, <i>Theobroma Cacao</i>, of the chocolate nut
+    family (<i>Sterculiaceæ</i>). Indigenous to tropical America,
+    but now cultivated more or less extensively in all hot
+    climates. The tree grows from fifteen to twenty feet
+    high, with long, pointed, smooth leaves. The flowers
+    are small, yellow, and produced from the old wood of
+    both stems and branches, succeeded by a pod-like fruit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> six to ten or more inches long, containing fifty to a hundred
+    seeds, resembling beans more than they do nuts.
+    When the fruit is ripe it is gathered, at which time the
+    seeds are covered with a gum-like substance, and to
+    remove this they are subjected to a slight fermentation,
+    after which they are dried in the sun, this giving them
+    their usual brown color. Chocolate nut trees are extensively
+    cultivated in Brazil, New Grenada, Trinidad, and,
+    in fact, throughout tropical America, and their cultivation
+    is, upon the whole, very profitable, as the demand
+    is almost unlimited.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Clearing nut.</span>&mdash;This is an East India name for
+    the seeds of <i>Strychnos potatorum</i>, a plant belonging to
+    the well-known nux vomica family (<i>Loganiaceæ</i>). It is
+    a small tree, native of India, the wood of which is used
+    for various purposes. The fruit is about the size of a
+    cherry, and contains one seed; this is dried, and used
+    for clearing muddy water, this being effected by rubbing
+    one of the little nuts around the sides of the vessel that
+    is to be filled, after which the water is poured in, and
+    then, through some unknown agency, all the foreign
+    matter settles, leaving the liquid perfectly pure, clear
+    and wholesome.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Cocoanut.</span>&mdash;One of the most widely-known and
+    largest of edible nuts; the product of <i>Cocos nucifera</i>, a
+    lofty, tree-like palm (<i>Palmæ</i> or <i>Palmaceæ</i>). It is a
+    native of tropical Africa, India, Malay, and of nearly all
+    the islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans. It only
+    thrives near the seacoast or where the sea breezes reach
+    it, requiring no special care after the nuts and young
+    plants once become established in a congenial soil. The
+    coco palm grows from fifty to one hundred feet high,
+    with pinnate leaves from ten to twenty feet long. The
+    nuts are produced in clusters of a dozen or more, and
+    when full grown are somewhat triangular and a foot
+    long, the outer coat or husk composed of a tough fiber.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> The nuts, when cleaned of their husks, are too well
+    known to call for a further description here. In countries
+    where these nuts are plentiful, their contents
+    form nearly the entire food of the natives, the milky
+    fluid serving for drink, and the more solid parts as
+    a substitute for meat and bread. The cocoa-nut
+    utilized in more ways, and for a greater variety of
+    purposes, than any other kind known, and it would
+    require a volume to briefly enumerate them. Of recent
+    years there have been plantations made of this nut on
+    the coast of southern Florida, and one of the most
+    extensive of these is by a man from New Jersey, but I
+    have not heard from him of late, or seen any reports
+    as to the results of his experiments. It is reported
+    that there are about 250,000 cocoa-nut trees now growing
+    in Florida.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Cocoanut, Double.</span>&mdash;This is the fruit of another
+    lofty palm, <i>Lodoicea Sechellarum</i>, and is usually considered
+    the largest member of the order. It is a native of
+    the Seychelles islands, in the Indian ocean. It is said
+    to reach a hight of a hundred feet, with a stem two feet
+    in diameter. The fruit is a large, oblong nut, with a
+    rather thin rind or husk, and when this is removed the
+    nut appears to be double, or two oblong nuts firmly
+    united, a kind of twin formation, the entire nut weighing
+    from thirty to forty pounds. These immense nuts
+    are produced in bunches of eight to ten, the cluster
+    sometimes weighing from three to four hundred pounds.
+    It is supposed that these nuts require about ten years to
+    grow and mature. They are useless as food, but the
+    shells are manufactured into various useful articles by
+    the natives, and they are also transported to other countries
+    and valued as curiosities. There is a great demand
+    for the leaves of this palm for making hats, baskets, etc.,
+    and as the trees have to be cut down to obtain them,
+    they are becoming rather scarce.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Cola_nut" id="Cola_nut">Cola nut</a>, Kola nut or Goora nut.</span>&mdash;The fruit
+    of a small tree, native of the warmer parts of western
+    Africa, and known to botanists as <i>Cola acuminata</i>, and
+    of the Sterculiad family (<i>Sterculiaceæ</i>). In its native
+    country it grows thirty to forty feet high. The leaves
+    are oblong-elliptical, six to eight inches long, and pointed
+    (acuminate), and from this it probably derived its specific
+    name. The flowers are yellow, and produced in
+    axillary racemes, and succeeded by simple bean-like
+    pods, each containing several nut-like seeds, which the
+    natives call cola or goora nuts. These nuts have long
+    been an article of trade among the native tribes of Africa,
+    they being valued for their supposed efficacy in allaying
+    thirst, promoting digestion, giving strength, and preventing
+    exhaustion during the performance of hard manual
+    labor. This tree was early introduced into the West
+    Indies and Brazil, but its reputation in Africa does not
+    appear to have been sustained it its Western habitat.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Coquilla nut.</span>&mdash;The fruit of the Piassaba palm, <i>Attalea funifera</i>, a native of Brazil, where it grows
+    about thirty feet high. The fruit is produced in
+    bunches, and are each about three inches long, covered
+    with a thin rind. The nut is very hard, and is used as
+    a substitute for bone and ivory in the manufacture of
+    articles for the household.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Coquito_nut." id="Coquito_nut.">Coquito nut.</a></span>&mdash;This is the fruit of the wing-leaved
+    palm of Chile, <span class="smcap">Jubæa spectabilis</span>. It is a moderately
+    tall species, and closely resembles, in general habit, the
+    date palm. The nuts are edible, but they are of secondary
+    importance, this palm being valued mainly for
+    the sweet sap issuing from the stem when cut down,
+    this continuing to exude from it for weeks after it is
+    severed from the roots. The sap is gathered and boiled,
+    and when reduced to the consistency of molasses becomes
+    an article of commerce, under the name of Meil de Palma
+    or palm honey.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span></p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Cream nut.</span>&mdash;A local name of <a href="#Brazil_nut.">Brazil nut</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Dawa nut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Litchi_nut">Litchi nut</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Earth nut, or <a name="earth_chestnut" id="earth_chestnut">earth chestnut</a>, etc.</span>&mdash;A small,
+    low-growing, herbaceous plant of the carrot family
+    (<i>Umbelliferæ</i>), common in waste or uncultivated grounds
+    in Great Britain and other countries of northern Europe.
+    Formerly botanists supposed there were two species, but
+    of late only one, the <i>Bunium bulbocastanum</i>. On the roots there are
+    small, nut-like tubers, of a sweetish taste, and they are eaten by children,
+    either in the raw state or after being roasted. These tubers have various local
+    names, and in addition to the above, they are called kipper nuts, and pig nuts
+    in England, but a familiar local name in Scotland is lousy nuts, because it is
+    said that eating them is sure to breed lice. But this story may have been
+    invented by parents to deter their children from digging and eating the roots of
+    wild plants. Willdenow, in naming this species, certainly recognized its edible
+    qualities, and that children were fond of it, else he would not have called it
+    an earth chestnut,&mdash;<i>bulbo</i>,
+    bulb, and <i>castanum</i> from <i>castanea</i>, the chestnut.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Elk nut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Oil_nut.">Oil nut</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fisticke nut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Pistachio_nut.">Pistacia nut</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Fox_nut." id="Fox_nut.">Fox nut.</a></span>&mdash;The seeds of a floating, annual aquatic
+    plant, the <i>Euryale ferox</i>, native of India, and belonging
+    to the water lily family (<i>Nymphæaceæ</i>). It is a handsome
+    plant, with leaves about two feet in diameter, of a rich
+    purple on the underside, with thorn-like spines on the
+    veins. Flowers deep violet-red. The seeds of this species
+    are eaten by the natives, the same as the aborigines
+    of this country gathered the seeds of our indigenous <i>Nelumbium luteum</i>, under the name of water chinquapin,
+    using them for food in the late fall and winter.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Ginkgo nut.</span>&mdash;The large, round, white, somewhat
+    flattened, nut-like seeds of the now common maidenhair
+    tree, or <i>Ginkgo biloba</i>, also known as <i>Salisburia adiantifolia</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> of some nurserymen's catalogues and many recent
+    botanical works. The former, however, is the older
+    and correct scientific name. This tree is a native of
+    China and Japan, and of a slender, sparsely branched
+    habit, growing from fifty to eighty feet high in its native
+    countries. It is a deciduous, cone-bearing (<i>Coniferæ</i>)
+    tree, with two-lobed, fan-shaped leaves two to three
+    inches broad, divided about halfway down from the top.
+    The male and female flowers are on separate trees, and
+    to secure seed or nuts both sexes must be grown near
+    together. The ginkgo was introduced into European
+    gardens in 1754, and there are now many fruiting specimens,
+    especially in France, from whence the nuts have
+    long been secured for planting, by nurserymen and
+    others interested in tree culture. There are very few
+    bearing trees in this country, and one in Washington,
+    D. C., has been fruiting for a number of years. In
+    China and Japan the seeds or nuts are valued for their
+    edible qualities, but they have a kind of disagreeable,
+    balsamic taste in their raw state, although this is dispelled
+    by roasting, after which they are quite sweet and
+    palatable. As the trees do not begin to bear until of
+    considerable age, and the nuts are inferior to many other
+    kinds, I do not think the ginkgo will ever become very
+    popular in this country as a nut tree.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Goora nut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Cola_nut">Cola nut</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Gorgon nut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Fox_nut.">Fox nut</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Groundnut.</span>&mdash;The small, globular tubers of the
+    dwarf three-leaved ginseng, <i>Aralia trifolia</i>, are called
+    groundnuts in some of our Northern States, and they
+    are frequently sought for, dug up and eaten by children,
+    as I know from personal experience. The plant belongs
+    to the ginseng family (<i>Araliaceæ</i>), and is closely related
+    to the true five-leaved ginseng (<i>Aralia quinquefolia</i>),
+    but our groundnut has only three leaves, instead of
+    five; besides, it is a somewhat smaller plant, rarely more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> than six to eight inches high. When the scattered seed
+    sprout in spring, they send down a long, slender, thread-like
+    rootstock, to a depth of from four to six inches, and
+    at the bottom of this the small tuber is produced. It
+    has a somewhat pungent taste, but this only whets the
+    appetite of a boy when on a hunt for ground nuts.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Groundnut.</span>&mdash;The tubers of one of the most widely
+    distributed climbing plants of the Eastern States, and
+    common in low, wet grounds almost everywhere, from
+    Canada to Florida, and westward to the Mississippi.
+    This plant is described in most of the botanical works
+    of the present day under the name of <i>Apios tuberosa</i>,
+    and it belongs to the Pulse family (<i>Leguminosæ</i>), and
+    is closely related to the common and well-known wistarias,
+    although much smaller and of a more slender habit.
+    It is a smooth, perennial, twining vine, with pinnate
+    leaves, and dense racemes or clusters of small brownish-purple
+    pea-shaped flowers. The subterranean rootstocks
+    bear long strings of edible tubers, from one to two inches
+    long, and from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter,
+    somewhat variable in shape, dark brown on the
+    outside, but white within. When boiled or roasted
+    these tubers have a rich, farinaceous, nutty flavor.
+    This tuber or groundnut is the one described by Mr.
+    Thomas Herriot, the historiographer of Sir Walter
+    Raleigh's expedition to Virginia in 1585, under the Indian
+    name of &quot;Openawk.&quot; He says: &quot;These roots
+    are round, some as large as walnuts, others much larger;
+    they grow in damp soil, many hanging together, as fixed
+    on ropes; they are good food, either boiled or roasted.&quot;
+    These tubers are to be found in the swamps and damp
+    soils of Virginia at this day, just as they were at the
+    time of Herriot's visit, but many modern historians have
+    tried to make out that Raleigh's colonists found our
+    common potato among the Indians at that time, although
+    I have never been able to find a scrap of trustworthy history<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> to support such a claim, or that Raleigh himself
+    ever planted or cultivated the American potato in Ireland
+    or England, or, in fact, ever tasted one of these
+    tubers.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Groundnut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Peanut">Peanut or Goober</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Hazelnut, or Chile hazel.</span>&mdash;This is merely a
+    local English name for the fruit of a small evergreen
+    tree, native of Chile, S. A., where it is known as Guevina,
+    and this has been adopted as the name of the genus,
+    adding the specific name of the European hazel, so we
+    have <i>Guevina Avellana</i>, although in some botanical
+    works it may be found under the name of <i>Qudria heterophylla</i>.
+    It belongs to the Protea family (<i>Proteaceæ</i>).
+    It has white, hermaphrodite flowers, in long axillary
+    racemes; these are succeeded by coral-red fruit about
+    the size of a large cherry; the stone or nut-like seeds
+    being edible are largely used by the Chileans. They are
+    said to taste like the hazel, hence the name. Trees are
+    hardy in the southwest of England, and would probably
+    succeed here in the Southern States. It has been
+    planted and found to thrive in California. Readily
+    propagated from seed or green cuttings under glass.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Horse-chestnut." id="Horse-chestnut.">Horse-chestnut.</a></span>&mdash;The fruit of a genus of deciduous
+    ornamental trees and shrubs, native of Asia and
+    North America. The common horse-chestnut, or <i>Æsculus
+    Hippocastanum</i>, is a native of Asia, and was introduced
+    into Europe over three hundred years ago, its
+    large, smooth seeds and prickly husks probably suggesting
+    both its common and scientific names, although
+    these trees do not even belong to the same order as the
+    true edible chestnuts (<i>Castanea</i>), but to the soapworts
+    (<i>Sapindaceæ</i>). It is supposed that the prefix, &quot;horse,&quot;
+    was derived from a custom among the Turks, of giving
+    the nuts to horses as a medicine when these animals
+    were afflicted with a cough or inclined to become wind-broken.
+    In southern Europe they are sometimes fed to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> cows to increase the flow of milk, and at one time they
+    were employed for making paste for book binders.
+    They are scarcely edible, although containing considerable
+    farinaceous matter, owing to the presence of a bitter
+    narcotic principle. Our native species, better known as
+    Buckeyes, with both smooth and prickly fruit, are
+    equally worthless as food.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Ivory nut.</span>&mdash;There are two species of palms producing
+    nuts hard enough to be employed as a substitute
+    for ivory, in the manufacture of small articles of domestic
+    use. But the one best known to commerce under
+    the name of ivory nut is the fruit of <i>Phytelephas macrocarpa</i>,
+    native of New Granada and other parts of Central
+    America. This palm is a low-growing and almost decumbent
+    species, the stem seldom more than six to eight
+    inches in diameter; but the leaves are of immense length,
+    or from fifteen to twenty feet, growing in bundles, or
+    clusters. The fruit consists of about forty nuts, enclosed
+    in a rough, spiny husk, of a globular form, produced
+    on a short footstalk growing from the axis of the
+    leaves, the whole bunch weighing from twenty to thirty
+    pounds. They are two inches long, slightly triangular,
+    and covered with a thin, pulpy coat, which becomes
+    dry, papery and brittle when thoroughly dried, but
+    when in its green state it is sometimes utilized by the
+    natives for making a favorite beverage. The ripe nuts
+    are very solid, hard, and when polished resemble ivory.
+    Immense quantities of these nuts are imported into this
+    country, as well as Europe, and used as a substitute for
+    bone and ivory for making buttons, toys, and similar
+    small articles.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Jesuit chestnut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Water_chestnut.">Water chestnut</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Jicara nut.</span>&mdash;A local name, in some of the Central
+    American States for the Calabash (<i>Crescentia Cujete</i>).
+    A low-growing, rather rough tree, with simple leaves,
+    usually three growing together on a broad leafstalk.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> The fruit is extremely variable, both in size and form,
+    but mainly globose, and two to four inches in diameter.
+    The shell is very hard, and largely used for drinking
+    cups, and these are sometimes highly ornamented on
+    the outside. The kernel is scarcely edible, but is used
+    by the natives as a medicine.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Juba nut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Coquito_nut.">Coquito nut</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Juvia nut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Brazil_nut.">Brazil nut</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Kipper nut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#earth_chestnut">Earth chestnut</a>.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 160px;"> <img src="images/fig103.jpg" alt="" title="" height="191" width="160" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._103" id="FIG._103">FIG. 103</a>. LITCHI OR LEECHEE NUT.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Litchi_nut" id="Litchi_nut">Litchi nut</a> or leechee nut.</span>&mdash;I am inclined to
+    think that the affix of &quot;nut&quot; to this Oriental fruit is
+    an Americanism, and not used elsewhere. There are
+    three distinct species of this fruit known among the
+    Chinese, under the name of Litchi, Longan or Long-yen,
+    and Rambutan, all the product
+    of the Nepheliums, a genus
+    of the soapberry family (<i>Sapindaceæ</i>).
+    By some of the earlier
+    botanical works the litchi is placed
+    either in the genus <i>Dimocarpus</i> or <i>Euphoria</i>. Within the past
+    few years this fruit has appeared
+    in our markets, in consequence
+    of the increased trade with Oriental countries, and facilities
+    for rapid transit across the continent. The litchi is
+    a globular fruit, about one inch in diameter (Fig. 103),
+    with a thin, chocolate-brown colored shell covered with
+    wart-like protuberances. When fresh the shell is filled
+    with a white, jelly-like pulp, in the center of which
+    there is one rather large, smooth brown seed. The pulp
+    is of a most delicious sub-acid flavor, but it is often
+    rather dry and stale in the nuts which reach us from
+    China and Japan. The tree producing this fruit is seldom
+    more than twenty-five feet high, with rather sturdy
+    twigs and branches, the leaves composed of about seven
+    oblong pointed leaflets. This is said to be one of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> most popular of Oriental fruits, and the trees would
+    probably succeed in many of the Southern States and in
+    California. It is now on trial in Florida, having been
+    introduced there in 1886. It has been fruited in England
+    many times, but always under glass, where the
+    plants receive protection and artificial heat. A full
+    description of this species, accompanied by a superb colored
+    plate of the <i>Nephelium</i> or <i>Dimocarpus Longana</i>, appeared
+    in the &quot;Transactions of the London Horticultural
+    Society,&quot; 1818, p. 402. There are not only a large number
+    of species of the Nepheliums bearing edible fruit,
+    but, as might be expected from their long and extensive
+    cultivation, many local varieties, especially in the southern
+    provinces of China and throughout the islands of
+    tropical Asia. The Dawa of the Fiji islands is the fruit
+    of <i>N. pinnatum</i>, a tree growing sixty feet high, and
+    forming extensive forests on those islands. At some
+    future time we may be receiving the dawas under the
+    name of Fiji nuts.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Lousy nut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#earth_chestnut">Earth chestnut</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Marking nut.</span>&mdash;The seeds of <i>Semecarpus Anacardium</i>,
+    an evergreen tree of the cashew-nut family (<i>Anacardiaceæ</i>),
+    native of tropical Asia, and especially Ceylon.
+    It has large, oblong leaves, and grows about fifty
+    feet high, and the fruit is produced on a fleshy receptacle.
+    The natives roast and eat these nuts, and the black
+    juice obtained from the green fruit is used for marking
+    cloth, hence the common name. The juice is also mixed
+    with lime to make an excellent indelible ink, also for a
+    kind of varnish.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Miriti nut or ita palm nut.</span>&mdash;These are the
+    Indian names of the fruit of a lofty palm tree, the <i>Mauritia
+    flexuosa</i>, of the swamps along the Orinoco river,
+    also in wet soils at higher elevations. This giant palm
+    grows to a hight of a hundred and fifty feet, with an
+    immense crown of large, fan-shaped leaves, and just<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> beneath these the fruit appears in a pendulous cluster
+    eight to ten feet long, containing several bushels, weighing,
+    altogether, from one to three hundred pounds.
+    The individual nuts are about the size of an ordinary
+    apple, with a very smooth shell, somewhat veined or
+    streaked. The natives of the country not only use the
+    farinaceous kernels of these nuts as food, but obtain a
+    saccharine material from the pith, out of which they
+    make wine by fermentation. The petioles of the leaves
+    also furnish them with a strong fiber, used as thread-cord,
+    and for various other purposes.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Moreton_Bay" id="Moreton_Bay">Moreton Bay</a> chestnut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Australian_chestnut.">Australian chestnut</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Monkey-pot nut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Sapucaia_nut.">Sapucaia nut</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Myrobalan_nut." id="Myrobalan_nut.">Myrobalan nut.</a></span>&mdash;This name is applied rather
+    indiscriminately to the fruits of several species of the
+    genus <i>Terminalia</i>, which are, in the main, large trees of
+    the Myrobalan family (<i>Combretaceæ</i>). They are native
+    of India, Malay, Fiji, and, in fact, almost all the islands
+    of the Pacific in warm latitudes. The fruits are similar
+    to large plums, but slightly angular, containing a hard,
+    nut-like seed. They are used principally for tanning
+    leather, and also for making ink similar to that made
+    from oak galls. The kernels of all the species are edible,
+    and are eaten by the natives. In the Fiji islands
+    the <i>Terminalia Catappa</i> is a favorite tree with the natives,
+    and they plant it near the houses. The kernels of this
+    species have the flavor of the sweet almond.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Nickar nut.</span>&mdash;The seeds of two species of <i>Guilandina</i>,
+    a genus of the bean family (<i>Leguminosæ</i>). They
+    are climbing plants, with hard-wooded, prickly stems,
+    forming almost impenetrable thickets near the seacoast
+    in the East Indies and other tropical countries. They
+    have become widely distributed, as the pods readily float
+    when they drop into the water. The pods are about
+    three inches long, very prickly, containing seeds or nuts
+    about the size of small marbles, and exceedingly hard;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> but in time the water softens them, after which they
+    sprout and grow when cast upon the shore by the waves.
+    The two species are distinguished mainly by the color of
+    the nuts, those of <i>G. Bonduc</i> being yellow, and those of <i>G. Bonducella</i> gray, or with a reddish tint. Of no value
+    or use except as botanical curiosities.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Nitta or nutta nut.</span>&mdash;The native African name
+    of the seeds of <i>Parkia Africana</i>, a tree of the sensitive-tree
+    section of the bean family (<i>Leguminosæ</i>). It grows
+    about forty feet high, and has compound winged leaves.
+    It has become naturalized in the West Indies. The
+    pods grow in clusters, the seeds imbedded in a yellowish,
+    sweet pulp, like the carob or St. John's bread, and the
+    negroes are very fond of them. In the Soudan the seeds
+    are roasted, and then allowed to ferment in water until
+    they are soft and putrid, after which they are washed,
+    pounded and dried, then made up into cakes to be used
+    as a sauce for different kinds of food. It is supposed
+    that the African traveler, Mungo Park, first brought
+    these seeds or nuts to the notice of Europeans, and
+    Robert Brown named the genus <i>Parkia</i> in his honor.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Nutmeg." id="Nutmeg.">Nutmeg.</a></span>&mdash;A name applied to the fruits of a large
+    number of trees, and of different orders of plants. The
+    true nutmegs of commerce are the fruits of trees belonging
+    to the genus <i>Myristica</i>, and of the family <i>Myristicaceæ</i>.
+    The oldest and best known of these is the <i>M.
+    fragrans</i>, a small, widely branching tree, growing
+    twenty to twenty-five feet high, and supposed to be
+    indigenous to the Indian Archipelago. The fruit is
+    about the size of an ordinary walnut, with a thick rind,
+    which, upon opening, at maturity, discloses a reddish
+    aril covering the nut within. This aril or husk is the
+    mace of commerce, while the true nutmeg is the center
+    or hard seed (nut). The Brazil nutmeg is longer than
+    the true species, and is sold under the name of long nutmeg,
+    and is the fruit of <i>M. fatua</i>. Another species, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> <i>M. otoba</i>, is cultivated in Madagascar, but is scarcely
+    known in commerce.</p>
+<p>Another species, the <i>M. sebifera</i>, is a common tree
+    in the forests of Guiana, North Brazil, and up into
+    Panama. It is utilized principally for the oil extracted
+    from the nuts, obtained by macerating them in water,
+    the oil rising to the surface, and as it cools skimmed off.</p>
+<p>The seeds of several species of conifers and laurels
+    are known, either locally or in commerce, as nutmegs,
+    or are used as a substitute for the true nutmeg. There
+    are three different kinds of trees, native of Guiana, in
+    addition to the one already named, the seeds of which
+    are employed as a spice or medicine. One of these is
+    the <i>Acrodiclidium camara</i>. These nuts are known in
+    commerce as &quot;Ackawai nutmegs,&quot; and are used mainly
+    as a cure for diarrhœa and colic. Another is the seed
+    of the <i>Aydendron Cujumary</i> tree, and they are known
+    in commerce as &quot;Cujumary beans,&quot; although they are
+    not, strictly speaking, a bean, and the same is true of
+    the so-called &quot;Puchurim beans,&quot; from the same country,
+    for they are the fruit of <i><a name="Nectandy_Puchury" id="Nectandy_Puchury">Nectandy Puchury</a></i>, a small tree
+    of the laurel family. They are used as a tonic, and considered
+    highly stimulating.</p>
+<p><i>Clove Nutmeg</i>, or Madagascar nutmeg of commerce,
+    is the fruit of <i>Agathophyllum aromaticum</i>, a
+    small evergreen tree, indigenous to Madagascar.</p>
+<p><i>Brazilian Nutmegs</i> are the highly aromatic seeds
+    of <i>Cryptocarya moschata</i>, or <i>Atherosperma moschata</i> of
+    some botanists. It is a lofty tree, native of Brazil. The
+    aromatic nuts are used as a substitute for nutmegs, but
+    are very inferior to the genuine.</p>
+<p><i><a name="Peruvian_Nutmeg" id="Peruvian_Nutmeg">Peruvian Nutmeg</a>, or Plum Nutmeg.</i>&mdash;The seeds
+    of a large evergreen tree with aromatic foliage, like our
+    common sassafras, and for this reason is sometimes
+    called Chilean or Peruvian sassafras. The seeds are of
+    no more economic value than those of our native sassafras.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> It is known under various botanical names, but <i>Laurelia sempervirens</i> is, perhaps, the most familiar.</p>
+<p><i>California Nutmeg</i>, or <i>Stinking Nutmeg</i>, is the
+    nut-like seed of <i>Torreya Californica</i>, a small tree of
+    the yew family (<i>Taxaceæ</i>). The fruit is from an inch
+    to an inch and a half long, with a fleshy rind enclosing
+    a hard, long nut, which is slightly grooved like a nutmeg.
+    The fruit, leaves and wood are strongly scented,
+    hence the name of &quot;stinking nutmeg,&quot; or &quot;stinking
+    yew.&quot; Another species, the <i>T. taxifolia</i>, is a native of
+    Florida.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Oil_nut." id="Oil_nut.">Oil nut.</a></span>&mdash;The fruit of a low-branching, deciduous
+    native shrub, growing three to ten feet high, with alternate
+    leaves and small greenish flowers in terminal spikes.
+    It is the <i>Pyrularia oleifera</i> of Gray, and <i>Hamiltonia
+    oleifera</i> of Muhlenberg. The fruit is in the form of a
+    pear-shaped drupe, about an inch long, the small seed
+    or nut with an oily kernel of strong acrid taste; of no
+    value. This shrub is found on shady banks in the
+    mountains of Pennsylvania, and southward into Georgia.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Paradise nut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Sapucaia_nut.">Sapucaia nut</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Peanut" id="Peanut">Peanut</a></span>, <span class="smcap">groundnut</span>, <span class="smcap">goober</span>.&mdash;The well-known
+    fruit of <i>Arachis hypogæa</i>, a low-growing annual belonging
+    to the pulse or pea family (<i>Leguminosæ</i>), supposed
+    to be a native of South America, but now extensively
+    cultivated in nearly all semi-tropical countries and
+    wherever the summers are long enough to insure the
+    ripening of the seeds. Extensively cultivated in Virginia,
+    south and westward. Too well known to require
+    any further comment or notice here.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Pecan nut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Chap. VII</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Pekea nut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Souari_nut">Souari nut</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Peruvian nut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Nutmeg.">Nutmegs</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Physic nut.</span>&mdash;The seeds of <i>Jatropha Curcas</i>, a
+    small tree of the spurgewort family (<i>Euphorbiaceæ</i>). It
+    is native of some of the West Indies and warmer parts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> of South America, but now cultivated in other tropical
+    countries for its seeds, which yield an oil used for the
+    same purposes as castor oil, but rather more powerful
+    and drastic. The seeds have a nutty flavor, but are
+    rather dangerous if eaten in any considerable quantities,
+    and death has been known to follow excess in this
+    direction.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Physic nut.</span>&mdash;In &quot;Bartram's Travels,&quot; he refers
+    to a seed or nut of a plant he found growing in Florida
+    under this name, p. 41, as follows: &quot;... some
+    very curious new shrubs and plants, particularly the
+    physic nut or Indian olive. The stems arise, many from
+    a root, two or three feet high; the leaves sit opposite,
+    on very short petioles; they are broad, lanceolate, entire
+    and undulated, having a smooth surface, of a deep green
+    color. From the bosom of each leaf is produced a single
+    oval drupe, standing erect on long slender stems; it
+    has a large kernel and thin pulp. The fruit is yellow
+    when ripe, and about the size of an olive. The Indians,
+    when they go in pursuit of deer, carry this fruit with
+    them, supposing that it has the power of charming or
+    drawing that creature to them, from whence, with
+    traders, it has obtained the name of physic nut, which
+    means, with them, charming, conjuring or fascinating.&quot;</p>
+<p>To what kind of fruit Bartram referred under the
+    name of &quot;physic nut,&quot; is not certain, but his description
+    of the plant comes very near that of the American
+    olive (<i>Olea Americana</i>), but the fruit of this and other
+    closely allied plants of the same family are not &quot;yellow&quot;
+    when ripe, but purple.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Pignut, or hognut.</span>&mdash;See chapter on <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Hickory</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Pine nut.</span>&mdash;A name applied indiscriminately to
+    the many species of pine trees (<i>Pinus</i>) bearing seeds
+    large enough to be conveniently used as food. In southern
+    Europe, and especially in Italy and the south of
+    France, the seeds of the stone pine (<i>Pinus Pinea</i>) have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> been extensively used as food, from the earliest times
+    down to the present day. Nearly all the ancient authors
+    refer to them as among the valuable products of the
+    country. Macrobius, in his story of the <i>Saturnalia</i>,
+    speaks of the cones as <i>Nuces vel Poma Pinea</i>. These
+    pine nuts are called <i>Pinocchi</i> in Italy and Sicily, and
+    occasionally a few reach this country, where the Italian
+    name has been corrupted into Pinolas. These seeds or
+    nuts are used for desserts, puddings and cakes, also
+    eaten raw at table,
+    as with almonds.
+    They have a slight
+    taste of turpentine,
+    but it is not strong
+    enough to be at all
+    disagreeable.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> <img src="images/fig104.jpg" alt="" title="" height="415" width="300" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._104" id="FIG._104">FIG. 104</a>. BRANCH OF NUT PINE.</span> </div>
+<p>In this country
+    we have several native
+    species bearing
+    very large edible
+    seeds, and they are
+    known in the West
+    under the general
+    name of <i>Piñon</i>, or
+    nut pines. The
+    best of these nuts,
+    to my taste, are the
+    seeds of <i>Pinus
+    edulis</i>, so named
+    by the late Dr. Engelmann, because of its large, sweet
+    and edible seeds. It is a small, low-growing tree, more
+    or less common on dry hills and slopes, from Colorado
+    southward through New Mexico, and into western
+    Texas. The seeds of <i>Pinus Parryana</i> and <i>Pinus cembroides</i>,
+    of Arizona and Lower California, are also called
+    Piñons, and largely gathered by the Indians. Farther<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> east and north, we find the one-leaved pine (<i>Pinus monophylla</i>),
+    and although the seeds are much smaller than
+    those of <i>P. edulis</i>, they were formerly gathered in immense
+    quantities by the Indians, to help eke out their
+    often scanty winter store of food. Occasionally a small
+    quantity of these pine nuts is sent to Eastern markets,
+    but rarely, unless ordered early in the season. The trees
+    of <i>P. edulis</i> and <i>P. monophylla</i> are perfectly hardy here,
+    and worth cultivating for ornament, as well as their
+    nuts, although their slow growth is a rather severe test
+    of one's patience. Fig. 104 shows a Piñon branch.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Pistachio_nut." id="Pistachio_nut.">Pistachio nut.</a></span>&mdash;Historically, this is a very ancient
+    nut, for Bible commentators claim that it is the one sent
+    by Jacob into Egypt. It is the fruit of a small, deciduous
+    tree of the cashew family (<i>Anacardiaceæ</i>), a native
+    of western Asia, but many centuries ago it had become
+    naturalized in Palestine and throughout the Mediterranean
+    regions. It has shining evergreen winged leaves,
+    and the bark on the young twigs is brown, becoming
+    russet-colored with age. There are several different
+    species, but the one producing the nuts of commerce is
+    the <i>Pistacia vera</i>, having brownish-green flowers in
+    loose panicles, and these are succeeded by bunches of
+    reddish fruit, about an inch long, with an oblique or
+    bent point. The nuts have a double shell, the outer
+    one usually red, the inner one smooth and brittle; the
+    kernel is pale green, sweet, and of rather pleasant taste.
+    There are a number of varieties, differing only slightly
+    in form and size. This nut has been cultivated sparingly
+    in Great Britain since 1570, but the climate is not
+    quite warm enough to insure its ripening in the open
+    air. It would probably succeed throughout the greater
+    part of California, as well as in the extreme Southern
+    States, but Mr. Berckmans writes me that it is not
+    hardy in his grounds at Augusta, Ga. There is a species
+    of pistacia known as <i>P. Mexicana</i>, found in central<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> Mexico, and extending as far north as San Diego, in
+    California, according to the report of Dr. Cooper (Botany
+    of California, Vol. I, p. 109).</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Quandang nut.</span>&mdash;A medium size Australian tree,
+    the <i>Santalum acuminatum</i>, of the sandalwood family
+    (<i>Santalaceæ</i>). It produces a plum-like fruit, which is
+    best known in its native country as the quandang nut.
+    It is used as a preserve, but is little known, except in
+    or near its native habitats.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Queensland nut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Australian_hazelnut.">Australian hazelnut</a>.</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> <img src="images/fig105.jpg" alt="" title="" height="348" width="200" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._105" id="FIG._105">FIG. 105</a>. PARADISE OR SAPUCAIA NUT.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Sapucaia_nut." id="Sapucaia_nut.">Sapucaia nut.</a></span>&mdash;The Brazilian name of, at least,
+    two species of large forest trees growing in the valley of
+    the Amazon and its tributaries.
+    The best known of these is the <i>Lecythis Zabucajo</i>, a lofty tree of
+    the myrtle family (<i>Myrtaceæ</i>). It
+    is closely allied to the more common
+    Brazil nut of commerce. The
+    sapucaia nuts are produced in an
+    urn-shaped, woody capsule, which
+    has received the name of Monkey-pot,
+    because when these capsules
+    ripen the lid at the top is suddenly
+    liberated, emitting a sharp sound,
+    which, as heard by the monkeys,
+    gives them notice that the nuts are
+    falling, and that the first on the
+    ground becomes the fortunate possessor
+    of the largest number. The
+    capsules or pots are about six
+    inches in diameter, and the lid opening at the top about
+    two inches. The nuts, which are packed very closely in
+    the shell, are about one inch in diameter, and two to
+    three in length, with a thin, brown, and very much
+    wrinkled and twisted shell (Fig. 105). The kernel is
+    white, sweet, oily, and somewhat more delicate in flavor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> than that of the common Brazil nut. In New York
+    city these nuts are sold under the name of Paradise
+    nuts. But this is probably only a local name, for I
+    have been unable to find it in any botanical work.
+    These nuts rarely come to this country in any considerable
+    quantities; a few hundred pounds at a time would
+    be considered a large consignment.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Sassafras nut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Peruvian_Nutmeg">Nutmeg, Chilean</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Sassafras nut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Nectandy_Puchury">Nutmeg, Puchury</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Snake nut.</span>&mdash;A large, roundish fruit, about the
+    size of the black walnut, the product of the <i>Ophiocaryon
+    paradoxum</i>, a large tree of the soapberry family (<i>Sapindaceæ</i>),
+    native of British Guiana. This nut takes its
+    name of &quot;Snake nut,&quot; from the peculiar form of the
+    embryo of the seed, which is curled up spirally. The
+    Indians, thinking there must be some virtue in form,
+    use these nuts as an antidote for snake bites, although,
+    so far as known to science, they do not possess any
+    medicinal properties.</p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> <img src="images/fig106.jpg" alt="" height="451" width="450" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._106" id="FIG._106">FIG. 106</a>. SOUARI NUT.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Souari_nut" id="Souari_nut">Souari nut</a>, or butternut.</span>&mdash;This nut, like the
+    last, is a native of British Guiana, and is the fruit of the <i>Caryocar nuciferum</i>, a noble tree, growing a hundred
+    feet high, having large, broad, trifoliate leaves, resembling
+    those of our common horse-chestnut, but not
+    quite as broad. The flowers are very large, and, with
+    the tube, fully a foot long, of a deep purple on the outside,
+    and yellow within. They are composed of five
+    thick, fleshy petals, and as showy as some of our best
+    and brightest-colored magnolias. The flowers are produced
+    in terminal clusters or corymbs, succeeded by a
+    large, round, four-celled fleshy fruit five to six inches in
+    diameter; but as some of the embryo nuts usually fail
+    to grow, it changes the form of the fruit as it enlarges
+    towards maturity, and only one or two of the nuts mature
+    and ripen, very much as frequently occurs in both
+    the sweet and horse-chestnuts. The nuts are affixed to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> a central axis, and are of a rounded, subreniform shape,
+    and even flattened to an almost sharp edge on one side,
+    and broadly truncate at the scar (hilum) where they are
+    attached to the pericarp or central axis. The shell is of
+    a deep brown color, embossed, as it were, with smooth
+    tubercles. They are from two to two and a half inches
+    or more in their broadest diameter, as shown in Fig. 106.
+    The kernel or meat is pure white, soft, rich and oily,
+    with a pleasant flavor. This nut is a rarity in our markets,
+    and Mr. H. R. Davy of New York, to whom I am
+    indebted for a specimen, as well as other rare kinds,
+    assures me that in his forty-five years' experience as a
+    dealer in foreign fruits and nuts, he has never known of
+    but one lot, and that one consisted of about one-half
+    bushel, brought into his store by a sailor, who only knew<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> their common South American name. These nuts are
+    more frequently seen in European seaports than in those
+    of this country.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">South Sea chestnut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Tahitian_chestnut.">Tahitian chestnut</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Tahitian_chestnut." id="Tahitian_chestnut.">Tahitian chestnut.</a></span>&mdash;The seeds of a tree known
+    in the South Sea islands by the native name of Toi, but
+    to botanists as <i>Inocarpus edulis</i>. It belongs to the bean
+    family (<i>Leguminosæ</i>). The tree grows sixty to eighty
+    feet high, and when young the stems are fluted like a
+    Grecian column, but as they increase with age the projections
+    extend outward, until they form a kind of buttress
+    all around the lower part, gradually decreasing
+    upward. This so-called chestnut tree has yellow flowers,
+    succeeded by fibrous pods containing one large seed or
+    nut, which, when roasted or boiled, resembles the chestnut
+    in taste. The nuts have a different local name in
+    almost every one of the Pacific islands where it is at all
+    abundant.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Tavola nut.</span>&mdash;See <a href="#Myrobalan_nut.">Myrobalan nut</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Tallow nut.</span>&mdash;A local and nearly obsolete name
+    for the fruit of the Ogeechee lime or sour gum tree
+    (<i>Nyssa capitata</i>) of the swamps of Florida, Georgia and
+    westward. The fruit is about an inch long, resembling
+    a small plum, the pulp having an agreeable acid taste.
+    Bartram, p. 94, refers to this fruit under the name of
+    &quot;Tallow nut,&quot; but why so called is not explained.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Tallow nut.</span>&mdash;The fruit of the Chinese Tallow
+    tree, <i>Stillingia sebifera</i>, of the spurgewort family
+    (<i>Euphorbiaceæ</i>), a native of China, where it is, as well
+    as in some of the warmer parts of America, extensively
+    cultivated. It has been planted in a few localities in
+    the Southern States, and appears to thrive. It is a
+    small tree thirty to forty feet high, with rhomboid
+    tapering leaves and a three-celled capsuled fruit, each
+    cell containing only a single seed thickly coated with a
+    yellow, tallow-like substance, hence its common name.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> This tallow or grease is used for making soap, burning
+    in lamps, and also for dressing cloth.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Temperance nut.</span>&mdash;An English name of <a href="#Cola_nut">cola nut</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Torrey nut.</span>&mdash;The hard, nut-like seeds of <i>Torreya
+    nucifera</i>, of Siebold, or <i>Taxus nucifera</i>, of Kæmpfer,
+    and <i>Caryotaxus nucifera</i>, of Zuccarini, a tree native of
+    Japan, where these nuts are eaten by the Japanese,
+    either raw or roasted. An oil is also extracted from the
+    nuts, for use in cooking or for burning in lamps. This
+    Japanese tree belongs to the same genus as the so-called
+    California nutmeg (see <a href="#Nutmeg.">Nutmeg</a>) and our Florida stinking
+    cedar (<i>T. taxifolia</i>), also the great Chinese cedar
+    (<i>T. grandis</i>).</p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 360px;"> <img src="images/fig107.jpg" alt="" title="" height="260" width="360" /> <span class="caption"><a name="FIG._107" id="FIG._107">FIG. 107</a>. WATER CHESTNUT.</span> </div>
+<p><span class="smcap"><a name="Water_chestnut." id="Water_chestnut.">Water chestnut.</a></span>&mdash;Also known as water caltrops.
+    The seeds of several species of water plants of the genus <i>Trapa</i>, of the
+    evening primrose
+    family
+    (<i>Onagraceæ</i>).
+    In southern
+    Europe and
+    eastward there
+    is a species
+    found in ponds,
+    the seeds of which are called Jesuit chestnuts (<i>T. natans</i>),
+    and in India and Ceylon a closely allied one,
+    the Singhara-nut plant (<i>T. bispinosa</i>), while in Lago
+    Maggiore there is another (<i>T. verbanensis</i>), but all may
+    be varieties of one and the same species, including the <i>Trapa bicornis</i>, a two-horned water chestnut, extensively
+    used in China and Japan as food under various
+    local names. In China they are called Ling, and of
+    late years have been occasionally imported and sold,
+    more as curiosities than for eating. These seeds or nuts
+    are of a dark brown color, and of the form and size
+    shown in Fig. 107, resembling, in miniature, the skull of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> an ox with abbreviated horns. When fresh, the kernel
+    is of an agreeable nutty flavor.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Water chestnut, or chinquapin.</span>&mdash;The seeds of
+    the large yellow water lily (<i>Nelumbium luteum</i>), a very
+    common plant in small ponds in the West and South,
+    but more rare in the East. The seeds are about the size
+    and shape of small acorns, and produced in a large, top-shaped,
+    fleshy receptacle. They are edible, and are supposed
+    to have been extensively used as food by the aborigines
+    of this country.</p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h2>
+<p> Ackawai nutmeg, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Acorn, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Acrodiclidium camara, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Æsculus hippocastanum, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Agathophyllum aromaticum, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Aleurites triloba, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Almond, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">bitter, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">budding, bud in position, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">incision for bud, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">budding knife, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">budding knife, Yankee, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">prepared shoot of buds, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">season for budding, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">culture in California, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of the, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">insects and diseases, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cercospora circumscissa, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Goes pulverulenta, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Scolytus rugulosus, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Taphrina deformans, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">orchard in California, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">planting and pruning, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">propagation of the, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">properties and uses of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pruning, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">raising seedlings for stocks, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">soil and exposure for the, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">varieties, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">hard-shelled, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">large-fruited, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">ornamental varieties, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">peach, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">soft or brittle-shelled, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">sweet, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">thin-shelled, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Amygdalus argentea, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cochinchinensis, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">communis amara, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">dulcis, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">fragilis, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">macrocarpa, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">persicoides, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">incana, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">nana, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">orientalis, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Anacardium occidentale, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Apios tuberosa, <a href="#Page_267">267</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Arachis hypogæa, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Aralia trifolia, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Areca catechu, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Atherosperma moschata, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Attalea funifera, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Australian chestnut, <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Australian hazelnut, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Aydendron cujumary, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Beech, American, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chile, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">European, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">evergreen, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">injurious insects, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">properties and uses, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">propagation of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">soil and location for the, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">species and varieties, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Beechnut, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">leaf, bur and nut, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Ben nut, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Bertholletia excelsa, <a href="#Page_267">267</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Betel nut, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Bladder nut, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Brazil nut, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Brazilian nutmegs, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Bread nut, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Brosimum alicastrum, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Buffalo nut, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Bunium bulbocastanum, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Butternut, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Byzantium nut, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    California chestnut, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+    <br />
+    California nutmeg, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Calodendron Capense, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Candle nut, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Cape chestnut, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Caryocar nuciferum, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Caryotaxus nucifera, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Cashew nut, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Castanea chrysophylla var. minor, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Castanea chrysophylla var. pumila, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Castanea sempervirens, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Castanopsis, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">bur, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">chrysophylla, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">leaves and nuts, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Castanospermum Australe, <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Caucasian walnut, <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Chestnut, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">budding, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">diseases of the, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">distance between trees, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">European varieties of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Comfort, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cooper, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Corson, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dager, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Moncur, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Numbo, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">spines of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Miller's Dupont, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Paragon, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">bur, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">nut, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">spines of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">tree, four years old, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Ridgely, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">bur, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Scott, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Styer, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">flowers, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">French variety of the, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">gathering and assorting, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">grafting, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">cleft, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">growth of cion, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">large trees, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">materials, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">modes of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">season for, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">splice, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">sprouts, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">success in, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">wax, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of the, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">insects injurious to, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Balaninus carytripes, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">weevil, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Japan, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Advance, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Alpha, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Beta, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Early Reliance, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Felton, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Giant, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Killen, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Parsons, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Parry's Superb, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Success, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">mulching, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">native varieties of the, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">burless, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">bush chinquapin, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">common chinquapin, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fuller's chinquapin, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">chinquapin burs, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">chinquapin tree, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Hathaway, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Phillips, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">planting, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">in nursery rows, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">propagation of the, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">seedbed and soil for, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">soil and climate for, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">species of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">American, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">species bush chinquapin, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Castanea Americana, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Japonica, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">nana, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">pumila, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">sativa, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">vesca, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">European, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Japan, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">leaf, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">staking transplanted trees, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">stocks from the forests, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">transplanting and pruning, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">uses of, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Chile hazelnut, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Chocolate nut or bean, <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Clearing nut, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Clove nutmeg, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Cocoanut, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">double, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Cocos nucifera, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Cola acuminata, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">nut, <a href="#Page_264">264</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Coquito nut, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Coquilla nut, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Cream nut, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Crescentia cujete, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Cryptocarya moschata, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Cujumary beans, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Dawa nut, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Dimocarpus longana, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Earth nut, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">chestnut, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Elk nut, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Euryale ferox, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Evergreen chestnut, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Fagus antarctica, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">betuloides, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">ferruginea, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">obliqua, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">sylvatica, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Fisticke nut, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Filbert or hazelnut, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Fox nut, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Galeruca calmariensis, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Ginkgo biloba, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">nut, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Goober, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Goora nut, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Gorgon nut, <a href="#Page_266">266</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Groundnut, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Guevina Avellana, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Guilandina bouduc, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">bonducella, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Hamiltonia oleifera, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Hazelnut or filbert, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">American species of hazel, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">beaked hazel, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Corylus Americana, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Corylus rostrata, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Asiatic species of hazel, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">C. ferox &amp; heterophylla, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">blight, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cryptospora anomala, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">fungus, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">European species of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Constantinople hazel, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Corylus Avellana, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Colurna, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">tubulosa, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of the filbert, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">insects injurious to filberts, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">personal experience with filberts, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">planting and pruning filberts, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">propagation of the filbert, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">soil, location, etc., for filberts, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">varieties of filbert and hazel seedlings, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">varieties extra large hazel seedling, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">varieties large filbert, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">large seedling hazelnut, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">select list of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Alba or white filbert, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cosford, or Miss Young's thin-shelled, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Crispa, or frizzled filbert, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Downton, large square, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Grandis, or round cob-nut, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Lambert's filbert, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Purple-leaved filbert, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">red filbert, red hazel, etc., <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Spanish filbert, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Horse-chestnut, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Hickory nuts, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">age of fruiting the, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">big bud, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">big shellbark, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">bitter pecan, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">bitternut, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">brown, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">budding and grafting, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">crown, on roots, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">sprouts from roots, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carya amara var. myristicæformis, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carya olivæformis, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">cultivation of the, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hicoria pecan and synonyms, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hicoria alba, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&quot;&nbsp; &nbsp;  &quot;&nbsp;  synonyms, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hicoria aquatica, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&quot;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;  &quot;&nbsp; &nbsp;  synonyms, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hicoria glabra, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&quot;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &quot;&nbsp; &nbsp; synonyms, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hicoria laciniosa, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&quot;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &quot;&nbsp; &nbsp;  synonyms, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hicoria minima, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&quot;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &quot;&nbsp; &nbsp; synonyms, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hicoria myristicæformis, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hicoria tomentosa, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">&quot;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &quot;&nbsp; &nbsp;  synonyms, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of the, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">hognut, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Illinois nut, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">insect enemies of the, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">American silk worm, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Attacus luna, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">belted chion, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">bud worm, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">burrows of scolytus, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Catocala, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chion cinctus, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chramesus icoriæ, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Clisiocampa sylvatica, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cyllene crinicornis, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">pictus, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">robiniæ, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Elaphidion inerme, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Goes, beautiful, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">pulchra, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">tiger, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">tigrinus, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Grapholitha caryana, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">bark borer, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">nut weevil, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">shuck worm, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">twig girdler, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">leaf miners, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">leaf rollers, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">locust borer, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">luna moth, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Oncideres cingulatus, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">orange sawyer, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">painted borer, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">plant lice, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Scolytus <a href="#Page_4">4</a>-spinosus, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Sinoxylon basilare, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Telea polyphemus, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">tent caterpillar, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Tortricidæ, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">king nut, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">mocker nut, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pecan nut, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">varieties of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Alba, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Biloxi, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Colorado, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Columbian, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Early Texan, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Faust, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Frotscher, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Georgia Melon, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Gonzales, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Harcourt, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Idlewild, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Jewett, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Lady Finger, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">large, long, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Little Mobile, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Longfellow, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Pride of the Coast, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Primate, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Mexican, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Meyers, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Ribera, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Risien, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Stuart, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Turkey Egg, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Van Deman, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pignut <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">planting for profit, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">propagation of the, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">shellbark or shagbark, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">varieties of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Hales' paper-shell, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">long hickory, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">from Missouri, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Western, varieties of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Floyd pecan, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">long, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Nussbaumer's, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">species and varieties, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">swamp hickoria, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">switch bud, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">thick, or western shellbark,&nbsp; <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">white-heart, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Inocarpus edulis, <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Introduction, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Importation of nuts, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Imported nuts, value of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Ita palm nut, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Ivory nut, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Jesuit chestnuts, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Jicara nut, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Juba nut, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Jubæa spectabilis, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Juvia nut <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Kipper nut, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Kola nut, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Laurelia sempervirens, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Lecythis Zabucajo, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Leechee nut, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Litchi nut, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Lodoicea Sechellarum, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Longan, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Longyen, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Lousy nut, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Macadamia ternifolia, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Madagascar nutmeg, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Marking nut, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Mauritia flexuosa, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Miriti nut, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Miscellaneous nuts, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Monkey-pot nut, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Moreton Bay chestnuts, <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Moringa optera, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pterygosperma, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Myristica fatua, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">fragrans, <a href="#Page_273">273</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">otoba, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">sebifera, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Myrobalan nut, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Nectandy puchury, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Nelumbium luteum, <a href="#Page_284">284</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Nephelium pinnatum, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Nepheliums, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Nickar nut, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Nittar, or Nutta, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Nuces vel Poma Pinea, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Nutmeg, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Nutmeg hickory, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Nyssa capitata, <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Oak nut, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Oil nut <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Olea Americana, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Openawk, <a href="#Page_267">267</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Ophiocaryon paradoxum, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Paradise nut, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Parkia Africana, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Peanut, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Pekea nut, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Peruvian nut, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">nutmeg, <a href="#Page_274">274</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Phytelephas macrocarpa, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Physic nut, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Pinang, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Pine nut, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Pinocchi, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Pinolas, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Pinon, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Pinus cembroides, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">edulis, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">monophylla, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Parryana, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">pinea, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Piper betel, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Pistacia Mexicana, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">vera, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Pistachio nut, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Plum nutmeg, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Pterocarya fraxinifolia, <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Puchurim beans, <a href="#Page_274">274</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Pyrularia oleifera, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Quandang nut, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Qudria heterophylla, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Queensland nut, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Quercus virens, <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Raffia, or Roffia, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Rambutan, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Salisburia adiantifolia, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Santalum acuminatum, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Sapucaia nut, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Sardis nut, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Sassafras nut, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Semecarpus anacardium, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Singhara-nut plant, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Snake nut, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Sonari nut, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br />
+    <br />
+    South Sea chestnut, <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Staphylea trifolia, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Stillingia sebifera, <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Stinking nutmeg, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Strychnos potatorum, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Tahitian chestnut, <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Tallow nut, <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Tavola nut, <a href="#Page_282">282</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Taxus nucifera, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Temperance nut, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Terminalia Catappa, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Theobroma cacao, <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Torrey nut, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Torreya Californica, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">nucifera, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Trapa bicornis, <a href="#Page_283">283</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">bispinosa, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">natans, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">verbanensis, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    <br />
+    Walnut, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">American, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">black, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">black, in husk, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">varieties of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">butternut, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">sugar, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">varieties of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">California, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Carya cathartica, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Juglans Californica, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">cathartica, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">cinerea, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">hybrida, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">oblonga alba, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">nigra, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">nigra, husk removed, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">nigra oblonga, <a href="#Page_233">233</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">rupestris, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">New Mexico, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Texas, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Wallia cinerea, <a href="#Page_225">225</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">white, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">budding and grafting, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">flute, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">history, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">husking, <a href="#Page_250">250</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">hybrids in California, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">flowering branch of, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Juglans Californica, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Sieboldiana, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">insect enemies of the, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Citheronia regalis, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Regal walnut moth, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jovis glans, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Juglans, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oriental, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Juglans ailantifolia, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Camirium, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Catappa, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">cordiformis, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Japonica, <a href="#Page_236">236</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Mandshurica, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Persian, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">in America, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Persian, Barthere, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chaberte, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Chile, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cluster, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Cut-leaved, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">English, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Franquette, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">French, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Gant, or Bijou, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Juglans regia, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">regia octogona, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 3em;">serotina, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Kaghazi, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Large-fruited Præparturiens, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Late Præparturiens, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Late, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Madeira nut, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mayette, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Mesange, or paper-shell, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Meylan, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Octogona, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Parisienne, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Præparturiens, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Precocious, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Racemosa, or Spicata, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Royal, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Small fruited, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">St. John, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Variegated, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vilmorin, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Vourey, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Weeping, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">planting and pruning, <a href="#Page_223">223</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">propagation of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">seedling, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Water chestnut, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">chinquapin, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">hickory, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Western cashew, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">chinquapin, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br />
+    <br />
+    Winged-seeded moringa, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br />
+    <br />
+    Winged walnut, <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br />
+</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span></p>
+<hr />
+<h3><span class="smcap">SENT FREE ON APPLICATION.</span></h3>
+<h2><span class="smcap">DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE</span></h2>
+<h4>&mdash;OF&mdash;</h4>
+<h1>RURAL BOOKS,</h1>
+<h5><span class="smcap">CONTAINING 116 8vo. PAGES</span>,</h5>
+<h5><span class="smcap">Profusely Illustrated, and giving Full Descriptions of<br />
+    Nearly 600 Works on the Following Subjects</span>:</h5>
+<p style="text-align: left; margin-left: 25%">Farm and Garden,<br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 6em;">Fruits, Flowers, Etc.</span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 13.5em;">Cattle, Sheep, and Swine,</span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">Dogs, Horses, Riding, Etc.,</span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 7.5em;">Poultry, Pigeons, and Bees,</span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 16.5em;">Angling and Fishing,</span><br />
+    Boating, Canoeing, and Sailing,<br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 5.5em;">Field Sports and Natural History,</span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 15.5em;">Hunting, Shooting, Etc.,</span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 1em;">Architecture and Building,</span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 8.5em;">Landscape Gardening,</span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 13em;">Household and Miscellaneous.</span><br />
+</p>
+<h3>PUBLISHERS AND IMPORTERS:</h3>
+<h2>ORANGE JUDD COMPANY,</h2>
+<h2>52 &amp; 54 Lafayette Place, New York.</h2>
+<p style="text-align: center"><strong>Books will be Forwarded, postpaid, on receipt of Price.</strong></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span></p>
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="STANDARD_BOOKS" id="STANDARD_BOOKS"></a>STANDARD BOOKS.</h2>
+<p><strong>Mushrooms: How to Grow Them.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>Any one who has an ordinary house cellar, woodshed or barn, can
+        grow Mushrooms. This is the most practical work on the subject
+        ever written, and the only book on growing Mushrooms published
+        in America. The author describes how he grows Mushrooms, and
+        how they are grown for profit by the leading market gardeners, and
+        for home use by the most successful private growers. Engravings
+        drawn from nature expressly for this work. By Wm. Falconer.
+        Cloth. Price, postpaid.      1.50</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Land Draining.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>A Handbook for Farmers on the Principles and Practice of Draining,
+        by Manly Miles, giving the results of his extended experience
+        in laying tile drains. The directions for the laying out and the
+        construction of tile drains will enable the farmer to avoid the
+        errors of imperfect construction, and the disappointment that
+        must necessarily follow. This manual for practical farmers will
+        also be found convenient for references in regard to many questions
+        that may arise in crop growing, aside from the special subjects
+        of drainage of which it treats. Cloth, 12mo.      1.00</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Allen's New American Farm Book.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>The very best work on the subject; comprising all that can be condensed
+        into an available volume. Originally by Richard L. Allen.
+        Revised and greatly enlarged by Lewis F. Allen. Cloth, 12mo. 2.50</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Henderson's Gardening for Profit.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>By Peter Henderson. The standard work on Market and Family
+        Gardening. The successful experience of the author for more than
+        thirty years, and his willingness to tell, as he does in this work, the
+        secret of his success for the benefit of others, enables him to give
+        most valuable information. The book is profusely illustrated.
+        Cloth, 12mo.      2.00</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Henderson's Gardening for Pleasure.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>A guide to the amateur in the fruit, vegetable and flower garden,
+        with full descriptions for the greenhouse, conservatory and window
+        garden. It meets the wants of all classes in country, city and village
+        who keep a garden for their own enjoyment rather than for
+        the sale of products. By Peter Henderson. Finely Illustrated.
+        Cloth, 12mo.      2.00</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Johnson's How Crops Grow.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>New Edition. A Treatise on the Chemical Composition, Structure
+        and Life of the Plant. Revised Edition. This book is a guide to
+        the knowledge of agricultural plants, their composition, their
+        structure and modes of development and growth; of the complex
+        organizations of plants, and the use of the parts; the germination
+        of seeds, and the food of plants obtained both from the air and
+        the soil. The book is a valuable one to all real students of agriculture.
+        With numerous illustrations and tables of analysis. By Prof.
+        Samuel W. Johnson of Yale College. Cloth, 12mo.      2.00</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span></p>
+<p><strong>Johnson's How Crops Feed.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>A Treatise on the Atmosphere and the Soil, as related in the
+        Nutrition of Agricultural Plants. This volume&mdash;the companion and
+        complement to &quot;How Crops Grow&quot;&mdash;has been welcomed by those
+        who appreciate the scientific aspects of agriculture. Illustrated.
+        By Prof. Samuel W. Johnson. Cloth, 12mo.      2.00</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Market Gardening and Farm Notes.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>By Barnet Landreth. Experiences and Observations for both
+        North and South, of interest to the Amateur Gardener, Trucker and
+        Farmer. A novel feature of the book is the calendar of farm and
+        garden operations for each month of the year; the chapters on
+        fertilizers, transplanting, succession and rotation of crops, the
+        packing, shipping and marketing of vegetables, will be especially
+        useful to market gardeners. Cloth, 12mo.      1.00</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Forest Planting.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>A Treatise on the Care of Woodlands and the Restoration of the
+        Denuded Timber-Lands on Plains and Mountains. By H. Nicholas
+        Jarchow, LL. D. The author has fully described those European
+        methods which have proved to be most useful in maintaining the
+        superb forests of the old world. This experience has been adapted
+        to the different climates and trees of America, full instructions being
+        given for forest planting on our various kinds of soil and subsoil,
+        whether on mountain or valley. Illustrated, 12mo.      1.50</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Harris' Talks on Manures.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>By Joseph Harris, M. S., author of &quot;Walks and Talks on the Farm,&quot;
+        &quot;Harris on the Pig,&quot; etc. Revised and enlarged by the author. A
+        series of familiar and practical talks between the author and the
+        Deacon, the Doctor, and other neighbors, on the whole subject of
+        manures and fertilizers; including a chapter especially written for
+        it, by Sir John Bennet Lawes of Rothamsted, England. Cloth,
+        12mo.      1.75</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Truck Farming at the South.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>A work which gives the experience of a successful grower of vegetables
+        or &quot;truck&quot; for Northern markets. Essential to any one who
+        contemplates entering this promising field of Agriculture. By A.
+        Oemler of Georgia. Illustrated, cloth, 12mo. 1.50</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Sweet Potato Culture.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>Giving full instructions from starting the plants to harvesting and
+        storing the crop. With a chapter on the Chinese Yam. By James
+        Fitz, Keswich, Va., author of &quot;Southern Apple and Peach Culture.&quot;
+        Cloth, 12mo.      .60</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Heinrich's Window Flower Garden.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>The author is a practical florist, and this enterprising volume embodies
+        his personal experiences in Window Gardening during a
+        long period. New and enlarged edition. By Julius J. Heinrich.
+        Fully illustrated. Cloth, 12mo.      .75</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span></p>
+<p><strong>Greenhouse Construction.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>By Prof. L. R. Taft. A complete treatise on Greenhouse structures
+        and arrangements of the various forms and styles of Plant Houses
+        for professional florists as well as amateurs. All the best and most
+        approved structures are so fully and clearly described that anyone
+        who desires to build a Greenhouse will have no difficulty in determining
+        the kind best suited to his purpose. The modern and most
+        successful methods of heating and ventilating are fully treated
+        upon. Special chapters are devoted to houses used for the growing
+        of one kind of plants exclusively. The construction of hotbeds
+        and frames receives appropriate attention. Over one hundred excellent
+        illustrations, specially engraved for this work, make every
+        point clear to the reader and add considerably to the artistic appearance
+        of the book. Cloth, 12mo.      1.50</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Bulbs and Tuberous-Rooted Plants.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>By C. L. Allen. A complete treatise on the History, Description,
+        Methods of Propagation and full Directions for the successful culture
+        of Bulbs in the garden, Dwelling and Greenhouse. As generally
+        treated, bulbs are an expensive luxury, while, when properly
+        managed, they afford the greatest amount of pleasure at the least
+        cost. The author of this book has for many years made bulb growing
+        a specialty, and is a recognized authority on their cultivation
+        and management. The illustrations which embellish this work
+        have been drawn from nature, and have been engraved especially
+        for this book. The cultural directions are plainly stated, practical
+        and to the point. Cloth, 12mo.      2.00</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Henderson's Practical Floriculture.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>By Peter Henderson. A guide to the successful propagation and
+        cultivation of florists' plants. The work is not one for florists and
+        gardeners only, but the amateur's wants are constantly kept in
+        mind, and we have a very complete treatise on the cultivation of
+        flowers under glass, or in the open air, suited to those who grow
+        flowers for pleasure as well as those who make them a matter of
+        trade. Beautifully illustrated. New and enlarged edition. Cloth,
+        12mo.      1.50</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Long's Ornamental Gardening for Americans.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>A Treatise on Beautifying Homes, Rural Districts and Cemeteries.
+        A plain and practical work at a moderate price, with numerous
+        illustrations and instructions so plain that they may be readily
+        followed. By Elias A. Long, Landscape Architect. Illustrated,
+        Cloth, 12mo.      2.00</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>The Propagation of Plants.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>By Andrew S. Fuller. Illustrated with numerous engravings. An
+        eminently practical and useful work. Describing the process of
+        hybridizing and crossing species and varieties, and also the many
+        different modes by which cultivated plants may be propagated and
+        multiplied. Cloth, 12mo.      1.50</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span></p>
+<p><strong>Parsons on the Rose.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>By Samuel B. Parsons. A treatise on the propagation, culture and
+        history of the rose. New and revised edition. In his work upon
+        the rose, Mr. Parsons has gathered up the curious legends concerning
+        the flower, and gives us an idea of the esteem in which it was
+        held in former times. A simple garden classification has been
+        adopted, and the leading varieties under each class enumerated
+        and briefly described. The chapters on multiplication, cultivation
+        and training are very full, and the work is altogether one of the
+        most complete before the public. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo.      1.00</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Henderson's Handbook of Plants.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>This new edition comprises about fifty per cent. more genera than
+        the former one, and embraces the botanical name, derivation,
+        natural order, etc., together with a short history of the different
+        genera, concise instructions for their propagation and culture, and
+        all the leading local or common English names, together with a
+        comprehensive glossary of Botanical and Technical terms. Plain
+        instructions are also given for the cultivation of the principal vegetables,
+        fruits and flowers. Cloth, large 8vo.      4.00</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Barry's Fruit Garden.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>By P. Barry. A standard work on Fruit and Fruit Trees; the author
+        having had over thirty years' practical experience at the head of
+        one of the largest nurseries in this country. New edition revised
+        up to date. Invaluable to all fruit growers. Illustrated. Cloth,
+        12mo.      2.00</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Fulton's Peach Culture.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>This is the only practical guide to Peach Culture on the Delaware
+        Peninsula, and is the best work upon the subject of peach growing
+        for those who would be successful in that culture in any part of
+        the country. It has been thoroughly revised and a large portion of
+        it rewritten, by Hon. J. Alexander Fulton, the author, bringing it
+        down to date. Cloth, 12mo.      1.50</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Strawberry Culturist.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>By Andrew S. Fuller. Containing the History, Sexuality, Field and
+        Garden Culture of Strawberries, forcing or pot culture, how to
+        grow from seed, hybridizing, and all information necessary to enable
+        everybody to raise their own strawberries, together with a
+        description of new varieties and a list of the best of the old sorts.
+        Fully illustrated. Flexible cloth, 12mo.      .25</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Fuller's Small Fruit Culturist.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>By Andrew S. Fuller. Rewritten, enlarged, and brought fully up to
+        the present time. The book covers the whole ground of propagating
+        Small Fruits, their culture, varieties, packing for market, etc. It is
+        very finely and thoroughly illustrated, and makes an admirable
+        companion to &quot;The Grape Culturist,&quot; by the same well known
+        author.      1.50</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span></p>
+<p><strong>Fuller's Grape Culturist.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>By A. S. Fuller. This is one of the very best of works on the Culture
+        of the Hardy Grapes, with full directions for all departments
+        of propagation, culture, etc., with 150 excellent engravings, illustrating
+        planting, training, grafting, etc. Cloth, 12mo.      1.50</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Quinn's Pear Culture for Profit.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>Teaching How to Raise Pears intelligently, and with the best results,
+        how to find out the character of the soil, the best methods of
+        preparing it, the best varieties to select under existing conditions,
+        the best modes of planting, pruning, fertilizing, grafting, and utilizing
+        the ground before the trees come into bearing, and finally of
+        gathering and packing for market. Illustrated. By P. T. Quinn,
+        practical horticulturist. Cloth, 12mo.      1.00</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Husmann's American Grape Growing and Wine-Making.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>By George Husmann of Talcoa vineyards, Napa, California. New
+        and enlarged edition. With contributions from well known grape-growers,
+        giving a wide range of experience. The author of this
+        book is a recognized authority on the subject. Cloth, 12mo.      1.50</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>White's Cranberry Culture.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>Contents:&mdash;Natural History.&mdash;History of Cultivation.&mdash;Choice of
+        Location.&mdash;Preparing the Ground.&mdash;Planting the Vines.&mdash;Management
+        of Meadows.&mdash;Flooding.&mdash;Enemies and Difficulties Overcome.&mdash;Picking.&mdash;Keeping.&mdash;Profit
+        and Loss.&mdash;Letters from Practical
+        Growers.&mdash;Insects Injurious to the Cranberry. By Joseph J. White,
+        a practical grower. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. New and revised
+        edition.      1.25</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Fuller's Practical Forestry.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>A Treatise on the Propagation, Planting and Cultivation, with a
+        description and the botanical and proper names of all the indigenous
+        trees of the United States, both Evergreen and Deciduous, with
+        Notes on a large number of the most valuable Exotic Species. By
+        Andrew S. Fuller, author of &quot;Grape Culturist,&quot; &quot;Small Fruit Culturist,&quot;
+        etc.      1.50</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Stewart's Irrigation for the Farm, Garden and Orchard.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>This work is offered to those American Farmers and other cultivators
+        of the soil who, from painful experience, can readily appreciate
+        the losses which result from the scarcity of water at critical
+        periods. By Henry Stewart. Fully illustrated. Cloth, 12mo.      1.50</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Quinn's Money in the Garden.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>By P. T. Quinn. The author gives in a plain, practical style, instructions
+        on three distinct, although closely connected branches
+        of gardening&mdash;the kitchen garden, market garden, and field culture,
+        from successful practical experience for a term of years. Illustrated.
+        Cloth, 12mo.      1.50</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span></p>
+<p><strong>Roe's Play and Profit in My Garden.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>By E. P. Roe. The author takes us to his garden on the rocky hill-sides
+        in the vicinity of West Point, and shows us how out of it,
+        after four years' experience, he evoked a profit of $1,000, and this
+        while carrying on pastoral and literary labor. It is very rarely
+        that so much literary taste and skill are mated to so much agricultural
+        experience and good sense. Cloth, 12mo.      1.50</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>The New Onion Culture.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>By T. Greiner. This new work is written by one of our most successful
+        agriculturists, and is full of new, original, and highly valuable
+        matter of material interest to every one who raises onions in
+        the family garden, or by the acre for market. By the process here
+        described a crop of 2000 bushels per acre can be as easily raised as
+        500 or 600 bushels in the old way. Paper, 12mo.      .50</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>The Dairyman's Manual.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>By Henry Stewart, author of &quot;The Shepherd's Manual,&quot; &quot;Irrigation,&quot;
+        etc. A useful and practical work, by a writer who is well
+        known as thoroughly familiar with the subject of which he writes.
+        Cloth, 12mo.      2.00</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Allen's American Cattle.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>Their History, Breeding and Management. By Lewis F. Allen.
+        This book will be considered indispensable by every breeder of
+        live stock. The large experience of the author in improving the
+        character of American herds adds to the weight of his observations
+        and has enabled him to produce a work which will at once make
+        good his claims as a standard authority on the subject. New and
+        revised edition. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo.      2.50</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Profits in Poultry.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>Useful and ornamental Breeds and their Profitable Management.
+        This excellent work contains the combined experience of a number
+        of practical men in all departments of poultry raising. It is
+        profusely illustrated and forms a unique and important addition
+        to our poultry literature. Cloth, 12mo.      1.00</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>The American Standard of Perfection.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>The recognized standard work on Poultry in this country, adopted
+        by the American Poultry Association. It contains a complete description
+        of all the recognized varieties of fowls, including turkeys,
+        ducks and geese; gives instructions to judges; glossary of technical
+        terms and nomenclature. It contains 244 pages, handsomely
+        bound in cloth, embellished with title in gold on front cover.      $1.00</p>
+</blockquote>
+<p><strong>Stoddard's An Egg Farm.</strong></p>
+<blockquote>
+    <p>By H. H. Stoddard. The management of poultry in large numbers,
+        being a series of articles written for the<span class="smcap">American Agriculturist</span>.
+        Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo.      .50</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Nut Culturist, by Andrew S. Fuller
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Nut Culturist
+       A Treatise on Propogation, Planting, and Cultivation of
+       Nut Bearing Trees and Shrubs Adapted to the Climate of the
+       United States
+
+Author: Andrew S. Fuller
+
+Release Date: November 10, 2011 [EBook #37968]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE NUT CULTURIST ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charlene Taylor, Kathryn Lybarger and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: A S Fuller]
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+  NUT CULTURIST
+
+  A TREATISE
+  ON THE
+  PROPAGATION, PLANTING AND CULTIVATION
+  OF NUT-BEARING TREES AND SHRUBS
+  ADAPTED TO THE
+  CLIMATE OF THE UNITED STATES,
+  WITH THE SCIENTIFIC AND COMMON NAMES OF
+  THE FRUITS KNOWN
+  IN COMMERCE AS EDIBLE OR OTHERWISE USEFUL NUTS
+
+
+  By ANDREW S. FULLER,
+
+_Author of the "Grape Culturist," "Small Fruit Culturist,"
+"Practical Forestry," "Propagation of Plants," etc., etc._
+
+
+_ILLUSTRATED_
+
+
+  NEW YORK
+  ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
+  1896
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1896,
+  BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Believing that the time is opportune for making an effort to
+cultivate all kinds of edible and otherwise useful nut-bearing trees
+and shrubs adapted to the soil and climate of the United States,
+thereby inaugurating a great, permanent and far-reaching industry,
+the following pages have been penned, and with the hope of
+encouraging and aiding the farmer to increase his income and
+enjoyments, without, to any appreciable extent, adding to his
+expenses or labors. With this idea in mind, I have not advised the
+general planting of nut orchards on land adapted to the production
+of grain and other indispensable farm crops, but mainly as roadside
+trees and where desired for shade, shelter and ornament, being
+confident that when all such positions are occupied with choice
+nut-bearing trees, to the exclusion of those yielding nothing of
+intrinsic value, there will have been added many millions of dollars
+to the wealth of the country, as well as a vast store of edible and
+delicious food.
+
+This work has not been written for the edification, or the special
+approbation, of scientific botanists, but for those who, in the
+opinion of the writer, are most likely to profit by a treatise of
+this kind. Unfamiliar terms have been omitted wherever simple common
+words would answer equally as well in conveying the intended
+information. There being no work of this kind published in this
+country that would serve as a guide, I have been compelled to
+formulate a plan of my own, and to describe all the newer varieties
+from the best specimens obtainable, and these may not, in all cases,
+have been perfect. Under such circumstances, this work must
+necessarily be incomplete, and especially where the possessors of
+claimed-to-be new and valuable varieties have either refused or
+failed to give any information in regard to them. On the contrary,
+however, I must acknowledge my indebtedness to many correspondents,
+who have so generously placed specimens of both trees and nuts of
+rare new varieties in my hands for testing and describing, as well
+as assisting me in tracing their history and origin.
+
+That this treatise may become the pioneer of many other and better
+works on nut culture is the sincere wish of
+
+  THE AUTHOR.
+
+  RIDGEWOOD, N. J., 1896.
+
+
+
+
+  CONTENTS.
+
+                                                               Page.
+  CHAPTER I.
+  INTRODUCTION,                                                    1
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+  THE ALMOND,                                                     12
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+  THE BEECHNUT,                                                   44
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+  CASTANOPSIS,                                                    55
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+  THE CHESTNUT,                                                   60
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+  FILBERT OR HAZELNUT,                                           118
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+  HICKORY NUTS,                                                  147
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.
+  THE WALNUT,                                                    203
+
+  CHAPTER IX.
+  MISCELLANEOUS NUTS--EDIBLE AND OTHERWISE,                      254
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+  Fig.                                                         Page.
+    1.  A California almond orchard,                              18
+    2.  Budding knife,                                            24
+    3.  Yankee budding knife,                                     24
+    4.  Prepared shoot,                                           26
+    5.  Incision for bud,                                         27
+    6.  Bud in position,                                          28
+    7.  Hard-shelled almond,                                      36
+    8.  Thin-shelled almond,                                      37
+    9.  Beechnut leaf, bur and nut,                               51
+   10.  Leaves and nut of Castanopsis chrysophylla,               56
+   11.  Castanopsis bur,                                          57
+   12.  Chestnut flowers,                                         61
+   13.  Splice graft,                                             75
+   14.  Splice graft inserted,                                    75
+   15.  Stock,                                                    77
+   16.  Cion,                                                     77
+   17.  Two cions inserted,                                       77
+   18.  One cion inserted,                                        77
+   19.  American chestnut leaf,                                   88
+   20.  Spike of burs of bush chinquapin (_Castanea nana_),       89
+   21.  Spike of chinquapin chestnut bur (_C. pumila_),           90
+   22.  Single bur, nut and leaf of chinquapin
+            chestnut (_C. pumila_),                               91
+   23.  Japan chestnut leaf,                                      92
+   24.  Burs of Fuller's chinquapin (one-half natural size),      97
+   25.  Fuller's chinquapin, five years old from nut,             98
+   26.  Bur of Numbo chestnut,                                   101
+   27.  Spines of Numbo chestnut,                                102
+   28.  Numbo chestnut,                                          102
+   29.  Paragon chestnut bur (one-half natural size),            103
+   30.  Spines of Paragon chestnut bur,                          103
+   31.  Paragon chestnut,                                        104
+   32.  Four-year-old Paragon chestnut tree,                     105
+   33.  Open bur of the Ridgely chestnut,                        106
+   34.  Japan Giant chestnut,                                    110
+   35.  Spines of Japan chestnut,                                110
+   36.  Chestnut weevil,                                         114
+   37.  Large filbert,                                           119
+   38.  Large seedling hazelnut,                                 120
+   39.  Constantinople hazel,                                    129
+   40.  English filbert orchard, five years from seed,           134
+   41.  Varieties of filberts and hazel seedlings,               135
+   42.  Extra large hazel seedling or round English filbert,     136
+   43.  Filbert orchard struck with blight, fifth year from seed,137
+   44.  Hazel fungus,                                            141
+   45.  Fourteen-years-old pecan tree in Mississippi,            154
+   46.  Leaf and sterile catkins of shellbark hickory,           156
+   47.  Western shellbark,                                       158
+   48.  Section Western shellbark,                               158
+   49.  Leaf of pignut,                                          161
+   50.  Bitternut branch and leaf,                               163
+   51.  Bitternut,                                               164
+   52.  Large, long pecan nut,                                   166
+   53.  Oval pecan nut,                                          166
+   54.  Small oval pecan nut,                                    167
+   55.  Little Mobile pecan nut,                                 167
+   56.  Stuart pecan nut,                                        169
+   57.  Van Deman pecan nut,                                     169
+   58.  Risien pecan nut,                                        169
+   59.  Lady Finger pecan nut,                                   169
+   60.  The original Hales' Paper-shell hickory tree,            171
+   61.  Hales' hickory,                                          172
+   62.  Section of Hales' hickory,                               172
+   63.  Long shellbark hickory,                                  173
+   64.  Shellbark Missouri,                                      173
+   65.  Long Western shellbark,                                  174
+   66.  Fresh Nussbaumer hybrid,                                 175
+   67.  Nussbaumer's hybrid,                                     176
+   68.  Crown grafting on roots of the hickory,                  189
+   69.  Sprouts from severed hickory roots,                      190
+   70.  The hickory-twig girdler,                                196
+   71.  Hickory borer,                                           198
+   72.  Burrows of hickory scolytus,                             200
+   73.  Persian walnut, showing position of sexual organs,       204
+   74.  Bearing branch of English walnut,                        205
+   75.  Seedling walnut,                                         216
+   76.  Flute budding,                                           220
+   77.  Flowering branch of hybrid walnut,                       228
+   78.  Hybrid walnut,                                           230
+   79.  Hybrid walnut, shell removed,                            230
+   80.  Juglans Sieboldiana raceme,                              231
+   81.  Black walnut in husk,                                    232
+   82.  Juglans nigra, husk removed,                             233
+   83.  Juglans Californica,                                     235
+   84.  Juglans rupestris, showing small kernel,                 235
+   85.  Juglans Sieboldiana,                                     238
+   86.  Juglans cordiformis,                                     239
+   87.  Small fruited walnut,                                    240
+   88.  Barthere walnut,                                         242
+   89.  Chaberte walnut,                                         242
+   90.  Chile walnut,                                            242
+   91.  Cut-leaved walnut,                                       243
+   92.  Gibbons walnut,                                          244
+   93.  Mayette walnut,                                          245
+   94. Kernel of walnut,                                         245
+   95. Juglans regia octogona,                                   245
+   96. Cross section,                                            245
+   97. Parisienne walnut,                                        246
+   98. Serotina or St. John walnut,                              247
+   99. The caterpillar of the regal walnut moth,                 252
+  100. The regal walnut moth--Citheronia regalis,                252
+  101. Brazil nut,                                               258
+  102. The cashew nut,                                           260
+  103. Litchi or Leechee nut,                                    270
+  104. Branch of nut pine,                                       277
+  105. Paradise or sapucaia nut,                                 279
+  106. Souari nut,                                               281
+  107. Water chestnut,                                           283
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+No special amount of prophetic acumen is required to foresee that
+the time will soon come when the people of this country must
+necessarily place a much higher value upon all kinds of food than
+they do at present, or have done in the past. In this we are
+pre-supposing that in the natural course of events, our population
+will continue to increase in nearly the same ratio it has since we
+assumed the responsibilities of an independent nation.
+
+The very existence of animal life on this planet depends upon the
+quantity and quality of available food, and while some
+sentimentalists may assume to ignore and even attempt to deprecate
+the animal desires of their race, nature compels us to recognize the
+fact that there can be no fire without fuel, and the great and
+useful intellectual powers of man are the emanations of the animal
+tissues of a well-nourished brain. The brawny arm that rends the
+rock and hurls the fragments aside, gets its power through the same
+channel and from the same source as those of other members of
+society, whatever the nature of their calling; for mankind is built
+upon one universal and general plan, varied though it may be in some
+of the minor details of construction. We certainly have no cause to
+fear that the theories of Malthus, in regard to the overpopulation
+of the earth as a whole, will ever be verified in the experience of
+the human race, because with necessity comes industry, also the
+inventions of devices to enable us to avoid just such dangers, and
+if these fail to keep pace with our wants and needs, wars,
+earthquakes, drouths, floods, and contagious, epidemic and other
+diseases, become the weapons which nature employs to prevent
+overpopulation. But we cannot deny that nature does sometimes
+encourage or permit a somewhat redundant population in certain
+favorable countries and localities, and then follows a struggle for
+existence, and food becomes the paramount object in life. To ward
+off danger of this kind and keep the supply in excess of the demand,
+is a problem which should seriously engage the attention of every
+one who takes the least interest in the general welfare of his
+countrymen, even though the day of want or scarcity of food may be
+very far distant.
+
+Among the various sources of acceptable and nutritious food products
+heretofore almost entirely neglected in this country, the edible
+nuts stand preeminently and conspicuously in the foreground,
+awaiting the skill and attention of all who seek pleasure and
+profit--to be derived from the products of the soil. For many
+centuries these nuts have held a prominent position among the
+desirable and valuable food products of various European and
+Oriental countries; not only because they were important and almost
+indispensable in making up the household supplies of all classes of
+the people, but often because available for filling a depleted
+purse, and the thing needful for this purpose has, in the main, been
+received from far-distant nations, who through indifference and
+neglect failed to provide themselves with such a simple and valuable
+article as the edible nuts.
+
+Much as we may boast of our immense natural resources and
+advantages, we have not, as yet, availed ourselves of one-half of
+those we possess, and the remainder is still awaiting our attention.
+We also neglect to avail ourselves of the many superior domestic
+traits and practices of the foreign nations with whom we are in
+constant communication. It may be that the absence of incentives has
+made us careless and indifferent in regard to a day of need, which
+in all probability will come to us sooner or later; but whatever the
+cause, the fact remains that we have been spending millions annually
+on worthless articles and sentimental problems and projects, which
+have brought us neither riches nor honor; in truth, to use a homely
+phrase, we have been following the bellwether in nearly all of our
+rural affairs and pursuits. As a natural result we are spending
+millions for imported articles of everyday use which might easily
+and with large profit be produced at home, and in many instances the
+most humiliating part of the transaction is that we send our money
+to people who do not purchase any of our productions and almost
+ignore us in commercial matters. I am not referring to those
+products ill-adapted to our climate, nor to those which, owing to
+scarcity and high price of labor, we are unable to produce
+profitably, but to such nuts as the almond, walnut and chestnut,
+which we can raise as readily as peaches, apples and pears. There
+certainly can be no excuse for the neglect of such nut trees on the
+score of cost of labor in propagation and planting, because our
+streets and highways are lined and shaded with equally as expensive
+kinds, although they are absolutely worthless for any other purpose
+than shade or shelter, yielding nothing in the way of food for
+either man or beast. Can any one invent a reasonable excuse for
+planting miles and miles of roadside trees of such kinds as elm,
+maple, ash, willow, cottonwood, and a hundred other similar kinds,
+where shellbark hickory, chestnut, walnut, pecan and butternut would
+thrive just as well, cost no more, and yet yield bushels of
+delicious and highly prized nuts, and this annually or in alternate
+years, continuing and increasing in productiveness for one, two or
+more centuries. Aside from the intrinsic value of such trees, they
+are, in the way of ornament, just as beautiful as, and in many
+instances much superior to those yielding nothing in the way of food
+except, perhaps, something for noxious insects.
+
+I am not attempting to pose as the one wise man engaged in rural
+affairs, but am merely recounting my personal observation and
+experience, having in my younger days taken the advice of my elders,
+and at a time when a hint of the future value of nut trees would
+have been worth more than a paid-up life insurance policy. But as
+the hint was not given, I selected for roadside trees ash, maples,
+tulip, magnolias, and other popular kinds, all of which thrived, and
+by the time they were twenty years old began to be admired for their
+beauty, although their roots were spreading into the adjoining
+field, robbing the soil of the nutriment required for less
+vigorous-growing plants. Later, however, the discovery was made that
+I was paying very dearly for a crop of leaves and sentiment, neither
+of which was salable or available for filling one's purse. When
+thirty years of age the very best of my roadside trees were probably
+worth two dollars each for firewood, or one dollar more than the
+nurseryman's price at the time of planting. The greater part of
+these trees, however, have since been cremated, a few being left as
+reminders of the misdirected labors of youth and inexperience.
+
+In this matter of following a leader in tree-planting along the
+highways, it appears to be a predominant trait of our rural
+population and as old as the settlement of this country, for nowhere
+is it more pronounced than in the New England States, where the
+American elms attracted the attention of the Pilgrims and their
+contemporaries and descendants, and even continued down to the
+present day. No one will deny that the American elm is a noble tree
+in appearance, is easily transplanted and of rapid growth, and yet
+it is one of the most worthless for any economic purpose. It may be
+that its worthlessness for other purposes made it all the more
+acceptable for streets and roadsides, the better kinds being
+reserved for firewood, fencing, furniture, and the manufacture of
+agricultural and other implements. But whatever the cause or object,
+the elm became the one tree generally selected for planting in
+parks, villages, cities, and along roadsides in the country, not
+only in the older but in many of the newer States. From present
+indications, however, the glory of this much over-praised tree is on
+the wane, for the imported elm-leaf beetle (_Galeruca calmariensis_)
+is slowly but surely spreading over the country, defoliating the
+elms of all species and varieties, and it is a question whether we
+should bless this insect for the work it is doing or look upon it as
+a pest. Perhaps future generations will sing paeons in its praise,
+and they certainly will have reasons for rejoicing if better and
+more useful kinds are planted in the places now occupied by the
+worthless elms.
+
+In other localities some pioneer or leader in roadside ornamentation
+selected or recommended some species of maple, linden, catalpa,
+poplar or willow, but it made little or no difference as to kind,
+because, as a rule, all his neighbors followed without a thought or
+question in regard to adaptation to soil, climate, or fitness in the
+local or surrounding scenery, or of its future economic value. The
+result of this want of taste and forethought may be seen in whatever
+direction one travels throughout the older and more thickly settled
+portions of this country.
+
+Had the early settlers of the New England States planted shellbark
+hickories, or even the native chestnut, in place of the American
+elm, they would not only have had equally as beautiful trees for
+shade and ornament, but the nutritious nuts would scarcely have
+failed to bring bright cheer to many a household and money to fill
+oft-depleted purses, while their descendants would have blessed them
+for their forethought. Of course there are other valuable kinds of
+nuts which thrive over the greater part of the New England States,
+but I refer only to the two, which were so abundant in the forests
+that one or both could have been obtained for the mere cost of
+transplanting. But it is not fair to prate about the remissness and
+follies of our ancestors, unless we can show by our works that
+wisdom has come down to us through their experience.
+
+What is true of the New England is equally true of all the older
+States, and is rapidly becoming so in many of the newer, little
+attention being paid to the intrinsic value of the wood or the
+product of the trees planted along the highways. There are also
+millions of acres of wild lands not suitable for cultivation, but
+well adapted to the growth of trees, whether of the nut-bearing or
+other kinds. But for the present I will omit further reference to
+the planting of nut trees except on the line of the highways, just
+where other kinds have long been in vogue and are still being
+cultivated for shade and ornament,--with no thought, perhaps, on the
+part of the planter, that both could be obtained in the nut trees,
+with something of more intrinsic value added. The nut trees which
+grow to a large size are as well adapted for planting along
+roadsides, in the open country, as other kinds that yield nothing in
+the way of food for either man or beast. They are also fully as
+beautiful in form and foliage, and in many instances far superior,
+to the kinds often selected for such purposes.
+
+The only objection I have heard of as being urged against planting
+fruit and nut trees along the highway is that they tempt boys and
+girls--as well as persons of larger growth--to become trespassers;
+but this only applies to where there is such a scarcity that the
+quantity taken perceptibly lessens the total crop. But where there
+is an abundance, either the temptation to trespass disappears, or we
+fail to recognize our loss. As we cannot very well dispense with the
+small boy and his sister, I am in favor of providing them
+bountifully with all the good things that climate and circumstance
+will afford. It is a truism that conscience is never strengthened by
+an empty stomach.
+
+A mile, in this country, is 5280 feet, and if trees are set 40 feet
+apart--which is allowing sufficient room for them to grow during an
+ordinary lifetime--we get 133 per mile in a single row; but where
+the roads are three to four rods wide, two rows may be planted, one
+on each side, or 266 per mile. With such kinds as the Persian walnut
+and American and foreign chestnuts, we can safely estimate the crop,
+when the trees are twenty years old, at a half bushel per tree, or
+66 bushels for a single row, and 133 for a double row per mile. With
+grafted trees of either kind we may count on double the quantity
+named, presuming, of course, that the trees are given proper care.
+But to be on the safe side, let us keep our estimate down to the
+half-bushel mark per tree, and with this crop, at the moderate price
+of four dollars per bushel, we would get $264 from the crop on a
+single row, and double this sum, or $528, for the crop on a double
+row--with a fair assurance that the yield would increase steadily
+for the next hundred years or more; while the cost of gathering and
+marketing the nuts is no greater, and in many instances much less
+than that of the ordinary grain crops. At the expiration of the
+first half century, one-half of the trees may be removed, if they
+begin to crowd, and the timber used for whatever purpose it may best
+be adapted. The remaining trees would probably improve, on account
+of having more room for development.
+
+There has been a steady increase in the demand, and a corresponding
+advance in the price of all kinds of edible nuts, during the past
+three or four decades, and this is likely to continue for many years
+to come, because consumers are increasing far more rapidly than
+producers; besides, the forests, which have long been the only
+source of supply of the native kinds, are rapidly disappearing,
+while there has not been, as yet, any special effort to make good
+the loss, by replanting or otherwise. The dealers in such articles
+in our larger cities assure me that the demand for our best kinds of
+edible nuts is far in excess of the supply, and yet not one
+housewife or cook in a thousand in this country has ever attempted
+to use nuts of any kind in the preparation of meats and other dishes
+for the table, as is so generally practiced in European and Oriental
+countries.
+
+The question may be asked, if the demand is sufficient to warrant
+the planting of the hardy nut trees extensively along our highways
+or elsewhere. In answer to such a question it may be said that we
+not only consume all of the edible nuts raised in this country, but
+import millions of pounds annually of the very kinds which thrive
+here as well as in any other part of the world.
+
+I have before me the records of our imports from the year 1790 to
+1894, but as I purpose dealing more with the present and future than
+with the distant past, I will refer here only to the statistics of
+the four years of the present decade, leaving out all reference to
+the tropical nuts, which are not supposed to be adapted to our
+climate.
+
+Of almonds, not shelled, and on which there is a protective duty of
+three cents per pound, we imported from 1890 to the close of 1893,
+12,443,895 pounds, valued at $1,100,477.65. Of almonds, shelled, on
+which the duty is now five cents, we imported 1,326,633 pounds. The
+total value of both kinds for the four years, amounted to
+$1,716,277.32. Whether this high protective duty is to remain or not
+is uncertain, but it is quite evident that it has had very little
+effect in stimulating the cultivation of this nut except in
+circumscribed localities on the Pacific coast.
+
+Of filberts and walnuts, not shelled, and with a duty of two cents
+per pound, we imported during the same years from eleven to fifteen
+million pounds annually, or a total for the four years of 54,526,181
+pounds, and in addition about two million pounds of the shelled
+kernels, on which the duty was six cents (now four) per pound. The
+total value of these importations amounted to $3,176,085.34.
+
+I do not find the European chestnut mentioned in any list of
+imports, although an immense quantity must be received from France,
+Italy and Spain every year, and they are probably imported under the
+head of miscellaneous nuts, not specially provided for, and upon
+which the duty was two cents per pound in 1890-'91, but was later
+reduced to one and a half cents.
+
+Under the head "miscellaneous nuts," or all other shelled and
+unshelled "not specially provided for," there was imported during
+the period named 6,442,908 pounds, valued at $235,976.05. The total
+for all kinds of edible nuts imported was $7,124,575.82. These
+figures are sufficient to prove that we are neglecting an
+opportunity to largely engage in and extend a most important and
+profitable industry. It is true that in the Southern States
+considerable attention has been given, of late, to the preservation
+of the old pecan nut trees and the planting of young stock, but it
+will be many years before the increase from this source can overtake
+the ever-increasing demand for this delicious native nut.
+Californians are also making an effort to raise several foreign
+varieties of edible nuts on a somewhat extensive scale, but all
+these widely scattered experiments are mere drops in the ocean of
+our wants. Under such conditions I ask, in all seriousness, if it is
+not about time that our farmers and rural population generally began
+to count their worthless and unproductive possessions, in the form
+of roadside and other shade trees--which have probably cost fully as
+much to secure, plant and care for during the few or many years
+since they were set out, as would have been expended upon the most
+beautiful and valuable nut-bearing kinds. If our ancestors were at
+fault in the selection of trees for planting, we need not expect
+that posterity will excuse us for continuing and repeating their
+folly, especially when our dear-bought experience should teach us
+better.
+
+At the present time there might be some difficulty in procuring, at
+the nurseries, a choice selection of nut trees in any considerable
+quantity, suited to roadside planting, because heretofore there has
+been little demand for such stock; and nurserymen are only human,
+and conduct their establishments on business principles, propagating
+the kind of trees in greatest demand, regardless of their intrinsic
+or future value to purchasers. They will also continue producing
+such stock just so long as the demand will warrant it, and further,
+it is but natural that they should sometimes recommend and advise
+their customers to purchase worthless, and even pestiferous kinds,
+such as the ailanthus and white poplar, because the profits in
+raising these trees are large and there is little danger of loss in
+transplanting. But if purchasers will insist on having better kinds
+and refuse to accept any other, they will soon be accommodated; and
+if not, then let everyone who owns a plot of ground become his own
+propagator of trees. It is not beyond the ability of any moderately
+intelligent man (or woman, for that matter) to raise nut trees, and
+as readily as one could potatoes or corn.
+
+Where farmers want a row of trees along the roadside, to be utilized
+for line fence posts, they cannot possibly find any kinds better
+adapted for this purpose than chestnut, walnut and hickory; and
+these will give just as dense a shade, and look as well--besides, in
+a few years they may yield enough to pay the taxes on the entire
+farm, the crop increasing in amount and value not only during the
+lifetime of the planter, but that of many generations of his
+descendants.
+
+This appeal to the good sense of our rural population is made in all
+sincerity and with the hope that it will be heeded by every man who
+has a spark of patriotism in his soul, and who dares show it in his
+labors, and by setting up a few milestones in the form of
+nut-bearing trees along the roadsides--if for no other purpose than
+the present pleasure of anticipating the gratification such
+monuments will afford the many who are certain to pass along these
+highways years hence.
+
+It is surely not good policy to enrich other nations at the expense
+of our own people, as we are now doing in sending millions of
+dollars annually to foreign countries in payment for such luxuries
+as edible nuts that could be readily and profitably produced at
+home. There need be no fear of an overproduction of such things, no
+matter how many may engage in their cultivation, because in such
+industries many will resolve to do, and even make an attempt, but a
+comparatively small number will reach any marked degree of success.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE ALMOND.
+
+
+Amygdalus, _Tournefort_. Name supposed to be derived from _amysso_,
+to lacerate, because of the prominent sharp, knifelike margin of one
+edge of the deeply pitted, wrinkled nut. Martius, an Italian
+botanist, suggests that the name came from the Hebrew word _shakad_,
+signifying vigilant, or to awake, because after the rigors of winter
+the almond tree is one of the earliest to hail the coming of spring,
+with its flowers. The common English name is from the Latin
+_amandola_, corrupted from _amygdala_. In French it is _amandier_;
+in German, _mandel_; Portuguese, _amendoa_; Spanish, _almendro_;
+Italian, _amandola_, _mandalo_, _mandorla_, etc.; Dutch, _amendel_;
+Chinese, _him-ho-gin_.
+
+Under the natural classification of plants the almond belongs to the
+order _Rosaceae_, and in the tribe _Drupaceae_. Linnaeus placed the
+peach and almond in the same genus, and they are now generally
+considered to be only varieties of one species,--the wild almond
+tree is probably the parent from which all the cultivated peaches
+and nectarines have descended. In most of our modern botanical works
+these fruits are classed as a sub-section of _Prunus_, the plum.
+They are mainly deciduous shrubs, or small trees. The flowers are
+variable, both in size and color; but in the almond they are usually
+somewhat larger than in the peach, almost sessile, and from separate
+scaly buds on the shoots of the preceding season, appearing in early
+spring, before or with the unfolding leaves, the latter being folded
+lengthwise in the bud. Leaves three to four inches long, tapering,
+finely serrate, with few or no glands at the base of the blade, as
+seen in many varieties of the common peach. Fruit clothed with a
+fine dense pubescence in both peach and almond; but in the latter
+the pulpy envelope becomes dry and fibrous at maturity, cracking
+open irregularly, allowing the rough and deeply indented nuts to
+drop out; while in the peach the pulpy part becomes soft, juicy and
+edible, the reverse of the almond. The nectarine is only a
+smooth-skinned peach.
+
+=History of the Almond.=--As with most of our long-cultivated fruits
+and nut trees, very little is now known of the early history or
+origin of the almond, and even its native country has not been
+positively determined, although it is supposed to be indigenous to
+parts of Northern Africa and the mountainous region of Asia.
+Theophrastus, who wrote a history of plants about three centuries
+before the Christian era, mentions the almond as the only tree in
+Greece that produces blossoms before the leaves. From Greece it was
+introduced into Italy, where the nuts were called _nuces graecae_, or
+Greek nuts.
+
+Columella, about the middle of the first century of our era, was the
+earliest Roman writer to mention the almond as distinct from the
+peach. From Italy this nut was slowly disseminated, making its way
+northward mainly through France, reaching Great Britain as late as
+1538 (_Hortus Kewensis_). But its cultivation has never extended in
+Britain, beyond sheltered gardens and orchard houses, owing to the
+cool and otherwise uncongenial climate, and the same is true of
+Northern France and other regions to the eastward in Europe. But in
+the south of France, also in Italy, Spain, Sicily, and throughout
+the Mediterranean countries, both in Europe and Africa, the almond
+thrives, and has long been extensively cultivated. These nuts are an
+important article of commerce, immense quantities being exported by
+Spain, mainly from Valencia, while the so-called Jordan almond comes
+from Malaga, as very few are raised in the valley of the Jordan.
+Bitter almonds come principally from Mogador in Morocco.
+
+As for almond culture in the United States, very little is to be
+said further than that, while we have few experiments to refer to as
+having been made east of the Rocky Mountains, not one of our great
+pomologists, in their published works, has ever given any reason for
+the almost entire neglect of this nut. Mr. Wm. H. White, author of
+"Gardening for the South" (1868), throws no light upon the subject,
+merely describing a few of the well-known varieties of the almond.
+Downing's "Fruit and Fruit Trees of America," Thomas' "American
+Fruit Culturist," Barry's "Fruit Garden," and a score of other
+standard pomological works may be consulted, without obtaining
+therefrom any information in regard to the culture of this nut
+further than to be assured that the hard-shelled varieties are hardy
+in the North wherever the peach tree thrives, and the thin, or paper
+shelled, succeed only in warm climates. All these authors agree in
+saying that the propagation and cultivation of the almond is the
+same as practiced with the peach.
+
+Coming down to recent years for information in regard to almond
+culture, we find H. E. Van Deman, pomologist to the Department of
+Agriculture, dismissing the subject in his report for 1892, as
+follows:
+
+    "I only mention this nut to state to all experimenters that it
+    is useless to try to grow the almond of commerce this side of
+    the Rocky mountains, except, possibly, in New Mexico and
+    southwestern Texas. This is thoroughly established by many
+    reports from those who have tried it in nearly every State and
+    for many years past. It is too tender in the North and does not
+    bear in the South. In California it is an eminent success.
+
+    "The flavor of the hard-shelled almond, so far as I have tested
+    it, is little or no better than a peach kernel, and is therefore
+    practically worthless. The tree of this variety is about as
+    hardy as the peach, and bears quite freely. The attention paid
+    to the almond in the Atlantic and Central States might well be
+    given to other nuts."
+
+This is certainly a very easy way of disposing of the cultivation of
+a nut which has so long figured among our importations from European
+countries; besides, no experiments are cited, experimenters named,
+or reasons given why almond culture is a failure in the Southern
+States. But fortunately there are men in the South who are able and
+ready to give reasons for their opinions and statements, in regard
+to the cultivation of crops or plants with which they have become
+familiar through personal experience. When I asked Mr. P. J.
+Berckmans, Augusta, Ga., president of the American Pomological
+Society, for information on this point, he promptly replied as
+follows:
+
+    "The reason that almonds are not cultivated in Georgia and other
+    Southern States is because of their early blooming, as spring
+    frosts usually destroy all the blossoms. We have tried many
+    varieties of the soft-shell without success. The hard-shell will
+    occasionally bear a crop of fruit, as it blooms later, and the
+    blooms seem to resist cold better than the other varieties. In
+    middle Florida soft-shell almonds are sometimes successful, but
+    they have been tried so sparingly that I cannot obtain any
+    satisfactory reports."
+
+Admitting, as we do, that President Berckmans' long experience in
+the cultivation of nut and fruit trees in the South enables him to
+speak with authority on this subject, still, we have some
+encouragement for continuing experiments with the almond in regions
+known to be favorable for the cultivation of its near relative, the
+peach. Furthermore, experiments seem to be wanting with the almond
+in the more elevated regions of the northern line of Southern
+States, also in Maryland, Delaware and southern New Jersey, near the
+seacoast, or other large bodies of water, which, as is well known,
+have considerable influence in retarding the early blooming of fruit
+trees, as well as warding off late spring and early autumn frosts.
+
+It is scarcely reasonable to suppose that a region of country as
+extensive as that of one-half of the Middle and all of the Southern
+States, with a range of climate admitting of the successful
+cultivation of such hardy fruits as the apple and pear, and from
+these down to the pineapple and cocoa-nut, should not yield a
+locality or localities admirably adapted to the cultivation of the
+half-hardy almond tree. It is no doubt true that there are extensive
+regions in the South where late spring frosts are exceedingly
+troublesome, and sometimes disastrously so, to fruit growers; but
+even these have their limits, as shown in the vast quantity and
+variety of fruits annually produced in the Southern States. But
+great local variations in climate are natural to all countries in
+the temperate zone, and we frequently find the most favorable and
+the unfavorable for fruit culture within a few miles of each other.
+
+If there are not thousands and tens of thousands of acres of land
+located in favorable positions between Virginia and Florida, adapted
+to produce the commercial almond in some of its varieties, then we
+must confess that the study of climatology is of little use to the
+pomologist. Furthermore, all the varieties of the so-called
+hard-shelled almonds which thrive in our northern States are not
+worthless, neither are the kernels of all of them "bitter," and even
+if they were, they would still be worth cultivating, else we would
+not import such vast quantities from Morocco to supply the demand.
+
+If none of the thin-shelled varieties heretofore tried in the South
+are successful, it is time that either our experiment stations or
+individual horticulturists made some attempt to produce those that
+are adapted to that region of country. But until we have some more
+definite information than heretofore disseminated, in regard to
+almond culture in the South, it is safe to conclude that failures in
+the past have been due mainly to want of judgment, or knowledge of
+varieties and of positions for the orchard, with, perhaps, some
+neglect in care and cultivation.
+
+In California almond culture has been pushed with vigor for several
+decades, but at first with rather indifferent results, because
+growers depended upon noted European varieties, which, as experience
+proved, were not adapted to the soil and climate of the country. In
+a paper read before the American Pomological Society at its session
+held at Sacramento, Cal., Jan. 16-18, 1895, Prof. E. J. Wickson, of
+the University of California, alluded to this subject of almond
+culture in the State as follows:
+
+    "In no branch of this effort for improved varieties has our
+    success been more marked than in the development of seedling
+    almonds. The achievements of A. T. Hatch in this line are too
+    well known to require but a passing allusion. It is not too much
+    to say that this work rescued almond culture to California. When
+    he began, the almond, because of almost universal failure of the
+    old varieties, was a jest and a byword in our horticulture.
+    Nine-tenths of all the almonds planted during the preceding
+    twenty-five years had gone for firewood or were carrying the
+    foliage of the prune to conceal their hated stems. At the
+    present time, through the dissemination of Mr. Hatch's
+    varieties, the almond, in all regions decently adapted to the
+    tree, is productive and profitable and has a future."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. A CALIFORNIA ALMOND ORCHARD.]
+
+That almond culture in California is rapidly becoming an important
+and successful industry, we have an ocular demonstration in the tons
+of these valuable nuts received from there in the past few years,
+and placed on sale in Eastern markets. If one man, by his individual
+efforts, can revolutionize or establish a great industry in a region
+as large as the State of California, it is not too much to expect
+that something of the kind could be done elsewhere, with the
+combined efforts of several men. If the varieties heretofore tried
+in the East are unsuited to the climate, it is certainly within the
+range of probabilities that others better adapted to surrounding
+conditions can be produced. The native grape, raspberry and
+strawberry have had a history similar to the almond, but now all are
+extensively and successfully cultivated.
+
+=Propagation of the Almond.=--The propagation of the almond is
+identical with that of the peach: that is, from seed to procure new
+varieties, or by budding the more desirable ones, when obtained,
+upon seedling almond, peach or plum stocks. The half-wild
+hard-shelled almond is probably the most congenial and best stock
+for this purpose, but seedlings of the peach are most generally
+employed because the most abundant and cheapest. Under certain
+conditions, such as cold, heavy, moist soils, and where rather
+dwarfish trees are desired, the plum may be employed with advantage
+as a stock, but it is not to be recommended for general orchard
+culture. In mild climates seedlings of the best of the soft-shelled
+varieties may be raised and planted in orchards without budding, but
+the nuts from such trees are likely to be somewhat variable in size
+and quality, although the trees will usually prove to be as healthy
+and productive as those subjected to artificial modes of
+propagation. If, however, the grower desires a uniform product, he
+must resort to the usual means of obtaining it; that is, multiplying
+superior or distinct varieties by budding, either upon peach, almond
+or other stocks. It is advisable, as well as exceedingly important,
+for all who intend or feel inclined to cultivate almonds in regions
+where the adaptation of this nut has not been fully established by
+years of practical experience, that seedlings should be raised in
+large numbers, and from these a selection be made to meet the
+requirements of the climate and other conditions under which they
+are to be propagated and grown. If spring frosts have been
+heretofore inimical to the cultivation of the almond, then the
+production of late-blooming varieties would be a remedy. There will
+also be variations in the season of ripening; some may come on too
+early, others far too late for special localities, but all these
+faults or variations may be readily overcome by raising seedlings,
+and then selecting for propagation those coming nearest fulfilling
+the requirements of local conditions or circumstances. It is by such
+experiments and means that fruit culture has reached its present
+position in this and all other countries, where it is practiced as
+an art or industrial pursuit. Varieties that have become exceedingly
+popular and profitable in one locality or country, may not have
+succeeded elsewhere, and this holds good with all cultivated plants.
+
+In making experiments with the almond in regions where it has not
+been cultivated, but under conditions which appear to be favorable,
+I would certainly advise testing the well-known varieties first, and
+if these fail, then see what can be done in the way of producing new
+ones adapted to the locality and climate.
+
+=Raising Seedlings for Stocks.=--In warm or moderately mild climates
+the nuts, whether peach or almond, may be planted soon after they
+are gathered in the fall, but should the weather continue warm and
+moist the nuts will sometimes sprout prematurely and the young
+sprouts get frosted later in the season, and for this reason it is
+better to store them in a cool room, packed in dry sand or soil,
+until the approach of steady cold weather, and then plant. Having
+lost choice kinds of nuts from being in too great haste in getting
+them into the ground in the fall, I am prompted to give this warning
+to those who have had no experience in raising nut trees. If not
+convenient to plant in the fall, nuts of all kinds may be packed in
+barrels, boxes, or similar vessels, mixed with or stratified with
+sharp sand or light soil, then stored in a dry, cool place,--a very
+cool cellar will answer, but in my experience, out of doors is
+preferable,--and in the shade of some evergreen tree or on the north
+side of a building, and there banked over with earth just sufficient
+to keep the nuts at an equably low temperature. It is advisable to
+have a few small holes in the bottom of the barrels or boxes, to
+insure proper drainage, should any considerable amount of water get
+in at the top; but this will not occur if the vessels are properly
+covered with boards when placed in position for winter.
+
+It must also be kept in mind that mice, squirrels and chipmunks are
+fond of almonds and other kinds of edible nuts, and if placed where
+these little rodents can find them, they are sure to take a share,
+or perhaps the entire store, before their visits are discovered. I
+have known field mice to dig down under boxes of nuts, enlarge the
+holes left for drainage, and spend the winter among the chestnuts
+which I had put away for planting in spring. The safest way is to
+place fine wire netting on the bottom of the box, and then cover it
+with the same. Owing to the abundance of mice and other little
+nut-eating animals, I have never dared to plant out nuts in the
+fall, and so have always stored them in sand, but out of doors
+during the winter, and well covered with earth. In other localities
+it may be safe to sow in autumn, and if protection from vermin is
+required, coat the nuts with gas tar, the same as practiced by
+farmers in protecting seed corn against the attacks of crows and
+other corn-pulling birds. One pint of warm tar will be sufficient
+for a bushel of nuts, and the application is readily made by placing
+the nuts in a barrel, pouring the tar on them, and stirring with a
+stick until every nut is coated. To prevent the tar sticking to the
+hands in planting, dust the nuts with dry wood ashes, land plaster,
+or fine dry sand.
+
+If peach stones are to be planted for stocks they may be put into
+the ground as soon as ready in autumn, because they are rarely
+disturbed by vermin; or if more convenient, mix with common soil,
+and in heaps, in the open ground, and leave in this position until
+spring, then pick out as they begin to sprout, and plant. The
+hard-shelled almond may be treated in the same way, only they are
+not to be handled quite as roughly as peach stones, and for
+protection it is best to put them in barrels or boxes, as described
+above.
+
+When ready for planting take out the nuts and drop them in shallow
+drills, one every ten or twelve inches, then cover with about two
+inches of soil. It is to be supposed, of course, that a seed bed has
+been prepared, by thorough working over and enriching, if necessary,
+in advance of planting. The distance between the drills or rows
+should be sufficient to admit of cultivating the plants with a horse
+or mule, and cultivator, during the summer, and if this is done and
+the soil stirred often enough to keep down all weeds, the stocks
+should become large enough to admit of budding the first season; if
+not, then this operation must be deferred until the following year.
+But in case the seedlings are raised from choice varieties and to be
+left in their natural condition for fruiting, they may be lifted
+when one or two seasons old and set where they are to remain
+permanently.
+
+=The Season for Budding.=--So much depends upon climate, location,
+and variation of seasons, that no special date or time can be given
+for budding trees of any kind, but it is always to be done while the
+stocks are in active growth, because the bark must part freely from
+the wood underneath, in order to admit of inserting the bud under
+it. If the buds are set too early in the season there is danger of a
+premature growth; that is, of pushing out a shoot in the fall
+instead of remaining dormant until the following spring. Under
+certain conditions, however, and for special purposes, it may be
+advisable to force the buds as soon as they have formed a union with
+the stock, but as a rule, in the propagation of hardy and half-hardy
+trees, it is better to keep the buds dormant during the cool or cold
+winter months.
+
+Here in the Northern States we usually begin to look over our stocks
+during the latter part of July or first week in August, and note
+their progress and condition. Should they show the least signs of
+cessation of growth, we begin budding them, and push the work as
+rapidly as possible. If the season is a wet one the stocks may
+continue to grow and remain in good condition for budding until the
+middle of September; but in a dry season they may cease to grow in
+August, and it is these variable conditions which gives to the close
+observer and man of experience such an advantage over the novice in
+the propagation of plants. It is better to begin budding too early
+than to be a few days too late.
+
+The operation called budding consists in taking a bud, with a small
+portion of the bark adjoining, from one plant, and inserting it in
+another, or in some other part of the same plant from which it was
+taken. The physiological principles which govern the operation are,
+that there must exist an affinity between the plant from which the
+bud is taken and the one upon which it is to be placed, and the
+nearer the relationship the more readily will it unite and the more
+perfect the union. For instance, the cultivated peach and almond are
+supposed to be of the same origin, and descendants of one original
+species; consequently there is a close relationship between the
+varieties of both sections, and their seedlings may be employed
+indiscriminately for stocks. The next nearest relatives in the
+family line are the plums (_Prunus_), some of which answer very well
+as stocks for the almond, although very rarely used for this
+purpose. The next group in the line of botanical relationship are
+the cherries (_Prunus cerasus_), but these are too far removed to be
+employed as stocks for either the peach or almond.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. BUDDING KNIFE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3. YANKEE BUDDING KNIFE.]
+
+For budding are necessary a small knife for preparing the buds for
+insertion and making an incision in the bark of the stock to admit
+them; and a quantity of some material to tie around the stock, so as
+to hold the bud in place. Budding knives are made after various
+patterns; one that is commonly used has an ivory or bone handle,
+made very thin at the end, that is used to peel the bark from the
+stock where the bud is to be inserted (Fig. 2). Another form of
+budding knife is made with a horn handle, and a small tapering piece
+of ivory fastened in the end. These knives, of various shapes and
+sizes, can be had at the seed stores; but another and quite a
+different form of budding knife is shown in Fig. 3, and is known as
+the "Yankee budding knife." It is merely a small one-bladed pocket
+knife with a thin blade, round at the end. The cutting portion
+extends about one-third around the end of the blade and two-thirds
+of its length, leaving the lower part dull. Although this form of
+budding knife has been in constant use in some of the older
+nurseries in this country for nearly a century, it does not appear
+to have been manufactured for the general trade, but only on special
+orders for nurserymen. It is so simple a knife, however, that with a
+little grinding almost any small one-bladed pocket knife can be
+transformed into one of these handy budding knives. The rounded end
+of the blade is used for lifting the bark, and for rapid work it is
+far more convenient than any form of knife that must be reversed in
+the hand every time a bud is inserted. In addition, a polished bit
+of steel is smoother and far less likely to lacerate the alburnous
+matter between the bark and wood than the best piece of bone or
+ivory. It may be said, however, that it is immaterial what form of
+knife is employed, provided it has a keen edge and is dexterously
+used.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4. PREPARED SHOOT.]
+
+The material most commonly used in times past for tying in the bud
+is the inner bark of the linden or basswood tree, usually called
+bass, and always to be procured in the form of mats, or as prepared
+from our indigenous basswoods and kept on sale at the seed stores.
+Recently, however, another excellent tying material has come into
+use, known in the trade as raffia or roffia. It is the cuticle of
+the Jupati palms. One species (_Raphia taedigera_) is a native of the
+lower valley of the Amazon and Orinoco, and another (_R. Ruffia_) of
+Madagascar and adjacent islands. Raffia is somewhat softer and more
+pliable than the ordinary bass, although it does not hold its form
+quite as well; but it is so cheap, soft and strong, that it has
+become very popular, and is extensively used for budding and many
+other purposes. But if none of these tying materials are at hand,
+the inner bark of the persimmon, corn husks, cotton twine, woolen
+yarn, or even strips of old muslin and calico may be employed with
+equally as good results, although not as handy and convenient for
+such purposes. The amateur, with only a few stocks to bud, can
+readily improvise implements and materials for doing the work, even
+if they are not of the regulation type. In selecting buds, the young
+shoots of the present season's growth are preferred, and these
+should be taken from the most healthy and vigorous branches of
+bearing trees, if possible. The leaves should be immediately
+removed, not by breaking or pulling off with the hand, but by
+severing the leaf-stalks with a knife, as shown in Fig. 4. If the
+leaves have fallen from the twig, the buds may be too ripe, with
+some kinds of plants, but with the almond, and where only a few
+leaves near the base have dropped, all may be used with fair
+success. If there are any soft and immature buds on the upper part
+of the shoot, or any undeveloped ones at the base, they should be
+rejected. Success in budding depends very largely upon the condition
+of the stocks at the time the operation is performed. Unless the sap
+is flowing and in sufficient abundance to allow the bark to part or
+peel readily from the wood underneath, the bud is certain to fail.
+If the buds used should happen to be a little over-ripe or wholly
+dormant when placed in direct contact with the living tissues and
+the juices of the stock, they will absorb moisture and nutriment,
+and be as likely to unite and live as under opposite conditions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5. INCISION FOR BUD.]
+
+In performing the operation of budding, the following rules may be
+observed: Take the twig from which the buds are to be removed, in
+the left hand, with the small end pointing under the left arm;
+insert the knife-blade half an inch, or a little more, below the
+bud, cutting through the bark and a little into the wood; pass the
+knife under the bud, and bring it out about the same distance above
+it, taking off the bud with the bark, and a thin slice of wood
+attached, as at _c_, Fig. 4. Then, if using the Yankee budding
+knife, or one of similar form, let the forefinger clasp the lower
+part of the blade, make the horizontal incision in the stock first,
+and from this an incision downward about an inch long,--or it may be
+twice this length without doing any harm,--being careful not to cut
+too deep. Lift up the edge of the bark by passing the back of the
+end of the blade (without removing it) up to the horizontal
+incision. Lift the bark on the other side in the same manner, the
+two incisions making a wound in the stock resembling the letter T,
+as shown in Fig. 5. If other forms of budding knives are used, the
+thin end of the ivory handle is thrust under the bark, raising it
+sufficiently to admit the bud. The budder holds the bud between the
+thumb and forefinger of his left hand while making the incision in
+the stock; and as the knife leaves it he places the lower point of
+the bark attached to the bud under the bark of the stock before this
+falls back into place, and thrusts it down into position. If the
+upper end of the bark attached to the bud does not pass completely
+under the bark of the stock, it must be cut across, so as to allow
+that which remains with the bud to fall into place and rest firmly
+on the wood of the stock, as shown in Fig. 6.
+
+When the bud is in position and fitted to the stock, as shown, wind
+the raffia, or other material used, around the stock, both above and
+below, covering the entire incision, leaving only the bud and part
+of leafstalk uncovered. Of course experienced propagators have their
+own individual systems and modes of operation, but the above may be
+taken as a safe guide for the amateur budder. The ligatures should
+be loosened or removed as soon as the bud has become firmly united
+with the stock, which will usually be in ten or fifteen days, if at
+all. When the buds have failed, others may be inserted, provided, of
+course, the stocks are in condition to admit of the operation.
+Exceptions, however, may be made where the budding has been done so
+late in the season that the stock has ceased to grow by the time the
+buds have taken, and in such cases the ligatures may be left on
+later and removed any time before winter. In cold climates the snow,
+ice and water are likely to get in around the bud if the ligatures
+are not removed. But where the stocks are vigorous and the buds set
+early, there will be danger of the ligatures cutting into the bark
+as the stocks swell or increase in diameter, unless they are
+loosened or entirely removed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6. BUD IN POSITION.]
+
+Under ordinary circumstances budded stocks should not be headed back
+until the following spring, and then should be cut off two or three
+inches above the inserted bud; and when this pushes into growth, all
+suckers and sprouts below and above it should be rubbed off as they
+appear, for the object is to throw the entire strength of the stock
+into this one bud, and when this has made a growth of two or three
+feet the short stump of the stock above the base of the shoot may be
+carefully removed with a sharp knife. This is usually done the last
+of July or first of August, which gives time for the healing of the
+wound before the close of the growing season. Sometimes it may be
+necessary to place small stakes by the side of these shoots for
+their support and to prevent breaking at the point of union with the
+stock; but this will rarely be necessary, except in very exposed
+situations.
+
+If the young trees make a fairly good growth they will be ready for
+planting out in the orchard the following spring, and one-year-old
+almond trees are usually preferable for transplanting than older. It
+is not advisable to prune these young trees during the growing
+season the first summer, but allow all the side shoots or branches
+to grow unchecked, for by so doing we secure a more stocky plant, if
+not as tall a one, than we would if trimming up was practiced. But
+when the trees are taken up for transplanting, in the late fall or
+early spring, then they may be pruned and the lateral branches cut
+off close to the main stem, leaving a naked rod, and if low-headed
+trees are desired (and they usually are), cut back the main stem to
+about three feet from the ground. If the young trees have made a
+growth of from four to six feet, then prune away the lateral
+branches to a hight of three feet or a little more, and cut in all
+branches above this point to within four to six inches of the main
+stem, leaving the buds on these stumps to form the head of the tree.
+Four or five branches at the top of the stem will be sufficient for
+the foundation for an open, round-headed tree, or in what may be
+termed a vase form, which is the best for almonds.
+
+=Soil and Exposure for Almonds.=--The almond requires a warm, rather
+light and well-drained soil. Cold, heavy clays, and low, moist
+soils, whether light or heavy, are always to be avoided for the
+almond and closely allied trees. That the soil should be moderately
+rich is, of course, a condition required with all cultivated nut and
+fruit trees, but over-stimulation may result in excessive and
+immature growth late in the season, this leaving the twigs in such a
+state that they will be unable to resist even a few degrees of
+frost, to which they may be subjected the ensuing winter. In what
+are generally termed mild climates, or where the temperature seldom
+goes more than four to six degrees below the freezing point, hardy
+trees, if they have made a late growth, are often injured more than
+they would have been in a colder climate, with early matured wood.
+There are many kinds of what we consider very hardy trees and shrubs
+here in the North, that are very likely to be winterkilled or
+severely frosted when grown at the South, simply because the
+conditions are such that they do not ripen up in time to resist the
+cold.
+
+In touching upon the subject of location for an almond orchard east
+of the Mississippi, I should be inclined to relegate this valuable
+nut to semi-tropical Florida, were it not for the fact that almost a
+score of ornamental species and varieties of the same genus,--to say
+nothing of the widely cultivated peach,--flourish over a very wide
+range of country and climate, and nowhere better than near the
+Atlantic ocean in the Middle and some of the Northern States. It is
+also generally conceded that several of what are called hard-shelled
+varieties thrive and bear fruit in nearly all of our best
+peach-growing regions. From all that I have been able to learn of
+almond culture, and with my own limited experience with this nut,
+experiments are wanting to prove that it cannot be successfully
+cultivated in the peach-growing region of the Eastern States. I will
+not say "profitably" cultivated, for this is a rather vague term
+when applied to horticultural operations of any kind. Success is not
+synonymous with profit; in fact, it is frequently quite the
+opposite, and an abundant crop may mean glutted markets and a
+corresponding loss to the producer. But, to return to location, the
+principal cause of failure in almond culture, where it has been
+tried in the older States, seems to be the early blooming of the
+trees and subsequent destruction of the embryo fruit by frosts. To
+avoid this, high, open, airy situations, and even the north side of
+hills, would certainly be preferable to southern slopes and
+protected locations, especially in the South or where the
+temperature in winter does not go low enough to kill the wood of the
+previous season's growth. Theoretically, we might suppose that there
+are many locations favorable to almond culture in the elevated
+regions of North Carolina and Tennessee, as well as in the northern
+tier of counties in Alabama and Georgia. But in the absence of
+carefully conducted experiments in these regions, we have only to
+wait for their consummation at some future time, to prove the truth
+or falsity of our theory.
+
+In the rich, warm valleys of New Mexico, Arizona and California,
+congenial locations are plentiful, inasmuch as almost every variety
+of climate is at hand, with a temperature ranging from that of
+perpetual summer to the opposite extreme, and all to be found within
+a few miles, and frequently to be found in the same county. Under
+such conditions, it rests with the would-be cultivator to decide
+upon the kinds of fruits desired, then to seek a location best
+adapted to his purpose.
+
+If, as claimed,--but not proven,--there are no limited or extended
+areas fitted for almond culture east of the Mississippi river, there
+are certainly plenty of such west of it, awaiting the industrious
+and intelligent nut culturist. Almond orchards have been planted in
+California and Arizona, and the quality of the nuts, as well as the
+quantity, is very satisfactory; but a greater number and more
+extensive orchards are needed to meet the home demand.
+
+=Planting and Pruning.=--In planting and pruning the almond tree the
+same system should be adopted as with its near relative, the peach.
+One-year-old budded trees are preferred for planting in an orchard,
+to older, except in the case of seedlings, then two-year-old may be
+selected, because these are seldom larger than one-year budded
+trees. The trees should be set fifteen to eighteen feet apart,
+varying the distance according to variety, soil, and other local
+conditions, and it is best to place them in rows and at right
+angles, in order to admit of cultivating both ways, as it is termed,
+thereby saving as much hand labor as possible. For the first two or
+three years after planting, all weeds and grass should be kept away
+from the stems and over the roots, either by frequent hoeing, or
+covering with a mulch. The best way, perhaps, to prevent the growth
+of weeds, is to use the land among the trees for some low-growing
+crops, such as beans, tomatoes, melons or potatoes, then see that
+the workmen, when hoeing these crops, hoe up the weeds and grass
+about the trees at the same time. We might reasonably suppose that
+the most careless cultivator of trees would think of this, but,
+unfortunately, extended observation proves quite the contrary, and
+it is scarcely possible to go through any very extensive
+fruit-growing region without seeing many such instances of neglect.
+A square yard or more of tough sward is frequently left for years
+undisturbed about the stems of all the trees in an orchard, while
+the little annual plants growing near by, and not worth, at an
+extreme valuation, five cents each, are cultivated with the greatest
+care.
+
+The first pruning of the trees should be done at the time of
+transplanting from the nursery rows, as directed on a preceding
+page, and from the top of the stem only three or four shoots allowed
+to grow the first season, all others being rubbed off as soon as
+they appear, or when they have made a growth of two or three inches.
+These three or four upper branches are to become the foundation of
+the future head of the tree, and should be allowed to grow unchecked
+the first season; the next spring cut back one-half to two-thirds of
+their original length. This pruning will force out strong side or
+lateral shoots near the base, thus giving a sturdy foundation to
+build upon later, the pruner keeping in mind that the weaker the
+growth the more severe should be the pruning. Better leave a few
+strong buds, from which vigorous shoots will be produced, than a
+great number succeeded by many feeble twigs. If blossoms and fruit
+appear on the young two-year-old trees, a limited number may be left
+to mature, although no considerable crop ought to be gathered before
+the third year.
+
+In after years a somewhat different system of pruning may be
+adopted, keeping in view the fact that the fruit buds and fruit are
+always produced on the young shoots of the previous season's growth,
+and for this reason an annual renewal of such parts of the tree is
+absolutely required, in order to secure a good crop on trees of any
+age. In some localities and countries it may be possible that almond
+trees produce a crop every year; but this is scarcely to be expected
+anywhere. Consequently a system of pruning should be followed which
+will conform to the variations of circumstances and conditions; and
+this brings us to the consideration of--
+
+=The Proper Time to Prune.=--If the growth of the trees and their
+fruiting were always uniform, then we might readily adopt some
+invariable system and season for pruning; but as we are dealing with
+uncertainties, our rules must be equally flexible and variable. If
+the season is favorable, and the trees bloom freely and fruit sets
+abundantly, we may proceed to prune as soon as the embryo nuts are
+as large as peas,--but only cutting back some of the largest bearing
+shoots, and thinning out others here and there, just enough to
+equalize and evenly distribute the crop through the head of the
+tree. But in case the frost or cold of winter has destroyed the crop
+for the season, then as soon as this is discovered, prune and cut
+back all the shoots and branches sufficient to insure a vigorous
+growth of young bearing wood for the ensuing year. Under this system
+of pruning we fix the time as after blooming in the spring, in order
+to have our work correspond to circumstances and conditions, and
+where there is a crop in prospect the pruning is comparatively
+light; but if there is to be no fruit, or but little, then one
+should aim to produce an abundance of bearing shoots for the
+following season. In other words, we prune severely in non-bearing
+years, whether they occur alternately or otherwise; but this system
+is only applicable to trees like the almond and peach, which produce
+their fruit on the shoots of the preceding year's growth.
+
+
+VARIETIES OF THE ALMOND.
+
+Almonds are usually divided into three groups, viz.: Bitter,
+hard-shelled, and soft, or paper-shelled. In each there are many
+varieties, although they are rarely known in market except by the
+general name of the group to which they belong. If they are soft,
+hard or bitter, this is sufficient designation for commercial
+purposes, with, perhaps, the addition of the name of country in
+which they were grown, or that of the city or seaport from whence
+exported.
+
+=Bitter Almond=, _Amygdalus communis amara_.--The varieties of this
+group are not specifically distinct, and some have soft, thin
+shells, while others are thick and hard; but the kernels are very
+bitter, hence the name. But in the countries where these almonds are
+most extensively cultivated, as in the South of France, Austria,
+Spain and Greece, the trees are generally raised from the nut, and,
+as might be expected, the crop produced under such conditions is
+exceedingly variable, the nuts being large or small, and the shells
+of various degrees of hardness, with an occasional tree producing
+both bitter and sweet kerneled nuts. These wilding trees are, in the
+main, more hardy than the improved varieties, hence are largely
+employed as stocks for the better sorts, as well as for the plum and
+apricot. It is also claimed that, as a rule, the bitter almond trees
+bloom later in the spring than those of the other two groups, and
+for this reason are not so liable to be injured by spring frosts.
+The trees are hardy in all of our most favorable peach-growing
+regions of the Middle and Northern States, but some of the varieties
+ripen rather too late for localities north of the latitude of New
+York city. All this, however, and other obstacles, will soon
+disappear, whenever the time arrives for our horticulturists to take
+up almond culture and pursue it with half the zeal they have the
+cultivation of the peach and many other kinds of fruits.
+
+=Hard-Shelled Almond=, _A. c. dulcis_, or sweet-kerneled
+almond.--The varieties of this group, as a whole, differ from those
+of the next only in the firmness of their shells, which are
+moderately firm, with a slightly rough and deeply pitted surface, as
+shown in Fig. 7. Varieties of this group are fully as large as, and
+perhaps a little longer than the thin-shelled, and the kernels are
+fully as valuable when removed and sold as shelled almonds. It may
+require a little more labor to crack and remove the kernels for
+market, but the difference is scarcely worth taking into
+consideration by the grower.
+
+The common sweet, hard-shelled almond thrives in peach-growing
+regions as far north as Central New York, and I well remember of
+seeing trees loaded with these nuts, in my boyhood days, in the
+western part of the State. The late Patrick Barry, in the Fruit
+Garden, when referring to this nut, says: "This is a hardy and
+productive tree, succeeding well in the climate of Western New York,
+and still farther north. Nut very large, with a hard shell and a
+large sweet kernel; ripe here (Rochester) about the first of
+October. The tree is very vigorous, has smooth, glaucous leaves, and
+when in bloom in the spring is more brilliant and showy than any
+other fruit tree."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. HARD-SHELLED ALMOND.]
+
+Nearly every one of our noted horticulturists who have said anything
+about almond culture in the North, agree with Mr. Barry in regard to
+the beauty of this tree and its productiveness; but it is well to
+keep in mind that it is no more to be depended upon than the peach,
+and the barren years will far outnumber the bearing ones. But the
+almond is probably as certain here as in France, where it is
+cultivated extensively as an article of commerce, although a full
+crop once in about five years is about all that is expected. We can
+probably do much better than this, especially if proper attention is
+given to the production of new varieties adapted to our climate, as
+has been done in California with the almond, and here in the East
+with the peach and many other kinds of fruits; and when such have
+been secured, proceed to multiply them in the usual mode of budding
+upon seedling stocks.
+
+=Soft, or Brittle-Shelled=, _A. c. fragilis_.--In this group we have
+many distinct varieties, besides others which are known by local
+names, but have no permanent and pronounced distinguishing
+characteristics that would aid in separating them, should this be
+desired. The most common form, widely known as the sweet-kerneled
+thin-shelled (Fig. 8), is one of the oldest in cultivation in
+European countries. The flowers usually appear with the leaves, or
+before they unfold, and are large and of a pale rose color. The tree
+is rather tender for latitudes north of Philadelphia, but succeeds
+southward, and westward to the Pacific, if late frosts do not come
+to destroy the flowers or embryo nuts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8. THIN-SHELLED ALMOND.]
+
+=Large Fruited Almond=, _A. c. macrocarpa_.--This is an old French
+variety, and perhaps most widely known as the Sultana, although the
+latter name is often applied in market to almost every variety of
+sweet almond. The leaves of the genuine variety are much broader
+than those of the preceding groups, and are smooth and deep green.
+Flowers very large and showy, of a pale rose color, and always
+appear in spring before the leaves, and for this reason it has long
+been cultivated in England as an ornamental tree. Fruit large,
+depressed or flattened at the base, but pointed at the top. Shell
+rather hard and firm, and will withstand rough handling and
+transportation long distances. Kernel very sweet and tender, hence
+highly prized everywhere. There are several sub-varieties; one,
+known as the Pistache almond, is highly esteemed for the table, on
+account of its delicate flavor, although it is very small and not
+popular for commercial purposes.
+
+=The Peach Almond=, _A. c. persicoides_.--This is another old
+variety, described by Du Hamel about the middle of the last century,
+under the name of _Amandier-Pecher_, or peach-leaved almond. Leaves
+similar to those of the common peach. Fruit ovate, obtuse; husk
+slightly succulent; shell of a yellowish color, and the kernel
+sweet-flavored and excellent. Du Hamel says the fruit varies widely,
+even upon the same tree or branch, some having a dry, thin husk,
+while on others it is soft and fleshy, somewhat like that of the
+peach. As the almond and peach are of the same species, it would not
+be at all strange if an occasional variety raised from the seed of
+either class should diverge towards, or even pass completely over to
+a closely allied group.
+
+From the varieties found in the forementioned groups we must seek to
+find, or produce therefrom, those which will succeed in this country
+wherever it may be thought desirable to attempt the cultivation of
+this nut. So far as my knowledge extends, no attempts have, as yet,
+been made to produce distinct American varieties in the Eastern
+States, as with its near relative, the peach, but all the almonds
+thus far cultivated here are of well-known foreign varieties.
+Perhaps the demand for almond trees has not been sufficient
+heretofore to encourage very extended experiments in this direction,
+but I cannot believe that our people will continue for another
+century to import millions of pounds annually of almonds if it is
+possible to raise them in this country. That it is possible on the
+Pacific coast has already been fully demonstrated, but we want to
+see the field greatly enlarged, and give the people of the Eastern
+States a share in what is evidently soon to become a large and
+profitable industry.
+
+=Ornamental Varieties of the Almond.=--These are only referred to
+because some of the many in cultivation belong to the groups
+producing the most valuable nuts, but the greater part of the purely
+ornamental varieties are worthless for other purposes. _Amygdalus
+cochinchinensis_ grows to quite a large tree in its native country,
+or thirty to forty feet high; flowers small, white, produced in long
+racemes; tender._ A. orientalis_, a small shrub, with grayish or
+hoary leaves, and small rose-colored flowers; sometimes cultivated
+under the name of _argentea_, or Silvery almond. _A. incana_ (hoary)
+is another dwarf species, from the Caucasus, with solitary red
+flowers. _A. nana_ and _A. pumila_ are oriental species of very
+dwarf shrubs, with either red or white flowers. The double-flowering
+varieties of these have long been inhabitants of our gardens.
+
+=Properties and Uses.=--For domestic purposes the almond is highly
+esteemed wherever it is known, and is employed in hundreds of
+different ways in the preparation of appetizing dishes and dainties
+for the table. In countries where this nut is in cultivation, it is
+brought to the table in the half-opened green husk, for at this time
+the kernels are just passing from the milky stage, and are
+considered more readily digested than later, or when fully ripe. But
+it is only when they are fully mature that they are gathered for
+market, and after thorough drying they are placed in strong sacks
+and distributed among dealers in all parts of the world. But only
+certain varieties are exported in this condition, and principally
+those with very thin shells, because these are most in demand, for
+the table and dessert, where the almond is not a home product. Other
+sweet varieties, whether with very hard or very tender shells, are
+cracked and only the kernels exported. The importation of shelled
+almonds into this country is somewhat in excess of the unshelled,
+and as they are of greater value per pound, the duty levied is
+proportionally higher. There is also a great saving to the importer
+and consumer,--not only in freight, but the extraction of the
+kernels is done in countries where labor is abundant and cheap.
+Whether the almond shells are used for any purpose in European
+countries, or are considered as wholly a waste product, I have been
+unable to learn, but it is asserted, and by men whose word is worthy
+of credence, that almond shells ground into a fine golden colored
+flour, is much used in this country for adulterating red pepper,
+cinnamon and other spices.
+
+Almonds are not only used extensively at all times and seasons, by
+persons of all ages and sexes, at table and elsewhere, but they are
+employed largely in the making of fancy confectionery with sugar, or
+in the form of salted almonds, the kernels having been first
+thoroughly steamed or scalded, to remove the skin, and then rolled
+or dusted with fine salt. Prepared in this way they are usually
+considered more readily digestible and healthful than in their
+natural state.
+
+Sweet almonds are also valued in the form of emulsions, as a
+medicine in pulmonary disorders, and the oil of almonds is a common
+standard article in the stock of druggists everywhere, as it enters
+into the composition of cosmetics, syrups, pastes and powders of
+various kinds.
+
+The kernels of the wild bitter almond contain a poisonous principle
+known as hydrocyanic or Prussic acid, which does not exist in the
+sweet varieties, although found in their leaves and the bark of
+their twigs. But as bitter almonds are not palatable, there is
+little danger of anyone being poisoned from eating them, should
+these nuts ever be cultivated here for any special purpose, as in
+other countries.
+
+=Insects and Diseases.=--Whenever the almond tree becomes common
+here in orchards it will doubtless suffer from the attacks of the
+same kinds of natural enemies as affect the peach. One of the most
+widely distributed of these pests is the common peach-tree borer.
+The parents of these borers are small, slender-bodied, bluish,
+transparent-winged moths, the male somewhat smaller than the female.
+These moths usually appear in this latitude during the month of
+June, and the female deposits her eggs on the stems of the trees
+near the surface of the ground, or a little below it if she can find
+a convenient opening to suit her purpose. The eggs deposited soon
+hatch, and the young larvae bore through the tender bark at this
+point, and when fairly under it, branch off, cutting galleries
+through the soft alburnum underneath. When a number of these borers
+are at work on the same tree they sometimes girdle and kill it the
+first season, especially if it is young or a small specimen. But if
+the tree is not killed outright it will show, by the check to its
+growth, that borers are at work. The borers continue feeding
+throughout the remainder of the season, and up to the time freezing
+weather sets in for the winter, and if not full grown at this time
+they will finish their growth early in spring, then crawl to near
+the outside, or just under the old bark, and there spin a thin
+cocoon, in which they are transformed to the pupal stage, remaining
+in this form for a few weeks, then issuing in the winged or moth
+stage.
+
+In the line of preventives and remedies there is nothing better than
+clean cultivation about the trees, and annual examination of each
+tree early in summer and the crushing of every borer found. The next
+best thing, in the way of a preventive, is to wrap the stems from a
+little below the surface of the ground to a foot or more above it
+with heavy paper, cloth, or bark of some kind, to keep the moth from
+laying her eggs on the bark of the tree. I have used common tar
+paper for this purpose, not only because it is very cheap and does
+not decay when exposed to the weather, but the exhalation or odor of
+tar seems to be offensive to the moths. In the use of this material
+I have never found that it was in the least injurious to the bark
+underneath. Painting the stems with soap, cement, clay, or even
+common mineral paints, will answer very well if a little care is
+given to keeping down the number of insects by removing the larger
+part of the borers with knife or gouge.
+
+In recent years a pest known as the "shot-hole borer" (_Scolytus
+rugulosus_) has appeared in many and widely separated localities, in
+both the Eastern and Western States, attacking the almond, peach and
+plum tree. It is supposed to have been introduced from Europe with
+imported nursery stock, and thence rapidly distributed, by similar
+means, through the country. In its perfect stages it is a minute
+brown beetle, about one-twelfth of an inch long and one-thirtieth of
+an inch in diameter. This pest appears about midsummer, boring
+numerous minute holes through the bark and into the sapwood
+underneath, and in this the female deposits her eggs, and from these
+are hatched the little grubs found later feeding on the soft inner
+bark and alburnous matter beneath it. From every hole made in the
+bark a small globule of gum will soon appear, drying upon the
+surface--thence onward until autumn--and glistening in the sun, an
+immutable sign of the presence of a minute but destructive enemy.
+
+When the beetles and their eggs are once in possession there is no
+practical way known of removing them, and the best thing to be done
+is to cut down and burn every infested tree, and just as soon as it
+is known to be in this condition. There are also several indigenous
+species of bark beetles, which will very likely attack almond trees
+as soon as they are as abundant as peach trees, but all may be
+destroyed with the same, or very similar weapons and materials.
+
+What are called preventives consist mainly of substances to be
+applied to the stems in a semi-liquid form, and of such a nature as
+to be offensive to the beetles because of their odor, taste, or
+because so hard that the insects cannot cut through them with their
+mandibles. Common lime whitewash, soft soap, whale-oil soap, or a
+thin mineral paint made of pure linseed oil, will answer very well
+for this purpose if applied often enough to keep the bark constantly
+coated.
+
+Of the fungous diseases affecting the almond in this country, very
+little is as yet known, although we may safely include under this
+head all those that have been inimical to the peach, for the
+transition from this tree to the almond would only be a natural
+sequence. The peach-leaf curl (_Taphrina deformans_) would not be
+far from home on the almond leaf, neither could we expect that
+almond orchards would be wholly exempt from that mysteriously
+distributed and uncontrollable disease known as "peach yellows."
+
+In California an almond-leaf blight has already appeared and
+seriously affected the trees in some of the orchards. It is caused
+by a fungus known as _Cercospora circumscissa_ Sacc. This fungus
+attacks the leaves and young twigs, causing the former to fall off
+early in the season, thereby checking the growth of the tree and
+preventing the maturing of the fruit. It is thought that remedies
+may be applied to check this disease, and there will probably be
+some form of copper solution employed for destroying it, as with
+various species of fungi on other kinds of fruit trees.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE BEECHNUT.
+
+
+Fagus, _Linn._ The Beech. The Latin name of the genus (_Fagus_)
+supposed to be an equivalent of the Greek phegos, an oak, or it may
+be derived from _phago_, to eat; the nuts of this tree having been
+used as food by man in all ages and countries where it is a native.
+The modern English name, beech, was probably derived from the
+Anglo-Saxon _bece_ or _boc_; in Dutch it is _beuk_; French, _hetre_;
+Icelandic, _beyk_; Danish, _bog_; Swedish, _bok_; German, _buche_ or
+_buoche_; Russian, _buk_; Italian, _faggio_; Armenian, _fao_; and in
+Welsh _ffawydd_.
+
+The beech belongs to the order _Cupuliferae_, or oak family. The
+genus contains about fifteen species of handsome deciduous and
+evergreen trees, or shrubs, very widely distributed throughout the
+temperate and colder regions of both the northern and southern
+hemispheres. Male flowers are bell-shaped, in long-stalked drooping
+heads; calyx five to seven cleft, containing numerous stamens.
+Female flowers two to four in a cluster on the summit of the
+scaly-bracted peduncle; the inside scales uniting, forming a
+four-lobed involucre of imbricated bracts, the whole becoming at
+maturity a somewhat prickly, scaly bur, within which are found a
+pair of sharp-edged triangular nuts, containing a tender and
+sweet-flavored kernel.
+
+=History of the Beech.=--The common beeches of both Europe and North
+America are so closely related that the two species may be
+considered as one for all practical purposes, such as propagation,
+cultivation, and value of the wood and nuts. It is true, however,
+that our native beech is not environed with ancient myths and
+stories of love and war, neither is it celebrated in poetry and
+song, yet it has, doubtless, played just as noble a part in human
+affairs among the pre-historic races of America as those recorded of
+its European contemporary. As the beech in Europe is found in the
+forests of Great Britain, Norway, Sweden, France, Germany, and
+southward to Constantinople, Palestine, Asia Minor and Armenia, it
+was well known and highly appreciated by all the early inhabitants
+of these countries, and is frequently referred to by the earlier
+writers of Greece and Rome who touch upon the rural affairs of their
+times. It is supposed that Theophrastus refers to the beech under
+the name of _Oxua_, and Dioscorides as _Phegos_, and the latter
+author places it among the oaks, in which he was not far out of the
+way, because the beech is a member of the oak family in our modern
+classification. Virgil and Pliny speak highly of the little
+triangular nuts, and the people of their times set considerable
+value upon beech-nuts as an article of food. Pliny also assures us
+that at the siege of Chios, the besieged inhabitants lived for some
+time entirely on these nuts. We are inclined to think, however, that
+both Virgil and Pliny are in error when they tell us that the beech
+was propagated by being grafted on the chestnut. They were probably
+led astray in this by some romancing gardener of their time, for we
+even have some of the same ilk with us at this day. Pliny refers to
+the beech several times in his writings, and places a much higher
+value upon this nut than he does upon the chestnut; in fact, speaks
+rather contemptuously of the latter, and seems to be surprised that
+nature should have taken such care of the nuts, which he calls
+"_vilissima_," as to enclose them with a prickly involucre or bur.
+
+But my limited space will not allow of tracing the history of the
+beech from ancient to modern times, although it has always been
+esteemed as food for man, as well as for wild and domesticated
+animals. Swine fattened on beech and oak mast have for ages been
+noted for their excellent flesh, and the value of many an old estate
+in Great Britain was determined more upon the mast the forest
+produced, than the area or number of square miles they contained.
+
+As a monumental tree the beech has no rival, for its smooth gray
+bark, perennial and almost unchangeable, has ever been a convenient
+place to register challenges to enemies, epitaphs, epithets, and
+probably more frequently than all, the initials of the name of some
+loved one, who might possibly pass that way and find her name
+engraved on the beechen tree. I doubt much if there is a beech grove
+in all Europe or in America, within a convenient distance of a city,
+country village or schoolhouse, on which the bark of the trees is
+not scarified by the knives of boys in recording the initials of
+their own names, and those of their favorites of the opposite sex.
+These living registers were long ago recognized by the poets, and
+more than eighteen centuries ago Virgil admits it in these lines:
+
+    "Or shall I rather the sad verse repeat,
+    Which on the beech's bark I lately writ."
+
+In more modern times Tasso hints of the same habit, in _Jerusalem
+Delivered_, to wit:
+
+    "On the smooth beechen rind, the pensive dame
+    Carves in a thousand forms her Tancred's name."
+
+That the Spanish youths were not oblivious to their opportunities
+for recording the names of their favorites we must assume to be
+true, from the lines of Don Luis de Gongora, who tells us that:
+
+    "Not a beech but bears some cipher,
+       Tender word, or amorous text.
+    If one vale sounds Angelina,
+       Angelina sounds the next."
+
+=Propagation of the Beech.=--The beech, in all its species and
+varieties, may be propagated by the usual modes, viz.: By seed,
+layers, budding and grafting. The seeds, when gathered, should be
+mixed with clean, sharp, moist sand, placed in boxes, and then
+stored in a cool or cold place and carefully protected from mice,
+until the time arrives for sowing in spring. They may also be sown
+in the fall and lightly covered with leaf mold or other light soil,
+but unless coated with tar or some offensive poisonous substance,
+vermin of some form will be very likely to find them and leave few
+to grow. Seedlings are used for stocks upon which to work the many
+varieties in cultivation; but as I am not writing this for the
+encouragement of propagators of purely ornamental trees, I will omit
+giving any very extended description of the different modes of
+propagating the beech, further than to say that should remarkably
+fine varieties with extra-sized nuts be discovered or produced, they
+can be perpetuated and multiplied by the same processes adopted for
+other kinds of nut trees.
+
+=Soil and Location.=--The beeches of Northern countries, in their
+many varieties, thrive best in a cool, moist soil, for their roots
+rarely penetrate very deeply, but spread out widely and near the
+surface, forming an intricate network, which will try the patience
+of the woodman who attempts to clear away a forest of beech and
+break up the ground. In this country, as well as in Europe, the
+beech thrives in calcareous soils, or what is usually termed
+limestone regions; consequently, when transplanted or raised in
+sandy soils, or on the red sandstone formation, light applications
+of lime are usually found very beneficial; but more than all, the
+beech requires moisture, and if not planted in a moist soil the
+surface over the roots should be kept constantly covered with some
+kind of mulch.
+
+=Species and Varieties of the Beech.=--In the Dictionary of
+Gardening, edited by George Nicholson, of the Royal Botanic Gardens,
+Kew, England, the following species of Fagus are briefly described,
+viz:
+
+_F. antarctica._--Leaves ovate, blunt, glabrous, attenuated at the
+base, doubly dentate, alternate, petiolate, one and a half inches
+long. A small deciduous tree or shrub, with rugged, tortuous
+branches. Native of Tierra del Fuego, S. A.
+
+_F. betuloides_ (birch-like). Evergreen beech.--Leaves ovate,
+elliptic, obtuse crenulate, leathery, shining glabrous, round at the
+base or short footstalks. An evergreen tree, native of Tierra del
+Fuego, S. A.
+
+_F. ferruginea_ (rusty). American beech.--Leaves ovate, acuminate,
+thickly toothed, downy beneath, ciliate on the margin. A large
+deciduous tree, very closely resembling the common European species,
+from which it is distinguished by its longer, thinner and less
+shining leaves.
+
+_F. obliqua_ (oblique). Chile beech.--Leaves ovate, oblong, oblique,
+somewhat rhomboid, blunt, doubly serrated, entire at the base,
+attenuated into the petiole, and somewhat downy. A hardy deciduous
+tree, native of the cooler elevated regions of Chile, S. A.
+
+_F. sylvatica_ (sylvan). European beech.--Leaves oblong, ovate,
+obscurely toothed; margin ciliate. A well-known large deciduous
+tree, widely distributed in Europe from Norway southward to Asia
+Minor. From this species a large number of ornamental varieties have
+been produced, many of them merely accidental variations of the wild
+forms of the forests, while others have originated in the seedbeds
+of nurserymen. But so far as I am aware, no variety has ever been
+introduced bearing superior or improved forms of nuts.
+
+Our American beech (_F. ferruginea_) is a widely distributed tree,
+extending from Nova Scotia in the north, south to Florida, and
+westward to Wisconsin and Missouri. Formerly it was exceedingly
+abundant, but like many other of our most valuable forest trees, it
+is disappearing before the axe of the woodman, who has always found
+a ready sale for beech timber. It is used in the manufacture of
+plane stocks, shoe lasts, handles for paring chisels, and hundreds
+of similar articles. Beech wood is hard, firm, and takes a good
+polish, but is not very flexible. It makes excellent fuel, and ranks
+next in value to hard maple and hickory for this purpose. In the
+more northern States and where the beech grows to its largest size,
+the heartwood is usually of a reddish color; but here in New Jersey
+and farther south, the wood is usually white almost to the center of
+the tree, no matter how large it may be. The color of the wood,
+however, does not in any way detract from its value, for fuel and
+many other purposes, although some European dendrologists have been
+deceived into supposing that the white beech was almost or quite
+worthless. Loudon, in _Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum_, Vol.
+III, in referring to our beech, says: "The wood of the white beech
+is little valued in America, even for fuel; and the bark is used for
+tanning, but is little esteemed," etc. But if any one, in these
+later years, has had occasion to purchase beech timber for any
+purpose, he has probably learned, from the price charged, that it is
+esteemed, even for such base purposes as firewood.
+
+I am not, however, attempting to extol the American beech as a
+timber tree, but ask that it be given a place among the select
+ornamental nut-bearing kinds. And I think every farmer who has a
+pasture lot could afford a place for at least one beech tree, and if
+there is a low, moist spot in the field, or a stony corner, this
+will be a suitable place for such a tree; and the horses, cattle or
+sheep out in pasture during hot days in summer will be very grateful
+for the shade which a wide-spreading specimen will give them. It may
+be that the owner of said pasture may recall the lines of Garcilaso:
+
+         "But in calm idlesse laid,
+         Supine in the cool shade
+    Of oak or ilex, beech or pendant pine,
+         Sees his flocks feeding stray,
+         Whitening a length of way,
+    Or numbers up his homeward-tending kine."
+
+He may be sure of one thing, and that is, the beech-nuts produced by
+one or many trees will always be acceptable to the children, and of
+these hungry mortals there is likely to be a few, at least, roaming
+about in ages to come, as in times past.
+
+The beech is not really a desirable tree to plant on a lawn or near
+one's dwelling, because of its persistent foliage, which clings to
+the twigs very late in winter, and the rustling of the wind through
+the dry leaves is not soothing to one's nerves, although not quite
+as dismal as the moaning pines. In summer, and until late in autumn,
+the American beech is a noble and graceful tree,--and if I may be
+allowed the expression, one of the cleanest of trees; its large,
+thin, bright-green and glossy leaves retain none of the dust and
+cast-off material of other trees which may be floating through the
+air, but are ever bright and pure. The tree has naturally
+wide-spreading and somewhat drooping branches, and should be given
+plenty of room for development when planted for the nuts or as an
+ornamental tree. Its leaves and the small slender branchlets (Fig.
+9) are eaten with avidity by all kinds of farm animals;
+consequently, protection may be required until the trees have
+reached a hight to be safe from such depredators.
+
+Beech seedlings do not usually come into bearing in less than twenty
+to thirty years, but as no one in this country has ever attempted to
+cultivate this tree for its nuts, or search our forests for
+precocious and superior varieties, we have to admit that the field
+remains unexplored, and as barren of results as it was when our
+ancestors first discovered America. Every hunter, woodman, farmer
+and botanist who has roamed through forests where the beech trees
+grow, is well aware of the fact that distinct varieties are not at
+all rare, some having nuts twice the size of others in the same
+woods or groves, and it is possible and probable that some nut
+culturist in the near future will find time to select these choice
+wild varieties for cultivation and propagation. It would not, in my
+opinion, be beneath the dignity of our national department of
+agriculture, or some of its numerous costly annexes, to occasionally
+take into consideration the natural products of this great country,
+and determine, by a series of experiments, whether or no they were
+not worthy of attention.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9. BEECHNUT LEAF, BUR AND NUT.]
+
+=Insects Injurious to the Beech.=--No disease has, as yet, been
+known to seriously affect the beech, and as for insect enemies, it
+probably has a less number than any other denizen of our forests. It
+is true that transplanted trees, and those left exposed by cutting
+away protecting neighbors, are sometimes attacked by borers in the
+stem, branches and twigs, but these enemies naturally follow in the
+train of debility, it being one of the immutable economic laws of
+nature to hasten the demise and decomposition of the half-starved or
+otherwise enfeebled members of both the animal and vegetable
+kingdom.
+
+Isolated beech trees growing by the roadsides in parks and fields
+are occasionally attacked by a large grayish, long-horn beetle, the
+_Goes pulverulenta_. It is about one inch long, and a rather sturdy
+beetle of a light grayish color, and usually infests the branches,
+but may occasionally attack the main stem. It is not abundant, and
+has seldom been found infesting the beech. There are also two or
+three borers of the Buprestis family of beetles which occasionally
+attack beech trees. They are distinguished by the broad heads and
+flattened bodies of the grubs, and they work just beneath the bark
+in the sapwood, causing dead patches, mainly on the south side of
+the stem and larger branches. If the dead bark is removed and the
+wounds painted they will soon heal over, unless the tree is
+suffering for moisture and nutrients at the roots. A few twig
+borers, with an occasional colony of caterpillars on the leaves,
+embody about all the insect enemies of the beech calling for any
+special attention, but there are a host of different species and
+kinds ever ready to pounce upon a sickly or dead tree, whether found
+in the field or forest.
+
+=Properties and Uses.=--The beechnut has been so long and favorably
+known that very little need be said here in regard to its properties
+and uses. In the forests it affords food for many kinds of birds,
+such as the wild turkey, partridge or grouse, and especially the
+pigeon, and immense flocks of these collect in the beech forests in
+autumn to feed upon the nuts. Deer are very fond of these nuts, and
+so are all of the squirrel family, and the little ground squirrel or
+chipmunk, _Tamias striatus_, of our Northern States, gives us a good
+practical lesson in the way of preserving the nuts over winter.
+These little rodents pack away the nuts in small pockets in their
+burrows and from two to three feet below the surface, where they are
+protected from excessive moisture and any considerable change of
+temperature. The chipmunk always stores the nuts in the ground, and
+not in hollow logs, as is sometimes asserted. The deer-mouse
+(_Hesperomys leucopus_), however, does select such places for
+putting away his winter's supply, but more frequently he chooses a
+hollow in the stem of some old tree, and several feet from the
+ground. Unlike the chipmunk, this mouse cleans the shells from the
+kernels, storing only the latter, and I have often found a quart or
+more when cutting down trees in winter. These kernels are usually so
+clean, bright, and free from odor, that it is to be feared the
+finder always confiscates them for his own use.
+
+As the beechnut contains considerable oil, many schemes have been
+set on foot, in European countries, for its extraction and use as a
+salad oil. Early in the last century (1721) Aaron Hill, an English
+poet, proposed to pay off the national debt from the profits to be
+derived from the manufacture of beechnut oil; but his scheme fell
+through, like many others of its kind. It is also stated that Henry
+Fielding, so well known by his delightful stories of English
+society, once speculated rather largely on the manufacture of
+beechnut oil. In France, however, beechnut oil was formerly made in
+considerable quantities, and used in cooking fish and as a salad
+oil. In Silesia it is used by the country people instead of butter,
+and the cakes which remain from the pressure are given to fatten
+swine, oxen and poultry. The forests of Eu and of Crecy, in the
+department of the Oise, it is stated by Duhamel du Monceau, have
+yielded, in a single season, more than 2,000,000 bushels of mast,
+but probably this referred to all kinds of nuts, and not beech-nuts
+alone. Years later, or in 1779, Michaux states that the forests of
+Compiegne, near the Verberie department of the Somme, afforded oil
+enough to supply the wants of the district for more than half a
+century. In some parts of France beech-nuts are roasted and served
+as a substitute for coffee. Many of these old forests have
+disappeared, but other kinds of nut trees are still being planted in
+France, and the product is simply enormous, and a source of wealth
+to the peasant, as well as the owners of extensive forests and
+orchards.
+
+The beechnut has never been an article of commerce in this country,
+and it is rarely seen on sale in either country villages or our
+larger cities, not because of its scarcity or want of demand, but
+all that the country boys and girls find time to gather are wanted
+for their own pleasure and use. Picking up beech-nuts among the
+leaves in a forest, or even after raking off the leaves and then
+whipping the trees, is, at best, slow and rather tedious work, as I
+know full well from experience, and only once do I remember of
+having secured a rounded half bushel as the sum total of many raids
+on the beech trees in the neighborhood. But as the beechnut is the
+diamond among the larger and less precious gems of our forests, we
+should set a higher value upon it because small and rather difficult
+to obtain.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+CASTANOPSIS.
+
+California chestnut. Western chinquapin. Evergreen chestnut.
+
+
+Castanopsis, Spach. Name derived from _Castanea_, the chestnut.
+Order, _Cupuliferae_. A genus of evergreen shrubs and trees,
+intermediate between the oaks (_Quercus_) and the chestnuts
+(_Castanea_). There are about a dozen species indigenous to Eastern
+Asia and the adjacent islands. Blume, in "Flora Javae," Vol. II,
+1828-36, describes three species under _Castanea_, which he found in
+the mountains and more elevated regions of the Javanese islands.
+Very little, however, is known of these oriental evergreen chestnuts
+outside of the herbariums of professional botanists, and they are
+rarely referred to, even in standard botanical dictionaries, or
+dictionaries of gardening, and when mentioned they are usually
+placed in the genus _Castanea_. Edouard Spach, a half-century or
+more ago, gave a synopsis of the genus, for which he proposed the
+name of _Castanopsis_, and although not recognized by botanists in
+general for a number of years, it is now accepted by botanical
+authorities everywhere. We have but one indigenous species, and this
+on the Pacific coast, viz:
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10. LEAVES AND NUT OF CASTANOPSIS CHRYSOPHYLLA.]
+
+_Castanopsis chrysophylla_, A. de Candolle. _Castanea chrysophylla_,
+Douglas. _Castanea sempervirens_, Kellogg.
+
+    "Leaves coriaceous, evergreen, lanceolate or oblong, one to four
+    inches long, acuminate or only acutish (Fig. 10), cuneate at
+    base and shortly petioled, entire green and glabrous above or
+    somewhat scurfy, densely scurfy beneath, with none or few yellow
+    scales; male aments one to three inches long, densely pubescent;
+    styles three, stout, glabrous, divergent; fruiting involucre
+    with stout divergent spines (Fig. 11) one-half to one inch long,
+    subverticillately many branched; nut usually solitary, obversely
+    triangular, six lines long."--"Geological Survey of California,"
+    Botany, Vol. II, p. 100.
+
+    "This handsome broad-leaved evergreen tree is indigenous to the
+    elevated regions, from Monterey, California, northward to the
+    Columbia river in Oregon. It is also common in the Sierra
+    Nevadas at elevations of six thousand feet, but in its southern
+    limits rarely below ten thousand feet elevation."--C. S. Sargent
+    ("Woods of the United States").
+
+In the warmer and drier regions of California it is a mere shrub two
+to six feet high, and these dwarf forms have, in some instances,
+been described as varieties. As, for instance, _Castanea
+chrysophylla_, var. _minor_, Bentham; _C. chrysophylla_, var.
+_minor_, A. de Candolle; and _C. chrysophylla_, var. _pumila_,
+Vasey. But northward, where the climate is more moist, it becomes a
+large tree fifty to one hundred and twenty feet high, with a stem
+two to three feet in diameter. In its wide variation in habit of
+growth, this western chinquapin is similar to our Eastern dwarf
+chestnut, which is mainly a low shrub in the more Southern States,
+but becomes a fair-sized tree in the Middle States, or near its
+northern limits.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11. CASTANOPSIS BUR.]
+
+I have introduced the Western chinquapin here among the nut-bearing
+trees, not with the idea that it will ever be extensively cultivated
+for its edible nuts, but because it is a beautiful broad-leaved
+evergreen tree, and of which we have far too few kinds in
+cultivation to give warmth and a cheerful aspect to our gardens and
+pleasure grounds in winter. It is true that, so far as can be
+learned at this time, no extended experiments have ever been made to
+introduce or cultivate the Castanopsis in the Atlantic States,
+consequently nothing positive is known as to whether it will succeed
+here or not. In its northernmost range it thrives in forests among
+many kinds of trees and shrubs that are already common in our
+gardens, and this leads me to think that specimens or seeds of this
+tree procured from the mountains of northern Oregon will withstand
+the rigors of our climate.
+
+Mr. S. B. Parsons writes me that he first saw _Castanopsis
+chrysophylla_ in Kew Gardens (Eng.) thirty-five years ago, and
+procured specimens, which were planted in his gardens at Flushing,
+N. Y., but they failed, presumably because not hardy. It may be that
+his specimens were raised from nuts procured in the warmer part of
+California, and, as with many other Pacific coast plants, proved to
+be tender, while later introductions of the same species collected
+in colder localities have proved hardy here. In my experience I have
+found a great difference in the hardiness of trees and plants
+obtained from the higher and lower levels of the mountains from
+Colorado westward to the Coast range, for in those regions
+acclimation extending over thousands of years has developed and
+fixed certain physiological attributes, which enables them to
+readily adapt themselves to similar conditions elsewhere, especially
+in the line of temperature. It may make no difference to those who
+want plants for warm climates, whether they are obtained from
+mountain or valley, but it certainly does to those who value
+hardiness above all other merits.
+
+In horticultural matters we are supposed to confine ourselves within
+certain natural lines in making experiments, but if we fail in one,
+or one hundred, it proves little beyond the bare fact that we have
+not been successful. I have experimented enough to have become
+somewhat wary of deciding that a thing cannot be done, or is
+impossible, because of my own and others' failures. Every practical
+horticulturist can call to mind many productions which had evaded
+the pursuit of experimenters for decades and even centuries.
+
+For specimens of the nuts, burs and plants of this handsome
+nut-bearing tree I am indebted to Mr. J. J. Harden, of Stayton,
+Oregon, who informs me that it grows in the mountains near by to a
+very large size, and among such well-known kinds of shrubs and trees
+as _Rhamnus Purshianus_, _Cornus Nuttalli_, _Corylus rostrata_, and
+various species of conifers which are now more or less common in our
+Eastern gardens and parks. The twigs and leaves are shown in Fig.
+10, and below a nut, and in Fig. 11 a bur, all of natural size. The
+small conical nut is slightly triangular, with a rather firm,
+brittle shell, not fibrous as in the acorn and chestnut. The burs
+are produced singly, but sometimes several on a twig, and when
+mature, instead of opening by valves, as in the true chestnut, they
+break up irregularly. The kernels are sweet and excellent flavored,
+and are sought for by various kinds of birds, as well as by all the
+squirrel tribe, and for this reason it is very difficult to procure
+specimens, unless gathered before they are fully ripe. The nuts do
+not mature the first season, but pass the winter in a partly
+developed stage, usually ripening the second year about midsummer
+or, in northern Oregon, in July.
+
+It is quite probable that this Castanopsis, when planted in the
+Atlantic States, will require a little shade or protection, like the
+American holly and similar broad-leaved evergreens, and while it may
+not thrive anywhere north of Delaware and Maryland, it is worth
+trying, as the sole native representative of a genus containing
+several species of noble evergreen trees.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE CHESTNUT.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12. CHESTNUT FLOWERS.]
+
+Castanea, _Tournefort_. The ancient classical name derived either
+from Castanis, a town in Thessaly, or one in Pontius, as historians
+disagree in regard to its derivation. The genus belongs to the order
+_Cupuliferae_.
+
+Male flowers irregularly clustered in long, naked, cylindrical
+catkins from the axils of the leaves and on the new shoots of the
+season. Calyx five or six parted; stamens or pollen-bearing organs
+seven to fifteen; anther two-celled. On old, mature trees, the male
+catkins are usually crowded near the end of the short new twigs, as
+shown in Fig. 12, the terminal one productive; but on young thrifty
+trees, wide apart. Female flowers always on and near the base of a
+late-developed male catkin, sometimes two or three together,--or
+even six or eight on the chinquapins,--oval or ovoid, scaly,
+prickly, two- to four-valved involucre or bur; calyx usually with a
+four- to six-lobed border crowning the three- to seven-celled ovary;
+stigmas bristle-shaped, and as many in number as there are cells in
+the ovary. Shell of the nut leathery, not brittle, ovoid, two or
+more together in the larger species, in others solitary, or only one
+in a bur. Kernel very thick, fleshy, and somewhat plaited, sweet and
+edible.
+
+Both male and female flowers appear late in spring, the males
+usually exceedingly so, exhaling a slightly nauseating odor. The
+productive male catkins appear the latest, their base becoming the
+rachis or stalk supporting the burs, this rather anomalous
+arrangement appearing to be a natural provision to secure
+fertilization in case the earlier catkins failed.
+
+The genus _Castanea_, as now restricted, contains shrubs and large
+trees, with simple, alternate deciduous leaves, coarsely serrate,
+with pointed spiny teeth. Indigenous, and widely distributed over
+northern Africa, southern Europe, Asia and the eastern half of the
+United States.
+
+The common English name of this nut is supposed to be derived from
+the Anglo-Saxon _cystel_, chestnut, and _cyst-beam_ or
+_cisten-beam_, chestnut tree; Old English, _chastein_ or _chesten_;
+Old German, _chestinna_ or _kestinna_; Modern German, _kestene_ or
+_kastanie_; French, _castaigne_ or _chataigne_; Provencal,
+_castanha_; Spanish, _castana_; Italian, _castagna_, from the Latin
+_castanea_.
+
+=History of the Chestnut.=--The so-called European chestnut is
+supposed to be indigenous to Asia Minor, Armenia, Caucasus and
+northern Africa, and from these countries it was introduced and
+became naturalized throughout the greater part of temperate Europe,
+where it has been cultivated from time immemorial. The Romans are
+supposed to have distributed it northward through France and Great
+Britain, and in the latter country there were trees centuries ago of
+such large size that many of the early English authors claimed this
+tree was indigenous. But in the absence of any natural forests of
+chestnut, the claim had to be abandoned. In parts of France, Italy
+and Spain, the chestnut has become thoroughly naturalized and, as we
+may say, run wild, but as one of the early investigators says, in
+speaking of the abundance of old chestnut trees on the Apennines,
+they are generally scattered over the surface like trees on a
+well-arranged lawn, and not crowded and massed, as they would be in
+a state of nature or in a forest. On the south side of the Alps the
+trees grow up to an altitude of twenty-five hundred feet, and on the
+Pyrenees some two or three hundred feet higher.
+
+There are old trees of immense size almost everywhere in the milder
+regions of Europe, and the celebrated monarchs of Etna have been
+many times described by travelers. The largest measure one hundred
+and eighty feet in circumference near the root. All the early Roman
+writers who have anything to say about rural affairs, mention the
+chestnut as one of their valuable trees, producing nuts used for
+various purposes. Pliny enumerates eight varieties, but Columella
+appears to place more value upon the timber, especially the sprouts,
+for stakes, than he does on the nuts. But long before the Romans
+began to cultivate the chestnut, the Greeks held it in high esteem
+under the name of _Sardianos Balanos_ or Sardis nut, and still later
+it was called _Dios Balanos Lopimon_.
+
+The European chestnut has been so frequently and extensively
+referred to by ancient and modern authors that it would not be at
+all difficult to fill a large volume with brief extracts from their
+works, but my aim is not so much to show what has been done with
+this nut in other countries as what we may do with it here. All
+nations who have any experience with it admit its value as food for
+many wild and domesticated animals, as well as for the human race,
+and we know, from our long experience with the native species, that
+it is highly esteemed wherever known, although it must be admitted
+that our sparse population and the abundance of other kinds of food,
+have tended to make us careless and neglectful of the indigenous
+chestnut.
+
+It may be well, before dismissing this brief history of the
+chestnut, to add that while nearly all the ancient authors, in
+referring to it, employed its present scientific name of _Castanea_,
+still, when botanists first attempted what has since been recognized
+as the scientific classification of plants, many of them placed the
+chestnut in the same genus as the beech, retaining the generic name
+of _Fagus_ for both.
+
+Linnaeus, in his _Systema Naturae_, 1766, Vol. II, p. 630, describes
+two species of the chestnut and one of beech in the genus _Fagus_,
+although Tournefort, in his "History of Plants Growing About Paris,"
+published seventy years before that of Linnaeus, had recognized the
+distinctive characteristics of these two groups of nut trees, and he
+adopted the present name of _Castanea_ for the generic name of the
+chestnut, and _Fagus_ for that of the beech. But nearly all of the
+English and earlier American botanists adopted and followed Linnaeus
+in his classification, ignoring the works of the earlier as well as
+contemporaneous continental botanists. I merely refer to this matter
+of botanical nomenclature because some of my readers may have
+occasion to consult the earlier authors who describe American
+plants, as, for instance, such works as John Clayton's "Flora of
+Virginia," 1739, Thomas Walter's "Flora Caroliniana," 1787, or
+Humphrey Marshall's "American Grove," 1785. In all of these, and
+others, the chestnut is described as a species of beech (_Fagus_).
+
+=Propagation of the Chestnut.=--The usual mode of propagating the
+chestnut is from seed, when trees are wanted for general planting or
+for stocks upon which to graft improved and rare varieties. Under
+some conditions and circumstances, it is best to plant the nuts soon
+after they are ripe in autumn, and this appears to be the most
+natural method; in fact, it is the way in which forests have been
+produced and are constantly renewed and perpetuated, when man does
+not interfere to prevent it. But nature is in no hurry in such
+matters, while man always is, because his time is limited;
+consequently, in our attempts at the multiplication and cultivation
+of plants we aim to save both time and material, therefore cannot
+afford to adopt nature's slow and wasteful processes.
+
+The principal objection to planting chestnuts in the fall is the
+danger of having them destroyed by vermin, which abound almost
+everywhere. There is also danger of the nuts sprouting prematurely
+in the autumn, and of the young growth being killed by cold or by
+excessive moisture during late fall rains. But these natural enemies
+and obstacles prevent an excess in number and the overcrowding of
+trees in our forests. It is, no doubt, possible and practicable to
+smear the nuts with poisonous substances, or those sufficiently
+offensive to prevent the depredations of vermin, but taking all
+things into consideration, I am decidedly in favor of preserving the
+nuts in bulk and in a dormant state until the season arrives for
+insuring a rapid and continuous growth, and then planting them. To
+do this in our cold northern climate, as well as in the South,
+requires more care and attention with chestnuts than with the
+harder-shelled kinds, like the walnut and hickory nut. As a rule, it
+may be said that all the hardy kinds of nuts sprout at a rather low
+temperature and a few degrees above the freezing point, and for this
+reason it is well to select as cool a spot in the open ground as
+possible for their winter quarters, and then examine them as early
+as can be done conveniently in the spring.
+
+In this matter of manipulating and preserving chestnuts for
+planting, as well as what follows in regard to transplanting,
+pruning and grafting, I shall give my own practice, with results;
+and while it may differ from that of other propagators, it is one
+evolved from long experience, many successes, and a few failures.
+
+=Gathering and Assorting Nuts.=--When the nuts begin to ripen and
+fall, gather as soon as possible, and if the trees are on your own
+grounds and will admit of such an operation, thrash them and secure
+the entire crop at once. The object of this early gathering is to
+collect the false and weevil-infested specimens and destroy them.
+But in whatever way the nuts are collected, they should be stored in
+the shade and in shallow boxes, or spread out on a tight floor; but
+the better way would be on screens over a floor, and then when the
+grubs worked their way downward through the nuts and screen, they
+would fall upon the floor, from which they could be taken up and
+burned or otherwise destroyed. The nuts, while on the screen or
+other receptacle, should be stirred over daily for two or three
+weeks, and by that time they will be in good condition for either
+planting or packing away for the winter. But before finally
+disposing of the nuts in either way, they should be carefully looked
+over, and every shrunken specimen, as well as all with punctured
+shells from which the grubs have escaped, removed from among the
+sound stock, because these damaged nuts are not only useless, but
+are very likely to decay and affect all with which they come in
+contact. It is not to be expected that by such means or handling we
+can get rid of all the grubs enclosed in the nuts when gathered, for
+there will always be a few not more than half grown at the time, and
+these will remain hidden in the nuts until midwinter, or later, but
+the greater part of the brood will reach maturity within two or
+three weeks after the nuts are ripe. Of course, what is said here
+about chestnut weevils is only applicable to chestnuts grown in this
+country, but all species and varieties, when planted here, are
+subject to the attacks of this pest--at least, everywhere in the
+Eastern and Southern States.
+
+Having assorted the nuts carefully, the sound ones should be
+reserved for planting; these should be mixed with or stratified with
+moist, sharp sand, and stored in boxes of convenient size for
+handling and examination, whenever this is required. In preparing
+the boxes, bore a number of small holes through the bottom, and over
+each of these lay a piece of a broken flower-pot, brick or stone,
+then cover the bottom one inch deep with the moist sand, and on this
+place a single layer of nuts, then fill in all interstices with
+sand, and also use enough more to fairly cover the layer; and
+proceed in this way until all the nuts are disposed of or the box is
+full, covering the top layer one or two inches deep, because the
+sand will settle some after the work seems complete. The boxes may
+be covered with fine wire netting or with narrow strips of boards,
+fitting these so that mice cannot get in, but should not be
+air-tight. They may then be buried in the open ground, selecting
+some knoll or dry spot for this purpose, for the nuts should not be
+placed where they will be submerged, or even be watersoaked, at any
+time during the fall, winter or early spring. If no such spot is
+conveniently near, then set the boxes on the top of the ground, and
+on the north side of some building or in the shade of an evergreen
+tree, and bank over with soil, covering the boxes a foot deep. If
+the spot selected is under the eaves of a building, place boards
+over the heap of soil, to carry off the water, for the object is to
+keep the nuts moderately moist, cool, and where they will not be
+subjected to frequent changes of temperature. In our Northern States
+the nuts, under such conditions, usually become frozen during the
+coldest weather, but this does not injure them if the sand is moist
+and they remain frozen, as there will be no danger of germination;
+while if kept too warm, they may start to grow before the seedbed is
+ready, in spring, for their reception. I have tried keeping the nuts
+mixed with sand in a cool cellar, also in outbuildings, but have not
+found any other place so certain as pits in the open ground.
+
+=Seedbed and Soil.=--It is well to have the seedbed prepared the
+previous autumn, but it is not absolutely necessary. The soil for
+the bed should be light, either sandy or loamy, and if not rich,
+made so by adding very old and fine stable manure, or leaf mold from
+the forest--I prefer the latter, as it is the most natural for all
+kinds of seedling nut trees. Whatever fertilizing materials are
+used, they should be placed on or near the surface, and never worked
+in deeply, for our aim should be the production of side or lateral
+fibers, and not coarse perpendicular roots. Furthermore, seedling
+nut trees grown on light, sandy soils or in pure leaf mold, produce
+a far greater number of small fibrous roots than on heavy soils, and
+this is a decided advantage with those which are to be transplanted.
+
+=Planting the Nuts.=--When the time arrives for planting, take the
+nuts from their winter quarters, and after sifting out the sand, sow
+or drop them in drills, covering about two inches deep with fine
+soil. With the small native varieties my practice has been to sow in
+wide drills; that is, those made with the blade of a common garden
+hoe, and of the same width, the nuts being scattered along the
+bottom two to three inches apart.
+
+The soil is then drawn in over them and pressed down with the back
+of the hoe, or by passing a light garden roller over the surface. If
+the size of the seedbed is not limited, or only a small quantity of
+nuts are to be sown, then the single row would be preferable,
+because less hand weeding will be needed to subdue the weeds, and
+for all the larger varieties I should certainly recommend it,
+because they are of a more stocky growth. The distance allowed
+between the drills will depend somewhat upon the implements to be
+employed in cultivation, as well as how long the seedlings are to
+remain in the seedbed before transplanting, but from two to three
+feet will be found convenient for the ordinary modes of cultivation.
+
+If the seedlings make a fair average growth the first season they
+will be from one to three feet high in the autumn, and as soon as
+the leaves have fallen they may be taken up, or allowed to remain
+until the following spring and then lifted. But if, from any cause,
+they have made a feeble growth, it is better to let them remain in
+the seedbed another year. Where large quantities of seedlings are
+raised they are usually taken up with a tree-digger drawn by a span
+of horses or mules, but with only a few hundred or a thousand to
+dig, a common spade will answer every purpose; and if, when removed
+from the seedbed, they are found to have produced long perpendicular
+taproots, these should be shortened to about one-half their original
+length. For instance, if these taproots are taken up entire and are
+eighteen to twenty inches long, cut away the lower half, whether it
+consists of one or more long perpendicular roots, as this pruning
+will force the plants to produce a greater number of lateral roots,
+and it is upon these we depend mainly for keeping our trees alive
+and vigorous if transplanted when larger and older. All side
+branches should be pruned off close to the main stem, for we aim to
+favor the latter in its growth upward until it reaches the required
+hight for either grafting or forming the future head of the tree.
+
+In taking up seedlings, it is not safe to leave them for any
+considerable time exposed to the sun and drying winds, and they
+should be carried either to a shed or other building while being
+pruned, and also covered with blankets in the field, except during
+moist, cloudy days. A very little drying of the small fibers on such
+plants is always more or less injurious.
+
+=Planting in Nursery Rows.=--After the seedlings have been taken
+from the seedbed and pruned, they should be set out in nursery rows,
+four feet apart, and the plants about eighteen inches in the row.
+Trenches should be opened for the reception of the plants, and wide
+enough to allow all the roots to be spread out in a natural
+position; and it is well to set a little deeper than the seedlings
+were in the seedbed, because newly plowed ground will settle some
+after the planting is finished, although the soil should always be
+packed firmly about the stems of newly set trees, whether large or
+small. The more frequent and thorough the cultivation during the
+ensuing summer, the more rapid will be the growth of the trees.
+
+If the transplanted seedlings have produced any considerable number
+of side branches,--and especially, low down,--these may be pruned
+off at any time during the summer, for our object is usually to
+secure straight, upright stems for grafting the following spring, if
+they are large and tall enough; if not, we may delay this operation
+for another year. Of course, small chestnut stocks may be grafted
+close to the ground, but there is nothing really gained by this, for
+a good strong stock will push a cion forward more in one season than
+a weak stock in two or three seasons. But when the stocks have
+reached a diameter of from three-eighths to one-half an inch three
+or four feet from the ground, they may be grafted, but I would
+prefer to have them a little over than under these sizes.
+
+=Stocks From the Forests.=--It is not necessary for a man who may
+need a few chestnut stocks for experimental or other purposes, to
+wait until they can be grown from the nut, because these can always
+be purchased at the nurseries; but if one does not wish to incur
+even this small outlay, it may be avoided by obtaining a supply from
+the forests, provided there are any in the neighborhood where
+chestnut seedlings are to be found, and the owner will permit their
+removal. The best wild stocks are usually to be found in recent
+clearings, or where the larger trees have been cut off for timber,
+and the underbrush, composed of seedlings and sprouts, is left to
+grow up again into a forest. There are many thousands of acres in
+New Jersey, New York, and other Eastern States, from which the
+timber is cut every twenty or thirty years, and no further attention
+paid to the land or what it produces. Wherever such clearings are
+found containing chestnut trees, good stocks can usually be procured
+by selecting those varying from one to two inches in diameter at the
+ground, and if the soil in which they are growing is rather poor and
+stony they will usually have pretty good roots, if carefully taken
+up. They should be pruned to a single stem, and this cut off at a
+hight of from five to six feet or less, then planted where they are
+to remain permanently. Such stocks, if carefully taken up and
+planted, will throw out numerous sprouts from their stems during the
+summer, but all should be rubbed off while small and tender, except
+three or four at the top, and the following spring, if wanted for
+this purpose, they may be grafted in the same way as the young
+stocks growing in the nursery, thereby saving three or four years of
+time in securing bearing trees. Having often employed such wildings
+for stocks with just as good results as with those raised from the
+nuts in nursery rows, I am inclined to recommend them, where
+obtainable, knowing that there are thousands of farmers and owners
+of small places in the country who can do likewise, but may have
+never thought it practicable to transplant nut trees from the
+forest, although well aware of the fact that elms, maples, and
+similar kinds were obtained there, and in immense numbers, for
+planting in the streets of villages and alongside country highways.
+
+=The Season for Grafting.=--The proper time for grafting the
+chestnut is in early spring, just as the buds begin to swell, but
+not until all danger of freezing weather is past, although light
+frosts will not seriously injure newly set cions. The grafting may
+be continued while the leaves are unfolding, provided the cions were
+cut early and stored in a cool place, where they remain in a dormant
+state until used. I usually cut the shoots wanted for this purpose
+during the late fall or winter, and then pack them away in a cool
+cellar between layers of damp moss (_sphagnum_) to be obtained in
+almost any swamp. Cions may be taken from the tree on the same day
+that they are used, but there is some risk in this, because we
+cannot control the weather, and a week of warm rain in spring may
+delay us in grafting, while it is pushing our stocks into leaf; and
+then, our dormant cions are available, while those on the trees are
+not, owing to their expanded and tender buds.
+
+The shoots used for cions are those of the previous season's growth,
+or as usually termed, one-year-old wood; and in selecting these,
+endeavor to get such as are plump, well ripened and firm. If taken
+from young and very thrifty chestnut trees, there is likely to be a
+considerable portion of the upper end of the shoot that is rather
+soft, spongy and immature, and this should be discarded, as it would
+be a waste of time to use it. Of course, I am supposing that the
+grafter is so fortunate as to be able to make his own selection of
+the wood desired; if not, then he may be compelled to do the best he
+can with that obtained elsewhere.
+
+=Grafting Materials.=--The really essential materials and implements
+required in grafting nut trees are few in number. Grafting wax must
+be provided, and while there are many different compositions used
+for this purpose, I much prefer, for ordinary work in the open air,
+a wax made after the old formula, and as follows: Take one pound of
+common rosin, one-half pound of beeswax, and one-quarter of a pound
+of beef tallow; melt together and stir enough to insure the thorough
+intermingling of the ingredients, and then set away to cool, or pour
+into cold water and work up into cakes or rolls and wrap in paper
+until wanted for use. Larger quantities may be made if required,
+preserving the same proportions of the materials used. If to be used
+immediately in grafting chestnuts and similar trees, then procure
+some sheets of tough Manilla paper of only moderate thickness, and
+cut this up into sheets about six inches wide and a foot long. While
+the fresh-made wax is melted, take an old and rather stiff paint
+brush, dip it into the hot wax and coat the papers thinly with it,
+and then spread them out on shelves or elsewhere to cool, and let
+them remain undisturbed until wanted for use. Any thin kind of cloth
+may be used instead of paper, but I prefer the latter because it
+will yield to the pressure of the enlarging stock and cion when
+growth begins, and it will not be necessary to examine the grafted
+stock so frequently during the summer to prevent girdling, as is
+usually the case when a tougher material is employed for wrappers.
+Before these waxed sheets are taken into the field for use, lay each
+one separately on a piece of board with the waxed side up, and with
+the point of a sharp knife cut them crossways into narrow strips of
+from one-half to three-fourths of an inch wide. But for convenience
+in handling, insert the point of the knife a half-inch from one
+edge, but cut the other clean through, so that the whole sheet of
+strips can be lifted together.
+
+In early spring there is usually more or less windy weather, and if
+waxed sheets of paper are taken out into the field unprotected they
+are very likely to become tangled up and useless. To prevent this,
+procure a number of large but very shallow paper boxes, such as can
+usually be had at the stores and groceries of almost any village,
+and in these place a single layer of the cut waxed sheets, where
+they will be protected from wind and dust until removed for
+immediate use.
+
+Other kinds of grafting wax can, of course, be used, and are usually
+procurable at the seed stores or made at home, and I have given
+their composition and the formulas for their manufacture in my work,
+"The Propagation of Plants;" but, as I have already said, this old
+standard kind of wax is just as good as any other, although a little
+more troublesome to use on account of its sticky consistency. Raffia
+or bass may be employed as ligatures for holding the cions in place,
+then covered with Leport's or other kinds of liquid grafting wax;
+but when these are employed it will be necessary to examine the
+grafted trees frequently, in order to cut the ligatures to prevent
+girdling.
+
+The best implement for grafting is a common broad-blade pocket
+knife. One with a blade three to three and a half inches long and
+three-fourths of an inch wide, is a handy size. It should be of the
+best material for grafting chestnuts, because the wood of this tree
+is coarse-grained, and so filled with siliceous matter that it soon
+dulls the keenest blade, and the grafter will, of necessity, have to
+use his whetstone frequently. In grinding the knife-blade have the
+sides a true level, from the back to the edge, especially the
+underside when to be held in the right hand with the edge towards
+the body. The importance of having a blade of this form will soon
+become apparent when the grafter attempts to make a true sloping cut
+on either stock or cion, and it would be well for the novice to
+practice for an hour or two in splicing some worthless twigs before
+commencing upon more valuable material, for even an expert workman
+is very likely to make some awkward dissections and joints when out
+of practice. The professional propagator of plants may think such
+details are unimportant, but I wish to impress upon the amateur that
+in grafting nut trees we are dealing with kinds that will not
+respond satisfactorily to such free manipulations as the apple and
+pear; consequently, better and more careful handling is required to
+insure success.
+
+When ready to begin operations in the field, take out a quantity of
+the shoots to be used for cions, and keep them wrapped in damp cloth
+or packed in a box, basket or other receptacle with wet moss, to
+prevent drying. If any considerable number of stocks are to be
+grafted, then an assistant or two will be required, for the grafter
+cannot be alternately handling the knife and cions and wax, and do
+good work, but if he only inserts the cions and his assistant
+applies the waxed ligatures, the operation will proceed more rapidly
+and satisfactorily.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13. SPLICE GRAFT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14. SPLICE GRAFT INSERTED.]
+
+=Modes of Grafting.=--The only two modes of grafting that I shall
+recommend for the chestnut are the splice or whip graft, and the
+cleft or wedge graft. In the splice graft, the cion and stock should
+be of about the same diameter, but if there is any difference let it
+be in favor of the stock, and this the largest. In this mode of
+grafting, the stock is cut off with an upward slope, exposing two or
+three inches of wood; and about midway on this slope a small cleft
+or incision is made, forming what is called a "tongue." The cion is
+then cut in the same way from the upper end downward, with a
+corresponding incision, as seen in Fig. 13. Then the two are neatly
+fitted together, the tongue on one entering the cleft on the other,
+making a close joint, as shown in Fig. 14. The bark of the cion and
+stock should be exactly even on one side at least; and if they are
+of the same size, so much the better, for then they will be even on
+both sides; but we cannot expect to secure such perfect joints on
+every stock, or any considerable number, although we aim to do so as
+frequently as possible. When the cion is fitted, the waxed paper is
+applied by placing one end of the strip at or near the base of the
+splice, then wind it spirally and firmly upward until the entire
+wound is covered. If one of the waxed strips is not enough use
+another, for it will do no harm if they are double on a part or all
+over the joint. The cion should not be much over four inches long,
+and a less length is preferable, but not so convenient for handling.
+One good prominent bud on each cion is sufficient, and this left
+near the upper end, but on short-jointed wood we may use cions with
+two or more buds without greatly increasing their length. After the
+cion is in place and every part of the splice is carefully sealed
+with the waxed paper, place a small piece or a little wax on the
+upper end of the cion, just enough to cover the exposed wound and
+prevent evaporation of the natural moisture or sap in the wood. I
+have found, in practice, that this sealing the end of the cion is
+time well spent; in fact, to leave any of the wood cells exposed to
+the air endangers the success of the operation.
+
+Young shoots from a quarter of an inch in diameter up to
+five-eighths may be used for cions, in splice grafting; and with a
+little care in the selection of stocks, or by cutting them off a few
+inches higher or lower, we may readily manage to have them nearly of
+the same diameter to match our cions, whether they are large or
+small, and such unions will soon heal over, leaving no scar at the
+point where the two have been joined.
+
+If the new growth or shoot to be employed as a cion is slender and
+feeble, then the base of the cion may be of two-year-old wood,
+leaving just a bud or two on the upper end of the one-year shoot.
+But it will seldom be necessary to employ such cions in grafting the
+chestnut, although it may occur when seeking to secure wood for
+propagation, from very old trees which have made only a feeble
+annual growth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15. STOCK.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16. CION.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+=Cleft Grafting.=--This method is employed principally upon stocks
+or branches of trees too large for splicing. The stock is first cut
+off at the point where it is desirable to insert the cion; then
+split with a knife, being careful to divide it, so that the edges
+will be kept smooth, and not rough and ragged (Fig. 15). When the
+knife blade is withdrawn, the cleft may be kept open with a hard
+wood wedge, if the stock is too large to admit of opening it with
+the point of the knife when ready to insert the cion. The cion may
+be three or four inches long, containing two or more buds; the lower
+end is cut wedge-shape, as shown in Fig. 16, and slightly the
+thickest on the side to be set against the bark of the stock. In
+stocks of an inch or more in diameter, two cions, one on each side,
+may be inserted (Fig. 17), and if both grow one should be cut away,
+else the tree, in later years, will be very likely to divide or
+break apart at this point. In stocks of an inch or less in diameter,
+one cion is sufficient, the top of the stock to be cut off with an
+upward slope, as shown in Fig. 18. After the cions are inserted, the
+entire exposed surface of the wood must be covered with grafting wax
+or waxed paper, and usually both may be employed with benefit. All
+the various forms of grafting in the open air, as described in my
+work on the "Propagation of Plants," may be employed on the
+chestnut, but the two here given will probably answer just as well
+as others for those who may have occasion to propagate this tree.
+
+=Success in Grafting.=--The question has been asked many times, and
+will, no doubt, be frequently repeated, "What percentage of cions
+should one accustomed to grafting make grow?" As there are no
+statistics upon which to base an answer to the question, I can only
+give my own personal experience, and this leads me to say that
+seventy-five per cent may be considered an excellent, if not a high
+average. In some seasons this has been exceeded by at least ten per
+cent, while in others it has fallen as much or more below, with no
+apparent reason for the difference. Ninety-five per cent of the
+cions may push their buds, or even make a growth of several inches,
+then begin to die off; consequently, the time to count your
+successfully grafted trees is in the autumn, and not in spring or
+midsummer, as it is to be feared some are in the habit of doing when
+making a report upon what they call success in grafting nut trees.
+
+=Growth of Cions.=--Cions set in strong stocks usually make a very
+rapid and vigorous growth, and if left unchecked, there is danger of
+loss by being broken or blown off by strong winds during the summer
+and autumn. To prevent this as much as possible, it has been my
+practice to pinch off the ends of the young shoots when they are
+about two feet long. Lateral shoots will then push out freely, and
+in some seasons it may be necessary to check their growth in the
+same way later. On feeble stocks, or those quite small, and with the
+less vigorous growing varieties, no summer pinching or pruning will
+be required. My experimental grounds are well protected upon the
+north and west, not only by rising ground, but by Norway spruce and
+American arbor vitae hedges twice as high as the grafted chestnut
+trees in the nursery rows, and yet almost every season some of the
+stronger-growing grafts are blown out or broken off by the wind.
+After the first season there is little danger of injury, probably
+because the union between cion and stock has become stronger.
+
+=Grafting Chestnut Sprouts.=--In grafting the vigorous sprouts that
+always spring up from the stumps of old trees that have been
+recently cut down, we may reasonably expect a prodigious growth of
+the cion the first season, as well as in succeeding ones, and if all
+goes well with them we will secure large bearing trees in a very few
+years, but such stocks are only available where old trees are
+sacrificed for their timber or other purposes. Having a few such
+sprouts on my place, they have been utilized from time to time in
+testing some of the newer varieties. In one instance I allowed the
+cion, set on a sprout about one inch in diameter, six feet from the
+base, to grow unchecked throughout the season, as it was in a
+protected position, and in the fall the entire length of the main
+stem and lateral branches was sixty-five feet, and all from one bud
+on a cion set early in the spring. The third year this tree bore
+about a peck of very large nuts, to which I shall have occasion to
+refer again under "Injurious Insects."
+
+=Grafting Large Trees.=--Grafting large chestnut trees with stems of
+six inches or more in diameter, and with large spreading heads, is
+possible, but far from being economical or practicable, especially
+if the trees stand out where they will get the full sweep of
+prevailing winds. By cutting off and grafting a few of the branches
+at a time for several seasons in succession, one may, in a few
+years, succeed in getting the entire head grafted, but there is
+constant danger of some of the cions being broken out if they make a
+vigorous growth, leaving a distorted and ill-shapen tree. Having
+experimented somewhat in this line with variable success, I am not
+inclined to recommend it, because ten trees can be raised to a
+bearing age on moderate-sized stocks with less labor, and the
+results will be more satisfactory.
+
+=Budding Chestnuts.=--I have frequently tried budding chestnut
+stocks as described for the almond, and extensively employed with
+other kinds of fruit trees. But the results of my experiments have
+been unsatisfactory, although buds were set from very early in
+summer until late in the fall, also on young and old wood; but so
+few have taken and remained alive over winter that my personal
+experience in this mode of propagation will not justify its
+recommendation to others. Perhaps there is some secret connected
+with the operation that I have not yet discovered, but which is
+known to other propagators. Of course, budding with semi-dormant
+wood and buds in spring, as soon as the bark will peel from the
+wood, is practicable, but there is really nothing to be gained by
+this mode of propagation over that of grafting.
+
+=Transplanting and Pruning.=--There is no tree that will bear or
+withstand more severe pruning than the chestnut. If trees of one or
+five hundred years of age are cut down, the stumps are sure to throw
+up an immense number of sprouts from adventitious buds, as these are
+readily produced at almost any point on the sapwood or alburnum
+under the bark; and yet, with this inherent vitality and faculty of
+recuperation, the chestnut tree does not naturally, like many other
+deciduous kinds, throw up suckers from the roots. Keeping this
+peculiarity in mind, the cultivator has only to use his pruning
+knife freely upon the trees to secure almost any form desired. But
+after the trees have become well established, very little pruning
+will be required, except to occasionally thin out or remove a
+rambling branch, to secure a well-balanced and shapely head to the
+tree.
+
+In transplanting from the nursery rows, after grafting, and
+especially if the trees are of some considerable size and large
+enough to set where they are to remain permanently, there is sure to
+be a loss of roots, and those that are preserved are likely to
+remain for a short time inactive and incapable of absorbing
+nutrients from the soil to which they are transferred, or until new
+rootlets are produced. Under these conditions we aim to favor the
+roots by removing or cutting back the greater part of the branches.
+No matter how carefully such trees are lifted and their roots
+protected during the operation of transplanting, it will check the
+growth, and the best and most practical restorative is severe
+pruning of the top, and every young shoot of the previous season's
+growth should be cut back to within three or four inches of its
+base. I am presuming that the trees have been grafted only one year,
+but if older, and the cions were set high enough to begin the
+formation of the head of the tree, then the entire young growth may
+be cut away and some of the older wood, but of course not below the
+graft. All broken roots must be cut off; and the ends of the larger
+ones, roughly severed with the spade or other implements employed in
+digging, should have their wounds smoothed with a sharp knife.
+
+Frequent transplanting and root-pruning young nursery stock tends to
+keep up a proper root system, and an abundance of small fibrous
+roots near the main stem, and trees so treated are worth much more,
+if to be transplanted later, than those left undisturbed; but while
+the latter may be twice the size of the former when of the same age,
+they are not worth half as much to the purchaser, or for
+transplanting in our own grounds.
+
+=Staking Transplanted Trees.=--This is always necessary for recently
+planted trees, if they are of any considerable size, or from six
+feet high and upwards. If not supported by stakes they are sure to
+be swayed about, if not thrown over, by strong winds in summer. A
+strong stake, two or three inches in diameter, would better be set
+at the time of planting the tree, thereby avoiding breaking off or
+crushing the roots, as frequently happens when stakes are driven
+down among them later in the season. Set the stakes or drive into
+the subsoil six inches from the stem, then use strips of cloth,
+sacks, carpet, or some similar material, for tying, because hard
+cord or twine will be very likely to cut through the tender bark
+from the constant swaying about of the stems. Wind the strips around
+the stem, and then cross between it and the stake once or twice, to
+prevent the tree from pressing against or coming in contact with the
+stake. Renew the stakes and tying materials, if necessary, until the
+trees become firmly established, and provided with lateral roots
+large enough to keep them in an upright position.
+
+=Mulching.=--Placing a few forkfuls of coarse stable manure,
+half-rotted straw, leaves, or any similar material, on the surface
+about the stems of recently planted trees, will prove very
+beneficial, in not only keeping down the weeds, but aiding greatly
+in retaining moisture in the soil about the roots. The application
+of some such material as a mulch is all the more important with the
+chestnut, because these trees are always to be planted in a
+naturally dry and well drained soil.
+
+=Distance Between Trees.=--How far apart chestnut trees should be
+planted will depend very much upon the species and varieties, some
+growing to immense trees, while others are only fair-sized shrubs at
+maturity. But for the larger-growing varieties, forty to fifty feet
+between the trees is none too much space, when planted for their
+nuts and not for timber. If set in a single row along the public
+highways, farm lanes or around the outbuildings, to serve as shade
+or ornament, and for their nuts, then about forty feet will answer
+very well for the larger-growing species; and I will add that, in my
+opinion, all the larger kinds of nut trees will give better returns
+if placed in such positions, than when set in orchards or in compact
+masses. When set in single rows or widely scattered, they are less
+liable to be attacked by insects and diseases, while they will still
+serve the double purpose of being both ornamental and useful. I must
+admit, however, that in my experimental grounds the trees are
+planted only twenty feet apart, but with the expectation of soon
+cutting out every alternate specimen.
+
+=Soil and Climate.=--The chestnut thrives best in light,
+well-drained soils, and those containing a large proportion of sand
+or decomposed quartz, slate, or volcanic scoria; but it is rarely
+found, nor does it succeed, in heavy clays, limestone soils, or on
+the rich western prairies, where we might think it would grow most
+luxuriantly. That limestone soils are inimical to the chestnut has
+often been disputed, but my own observations, which have been
+somewhat extensive in years and range of country, rather confirm the
+impression that this tree avoids land containing any considerable
+percentage of lime. It is true that chestnut groves, and sometimes
+extensive forests, are found on hills and ridges overlying
+limestone, but a careful examination of the soil among the trees
+will show that it is a drift deposit containing little or no lime.
+Such groves can be found in all the southern tier of counties of New
+York, also among the hills of northern and western parts of New
+Jersey, and thence west and south along the Blue Ridge and Alleghany
+mountains to the Carolinas, and westward in Tennessee and Kentucky.
+The chestnut is sometimes found in New Jersey and other northern
+Atlantic States growing in considerable abundance near streams only
+a few feet above sea level, but when found in such situations the
+subsoil is invariably sand, gravel or porous shale.
+
+The range of climate in which the native sweet chestnut thrives is
+quite extensive, as it is found sparingly in Maine in latitude 44 deg.,
+extending westward,--but not very abundant on this line,--through
+New England and New York, crossing the Niagara river, skirting the
+north shore of Lake Erie in Canada, and thence into southern
+Michigan, but does not reach Illinois. From this line southward it
+increases in abundance in Virginia, western North Carolina and
+eastern Tennessee and Kentucky. But in following this tree southward
+we meet another indigenous species, widely known as the chinquapin
+(_Castanea pumila_). This species is indigenous to southern New
+Jersey, and sparingly in parts of Pennsylvania, becoming more
+plentiful as we proceed southward, the two species named overlapping
+and in part occupying the same region; but the chinquapin extends
+further south, and also to the westward, near its northern limits
+crossing the Mississippi into southern Missouri, then extends south
+again, becoming quite abundant in Arkansas.
+
+The European chestnut, in its many varieties, extends over about the
+same number of degrees of latitude in Europe as our species do here,
+although reaching a higher latitude in countries bordering on the
+Atlantic, as shown in the old chestnut trees of England. The
+Oriental chestnut has also a very wide range, but the limits are not
+so well known as those of the European and American species; but a
+study of its geographical distribution is of considerable
+importance, now that we are importing these nuts for cultivation.
+The same is also true of the European varieties, and the cultivator
+who neglects to take this matter into consideration will fail to
+secure whatever advantages may have accrued from acclimation, an
+agency which, undoubtedly, has been active and continuous in
+modifying and changing the primary characteristics of these plants
+during unknown ages.
+
+To more fully impress upon the reader the importance of care in the
+selection of materials to be employed in any pursuit with which he
+is not perfectly familiar, I am prompted to relate the story of my
+first personal experience in chestnut culture, as it may serve as a
+warning to others who may attempt to raise these nuts in a cold
+climate.
+
+At the time of purchasing the farm which has been my home for the
+past thirty years, nut trees of various kinds were on my list of
+things wanted, and the chestnut occupied a leading position,
+probably because there were already many old and large native trees
+on the place. My first planting consisted of a number of imported
+seedlings, obtained from a well-known French nursery. The trees were
+three or four years old, very stocky and vigorous, and they made a
+good growth the first season; but the following winter the young
+shoots were all frozen down to old wood, with the exception of one
+tree, and thinking that this might prove hardy, cions were taken
+from it and set in thrifty sprouts growing in a grove near by. The
+cions made rapid growth, and from one of these I soon had a large
+tree, which remained in good health for twenty years, but during all
+that time it produced but one bur, containing two half-developed
+nuts. Why it was unfruitful I do not pretend to know, but it was
+certainly not for want of company, for it had large native chestnut
+trees all about it, and these bearing heavy crops. The seedling
+trees planted in the orchard also failed to be fruitful, and were
+finally dug up and burned. Thus ended my first experiment in the
+cultivation of the European chestnut. Had my location been farther
+south and in a milder climate, the experiment might have ended
+differently, but I am relating experience, and not attempting to
+guess what might have been the results under more favorable
+conditions. In the meantime, however, I had seen a few trees of the
+Japan chestnut bearing on Long Island, and had received specimens of
+the Numbo and Paragon, two now well-known and superior varieties of
+the European species, although raised in this country. These
+varieties were secured, and succeeded so well that I have continued
+to add others from time to time, or as soon as trees or cions were
+obtainable.
+
+The success which appears to have attended the propagation and
+dissemination of these two varieties of European parentage has
+awakened considerable interest in chestnut culture, besides
+attracting the attention of those interested in such matters to the
+fact that there are many old trees of the same or similar origin
+scattered about the country, awaiting the coming nut culturist to
+propagate them and make known their merits.
+
+It may be well, before leaving this subject, to remind the novice in
+chestnut culture that seedlings of these hardy and productive
+descendants of the European species will not come true from the nut
+or seed, and while it will be admitted that the chances are somewhat
+better for procuring a hardy variety from such nuts than from those
+imported, still, there is no certainty of any considerable number
+being equal in hardiness or other respects to the parent tree. There
+is an inherent tendency, in tree seedlings of all kinds, to revert
+to the wild form or type, and the chestnut is no exception to this
+rule.
+
+=Species of Chestnut.=--What is called a "species," among plants, is
+a particular form or type supposed to have descended from one
+original stock, whether this was composed of one or more
+individuals. But variations doubtless occurred at the first
+inception or multiplication of the original, but so long as the
+offsprings do not differ so widely as to be untraceable to the
+proemial types, they are held to be varieties of one species.
+
+Whether all the chestnuts found in the various countries of the
+world are descendants of one original tree or group of trees is now
+beyond our ability to determine; consequently, what are now termed
+species rests very much upon the opinions of botanists, as may
+readily be demonstrated by consulting the works of hundreds of
+authors who have essayed to describe and classify the plants of any
+locality or country, and this, too, without reaching an absolute
+finality acceptable to their contemporaries, or at all likely to
+share a better fate with posterity.
+
+For many years after botany began to be recognized as a science, the
+common American sweet chestnut was considered a distinct species,
+but in recent years it has been relegated to the position of a
+widely distributed variety of the European chestnut, and it is so
+described and classified in most of the botanical works of the
+present time, and under such names as _Castanea vesca_, variety
+_Americana_; _Castanea sativa_, variety _Americana_; _Castanea
+vulgaris_, variety _Americana_, etc.
+
+The Asiatic species or varieties--under whichever cognomen we may
+find them described in botanical works--have fared little better
+than our American kinds, for some botanists have described the Japan
+chestnut as a distinct species, while others only as a widely
+divergent variety of the common European chestnut.
+
+I regret that there should be any need of giving so much space to
+this matter of species and varieties, yet presuming that far the
+larger number of my readers will not be professional botanists, nor
+persons with a botanical library at hand to consult for unfamiliar
+terms, I have thought this explanation in regard to classification
+might assist them in making clear the apparent confusion of names
+which, in the main, are only synonyms. Furthermore, I purpose
+retaining some of the older specific names of the distinct groups of
+varieties, whether it be strictly in accord with the ideas of
+eminent authorities or otherwise, because it will be more convenient
+to do so, and certain phases will thus be made clearer to the
+practical cultivators of nut trees, for whom this work is written.
+My wish is to assist those who do not know, but want to learn how to
+obtain, plant and make nut trees grow and bear remunerative crops.
+
+CASTANEA AMERICANA (_American sweet chestnut_).--Leaves
+oblong-lanceolate, serrate, with rather coarse teeth, each
+terminated with a feeble prickle or spine; smooth on both sides
+(Fig. 19). Burs thickly covered with sharp, branching spines a half
+inch long or less, from a fleshy green envelope, becoming hard and
+somewhat woody; opening by four valves or divisions when mature.
+Usually three nuts in each bur, the center one flattened by
+compression, the two outer ones plano-convex. Shell tough and
+leathery, dark brown, smooth, or more or less inverted, with a
+silvery pubescence from the point downward; variable in size from
+five-eighths to an inch in diameter. Kernel sweet and fine-grained.
+A very large and common tree in the Middle and Northern States,
+living to a great age.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19. AMERICAN CHESTNUT LEAF.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20. SPIKE OF BURS OF BUSH CHINQUAPIN. _C.
+nana._]
+
+CASTANEA NANA (_bush chinquapin_).--Leaves oval-lanceolate, serrate,
+with feeble prickles on teeth and often wanting; pale green above
+and white tomentose underneath. Burs in racemes, small; husk thin,
+opening by two divisions or lobes, instead of four, as in the last
+species; spines short, somewhat scattering, sessile or very
+short-stalked; nuts small, pointed, brown, smooth, thin-shelled,
+solitary or only one in a bur. Kernel fine-grained, sweet and
+delicious. Common from North Carolina southward to Florida, in dry
+soils and barrens. A medium-sized shrub or low-spreading bush,
+rarely reaching a hight of ten feet, the slender twigs usually
+tomentose. A spike of burs and leaves of this species are seen in
+Fig. 20.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21. SPIKE OF CHINQUAPIN CHESTNUT BUR. _C.
+pumila._]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22. SINGLE BUR, NUT AND LEAF OF CHINQUAPIN
+CHESTNUT. _C. pumila._]
+
+CASTANEA PUMILA (_chinquapin chestnut_).--Leaves oblong-lanceolate,
+short or acutely pointed, coarsely serrate, with incurved pointed
+teeth, green above, tomentose underneath. Burs in racemes (Fig. 21),
+two-valved. Sometimes the burs are single, as shown in Fig. 22.
+Spines branching from a short stalk; nuts solitary, ovoid, pointed,
+with dark-brown polished shell. Kernel fine-grained, sweet and
+excellent. A medium-sized tree twenty to forty feet high; in rich
+soils from New Jersey, Southern Pennsylvania and southward, to
+Georgia, and sparingly westward to Arkansas.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23. JAPAN CHESTNUT LEAF.]
+
+CASTANEA SATIVA OR VESCA (_European chestnut_).--Leaves
+oblong-lanceolate, pointed, coarsely serrate, with rather long
+incurved spines on the teeth; smooth on both sides, but glossy and
+dark green above; thicker and of more substance than in any other
+species. Burs very large, with thick husk, and long, stout,
+branching spines, from a woody stem at the base; shell of nut thick,
+tough and leathery, of a dark mahogany brown; kernel enclosed in a
+rather tough but thin skin that is usually intensely bitter, a
+characteristic that readily distinguishes this from any of our
+species. Trees of large size, rather stocky; young shoots coarse,
+with smooth bark; buds prominent, glossy, and of a light
+yellowish-brown color.
+
+CASTANEA JAPONICA (_Japan chestnut_).--Leaves lanceolate-oblong
+(Fig. 23), finely serrate, indentations shallow, and the teeth
+slender pointed; pale green above and silvery or rusty white
+underneath. Burs with a very thin husk; spines short, widely
+branching from a short stem. Nuts large to very large, usually three
+in a bur; shell thin, and of a light brown color; the inner skin
+thin, fibrous, but not as bitter as in the European varieties, and
+the kernel somewhat finer grained and sweeter. Trees of moderate
+growth and are said to rarely exceed fifty feet high in Japan. The
+growth is slender in comparison with the European or American
+chestnut, and the habit is decidedly bushy, the new growth of the
+season usually producing a number of lateral twigs late in summer.
+The leaves here seem to be more persistent, probably because the
+season is not long enough to insure thorough ripening.
+
+The reader will please bear in mind that this description of the
+Japan chestnut is drawn from the introduced varieties or those
+raised from the imported nuts, and not from the trees growing in
+their native habitats. All the varieties that I have seen appear to
+belong to one type or species, and they come from the warmer parts
+of that country; but Prof. Sargent, in his "Forest Flora of Japan,"
+says that while the largest nuts appear in the markets of Kobe and
+Osaka, from whence they come to this country, there are varieties
+offered for sale in the markets of Aomori, which is much further
+north, and these, he thinks, would produce a more hardy race of
+varieties than those we have already received from that country. As
+a race, all the Japan chestnuts are very precocious, the trees
+coming into bearing early whether raised from the nut or propagated
+by grafting.
+
+=Native Varieties.= (Group One).--While it is well known that our
+American sweet chestnut varies widely in the size, flavor, form,
+color and general appearance of the nuts, no special effort has been
+made to select and perpetuate the most distinct and valuable
+varieties. This is to be regretted, inasmuch as the opportunities
+for making such selections, and preserving and propagating those
+most worthy of it, are rapidly passing away with the destruction of
+our chestnut forests; but there is still time to do something in
+this direction, and perhaps save a few varieties as valuable as
+those already destroyed. It is to be hoped that every man who knows
+of a large variety, will either propagate it himself, or point it
+out to some one who is sufficiently interested to do so. If proper
+attention was given to the raising of seedlings, we might soon
+secure many improved native varieties, and I would urge this mode of
+propagation upon all whose circumstances and surroundings will admit
+of it, and especially upon the young men who possess the talent and
+inclination to make such experiments; for there is a wide and
+fertile field open to them, and they can scarcely fail to reap a
+rich reward for their labors, if applied with earnestness and a
+moderate amount of intelligence.
+
+BURLESS CHESTNUT.--This is a peculiar variety or freak, in which the
+burs are merely shallow cups upon which the nuts rest, and at no
+stage of their growth are they enclosed in a husk or bur. The nuts
+are small and usually perfect, but being unprotected they are preyed
+upon by birds and squirrels as soon as the kernels are well formed,
+few escaping to reach maturity. This chestnut is of no economic
+value, but is worth preserving as an illustration of extremes in
+variation. The original tree was found in the forest near Freehold,
+Green Co., N. Y., by Mr. Harry Bagley, to whom I am indebted for
+cions sent me in the spring of 1885. Another and very similar
+variety was found about the same time on Staten Island, N. Y., and
+this also has been propagated, to a limited extent, as a curiosity.
+
+HATHAWAY.--A very large and handsome native variety, and one of the
+very best. A strong and vigorous grower, and productive. Raised by
+Mr. B. Hathaway, the veteran and widely known pomologist of Little
+Prairie Ronde, Mich. Some thirty years ago Mr. Hathaway purchased a
+half bushel of native chestnuts of a dealer in Ohio, and from these
+raised a large number of trees for sale; but a few were reserved for
+planting out on his own grounds, and when these came into bearing
+the one named here was selected for propagation, because of its
+large size and productiveness.
+
+PHILLIPS.--A large and handsome variety of excellent flavor, with a
+very smooth, dark-brown shell. Grafted trees exceedingly vigorous,
+upright growth, as well as precocious and productive. The original
+tree is growing in the grounds of the late Whitman Phillips, at
+Ridgewood, N. J. Several years ago my attention was called to a
+number of large varieties of the chestnut growing in and near the
+village, and from these I obtained cions for propagation; but I name
+only one at this time, reserving the others until more fully tested.
+
+This is rather an insignificant number of varieties to be named
+among the many hundreds that are to be found in almost every town or
+neighborhood where the chestnut is a native, and yet I have been
+able to find only one named in nurserymen's catalogues as being
+propagated by grafting. It is true that nearly all dealers in trees
+offer seedling American chestnuts, which may mean good, bad or
+indifferent varieties when the trees come into bearing. Among all of
+the many thousands that have been raised and planted in the East and
+West, beyond the natural range of the chestnut, as, for instance, in
+Missouri, Kansas and Iowa, there must be some distinct and valuable
+varieties worthy of names and propagation. There are not only
+distinct varieties to be found in every forest, but in some
+instances the entire product of an extended area of country are
+distinct in their color, size, and general appearance of the nuts
+produced; as, for instance, in the woolly chestnuts of the Piedmont
+district of Virginia, these being so nearly covered with a white
+down that they remind one of popcorn. Hundreds of bushels of these
+woolly chestnuts come to our markets, and among them I have often
+found very large specimens, but so far as known, no effort has been
+made to perpetuate them.
+
+So far as can now be determined, the wild or original European
+chestnut was much inferior in its flavor, and little, if any, larger
+than our American sweet chestnut; but by continued selections of the
+largest for planting, and propagation by grafting, it has attained
+to its present size and excellence; but this system of improving our
+native varieties has scarcely, as yet, been attempted, a fact which
+does not, in the least, redound to our credit.
+
+BUSH CHINQUAPIN (_C. nana._ Muhlenberg).--Of this I do not know of
+any named varieties in cultivation. Plants are occasionally seen in
+cultivated grounds, and I have one in my garden growing in a
+sheltered position, where it has fruited for several years. It is a
+pretty, round-headed, silvery-leaved bush, about six feet high;
+ornamental, if not specially valuable for other purposes, although
+the little sweet nuts are always acceptable. As a rule, the
+seedlings of this species are not hardy in the Northern States, but
+an occasional one will survive if planted in a light, porous soil
+and a protected situation.
+
+COMMON CHINQUAPIN (_C. pumila._ Miller).--This is a small tree,
+sometimes thirty to forty feet high; found sparingly as far north as
+central New Jersey, and on Long Island. It is more common in
+cultivation than the bush chinquapin, probably because more hardy
+and better known, but I do not know of any improved varieties that
+have been disseminated under distinct names except the one
+hereinafter described.
+
+Among many seedlings raised, of this species, I have selected one
+which good judges of such things have thought worthy of propagation,
+and as I do not raise plants for sale, no one will be likely to
+accuse me of having any selfish motives, further than a pardonable
+pride in producing something worthy of perpetuation. Furthermore, as
+an earnest of my confidence in its merits, I have distributed it
+under my own name.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24. BURS OF FULLER'S CHINQUAPIN. ONE-HALF
+NATURAL SIZE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25. FULLER'S CHINQUAPIN. FIVE YEARS OLD FROM
+NUT.]
+
+FULLER'S CHINQUAPIN.--Leaves large, broadly oval, pointed, coarsely
+serrate, pale green above, clear silvery white below. Bark on main
+stem; branches and twigs smooth, light gray, with numerous white
+dots. The young twigs thick and stocky, cylindrical, with moderately
+prominent, grayish buds. Burs in long racemes (Fig. 24), very large
+for this species; spines long, strong, branching and sharp. Nuts
+only one in each bur, rather short, broad, top-shaped, with blunt
+point; shell very smooth, glossy, almost black; kernel fine-grained
+and sweet. Ripens early, or with the earliest of the native sweet
+chestnuts. The original tree is only six years old, twice
+transplanted, and is now ten feet high, with a head fully as broad,
+and as shown in Fig. 25. Although growing in a rather exposed
+position, it has never been injured by low temperature in winter or
+a high one in summer. It has thus far been the most rapid-growing
+chestnut tree in my grounds, although given no special care. Whether
+it will eventually become a large tree, or soon cease to extend, is,
+of course, a question to be answered at some future time, but from
+present indications this tree will be well worthy of cultivation as
+an ornamental shade tree, even if we leave out of the account its
+rapid growth, productiveness, and delicious little nuts, which will
+be very acceptable for home use, if not possessing any great
+commercial value.
+
+=European Varieties.=--In the use of this term I wish it understood
+that the varieties named and described in this group are all of
+American origin; that is, raised in this country from seed. At the
+same time they are descendants of the European species. They are, in
+other words, "Survivals of the fittests," the few that have survived
+the many being raised from imported nuts (perhaps one out of a
+thousand) that tests and time have shown were adapted to our
+climate. There may be many other varieties scattered about the
+country which are worthy of a name and of propagation, but I can
+speak only of those I have been able to procure, or that have been
+brought to my notice.
+
+In describing the following varieties, and in seeking to get at the
+facts relating to their origin, name and history, the reader will
+please bear in mind that there has been no previous attempt to
+arrange or classify these semi-American varieties. Furthermore,
+there is much confusion in regard to the true names of a number of
+them, and the most I can say is that I have endeavored, under the
+circumstances, to get as near the truth as possible. Could I defer
+writing this chapter ten years, some moot points might be cleared
+up, but as this is out of the question I must follow the light
+already in my possession.
+
+To Mr. John R. Parry, of Parry, N. J., I am greatly indebted, not
+only for specimens of new and rare varieties, but also notes
+relating to the history of several of the older ones.
+
+COMFORT.--Burs very large, broad, somewhat flattened; spines very
+strong and long, branching; nuts very broad, with short point, and
+shell covered from base to point with scattering silky hairs,
+thicker at upper end. In quality, about the same as in the ordinary
+varieties of the species, but to some persons' taste it is better,
+having less astringency in the skin surrounding the kernel. Origin
+uncertain, but said to have been grown for many years at Germantown,
+a suburb of Philadelphia, Pa., where the Paragon chestnut was
+discovered. The Comfort certainly closely resembles the Paragon, but
+I have not had an opportunity of fruiting trees under the two names
+side by side, as would be necessary to determine their identity or
+difference, if they are really distinct.
+
+COOPER.--A very large variety; has been in cultivation for several
+years in Camden Co., N. J., but up to the present time the trees
+have not been propagated for sale, although I am informed by Mr.
+John R. Parry that there are a large number under cultivation. The
+tree is described as of a broad spreading habit, with enormously
+large leaves, and immensely productive. Nuts very large, smooth and
+glossy, with little fuzz near the top. In quality they may be
+considered excellent for a variety of this class. The burs are very
+large, and this is its greatest or only fault; for when nearly
+mature they absorb and retain such a quantity of water during heavy
+rains, in addition to the original weight and the enclosed nuts,
+that the trees are liable to be broken down by strong winds.
+
+CORSON.--Burs of immense size; spines an inch or more in length,
+from a stout, woody, irregularly branching stem, resting on the
+moderately thin husk. Nuts extra large, usually three in a bur;
+shell dark brown, somewhat ridged; the upper end or point of the
+shell densely covered with a white, almost woolly, pubescence, or
+fuzz as it is usually termed. This is a remarkably large and fine
+variety and of good quality. Originated with Mr. Walter H. Corson,
+Plymouth Meeting, Montgomery Co., Pa.
+
+DAGER.--A large variety originated near Wyoming, Delaware, from seed
+of the Ridgely. My specimen trees are good vigorous growers, and
+hardy, but have not, as yet, produced fruit. It is said that the
+nuts are of fair quality, but not as good as the best of its class.
+
+MONCUR.--Another seedling of the Ridgely, raised on the farm of Mr.
+Frank Moncur, near Dover, Del. The original tree is about thirty
+years old. Described as smaller than its parent, but of better
+quality.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26. BUR OF NUMBO CHESTNUT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27. SPINES OF NUMBO CHESTNUT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28. NUMBO CHESTNUT.]
+
+NUMBO.--Burs medium, and distinctly long pointed before opening, as
+shown in Fig. 26, the four divisions of the burs extending an inch
+or more beyond the nut as they open. This is an exceptional form of
+the bur, and will enable almost any person to recognize the variety
+with bearing trees. Spines only medium in length (Fig. 27), and not
+as strong as in most other varieties of this species. Nuts very
+large (Fig. 28), smooth, decidedly pointed, light brown when first
+mature, and of good flavor. Tree hardy and a vigorous, free grower,
+and is very productive even when young. The original tree is now
+some forty years old, and is one of a large number raised from
+imported nuts, by the late Mahlon Moon, of Morrisville, Pa.
+
+MILLER'S DUPONT.--Burs large, spines long and strong but not as
+stout as in some of the closely related varieties. Nut medium, and
+kernel of fair quality. A promising variety. Origin unknown.
+Received from Jos. Evans, Delaware Co., Pa.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29. PARAGON CHESTNUT BUR. (_One-half natural
+size._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30. SPINES OF PARAGON CHESTNUT BUR.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31. PARAGON CHESTNUT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32. FOUR YEAR OLD PARAGON CHESTNUT TREE.]
+
+PARAGON.--Burs of immense size, often five inches and more in
+lateral diameter; distinctly flattened on the top, or cushion shape
+(Fig. 29); spines an inch in length, widely and irregularly
+branching from a stout stem springing from a thick, fleshy husk, as
+shown in Fig. 30, the whole making an involucre or bur out of
+proportion to the nuts within. Nuts of large size, slightly
+depressed at the top (Fig. 31), and they are usually broader than
+long; shell very dark brown, slightly ridged, and covered with a
+fine but not very conspicuous pubescence. Kernel sweet,
+fine-grained, and of superior flavor for one of this species. Tree
+hardy, exceedingly precocious and productive when grafted on strong,
+healthy stock. A four-year-old tree on my grounds is shown in Fig.
+32. It was loaded with nuts in the fall of 1894. This is one of the
+best of its class. Origin somewhat in doubt, but it is claimed that
+the late W. L. Shaffer, of Philadelphia, raised it from a foreign
+nut planted in his garden, and who, some eighteen years or more ago,
+gave cions to W. H. Engle, of Marietta, Pa. Mr. Engle has since
+propagated and disseminated this variety quite extensively under its
+present name, but should further investigation prove it to be
+distinct and that it was raised by Mr. Shaffer, then it should
+certainly bear his name, and Paragon become a synonym. No more
+appropriate monument could possibly be erected in honor of a
+distinguished horticulturist like the late Mr. Shaffer, than a
+chestnut tree, nor could his memory be perpetuated under more
+pleasant and agreeable surroundings than to have his name linked
+inseparably with such an excellent and valuable variety.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33. OPEN BUR OF THE RIDGELY CHESTNUT.]
+
+RIDGELY.--Burs large, with dense spines, but not as long as those of
+the Paragon. Nuts large, pointed; shell dark brown, with very little
+pubescence, and this mainly at the point (Fig. 33). In quality this
+variety ranks very near, if not the equal of, the best of its class,
+and it has been highly commended, by those who have been acquainted
+with it, for many years.
+
+The origin of the Ridgely, as recorded, leaves the question of name
+a debatable one. Some sixty years ago a Mr. Dupont, of Wilmington,
+Del., gave or sent to Mr. D. M. Ridgely, of Dover, Del., a sprouted
+chestnut, and this was planted and became the original tree of the
+variety under consideration. It has been called Dupont, because he
+raised the nut and kept it over winter and until it sprouted; then
+it passed into the care of Mr. Ridgely, who thenceforward gave it
+his attention. The tree is now of immense size, and some seasons has
+produced more than five bushels of nuts, selling at eleven dollars
+per bushel. It is quite probable that the Dupont family were the
+first to raise European chestnut trees to a bearing size in this
+country, for some of its members were settled in Delaware before the
+war of the Revolution. Pierre Samuel Dupont de Nemours, during the
+French ministry of Vergennes, was employed in forming the treaty of
+1783, in which the independence of the United States was formally
+recognized by England. In 1795 (Am. encyclopedia) he came to this
+country and joined his sons, who had become successful manufacturers
+of gunpowder at or near Wilmington, Del., where their descendants,
+or at least some of them, are still engaged in the same business. If
+any of the old and original chestnut trees have escaped the numerous
+"powder mill explosions" which have frequently occurred in that
+neighborhood, they are probably much older than the Ridgely. I am
+also inclined to believe that a very large majority of all the hardy
+chestnut trees of the European species scattered about the country
+are the direct descendants of the old Dupont stock.
+
+SCOTT.--Burs large, with long branching spines. Nuts from the
+original tree, as received the past season, are only of medium size,
+but said to be much larger on younger trees. Shell dark brown,
+smooth, with a little fuzz around the point. As my specimen tree has
+not, as yet, fruited, I am unable to say anything of its
+productiveness from personal experience, but in a note from Mr.
+William Parry, under date of Oct. 15, 1894, he says: "I send
+specimens of the Scott chestnuts, grown by Judge Scott, of
+Burlington, N. J. The crop is about gone and it was with difficulty
+I could get these, which are about the average size; earlier in the
+season many are larger. Judge Scott has grown those nuts for market
+several years. The original tree was bought by his father many years
+ago from the nursery of Thomas Hancock. He bought three trees for
+Spanish chestnuts, planted them in a row about thirty feet apart,
+and the one from which these nuts were obtained happened to be in
+the middle. It is now a large tree, the trunk about five feet in
+diameter. It is a regular and heavy bearer. Judge Scott has
+propagated and planted an orchard from this variety, and claims
+among its important features, large size and early
+bearing,--two-year grafts generally produce nuts; immense
+productiveness and good quality; beautiful, glossy, mahogany color;
+freedom from fuzz, and an almost entire exemption from the attacks
+of the chestnut weevil. While the crop of two trees standing on
+either side of the Scott is badly damaged by worms, it is the
+exception to find a wormy nut among the Scott.
+
+    "The crop sells readily at ten to twelve dollars per bushel.
+    This year (1894) some sold as low as eight dollars, the lowest
+    ever known for this variety."
+
+STYER.--Burs large, round; spines long, branching, but not as coarse
+as those of Comfort. Nuts medium to large, decidedly pointed, and
+the point fuzzy. Shell dark brown, with a few longitudinal stripes,
+but not ridged. A handsome nut of good quality. This variety has
+been distributed under the name of Hannum. The original tree, which
+is a mammoth in size, is still standing on the farm of a Mr. Hannum,
+near Concordville, Delaware Co., Penn. But Mr. T. Walter Styer, of
+the same place, is propagating and introducing it as the Styer.
+
+Some of the varieties in this group may not prove to be distinct,
+and later they will be relegated to their proper place as synonyms,
+but I have thought it best to record them by the names under which
+they have been received. In writing these descriptions I have had
+the nuts and leaves before me, but there may be characters
+overlooked which will become more conspicuous as the grafted trees
+become older and more mature. The Dager chestnut, from Delaware, is
+a promising variety, disseminated through the Department of
+Agriculture, but as I have not seen the nuts at this writing, a
+description is necessarily omitted.
+
+Among the French varieties of this species which are said to succeed
+admirably in California, a large proportion would probably do
+equally well in Delaware and further south. Among those worthy of
+trial I may name the _Avant Chataigne_, _Comale_, _Exalade_, _Green
+of Lemousin_, _Grosse Precoce_, _Jaune Rousse_, _Lyons_, _Merle_,
+_Nouzillard_, _Quercy_, etc. I have tried some of these, but with
+such indifferent results that they were abandoned. Cultivators of
+nut trees located in a milder climate, should take advantage of
+whatever improvements there have been made in Europe, by importing
+grafted trees or cions. There are a few ornamental varieties of the
+European chestnut, but none worthy of any special attention.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34. JAPAN GIANT CHESTNUT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35. SPINES OF JAPAN CHESTNUT.]
+
+JAPAN CHESTNUTS.--The first authentic account I have been able to
+find of the introduction of the Japan chestnut into this country, is
+of a number of trees received by S. B. Parsons & Co., Flushing, N.
+Y., 1876, from the late Thos. Hogg, who, as is well known to all
+horticulturists, spent several years in Japan collecting many rare
+kinds of trees and shrubs, which were shipped direct to Parsons &
+Co. The chestnut trees received in 1876 fruited two years later, or
+in 1878, and soon attracted attention, on account of the large size
+and excellent quality of the nuts and the precocious habits of the
+trees.
+
+The success of this typical variety of the Japanese species, as I
+have assumed to designate it, proved that there were oriental
+chestnuts--heretofore untested in this country--that were certainly
+worthy of an attempt to obtain. This variety, introduced by the
+Messrs. Parsons & Co., does not appear to have been disseminated
+under any distinct varietal name, but merely bears the rather
+meaningless one of Japan chestnut, and for the purpose of giving it
+a position where it may be recognized--by name at least--from other
+varieties more recently introduced, I shall take the liberty of
+calling it "Parsons' Japan."
+
+Soon after it became known that the oriental chestnuts would succeed
+in this country, the fruit growers and nurserymen of California
+began to import and plant these nuts, shipping an occasional lot to
+their customers in the Eastern States, and from these hundreds of
+seedlings have been raised and distributed, under the general name
+of Japan chestnut. Among the nuts imported there are some of
+extraordinary size, even larger than anything of the kind obtained
+from Europe, as shown in Fig. 34, natural size, and from a specimen
+received direct from Japan. Some of the nurserymen who have secured
+these very large nuts for planting, offer the seedlings raised
+therefrom under such names as Mammoth and Giant Japan, but as there
+is no certainty, and scarcely a probability, that such seedlings
+will produce nuts as large as those planted, the names are rather
+misleading, although proper enough if given to grafted varieties of
+large size. When an extra-fine variety is produced from the nut, it
+should, of course, be preserved and propagated in the usual way.
+
+The late Wm. Parry, of Parry, N. J., was one of the first nurserymen
+to attempt to produce new varieties of the Japan chestnut in this
+country, and his sons have continued his experiments in this
+direction. Others may have been equally successful, but I have been
+unable to obtain any satisfactory reports from those to whom I have
+applied for information; consequently, I can only say that the
+following, with few exceptions, originated at the Wm. Parry
+nurseries.
+
+ADVANCE (Parry).--Burs medium, slightly flattened on top; spines
+medium, short, almost sessile, as shown in Fig. 35, and this is a
+characteristic of all the Japan chestnuts; branching and widely
+separated on a very thin husk. Nuts very large; shell a light
+yellowish brown, with a few slight darker streaks from base to apex.
+Quality excellent for one of this species. Ripens early, and long
+before touched by frost.
+
+ALPHA (Parry).--Very similar to the last, but ripens earlier, which
+would be an advantage in some localities. Tree vigorous and
+productive.
+
+BETA (Parry).--Bur medium; spines rather long and thin for one of
+this group, set on a thin husk. Nut large; shell light brown,
+smooth, with a slight trace of pubescence near the tip. The leaves
+are shallow and coarsely serrate, and on some the teeth or
+serratures are entirely wanting. Ripens a little later than the
+Alpha, or about the first of October in northern New Jersey.
+
+EARLY RELIANCE (Parry).--Burs medium, with short, almost deflexed
+spines, on an exceedingly thin husk. Nuts large, more pointed than
+in the last, and of a lighter color the past season, but this may
+not be constant, and may be due to the long and severe drouth of the
+summer of 1894. Usually three nuts in a bur, and sometimes four or
+five, but I do not consider this increase in number a merit in any
+variety, for where there are more than three they are likely to be
+of small size and very much deformed. The original tree of the
+Reliance is enormously productive, and a regular bearer.
+
+FELTON.--A seedling of the common Japanese chestnut, raised by J. W.
+Killen, of Felton, Delaware.
+
+GIANT JAPAN (Parry).--Burs large to extra large for a variety of
+this species, with medium low branching spines on a very thin,
+parchment-like husk. Nuts extra large, usually only two in a bur,
+often only one, and about two inches broad, much depressed at the
+top, with a short point set in an irregular depression or basin.
+Shell dark mahogany color, more or less ribbed; kernel coarse
+grained, as is usual in the extra large varieties of nearly all
+species of the chestnut. This is probably the largest variety of the
+Japanese chestnut raised in this country, of which grafted trees are
+obtainable at this time. There may be others equally as large, but
+if so they are unknown to the writer.
+
+KILLEN.--Of the Japan species, and described as very large, the nuts
+over two inches in diameter and of fair quality. Raised by J. W.
+Killen, of Felton, Del.
+
+PARSONS' JAPAN.--Burs medium, with rather thick-set and long spines.
+Nuts large, one inch and a half broad, curving regularly to a point;
+shell smooth, almost glossy, brown, with faint stripes of a darker
+shade extending from base to apex. In quality the kernel is far
+better than most of the European varieties, being finer grained and
+sweeter. When grafted on strong stocks the trees come into bearing
+early, or in two or three years. This is the best known, and
+probably the most widely distributed variety, of the Japanese
+species in this country, having been introduced, as I have stated
+elsewhere, in 1876.
+
+PARRY'S SUPERB (Parry).--Burs broad, cushion-shaped, or much
+flattened on top, with extra long, widely branching spines from
+single or multiple stems, very much as in the European varieties.
+But the thin husk, the nuts, and the growth of tree, wood and
+leaves, stamp it as a pure Japanese variety. Nuts large, broader
+than long, with a decided sharp woody point; almost entirely
+destitute of even a sign of pubescence. A very promising and
+distinct variety.
+
+SUCCESS (Parry).--Burs very large, broad, with only a few short,
+scattering, branching spines on the top, thicker toward the base; on
+a thin, parchment-like husk, and this is so thin that it sometimes
+cracks open and exposes the nuts within before they are fully ripe.
+Nuts extra large, nearly equal to the Giant, but of a more regular
+and symmetrical form, being nearly as long as broad, tapering to a
+point. Shell smooth, dark brown, with a slight pubescence about the
+point. Usually three nuts in a bur; an ideal variety in every
+respect.
+
+There is a variety of the Japan chestnut recently much lauded under
+the name of Mammoth or Burbank, which is said to be of immense size,
+and as sweet as the common American chestnut.
+
+=Injurious Insects.=--The chestnut tree is rarely attacked by
+insects. It is true that grubs may occasionally be found boring into
+the wood or cutting sinuous burrows under the bark, but this is
+mainly in trees weakened by exposure, in removing protecting
+companions, as when removing forests, or by plowing up and
+destroying the roots, in cultivating the land about them; but the
+attacks of insects upon such specimens is nature's way of getting
+rid of the feeble and least valuable, making room for the healthy
+and strong. But my thirty years' residence in a chestnut grove leads
+me to think that this nut tree is exceedingly free from wood borers
+of any kind.
+
+Entomologists, however, have noted several instances of insect
+depredations upon individual trees, by a few species of the
+long-horn beetles, three or four in all, but these occur so rarely
+that they are scarcely worthy of notice as pests of the chestnut.
+There are also several species of caterpillars occasionally found
+feeding on the leaves of this tree, also some sucking bugs or tree
+hoppers, and two or three kinds of plant lice, but none of these
+have, as yet, become at all formidable enemies, or likely to become
+so later. But the chestnut has one enemy which is so abundant and
+destructive to the nuts as to call for an extended notice. I refer
+to the common native chestnut weevil (_Balaninus carytripes_,
+Boheman). The little fat, white, round, legless grubs, nearly or
+quite a half-inch long, must be familiar to every person who has
+handled or eaten chestnuts raised in this country, whether of the
+exotic or native varieties. The parents of this grub are oval-shaped
+beetles about one-half inch long or less; wing covers, body and legs
+densely covered with a short yellow down, and from the front or
+thorax there extends a long, slightly curved, slender snout (Fig.
+36), sometimes nearly an inch in length in the females, but usually
+less in the males. The mouth parts are at the extreme end of this
+snout or proboscis, and the female, with her mandibles, it is
+claimed, reaches down among the chestnut spines and gnaws a hole in
+the husk, into which she drops an egg; and when this hatches, the
+minute grub cuts its way through the green husk and into the nut,
+the hole made in its progress closing up behind, leaving no mark or
+scar. Although I have taken hundreds of these weevils on chestnut
+trees, I never have been so fortunate as to take one in the act of
+ovipositing, but have come so near it as to find the ovipositor
+still extended as the insect crawled out from among the spines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36. CHESTNUT WEEVIL.]
+
+The chestnut weevil usually appears in great numbers soon after the
+trees bloom in spring, but they continue to come out all through the
+summer; I have occasionally found them late in September, which
+probably accounts for finding small and half-grown grubs in the nuts
+as they ripen and fall from the trees. These late grubs often remain
+in the nuts all winter, but the greater part escape earlier, or very
+soon after the crop is ripe. The grubs crawl out of the nuts and
+work their way into the ground to a depth of from a few inches to
+two feet, much depending upon the nature of the soil. Having very
+powerful jaws, they readily cut through a layer of leaves or soft
+wood, and I have known them to cut holes in sheets of dry cork.
+These grubs remain in the ground until the following season, then
+come forth in their winged or weevil stage, except the belated,
+broods, or those that have not reached full size in the autumn;
+these remain in the ground the entire summer, coming out late in the
+fall, or pass over until the second year, as I have proved by
+burying the grubs in a barrel sunk in the ground, covering the top
+with fine wire netting, to prevent the escape of the weevils as they
+emerged from time to time during the season.
+
+As a rule, we find only one grub in a nut, of the American sweet
+chestnut, but in the larger varieties of the European and Japanese,
+two or more is not unusual, which rather favors the idea that the
+female weevil does possess something akin to reason, which guides
+her in locating stores of food available for her progeny. I have
+never observed that the weevils had any choice among varieties, all
+being subject to their attacks alike, provided all were growing in
+equally favorable positions. But if the trees are of different
+sizes, some tall and others short, some exposed to the winds and
+others protected, then the ravages of this pest will, no doubt, be
+as variable as the surrounding conditions. As the weevils emerge
+from the ground in spring or early summer, they will naturally seek
+the nuts most convenient and on the small trees, then those on the
+lower branches of the larger ones, while those on the upper part of
+the tree, where they are fully exposed to the winds, may wholly
+escape the attacks of these pests. This leads me to think that
+whoever attempts to cut off native chestnut forests, with the
+expectation of renewal with the larger varieties, by grafting the
+sprouts, will find the chestnut weevil a rather formidable enemy. I
+have found it so on a limited number of trees in my own grounds,
+that are grown from grafted sprouts near large native specimens, the
+weevils destroying nearly every nut; but out in the field, away from
+the woods, and where the young trees are scattered and exposed to
+the full sweep of the winds, the nuts are sound and free from insect
+enemies. The only remedy is to collect and destroy the weevils,
+which is not a serious matter where only the larger varieties are
+cultivated.
+
+=Diseases of the Chestnut.=--I have never noticed any special
+disease among chestnuts, neither do I find any mentioned in European
+works on forestry. The nearest approach to any such malady being
+recorded as having appeared in this country, is found in a paragraph
+in Hough's "Report on Forestry," 1877, p. 470, where the author
+copies from Prof. W. C. Kerr, State Geologist, North Carolina, as
+follows: "The chestnut was formerly abundant in the Piedmont region,
+down to the country between the Catawba and Yadkin rivers, but
+within the last thirty years they have mostly perished. They are now
+found east of the Blue Ridge only, on higher ridges and spurs of the
+mountains. They have suffered injury here, and are dying out both
+here and beyond the Blue Ridge. They are much less fruitful than
+they were a generation ago, and the crop is much more uncertain."
+
+While there is nothing said about any chestnut disease in the
+paragraph quoted, we only infer that the author intended to convey
+the idea that the trees were suffering from some endemic malady,
+although it may have been due to long drouths, insect depredators,
+or other causes. A few years later Mr. Hough, in his "Elements of
+Forestry," refers to the subject again, and admits that "the cause
+of the malady is unknown." But as chestnuts continue to come to our
+markets in vast quantities from the Piedmont regions, there must be
+a goodly number of healthy trees remaining.
+
+=Uses.=--The economic value of the chestnut, as food for mankind and
+the lower animals, has been, and is still, so well known, that no
+extended dissertation or compilation of historic instances of its
+usefulness are required here. For almost two thousand years it has
+been an important article of food throughout southern Europe, and in
+some of the mountainous districts it is almost the "staff of life"
+among the poorer people, who not only use these nuts in their raw
+state, but roasted, boiled, stewed, and even dried and ground into
+flour, from which a coarse but nutritious kind of cake or bread is
+made. These nuts are also used in the same way by the poorer classes
+of China and Japan, and probably in other oriental countries. In
+France, Italy, Spain and Portugal, the chestnut crop is of immense
+importance, not only for domestic use, but commercially, because all
+surplus is wanted by other nations, who are ever ready to take a
+share, and pay a good round price for the same.
+
+In this country chestnuts are mainly used as a luxury or a kind of
+pocket lunch for the children, as they are rarely brought to the
+table, and it is very doubtful if the American housewife, or our
+cooks,--unless foreign born and bred,--know anything about preparing
+these delicious nuts for comestible purposes. Cereals, meats, fruits
+and vegetables have always been so abundant and cheap in this
+country, that the poorest of the poor could indulge in them without
+stint or limit; but all this will change sooner or later, and when
+our population has doubled or trebled, the edible nuts must become
+of much more importance than now, and a roast turkey stuffed with
+chestnuts may figure as the ideal of gastronomic art.
+
+As our native chestnuts are now annually consumed by the thousands
+of bushels, and the imported varieties by millions of pounds, and
+all as a mere luxury,--not a necessity nor an article which we could
+not dispense with without any serious inconvenience,--we may well
+consider what the future demand must be, and make haste to meet it
+with an abundant supply.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+FILBERT OR HAZELNUT.
+
+
+Corylus, _Tournefort_. Name from _korys_, a hood, helmet or bonnet,
+in reference to the form of the calyx or husk enclosing the nut.
+Order, _Corylaceae_. Deciduous trees or low shrubs. Male flowers
+appearing in the autumn in pendulous cylindrical catkins two inches
+or more in length, with a two-cleft calyx partly united with the
+bracts or scales. These catkins remain on the plants all winter,
+becoming fully developed, and shedding their pollen early the
+following spring. Female flowers minute, entirely hidden within the
+buds during the winter, but early in spring their bright red,
+thread-like stigmas push out from the tips of the lateral or
+terminal buds. Ovary two-celled, with one ovule in each. Nut
+globular, ovoid or oblong, often in clusters, but each enclosed in a
+leafy, two- or three-valved husk, fringed or deeply notched at the
+upper end. Leaves broadly heart-shaped, serrate, with sturdy, short
+leaf-stalks. The filbert and hazel always bloom before the leaves
+appear in spring, and the male catkins usually open and begin to
+scatter their pollen in this latitude during warm days in March, the
+females soon following, their bright-red stigmas pushing out from
+the ends of the buds, but as soon as fertilization has been
+consummated they shrivel and disappear. The trees may then remain
+leafless for weeks following, and yet produce a heavy crop of fruit.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37. LARGE FILBERT.]
+
+The common English name, filbert, is from "full-beard." All the
+varieties with husks extending beyond the nut, and with fringed
+edges, are filberts (Fig. 37); while those with husks shorter than
+the nuts (Fig. 38) are hazels, from the old Anglo-Saxon word,
+_haesel_, a hood or bonnet. The parentage, size, form or quality of
+the nut, is not to be considered in this classification, for when
+the nuts are ripe and fallen from the husks, there is nothing left
+to distinguish the hazelnuts from filberts, unless a person is
+sufficiently familiar with a variety to know to which group it
+belongs. In France these nuts are known under the general name of
+_Noysette_; while in Germany it is _Haselnuss_; in Holland
+_Hazelnoot_; and in Italy _Avellana_, from Avellana, a city of
+Naples, near which there is a valley where these nuts have been
+extensively cultivated for many centuries.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38. LARGE SEEDLING HAZELNUT.]
+
+=History of the Filbert.=--It is claimed that the filbert was first
+known to the Romans as _Nux Pontica_, because introduced from
+Pontus; but it must have become naturalized throughout southern
+Europe in very early times. But the Italian name of _Avellana_
+appears to have been applied to the wild hazel of Britain, long
+before Linnaeus adopted it as the specific name of the indigenous
+species. John Evelyn, one of the most careful and learned of English
+arboriculturists of his time, in referring to these nuts, in his
+"Sylva," 1664, says: "I do not confound the filbert Pontic,
+distinguished by its beard, with our foresters or bald hazelnuts,
+which, doubtless, we had from abroad, bearing the names of _Avelan_
+or _Avelin_, as I find in some ancient records and deeds in my
+custody, where my ancestors' names were written Avelan, _alias_
+Evelin."
+
+The filbert has been celebrated in prose and poetry from ancient
+times, as we may infer from a remark of Virgil, who says that it has
+been more honored "than the vine, the myrtle, or even the bay
+itself" (Eclogue vii).
+
+The supposed occult power of a forked twig of the hazel as a
+divining-rod (_virgula divinatoria_) for finding hidden treasures,
+veins of metals, subterranean streams of water, and even pointing
+out criminals, is, of course, purely mythical, although so solemnly
+attested by many learned men in the past; and I would not consider
+this myth worthy of a notice here were it not for the fact that it
+was early imported into this country, and is still firmly believed
+by many persons among our rural population. It is true that the
+supposed attributes of the European hazel have been transferred to
+different plants in this country, mainly to the peach and our
+indigenous witch-hazel (_Hamamelis Virginiana_), but the myth still
+lives, a legitimate descendant of an Old World nut tree.
+
+There is little to be said in regard to the history of the filbert
+and hazelnut in this country, but it is quite likely that both of
+the European species, and many varieties, were brought here and
+planted by the early settlers in the Eastern States, and bushes of
+the same could have been seen in many gardens a hundred years ago;
+but I have been unable to find any account of extensive plantings of
+these nuts, although nurserymen, all along, have been offering
+choice varieties to their customers. In the main, our pomologists
+have either remained silent in regard to these nuts, or, at most,
+referred to them very briefly in their published works.
+
+William Prince, of Flushing, N. Y., in a "Short Treatise on
+Horticulture," published in 1828, refers to the filbert as follows:
+
+    "This shrub or, in some cases, tree, accommodates itself to
+    every exposition, and to every variety of soil, but prefers a
+    moist loam on a sandy bottom, with a northern exposure. It is
+    easily multiplied by seeds, layers or inoculation. In fact,
+    these nuts, which are vended in large quantities in our markets,
+    grow as well in our climate as the common hazelnut, and produce
+    very abundantly. Such being the case, it is hoped, ere long,
+    sufficient will be produced from our soil to supersede the
+    necessity of importation, as plantations of this tree would
+    amply remunerate the possessor; or if planted as a hedge, would
+    be found to be very productive. A single bush of the Spanish
+    filbert in my garden has produced a half-bushel annually."
+
+Mr. Prince then names a few of the best varieties, which are about
+the same as those recommended at the present time, and he was, no
+doubt, honest in recommending filbert culture to his countrymen, for
+his own limited experience proved that the trees would grow here and
+fruit abundantly.
+
+A. J. Downing, in the first edition of his "Fruits and Fruit Trees
+of America," 1845, says: "The Spanish filbert, common in many of our
+gardens, is a worthless, nearly barren variety; but we have found
+the better English sorts productive and excellent in this climate
+(Newburg, N. Y.), and at least a few plants of these should have a
+place in all our gardens." If a few plants will succeed in a garden,
+then we might reasonably suppose that the number might be safely
+increased, and this was the idea of Mr. Prince, and many other
+writers on the subject since his time, but I fail to find any record
+of extended experiments with these nuts in this country, and as
+there must be some good reason for this neglect, perhaps my own
+experience in the cultivation of the filbert and hazel, to be given
+in succeeding pages, may throw some light on this question.
+
+=Propagation.=--Filberts are readily propagated by almost all the
+modes employed in the multiplication of ordinary fruit trees and
+shrubs. The nuts are not at all delicate, and may be planted in the
+fall, or stored in a cool place, mixed with sand or sphagnum, and
+then put out in spring, always selecting a rather light and rich
+soil for a seed bed, and in such beds plants from one to three feet
+high may be obtained the first season. The seedlings produce such a
+mass of fine roots that they are readily transplanted without danger
+of loss. Varieties are perpetuated and multiplied by budding,
+grafting, suckers, layers, and some grow quite readily from cuttings
+made of the young, vigorous shoots, cut up into proper lengths in
+the fall, and then buried in the ground until the following spring,
+then planted out in trenches, as usually practiced with currants,
+grapes and similar plants. The method of propagation most generally
+practiced in Europe and this country is by suckers, and as the
+cultivated varieties of the filbert usually produce these from the
+base of their stems in profusion, there is no lack of material;
+besides, they make as strong, healthy and productive plants as can
+be procured in any other way. To secure an extra number of roots on
+these suckers, they should be banked up with a few inches in depth
+of good rich soil, or old manure, about midsummer, and then late in
+the autumn dig down to the base and remove with knife or chisel,
+after which they may be headed down to about fifteen or eighteen
+inches, and heeled-in for the winter, to be planted out in nursery
+rows early in spring. If a greater number of sprouts are wanted than
+the plants naturally produce, the main stem may be cut down; but
+this will seldom be necessary, because the young transplanted
+suckers will usually produce more or less new ones the first season,
+all of which can be utilized for multiplying the stock if they are
+wanted.
+
+=Soil, Location and Climate.=--European varieties of the filbert
+thrive best in what may be termed a rich loam, with a dry subsoil.
+If the soil is too moist, the trees are inclined to run too much to
+wood, producing less fruit. In the famous nut orchards of Kent,
+England, the soil is loam upon a dry, sandy rock. The trees in these
+orchards are manured at least once in two years, especially after
+they reach the full bearing age. Almost any good soil that is rich
+enough to produce a good crop of corn, and is not submerged in
+winter, will answer for the filbert in this country.
+
+In selecting a location for a filbert orchard, an open, airy one
+would probably be preferable to a spot so sheltered as to cause the
+flowers to appear so early as to be injured by frosts. Furthermore,
+I would warn cultivators to keep as far away as possible from any
+hedgerows or plantation of the wild native hazel bushes, for these
+are always loaded with disease germs that are fatal to the foreign
+species. We might reasonably suppose that filberts would succeed
+better in the Southern than in the Northern States, but if the
+experience of those who have tried them there count for anything,
+then these nuts are not adapted to the South, owing to the fact that
+the flowers almost invariably push out during warm days in winter,
+and these are destroyed later by frosts. In the more elevated
+regions of the northern border of the Southern, and in similar
+locations in the Middle States, these nuts will doubtless thrive, or
+at least the climate will prove congenial. The more equable the
+climate and free from extremes in temperature, the better; but the
+most important element in this country is moisture, especially in
+summer, when the nuts are filling out; and the best way to supply
+this, where irrigation cannot be practiced, is to keep the ground
+around the trees continually covered with a mulch of leaves or other
+coarse vegetable matter.
+
+=Planting and Pruning.=--The space to be allowed between the plants,
+when set out for bearing, will, of course, depend very much upon the
+size they are expected to attain. Those varieties which assume and
+remain in the bush form may be planted very close together, or not
+more than six to eight feet between the plants; but those which
+become small trees must be given more room. The larger European
+sorts, which are at present the only ones worth cultivating for
+their nuts, should be set ten or twelve feet apart, and the rows
+fifteen to sixteen feet, then if properly pruned they will shade the
+ground and be in a convenient form for gathering the crop. The trees
+may be planted in the orchard when quite small, and some kind of
+vegetable crop grown among them for the first two or three years,
+but I would prefer keeping the plants in nursery rows until they
+were four or five feet high, and then transplant to the orchard, and
+set a short, stout stake by the side of each, to keep the main stem
+in an upright position until the tree is well established.
+
+The first pruning,--except removing suckers from those in the
+nursery rows,--will be the heading back of the main or central stem
+to a hight of two or three feet, for the purpose of laying the
+foundation, as it were, of the head of the future tree. Three or
+four of the larger branches, which will push out from near the top
+of the severed main stem, are to be selected to form the top, and
+all others removed. Small lateral branches or twigs will spring out
+from the larger or main ones, and in this way the head of a bearing
+tree is formed. But before attempting to prune a mature or fruitful
+tree, we must consider the mode of fructification, for the filbert
+does not bear nuts on the young growth of the season, as in the
+chestnut, but on the small branchlets or spur-like twigs of the
+preceding season, or, as we may say, on the one-year-old twigs. The
+small fruiting twigs are seldom more than four to six inches long,
+and sometimes almost every well-developed bud on these contain
+pistillate flowers and embryo nuts, either singly or in clusters. In
+pruning the bearing trees, the main point to be observed is to head
+back the strong leading shoots, to prevent the trees growing too
+tall, as well as to force out the side or lateral twigs as fruiting
+wood for the ensuing year. If the heads of the trees become too much
+crowded to admit light and air to the center, some of the larger
+branches must be removed entire. The best time to prune is in early
+spring, when the trees are in bloom, for at this season we can
+readily determine the injured from the sound male catkins, and
+preserve enough of these to insure perfect fertilization. It is not
+necessary, however, that there should be healthy pollen-bearing
+catkins on every tree in an orchard, for if one in a dozen is well
+supplied, there will be sufficient to fertilize the flowers of all
+growing near by. It often happens, in our rather severe climate,
+that the catkins of some trees or varieties are winterkilled, while
+the pistillate flowers enclosed in the buds escape injury, and when
+this occurs it is well to have some hardy variety at hand, from
+which pollen can be obtained when needed. The inferior varieties are
+usually the most hardy, and the wild European hazel or our northern
+beaked hazel, will usually escape injury where all the large
+improved sorts fail, and it requires but a few minutes' labor to cut
+branches bearing sound catkins, and scatter these about through the
+heads of trees requiring such assistance to make them fruitful.
+
+
+SPECIES OF AMERICAN HAZELS.
+
+CORYLUS AMERICANA (Walters). Common hazel bush.--Leaves roundish,
+heart-shaped, pointed, coarsely serrate; husk somewhat downy, with a
+wide, flattened, fringed border extending beyond the roundish nut.
+Shell rather thick and brittle; kernel sweet and good, but the nut
+is too small to be considered of much value. A low shrub, with many
+stems springing from the roots. Young shoots and twigs downy and
+glandular-hairy. Common in woods and old fields from Canada to
+Florida.
+
+CORYLUS ROSTRATA (Aiton). Beaked hazel.--Leaves ovate or oblong,
+somewhat heart-shaped, pointed, doubly serrate; husk extending an
+inch or more beyond the round or ovoid nut, forming before it opens
+a long tubular beak, hence the name. The husk is densely covered
+with nettle-like bristles, which are quite irritating to tender
+hands. The nuts are small, usually growing in clusters at the ends
+of the twigs, only a few coming to maturity. A low shrub or small
+tree, usually growing in a dense clump, not spreading from
+subterranean stems, as in the last species. Common on rather firm
+and rich soil along the borders of streams, in the northern border
+States, and southward on the Alleghanies, but most abundant in the
+north through Canada, and westward to the Pacific in Washington and
+Oregon, where, in the mountains, it often assumes the tree form,
+growing to a hight of twenty-five to thirty feet, with a stem from
+four to six inches in diameter. The wood is light, soft, and very
+white to the center. It also extends southward to central
+California, but here it is only a small bush, this form having been
+described under the name of _Corylus rostrata_, var. Californica, A.
+de C. This species probably reaches its highest development in the
+Cascade range, in northern Oregon. The same or a closely allied
+species of the hazel extends far into northern Asia. There are no
+improved varieties of either of our native species of the hazel in
+cultivation.
+
+
+EUROPEAN SPECIES OF CORYLUS.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39. CONSTANTINOPLE HAZEL.]
+
+CORYLUS AVELLANA (Linn.). Common hazelnut.--Leaves roundish,
+heart-shaped, pointed, coarsely and unevenly serrate; husk
+bell-shaped, spreading, with a fringed or deeply cut margin. The
+original form of this nut is supposed to have been ovate or oval,
+but with a plant indigenous to such a wide range of climate and
+country, and one that has been so long under cultivation,--running
+wild in many localities where it is not a native,--it would be very
+difficult at this time to determine its primary botanical
+characters. A common shrub or small tree throughout the greater part
+of Europe and Asia.
+
+CORYLUS COLURNA (Linn.).--Constantinople hazel. Leaves roundish
+ovate, heart-shaped; husk double, the inner one divided into three
+deeply cleft divisions, the outer with many long, slender, curved
+segments, giving to the calyx or husk a fringed appearance, but
+leaving the end of the nut fully exposed (Fig. 39). Nuts small, and
+for this reason rarely cultivated. Native of Asia Minor, where the
+tree attains a hight of from fifty to sixty feet. It is, however,
+hardy in France and England, and was introduced into the latter
+country some three hundred years ago, probably by Clusius, who
+received either nuts or plants from Constantinople, hence its
+present name.
+
+There are several other hazels and filberts, so distinct from the
+two common European types that botanists have, in a few instances,
+been inclined to elevate them to the rank of species, and among
+these I may name _Corylus heterophylla_, or various-leaved filbert,
+from eastern Asia, also the _Corylus ferox_, or spiny filbert, which
+has a long and deeply cut or fringed husk. It is a native of the
+Sheopur mountain in Nepaul. But from the two common European
+species, _C. Avellana_ and _C. Colurna_, and their hybrids, many
+hundreds of varieties have been raised, and from among these we may
+readily select a dozen possessing all the distinct and estimable
+properties to be found in this genus of nut-bearing plants; to
+multiply names without securing anything of intrinsic value, is but
+a waste of time and labor on the part of the cultivator.
+
+As we have no popular varieties of American origin, I am compelled
+to consult European catalogues in making a selection of those most
+promising for cultivation here, and this is, perhaps, an advantage,
+inasmuch as our transatlantic cousins have had a long experience and
+abundant opportunities for determining the merits of the varieties
+they recommend. If hardiness and adaptation to our soil and climate
+are to be taken into account, in making a selection, then we may
+fail for the want of experienced guides, as it is undeniable that
+very few persons in this country have ever attempted to conduct
+extended experiments in the cultivation of either the native or
+European species and varieties of the hazel.
+
+Taking this view of the situation, I shall avail myself of the small
+but select list of varieties given in that standard work, "The
+Dictionary of Gardening," edited by Mr. George Nicholson, of the
+Royal Gardens, Kew, England.
+
+
+SELECT LIST OF VARIETIES.
+
+ALBA, OR WHITE FILBERT.--Considered in England one of the best
+varieties in cultivation. From the peculiar structure of the husk,
+which contracts rather than opens at the outer edge, this filbert
+can be kept longer in its cover than most others. As fashion demands
+that fresh filberts must be brought to the table in their husks,
+this variety deserves special attention. It is also known as
+Avelinier Blanche, Wrotham Park, etc.
+
+COSFORD, OR MISS YOUNG'S THIN-SHELLED.--Nut oblong, of excellent
+quality; husk hairy, deeply cut, about as long as the nut. Highly
+valued on account of the thinness of the shell.
+
+CRISPA, OR FRIZZLED FILBERT.--Shell thin, somewhat flattened; husk
+richly and curiously frizzled throughout, open wide at the mouth,
+and hanging about as long again as the nut. Ripens late, and one of
+the most productive.
+
+DOWNTON LARGE SQUARE.--Nut very large; shell thick and well-filled;
+husk smooth, shorter than the nut. A peculiarly formed semi-square
+nut, of the best quality.
+
+LAMBERT'S FILBERT (_Corylus tubulosa_).--Nut large, oblong; shell
+thick and strong, the kernel being covered with a red skin; husk
+long, rather smooth, serrated at the edges, longer than the nut. A
+fine, strong-growing, free-fruiting variety. It is quite popular in
+California, where it has been in cultivation for twenty years or
+more under the name of Red Aveline. Specimens I have received from
+there were not as large as those raised in England, but this can be
+accounted for by the difference in climate. This variety is
+cultivated in Europe under various local names, as, for instance,
+Great Cob, Kentish Cob, Filbert Cob, and Large Bond Cob.
+
+GRANDIS, OR ROUND COB-NUT.--Nut large, short, slightly compressed,
+very thick and hard; husk shorter than the fruit, much frizzled and
+hairy. This is supposed to be the true Barcelona nut of commerce,
+and is one of the finest grown. This is the large round hazel or
+filbert so largely imported for the trade in this country. It has
+many synonyms, and among them we may record Downton, Dwarf Prolific,
+Great Cob and Round Cob.
+
+PURPLE-LEAVED FILBERT.--Usually cultivated as an ornamental shrub in
+this country, but under proper treatment it is one of the most
+valuable for its fruit. Leaves very large, and of a deep purple
+color. Nuts and husk of the same color, which they retain until cut
+by frosts. Nuts large, an inch in length; husks much longer than the
+nut, and slightly hairy. The catkins are tender and become
+winterkilled in our Northern States, but if the pistillate flowers
+are fertilized by pollen from some more hardy plant, this
+purple-leaved filbert is exceedingly prolific. I have gathered
+eighty nuts from a small bush in my garden, the flowers of which had
+been fertilized from another variety in early spring.
+
+RED FILBERT. Red Hazel, Avelinier Rouge.--Nut medium ovate, not long
+as in the _tubulosa_, or Lambert's filbert; shell thick; husk long
+and hispid. A very productive variety of good quality.
+
+SPANISH FILBERT.--Nut very large, oblong; shell thick; husk smooth,
+longer than the nut. A very large variety, sometimes confounded with
+the Round cob-nut and its synonyms.
+
+
+PERSONAL EXPERIENCE WITH FILBERTS.
+
+Believing that our failures are often of far more value, in the line
+of education, than our successes, I shall not hesitate to place my
+own on record as guideposts to those who may be seeking the most
+direct road to success in nut culture. Having had a rather extended
+and expensive experience in the cultivation of filberts, I propose
+giving a brief account of it here, with the hope that it may save
+some other enthusiast from losing time and money.
+
+My attention was first specially drawn to these nuts in 1858,--while
+a resident of the city of Brooklyn, N. Y.,--by a neighbor who had a
+moderately large garden, on three sides of which he had planted a
+row of English filberts. These trees, at the time, had attained a
+hight of about fifteen feet, with broad, open heads, and they rarely
+failed to produce a heavy crop of nuts, which sold readily at very
+remunerative prices, for as they were always gathered in the husks
+and sold by the pound, the amount obtained from these few trees
+seemed to be enormous, considering the small space they occupied in
+this garden. The owner of these filbert trees, being an Englishman
+by birth, never tired of showing his English filberts to visitors,
+and of descanting upon their value, as well as upon the stupid
+indifference of the Yankees in neglecting the cultivation of these
+valuable nuts. I imbibed enough of my neighbor's enthusiasm to
+secure a good stock of his plants, a few years later, for
+cultivation in my grounds here. The third year after planting, quite
+a number of the bushes produced a fair crop of nuts, but I noticed
+that an occasional shoot was affected with blight, and these were
+immediately cut out and burned. The next season more of the branches
+were affected, and from these the blight extended downward on the
+main stems, and when these were cut away the sprouts from below made
+a very vigorous and apparently healthy growth, some reaching a hight
+of six feet the first season, but a year or two later these were
+also attacked and destroyed by blight.
+
+Finding that the filberts in my grounds were doomed, I visited my
+old neighbor in Brooklyn, hoping to learn something of the origin or
+cause of the disease; but the blight had invaded his garden, and not
+a tree remained. On my return from this visit I had every filbert
+and hazel plant on my place dug up and burned, thinking by such
+means to stamp out the disease. After waiting ten years, I thought
+it time to try filberts again, and to be certain of securing pure
+and healthy plants, I concluded to raise them from the nuts, and
+sent an order for a few pounds of the largest and best variety to be
+found in the celebrated filbert orchards of Kent, Eng. In due time
+the nuts arrived, and they were very large, and all of one variety,
+as ordered. They were mixed with sand and buried in the garden until
+the following spring, then sown thinly in shallow drills and covered
+with about two inches of rich soil.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40. ENGLISH FILBERT ORCHARD, FIVE YEARS FROM
+SEED.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42. EXTRA LARGE HAZEL SEEDLING OR ROUND ENGLISH
+FILBERT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41. VARIETIES OF FILBERTS AND HAZEL SEEDLINGS.]
+
+At the close of the first season the plants were from one to two
+feet high and quite stocky, with a mass of small fibrous roots. The
+next spring they were transplanted into nursery rows, and set about
+one foot apart. The third spring I laid out about one acre for a
+specimen filbert orchard, and after the ground had been thoroughly
+prepared, the plants were set ten feet apart in the row, and twelve
+between the rows. No crop was planted among the trees, but the
+ground was kept clean and free from weeds during the summer, with
+cultivator and harrow. All suckers springing from the base of the
+stems were removed as soon as they appeared, and under such
+treatment the plants made a vigorous growth. Two years later quite a
+number of the trees came into bearing, these showing that I was
+likely to have nearly as many varieties in my orchard as there were
+trees. Some of the varieties might be better than the parent, but
+the greater part were certain to be inferior in size. The fourth
+year after planting in the orchard the trees gave me a heavy crop of
+nuts, and they made a fine appearance as one looked down between the
+long rows, as shown in Fig. 40. But this season my old enemy, the
+filbert blight, appeared again, and branches and main stems began to
+blacken and the leaves to wither. But I had bushels of nuts and in
+great variety, and by sending specimen baskets of the long-husk
+varieties to dealers in New York, learned that there was an almost
+unlimited demand for such nuts, at prices ranging from thirty to
+seventy-five cents per pound, if sent to market in their fresh,
+half-ripened husk; but later on, when the nuts have fallen out and
+become thoroughly ripened, as when imported, ten cents a pound may
+be considered an average price for the larger varieties. Several of
+these are shown in Fig. 41, of natural size and form. Another
+extra-large hazel is shown in Fig. 42. The fifth year after
+planting, my specimen filbert orchard had suffered so much from
+blight that it appeared as shown in Fig. 43; but a few dozen trees
+have been reserved, the rest being removed and reduced to ashes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43. FILBERT ORCHARD STRUCK WITH BLIGHT, FIFTH
+YEAR FROM SEED.]
+
+=Name and Nature of the Filbert Blight.=--The reader must not
+suppose that one who has spent as much time and money as the writer
+in experimenting with these nuts, would make no effort to discover
+the origin and name of such a virulent disease, and means of
+destroying it if these were known. For many years I had been well
+aware of its presence in nearly all of the nurseries of the older
+States, as well as in the public parks and private gardens. In the
+meantime I had diligently examined the reports of the Division of
+Vegetable Pathology of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, as well
+as the hundreds of bulletins of the various State experiment
+stations, treating of the fungous diseases of plants, all without
+finding a hint or reference to this widely distributed and
+destructive blight of the filbert. I also sent many specimens of the
+diseased twigs and branches to professional mycologists, with no
+better results. With the nature of the disease, its mode of
+multiplication and distribution, I had become somewhat familiar, but
+the information sought was: Had it ever been described and given a
+scientific name, and if so, where, and by whom? This much of its
+history had somehow escaped me, and, as it would appear from the
+following correspondence, the chances were none too good of finding
+it.
+
+In reply to an inquiry directed to the U. S. Department of
+Agriculture, Division of Vegetable Pathology, I received the
+following:
+
+
+  WASHINGTON, D. C., Aug. 4, 1894.
+
+  DEAR SIR:
+
+    Your letter of Aug. 2, relating to the disease of the filbert,
+    is at hand. In reply I have to say that we have not investigated
+    this trouble, and are therefore unable to furnish you with any
+    definite information upon it. Specimens of the disease, as you
+    describe it, have never been, so far as I know, referred to the
+    Division, nor am I able to find any record of any such disease
+    in foreign or domestic literature. If you will send us specimens
+    we shall be pleased to examine them and furnish you a report. We
+    should also be pleased to have any information from you in
+    regard to the manner in which the disease works. Very truly,
+
+  B. T. GALLOWAY, _Chief of Division_.
+
+The specimens requested were forwarded promptly by mail, and in the
+absence of the Chief of Division, they fell into the hands of one of
+his assistants, who reported as follows:
+
+
+
+       DEAR SIR:
+
+    Your letter of Aug. 7 is received, together with the specimens.
+    The stems of the _Corylus_ are affected with one of the
+    Pyrenomycetes. _Cryptospora anomala_, Pk. The fungus is
+    described in "North American Pyrenomycetes," by Ellis and
+    Everhart, p. 531. It attacks _Corylus Americana_, but appears to
+    be worst on the European varieties, as you say. The pustules
+    appear first on the young branches, and later on the older ones
+    and on the trunk. The roots are not killed.
+
+    The only remedy known is to cut out and burn the diseased stems.
+    Whether Bordeaux mixture or any other copper solution will
+    protect the shrub from attack, is not known. So far as I know,
+    it has not been tried. It is probable, however, that if the
+    stems were thoroughly sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture they
+    would be protected from attack. The mycelium of the fungus grows
+    into the cambium and practically girdles the stems. The black
+    pustules contain the spores.
+
+  Very truly yours,
+
+  ALBERT F. WOODS, _Acting Chief_.
+
+
+On the receipt of this note of Prof. Woods, I looked up Ellis and
+Everhart's work, a voluminous one of over 800 octavo pages,
+published by the authors at Newfield, N. J. This filbert blight is
+briefly described under the scientific name of _Cryptospora
+anomala_, Pk., but Prof. Peck writes me that "the description was
+made from specimens discovered near Albany, N. Y., in May, 1874. In
+1882 this description was republished by Saccardo, in his "Syllage
+Fungorum," Vol. I, p. 470, under the name of _Cryptosporella
+anomala_. The original name in Report 28, p. 72, was _Diatrype
+anomala_. In 1892 Ellis and Everhart, in "Pyrenomycetes of North
+America," p. 531, changed the name again, making it _Cryptospora
+anomala_." So at present we have the names of this fungus in the
+following order:
+
+  _Diatrypes anomal_, Peck, 1876.
+  _Cryptosporella anomala_, Sacc., 1882.
+  _Cryptospora anomala_, E. and E., 1892.
+
+Ellis and Everhart, after giving scientific description, add,
+
+    "On living stems of _Corylus Americana_, Albany, N. Y. (Peck),
+    Iowa (Holoway), on _Corylus Avellana_, Newfield, N. J. The
+    pustules appear first on the smaller branches, and are serrately
+    arranged along one side of the branch; afterwards they appear
+    also on the larger branches and on the trunk itself, and in the
+    course of two or three years the part of tree above ground is
+    entirely killed. The roots, however, still retain their
+    vitality, and continue to send up each year a luxuriant growth
+    of new shoots, destined to be destroyed the succeeding year by
+    the inexorable pest. The imported trees seem to be more
+    injuriously affected than the native species."
+
+The observations of Ellis and Everhart and Prof. Woods accord with
+my own, but I may say that the infested branches often show the
+presence of the mycelium in the bark and alburnum,--by a slight
+shrinking,--weeks or months before the pustules appear, for these
+are merely indications of the last stage in the life of the fungus,
+and with the throwing off the spores from these pustules the old
+parasite perishes.
+
+The pustules, when fully open, are from one-sixteenth to one-eighth
+of an inch in diameter, usually round, but sometimes slightly oval
+in form, and placed mainly in almost straight rows lengthways of the
+branch, as shown in Fig. 44. These pustules appear on wood of all
+ages, from two years upward, and in what may be termed patches,
+ranging from a few inches to a foot or more in length, and more
+frequently on the upper side than the underside of the branches.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44. HAZEL FUNGUS.]
+
+This fungus is undoubtedly indigenous, and its host plant is the
+common American hazel (_C. Americana_). From a very careful search,
+I have not been able to find any clump of these bushes of any
+considerable size that was entirely free from pustulous stems. But
+on these wild plants it seems to do but little harm, for if a stem
+is killed, another soon springs up from the roots to take its place;
+but when this fungus invades our orchards and gardens and attacks
+filbert trees, we recognize it as an implacable enemy. How far the
+spores of this fungus are likely to be carried by the wind,
+transported on the clothes of a person, or the hair of domestic
+animals, I do not know, but it certainly is not safe to plant the
+susceptible species and varieties within a mile of the wild hazel
+bushes, unless the planter is prepared to use fungicides freely on
+his trees. There are certain phases of this filbert blight that are
+rather obscure and scarcely explainable; as, for instance, its
+virulence among some species and varieties, and almost if not total
+absence among others. So far as my observation extends, I have never
+found it attacking the native beaked hazel (_Corylus rostrata_), and
+my correspondents in the Northwest and in the Pacific States assure
+me that no blight on the hazel has, as yet, been found there, and
+its absence is probably due to the fact that the common hazel (_C.
+Americana_) is not an inhabitant of these regions.
+
+In a neighbor's garden just across the highway from my own, there
+are, at this time, four old European hazelnut trees, fully twenty
+feet high and as many years old. They are of two varieties: one a
+small round nut, the other a long, slender nut, but neither of much
+value, because of their small size. The trees, however, are
+perfectly healthy, never having suffered from the blight, although
+these four are all that remain of a long row of choice European
+varieties all planted at the same time. Blight destroyed the better
+varieties, while these inferior ones continue to thrive and are
+exceedingly productive.
+
+This native fungus that causes blight in the hazels is but one of a
+large number of similar maladies which have appeared and often
+worsted the horticulturist, in his endeavor to introduce and
+cultivate foreign species and varieties of plants, and like the
+tropical fevers, they may pass unnoticed among the natives, but are
+terribly fatal to immigrants from cooler climates. The disease so
+well known as the black knot (_Otthia morbosa_, Schu.), and widely
+destructive to the European varieties of the plum, and Morello
+cherries, has existed for ages among our native plums and black
+cherries, doing comparatively little harm; but it seems to protest,
+by its virulence, against the introduction of some foreign species.
+The same is true with various blights and rusts which attack the
+exotic pear, apple, quince, peach, and other of the larger fruits,
+and we have only to ascend the scale a few degrees from the
+microscopic fungi to the microscopic insects, to meet on the very
+threshold of this realm the minute but unconquerable grape louse
+(_Phylloxera vastatrix_), which for more than two centuries has
+prevented the successful cultivation of the European varieties of
+the grape in the open air everywhere east of the Rocky mountains in
+North America; although this minute insect has ever been present and
+a constant parasite of the indigenous species of the grape, but
+scarcely affecting the health of its host. The plum curculio,
+chestnut and hickory weevils, bean weevil, and many other similar
+species of insects appear to be ever protesting against the
+introduction of exotic plants, as well as the improvement of our
+indigenous kinds.
+
+It is this blight, and nothing else, that has prevented the
+extensive cultivation of the improved varieties of the European
+filbert and hazelnut in this country, and not the uncongenial soil
+and climate, as has been so often "officially" proclaimed by men
+whose theories are far greater than their practical knowledge of
+such subjects. Men whose experience with these nuts has been limited
+to a few isolated bushes or trees in gardens or nurseries, where
+they were protected, or beyond the reach of the spores of the blight
+fungus, as has already been noted in the experience of Prince,
+Downing, Barry, and my neighbor Butler, of Brooklyn, could scarcely
+understand why others should remain so indifferent to such a
+promising industry, or why the demand for the trees remained so
+limited, with scarcely an attempt to plant filbert orchards anywhere
+in this country. Nurserymen have continued to offer the choice
+varieties at low prices per plant, and to advise their customers to
+cultivate filberts extensively, even to setting them in hedgerows;
+and yet home-grown filberts remain as rare in our markets as they
+were a hundred years ago, and all due to the simple reason that the
+insidious filbert blight still scatters its spores unrestrained.
+
+With the present almost universal employment of various fungicides
+for the destruction of blights, mildews and rusts on cultivated
+fruits and vegetables, we may confidently assert that the diseases
+of the filbert may be readily controlled by the same means. The
+spraying of the trees with Bordeaux mixture and other copper
+solutions will certainly destroy the fungus spores, and with these
+out of the way filbert culture may become of as much importance and
+as popular here as it is in certain countries of Europe. In my own
+experience I have found no other nut tree (barring always the
+blight) that has been more satisfactory. The plants come forward
+rapidly, fruiting freely and abundantly when young, and if properly
+trained, the crop can be gathered with little labor, and as it is
+ready for use a month or more in advance of the arrival of fresh
+nuts from abroad, the home market during the time is at our command.
+
+The number of applications of the fungicides that will be necessary
+during the season to rid the trees of blight, or the strength of the
+copper solution used, will depend somewhat upon circumstances and
+the condition of the subjects operated upon. If the trees are
+growing near hedges of wild hazels, where there is a constant or
+annual influx of the fungus spores, then greater care will be
+required to suppress them than if the trees are some distance from
+such sources of contagion; and it may be well for those
+contemplating planting filbert orchards, to examine their
+surroundings carefully in advance, in order to avoid local
+blight-breeding plants, and have these destroyed if any are found. I
+would also warn the cultivator against collecting branches of the
+wild hazel in the spring, carrying pollen-bearing catkins to be
+employed in fertilizing the pistillate flowers of the cultivated
+varieties, for by such means blight spores may be readily introduced
+into orchard and garden.
+
+It will seldom be necessary to practice artificial fertilization,
+where any considerable number of trees are grown near together,
+because if ninety per cent. of the male catkins are winterkilled,
+the few remaining will be sufficient to supply pollen for the
+pistillate flowers. In my grounds filberts have never failed to
+produce annual crops after reaching a bearing age, although they
+have been subjected to great extremes of temperature in winter. One
+year the trees were in full bloom the last week in February, and
+although cold weather followed, the protected pistillate flowers
+were not injured. The winters of 1894 and 1895 were among the
+severest, in the way of continuous low temperature, I have ever
+experienced here, and while the filberts did not bloom until the
+first week in April, the crop proved to be abundant.
+
+=Insects Injurious to Filberts.=--My personal observations lead me
+to believe that the filberts and hazels are, in this country,
+remarkably free from the depredations of noxious insects. Two
+species of nut weevils have been reported as breeding in the wild
+hazelnuts, viz., _Balaninus obtusus_, and _B. nasicus_, but among
+the many bushels of the European varieties of the filbert produced
+in my grounds I have never found one infested by a weevil or other
+insect. In Europe a nut weevil (_B. nucum_) is said to be very
+destructive to the wild hazel, often invading the filbert orchards,
+and this we can readily believe, because they are not at all
+uncommon in the imported nuts, but fortunately have not, as yet,
+become naturalized in this country.
+
+The great hazel-leaf beetle, or as more generally known, elm-leaf
+beetle (_Monocesta coryli_), has been known in a few instances to
+attack and defoliate large patches of the wild hazel bushes, but
+this insect seems to prefer the elm, hence is rarely found on the
+hazels. But should it ever invade our filbert orchards, it can be
+readily destroyed by dusting or spraying the trees with Paris green,
+London purple, or other well-known insecticides. There may be an
+occasional invasion of caterpillars, like the tent worms, spanworms,
+leaf rollers of various species, and what are called leaf miners,
+but as these infest almost all kinds of deciduous trees and shrubs,
+we cannot consider them specially injurious to the filberts and
+hazels.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+HICKORY NUTS.
+
+
+Hicoria, _Rafinesque_. Name probably derived from the aboriginal or
+Indian word hickery, or hickory, the common name for these nuts
+among the tribes formerly inhabiting the Middle and Southern
+Atlantic States.
+
+=Order=, _Juglandaceae_ (Walnut family).--Native deciduous trees of
+large size, with compound serrate leaves with an odd number of
+leaflets, varying from five to fifteen in the different species, the
+three terminal ones usually much the largest, the lower ones on
+opposite sides of the rather stout leafstalk. Male catkins slender,
+cylindrical, pendulous, two to six inches long, three in a cluster,
+on a naked peduncle or stalk (Fig. 46) springing from the base of
+the terminal buds of the previous season's twigs, and just below the
+first set of new leaves in spring; calyx unequally three-parted;
+stamens three to eight. Female flowers two or more in a cluster,
+from the end of the new growth of the season, which becomes the
+common peduncle or fruit-stalk of a single nut or cluster of nuts.
+The flowers are destitute of petals; stigma short, broad, and
+four-lobed; husk fleshy or leathery, smooth, very thick in some
+species and thin in others, partly or wholly four-lobed, opening in
+some, allowing the nut to drop out at maturity, in others adhering,
+falling off entire when ripe. Nuts with hard, bone-like shell, round
+or oblong, smooth or deeply four to six angled, somewhat flattened
+or compressed in most of the species; kernel two-lobed, oily, sweet
+and delicious, as in the common shellbark hickory, or extremely
+bitter, as in the bitter nut.
+
+=History.=--The early white settlers of the Atlantic States found
+the hickory nut in common use among the Indians, who gathered and
+stored them in large quantities in the fall, for food during the
+winter months, and while our ancestors who sought to make homes in
+the western wilderness may have appreciated these luxuries, they
+needed land for cultivation, and to secure it the forests were
+destroyed, with no thought of preserving trees that would yield food
+for themselves or succeeding generations. Not only were the forests
+cleared away, as things to be banished from sight and mind, but as
+the hickories yielded superior timber for various agricultural and
+other implements, as well as for fuel, they were often sought for
+and utilized in advance of the general clearing of wood lands, and
+the first to feel the woodman's axe.
+
+William Bartram, in the account of his travels through the Southern
+Atlantic States, from 1773 to 1778, and published in Philadelphia in
+1791, says, in referring to these nuts, that they are held "in great
+estimation with the present generation of Indians, particularly
+_Juglans exaltata_, commonly called shellbarked hickory; the Creeks
+store up the latter in their towns. I have seen above an hundred
+bushels of these nuts belonging to one family. They pound them to
+pieces, and then cast them into boiling water, which, after passing
+through fine strainers, preserves the most oily part of the liquid;
+this they call by a name which signifies 'hickory milk;' it is as
+sweet and rich as fresh cream, and is an ingredient in most of their
+cookery, especially in hominy and corn cakes."
+
+We can readily imagine what a delicious liquid hickory milk must be
+in which to cook hominy, rice, and similar kinds of grain; and there
+would be no danger from tuberculosis in this natural product of the
+vegetable kingdom. Perhaps at some future day, when milch cows are
+as rare in this country as they have been for ages in China and
+Japan, hickory milk will come into vogue again and be more highly
+valued by our people than it ever was by the aborigines.
+
+While we have no romantic tales to repeat in which either hickory
+trees or the nuts have played an important part, yet we can well
+imagine that such delicious food must, in ages past, as well as in
+our own times, have been a coveted luxury, enjoyed at many a social
+gathering of friends and neighbors. Many a country boy and girl has
+welcomed the early autumn frosts, because they announced the opening
+of the nutting season, reminding them of the long winter evenings
+near at hand, and that the industrious and nimble squirrel was a
+sharp competitor in the nutting field; consequently, no time could
+be wasted if a store of such luxuries was to be gathered for home
+use, or to be sent to city or village market for the benefit of less
+fortunate consumers. It is to be hoped that this source of pleasure
+and profit may continue long after the original forests of our
+country have disappeared, and through the preservation and planting
+of the noble food-bearing hickories by the roadsides, in orchards,
+also for shelter, shade and ornament. Valuable as hickory timber and
+hickory nuts have always been to the inhabitants of this country, we
+might reasonably suppose that there would be many thousands of these
+trees planted every year, in order to keep up a supply and make good
+the annual loss sustained in the destruction constantly going on in
+our forests. But no such plantings appear to have been undertaken in
+our Northern States, and only quite recently in the Southern, where
+the pecan nut is attracting considerable attention, on account of
+the increase in demand, and the advance in price obtained for them
+in the markets. Furthermore, with the many millions of dollars
+expended by the general government to encourage the planting,
+preservation and cultivation of forest trees, no special
+encouragement has been extended to the nut-bearing kinds, and the
+man who plants a cottonwood or worthless willow is given as much
+credit as though he planted and reared a tree a thousand times more
+valuable to himself and the country at large.
+
+This may not be a very creditable phase of nut culture in the United
+States, but it is history, nevertheless, and to attempt to suppress
+it would merely be encouraging negligence, which has already become
+so general that the inferior varieties of hickory nuts command a
+much higher price in our markets than the very choicest did a few
+years ago.
+
+The nomenclature of the walnut family has been subjected to various
+revisions by botanists, during the present century, and there are
+probably others yet to follow in the near or distant future. In all
+other standard botanical works published prior to 1817-1818, the
+hickories were classed with the butternut, black walnut and Persian
+walnut, and under the generic name of _Juglans_. But in the year
+1818 Mr. Thomas Nuttall, an eminent English botanist, who had given
+years to wandering through our forests and studying American plants,
+separated the hickories from the older genus of _Juglans_, placing
+them in a new one, to which he gave the name of _Carya_, from an
+ancient Greek name of the walnut tree. This classification of
+Nuttall's was immediately adopted by the botanists of his time, and
+has been observed, scarcely without question, by the authors of all
+the numerous botanical works published in America and Europe during
+the past seventy-five years. But now we are informed by some of our
+noted botanists that, in deference to the law of priority dominant
+in matters scientific, Nuttall's name for this genus must be
+abandoned, inasmuch as Mr. C. S. Rafinesque, an erratic Frenchman
+possessing considerable ability for botanical research, and who came
+to this country several years before Nuttall,--as some recent
+investigations appear to prove,--defined the distinct
+characteristics of the hickories, and not only proposed, but
+published the name _Hicoria_ for this genus in 1817, while Nuttall's
+_Carya_ did not appear until one year later, viz.: 1818. For these
+dates I am mainly indebted to Dr. N. L. Britton, who appears to have
+been delving among "first editions" of the works of the authors
+named (Bulletin, Torrey Botanical Club, 1888).
+
+It seems strange, however, at this late date, that such eminent
+botanists as the late Dr. John Torrey and Dr. Asa Gray, who were
+both intimately acquainted with, in fact associates of, Rafinesque,
+should have ignored his rights in regard to the name of _Hicoria_,
+if he was really entitled to the honor of founding this genus and
+separating the hickories from the _Juglans_. But for some good
+reason they left the matter in abeyance, for their successors to
+settle. Dr. Torrey does, in a way, recognize Rafinesque, in his
+"Catalogue of Plants Within Thirty Miles of the City of New York,"
+published in 1819, but in a manner which shows that he had no
+confidence in Rafinesque's claim, but did approve of Nuttall's
+classifications and name of _Carya_, for on page 74 he refers to the
+hickories as follows: "_Carya_, Nuttall; _Hickoria_, Rafinesque."
+
+From this it appears that Dr. Torrey did not adopt _Hicoria_ as the
+proper mode of spelling this word, but retained the letter k in
+giving it a Latin form. This is not strange, inasmuch as Rafinesque
+had no settled form of his own, and varied the spelling at different
+times; as, for instance, _Scoria_, _Hicoria_, _Hickorius_ and
+_Hicorius_. It is but reasonable to suppose that Dr. Torrey was
+familiar with Rafinesque's earlier writings, and also whether his
+proposed generic name of _Scoria_, in 1808, was legitimate, or a
+misspelling of _Hicoria_, as suggested by Dr. Britton. But of one
+thing we may rest assured, and that is, Dr. Torrey would not
+knowingly detract from, nor fail to give every man full credit for
+his labors in any branch of natural history or elsewhere, and he
+certainly must have known Rafinesque in all his eccentricities and
+moods, for when in New York city he was usually the guest of Dr.
+Torrey, and these relations continued for many years.
+
+A few of our leading botanists, having recently decided that
+Rafinesque's name of _Hicoria_ must be restored, in deference to the
+laws of priority, and Nuttall's _Carya_ be relegated to the position
+of a synonym, I have concluded to adopt it in this work, although I
+am well aware that a large majority of our botanists have protested
+against this change, probably because of the confusion it is likely
+to cause in the botanical literature of our times. My own reason for
+adopting _Hicoria_ is not so much from any special reverence to the
+laws of priority, but because it is derived from an old American
+Indian name, and for all such I have a profound regard, and would
+retain and adopt them whenever and wherever they are at all
+appropriate to products indigenous to this country. The hickories
+being purely American, and unknown to Greece or Greeks, a
+semi-native name is all the more acceptable. It is not to be
+expected that botanical quibbles are of any special interest to the
+practical nut culturist, for a pecan or a shellbark hickory will
+taste just as sweet and command as high a price in market under one
+scientific name as another; but the cultivator may have occasion to
+look up the botanical name of his trees in some school botany, or
+other botanical work, and fail to find it, in the absence of some
+guide to the various changes that have been made in the name of the
+genus, as well as in the name of the synonyms of the different
+species. Then, again, propagators and dealers in trees are prone to
+employ unfamiliar names, whether they are old or new, this adding to
+the confusion, without benefit to either purchaser or cultivator.
+
+To assist those who may have occasion to consult these pages for
+either the common or botanical names of the different species of the
+hickory, I shall endeavor to give the greater part of those compiled
+by Prof. C. S. Sargent (Tenth Census), Dr. Britton, and other
+eminent authorities whose works I have had occasion to consult in
+writing this treatise. It is not certain, however, that these
+revisions and readjustments of the scientific names of this genus of
+trees will remain undisturbed for any considerable number of years,
+for we have "many men of many minds" at work in the line of
+botanical research, and it can scarcely be expected that all will
+reach the same conclusion, either in fact or fancy; besides, it is
+often difficult, if not wholly impossible, to determine a species
+from the description given by the earlier botanists, for they are
+generally very brief and vague, and will often apply equally well to
+two or more species of the same genus. In some instances not a word
+is given in the way of description, merely a name, as in "Bartram's
+Travels" (1791), where he speaks of _Juglans exaltata_, a
+tall-growing hickory found in the region through which he was
+traveling, and we now know that it may have been any one of two or
+three species indigenous to the Southern States.
+
+Under such confusing circumstances I shall make no claim of
+infallibility in applying names to species, but attempt no more than
+my predecessors have in the same direction, and my contemporaries
+are now attempting, i. e., make as close a guess as possible as to
+the species or variety of hickory which the earlier authors intended
+to name and briefly describe. The date of publication of some of the
+earlier works consulted are given, as an earnest of my desire to
+assent to the law of priority in such matters.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45. FOURTEEN YEARS OLD PECAN TREE IN
+MISSISSIPPI.]
+
+PECAN NUT, ILLINOIS NUT (_Hicoria Pecan._ Marshall).--Leaves with
+thirteen to fifteen leaflets, oblong-lanceolate, serrate, pointed;
+nuts mostly oblong, smooth; husk thin, somewhat four-angled and
+four-valved, these at maturity shrinking, and falling apart when
+dropping to the ground. Shell of nut generally thin, smooth or
+slightly corrugated, varying widely in both form and size from less
+than one inch in length to nearly or quite two inches, abruptly
+blunt, or long and sharp pointed; the two-lobed cotyledon or kernel
+oily, sweet and delicious. A large, tall, but usually slender tree,
+with smooth or slightly furrowed bark, as seen in Fig. 45. Mainly
+indigenous to river bottoms in the Southern and Southwestern States,
+extending northward to Indiana, Illinois, Missouri and Southern
+Iowa.
+
+Synonyms and their authors:
+
+  _Juglans Pecan_, Marshall, Arboretum Americanum, 1785.
+  _Juglans Pecan_, Walter, 1787.
+  _Juglans olivaeformis_, Willdenow, 1809.
+  _Carya olivaeformis_, Nuttall, 1818.
+  _Juglans Illinoiensis_, Wangenheim, 1787.
+  _Juglans angustifolia_, Aiton, Hortus Kewensis.
+  _Juglans rubra_, Gaertner.
+  _Juglans cylindrica_, Lamarck.
+
+SHELLBARK OR SHAGBARK HICKORY (_Hicoria alba_. Clayton).--Leaflets
+mostly five, occasionally seven, the three upper ones
+obovate-lanceolate, the lower pair much smaller and
+oblong-lanceolate, as shown in Fig. 46, all taper-pointed, finely
+serrate, and slightly downy underneath. Terminal buds large and
+scaly. Fruit globose, somewhat depressed; husk smooth, very thick,
+firm, scarcely shrinking at maturity, but opening and falling with
+the nuts when ripe. Nuts variable in size, mainly thin-shelled,
+white, compressed or flattened, four-angled, with deep corrugations,
+blunt, rarely sharp-pointed; kernel large, sweet and excellent. One
+of the most common and popular of the indigenous edible nuts,
+collected in large quantities as they ripen in autumn, for home use
+and for sale, as the demand for this excellent nut is almost
+unlimited. A large tree, fifty to eighty feet high, and stem one to
+three feet in diameter, with a shaggy or scaly bark, which on old
+trees may be readily pulled off in long, shell-like plates. Timber
+well known as valuable for many purposes. This species has a very
+wide range, of from Maine to Florida in the Eastern States, and
+westward to Minnesota, thence southward through eastern Kansas,
+Missouri, Indian Territory and eastern Texas.
+
+Synonyms:
+
+  _Juglans alba_, Clayton, Flora Virginica, 1739.
+  _Juglans alba ovata_, Miller, Gard. Dict., 1754.
+  _Juglans alba_, Linn., Spec. pl., 1754.
+  _Juglans alba ovata_, Marshall, 1785.
+  _Juglans compressa (?)_, Willdenow, 1809.
+  _Juglans exaltata (?)_, Bartram, 1791.
+  _Juglans alba_, Nuttall, 1818.
+  _Juglans_ var. _microcarpa_, Nuttall.
+  _Juglans squamosa (?)_, Lamarck.
+  _Juglans ovalis (?)_, Wangenheim.
+
+Although Clayton, as with most of the earlier botanists, fails to
+give any description of the foliage of the hickories he mentions,
+and all have the affix _alba_ (white), yet his reference to the form
+of the nut and the scaly bark of the tree is sufficient to enable us
+to identify the species as that of our common shellbark hickory of
+the Atlantic States, which extends through the regions where he
+gathered his botanical specimens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46. LEAF AND STERILE CATKINS OF SHELLBARK
+HICKORY.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47. WESTERN SHELLBARK.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48. SECTION WESTERN SHELLBARK.]
+
+BIG SHELLBARK, THICK OR WESTERN SHELLBARK, ETC. (_Hicoria
+laciniosa._ Michaux).--Leaflets seven to nine, obovate-oblong,
+finely serrate, roughish-downy or pubescent beneath. Buds large,
+composed of rather loose grayish scales; the young twigs stout, with
+a gray bark, most noticeable in winter. Fruit large, oval to oblong,
+usually four-ribbed above the middle, with depressions between; husk
+thick, somewhat spongy, shrinking at maturity, and splitting open
+from top downward. Nut large, with prominent ridges, and strongly
+pointed, but slightly compressed at the sides, as seen in Fig. 47;
+shell thick and of a dull yellowish color; kernel moderately large,
+as shown across section of nut in Fig. 48, but much smaller in
+proportion to the size of the nut than in the two preceding species,
+but it is sweet, well flavored, and easily removed from the shell
+when cracked. The very large size of these nuts makes them a
+favorite, especially where the pecan and the true shellbarks are not
+plentiful. These nuts were formerly known as the Springfield or
+Gloucester nut. A very large tree, sixty to eighty feet high, and
+two to four feet in diameter, with thick, scaly bark, the scales
+somewhat thicker than in the common shellbark hickory of the
+Atlantic States. A rare tree, except in the valleys west of the
+Alleghanies, although it is reported to have been found in Chester
+county, Pennsylvania, and thence west to southern Indiana, Illinois,
+Missouri, eastern Kansas, and the Indian Territory. Plentiful in the
+bottom lands along the Ohio, Mississippi and lower Missouri.
+Elliott, in "Botany of South Carolina and Georgia" (1824), says it
+is rare in the low country of Carolina, but he does not say that it
+is found plentiful anywhere in the South. That he was sometimes in
+doubt in regard to the identification of this and other species may
+be inferred from his remark, namely: "The greater part of our
+hickories resemble each other so closely in their leaves and vary so
+much in their fruit that it is very difficult to discriminate the
+species."
+
+It is this difficulty of identification which has led to so much
+confusion in the application of the specific names, for the earlier
+botanists rarely had an opportunity of a close and careful
+examination of the trees or other plants which they attempted to
+describe. In relation to the species under consideration, we find
+that the specific name of _sulcata_, so long in use, was adopted by
+Nuttall, from some earlier or contemporaneous author,--a system he
+followed with all the different species of the hickory, but without,
+in some instances, any discrimination or regard to their adaptation
+or validity. If there was anything to show that Willdenow (1796) had
+this Western shellbark in mind, or that he or his correspondents in
+this country had ever seen or collected it, then we might adopt the
+name of _sulcata_ as the original and true one; but in the absence
+of such information, with a full and accurate description of the
+species and its habitats by Michaux, under the name of _laciniosa_,
+I think, in common justice to one of the most eminent dendrologists
+who ever visited this country, the name given should stand as the
+true one for this species. See Michaux, "North American Sylva," Vol.
+I, p. 128.
+
+Synonyms:
+
+  _Juglans sulcata (?)_, Willdenow, 1796.
+  _Juglans laciniosa_, Michaux, 1810.
+  _Carya sulcata_, Nuttall, 1818.
+  _Carya cordiformis_, Koch, Dendrologie.
+
+The three preceding species are probably the only ones worthy of
+propagation for their fruit, or that have and are likely to yield
+varieties of any considerable economic value; but as it is important
+that the nut culturist should know the materials he is using, and
+whether they be of the best or otherwise, I shall admit all the
+species, without regard to their merits or value for cultivation.
+
+MOCKER NUT, BULL NUT, BIG-BUD HICKORY, KING NUT, WHITE-HEART
+HICKORY, ETC. (_Hicoria tomentosa._ Michaux).--Leaflets mostly
+seven, occasionally nine, large, oblong-obovate, rather long
+pointed, slightly serrate, smooth on both sides while young,
+becoming roughish downy underneath when fully developed in summer;
+leaf-stalks and catkins also somewhat downy. Fruit medium to very
+large, round or ovoid, with a very thick woody husk, which splits
+nearly or quite down to the base, but usually falling with the
+enclosed nut entire, or bursting open as they strike the ground. Nut
+very thick shelled, smooth, or strongly four to six angled, white at
+first, but becoming a dull brown when exposed to the light. The
+kernel is sweet, but so small and firmly imbedded in the thick shell
+that it is only to be removed in minute sections, but this is
+successfully accomplished by the squirrels, who often throw down the
+entire crop from large trees before the shells harden, and then pack
+them away in the ground, in old logs, and under the leaves, where
+they will not dry for some weeks or months later. An exceedingly
+variable species, especially in the size and form of the nuts; on
+some trees they are scarcely an inch in diameter, while on others
+they are nearly or quite two inches, but always with such a thick,
+hard shell as to be nearly worthless for their meats. The largest of
+these nuts I have ever seen grow in central and western New York,
+where they are called "King" or "Bull" nuts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49. LEAF OF PIGNUT.]
+
+The trees grow to a very large size, or from sixty to eighty feet
+high, and two to three feet in diameter, with a thick, deeply
+furrowed bark, not scaly. The wood is white, heavy, tough, and
+nearly as valuable as the common shellbark hickory. The terminal
+buds, and especially those on the young seedlings and suckers
+springing up in clearings, are very large, round, short, and covered
+with brownish scales, hence one of the local names of big-bud
+hickory.
+
+A widely distributed species, or from the valley of the St. Lawrence
+to Florida, and along the great lakes to Nebraska, and thence
+southward to Texas. Unlike most of the other hickories, this species
+seems to prefer thin soils, rocky sandstone ridges, and here in New
+Jersey almost disappearing in the rich bottom lands along our creeks
+and rivers; at least, this is its habit here in the northern part of
+the State.
+
+Synonyms:
+
+  _Juglans alba (?)_, Linn., 1754.
+  _Juglans tomentosa_, Michaux, 1810.
+  _Carya tomentosa_, Nuttall, 1818.
+  _Carya tomentosa_ var. _maxima_, Nuttall.
+  _Carya alba_, Koch, Dendrologie.
+
+PIGNUT, HOGNUT, BROWN HICKORY, BLACK HICKORY, SWITCH-BUD HICKORY
+(_Hicoria glabra._ Miller).--Leaflets five to seven, mostly seven
+(Fig. 49), ovate-lanceolate, serrate, smooth; fruit pear-shaped or
+roundish-obovate; husk very thin, splitting about half way down into
+four sections or valves, these usually remaining attached to the nut
+for some time after falling, in fact, may often be found within the
+husk all through the winter; shell of nut moderately thin but tough,
+with a small, bitterish-sweet kernel. A large, rather slender tree
+in similar and same localities as the last, with a close bark but
+not so deeply furrowed as in the mocker nut (_H. tomentosa_). Of no
+special value except as a timber tree, and its slow growth makes it
+less deserving of attention than those species that bear large and
+edible nuts.
+
+Synonyms:
+
+  _Juglans glabra_, Miller, 1768.
+  _Juglans alba acuminata_, Marshall, 1785.
+  _Juglans obcordata_, Lamarck.
+  _Juglans porcina_, Michaux.
+  _Juglans pyriformis_, Muhlenberg.
+  _Juglans porcina_, var. _obcordata_, Pursh.
+  _Juglans porcina_, var. _pyriformis_, Pursh.
+  _Carya porcina_, Nuttall.
+  _Carya glabra_, Torrey.
+  _Carya amara_, var. _porcina_, Darby.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50. BITTERNUT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51. BITTERNUT.]
+
+BITTERNUT, SWAMP HICKORY, PIGNUT (_Hicoria minima._
+Marshall).--Leaflets seven to eleven, oblong-lanceolate, serrate,
+smooth and thin; fruit globular, with distinct ridges at the seams
+(Fig. 50); the husk very thin, and at maturity splitting about
+halfway to the base, the four divisions becoming reflexed in
+maturing, but not separating and falling apart as in the
+thicker-husk species. Nut broadest at the top, sharp-pointed,
+obcordata (Fig. 51), slightly depressed; shell very thin, smooth,
+white; kernel intensely bitter when fully ripe, but greedily eaten
+by squirrels when fresh or in a half milky state. Usually a
+medium-sized, graceful tree, with smooth bark, slender twigs, and
+small, oblong buds covered with a dense yellow pubescence in winter.
+It grows in moist soils, along streams and borders of swamps, and
+near springs on hill-sides, from Maine to Florida, and westward to
+Minnesota, Nebraska and Kansas. Humphrey Marshall described this
+species so accurately in his "American Grove," under the name of
+_Juglans minima_, p. 68, that there is no good reason to doubt its
+identity, nor question the validity of this name, which should
+remain as the true and original one, and all others of later date be
+placed among the synonyms.
+
+Synonyms:
+
+  _Juglans_ (_alba_) _minima_, Marshall, 1785.
+  _Juglans cordiformis_, Wangenheim, 1787.
+  _Juglans angustifolia_, Lamarck, 1791.
+  _Juglans amara_, Michaux, 1810.
+  _Hickorius amarus_, Rafinesque, 1817.
+  _Carya amara_, Nuttall, 1818.
+
+NUTMEG HICKORY (_Hicoria myristicaeformis._ Michaux).--Leaflets five
+to seven, ovate-lanceolate, pointed, quite smooth on both sides, the
+terminal leaflet sessile, not stalked; fruit oval; husk wrinkled and
+rough, thick; nut small, oval, short-pointed; the shell furrowed and
+very hard, and of a brownish color marked with white lines. Michaux
+says: "The shell is so thick that it constitutes two-thirds of the
+volume of the nut, which, consequently, is extremely hard, and has a
+minute kernel. It is inferior to the pignut."
+
+A medium-size tree with slender branches, found in a few localities
+in South Carolina, near swamps and borders of streams, and westward
+to Arkansas, where it reaches its greatest development. This hickory
+has been so rarely seen by botanists that Michaux's specific name,
+given it more than eighty years ago, has fared a better fate than
+those of our more common and abundant species; consequently, I have
+only one synonym to record, viz.: _Carya amara_, var.
+_myristicaeformis_, Cooper, in Smithsonian Report, 1858.
+
+WATER HICKORY, SWAMP HICKORY, BITTER PECAN (_Hicoria aquatica._
+Michaux).--Leaflets nine to thirteen, generally eleven, narrow and
+obliquely lanceolate-pointed, slightly serrate, thin and smooth;
+fruit globular or somewhat egg-shaped, four-ribbed; husk thin,
+dividing at maturity down to the base; nut thin-shelled,
+four-angled; kernel much wrinkled and very bitter. This is closely
+allied to if not a more Southern form of our common bitternut. A
+small tree in swamps and river bottoms from North Carolina south to
+Florida, and west to Texas.
+
+Synonyms:
+
+  _Juglans aquatica_, Michaux.
+  _Hicorius integrifolia_, Rafinesque.
+  _Carya aquatica_, Nuttall.
+  _Carya integrifolia_, Sprengel.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52. LARGE, LONG PECAN NUT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53. OVAL PECAN NUT.]
+
+=Varieties of the Hickories.=--Every one who has ever had occasion
+to gather or examine hickory nuts in the forest, or has seen them in
+market, must be aware of the fact that there is an almost endless
+variety of each and all the different species. But as it is only the
+varieties of the pecan and thick- and thin-shelled shagbark
+hickories that are likely to be of any economic value to the nut
+culturist, all others will be omitted. Of the first or pecan nut the
+natural varieties are not only exceedingly numerous, but vary widely
+in size, form, thickness of shell, and productiveness of the
+individual trees. In some the nuts are produced singly or in pairs,
+and from this number up to clusters of seven or eight; these
+large-clustered and extra-prolific varieties are most worthy of
+special attention, especially when the nuts are of good size and
+thin-shelled, as in the large, long pecan (Fig. 52). From this size
+they vary, as shown in Figs. 53, 54, 55. Some of the wild varieties
+have received local names, and a very few propagated by grafting,
+which is probably the most practical means known of multiplying
+them, and at the same time preserving their varietal
+characteristics. Choice and extra fine ones are constantly being
+discovered and brought to notice, and doubtless many more will
+follow as the old fields and forests of the South and West are
+explored; besides, there are many thousands of seedling trees now
+under cultivation, and from these we may expect some marked
+variations from the original or wild forms. In Bulletin 105, of the
+North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station for 1894, and in
+Report of Assistant Pomologist of U. S. Department of Agriculture
+for same year, we find the following-named varieties of pecans:
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54. SMALL OVAL.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55. LITTLE MOBILE.]
+
+ALBA.--Size below medium, cylindrical, with pointed apex; cracking
+qualities good; shell of medium thickness; corky shell lining thick,
+adhering to the kernel; kernel plump, light colored; quality good.
+
+BILOXI (W. R. Stuart, Ocean Springs, Miss.).--Medium size,
+cylindrical, pointed at each end; surface quite regular, light
+brown; shell thin; cracking qualities medium; kernel plump, with
+yellowish-brown surface; free from astringency, of good quality, and
+keeps well without becoming rancid. Introduced several years ago by
+W. R. Stuart as Mexican Paper Shell, but the name has since been
+changed to Biloxi.
+
+COLUMBIAN (W. R. Stuart, Ocean Springs, Miss.).--Large, cylindrical,
+somewhat compressed at the middle, rounding at the base; pointed and
+somewhat four-sided at the crown; shell rather heavy; cracking
+qualities medium; quality good. In size and form this nut closely
+resembles Mammoth, which was introduced in 1890 by Richard
+Frotscher, of New Orleans, La.
+
+EARLY TEXAN (Louis Biediger, Idlewild, Tex.).--Size above medium,
+short, cylindrical, with rounded base and blunt conical crown; shell
+quite thick, shell lining thick, astringent; cracking qualities
+medium; kernel not very plump, of mild, nutty flavor; quality good.
+
+GEORGIA MELON.--Size above medium, short, rather blunt at apex;
+cracking quality medium; shell rather thick; kernel plump, brown;
+meat yellow, moderately tender, pleasant, good.
+
+GONZALES (T. V. Munson, Denison, Tex.).--Above medium size, with
+firm, clear shell; quality excellent. Originated in Gonzales county,
+Tex.
+
+HARCOURT.--Size medium, short, slightly acorn-shaped; cracking
+qualities medium; shell rather thick, but very smooth inside; kernel
+short, very plump; meat yellow, very tender, rich, very good.
+
+LONGFELLOW.--Size medium, oblong, cylindrical, somewhat irregular,
+enlarging from base to near crown, then sharply conical to the apex;
+cracking qualities not first-class; shell of medium thickness;
+kernel plump but rather thin, light-colored; meat white, sweetish,
+rich, good.
+
+PRIMATE (W. R. Stuart, Ocean Springs, Miss.)--Of medium size,
+slender, rather long; shell thin; quality good; ripens in September,
+thirty days before other nuts.
+
+RIBERA.--Size above medium, oblong ovate; cracking qualities good;
+shell thin; kernel plump, light brown, free from the bitter, red,
+corky growth which adheres to the shell; meat yellow, tender, with
+rich, delicate, pleasant flavor.
+
+FAUST.--A South Carolina variety of medium to large size, medium
+shell and good quality.
+
+FROTSCHER.--A Louisiana variety of large size, very thin shell, and
+plump kernel of good quality.
+
+JEWETT.--From Mississippi; a large, long nut, rather irregular;
+shell medium; quality very good.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56. STUART.]
+
+STUART.--A large, roundish, oblong nut from Mississippi (Fig. 56).
+
+TURKEY EGG.--A variety from Florida; large and thin-shelled.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57. VAN DEMAN.]
+
+VAN DEMAN.--A large variety from Mississippi, of oblong form and
+thin shell (Fig. 57).
+
+From other sources we collect other names, namely:
+
+IDLEWILD.--An oval shaped nut from Idlewild, Texas. Report of U. S.
+Department of Agriculture, 1890.
+
+RISIEN.--A very broad, thick variety, about one inch in diameter,
+very blunt at both ends. From San Saba, Texas (Fig. 58).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58. RISIEN.]
+
+A peculiar shaped pecan nut is shown in Fig. 59, from Louisiana,
+sent under the name of Lady Finger.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59. LADY FINGER.]
+
+From the report of the Georgia State Horticultural Society, 1893, we
+obtain certain local names without description, as, for instance,
+Turkey Egg, Mexican, Colorado, Pride of the Coast, etc. Col. W. R.
+Stuart, of Ocean Springs, Miss., who has been called the "father of
+pecan culture" in that State, and is the author of "The Pecan and
+How to Grow it," adds two more varieties to the above list, viz.:
+Beauty and Columbia; the latter, as figured in the book named, is a
+very large variety, tapering from a broad base to a sharp point.
+Judge Samuel Miller, of Bluffton, Mo., found some very large and
+fine varieties of the pecan in his neighborhood several years ago,
+on the farm of a man named Meyers, and he purchased the nuts from
+the tree bearing the largest in the grove and planted them, and the
+seedlings have since been distributed under the name of "Meyers'
+Pecan."
+
+Judge Miller kindly sent me a quantity of these nuts, from which I
+raised some fifty or more trees, and all have thus far been
+uninjured by the cold of our severest winters. From my own
+experience in raising pecan trees, and I may add, that of some of my
+neighbors, those grown from nuts gathered in the more Southern
+States are almost invariably tender here in the North; but those
+raised from thoroughly acclimated trees, along the northern limits
+of this species, will give us a hardy race, and probably allow of
+extending their cultivation far north of their natural range. Those
+who intend to try pecan culture in the Northern States should bear
+this in mind, and secure nuts and cions from hardy acclimated trees.
+
+=Varieties of the Shellbark.=--Of this species (_H. alba_) there are
+as many distinct natural varieties as of the pecan, and while local
+or neighborhood names are plentiful enough, they have not, except in
+a very few instances, been placed on record in agricultural reports
+or other publications. Three small thin-shelled varieties are named
+in the Report of the Pomologist of the U. S. Department of
+Agriculture for 1891, viz.: Milford, Shimar and Leaming, but neither
+has been propagated, and they are probably not worthy of it, because
+there are plenty of larger ones with thin shells which would be far
+more valuable for cultivation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60. THE ORIGINAL HALES' PAPER-SHELL HICKORY
+TREE.]
+
+A careful research extending over a period of a quarter of a century
+yields only a solitary instance of the propagation and dissemination
+of a variety of the shellbark hickory, and this one is Hales'
+Paper-shell, which I named, described and figured in the _Rural
+New-Yorker_, Nov. 19, 1870, p. 382, Vol. XXII. I am thus particular
+in regard to time and place, because years hence these facts may be
+of more importance than at the present day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61. HALES' HICKORY.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62. SECTION OF HALES' HICKORY.]
+
+The original tree of this remarkable variety is growing upon the
+farm of Mr. Henry Hales, near Ridgewood, N. J., and on bottom land
+within a few rods of the Saddle river. The tree is probably more
+than a hundred years old, and is about seventy-five feet high, and
+nearly two feet in diameter at the base, and of the shape shown in
+Fig. 60, taken from a sketch made in the fall of 1894. There are a
+large number of the shellbark hickories growing near by, and while
+there are several excellent and very large varieties among them, the
+one I have named is by far the largest and most distinct in form,
+and with the thinnest shell; in fact, the shell is much thinner than
+in many of the pecan nuts that reach our Northern markets from the
+South. The size and form of these nuts is clearly shown in Fig. 61,
+while the thin shell and thick, plump kernel is seen in the
+cross-section, Fig. 62. It will be noticed that these nuts differ
+from the ordinary varieties of this species in the absence of the
+sharp ridges and depressions running from base to point, the surface
+of the shell being broken up into irregular, wavy lines, somewhat
+resembling the shell of the more common varieties of the Persian
+walnuts. I have occasionally seen very similar varieties,--but of
+smaller size,--among the mixed lots of hickory nuts on sale in our
+city markets, also oblong nuts, as shown in Fig. 63, but of course
+there is no way of tracing these to the trees producing them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63. LONG SHELLBARK HICKORY.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64. SHELLBARK MISSOURI.]
+
+Another merit, in addition to the large size and thin shell of the
+Hales' Paper-shell, is its keeping qualities, the kernels rarely
+becoming rancid, even when two or more years old, and from a long
+acquaintance with this nut and hundreds of other varieties gathered
+from all parts of the United States, I am inclined to place it at
+the head of the list, and as the most valuable sort as yet
+discovered. It is true, however, that I have found in the forests,
+and also received, many very large and superior nuts of this
+species, that are well worthy of propagation and cultivation, but
+they have been, in the main, of the typical form, and not of so
+distinct a type as this Paper-shell. Judge Miller sent me a few nuts
+of a shellbark found in Missouri, that were even larger, and with
+fully as thin shell as that of the Hales' (Fig. 64), but upon making
+further inquiries in regard to the tree that produced them, I
+learned that an incoming railroad line had destroyed it, and thus
+one more tree of inestimable value had been sacrificed in the march
+of this progressive age.
+
+=Varieties of the Western Shellbark.=--The typical form of the thick
+or Western shellbark (_H. laciniosa_) has already been shown on a
+preceding page, but some remarkable and valuable varieties have been
+found in the Western States, and no doubt others will be, when more
+attention is paid than at present to the natural food products of
+our forests. The tendency of this species, in its variations, is
+usually in the direction of an elongation of the nuts, even when
+there is no decrease in the thickness of the shell, as shown in Fig.
+65, taken from one of a number of long varieties collected in the
+Western States; and while they do not possess any special merit,
+they attract attention, owing to their unusual form.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65. LONG WESTERN SHELLBARK.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66. FRESH NUSSBAUMER HYBRID.]
+
+NUSSBAUMER'S HYBRID.--Several years ago I received a specimen of a
+very remarkable nut from Judge Samuel Miller, of Bluffton, Mo.,
+under the name of "Nussbaumer's Hybrid Pecan." Judge Miller informed
+me that he had received it from Mr. J. J. Nussbaumer, Mascoutah, St.
+Clair Co., Ill., who claimed that it was a hybrid between the pecan
+and the large western shellbark hickory (_H. laciniosa_). I had an
+illustration made of this specimen, and it appeared, with a brief
+description, in the _American Agriculturist_ for Dec., 1884, p. 546.
+Soon after receiving the specimen nut from Judge Miller I opened
+correspondence with Mr. Nussbaumer, and learned from him that only
+one tree bearing such nuts had ever been found, and this was of
+large size, six and a half feet in circumference, and about fifty
+feet high, the bark somewhat like that of the hickory but nearer the
+pecan. Mr. Nussbaumer sent me specimens of the green nuts with
+leaves and twigs, from the original tree. The nuts, however, of that
+season (1884), were badly infested with the "hickory-shuck worm"
+(_Grapholitha caryana_, Fitch), and these had so ruined the shucks,
+and even eaten into the shells of the nuts, that few of the
+specimens received were fully developed. But from two nuts I had a
+sketch made while they were fresh and of natural size, as shown in
+Fig. 66, the dark, irregular marks on the husks showing where the
+shuck worm had attacked them. One of these nuts is shown in Fig. 67,
+also natural size. I planted one of the nuts, from which I now have
+a tree about ten feet high, but although ten years old it has not
+fruited, and, so far as I can judge from its appearance, is a pure
+Western shellbark, with no indication of hybridity; but of course
+this does not prove that the original or parent tree is not a
+hybrid, as claimed by Mr. Nussbaumer, Judge Miller, and, if I am
+rightly informed, Prof. T. J. Burrill, of the University of
+Illinois.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67. NUSSBAUMER'S HYBRID.]
+
+However widely opinions may differ in regard to the origin of this
+variety, it is certainly a most remarkable nut, and I regret that
+the exact location of the original tree has entirely escaped my most
+careful seeking; and of late years I have been unable to learn
+anything of Mr. Nussbaumer, further than that he had moved from
+Mascoutah to Okawville, Ill., the last letter received from him
+being dated Dec. 13, 1887. In one of his letters he said that he had
+raised a large number of seedlings from this supposed hybrid, and if
+these are still alive they would be of much scientific interest,
+especially if any of them showed the distinct characteristics of
+either of the supposed parents.
+
+It would certainly be a pity to have such a remarkable nut lost to
+the world, because if propagated by grafting or by any other mode to
+insure perpetuating its varietal characteristics, its value could
+scarcely be estimated. The nuts are as thin-shelled as the common
+pecan, the kernel sweet and good, and in addition, the tree is a
+native of a northern State, and would, no doubt, prove as hardy as
+our common shellbark hickories.
+
+THE FLOYD PECAN.--This is another supposed-to-be hybrid, and of the
+same species of hickory as the last; but the one nut which I
+received differed from the Nussbaumer by being somewhat larger, and
+the shell with more prominent ridges and a little thicker. It was
+said to have been found somewhere in southern Indiana by a Mr.
+Floyd, who, believing it to be of great value, refused to give any
+information likely to aid any one else to locate the original tree,
+neither would he part with any of the nuts except the one specimen
+which eventually came into my hands. Of course all horticulturists
+know that seedlings raised from such freaks among nut trees are far
+too uncertain to be of much value, but ignorance in such matters
+often leads the possessor of an article slightly differing from the
+ordinary to permit his imagination to warp his good sense.
+
+=Cultivation of the Hickories.=--The hickories have been so seldom
+planted in our Northern States for any purpose, that anything like a
+systematic cultivation of these trees is a thing almost unknown. Of
+course there is no good reason why the hickories should not be
+multiplied and cultivated as well as other kinds of trees, but in
+some unknown way the idea became prevalent that these trees could
+not be transplanted with any assurance of success, and this has been
+kept alive, either through ignorance or by those whose interest led
+them to encourage the planting of the rapid-growing and easily
+propagated kinds, instead of those which, though less profitable to
+the producer, would be of far greater value to the purchaser. It
+must be admitted, however, that the hickories are not so tenacious
+of life as the willows, poplars, elms and similar kinds of trees,
+requiring more care in their cultivation if they are to be
+transplanted when of a proper size for setting along roadsides or
+elsewhere, for shade and ornament, but they are certainly no more
+difficult to make live than the beech, oak, tulip and various
+species of the magnolia.
+
+The slow growth of the hickories while young is another objection
+often urged as a fault of these trees, but there is nothing lost but
+time in waiting, and this passes just as swiftly whether we plant
+trees that may in ten years yield a golden harvest, or nothing but
+leaves; besides, the hickories respond as readily to stimulants and
+good care generally as the common fruit trees of our orchards. While
+the farmers of our Northern States are generally quite indifferent
+as to what becomes of their old hickory trees, and seldom attempt to
+preserve the wild seedlings that spring up in the fields and on the
+borders of forests, their fellow countrymen of the Southern States
+have, within the past two or three decades, discovered that they
+possess an inexhaustible source of wealth in their common pecan nut.
+Formerly these trees were sacrificed whenever a choice piece of
+tough timber was wanted, and often merely to secure the entire crop
+of nuts without waiting for nature to drop them within reach; but
+the advent of many lines of railroads, steamboats, and other means
+of communication with the great cities and their markets, has
+changed this inclination to destroy into one of preservation. The
+old pecan trees are not only appreciated as a source of income, but
+thousands and tens of thousands of seedlings are now annually raised
+and planted, to insure larger returns in the near or distant future.
+In fact, pecan culture has already become an important industry in
+several of the Southern States, although in point of age it is
+little more than a fledgling. We have no statistics to show what the
+annual crop averages in pounds or bushels, but it must be something
+enormous if we make our estimate from the quantities received and
+distributed in the Northern States. But with all the efforts put
+forth to secure a supply of these nuts, and the high prices they
+command at both wholesale and retail, the demand seems to keep well
+in advance of the supply, and this will, in all probability,
+continue as our population increases. In the way of demand, the same
+is true with our northern species of the shellbark hickories, which
+were formerly very abundant, but of late years have become rather
+scarce, for reasons too obvious to call for any explanation at this
+time.
+
+In selecting a location for planting and cultivating the hickories,
+including the pecan, a moist, deep soil is certainly preferable to
+any other, especially for the three species and their varieties most
+promising for this purpose, because we find them growing wild in
+such situations and soils. But while these naturally deep, rich and
+moist soils are to be preferred, no one need hesitate to plant
+hickories on light, dry, and even poor soils, if they are properly
+enriched, or a few shovelfuls of fine old stable manure is
+thoroughly mixed with the earth in which the roots are set, and then
+a mulch applied to the surface to keep the soil moist. Almost any
+old waste fibrous material, such as leaves, straw, hay, weeds or
+coarse manure, will answer for mulching newly planted trees, and it
+should be applied to a depth of three or four inches, and renewed
+annually, or as often as necessary to prevent the growth of grass or
+weeds growing within three or four feet of the stem of the tree. In
+all dry climates and soils mulching should be considered an
+important operation, not to be omitted until the trees are from six
+to ten years old, and it may usually be continued a longer time with
+benefit.
+
+=Propagation.=--All the species of the hickory are very readily
+grown from nuts gathered when ripe and planted within a few weeks;
+or they may be mixed with or stratified between layers of sand and
+light soil and buried in the open ground for the winter, and the
+planting deferred until the following spring. They are not at all
+delicate and will withstand considerable drying and neglect, and
+will grow, if stored in a cool cellar, without being packed in
+either soil, sand or other material. But as I have had no occasion
+to determine how much neglect these nuts will withstand, nor to what
+extremes of adverse conditions it is safe to subject them, I shall
+leave investigation in this direction to others, because in general
+practice no valuable seed or plant grows any too readily and freely
+to satisfy the cultivator, and for this reason I recommend either
+planting hickory nuts in the fall, or burying them between layers of
+light soil or sand, sifting out and planting early the following
+spring. If any considerable quantity is to be planted they should be
+dropped three or four inches apart in shallow trenches and covered
+about two inches deep. The distance between the rows may be from two
+to three feet, depending upon the implements to be used in their
+cultivation.
+
+The soil for a seedbed should, of course, be made rich and deep, or
+the same as recommended for chestnuts, and all the means usually
+employed to assist the growth of cultivated plants are applicable to
+nut trees. I may also add that cutworms, white grubs and other
+noxious insects are enemies of nut-tree seedlings as well as garden
+vegetables. The seedling hickories should be treated as advised for
+chestnuts; that is, dug up when one or, at the latest, two years
+old, and their central or taproot shortened to at least one-half
+their original length, and then reset in nursery rows, and at a
+distance of twelve to fifteen inches apart in the row. If grown in
+ordinary upland, the transplanted seedlings will make a better
+growth if heavily mulched than under the usual system of clean
+cultivation, and it is usually less expensive; besides, by keeping
+the surface of the soil cool and moist, we encourage and assist the
+production of fibrous lateral roots, which, as a rule, are none too
+abundant on seedling hickories, no matter under what conditions or
+system of cultivation they are raised.
+
+When the seedlings have grown in the nursery rows two or three
+years, they will probably be large enough for planting where they
+are to remain permanently; but if, for any reason, they are not
+disposed of, then they should be again transplanted,--the larger
+roots shortened,--and re-set in good rich soil. The object of
+transplanting is to insure the production of small fibrous roots,
+and a frequent renewal of the same, close to the main stem or stock,
+as long as the trees remain in the nursery, whether this be two or
+twenty years. This is somewhat of an expensive operation, but the
+value of stock thus handled is enhanced far more than the cost of
+such transplanting, and purchasers are, or at least should be,
+willing to pay a fair price for such trees.
+
+It is the natural habit of the hickories, as well as many other
+kinds of deciduous trees, to produce in their earlier stages of
+growth rather large, deeply penetrating, naked roots, with few small
+fibers, and in this condition they are not so readily and
+successfully transplanted as the kinds possessing a more ramified
+root system. This, perhaps, has misled many persons to believe that
+certain kinds of trees, like the hickories, could not be moved at
+all, or at least not with any assurance of being made to live. This
+idea has become so prevalent among inexperienced cultivators, and, I
+regret to add, often reiterated by theorists, that it has
+discouraged many who otherwise would have raised and planted nut
+trees in preference to other kinds.
+
+Admitting that it is the general habit of most kinds of forest trees
+to produce deeply penetrating taproots, when grown from seed, it
+proves nothing more than that these parts may be of some importance
+to the plants while they are young, and under natural conditions,
+yet they are not absolutely necessary, and, at most, are only
+temporary organs, like the tails of tadpoles, always disappearing
+with maturity.
+
+Any one at all observing, and having had an opportunity of examining
+limited or extended areas of forest trees thrown over by hurricanes,
+must have noticed that no tree of any considerable size and age
+possessed a taproot, but had been for years kept in its upright
+position by lateral brace-roots, and through these it had also
+obtained nutriment from the surface soil. Some of my correspondents
+in the South have expressed their surprise at not finding any trace
+of the original central roots on old pecan trees, when blown over by
+severe wind storms. But it is the same everywhere with forest trees
+and where the soil is naturally loose and moist: the principal or
+supporting roots spread out widely and remain near the surface, and
+the central roots or taproots disappear much earlier than in dry
+soils.
+
+In multiplying trees under artificial conditions, we remove the
+taproots, not only for convenience in transplanting, but also to
+hasten and increase the production of surface lateral roots, and
+more than this, we lessen the years of luxuriant sterility, securing
+earlier fruiting by such operations as root pruning and frequent
+transplanting.
+
+=Budding and Grafting.=--I have never known of an instance of
+successful budding of the hickory, at least in the ordinary way
+during the summer months. What is called "annular budding" in early
+spring with buds of the previous season, is said to have been
+successfully practiced with the pecan at the South, but this mode of
+propagation is more of the nature of grafting than of what is
+usually understood as budding. But I have been unable to obtain any
+statistics in regard to the proportion of buds that any propagator
+or experimenter has made live by this or other modes of propagation.
+Col. Stuart says, in "The Pecan," p. 45, "There is a method known as
+'annular budding,' which proves quite successful." He then proceeds
+to describe the operation, as given in all works on the propagation
+of trees and plants during the past hundred years or more, but not a
+word to indicate what he considers a "success,"--whether it be once
+or fifty times in a hundred, or if he ever succeeded in making an
+annular bud unite to the stock; I am more inclined to think that he
+never did, than otherwise.
+
+In Bulletin No. 105, "Nut Culture for North Carolina," issued from
+the N. C. State Experiment Station, 1894, Mr. W. A. Taylor,
+Assistant Pomologist U. S. Department of Agriculture, in referring
+to budding and grafting of these trees, says: "These latter
+operations are less successful with the pecan than most fruit trees,
+though they are by no means impossible to accomplish. On seedlings
+one or two years old annular budding in early summer succeeds best."
+But here again we are left in doubt in regard to what the writer
+considers "a success." Then, again, the line between the "possible"
+and "impossible," in horticultural matters, is a rather difficult
+one to determine, and Mr. Taylor fails to cite a single instance in
+which either annular or any other form of either budding or grafting
+had been successfully practiced. The Bulletins issued from the
+Division of Pomology of the Department of Agriculture, give us no
+information whatever on this subject of propagation of the
+hickories, further than to repeat the old formulas of annular,
+splice and cleft grafting; but as to results they have always been
+provokingly silent.
+
+Having been repeatedly assured, by men who presumed to know, that
+the pecan tree was successfully propagated in the South by grafting,
+and many thousands annually raised in this way, it seems strange
+that such plants are so rarely offered by nurserymen. Seedlings of
+choice varieties are, of course, abundant enough, but a man might,
+with as much propriety, offer seedling Bartlett pears or Baldwin
+apples, as pecan trees, expecting to perpetuate varieties. In
+corresponding with Mr. P. J. Berckmans, of the Fruitland Nurseries
+of Augusta, Ga., whose experience and acquaintance with the fruits
+of the South are, without doubt, in advance of any other
+horticulturist of the past or even the present generation, in reply
+to my request for information on grafting pecans, he writes: "For
+the past five or six years we have grafted various varieties of the
+pecan nuts. I do not know of any other nurseryman South who offers
+grafted trees. I presume the reason of this is, the great difficulty
+in having the grafts take, as we seldom have more than fifteen to
+twenty-five per cent. grow. We usually crown graft in February,
+using one-year-old seedlings grown in nursery rows. Owing to the
+small percentage of grafts which grow, grafted trees must,
+necessarily, be quite expensive, and for this reason there are so
+few attempts made in this method of propagation."
+
+Mr. Berckmans makes no reference to annular budding of the pecan, so
+strongly and frequently recommended by the several writers already
+quoted, although I am certain that he is as familiar with this mode
+of propagation as any one else, and would have practiced it had he
+found it in any way superior to crown grafting. From all that I have
+been able to learn through a rather extended correspondence, in
+regard to the propagation of the pecan nut tree in the South, I
+conclude that they are occasionally and sparingly grafted, but with
+such indifferent results that they are not at all numerous in either
+orchards or nurseries.
+
+From certain remarks of Col. Stuart, in his essay on "Pecan
+Culture," I infer that he has sold grafted trees, for he says:
+
+    "It costs no more to care for the grove of choice trees than of
+    poor ones; then, again, the grafted or budded ones come into
+    profitable bearing three years earlier than seedlings. Here is a
+    case in point: Last November (1892) we paid, in cash, two
+    hundred and forty-eight dollars for the nuts which grew upon one
+    tree, the crop of one year. The tree is twenty inches through at
+    its base, and forty-five feet high; such a size tree would grow
+    in twenty or twenty-five years. Now small nuts from the same
+    size tree will sell for not more than fifteen to twenty dollars.
+    Another tree only ten years old bore thirteen and a half dollars
+    worth. These choice nuts are such as we grow seedlings from; we
+    sell a great many more seedlings than we do grafted or budded
+    trees, simply because they are so much cheaper, and people in
+    general do not realize that such a vast difference exists
+    between the profits of seedling and grafted or budded trees; but
+    such is the case, and such it will always remain for aught we
+    can see."
+
+Soon after I published the description of the Hales' Paper-shell
+hickory in 1870, requests for cions were received from nurserymen
+and many amateur horticulturists, who were anxious to try their
+skill in grafting this excellent variety. Mr. Hales generously
+responded, and sent cions to a large number of correspondents in
+various parts of the country, because he was desirous of having the
+variety preserved and propagated. During the following ten years the
+old original tree was kept pretty well pruned, in filling orders for
+cions; those sent to nurserymen were to be raised on shares,
+one-half of all the successfully grafted trees to be returned to Mr.
+Hales. Being a near neighbor, my opportunities for keeping informed
+as to the result of this arrangement was all that I could desire. To
+one nursery firm in central New York Mr. Hales sent about one
+thousand cions per annum for four successive years, and in return
+received just four feeble grafted plants as his share of the total
+product of the four thousand cions. But as the four plants received
+soon died, he closed that account as one of total loss. Previously,
+however, he had sent a quantity of cions to Mr. J. R. Trumpy, of the
+Kissena Nurseries, Flushing, N. Y., whose skill as a propagator of
+ligneous plants is probably second to that of no man in this
+country; the result proved that our faith in the man was not
+misplaced, for Mr. Hales received for his share of the experiment
+something over two dozen grafted trees, and most of these are now
+handsome specimens ten to twenty feet high. Just what percentage of
+the cions set were made to unite and grow I have not been informed,
+but the experiment was, doubtless, rather unsatisfactory as a
+commercial transaction.
+
+In addition to the plants sent to Mr. Hales, there have been quite a
+number distributed among the customers of the nurseries named;
+consequently, we are pretty well assured of the perpetuation of this
+remarkably fine variety, even when the original tree succumbs to old
+age, or should it be accidentally destroyed. I am inclined to give
+Mr. Trumpy credit for being the first man to graft the shellbark
+hickory in this or any other country, and make the cions unite and
+grow, for I have failed to find any instance of success in this mode
+of propagating these trees, prior to his with the Hales'
+Paper-shell.
+
+In reply to a note sent him a few months since, asking: "How did or
+do you graft the hickories?" he replied as follows:
+
+    "I put the hickory stocks in pots in the spring, and graft them
+    the following spring, say in April, and in the house. The cions
+    are cut during the winter, so as to keep them in good order
+    until wanted for use. I find it is better to operate in April
+    than earlier in the winter. I also graft them out of doors about
+    the beginning of May, when the stocks are growing. They will
+    succeed very well out of doors, provided the stocks are large
+    enough for the cions. Any kind of grafting will do, but crown
+    grafting is the best. I have not done much of late in the way of
+    grafting hickories in the nursery, not having suitable stocks;
+    besides, when the weather becomes warm enough for outside work,
+    vegetation pushes far too rapidly to give a man a chance to do
+    much of this kind of grafting."
+
+Since the above was written and while these pages were being put in
+type, Mr. Jackson Dawson, of the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain,
+Mass., has given his method of grafting the hickories, in _Garden
+and Forest_, Feb. 19, 1896, as follows:
+
+    "My method," writes Mr. Dawson, "has been to side-graft, using a
+    cion with part of the second year's wood attached, binding it
+    firmly and covering it with damp sphagnum until the union has
+    been made. The best time I have found for the operation under
+    glass has been during February, and the plants have been kept
+    under glass until midsummer, and wintered the first year in a
+    cold frame. In all the genera I find certain species which may
+    be called free stocks,--that is, stocks which take grafts more
+    readily than others. Thus, nearly all the oaks will graft
+    readily on _Quercus Robur_; the birches will graft more easily
+    on _Betula alba_ than on others; so of the hickories,
+    observation has led me to believe that the best stock is the
+    bitternut, _Hicoria minima_. This species grows almost twice as
+    rapidly as the common shagbark hickory, and while young the
+    cambium is quite soft. I should advise anyone who wishes to
+    propagate hickories on a large scale to grow stocks of this
+    species in boxes not more than four inches deep. In this way all
+    the roots can be saved and there will be no extreme taproot, and
+    when shaken out of the boxes the plants are easily established
+    in pots and ready for grafting. If taken up in the ordinary way
+    from the woods, it requires almost two years to get them well
+    rooted, and often the stocks die for want of roots after the
+    grafts have really taken. If grown in rich soil, the stocks will
+    be large enough to use in one or two years. I should then pot
+    them early in the fall, keeping them from heavy frosts, and
+    bringing them into the house about the first of January, and as
+    soon as they begin to make roots. I should side-graft them close
+    to the collar and plunge them in sphagnum moss, leaving the top
+    bud of the graft out to the air. The graft ought to be well
+    united about the last of March, when the plants should be taken
+    from the sphagnum and set in the body of the house to finish
+    their growth."
+
+All who have had any experience in the propagation of trees by
+grafting in spring, are well aware of the flight of time, in the
+hurry of work that must be done in a few days or not at all. It is
+true that the season for grafting may be prolonged or extended a
+little by cutting the cions in winter and storing them in a cool,
+moist place, where they remain dormant after vegetation has started
+in the open air; but this does not affect the stocks, and these may
+come on slowly or rapidly, varying with the seasons, and the grafter
+must not only watch for opportune moments, but take his chances of
+striking the right time and conditions, in order to be successful.
+With such hard wood trees as the hickories it is better to be a
+little ahead of time than a few days too late, for frosts, and even
+quite a severe freeze, will not injure a dormant cion, and under the
+most favorable conditions the union between stock and cion is a
+rather slow process. For this reason I advise giving as much time as
+possible, and while I do not claim to having had any personal
+experience as a grafter, in the South, still I am inclined to think
+that grafting in the fall, and not later than December, would be
+preferable to later in winter or spring. By giving the cion and
+stock two or three months in which to form granulations and
+cohesion, there would be more certainty of success. Of course, I now
+refer to what is called crown grafting on the root below the surface
+of the ground, and when the cion is fixed in place with the usual
+ligatures of waxed paper or cloth, the soil is drawn back into place
+and the cion entirely covered with it, but very lightly over the
+terminal bud.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68. CROWN GRAFTING ON ROOTS OF THE HICKORY.]
+
+Where small stocks are not at hand, the roots of large trees may be
+severed and the end partly lifted towards the surface, as shown in
+Fig. 68, and when grafted, allowed to remain in position until the
+following season, and then taken up entire or with roots enough to
+insure future growth. The same or a similar process may be practiced
+to propagate a choice variety of the hickory, and a mere severing of
+the roots will insure the production of suckers from near the
+severed end, as shown in Fig. 69.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69. SPROUTS FROM SEVERED HICKORY ROOTS.]
+
+In grafting isolated stocks in this way, a small or large stake
+should be placed by the side of each, to indicate their position,
+and also protect them from being trampled upon. I make this
+suggestion because, in my own experience, it has often proved
+successful with various kinds of hard-wooded trees and shrubs that
+failed when grafted in the spring. Here in the North it is rather
+difficult, as well as expensive, to protect cions set in the open
+ground in the fall; but in the South it is different, and a handful
+of almost any coarse litter would be sufficient to prevent severe
+freezing.
+
+But grafting in the fall in the open ground is unnecessary, where
+small seedling stocks are used in the propagation of any kind of
+tree; in fact, nurserymen do very little grafting of this kind in
+spring, for they learned, by long experience, that the most
+economical and certain method of multiplying such trees is to take
+up the stocks in the fall, and then graft them indoors during the
+winter, having stocks and cions stored in cool cellars or pits,
+where they will be readily accessible when wanted. Apples, pears,
+quinces, grapes, and many other kinds of hardy trees, shrubs and
+vines are now extensively propagated by grafting during the winter
+months, and I do not know of any good reason why the hickories and
+other closely allied nut trees should not be multiplied in this way.
+I have tried it, on a limited scale, with the shellbark hickories,
+and with fair success, and in my opinion it is the only way by which
+the hickories, including the pecan, can be multiplied cheaply enough
+to become of commercial importance.
+
+The small stocks of one or two years old should be taken up in the
+fall, and then crown grafted any time from December to March in the
+Northern States, but the earlier the better; then pack away the
+grafted stocks in moss or soil, in a cool cellar, or heel-in
+elsewhere, as, for instance, in pits or frames, where they will not
+be frozen, and yet cool enough to prevent active growth.
+
+In the spring the grafted stocks should be planted out in nursery
+rows, and deep enough to have the top of the cion just level with
+the surface after the soil has been settled about it by a shower or
+heavy rains. The plants must be handled with care, so as not to
+disturb the cions. Mulching will, of course, be beneficial in dry
+seasons, and especially if the stocks are set in ordinary
+well-drained soils. In selecting wood for cions, twigs of the
+previous season's growth are usually preferred, but it is not
+necessary, nor is it advisable to discard all except the extreme end
+of the shoot or that containing a terminal bud, as some writers have
+advised, to prevent rapid loss of moisture by evaporation, for a
+drop of wax will seal the end of a cion as thoroughly and
+effectually as a natural bud; besides, the lower part of the annual
+twigs is often more firm and really better for grafting than the
+upper and less sturdy wood, and the lateral buds on it will push
+just as readily as the terminal one. The cion may be three or four
+inches long, and contain two or more buds. The sealing of the upper
+end of a cion that is not protected by a terminal bud is certainly
+important with all of the hickories, for in this genus of trees the
+pith is large and continuous, not intersected or cut off by a thin
+partition of wood at the joints, as seen in many trees, shrubs and
+vines. This large and continuous pith in the hickories is another
+reason why the cions succeed best if set below the crown and in or
+on the fleshy roots having no pith. They may be set on one side, as
+in splice grafting, or in the center, or in a cleft made for their
+reception with a sharp knife, then bound with waxed paper, or
+wrapped with bass, raffia, or other similar material, and afterwards
+covered with melted wax to exclude air and water from the joints and
+wounds.
+
+In this mode of grafting hickories it is not necessary to employ the
+entire root or stock, if it is of large size, for a single cion; for
+pieces of from six to twelve inches long, containing a few lateral
+fibers, will answer the purpose, and it will be found, in practice,
+that these sections of the large fleshy roots contain so much
+vitality that, if the cions set in them fail to grow, they will
+throw up sprouts from adventitious buds during the ensuing summer.
+Almost any fair-sized piece of root left in the ground, when digging
+up hickory trees large or small, is pretty certain to throw up
+sprouts, this not only showing their great vitality, but that
+propagation by root cuttings is perfectly practicable and may be
+utilized whenever and wherever it may be desirable. The man who
+attempts to raise hickories from root cuttings must have patience,
+for very frequently the cuttings will remain apparently dormant in
+the ground one entire season before the sprouts appear above the
+surface. I will also add that this slow or retarded germination
+frequently occurs with the nuts, especially if they have become
+somewhat dry before planting.
+
+For commercial purposes root-grafting small stock, as described,
+during the fall and winter, gives promise of being the best and most
+practicable system of multiplying varieties; but there is much yet
+to be learned in regard to details, and hundreds of carefully
+conducted experiments may be necessary to determine the exact time,
+condition and mode of operation. It may be that very early grafting
+is better than late, or that we have not, as yet, found the best
+species for stocks, and that a half-ripened one will be preferable
+to one fully matured. Neither has it, as yet, been determined what
+kind of material is best in which to store the grafted roots: sand,
+soil or sphagnum (moss) from the swamps; or whether they should be
+kept very moist, or comparatively dry; very cold, or moderately
+warm. Here is a wide field for experiments, and a most interesting
+one; for the successful propagation of the hickories by any mode
+that will insure the perpetuation and rapid multiplication of
+varieties, means millions of dollars added to the wealth of the
+country.
+
+=Age of Fruiting.=--We hear much of the precociousness of pecan
+trees in the South, and many are reported as coming into bearing at
+the age of six to ten years from the time of planting the nut; but
+these are probably exceptional instances of early fruiting and not
+the rule, although in a favorable soil and climate it is to be
+expected that such trees will push forward more rapidly than under
+less favorable conditions. Grafted trees will, of course, produce
+fruit in less time than seedlings, and as this mode of propagation
+becomes more general, and repeated in a direct ancestral line, the
+cions for each successive generation of trees being taken from
+mature or bearing specimens, the precocious and productive habit
+will eventually become intensified, as it has been in all of our
+long-cultivated fruit trees propagated by artificial methods. We
+have so intensified the productiveness of many kinds of cultivated
+fruits by selection, that it has become more of a fault, than a
+merit to be encouraged.
+
+The nut trees are amenable to the same physiological laws as other
+kinds, and in their propagation by grafting with cions from bearing
+specimens we hasten maturity in the offspring. This has been fully
+demonstrated in many varieties of the Persian walnuts and European
+chestnuts. Here in the Northern States we have had so little
+experience with grafted hickories of any species, that really
+nothing is yet known as to how they will respond to this mode of
+propagation, further than that they grow rapidly and give promise of
+being fruitful. Seedling trees are, as a rule, of slow growth,
+rarely attaining a bearing age and size under twenty years, and with
+the shellbarks thirty or forty years usually pass before anything
+like a crop of nuts is gathered. Something may be gained, in the way
+of time, by frequent transplantings and pruning, but more by
+grafting seedlings from old and mature trees. Two grafts of the
+Hales' hickory commenced bearing at the age of sixteen years.
+
+=Planting for Profit.=--There are, doubtless, many thousands of
+acres of half-denuded woodlands in almost every State in the Union,
+both North and South, that could be readily utilized for growing
+hickory timber, and much of such lands is almost useless for other
+purposes; but timber culture and forestry is a subject which I have
+discussed elsewhere,[1] while the object of this work is to aid my
+readers in producing something that may be utilized as food. When
+the hundreds and thousands of miles of our public highways are
+shaded with hickory and other nut-bearing trees of the best species
+and varieties, it will be time enough to begin planting such kinds
+elsewhere. As roadside trees they cannot fail to be profitable,
+largely enhancing the value of adjoining land; for in addition to
+being equally as ornamental as other kinds, they yield fruit always
+in demand at remunerative prices. The three species of the hickory
+and their varieties recommended for cultivation all thrive best in
+moist soils, but by occasional watering or thorough mulching they
+will succeed almost anywhere, especially in naturally dry locations.
+
+[Footnote 1: Practical Forestry.]
+
+=Insect Enemies.=--The hickories, as with all other nut-bearing
+trees, have numerous insect enemies, but these are neither so
+numerous nor destructive as to seriously interfere with their growth
+in general, or with their productiveness. Insects may occasionally
+become exceedingly numerous in certain localities for a few years,
+then suddenly or slowly disappear; but this we must expect, as one
+of the coexisting phases of all agricultural pursuits.
+
+Collectively the hickories have no considerable number of
+destructive insect enemies, but if we count all the species of the
+various orders that have been found occasionally, or otherwise,
+feeding on the leaves, buds, fruit, twigs, bark, or boring in the
+solid wood, they make a very formidable list of names, or about one
+hundred and seventy-five in all; but fully ninety per cent. of these
+depredators are scarcely known, except to a few professional
+entomologists, and unless they become more destructive in the future
+than they are at present, or have been in years past, nut culturists
+have little to fear from their depredations. Among the most common
+species of insects injurious to the hickory, the following may prove
+most annoying to the cultivator.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.]
+
+THE HICKORY-TWIG GIRDLER (_Oncideres cingulatus._ Say).--A small
+yellowish-gray beetle, a little less than an inch long, usually
+appearing in this latitude during August, the females depositing
+their eggs in the twigs of from a quarter to a half-inch in
+diameter. On old large trees the loss of a few or many of these is
+scarcely noticed; but on young seedlings or grafted stock it is
+quite a different affair, for on such plants the females usually
+select the leader in preference to the lateral twigs in which to
+deposit their eggs. The female girdles the twigs for the purpose of
+providing proper and acceptable food for her progeny; that is, first
+the green, then the slowly drying, then the perfectly hard, seasoned
+hickory or whatever kind she may have attacked. Selecting a suitable
+twig, she rests upon it, usually with head downward (Fig. 70), and
+with her mandibles cuts out a ring of bark about one-twelfth of an
+inch wide, and deep enough to reach the firm wood underneath. The
+place selected for this annular incision may be only a few inches
+from the terminal bud, or a foot below it, and in some instances she
+will cut two incisions on the same twig some distance apart, but
+usually there is only one on a twig. While cutting this incision she
+will sometimes rest long enough from her labors to deposit an egg in
+the bark above. The number of eggs she deposits in the twig is
+probably variable, but three full-grown grubs is the most I have
+ever found, and the larger proportion examined had only one. This
+girdling of the twig prevents the flow of sap, and the leaves soon
+wither and drop off, and the bark and wood shrivel and become hard
+and dry; but in the meantime the eggs have hatched and the minute
+grubs have bored their way through the soft bark and reached the
+pith, feeding in this while acquiring size and strength of jaws that
+will enable them to consume more solid food later and during the
+succeeding winter, spring and summer. Some do not reach maturity
+until the second summer; at least, in this latitude, as I have found
+after very careful observation and while collecting many hundreds of
+specimens. I will say, however, that this insect is usually referred
+to by entomologists as rather rare, and in general it is, but some
+years ago, in an old clearing near by where there was a great number
+of young hickory seedlings and sprouts, it was for a season or two
+very abundant; then it suddenly disappeared, and I have not taken a
+half-dozen specimens since. The grubs bore out the wood in the
+infested twig, and in most instances so completely as to leave only
+a thin shell of the wood or bark, by the time they have reached
+maturity and are ready to pass into their imago or perfect-winged
+stage.
+
+This species of twig girdler also attacks the apple, pear,
+persimmon, elm, and other kinds of trees, and with those like the
+apple, with a soft and brittle wood, the girdled twigs are
+frequently broken off by the winds; but this rarely occurs with the
+hickories, and we can usually find the stumps remaining on the trees
+years after the beetles have emerged. The only way to keep this pest
+in check is to cut off and burn the girdled twigs any time before
+the larvae have reached maturity, and as the girdled dead twigs are
+readily seen, the gathering is not difficult, from medium-sized
+trees.
+
+THE PAINTED HICKORY BORER (_Cyllene pictus._ Drury).--This is,
+perhaps, one of the most common and widely distributed of all the
+hickory borers, but, so far as my observations have extended, it
+rarely attacks young or healthy trees of any age; in fact, I have
+never found it in or about growing trees, but I have seen it, by the
+thousands, breeding in decaying specimens and in hickory cordwood
+cut during the winter months and ranked up in shady places. A
+hickory tree cut down in fall or winter, and left on the ground or
+cut up into cordwood, is pretty sure to attract this borer early in
+spring, the females swarming over the bark, depositing their eggs
+upon it, and by the ensuing autumn the wood will be fairly
+honeycombed if this insect is at all abundant. The general color of
+the beetle is black, and the size as shown in Fig. 71. There are
+three narrow, whitish bands across the top of the thorax, and one
+slightly broader band at the extreme point of the wing-covers; but
+the next band is in the form of an inverted V; the point of the
+[Inverted V] does not quite touch the broad lateral band, as in the
+closely allied species known as the locust borer (_C. robiniae_),
+with which it is often confounded; besides, in the latter the
+markings are of a deep yellow, and not white or of a faint yellowish
+tinge. The hickory borer always appears in spring, and the locust
+borer in the fall, not later than September in this part of the
+country. Below or behind the V-shaped band there are three others,
+but all broken up into mere dots, and not continuous.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71. HICKORY BORER.]
+
+In the South, and especially in Texas, there is a somewhat smaller
+but closely allied species (_Cyllene crinicornis_) that attacks the
+pecan tree and its wood in the same way as our common hickory borer,
+but in the Southern or Southwestern species the bands on the
+wing-covers are all interrupted or broken up into small white spots
+or dots. I have no remedy to suggest, further than to cut down old,
+infested trees, and to haul the wood out into the sun and spread it
+out where it will quickly dry and become seasoned. If the felled
+tree and wood is stripped of its bark as soon as cut, the female
+beetles will not deposit their eggs upon it.
+
+There are other long-horned beetles (_Cerambycidae_) that are
+occasionally found breeding in the hickories, and among these may be
+named the Belted Chion (_Chion cinctus_), Tiger Goes (_Goes
+tigrinus_), Beautiful Goes (_Goes pulchra_), and the Orange Sawyer
+(_Elaphidion inerme_), but they are usually quite too rare to be
+considered as very destructive insects.
+
+HICKORY-BARK BORER (_Scolytus 4-spinosus._ Say).--Only once within
+my memory has this minute but destructive beetle appeared in any
+considerable numbers in my neighborhood, although I have
+occasionally received a few specimens from correspondents in various
+parts of the country, even as far west as the Pacific coast in
+Washington. This borer is a very small, cylindrical, dark brown
+beetle, about one-fifth of an inch or less in length, and
+one-sixteenth in diameter. The hind part of the body is quite blunt
+(truncate), the males having four short but distinct blunt spines,
+two on each side, projecting from the hind part of the abdomen,
+hence the name "4-spinosus." In the females these spines are absent,
+otherwise they closely resemble the males. These bark borers usually
+appear here in the Northern States the last of June or early in
+July, and both sexes attack hickory trees of all species, but appear
+to prefer the old and nearly mature trees to the young and small
+with thinner bark. After boring through the bark and reaching the
+soft cambium layer underneath, upon which these insects feed, the
+female cuts a vertical channel in this substance, of little over an
+inch in length.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72. BURROWS OF HICKORY SCOLYTUS.]
+
+This burrow is a little larger than the diameter of her body, and
+along on both sides she deposits her eggs, to the number of ten to
+thirty, placing about an equal number on each side. When these eggs
+hatch, the young larvae begin to feed on the soft material by which
+they are surrounded, making minute burrows at first, and at nearly
+right angles with the parent one; but as they increase in size they
+are forced to diverge, those above the center working upward, and
+those below downward, as shown in Fig. 72. These burrows enlarge as
+the grubs increase in size, as shown, most of them reaching their
+full development by the time cold weather sets in, but some do not
+cease feeding until spring, then pass to the pupal stage, and later
+to the perfect or beetle form, and from the extreme end of these
+burrows they bore a hole straight out to the surface, and are then
+ready to begin the cycle of life again, either on the tree from
+which they have emerged, or others near by. Some fifteen years ago I
+noticed that the leaves of some of the old hickory trees on my place
+were turning yellow prematurely, and upon examination I found the
+bark perforated with minute holes not larger than small bird shot,
+indicating the presence of the bark borer under consideration. Seven
+of the very largest and, presumably, the oldest, appeared to be
+affected, and these were immediately cut down and stripped of their
+bark, exposing the little grubs to the air and attacks of
+insect-eating birds. These trees appeared to have been infested for
+several years, as there was scarcely a spot on the surface of the
+wood that had not been scarified with this pest. Since the
+destruction of these trees I have not been troubled with bark
+borers, although there are still a number of very old and large
+hickories thriving in the same grove. The only remedy I can suggest
+is to cut down infested trees as soon as they are discovered, and
+also encourage the insect-eating birds to remain in and near the nut
+groves.
+
+There are several other species of bark borers that occasionally
+attack hickories, one of these, the _Chramesus icoriae_, Leconte,
+infests the small twigs, while another, the _Sinoxylon basilare_,
+say, after boring through the bark, continues its course far into
+the heartwood, showing a preference for this kind of food instead of
+the living tissues. These pests, however, are rarely constant, but
+very erratic, in their attacks, and while they may be rather
+abundant on a few or many trees a season or two, they then
+disappear, and not one may be seen for several decades.
+
+THE HICKORY-SHUCK WORM (_Grapholitha caryana._ Fitch).--The parent
+of this pest is a minute moth of the family _Tortricidae_, the small
+caterpillars mining and boring the green husks, and sometimes into
+the immature shell, causing the nuts to wither and drop off
+prematurely, although an occasional one may reach maturity, even in
+its scarified condition. This insect appears to be somewhat rare in
+the East, but very abundant some years in the West, where it is
+frequently destructive to the thick shellbark hickory and pecan. The
+first fresh specimens of the Nussbaumer Hybrid pecan nut (referred
+to on a preceding page) were so badly bored and scarified by this
+worm when received, that they would have been nearly or quite
+worthless for either planting or other purposes. As this insect
+attacks the nuts on the very largest trees in the forest and
+elsewhere, I cannot suggest any other remedy than to gather the
+immature and infested nuts as they fall, and burn them, with their
+contents.
+
+Among the larger Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) there are many
+species, the caterpillars of which occasionally feed on the leaves
+of the hickories, but not exclusively; consequently, they cannot be
+considered as the special enemies of this genus of trees. When they
+do attack them, it is as much due to accident as design. This is
+certainly true with the great Luna moth (_Attacus luna_) and the
+American silk worm (_Telea polyphemus_), and various species of the
+Catocala, as well as the Tent caterpillar (_Clisiocampa sylvatica_).
+
+There is also a hickory-nut weevil, closely allied to the species
+infesting the chestnut; and while not quite as large, its habits are
+similar, and its ravages may be checked by the same or similar
+means. The grubs bore into the green nuts, causing some to fall
+before half-grown; others may remain in the nuts until they are ripe
+and gathered in the autumn; consequently, perforated hickory nuts
+are not at all rare, even on the stands of venders in our cities.
+
+Bud worms, leaf miners, leaf rollers and plant lice,--and among the
+latter several gall-making species,--are to be found on the
+hickories; but with all these natural enemies to contend with, the
+hickories thrive, grow, and yield their fruits in greater or less
+abundance. To enumerate, describe and illustrate all the insects
+known to be enemies of the hickory would require a large volume, but
+fortunately there are many special works published on the insects
+injurious to vegetation, and these are readily obtainable by all who
+may have occasion to consult their pages.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE WALNUT.
+
+
+Juglans. The ancient Latin name, first used by Pliny, contracted
+from _Jovis glans_, the nut of Jove or Jupiter. A genus of about
+eight species, three or four of these indigenous to the United
+States.
+
+=Order=, _Juglandaceae_ (Walnut family).--Medium to large deciduous
+trees with odd-pinnate leaves; leaflets from fifteen to twenty-one,
+serrate, mainly oblong and pointed. The sexes of flowers separate
+(monoecious) on the same tree, the males in pendulous green
+cylindrical catkins two to three inches long, solitary or in pairs,
+sessile,--not stalked, as in the hickories,--issuing from the
+one-year-old twigs, and at the upper edge of the scar left by the
+falling leaf of the previous season (Fig. 73), showing that the male
+organs emanate from an aggregation of bud-cells in the axils of the
+leaves during the preceding summer and autumn. Female flowers
+terminal on the new growth in spring, also single, in clusters, and
+occasionally in long pendulous racemes with a four-cleft calyx, four
+minute petals and two thick curved stigmas. Fruit round or oblong
+(Fig. 74); husk thin, drying up without opening by seams, as in the
+hickories. Shell of nut either rough and deeply corrugated, with
+sharp-pointed ridges, or quite smooth, with an undulating, wavy
+surface, very thick in some species and thin in others; kernel two-
+or indistinctly four-lobed, united at the apex, fleshy, rich and
+oily.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73. PERSIAN WALNUT, SHOWING POSITION OF SEXUAL
+ORGANS.]
+
+=History.=--The common walnut, so long and widely known in commerce
+under various names, such as Persian, English, French, Italian and
+European walnuts, also as Madeira nut, and recently Chile walnut,
+are now all believed to have descended from trees native of Persia,
+most plentiful in the province of Ghilan on the Caspian sea, between
+latitude 35 deg. and 40 deg., hence the old Grecian name of the fruit, viz.:
+Persicon and Basilicon, or Persian Royal nut, probably because
+either introduced by the Greek monarchs, or sent to them by the
+Persian kings. Later,--according to Pliny,--the Greeks called the
+trees _Caryon_, on account of the strong scent of the foliage, and
+from this name Nuttall coined his word, _Carya_, for our indigenous
+hickories, as explained in the preceding chapter. It should also be
+noted here that the elder Michaux, in 1782-4, was the first modern
+botanist to visit the province of Ghilan, and he determined, by
+personal investigation, that this species of the walnut was really
+indigenous to that region of country, along with the peach and
+apricot.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74. BEARING BRANCH OF ENGLISH WALNUT.]
+
+Earlier European authors claim that the walnut was first introduced
+into Italy by Vitellius (emperor) early in the first century of the
+Christian Era,--but this is uncertain,--the Romans giving it the
+name of _Juglandes_, or the nut of Jove or Jupiter, both being the
+same mythical personage. The nuts, at this early day, were highly
+prized, and also the wood of the tree, the latter being even more
+valuable than that of the citron (orange and lemon). Ovid wrote a
+poem about these nuts, entitled _De Nuce_, from which we learn that
+boys were employed to, or did of their own accord, knock off these
+nuts; and that at marriages walnuts were thrown by the bride and
+bridegroom among the children, a ceremony which was supposed to
+indicate that the bridegroom had left off his boyish amusements, and
+that the bride was no longer a votary of Diana, and it is quite
+probable that the French word for nuptials, _des noces_, was derived
+from this ancient custom. The ancients also believed that walnuts
+possessed powerful medicinal properties, even to the curing of
+hydrophobia; but in these latter days they have lost most of their
+curative virtues, in the opinion of the medical fraternity.
+
+As with the chestnut, the planting of the walnut extended northward
+into Gaul (France), hence the earlier name of Gaul nuts, which
+became corrupted into walnuts by the English-speaking people. The
+Italian name is _Noci_; in France, _Noyer_; and the Germans, with
+their usual habit of compounding names, call it _walnuss-baum_ or
+walnut tree.
+
+Joannis De Loureiro, in his work on the plants of China, "Flora
+Cochinchinensis," published in 1790, claims that this Persian walnut
+is also a native of the northern provinces of China, with two other
+species which he describes (p. 573), adding, however, that one of
+these is cultivated in Cochin China, and the other is found wild in
+the mountains.
+
+The wild form of this world-wide-famous nut is, doubtless, quite
+different from the varieties with which we are familiar, for two
+thousand years or more of continuous cultivation and selections have
+greatly changed the character of these nuts, as well as the habit of
+the trees. The nuts from the wild trees are said to have a rather
+thick shell, and to be much smaller than the best of the improved
+cultivated varieties, or very like those we now obtain in China and
+Japan. The Persian walnut, in its many varieties, has been planted
+almost everywhere in Europe as far north as Warsaw, but does not
+appear to have run wild and become naturalized, as with many other
+kinds of fruit and forest trees. In Great Britain it has probably
+been cultivated ever since the invasion of the country by the
+Romans, although a much later date is named by some of our modern
+horticultural authorities. Dodoens (1552), Gerarde (1597), Parkinson
+(1629), and other of our early authors of works on cultivated
+plants, speak of the Persian walnut as common in various countries
+of Europe, Great Britain included. John Evelyn, in his "Sylva"
+(1664), says:
+
+    "In Burgundy, walnut trees abound where they stand, in the
+    meadows of goodly lands, at sixty and a hundred feet distance,
+    and so far as hurting the crop, they are looked upon as great
+    preservers, keeping the ground warm, nor do the roots hinder the
+    plow."
+
+Evelyn, no doubt, had read what Pliny had said on this point, viz.:
+
+    "Even the oak will not thrive near the walnut tree; which, if it
+    be true, may be owing to the interference of their roots in the
+    subsoil; but it is certain that neither grass nor field nor
+    garden crops thrive well under the walnut."
+
+Evelyn was far too good a gardener and close observer to fall into
+the error of attributing noxious properties to the walnut tree,
+although Pliny's assertion, which has no foundation beyond his
+imagination, has been many times repeated in these days of supposed
+general intelligence. Small plants may fail, under the shade of
+large trees, or when deprived of moisture by the roots of such
+trees, but the walnut is no exception to the rule; in fact, such
+deep-rooted kinds are less injurious than those with roots nearer
+the surface. Evelyn, in continuing his account of the walnut in
+Germany, says:
+
+    "Whenever they fell a tree, which is only the old, decayed, they
+    always plant a young one near him, and, in several places
+    betwixt Hanau and Frankfort, no young farmer whatsoever is
+    permitted to marry a wife till he bring proof that he is a
+    father of such a stated number of walnut trees; and the law is
+    inviolably observed to this day, for the extraordinary benefit
+    which this tree affords the inhabitants."
+
+What a pity that some such custom could not have prevailed during
+the past century in the United States. The author from whom I have
+just quoted adds that the Bergstrasse, which extends from Heidelberg
+to Darmstadt, is all planted with walnuts.
+
+Cold winters, however, have occasionally played havoc with the
+walnut trees in Europe, and one of these occurred in 1709, when the
+greater part of the trees were seriously injured, especially in
+Switzerland, Germany and France. Many trees were cut down for their
+timber, which is always in great demand for gun-stocks and
+furniture. Certain Dutch capitalists, foreseeing the scarcity of
+walnut timber, bought up all they could procure, and years
+afterwards sold it at a greatly advanced price. In the year 1720 an
+act was passed in France to prevent the exportation of walnut
+timber, and this led to the planting of these trees more extensively
+than at any previous date; this practice has continued to the
+present time, hence the immense revenue secured from the exportation
+of these nuts. The people of the United States are good customers
+for the surplus stock of Europe, and will probably so continue,
+until we wake up to a sense of our folly of perpetually buying
+articles that could be readily produced at home, and at a very large
+profit.
+
+=Persian Walnut in America.=--The date of the first experiment in
+planting this nut in this country is now probably unknown, but the
+oldest tree that I have been able to find with anything like a
+satisfactory history, is still growing vigorously at Washington
+Heights, on Manhattan Island, near 160th street and St. Nicholas
+avenue. I gave a brief history of this noble monarch of its race in
+the _American Garden_ for September, 1888, from which the following
+account is condensed:
+
+    "In 1758 Roger Morris, an English gentleman, built a spacious
+    mansion on his estate, at what, in later years, became known as
+    Washington Heights. His grounds were well laid out for that
+    time, and many rare foreign trees and shrubs planted, among them
+    several, as then called, English walnuts. Whether these trees
+    were raised from the nuts, or plants of some size imported, is
+    not now known. Mr. Morris may have procured the seedlings from
+    the Prince Nursery, Flushing, L. I., for this famous garden was
+    established in 1713, or forty-five years previous to the
+    building of the Morris mansion and the planting of the grounds
+    about it.
+
+    "At that period no one doubted the hardiness of the so-called
+    English walnut in America, and as most of the nuts and trees
+    procured for planting came from acclimated stock in Great
+    Britain or the cooler region of Europe, success usually attended
+    such experiments. Our pioneers and horticulturists fully
+    expected that the trees would thrive and bear nuts in abundance,
+    and time has shown that they were not mistaken, although we
+    frequently see it stated at this late day, that the Persian
+    walnut is not hardy north of the latitude of Washington,
+    Philadelphia, or other cities south of New York.
+
+    "One hundred and thirty-eight years have rolled by since walnut
+    trees were planted at Washington Heights, and at least one of
+    the originals has escaped destruction and holds its head aloft,
+    defying the tempests which frequently sweep over that elevated
+    and exposed spot on Manhattan Island. This veritable patriarch
+    of its race in America is a monster in size, its stem between
+    four and five feet in diameter at the base and more than
+    seventy-five feet high, with wide-spreading branches.
+
+    "In the summer of 1776 the Battle of Long Island was fought, and
+    the American forces were compelled to retreat in confusion to
+    New York, thence northward up the island; but when they reached
+    Fort Washington, not far from the eleventh milestone on the old
+    Albany post road, they made a stand and proceeded to entrench
+    themselves at that place. This was in September, 1776, and
+    General Washington took possession of the Morris mansion near
+    by, making it his headquarters, and, as this was at the season
+    when the walnuts had reached an edible stage, we may safely
+    presume, from his well-known predilection for such delicacies,
+    that he tested the quality of the Morris walnuts. One hundred
+    and twenty years later I am writing this, with some fresh
+    specimens of nuts before me from that same old tree.
+
+    "This old patriarch has cast its shade over many a noted person
+    in its time, for in 1810 the Morris estate passed into the hands
+    of Madame Jumel, a lady long famous for her hospitality and the
+    good cheer she extended to the surviving patriots of the
+    Revolution. From 1810 to the time of her death, 1865, Madame
+    Jumel's household always had an abundance of walnuts from the
+    old tree, and one of the workmen on the place informed me that
+    about two cartloads was considered a fair annual crop."
+
+It cannot be many years before this old tree will meet the same fate
+that has overtaken many of its younger contemporaries which were
+once growing in the neighborhood, for with the rush for building
+lots and the opening of new streets and avenues, trees are usually
+in the way, and in such cases even patriarchs are not sacred, nor do
+they command much respect from our urban population.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: Since writing the above, and while these pages are
+being put in type, accidentally I learn with regret that the old
+Morris walnut tree has been destroyed.]
+
+A half-century ago there was quite a large number of walnut trees
+scattered about on the northern half of Manhattan Island, many of
+these probably descendants of the old Morris trees, but of this
+nothing definite is now known. A number of persons whose ages
+permitted them to scan the early days of the present century, have
+assured me that in their childhood they had often collected walnuts
+from goodly sized trees on farms, from Harlem northward on the
+island. The largest number of Persian walnut trees planted in any
+one place was on the Tieman farm at Manhattanville, these being set
+out as roadside trees, some of which are still standing, although in
+the march of improvements they must soon disappear. These trees have
+always been noted for their productiveness, bearing a full crop
+every alternate year, and a lighter one in what is termed the "off
+season."
+
+While the old Morris walnut tree, and the large number growing on
+the Tieman estate, and scores of others scattered about New York
+city and its suburbs, have been, and many still are, living
+witnesses of the fact that varieties of the Persian walnut will
+thrive in this latitude, certain horticultural authors and essayists
+have continually asserted the contrary.
+
+Mr. F. J. Scott, in his superb and voluminous work, "Suburban Home
+Grounds," in speaking of this species of the walnut, says, p. 351:
+
+    "Though greatly valued in England and on the continent for its
+    beauty, as well as for its nuts, its want of hardiness in the
+    Northern States, and lack of any peculiar beauty in the South,
+    has prevented its culture to any great extent in this country.
+    South of Philadelphia it may be grown with safety."
+
+This seems strange language to have come from such an eminent
+authority as the late Mr. Scott, inasmuch as he must have passed a
+hundred times within sight, if not in the very shadow of the rows of
+old walnut trees growing at Manhattanville, when going from New York
+city to Newburgh, where he studied landscape gardening under the
+lamented A. J. Downing, and to whom the work from which I have
+quoted is dedicated. It is quite evident, however, that our author,
+like many others, failed to see things that should have interested
+him.
+
+As an offset to Mr. Scott's idea of the northern limit for the
+successful cultivation of this nut, I may refer to the work of Mr.
+George Jacques, "Practical Treatise on Fruit Trees, Adapted to the
+Interior of New England," published at Worcester, Mass., 1849. In
+referring to the European walnut, p. 238, he says:
+
+    "It is perfectly hardy on Long Island, and to the south of New
+    York, and as far north as the city of Charlestown in this State
+    (Mass.), where there may be seen, in the enclosure of a
+    residence on Harvard street, two fine trees of this kind, either
+    of them much taller and larger than our large-sized apple trees.
+    We have eaten nuts from these trees well ripened and fully equal
+    to any of those imported. The trees often bear a crop of some
+    bushels."
+
+It is unnecessary to search for further proof to show that certain
+excellent varieties of the Persian walnut do thrive and bear
+abundantly in our Northern States; not, perhaps, in the extreme
+boreal borders of New England, nor in those of the northwest, but
+the acclimated sorts are pretty safe as far north as 42 deg. of
+latitude, and in protected locations may crowd up a half degree
+more. I have found very productive trees of this nut in northern New
+Jersey, several in Bergen county, others in Passaic, and thence
+southward, and while they are few in number, they are sufficient to
+prove that this tree is adapted to the soil and climate of the
+entire State. We seldom find more than one or two trees in any
+garden, and these are probably more the result of accident than
+design, their owners seeming to be satisfied in possessing something
+in the way of a tree not common in the neighborhood, never thinking
+that it might be well to plant enough of such trees to have them
+become a source of revenue. The parentage of quite a number of these
+bearing trees is readily traced to the Morris and Tieman stock,
+showing that these old trees are of a hardy and prolific race, which
+are well worthy of perpetuation for cold climates. Very old and
+large walnut trees are reported as growing in Pennsylvania and other
+of the Middle States, but they are far from being numerous. It has
+long been claimed that this species of nut succeeded best in the
+Southern States, and it is probably true, especially with the tender
+varieties; but for some reason, unknown to me, they have not been
+planted there in sufficient numbers to have, as yet, become of any
+commercial importance.
+
+During the past twenty-five years these nuts have been more
+extensively planted in California than elsewhere in the United
+States, and we may expect soon to know something definite in regard
+to results. Nearly all of the favorite French varieties have been
+introduced, and are now being tested in different parts of the
+State, and it is quite likely that the greater part will succeed,
+although some of the early-blooming sorts may fail in localities
+subject to late spring frosts. Previous to the introduction of
+grafted trees of the named varieties, the only trees of this kind
+planted in California were seedlings raised from the common imported
+nuts; but I have no statistics at hand to determine the date of the
+first plantings of this kind.
+
+Of late years there has been received, at some of our seaports, and
+especially at New York, some quite large consignments of walnuts
+from South America, under the name of "Chile walnuts," but they are
+only varieties of the Persian raised in Chile. They are generally of
+good size, moderately thin shelled, with plump kernels of excellent
+flavor. They are in great demand for confectionery, and are really
+better for such purposes than the larger and fancy bleached walnuts
+imported under the somewhat general name of Grenobles, or French
+walnuts. Owing to the difference of climate, these Chile walnuts
+arrive here late in winter, or about the time those coming from
+European countries the previous autumn begin to become somewhat
+stale.
+
+Of our native species of this genus (_Juglans_), the almost
+everywhere common butternut ranks first in flavor and general
+estimation, but owing to its hard, rough shell, and the difficulty
+in extracting the kernel, it has never become of any considerable
+importance, although usually found in our markets in limited
+quantities. Of course, it is a general favorite in the country, and
+wherever found in sufficient quantities the boys and girls lay up a
+goodly supply for winter use; and cracking butternuts during the
+long winter evenings is a pastime and pleasure not to be ignored nor
+forgotten. The flavor of the butternut is far more delicate, and
+better, than any of the Persian species, but the difficulty in
+extracting the rather small kernel is a serious objection.
+
+The black walnut has a larger kernel, in proportion to its size,
+than the butternut, and it is not so difficult to extract when the
+nuts are dry, but the flavor is too rank for most palates, although
+it has often been referred to as excellent by the earlier botanists
+who visited this country; but it has never been considered of much
+value until quite recently, or since the manufacturers of
+confectionery discovered that heat somewhat subdued the rank flavor,
+and now many tons of the meats are annually consumed in candies and
+walnut cakes. I am credibly informed that cracking black walnuts and
+shipping the meats to our larger cities has become quite an
+extensive industry in several of the Middle and Western States. We
+have two other but smaller native species of the walnut that will be
+described further on, under the head Species and Varieties.
+
+=Propagation of Walnuts.=--The propagation of the walnut in the
+natural way, or by seed, is exceedingly simple, for the nuts grow
+readily and freely if planted soon after they are ripe, or any time
+before they become old and the kernels shriveled. It is, of course,
+best to plant them while fresh, but they are not at all delicate,
+and may be transported a long distance in a dry condition without
+seriously affecting their vitality. If walnuts are given the same
+care as recommended in the preceding pages for other kinds of nuts,
+so much the better.
+
+The seedlings of walnuts, like those of other species, usually
+produce long taproots, and if grown in a compact soil, these will
+have few small lateral fibers the first season, as shown in Fig. 75;
+but when taken up and the vertical main root shortened at _a_, and
+then replanted, they produce fibrous roots in abundance. The trees
+of almost any age from one to twenty years old, are not at all
+difficult to make live when transplanted, provided the branches or
+tops of the trees are reduced, to correspond with loss of roots in
+digging up at the time of removal. It may be well to give a word of
+caution to the novice in nut culture about pruning nut trees in
+spring, after the sap begins to flow; for if done at this time they
+will bleed freely and leave unhealthy wounds and black, unsightly
+spots on the bark. Prune walnuts in summer or early in winter, to
+give time for the wounds to season before the buds swell in spring.
+If young trees are to be dug up, prune after they are taken from the
+ground, then the sap will not flow from the wounds. This is true of
+all deciduous trees, vines and shrubs. If the trees have few small
+roots when taken up, prune severely; but if roots are abundant,
+little pruning will be required. It is seldom, however, in
+transplanting walnuts, that the pruning need be as severe as
+recommended for the chestnut; in fact, having transplanted walnuts
+of various species, and of all ages from one to twenty years,
+without the loss of a plant, I have come to the conclusion that they
+are pretty safe trees to handle, in this climate, at least, if not
+elsewhere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75. SEEDLING WALNUT.]
+
+In seeking walnuts from a distance, for planting anywhere in the
+Middle or Northern States, it will be well to learn something in
+advance about the climate in which the nuts are raised; for it would
+be folly to send for either trees or nuts to a warm or semi-tropical
+region, like that of southern France or Spain, for a stock to
+cultivate in a climate as cold as that of New York, New Jersey, and
+States on the same line westward. We might, perchance, from such
+importation, secure one hardy plant in a hundred or thousand, but
+there would be no certainty of even this small number.
+
+This idea of acclimation and adaptation of trees to conditions and
+climate should not be overlooked by the nut culturist, no matter
+from what source he procures his stock, whether from abroad, or some
+distant region of his own country. If it can be obtained from a
+region where it has been growing under conditions similar to those
+to which it is to be transferred for cultivation, then the chances
+of success will certainly be largely augmented. Acclimation is a
+slow process; in fact, too slow for us to expect to secure any
+appreciable advantages from it in a lifetime, but in nature we seek
+final results, leaving time out of the question.
+
+In raising seedling trees we cannot expect much more than a
+reproduction of the species, and not that of the parent tree. Plants
+that have been subjected to unnatural conditions and surroundings,
+as usual under cultivation, are far more likely to show a wider
+range of variation in the seedlings than those growing wild in their
+native habitats; but even the latter cannot be depended upon to
+reproduce exact types from seed. In other words, there is nothing
+certain about seedling nut trees; the large nuts may produce trees
+bearing very small ones, the early-ripening give late ones, the tall
+dwarf trees and the precocious fruiting some of the most tardy
+varieties; and yet, with all this uncertainty, we still think it
+best to select for planting the best nuts obtainable, _i. e._, best
+and most promising for the conditions under which the seedlings are
+to be grown.
+
+For the multiplication and perpetuation of choice varieties we must
+resort to artificial modes of propagation, mainly by budding and
+grafting. These modes, however, while the best at present known, are
+so difficult and uncertain in cool climates,--even in the hands of
+the most skilful propagators,--that grafted walnut trees have never
+been very plentiful in the nurseries of this or other countries with
+which we have commercial relations. In the south of France
+nurserymen appear to have been more successful in the propagation of
+walnuts by budding and grafting, than elsewhere; but in the northern
+provinces, as well as in Great Britain, we hear little of this mode
+of propagation. So difficult has this mode of propagating the walnut
+been considered in England, that Thomas Andrew Knight, president of
+the London Horticultural Society, early in the present century
+discouraged all attempts to propagate this tree by such means; but
+later, in a paper read before the Society April 7, 1818, he admits
+to having changed his mind, especially in regard to budding the
+walnut, and says:
+
+    "The buds of trees of almost every species succeed with most
+    certainty when inserted on the shoots of the same year's growth;
+    but the walnut tree appears to afford an exception; possibly, in
+    some measure, because its buds contain within themselves, in the
+    spring, all the leaves which the tree bears in the following
+    summer, whence its annual shoots cease to elongate soon after
+    its buds unfold; all its buds of each season are also,
+    consequently, very nearly of the same age, and long before any
+    have acquired the proper degree of maturity for being removed,
+    the annual branches have ceased to grow longer or to produce new
+    foliage.... To obviate the disadvantage arising from the
+    preceding circumstances, I adopted means of retarding the period
+    of the vegetation of the stocks comparatively with that of the
+    bearing tree: and by these means I became partially successful.
+    There are, at the base of the annual shoots of the walnut and
+    other trees, where these join the year-old wood, many minute
+    buds which are almost concealed in the bark, and which rarely or
+    never vegetate but in the event of the destruction of the large
+    prominent buds which occupy the middle and opposite end of the
+    annual wood. By inserting in each stock one of these minute buds
+    and one of the large prominent kind, I had the pleasure to find
+    that the minute buds took freely, while the large all failed
+    without a single exception."
+
+From the above and other remarks of Mr. Knight, in the paper read by
+him, I infer that he kept the stocks in pots stored in a cool place
+in spring, until he could obtain shoots of the season from bearing
+trees, and from these minute undeveloped axillary buds for inserting
+in the stocks. These buds, as he informs us, are inserted in the
+wood of the preceding season, and near the summit or top. He does
+not give any directions for holding the buds in place, whether by
+waxed or plain bass ligatures; the former, however, would probably
+be preferable, for the purpose of excluding the air and water.
+
+Some twenty years later (1838) J. C. Loudon, in "Arboretum
+Britannicum," etc., refers to the propagation of the walnut as
+follows:
+
+    "Much has been written on the subject by French authors, from
+    which it appears that in the north of France, and in cold
+    countries generally, the walnut does not bud or graft easily by
+    any mode; but that in the south of France and north of Italy it
+    may be budded or grafted by different modes, with success. At
+    Metz, the Baron de Tschoudy found the flute method (Fig. 76)
+    almost the only one which he could practice with success. By
+    this mode an entire ring of bark, containing one or more buds,
+    is removed from a twig on a tree to be multiplied, and
+    transferred to the stock, and made to fit as shown. If the ring
+    is too large, a slice may be cut off; and if too small, a piece
+    of the bark of the stock may be left to fill the space."
+
+Both stock and parent tree must be in about the same condition or
+stage of growth when this ring budding is done, in order that the
+bark containing the bud may peel off freely from the wood, and this
+is always in the spring, soon after the buds begin to unfold and the
+sap is in motion. Loudon says that in Dauphine, France, young plants
+in the nurseries are budded chiefly by this mode, which succeeds
+best the closer the operation is performed to the collar of the
+plant; and the same is true in grafting, the nearer the root the
+better, as has been found by experience with hickories.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76. FLUTE BUDDING.]
+
+Charles Baltet, in his "L'Art de Greffer," recommends grafting in
+the usual mode of crown grafting, also flute or ring grafting, in
+April or May, and ordinary cleft grafting close to the root and at
+the forks of the branches, etc. He says that the cion should be cut,
+as much as possible, obliquely across the pith, so that it may be
+exposed on one side only. He also advises using cions whose base
+consists of wood of two years' growth, and these furnished with a
+terminal bud. He cautions propagators against grafting early-growing
+kinds upon those of later vegetation. If walnuts of any of the
+native or foreign species have been successfully propagated by
+budding or grafting, at any of the nurseries in our Eastern States,
+it has not been made known in the nurserymen's catalogues.
+
+Michael Floy, who early in the present century had quite extensive
+grounds devoted to fruit and ornamental trees, near what is now the
+center of New York city, as we learn from his "Guide to the
+Orchard," published in 1833, claims, in this work, that the Persian
+walnuts thrive well in this country, but admits that he had never
+succeeded in grafting the trees, and with the hickories had no
+better success, although he had tried them many times; but he adds:
+
+    "Still I do not say it is impossible either to bud or graft
+    them; but there is something peculiar about it, for both the bud
+    and graft turn black when cut, almost instantaneously. Others
+    may succeed better, but let them try it before they affirm it
+    upon hearsay; they may succeed very well by inarching."
+
+Coming down to the present day, in our search for facts and
+information in regard to the propagation of varieties of the walnut,
+we may find it interesting to visit California, which, of all the
+States of the Union, is perhaps the best adapted to nut culture in
+general; besides, a larger number of nut trees of various kinds have
+been planted there than elsewhere in this country. It is in
+California that we find such men as Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, an
+enthusiastic propagator and cultivator of fruit and nut trees, and
+especially of the latter, if we may judge by his works and writings
+on this branch of horticulture,--and so far as I have been able to
+learn, he is the only nurseryman in the United States who has
+grafted walnut trees of many different varieties for sale.
+
+In regard to modes of propagation, Mr. Gillet says that the common
+mode of shield budding, as employed on fruit trees, fails entirely
+with small walnuts from one to three years from the seed, and it
+does but seldom succeed even on larger stocks. When tried on large,
+old stocks, he advises removing all the wood from the inner side of
+the strip of bark on which the bud is situated, and at the same time
+have this strip not less than two inches long and as broad as
+possible. He describes his mode of grafting walnuts, which does not
+differ materially from those already given. That he has never
+attained any very remarkable results may be inferred from the
+following:
+
+        "We will add that the 'grafted walnuts' that we offer were
+    grafted expressly for us, regardless of cost, by the most
+    reliable firm to be found in the walnut district in France,
+    through a process discovered several years ago, and which we
+    will briefly describe for the benefit of people who may be
+    inclined to try this new method of grafting very young walnuts.
+
+    "One-year-old seedlings of the size of the little finger, or
+    about one-half inch in diameter at the butt, are selected, the
+    root cut back short enough to permit the planting of the trees
+    in pots of three inches in depth; the trees, previously to being
+    potted, are grafted with cions exactly of the same size, whip or
+    cleft grafting being used; the pots are then taken to a hot or
+    propagating house, and a glass bell set over them to prevent the
+    outside air getting to the grafts, the temperature of the house
+    being kept day and night, at least for fifteen days, or till the
+    grafting has taken, to 70 deg. F. When the grafts are well taken and
+    growing, the glass bells are removed, and the grafts allowed to
+    grow three or four inches, before the little grafted trees are
+    set out in nursery rows; it may be preferable, especially in
+    certain parts of the country, to keep the trees in the pots till
+    the ensuing spring. Forty to fifty per cent of the grafts will
+    succeed, and it is the best that can be done.
+
+    "This mode of grafting the walnut, besides requiring a hothouse,
+    needs the care of a skillful person to make it succeed. So are
+    grafted the little trees that we import from France, and that we
+    plant in nursery rows and offer to the public."
+
+For other modes of root grafting, I refer the reader to those
+recommended for the hickories, in the preceding chapter. Propagating
+walnuts by layers is practicable, where the small trees have been
+cut down to force out new shoots near the surface of the ground,
+then bent down and covered with soil in the usual method of layering
+woody plants.
+
+=Planting and Pruning.=--The plants will produce a greater number of
+fibrous roots if the nuts are planted in light, loose, but rich
+soil, than in a heavy, tenacious one; but with all kinds it is best
+to transplant when one or two years old, and cut off a portion of
+the taproots, as recommended for the hickories. When removed from
+the nursery rows for final planting, prune away nearly or quite all
+side branches, leaving only the terminal bud if the trees are not
+more than six to eight feet high. After final planting where the
+trees are to remain permanently, very little pruning will ever be
+required, further than to cut away branches that may cross each
+other, or to shorten some to give proper form to the head. No tree
+in cultivation requires less pruning than walnuts.
+
+As a genus of trees the walnuts flourish best in deep, rich loam,
+rather light than heavy, and in this country require considerable
+moisture at the roots, and some, like the butternut, succeed best in
+bottomlands, near creeks and larger streams. If the soil is
+naturally too dry for such trees, the fault can be readily remedied
+by the use of some form of mulch applied to the surface of the soil
+around the stem after planting, renewing this annually, or oftener
+if necessary, until the trees are large enough to shade the ground.
+
+Walnut trees, as well as the closely allied hickories, are well
+adapted for roadside planting, and when set in such positions are
+far less likely to be injured by insects than when planted in
+orchards or large groups, besides serving a double purpose, being
+ornamental as well as useful. They may also be planted around
+buildings, and where other and less valuable trees are generally
+grown. There are also millions of acres of rocky hill-sides and old
+fields which might be utilized for nut orchards, and if rather
+widely scattered over such land they would prove beneficial in
+shading the pasture grasses. First of all, however, let us have rows
+of these trees along all our country roads, after which it will be
+time enough to begin planting them elsewhere.
+
+
+SPECIES AND VARIETIES OF WALNUTS.
+
+=Native of the United States= (_Juglans cinerea._ Linn.). Butternut.
+White Walnut.--Leaflets fifteen to nineteen, oblong-lanceolate and
+sharp-pointed, rounded at the base, downy, especially on the
+underside, petioles covered with viscid hairs; fruit oblong, two or
+more inches in length, with a clammy husk, not opening when ripe,
+but closely adhering to the deeply corrugated and rough, thick
+shell. Trees with wide-spreading branches, and of medium hight, or
+from forty to fifty feet, but in deep forests sometimes sixty to
+seventy, with stems two to three feet in diameter. A common tree in
+moist soils almost everywhere, from the Canadas southward to the
+highlands of northern Georgia, Alabama, and sparingly in Mississippi
+and Arkansas, and all the States bordering the Mississippi river
+northward to Minnesota. A valuable timber tree, with soft, light
+wood, much used of late for furniture and inside house finishing. In
+early times the inner bark was employed for making a yellow dye,
+also as a medicine, the extract being a mild cathartic, hence one of
+the specific names, _Cathartica_.
+
+Synonyms.
+
+  _Juglans oblonga alba_, Marshall.
+  _Juglans cathartica_, Michaux.
+  _Carya cathartica_, Barton, 1818.
+  _Wallia cinerea_, Alefeld, 1861.
+
+=Varieties of the Butternut.=--There are to be found many varieties
+of the butternut, varying mainly in the size of the nuts, and only
+slightly in the thickness of the shell; but I am not aware that any
+of these have ever been propagated, all the trees in cultivation or
+elsewhere having been grown from the nuts. This nut is, no doubt,
+susceptible of great improvement, as well as others of the genus,
+and it is worthy of being experimented with for that purpose,
+especially in cold, northern climates, where there are few or no
+other kinds of edible nuts. Probably the most direct and surest way
+to secure improved varieties is by hybridizing, taking the butternut
+for the female parent, and the Persian walnut for the male. Hybrids
+between these two species are already known, and they will, no
+doubt, become more plentiful as soon as skillful horticulturists are
+encouraged to produce them. Several hybrid walnuts of other species
+are figured and described by European horticulturists, but, so far
+as known, they are mainly accidental productions, and not the result
+of any direct effort of man; nature, in this instance, merely giving
+a hint of the possible, leaving us to avail ourselves of the lesson
+if we feel so inclined.
+
+J. Le Conte, in a list of four hundred and fifty plants, collected
+by him on the island of New York (Manhattan), and published in the
+"Medical and Philosophical Register," Vol. II, 1812, mentions a
+hybrid walnut among the number. Dr. John Torrey, in "Catalogue of
+Plants," etc., 1819, refers to this tree under the name of _Juglans
+hybrida_, and says that it is growing near where Eighth avenue
+intersects the road called Lake Tours, about three miles from the
+city, and is a large tree. This specimen probably disappeared long
+ago, and we have no means now of determining its origin or between
+what two species it was a hybrid.
+
+Recently Prof. C. S. Sargent has discovered other hybrid walnuts in
+the neighborhood of Boston, and figured and described one in _Garden
+and Forest_ for Oct. 31, 1894. He says:
+
+    "My attention was first called to the fact by observing that a
+    tree which I had supposed was a so-called English walnut
+    (_Juglans regia_), in the grounds connected with the Episcopal
+    school of Harvard college, at Cambridge, was not injured by the
+    cold of the severest winters, although _Juglans regia_ generally
+    suffers from cold here, and rarely grows to a large size. This
+    individual is really a noble tree; the trunk forks, about five
+    feet above the surface of the ground, into two limbs, and
+    girths, at the point where its diameter is smallest, fifteen
+    feet and two inches. The divisions of the trunk spread slightly
+    and form a wide, round-topped head of pendulous branches of
+    unusual symmetry and beauty, and probably sixty to seventy feet
+    high. A closer examination of this tree showed that it was
+    hardly to be distinguished from _Juglans regia_ in habit, in the
+    character of the bark, or in the form and coloring of the
+    leaves, and that the oblong nut, with its thick shell deeply
+    sculptured into narrow ridges, was the slightly modified nut of
+    our native butternut, _Juglans regia_. Two other trees with the
+    same peculiarities were afterwards found. One is a large,
+    wide-spreading specimen, with a trunk diameter of four feet
+    three inches about two feet above the surface of the ground, and
+    just below the point where it divides into three large limbs.
+    This is on the grounds of Mr. Eben Bacon of Jamaica Plain, and
+    is supposed to have been planted between fifty and sixty years
+    ago. The other has a tall, straight trunk, with a diameter of
+    three feet one inch at three feet above the surface of the
+    ground, and is growing on a farm near Houghton's Pond, in
+    Milton, at the base of the southeastern slope of the Blue
+    Hills."
+
+That there should be hybrid walnuts is nothing strange or wonderful,
+and we often marvel that there should be so few of them in regions
+where two or more species are growing in close proximity in the same
+forest, or elsewhere, but from whence came these specimens in
+Massachusetts is somewhat of a mystery. We may safely conclude,
+however, that the hybridizing did not occur there, but somewhere
+else, and either the nuts or small seedling trees were introduced
+and planted where these hybrid specimens are now growing. It is
+possible that they are descendants of the old hybrid walnut tree of
+New York city, mentioned by Le Conte and Dr. Torrey, some one having
+sent nuts or seedlings to friends in Massachusetts, and the three
+trees described by Prof. Sargent are merely those which have
+survived until the present day, these retaining the hybrid
+characteristics of their parent. These hybrids may or may not
+possess any special economic value, but they are of considerable
+scientific interest, and for this reason alone are well worthy of
+careful preservation and extensive propagation.
+
+_Butternut Sugar._--It has often been claimed that sugar can be made
+from the native butternut tree, and while it is true that the
+sweetish sap flows readily from wounds made in this tree in early
+spring, the amount and quality of sugar to be obtained from it is
+scarcely worthy of serious attention. In my boyhood days butternut
+syrup and sugar were considered as "sticky jokes" of the sugar camp.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77. FLOWERING BRANCH OF HYBRID WALNUT.
+
+_J. regia_ x _J. Californica_.]
+
+=Hybrids in California.=--Mrs. Ninetta Eames, writing, in the
+_American Agriculturist_, of new varieties of walnuts in California,
+refers to certain species and varieties growing in that State, as
+follows:
+
+     "On one of the avenues in Santa Rosa there are some dozen or so
+    ornamental shade trees, which invariably attract the passers. It
+    is not only that they are uncommonly beautiful, but that there
+    is something unfamiliar about them. One unhesitatingly
+    pronounces them 'walnuts,' from their unmistakable likeness to
+    both the English walnut and the native species found growing
+    along the streams of middle and southern California. They are,
+    in fact, a cross between the _Juglans regia_ and _J.
+    Californica_, the wild black walnut of this State. In its
+    appearance, this magnificent hybrid is nicely balanced between
+    both parents, but it is superior to either of them in beauty and
+    luxuriance of foliage, and in its phenomenal growth. There is,
+    indeed, but one tree, the eucalyptus, that grows more rapidly.
+    In speaking of this quality in the new walnut, Mr. Luther
+    Burbank says: 'It often excels the combined growth of both
+    parents, adding twelve to sixteen feet to its hight in one year.
+    Given like conditions, a budded six-year-old hybrid is twice as
+    large as a black walnut at twenty years of age.'
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78. HYBRID WALNUT. _J. nigra_ x _J.
+Californica_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79. HYBRID WALNUT, SHELL REMOVED. _J. nigra_ x
+_J. Californica_.]
+
+    "The clean cut, bright green leaves make a remarkable showing,
+    being all the way from two feet to a yard in length, and of
+    graceful, drooping habit (Fig. 77). They are sweet-scented,
+    too,--a delightful fragrance, resembling that of June apples.
+    Another admirable feature of this hybrid walnut is its smooth,
+    grayish bark, with white marblings not unlike the Eastern sugar
+    maple. The wood is compact, with lustrous, satiny grain, and
+    takes an elegant polish, which gives it unmistakable commercial
+    value. Like the majority of hybrids, though blossoming freely it
+    yields a scant crop of nuts, one or two annually on a single
+    tree, and this only after twelve years of persistent barrenness.
+    The seed, when planted, goes back to its parent
+    distinctiveness,--one-half turning out to be English walnuts and
+    the other half black walnuts,--the true hybrid being only
+    reproduced by grafting on a thrifty young _Juglans Californica_.
+
+    "Another handsome novelty in shade trees, is a hybrid from the
+    _Juglans nigra_, or well-known Eastern black walnut, and _J.
+    Californica_ (Figs. 78 and 79). It makes a charming ornamental
+    tree, and bears, in its season, a prolific crop of unusually
+    large nuts, which have little value except in the eyes of school
+    children. Several of these hybrids are growing in Santa Rosa,
+    and present an interesting study to the pomologist.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80. JUGLANS SIEBOLDIANA RACEME.]
+
+    "A still more unique species of the walnut genus is the _Juglans
+    Sieboldiana_, a Japanese walnut which grows abundantly in the
+    mountainous districts of the island of Yesso, and also in the
+    more southern divisions of the empire. Several of these
+    remarkable trees are to be found in the Kew gardens, but only
+    one specimen is said to be growing in America, and this has
+    recently come into profuse bearing on the Burbank experimental
+    farm, eight miles from Santa Rosa, California. According to good
+    authority, this Japanese walnut not only attains its greatest
+    perfection in this favored climate, but it thrives equally well
+    in countries too cold for the common walnut, _J. regia_. In its
+    wild state in Japan, the _Juglans Sieboldiana_ (whose curious
+    raceme of nuts is shown in Fig. 80) makes a wide-spreading tree
+    about fifty feet in hight, with pale, furrowed bark; nuts an
+    inch and a half long, with a diameter one-third less, and a
+    kernel having much the flavor of the common walnut. The tree
+    bearing so thriftily on California soil, suggests its possible
+    value as a marketable nut, while it already furnishes a
+    remarkable addition to horticultural interests."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81. BLACK WALNUT IN HUSK.]
+
+JUGLANS NIGRA, Linn. Black Walnut.--Leaflets eleven to seventeen,
+rarely more; ovate-lanceolate, smooth above, moderately pubescent
+beneath, pointed, somewhat heart-shaped at the base; leaf-stalks
+slightly downy, usually of a pale purplish color early in the
+season, especially on young trees; fruit large, mostly globose (Fig.
+81); husk thin, roughly dotted; shell thick, hard, deeply and
+unevenly corrugated with rough, sharp ridges and points (Fig. 82);
+kernel large, sweet, but usually with a strong, rather rank taste,
+but less oily than the butternut. Trees grow to an immense size,
+with deeply furrowed bark; wood dark colored, valuable for cabinet
+work, inside finishing, gun stocks, etc. Common in deep, rich soils,
+from western Massachusetts west to southern Minnesota, and southward
+to Florida. Most abundant west of the Alleghany mountains, and
+especially in the rich valleys of the Western States distant from
+railroads and water communication; elsewhere the trees have long
+since been cut for their timber. I have only one synonym to record,
+and this is scarcely worthy of notice, viz.: _Wallia nigra_.
+(Alefeld in "Bonplandia," 1861.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82. JUGLANS NIGRA, HUSK REMOVED.]
+
+=Varieties of the Black Walnut.=--As with the butternut, there are
+no varieties of the black walnut in cultivation; at least, none
+propagated by means which will insure the perpetuation of their
+varietal characteristics. It is true that there are plenty of wild
+varieties to be found, these varying widely in size and form, and
+somewhat in thickness of their shell, as well as the ease with which
+the kernels may be extracted, but none of these have been
+perpetuated by artificial means. Among the earliest varieties
+recognized by botanists, one was called Oblong Black Walnut,
+_Juglans nigra oblonga_, by Miller, 1754, and perhaps in earlier
+editions of the "Gardener's Dictionary." He says this is from
+Virginia, and only a variety of the common black walnut. Marshall,
+in 1785, describes this "black oblong fruited walnut," and adds:
+"There are, perhaps, some other varieties." These oblong, or, more
+correctly speaking, oval nuts, often sharp-pointed at both ends, are
+rather plentiful at this time. There are rarely any considerable
+number of bushels reaching market from Virginia and adjacent States,
+among which these oval or oblong nuts cannot be found. I have a
+number before me measuring from one inch to one and a quarter in
+diameter, and from one and a half to nearly two inches in length.
+Other varieties found, perhaps, in the same lot, are broader than
+long, or one and seven-eighths inches broad, by one and one-half in
+vertical diameter. These measurements are of the cleaned shell,
+after the husks have been removed.
+
+For several years a "thin-shelled black walnut" has been offered by
+at least two nurserymen, in whose catalogues they are described as
+"with unusually thin shells, the kernels coming out whole." I have
+endeavored to ascertain the origin of this variety, but failed, for
+both of the nursery firms who advertised the frees for sale admit
+that they do not know from whom they obtained the nuts planted, or
+where the original tree is growing. As the trees offered are only
+seedlings, there is no certainty that they will produce nuts with
+"thin shells." We can safely drop this supposed variety from the
+list until something definite is known about it.
+
+JUGLANS CALIFORNICA, Watson. California Walnut.--Leaflets in from
+five to eight pairs, more or less downy, but sometimes smooth,
+oblong-lanceolate, sharp-pointed, narrowing upward from near the
+base, two to two and a half inches long. Male catkins much larger
+than in our Eastern species, or from four to eight inches, often in
+pairs. Fruit round, slightly compressed, three-fourths to one inch
+and a quarter in diameter; husk thin, slightly dotted or roughened;
+shell dark brown, very faintly sculptured (Fig. 83), almost smooth,
+thick, the kernel filling two broad cavities upon each side; edible
+and fairly good. A tree or large shrub in the vicinity of San
+Francisco and along the Sacramento (where it is sometimes
+cultivated), growing to the hight of forty to sixty feet, and two to
+four feet in diameter; ranging southward to Santa Barbara, and
+eastward through southern Arizona to New Mexico and Sonora (Thurber,
+"Botany of California"). This species has been considered by some
+botanists as only a variety of the next, or _Juglans rupestris_,
+var. _Major_, Torrey. Scarcely hardy in the latitude of New York
+city, except an occasional seedling from nuts gathered along the
+northern limits of the species, or from the cooler elevated regions
+of the Pacific slope. It is of no special value, only adding one
+more edible nut tree to the list.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83. JUGLANS CALIFORNICA.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84. JUGLANS RUPESTRIS, SHOWING SMALL KERNEL.]
+
+JUGLANS RUPESTRIS, Engelmann. Texas Walnut. New Mexico
+Walnut.--Leaflets thirteen to twenty-five, smooth, bright green,
+small, narrow, and long-pointed; male catkins short, or about two
+inches long, and quite slender; fruit round or oblate; husk thin,
+nearly smooth; nut small, one-half to three-fourths of an inch in
+diameter; shell very thick, rather deeply furrowed, the narrow
+grooves on the greater part continuous from base to apex, the broad
+edges of the ridges smooth, not jagged as in the butternut and black
+walnut. Kernel sweet and good, but so small (Fig. 84) as not to be
+worth the trouble of extracting. A small and neat tree twenty to
+forty feet high, native of the bottom lands of the Colorado in
+Texas, and throughout the western part of the State, extending
+through southern and central New Mexico to Arizona. In New Mexico it
+reaches an elevation of seven or eight thousand feet, though the
+climate is often severe, the temperature dropping to zero and below
+during the winter. Seedlings raised from nuts obtained near the
+northern limits of this species in Texas and New Mexico would
+probably be hardy in most of the Northern States, but they are
+scarcely worth cultivating for their nuts, owing to the small size
+and thick shell; but as the trees are neat and graceful they are
+worthy of a place among other useful and ornamental kinds. An
+occasional bearing tree of this Texas walnut may be seen in the
+gardens and parks of the Eastern States, and probably in some of the
+Western, but I have no direct information in regard to their
+locations or age.
+
+Synonyms:
+
+  _Juglans rupestris_, Torrey.
+  _Juglans Californica_, Watson, Bot. California.
+
+=Oriental Walnuts.=--How few or many species of the walnut are
+indigenous to China, Korea, Japan and other Oriental countries it
+would be very difficult to determine, with our present limited
+knowledge of the forests of that part of the world. The few
+botanists who have had opportunities of studying the flora of those
+regions do not agree as to names or number of species of the genus.
+Loureiro, in his "Flora Cochinchinensis" (1788), names three species
+as indigenous to China, viz.: _Juglans regia_ in the northern part,
+but this is now considered very doubtful; _Juglans Camirium_,
+Rhumphius, a medium-sized, heart-shaped nut, the trees found in the
+forests, and also under cultivation; _Juglans Catappa_, a large
+forest tree in the Cochin China mountains, with oblong, edible nuts,
+with husk and shell of nuts of a reddish color. Many years later
+Siebold describes a Japan walnut under the name of _Juglans
+Japonica_, and still later the Russian botanist, Maxiomowicz,
+renames this, in honor of Siebold, _Juglans Sieboldiana_, and
+describes another native of Japan as _Juglans cordiformis_. But
+prior to any of the authors named, Thunberg had described a Japan
+walnut under the name of _Juglans nigra_, probably the same as
+Loureiro's species, with reddish husk, but as this name had already
+been given to an American species it had to be dropped. Maxiomowicz
+also describes what he supposed to be a distinct species, found in
+the forests of Mandshuria under the name of _J. Mandshurica_ (1872),
+but it is doubtful if it is anything more than one of the many wild
+forms of the species found widely distributed over eastern Asia. The
+red or black fruited walnut of Loureiro (_J. Catappa_), and
+Siebold's black walnut (_J. nigra_), are probably the same as the
+Ailantus-leaved (_J. ailantifolia_), recently described in
+Nicholson's "Dictionary of Gardening," London, Eng., 1884, the
+origin of which is said to be uncertain. It is _Juglans
+Mandshurica_, Maxim, in Alphonse Lavallee's "Catalogue of Arboretum
+Segrezianum." As described in this work, the young fruit is
+violet-red, and produced in long pendulous clusters, the latter
+being one of the marked characteristics of these Oriental walnuts.
+But whether we admit that there is but one or a dozen species of
+these Eastern walnuts, it cannot be of any special interest to the
+practical nut culturist, for to him their economic and commercial
+value is of more importance than scientific nomenclature.
+
+Up to the present time we have only succeeded in obtaining two
+species of these walnuts, or perhaps only one species and one
+variety; but we certainly have two distinct forms, both coming from
+Japan, and distributed under the names given them by Maxiomowicz,
+viz.:
+
+JUGLANS SIEBOLDIANA (Siebold Walnut).--Leaflets sessile, usually
+fifteen, five to seven inches long, oblong-pointed, thin, soft,
+downy, serratures very shallow, pale green above and somewhat
+lighter beneath; footstalks densely clothed with clammy hairs; fruit
+in long pendulous clusters of a half dozen to a dozen, one and a
+half inches or more long by a little more than one inch broad in the
+middle; husk thin, downy or clammy; nut somewhat compressed, the
+point usually bending to one side; shell smooth, with two shallow
+grooves from base upward on the sides opposite to the sharp,
+prominent ridges at the seams of the two lobes, the shell ending in
+a strong, sharp point (Fig. 85). The shell is very hard and thick;
+the kernel small, sweet, oily, resembling in taste our common
+butternut; tree a rapid and stocky grower, the coarse shoots and
+large leaves resembling those of the Ailantus tree at first, but
+soon spreading branches appear, forming an open, roundish head. The
+seedlings, as raised here, are abundantly supplied with small
+fibrous roots, which insures transplanting with safety. Apparently
+perfectly hardy in our Northern States, as I have heard no
+complaints of winter-killing of the young trees, although they are
+now widely distributed and in considerable numbers, but none, so far
+as I have been able to learn, have reached a bearing age here in the
+North.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85. JUGLANS SIEBOLDIANA.]
+
+Mr. P. C. Berckmans, of Augusta, Ga., in writing me under date of
+Dec. 3, 1894, says:
+
+    "Last year we fruited _Juglans Sieboldiana_ trees four years
+    from the seed. Fruit was produced in long clusters, and trees
+    exceedingly ornamental, but this year these same trees were
+    killed to the ground on the 26th of March, after they had set a
+    crop of fruit and made a young growth of more than twelve
+    inches. This untimely frost may not happen again in years, but
+    it goes to show that many varieties of trees which are
+    considered hardy further north, are sometimes destroyed here by
+    spring frosts."
+
+As these Japanese and Chinese walnuts are natives of cold climates
+they may be better adapted to the Northern than Southern States, but
+there is no locality entirely exempt from late spring frosts, as
+most farmers and fruit growers learned to their cost the past
+season. There can be little doubt of this species of walnut being
+the one described by Rhumphius under the name of _J. Camirium_, and
+more fully later by Loureiro, as already noted; but having come to
+us from Japan as Siebold's walnut, this name will answer as well as
+any other, even if it is not the proper one.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86. JUGLANS CORDIFORMIS.]
+
+JUGLANS CORDIFORMIS, Maxim.--In foliage and growth of tree this is
+almost, if not absolutely, identical with the last; the difference
+observed is in the nuts, which are also produced in pendulous
+clusters. The form of the nut is almost round (Fig. 86), rather
+blunt-pointed, but the shell is deeply and unevenly furrowed, and
+indented somewhat like our black walnut; the ridges, however, are
+not as sharp. The specimens I have received from various sources are
+not as large as the Siebold, and the shell not quite as thick, but
+the kernel is small. I may note here that there appears to be some
+confusion in regard to this variety or species, for in several
+nurserymen's catalogues this form of nut is figured as Siebold's,
+and the one that I have described under that name is called
+_Cordiformis_. The specimens received from California, Japan, and
+also from Mr. Berckmans, correspond with the names here given, but
+further investigations may show that they should be reversed. The
+one I have received as _Cordiformis_ is, doubtless, the nut
+described by Loureiro as _J. Catappa_, as an ovate-oblong nut, with
+a fibrous, leathery, reddish husk.
+
+While I do not suppose that these Oriental walnuts will ever become
+of any considerable commercial value, they are worth planting for
+shade and ornamental trees. They are rather precocious, coming into
+bearing at an early age, and the nuts are not only edible, but will
+always be an acceptable addition to the unimportant although
+agreeable household supplies.
+
+=Persian Walnuts.= _Juglans regia_, Linn. Royal Walnut, Madeira Nut,
+English Walnut, French Walnut, Chile Walnut, etc.--Leaflets five to
+nine, oval, smooth, pointed, slightly serrate; fruit round or
+slightly oval; husk thin, green, of a leathery texture, becoming
+brittle and cleaving from the nut when ripe and dry; nut
+roundish-oval, smallest at the top; shell smooth, with slight
+indentations, thin, two-valved, readily parting at the seams; kernel
+large, wrinkled and corrugated, the two lobes separated below with a
+thin, papery partition, but united at the top; sweet, oily, and
+generally esteemed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87. SMALL FRUITED WALNUT.]
+
+This species has been in cultivation many centuries, and in
+different countries and climates, and under such variable conditions
+that many of the varieties have departed widely from the normal
+type. There are now an almost innumerable number of varieties,
+varying greatly in size and form. Some are not larger than a
+good-sized pea, as seen in the "Small Fruited Walnut" (Fig. 87),
+while others are nearly as large as a man's fist, as in the
+thick-shelled or "Gibbous Walnut" (Fig. 92), while in others the nut
+is greatly elongated, as in the "Barthere Walnut" (Fig. 88), and
+hundreds of other intermediate forms. There are also varieties that
+bloom early in spring, others late. Some are very hardy, others
+quite tender in cold climates. There are also dwarf and
+tall-growing, as well as the precocious and tardy fruiting
+varieties. But very few of these have ever been cultivated in our
+Eastern States, consequently little is known of their value here;
+but more may be in the near future, when our horticulturists and
+farmers begin to plant nut trees as freely as they have other kinds,
+or are awakened to the fact that such trees can be made a source of
+pleasure and profit.
+
+Here in the Northern States our main dependence for hardy and
+productive trees of this species will be upon seedlings or cions
+from those acclimated specimens which have already been thoroughly
+tested and found to be both hardy and prolific. There are plenty of
+these, as I have stated elsewhere, and they are well worthy of
+attention and multiplication until something better is produced or
+discovered. In the meantime, the most promising European varieties
+could be imported and tested, although it is not probable that those
+originating in southern France and Italy would be of much value for
+planting in the latitude of New York city or north of it, but south
+of this line the chances of success would be somewhat greater; and
+to escape injury from late spring frosts, the more elevated regions
+are preferable to the lower and warmer anywhere in the Southern
+States. In anticipation of the question being asked, I will say
+that, at present, I do not know of any nurseryman in the Eastern
+States who propagates or imports named varieties of walnuts for
+sale. Of course, seedlings of these are offered, but it is well
+known that there is but a remote chance of these coming true from
+seed. Even the little dwarf French walnut _Praeparturiens_, or Early
+Prolific, cannot be depended upon to produce dwarf or early bearing
+trees beyond the first generation from the nut, and these must be
+the product of grafted trees, to insure this much. The following
+list contains the names of only a few of the most noted varieties,
+the greater part having originated in Europe.
+
+AILANTUS-LEAVED WALNUT. See Oriental walnuts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88. BARTHERE WALNUT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89. CHABERTE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90. CHILE WALNUT.]
+
+BARTHERE WALNUTS. See Fig. 88.--A very long nut, pointed at both
+ends. Shell thin; kernel large and of excellent flavor. Named after
+M. Barthere, a horticulturist of Toulouse, France, who discovered it
+growing among a number of other trees; consequently, its origin is a
+mystery. M. Barthere says that it is very productive, and even the
+seedlings of this variety begin to bear very early.
+
+CHABERTE.--An old standard French variety, of an oval shape; medium
+size, with very full and rich flavored kernel (Fig. 89). The tree
+buds and blooms late, therefore especially valuable in localities
+where late spring frosts are likely to occur.
+
+CHILE WALNUT.--This name is given, in a general way, to all the
+walnuts received in our markets from South America. The nuts are
+usually of good size, with a dark grayish shell; thin but firm, with
+plump kernels of excellent flavor. These nuts arrive in February and
+March. Many of the Chile walnuts have three valves (Fig. 90),
+instead of the normal two. Such freaks are occasionally found among
+the European varieties, also in the native hickories, but these
+tri-valved nuts appear to be very abundant among the Chile walnuts.
+
+CLUSTER WALNUT. RACEMOSA OR SPICATA.--Described by Mr. Gillet as a
+variety of the Persian walnut, producing medium, thin-shelled nuts
+in long clusters of from eight to twenty-eight. He also says that he
+introduced it into this country, but from whence we are not
+informed. Lavellee (1877) records it as a variety of _J. regia_,
+under the name of _racemosa_, giving its synonym as _Juglans
+Californica_ of the horticulturists. I have not found it mentioned
+elsewhere.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91. CUT-LEAVED WALNUT.]
+
+CUT-LEAVED WALNUT.--A variety with deeply cut leaves; very
+ornamental, as seen in Fig. 91. Nuts quite small, but of good
+quality.
+
+FRANQUETTE.--Another old standard French variety, with large,
+elongated-oval nuts with a distinct point. Shell thin; kernel large,
+and of rich flavor. The tree blooms late; valuable for planting in
+the South.
+
+GANT OR BIJOU WALNUT.--A remarkable variety on account of its
+extraordinary size. The shell is thin, with rather deep furrows,
+those of the largest size being made into ladies' companions, where
+to stow away gloves or handkerchiefs, hence the name "Gant" walnut.
+The kernel, though, does not correspond to the size of the shell
+(Gillet).
+
+GIBBOUS WALNUT (Fig. 92).--This is a very large variety, supposed to
+be a hybrid, raised in France many years ago. It is of little value,
+as the shell is very thick and kernel small. Valuable mainly for its
+immense size.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92. GIBBOUS WALNUT.]
+
+KAGHAZI.--This is supposed to be a variety of the Persian walnut, of
+fair size, with a very thin shell. The tree blooms very late in
+spring, and for this reason is recommended for localities where
+there is danger from injury by frost. The tree is said to be a very
+rapid grower, and much more hardy than the general run of varieties
+of this species. I have been unable to learn its origin, but it has
+been planted quite extensively in California, and some of our
+Eastern nurserymen are offering the seedling trees for sale, but
+whether they will possess the merits of the original or not must be
+determined by experience.
+
+LARGE-FRUITED PRAEPARTURIENS.--A sub-variety of the Praeparturiens,
+originating with Mr. Felix Gillet of California.
+
+LATE PRAEPARTURIENS.--Also originated with Mr. Gillet. Valuable
+because the trees bloom late in spring. Nuts described as of medium
+size, but with full kernels of excellent quality.
+
+MAYETTE.--Very large (Fig. 93), with a light-colored shell of
+moderate thickness. Kernel plump, readily extracted whole, as shown
+in Fig. 94, sweet, and a rich, nutty flavor. Tree blooms late and is
+very productive. An old and standard French variety.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93. MAYETTE.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94. KERNEL OF WALNUT.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95. J. REGIA OCTOGONA.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96. CROSS SECTION.]
+
+MESANGE OR PAPER-SHELL.--This nut has the thinnest shell of any
+variety known; it derives its name of Mesange from a little lark of
+that name, that goes to the kernel through the tender shell. Tree
+very productive, and the kernel quite rich in oil. We do not,
+however, recommend the growing of this variety for market, on
+account of the thinness of the shell, which breaks off too easily in
+handling the nuts, or even when they drop on the ground (Felix
+Gillet).
+
+MEYLAN WALNUT.--A French variety that originated near the little
+village of Meylan, in the vicinity of which it is quite extensively
+cultivated for home use and export.
+
+OCTOGONA.--Of uncertain origin, but very much resembles one of the
+Oriental species in the form and sculpture of the shell (Fig. 95).
+The shell is also very thick, as shown in the cross section (Fig.
+96). Of no special value.
+
+PARISIENNE WALNUT.--Although this was named for the city of Paris it
+did not originate there, but in the South of France. It is a large
+and rather broad variety, with a firm but thin shell (Fig. 97) and
+excellent flavored kernel. It is reported that this variety succeeds
+in California, also in the South wherever tried. The trees leaf out
+late in spring and are rarely injured by frosts, and are remarkably
+productive.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97. PARISIENNE.]
+
+PRAEPARTURIENS. Precocious Dwarf Prolific.--A French variety of a
+dwarf habit, and the plants noted for bearing when very young. A
+correspondent of _The Garden_ (London, Eng.), referring to this
+variety some years ago, says:
+
+    "It is precocious on account of the singular and exceptional
+    fact that it is born almost an adult; in fact, it is nothing
+    uncommon to see a tree in its third year bearing excellent
+    fruit."
+
+He does not say, however, whether he refers to seedlings or grafted
+plants, but we may presume the latter or those raised from layers,
+for cultivators who have experimented with seedlings have found that
+they possess a strong tendency to revert to the original or tree
+form. This may not show itself very strongly in the first generation
+if the nuts are obtained from grafted trees of some age, but in the
+second and third generation the early-fruiting and dwarf are usually
+entirely lost. The only certain way of securing the true variety is
+by grafting or layering, but it is to be feared that very few trees
+propagated by these modes are in cultivation, at least in the
+Eastern States, although nurserymen have been offering Praeparturiens
+walnut trees in their catalogues during the past fifty years. In one
+now before me, published in New York city in 1844, trees of this
+walnut are offered at one dollar each, or about what is charged for
+seedlings at the present time. As nothing is said in the catalogues
+about the mode of propagation, we infer that they are seedlings, as
+grafted trees would be worth more than one dollar. The nuts of this
+dwarf walnut are of medium size, thin-shelled and of excellent
+flavor; valuable for gardens of limited extent.
+
+SEROTINA. Late Walnut, St. John Walnut.--A very peculiar sort,
+inasmuch as it is the latest of all to bud and bloom in spring, and
+yet it pushes forward so rapidly that the nuts are ripe with others
+in the fall. They are of medium size (Fig. 98), with a rather hard
+shell, but the kernel is plump and good flavored. The tree is very
+productive, and sure to escape late spring frosts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98. SEROTINA OR ST. JOHN.]
+
+VILMORIN.--This is claimed to be a hybrid between some variety of
+_J. regia_ and our native black walnut, _J. nigra_. Scarcely known
+outside of France.
+
+VOUREY.--A new and splendid variety raised near Vourey, a small town
+in southeast France. It has much the same shape and qualities of the
+Parisienne walnut (Gillet).
+
+VARIEGATED WALNUT.--A handsome variety, with young branches covered
+with dark-green bark spotted with gray, and often striped
+longitudinally with yellow. The leaves resemble those of the common
+walnut; the fruit is of a light yellowish-green streaked with darker
+green, and reminds one closely of certain varieties of pears which,
+in common with this variety, frequently have their young branches
+striped in a similar manner. Propagated by grafting or layers. (_The
+Garden._)
+
+WEEPING WALNUT.--A tree with pendulous twigs and branches. Quite
+ornamental, but not especially valuable for its fruit. Hardy in
+England.
+
+In addition to those described, there are a large number of
+varieties, which may be worth importing and testing in this country,
+by those who may feel inclined to make experiments with these nuts.
+Probably some of those highly extolled by earlier writers are now
+lost, but this cannot be determined until a careful search through
+the old European gardens has been made.
+
+Among the early-fruiting or precocious varieties we find an account
+of one raised by Anthony Carlisle, of England, as recorded in a
+paper read at a meeting of the Horticultural Society of London,
+March 3, 1812. Mr. Carlisle planted six nuts in March, 1802, these
+having been received from Mr. Thomas Wedgewood of Blandford. Six
+years later, or in 1808, one of the seedlings bore and matured ten
+walnuts, and the next season (1809) upwards of fifty, and in 1810
+one hundred and twelve, the tree at that age being nineteen feet
+seven and one-half inches high. Another variety, under the name of
+Highflyer walnut, is described in the Transactions of the same
+society, Vol. IV, 1822, p. 517. The nuts sent to the society were
+grown in the town of Thetford, and are described as a long oval,
+with a shell so very thin that the slightest pressure of the fingers
+crushes it. I find that this Highflyer walnut is mentioned in the
+recently published "Dictionary of Gardening," but whether obtainable
+in English nurseries or not we are left in doubt.
+
+I refer to these English varieties mainly to show that some of the
+very best and thinnest-shelled walnuts have been grown in cool
+climates, and are not confined entirely to the warm or
+semi-tropical, as many persons seem to suppose and even claim to be
+the fact. It is principally from these English walnuts, as they are
+usually termed, that our hardy old-bearing trees, referred to
+elsewhere, have been produced, and, doubtless, many more will be,
+when we begin to pay some attention to this very valuable nut. It is
+also quite likely that when our horticulturists look about for
+choice acclimated varieties for propagation, they will be found
+right here in the grounds of next-door neighbors, and there may be
+no necessity of sending to Europe or elsewhere for either nuts or
+trees.
+
+At present there is much confusion and uncertainty in regard to the
+identity and nomenclature of both species and varieties of the
+walnut, and it must remain so until they are collected from all
+countries and climes, of which they are either native or into which
+they have been introduced, and when so collected, and fruiting
+specimens produce, it will not be difficult to classify and
+determine their synonyms. This will be an undertaking scarcely to be
+expected of the individual nut culturist, but is within the
+legitimate line of the arboretum, and of public botanical gardens
+located in both cold and warm climates, thereby securing a division
+of labor, and at the same time avoiding the uncertainty of trying to
+produce practical results under uncongenial conditions and
+surroundings.
+
+=Husking Walnuts.=--The husks of nearly all the varieties of the
+Persian and Oriental walnuts part from their shells freely when
+fully ripened and dried, but in a few varieties the husks are rather
+persistent, requiring force and friction for their removal. This may
+be accomplished by placing them in bags and shaking, or in barrels
+and rolling, until the nuts are scraped clean. But the better way,
+where there is any considerable quantity of nuts to be operated
+upon, is to take a strong barrel or cask, and so arrange it on
+standards that it can be rapidly revolved with a crank attached to
+one end. Of course, the cask must have its two heads left in place,
+and an opening made in the side to admit the nuts and remove them
+when cleaned. Almost any man handy with tools can make such a
+cleaner and polisher in a few hours, and if stored in a dry place it
+will last for several years. With butternuts and black walnuts the
+husks are much tougher, and they should be thrown into heaps in the
+open air, and turned over occasionally until the husks become
+softened sufficiently to permit of their removal, in case they are
+to be sent to market. Ordinary threshing machines may be used for
+cleaning the husks from black walnuts, by removing about one-half
+the teeth, or enough to allow the nuts to pass through without
+breaking their shells.
+
+Most of the hickories drop from the husk, leaving the nut clean; but
+in some varieties of the pecan the inner part of the husk adheres
+rather tenaciously, and they sell better if cleaned; besides, some
+have rather rough and thick shells, and a little scraping and
+polishing adds much to their appearance. The revolving cask, either
+worked by hand or other power, is an excellent implement for
+preparing these nuts for market, and if the husk is very persistent,
+a little dry sand thrown in will aid in cleaning and polishing.
+Sometimes these nuts are subjected to what is called the soapstone
+polish, leaving the shells very smooth, with a greasy feel. The
+French walnuts, which are extensively imported under the general
+name of Grenoble walnuts, are usually bleached with sulphur before
+they are shipped, and while this adds nothing to the quality of the
+kernel, the sulphur is an excellent insecticide and fungicide, and
+may be of some use on that account; but otherwise it is likely to be
+more injurious than beneficial. As bleaching both walnuts and
+almonds is often insisted upon by dealers, I give the process
+suggested by Director Hilgard, of the California Agricultural
+Experiment Station, which he believes will prove more satisfactory
+than the one usually employed, and is as follows:
+
+    "The nuts, placed in small baskets (such as the Chinese use for
+    carrying), are dipped for about five minutes in a solution
+    containing to every fifty gallons of water six pounds of
+    bleaching powder and twelve pounds of sal soda. They are then
+    rinsed with a hose, and after draining, again dipped into
+    another solution containing one per cent of bisulphite of lime;
+    after the nuts have assumed the desired tint, they are again
+    rinsed with water and then dried. Instead of the second dipping,
+    the nuts may be sulphured (fumigated) for ten or fifteen
+    minutes. The cost of fifty gallons of chlorine dip will be about
+    forty cents; the same bulk of the bisulphite dip, probably
+    considerably less. The time occupied in handling one batch (two
+    dips) is from twelve to fifteen minutes."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99. THE CATERPILLAR.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100. THE REGAL WALNUT MOTH--CITHERONIA REGALIS.]
+
+=Insect Enemies.=--The walnut is attacked by the same kinds of
+insects that infest the hickories, with, perhaps, a few exceptions;
+as, for instance, the bark beetles and the nut weevils. The leaves
+appear to be more or less acceptable food for the caterpillars that
+feed on the hickories, and the same insecticides and means employed
+for destroying these pests on one will answer for the other.
+
+The caterpillars of some of the smaller kinds of moths are, as a
+rule, far more destructive to the leaves than the larger, and their
+ravages often escape notice until it is too late for the use of
+preventives, or for their destruction with insecticides.
+
+Ever since I became connected with the New York city press, some
+thirty odd years ago, scarcely a season has passed during which one
+or more specimens of the Regal walnut caterpillar (_Citheronia
+regalis_), shown in Fig. 99, have not been received from some
+correspondent who had found them crawling down the stem or on the
+ground near a walnut tree. Such a large caterpillar would naturally
+attract the attention of almost any person, but to the timid its
+appearance is exceedingly ferocious and repulsive, while to the
+entomologist it is a beautiful and interesting creature, and far
+more likely to be handled with care than injured. This caterpillar
+is of a green color, and transversely banded across each of the
+rings with pale blue. The head and legs are of an orange color, also
+the long spine or horns, with the points tipped with black. It is
+certainly very formidable in appearance, but perfectly harmless, and
+may be handled with impunity. The parent moth (Fig. 100) has fore
+wings of an olive color, ornamented with small yellow spots and
+veined with red lines. The hind wings are orange-red, with two large
+irregular yellow patches before, and a row of wedge-shaped olive
+colored spots between the veins behind. Although this insect appears
+to be widely distributed over the country, and the caterpillars feed
+on the walnuts and occasionally on the hickory, it has never been
+known to be sufficiently numerous to attract any special attention.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS NUTS--EDIBLE AND OTHERWISE.
+
+In the following list of plants there are a few that in no way can
+be considered as related to the true nut-bearing trees and shrubs;
+but as the word "nut" has been attached as a prefix or affix in
+commerce, or elsewhere, they are admitted, even if for no other
+purpose than to designate their true position in the vegetable
+kingdom. For convenience, they are recorded in alphabetical order,
+the most familiar of the common names--where there are more than
+one--being given precedence, the botanical or scientific following,
+with a brief description, as my limited space will not permit of
+anything more extended.
+
+It is not claimed that this catalogue of nuts is complete, but it is
+probably as near it as any heretofore compiled and published, and it
+may serve as the basis for a better and more extended one at some
+future time.
+
+ACORN, OR OAK NUT.--The fruit of the oak, Quercus (_Cupuliferae_),
+monoecious, evergreen and deciduous trees and shrubs, with alternate
+and simple straight-veined leaves. A very large genus, of about two
+hundred and fifty species, mainly in the temperate region of the
+northern hemisphere. There are some forty species native of the
+United States. The nuts are, on the whole, rather too harsh and
+bitter flavored to be esteemed or considered edible by civilized
+nations at the present day, but in former times some of the oak nuts
+were often an important article among the garnered food of the
+household. They were used--and are still, in some countries--boiled,
+roasted, and even ground and made into bread and cakes. They have
+also been used as a substitute for coffee, and for malt in making
+beer. Strabo says that in the mountains of Spain the inhabitants
+ground their acorns into meal, and Pliny affirms that in his time
+acorns were brought to the table with the dessert, in Spain. Every
+student of English history is well aware of the importance of the
+acorn, not only as food for man, in Great Britain, in the time of
+the Druids, and later, but also for feeding swine, deer, and other
+wild and domesticated animals. But with the advance of civilization
+and the production of better food, the oak nut ceased to be classed
+among the important culinary supplies. There are, however, a few
+species of the oak yielding nuts fairly edible in their raw state,
+and these are much improved by roasting. The best of those among our
+native species are to be found in the varieties of the white oaks of
+the North, and in the evergreen (_Quercus virens_) of the Southern
+States. But with so many far superior species of edible nuts, it is
+very doubtful if any of the oaks will ever be cultivated for their
+fruit.
+
+AUSTRALIAN CHESTNUT.--The seeds of a large tree, native of
+Australia, the _Castanospermum australe_, the name of the genus
+being derived from _Kastanon_, chestnut, and _sperma_, a seed,
+because the seeds resemble, in size and taste, the common chestnut.
+But the tree belongs to the bean family (_Leguminosae_), and the
+seeds are produced in large, long pods. They are about an inch and a
+half broad, somewhat flattened, and of the color of a chestnut when
+ripe. They are roasted and eaten by the natives, but are rather
+unpalatable to those who have been accustomed to something better in
+the way of edible nuts. These seeds are also known as "Moreton Bay
+chestnuts."
+
+AUSTRALIAN HAZELNUT.--The fruit of _Macadamia ternifolia_
+(_Proteaceae_). There are two species, both evergreen trees or tall
+shrubs confined to eastern Australia. The fruit is a kind of drupe
+with a fleshy exterior, enclosing a hard shelled nut, not unlike a
+small walnut. The kernel, when mature, has a rich and agreeable
+flavor, much like but richer than the hazelnut, hence one of its
+local names, for it is also known as "Queensland nut." This nut tree
+would probably thrive in southern Florida, and in the warmer parts
+of California.
+
+BEN NUT.--Fruit of _Moringa aptera_ (_Moringeae_). Small, unarmed
+trees; only three species in the order, these inhabiting tropical
+Asia, northern Africa and the West Indies. The one producing the ben
+nuts grows from fifteen to twenty feet high, and is found in upper
+Egypt, Syria and Arabia. The seeds,--or nuts, as they are
+called,--are produced in capsules or seed-pods about a foot long,
+and while not edible, an oil is expressed from them which is largely
+used in the manufacture of perfumery, and known in commerce as ben
+oil. Another species, the _M. pterygosperma_, or winged-seeded
+Moringa, is known as the horse-radish tree, the bark of the roots
+being used as a substitute for horse-radish.
+
+BETEL NUT OR PINANG.--The fruit of a lofty palm, _Areca Catechu_
+(_Palmaceae_). A native of Cochin China, the Malayan Peninsula, and
+adjacent islands. A slender-stemmed palm, with regular pinnate
+leaves and long, narrow leaflets. The fruit is produced on an erect,
+fleshy spike, each fruit about the size of a hen's egg, with a
+thick, fibrous rind or husk, enclosing a hard nut somewhat like an
+ordinary nutmeg. These are used by being cut into small pieces or
+slices, then rolled up in a leaf of the betel pepper (_Piper
+betel_), a little lime sprinkled over it, and then chewed or held in
+the mouth, as practiced by those who use tobacco for chewing. This
+habit of chewing the betel nut is said to be almost universal among
+the Malayan races, all carrying a box containing the nut leaf and
+lime. These nuts are shipped in large quantities to countries where
+they do not grow, and the habit of chewing them has spread
+enormously, of late years, and is likely to increase, as it has with
+tobacco; and the effect upon the users is said to be very similar,
+although some authorities claim that the betel is the most injurious
+of the two, having a far more deleterious effect upon the teeth and
+gums. But this may be due to the use of the lime. Travelers in
+countries where these nuts are in common use tell wonderful tales
+about the invigorating effects of the betel, and how their
+assistants and followers are enabled, by its use, to perform the
+most exhausting labor for days at a time, which, without it, would
+be impossible. We have no doubt that the users of tobacco will claim
+just as much for this narcotic weed, and probably could produce as
+many trustworthy witnesses in support of it. The betel is, like
+tobacco, a narcotic stimulant, and causes giddiness in persons
+unaccustomed to it, excoriates the mouth, and is so burning that
+Western nations will be slow to adopt this Eastern habit.
+
+BLADDER NUT.--A rather inappropriate name for the seed pods and
+small seeds of one of our common large deciduous shrubs, the
+_Staphylea trifolia_. It is sometimes planted for ornament. The
+small white flowers are produced in hanging racemes, succeeded by
+large bladdery pods, hence its common name.
+
+BRAZIL NUT.--The fruit of _Bertholletia excelsa_, a lofty tree of
+the myrtle family (_Myrtaceae_). The tree attains a height of from
+one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet, with stems three to four
+feet in diameter. The leaves are broad, smooth, and about two feet
+long, rather thick, and of the texture of leather. The fruit is
+produced mainly on the uppermost branches, and is globular, four to
+six inches in diameter, with a brittle husk on the outside, and
+within this a hard, tough, woody shell, fully one-half inch thick,
+containing a large number of the closely packed, three-sided, rough
+nuts, about an inch and a half to two inches or over in length, as
+seen in Fig. 101. The kernels are very white, solid and oily. When
+mature the fruit falls entire, and the natives of the country
+collect them, splitting the shells to obtain the nuts. An occasional
+entire fruit is sent to other countries, as a curiosity, or for the
+cabinet of some botanist. The Brazil nut is not only indigenous to
+Brazil, but also of Guiana, Venezuela (forming immense forests on
+the Orinoco, where they are called Juvia), and southward on the Rio
+Negra and in the valley of the Amazon. In fact, the supply appears
+to be inexhaustible; the only difficulty is in getting the nuts from
+the forests to some point where they can be shipped out of the
+country. The principal export is from Para, but there are many
+smaller cities and towns where a load of these nuts may be obtained
+on short notice. A very superior oil may be obtained from the nuts,
+by pressure, but the principal use for them is for desserts and
+confectionery. They are always abundant in our city markets.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101. BRAZIL NUT.]
+
+BREAD NUT.--The fruit of a large tree, the _Brosimum Alicastrum_, of
+the bread fruit family (_Artocarpaceae_), native of the West Indies,
+but best known in Jamaica. The botanical authorities disagree in
+regard to this species, some claiming that it is a large tree, with
+wood similar to mahogany; others that it is only a small shrub, only
+five or six feet high. It has lance-shaped leaves, male and female
+flowers in globular heads, and usually on separate trees. The fruit
+is about the size of a plum, containing one seed or nut, which is
+only edible after roasting.
+
+BUFFALO NUT.--See Oil nut.
+
+BUTTERNUT.--See Souari nut.
+
+BYZANTIUM NUT.--See Filberts, Chap. VI.
+
+CANDLE NUTS.--A small evergreen tree, the _Aleurites triloba_ of the
+spurgewort family (_Euphorbiaceae_). It is a native of most warm
+countries of the East: India, Malay, southern Japan, and nearly all
+the islands of the Pacific ocean, and in some of these it is
+cultivated for the fruit, which is about two inches in diameter. In
+the center there is a hard nut, very oily, with the flavor of the
+walnut. The oil obtained from these nuts is in common use among the
+natives of the Polynesian islands. In the Hawaiian group the kernels
+are strung on a small, dry stick, which serves the purpose of a
+wick, and then one end lighted, as with an ordinary tallow or wax
+candle, hence probably the common name of candle nut. These nuts are
+said to be used in the same way in India. Large quantities of oil is
+also expressed from them and used for various purposes, and
+occasionally small quantities are exported to European countries.
+
+CAPE CHESTNUT.--The name of a beautiful evergreen ornamental tree,
+native of south Africa, and recently introduced into European
+gardens from the Cape of Good Hope, hence its common, and its
+specific scientific name, _Calodendron capense_. It belongs to the
+Rue family (_Rutaceae_). The flowers are red, produced in long
+terminal racemes, the tree growing about forty feet high, and said
+to be one of the finest trees of that part of Africa. It is now
+under trial in Florida. Why called a chestnut I have been unable to
+discover.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102. THE CASHEW NUT.]
+
+CASHEW NUT.--A large shrub or small tree, native of the West Indies,
+and for this reason often referred to as the "Western Cashew," or
+_Anacardium occidentale_. It belongs to the Terebinth family
+(_Anacardium_), consequently is closely related to our native poison
+sumachs (_Rhus_). The tree is an evergreen, with entire
+feather-veined leaves; flowers of a reddish color, very small,
+sweet-scented, and produced in terminal panicles. The fruit is
+kidney-shaped, and borne on a fleshy receptacle, and when ripe of
+reddish or yellow color. The nut proper is enclosed in a leathery
+covering, consisting of two layers, between which is deposited a
+thick, caustic, oily substance, exceedingly acrid; but this is
+eliminated by heat, so that when the kernels are roasted they have a
+pleasant flavor and are highly esteemed for dessert. Some care is
+required in roasting these nuts, as the fumes given off during this
+operation cause inflammation of the eyes. The nuts also yield an
+excellent oil, very similar to the best olive oil. Although
+originally found only in the West Indies, this nut is now widely
+distributed throughout the tropical countries of the East; in fact,
+naturalized in all hot climates, and is also under trial in southern
+Florida.
+
+CAUCASIAN WALNUT. WINGED WALNUT.--The winged fruit of _Pterocarya
+fraxinifolia_, also known as _P. Caucasica_ of nurserymen's
+catalogues. It belongs to the walnut family (_Juglandaceae_), and is
+a tree growing thirty to forty feet high, somewhat resembling the
+common ash (_Fraxinus_). It is a pretty, hardy, ornamental tree,
+thriving only in moist soils. Seeds on winged nuts produced in long,
+drooping racemes, but of no special value. Introduced into England
+from Caucasus in 1800, and now plentiful here in nurseries.
+
+CHESTNUT.--See Chapter V; also Horse-chestnut, and Moreton Bay,
+Tahiti and Water chestnuts.
+
+CHOCOLATE NUT OR BEAN.--The seeds of a small tropical tree,
+_Theobroma Cacao_, of the chocolate nut family (_Sterculiaceae_).
+Indigenous to tropical America, but now cultivated more or less
+extensively in all hot climates. The tree grows from fifteen to
+twenty feet high, with long, pointed, smooth leaves. The flowers are
+small, yellow, and produced from the old wood of both stems and
+branches, succeeded by a pod-like fruit six to ten or more inches
+long, containing fifty to a hundred seeds, resembling beans more
+than they do nuts. When the fruit is ripe it is gathered, at which
+time the seeds are covered with a gum-like substance, and to remove
+this they are subjected to a slight fermentation, after which they
+are dried in the sun, this giving them their usual brown color.
+Chocolate nut trees are extensively cultivated in Brazil, New
+Grenada, Trinidad, and, in fact, throughout tropical America, and
+their cultivation is, upon the whole, very profitable, as the demand
+is almost unlimited.
+
+CLEARING NUT.--This is an East India name for the seeds of
+_Strychnos potatorum_, a plant belonging to the well-known nux
+vomica family (_Loganiaceae_). It is a small tree, native of India,
+the wood of which is used for various purposes. The fruit is about
+the size of a cherry, and contains one seed; this is dried, and used
+for clearing muddy water, this being effected by rubbing one of the
+little nuts around the sides of the vessel that is to be filled,
+after which the water is poured in, and then, through some unknown
+agency, all the foreign matter settles, leaving the liquid perfectly
+pure, clear and wholesome.
+
+COCOANUT.--One of the most widely-known and largest of edible nuts;
+the product of _Cocos nucifera_, a lofty, tree-like palm (_Palmae_ or
+_Palmaceae_). It is a native of tropical Africa, India, Malay, and of
+nearly all the islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans. It only
+thrives near the seacoast or where the sea breezes reach it,
+requiring no special care after the nuts and young plants once
+become established in a congenial soil. The coco palm grows from
+fifty to one hundred feet high, with pinnate leaves from ten to
+twenty feet long. The nuts are produced in clusters of a dozen or
+more, and when full grown are somewhat triangular and a foot long,
+the outer coat or husk composed of a tough fiber. The nuts, when
+cleaned of their husks, are too well known to call for a further
+description here. In countries where these nuts are plentiful, their
+contents form nearly the entire food of the natives, the milky fluid
+serving for drink, and the more solid parts as a substitute for meat
+and bread. The cocoa-nut utilized in more ways, and for a greater
+variety of purposes, than any other kind known, and it would require
+a volume to briefly enumerate them. Of recent years there have been
+plantations made of this nut on the coast of southern Florida, and
+one of the most extensive of these is by a man from New Jersey, but
+I have not heard from him of late, or seen any reports as to the
+results of his experiments. It is reported that there are about
+250,000 cocoa-nut trees now growing in Florida.
+
+COCOANUT, DOUBLE.--This is the fruit of another lofty palm,
+_Lodoicea Sechellarum_, and is usually considered the largest member
+of the order. It is a native of the Seychelles islands, in the
+Indian ocean. It is said to reach a hight of a hundred feet, with a
+stem two feet in diameter. The fruit is a large, oblong nut, with a
+rather thin rind or husk, and when this is removed the nut appears
+to be double, or two oblong nuts firmly united, a kind of twin
+formation, the entire nut weighing from thirty to forty pounds.
+These immense nuts are produced in bunches of eight to ten, the
+cluster sometimes weighing from three to four hundred pounds. It is
+supposed that these nuts require about ten years to grow and mature.
+They are useless as food, but the shells are manufactured into
+various useful articles by the natives, and they are also
+transported to other countries and valued as curiosities. There is a
+great demand for the leaves of this palm for making hats, baskets,
+etc., and as the trees have to be cut down to obtain them, they are
+becoming rather scarce.
+
+COLA NUT, KOLA NUT OR GOORA NUT.--The fruit of a small tree, native
+of the warmer parts of western Africa, and known to botanists as
+_Cola acuminata_, and of the Sterculiad family (_Sterculiaceae_). In
+its native country it grows thirty to forty feet high. The leaves
+are oblong-elliptical, six to eight inches long, and pointed
+(acuminate), and from this it probably derived its specific name.
+The flowers are yellow, and produced in axillary racemes, and
+succeeded by simple bean-like pods, each containing several nut-like
+seeds, which the natives call cola or goora nuts. These nuts have
+long been an article of trade among the native tribes of Africa,
+they being valued for their supposed efficacy in allaying thirst,
+promoting digestion, giving strength, and preventing exhaustion
+during the performance of hard manual labor. This tree was early
+introduced into the West Indies and Brazil, but its reputation in
+Africa does not appear to have been sustained it its Western
+habitat.
+
+COQUILLA NUT.--The fruit of the Piassaba palm, _Attalea funifera_, a
+native of Brazil, where it grows about thirty feet high. The fruit
+is produced in bunches, and are each about three inches long,
+covered with a thin rind. The nut is very hard, and is used as a
+substitute for bone and ivory in the manufacture of articles for the
+household.
+
+COQUITO NUT.--This is the fruit of the wing-leaved palm of Chile,
+JUBAEA SPECTABILIS. It is a moderately tall species, and closely
+resembles, in general habit, the date palm. The nuts are edible, but
+they are of secondary importance, this palm being valued mainly for
+the sweet sap issuing from the stem when cut down, this continuing
+to exude from it for weeks after it is severed from the roots. The
+sap is gathered and boiled, and when reduced to the consistency of
+molasses becomes an article of commerce, under the name of Meil de
+Palma or palm honey.
+
+CREAM NUT.--A local name of Brazil nut.
+
+DAWA NUT.--See Litchi nut.
+
+EARTH NUT, OR EARTH CHESTNUT, ETC.--A small, low-growing, herbaceous
+plant of the carrot family (_Umbelliferae_), common in waste or
+uncultivated grounds in Great Britain and other countries of
+northern Europe. Formerly botanists supposed there were two species,
+but of late only one, the _Bunium bulbocastanum_. On the roots there
+are small, nut-like tubers, of a sweetish taste, and they are eaten
+by children, either in the raw state or after being roasted. These
+tubers have various local names, and in addition to the above, they
+are called kipper nuts, and pig nuts in England, but a familiar
+local name in Scotland is lousy nuts, because it is said that eating
+them is sure to breed lice. But this story may have been invented by
+parents to deter their children from digging and eating the roots of
+wild plants. Willdenow, in naming this species, certainly recognized
+its edible qualities, and that children were fond of it, else he
+would not have called it an earth chestnut,--_bulbo_, bulb, and
+_castanum_ from _castanea_, the chestnut.
+
+ELK NUT.--See Oil nut.
+
+FISTICKE NUT.--See Pistacia nut.
+
+FOX NUT.--The seeds of a floating, annual aquatic plant, the
+_Euryale ferox_, native of India, and belonging to the water lily
+family (_Nymphaeaceae_). It is a handsome plant, with leaves about two
+feet in diameter, of a rich purple on the underside, with thorn-like
+spines on the veins. Flowers deep violet-red. The seeds of this
+species are eaten by the natives, the same as the aborigines of this
+country gathered the seeds of our indigenous _Nelumbium luteum_,
+under the name of water chinquapin, using them for food in the late
+fall and winter.
+
+GINKGO NUT.--The large, round, white, somewhat flattened, nut-like
+seeds of the now common maidenhair tree, or _Ginkgo biloba_, also
+known as _Salisburia adiantifolia_ of some nurserymen's catalogues
+and many recent botanical works. The former, however, is the older
+and correct scientific name. This tree is a native of China and
+Japan, and of a slender, sparsely branched habit, growing from fifty
+to eighty feet high in its native countries. It is a deciduous,
+cone-bearing (_Coniferae_) tree, with two-lobed, fan-shaped leaves
+two to three inches broad, divided about halfway down from the top.
+The male and female flowers are on separate trees, and to secure
+seed or nuts both sexes must be grown near together. The ginkgo was
+introduced into European gardens in 1754, and there are now many
+fruiting specimens, especially in France, from whence the nuts have
+long been secured for planting, by nurserymen and others interested
+in tree culture. There are very few bearing trees in this country,
+and one in Washington, D. C., has been fruiting for a number of
+years. In China and Japan the seeds or nuts are valued for their
+edible qualities, but they have a kind of disagreeable, balsamic
+taste in their raw state, although this is dispelled by roasting,
+after which they are quite sweet and palatable. As the trees do not
+begin to bear until of considerable age, and the nuts are inferior
+to many other kinds, I do not think the ginkgo will ever become very
+popular in this country as a nut tree.
+
+GOORA NUT.--See Cola nut.
+
+GORGON NUT.--See Fox nut.
+
+GROUNDNUT.--The small, globular tubers of the dwarf three-leaved
+ginseng, _Aralia trifolia_, are called groundnuts in some of our
+Northern States, and they are frequently sought for, dug up and
+eaten by children, as I know from personal experience. The plant
+belongs to the ginseng family (_Araliaceae_), and is closely related
+to the true five-leaved ginseng (_Aralia quinquefolia_), but our
+groundnut has only three leaves, instead of five; besides, it is a
+somewhat smaller plant, rarely more than six to eight inches high.
+When the scattered seed sprout in spring, they send down a long,
+slender, thread-like rootstock, to a depth of from four to six
+inches, and at the bottom of this the small tuber is produced. It
+has a somewhat pungent taste, but this only whets the appetite of a
+boy when on a hunt for ground nuts.
+
+GROUNDNUT.--The tubers of one of the most widely distributed
+climbing plants of the Eastern States, and common in low, wet
+grounds almost everywhere, from Canada to Florida, and westward to
+the Mississippi. This plant is described in most of the botanical
+works of the present day under the name of _Apios tuberosa_, and it
+belongs to the Pulse family (_Leguminosae_), and is closely related
+to the common and well-known wistarias, although much smaller and of
+a more slender habit. It is a smooth, perennial, twining vine, with
+pinnate leaves, and dense racemes or clusters of small
+brownish-purple pea-shaped flowers. The subterranean rootstocks bear
+long strings of edible tubers, from one to two inches long, and from
+an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, somewhat variable in
+shape, dark brown on the outside, but white within. When boiled or
+roasted these tubers have a rich, farinaceous, nutty flavor. This
+tuber or groundnut is the one described by Mr. Thomas Herriot, the
+historiographer of Sir Walter Raleigh's expedition to Virginia in
+1585, under the Indian name of "Openawk." He says: "These roots are
+round, some as large as walnuts, others much larger; they grow in
+damp soil, many hanging together, as fixed on ropes; they are good
+food, either boiled or roasted." These tubers are to be found in the
+swamps and damp soils of Virginia at this day, just as they were at
+the time of Herriot's visit, but many modern historians have tried
+to make out that Raleigh's colonists found our common potato among
+the Indians at that time, although I have never been able to find a
+scrap of trustworthy history to support such a claim, or that
+Raleigh himself ever planted or cultivated the American potato in
+Ireland or England, or, in fact, ever tasted one of these tubers.
+
+GROUNDNUT.--See Peanut or Goober.
+
+HAZELNUT, OR CHILE HAZEL.--This is merely a local English name for
+the fruit of a small evergreen tree, native of Chile, S. A., where
+it is known as Guevina, and this has been adopted as the name of the
+genus, adding the specific name of the European hazel, so we have
+_Guevina Avellana_, although in some botanical works it may be found
+under the name of _Qudria heterophylla_. It belongs to the Protea
+family (_Proteaceae_). It has white, hermaphrodite flowers, in long
+axillary racemes; these are succeeded by coral-red fruit about the
+size of a large cherry; the stone or nut-like seeds being edible are
+largely used by the Chileans. They are said to taste like the hazel,
+hence the name. Trees are hardy in the southwest of England, and
+would probably succeed here in the Southern States. It has been
+planted and found to thrive in California. Readily propagated from
+seed or green cuttings under glass.
+
+HORSE-CHESTNUT.--The fruit of a genus of deciduous ornamental trees
+and shrubs, native of Asia and North America. The common
+horse-chestnut, or _AEsculus Hippocastanum_, is a native of Asia, and
+was introduced into Europe over three hundred years ago, its large,
+smooth seeds and prickly husks probably suggesting both its common
+and scientific names, although these trees do not even belong to the
+same order as the true edible chestnuts (_Castanea_), but to the
+soapworts (_Sapindaceae_). It is supposed that the prefix, "horse,"
+was derived from a custom among the Turks, of giving the nuts to
+horses as a medicine when these animals were afflicted with a cough
+or inclined to become wind-broken. In southern Europe they are
+sometimes fed to cows to increase the flow of milk, and at one time
+they were employed for making paste for book binders. They are
+scarcely edible, although containing considerable farinaceous
+matter, owing to the presence of a bitter narcotic principle. Our
+native species, better known as Buckeyes, with both smooth and
+prickly fruit, are equally worthless as food.
+
+IVORY NUT.--There are two species of palms producing nuts hard
+enough to be employed as a substitute for ivory, in the manufacture
+of small articles of domestic use. But the one best known to
+commerce under the name of ivory nut is the fruit of _Phytelephas
+macrocarpa_, native of New Granada and other parts of Central
+America. This palm is a low-growing and almost decumbent species,
+the stem seldom more than six to eight inches in diameter; but the
+leaves are of immense length, or from fifteen to twenty feet,
+growing in bundles, or clusters. The fruit consists of about forty
+nuts, enclosed in a rough, spiny husk, of a globular form, produced
+on a short footstalk growing from the axis of the leaves, the whole
+bunch weighing from twenty to thirty pounds. They are two inches
+long, slightly triangular, and covered with a thin, pulpy coat,
+which becomes dry, papery and brittle when thoroughly dried, but
+when in its green state it is sometimes utilized by the natives for
+making a favorite beverage. The ripe nuts are very solid, hard, and
+when polished resemble ivory. Immense quantities of these nuts are
+imported into this country, as well as Europe, and used as a
+substitute for bone and ivory for making buttons, toys, and similar
+small articles.
+
+JESUIT CHESTNUT.--See Water chestnut.
+
+JICARA NUT.--A local name, in some of the Central American States
+for the Calabash (_Crescentia Cujete_). A low-growing, rather rough
+tree, with simple leaves, usually three growing together on a broad
+leafstalk. The fruit is extremely variable, both in size and form,
+but mainly globose, and two to four inches in diameter. The shell is
+very hard, and largely used for drinking cups, and these are
+sometimes highly ornamented on the outside. The kernel is scarcely
+edible, but is used by the natives as a medicine.
+
+JUBA NUT.--See Coquito nut.
+
+JUVIA NUT.--See Brazil nut.
+
+KIPPER NUT.--See Earth chestnut.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103. LITCHI OR LEECHEE NUT.]
+
+LITCHI NUT OR LEECHEE NUT.--I am inclined to think that the affix of
+"nut" to this Oriental fruit is an Americanism, and not used
+elsewhere. There are three distinct species of this fruit known
+among the Chinese, under the name of Litchi, Longan or Long-yen, and
+Rambutan, all the product of the Nepheliums, a genus of the
+soapberry family (_Sapindaceae_). By some of the earlier botanical
+works the litchi is placed either in the genus _Dimocarpus_ or
+_Euphoria_. Within the past few years this fruit has appeared in our
+markets, in consequence of the increased trade with Oriental
+countries, and facilities for rapid transit across the continent.
+The litchi is a globular fruit, about one inch in diameter (Fig.
+103), with a thin, chocolate-brown colored shell covered with
+wart-like protuberances. When fresh the shell is filled with a
+white, jelly-like pulp, in the center of which there is one rather
+large, smooth brown seed. The pulp is of a most delicious sub-acid
+flavor, but it is often rather dry and stale in the nuts which reach
+us from China and Japan. The tree producing this fruit is seldom
+more than twenty-five feet high, with rather sturdy twigs and
+branches, the leaves composed of about seven oblong pointed
+leaflets. This is said to be one of the most popular of Oriental
+fruits, and the trees would probably succeed in many of the Southern
+States and in California. It is now on trial in Florida, having been
+introduced there in 1886. It has been fruited in England many times,
+but always under glass, where the plants receive protection and
+artificial heat. A full description of this species, accompanied by
+a superb colored plate of the _Nephelium_ or _Dimocarpus Longana_,
+appeared in the "Transactions of the London Horticultural Society,"
+1818, p. 402. There are not only a large number of species of the
+Nepheliums bearing edible fruit, but, as might be expected from
+their long and extensive cultivation, many local varieties,
+especially in the southern provinces of China and throughout the
+islands of tropical Asia. The Dawa of the Fiji islands is the fruit
+of _N. pinnatum_, a tree growing sixty feet high, and forming
+extensive forests on those islands. At some future time we may be
+receiving the dawas under the name of Fiji nuts.
+
+LOUSY NUT.--See Earth chestnut.
+
+MARKING NUT.--The seeds of _Semecarpus Anacardium_, an evergreen
+tree of the cashew-nut family (_Anacardiaceae_), native of tropical
+Asia, and especially Ceylon. It has large, oblong leaves, and grows
+about fifty feet high, and the fruit is produced on a fleshy
+receptacle. The natives roast and eat these nuts, and the black
+juice obtained from the green fruit is used for marking cloth, hence
+the common name. The juice is also mixed with lime to make an
+excellent indelible ink, also for a kind of varnish.
+
+MIRITI NUT OR ITA PALM NUT.--These are the Indian names of the fruit
+of a lofty palm tree, the _Mauritia flexuosa_, of the swamps along
+the Orinoco river, also in wet soils at higher elevations. This
+giant palm grows to a hight of a hundred and fifty feet, with an
+immense crown of large, fan-shaped leaves, and just beneath these
+the fruit appears in a pendulous cluster eight to ten feet long,
+containing several bushels, weighing, altogether, from one to three
+hundred pounds. The individual nuts are about the size of an
+ordinary apple, with a very smooth shell, somewhat veined or
+streaked. The natives of the country not only use the farinaceous
+kernels of these nuts as food, but obtain a saccharine material from
+the pith, out of which they make wine by fermentation. The petioles
+of the leaves also furnish them with a strong fiber, used as
+thread-cord, and for various other purposes.
+
+MORETON BAY CHESTNUT.--See Australian chestnut.
+
+MONKEY-POT NUT.--See Sapucaia nut.
+
+MYROBALAN NUT.--This name is applied rather indiscriminately to the
+fruits of several species of the genus _Terminalia_, which are, in
+the main, large trees of the Myrobalan family (_Combretaceae_). They
+are native of India, Malay, Fiji, and, in fact, almost all the
+islands of the Pacific in warm latitudes. The fruits are similar to
+large plums, but slightly angular, containing a hard, nut-like seed.
+They are used principally for tanning leather, and also for making
+ink similar to that made from oak galls. The kernels of all the
+species are edible, and are eaten by the natives. In the Fiji
+islands the _Terminalia Catappa_ is a favorite tree with the
+natives, and they plant it near the houses. The kernels of this
+species have the flavor of the sweet almond.
+
+NICKAR NUT.--The seeds of two species of _Guilandina_, a genus of
+the bean family (_Leguminosae_). They are climbing plants, with
+hard-wooded, prickly stems, forming almost impenetrable thickets
+near the seacoast in the East Indies and other tropical countries.
+They have become widely distributed, as the pods readily float when
+they drop into the water. The pods are about three inches long, very
+prickly, containing seeds or nuts about the size of small marbles,
+and exceedingly hard; but in time the water softens them, after
+which they sprout and grow when cast upon the shore by the waves.
+The two species are distinguished mainly by the color of the nuts,
+those of _G. Bonduc_ being yellow, and those of _G. Bonducella_
+gray, or with a reddish tint. Of no value or use except as botanical
+curiosities.
+
+NITTA OR NUTTA NUT.--The native African name of the seeds of _Parkia
+Africana_, a tree of the sensitive-tree section of the bean family
+(_Leguminosae_). It grows about forty feet high, and has compound
+winged leaves. It has become naturalized in the West Indies. The
+pods grow in clusters, the seeds imbedded in a yellowish, sweet
+pulp, like the carob or St. John's bread, and the negroes are very
+fond of them. In the Soudan the seeds are roasted, and then allowed
+to ferment in water until they are soft and putrid, after which they
+are washed, pounded and dried, then made up into cakes to be used as
+a sauce for different kinds of food. It is supposed that the African
+traveler, Mungo Park, first brought these seeds or nuts to the
+notice of Europeans, and Robert Brown named the genus _Parkia_ in
+his honor.
+
+NUTMEG.--A name applied to the fruits of a large number of trees,
+and of different orders of plants. The true nutmegs of commerce are
+the fruits of trees belonging to the genus _Myristica_, and of the
+family _Myristicaceae_. The oldest and best known of these is the _M.
+fragrans_, a small, widely branching tree, growing twenty to
+twenty-five feet high, and supposed to be indigenous to the Indian
+Archipelago. The fruit is about the size of an ordinary walnut, with
+a thick rind, which, upon opening, at maturity, discloses a reddish
+aril covering the nut within. This aril or husk is the mace of
+commerce, while the true nutmeg is the center or hard seed (nut).
+The Brazil nutmeg is longer than the true species, and is sold under
+the name of long nutmeg, and is the fruit of _M. fatua_. Another
+species, the _M. otoba_, is cultivated in Madagascar, but is
+scarcely known in commerce.
+
+Another species, the _M. sebifera_, is a common tree in the forests
+of Guiana, North Brazil, and up into Panama. It is utilized
+principally for the oil extracted from the nuts, obtained by
+macerating them in water, the oil rising to the surface, and as it
+cools skimmed off.
+
+The seeds of several species of conifers and laurels are known,
+either locally or in commerce, as nutmegs, or are used as a
+substitute for the true nutmeg. There are three different kinds of
+trees, native of Guiana, in addition to the one already named, the
+seeds of which are employed as a spice or medicine. One of these is
+the _Acrodiclidium camara_. These nuts are known in commerce as
+"Ackawai nutmegs," and are used mainly as a cure for diarrhoea and
+colic. Another is the seed of the _Aydendron Cujumary_ tree, and
+they are known in commerce as "Cujumary beans," although they are
+not, strictly speaking, a bean, and the same is true of the
+so-called "Puchurim beans," from the same country, for they are the
+fruit of _Nectandy Puchury_, a small tree of the laurel family. They
+are used as a tonic, and considered highly stimulating.
+
+_Clove Nutmeg_, or Madagascar nutmeg of commerce, is the fruit of
+_Agathophyllum aromaticum_, a small evergreen tree, indigenous to
+Madagascar.
+
+_Brazilian Nutmegs_ are the highly aromatic seeds of _Cryptocarya
+moschata_, or _Atherosperma moschata_ of some botanists. It is a
+lofty tree, native of Brazil. The aromatic nuts are used as a
+substitute for nutmegs, but are very inferior to the genuine.
+
+_Peruvian Nutmeg, or Plum Nutmeg._--The seeds of a large evergreen
+tree with aromatic foliage, like our common sassafras, and for this
+reason is sometimes called Chilean or Peruvian sassafras. The seeds
+are of no more economic value than those of our native sassafras. It
+is known under various botanical names, but _Laurelia sempervirens_
+is, perhaps, the most familiar.
+
+_California Nutmeg_, or _Stinking Nutmeg_, is the nut-like seed of
+_Torreya Californica_, a small tree of the yew family (_Taxaceae_).
+The fruit is from an inch to an inch and a half long, with a fleshy
+rind enclosing a hard, long nut, which is slightly grooved like a
+nutmeg. The fruit, leaves and wood are strongly scented, hence the
+name of "stinking nutmeg," or "stinking yew." Another species, the
+_T. taxifolia_, is a native of Florida.
+
+OIL NUT.--The fruit of a low-branching, deciduous native shrub,
+growing three to ten feet high, with alternate leaves and small
+greenish flowers in terminal spikes. It is the _Pyrularia oleifera_
+of Gray, and _Hamiltonia oleifera_ of Muhlenberg. The fruit is in
+the form of a pear-shaped drupe, about an inch long, the small seed
+or nut with an oily kernel of strong acrid taste; of no value. This
+shrub is found on shady banks in the mountains of Pennsylvania, and
+southward into Georgia.
+
+PARADISE NUT.--See Sapucaia nut.
+
+PEANUT, GROUNDNUT, GOOBER.--The well-known fruit of _Arachis
+hypogaea_, a low-growing annual belonging to the pulse or pea family
+(_Leguminosae_), supposed to be a native of South America, but now
+extensively cultivated in nearly all semi-tropical countries and
+wherever the summers are long enough to insure the ripening of the
+seeds. Extensively cultivated in Virginia, south and westward. Too
+well known to require any further comment or notice here.
+
+PECAN NUT.--See Chap. VII.
+
+PEKEA NUT.--See Souari nut.
+
+PERUVIAN NUT.--See Nutmegs.
+
+PHYSIC NUT.--The seeds of _Jatropha Curcas_, a small tree of the
+spurgewort family (_Euphorbiaceae_). It is native of some of the West
+Indies and warmer parts of South America, but now cultivated in
+other tropical countries for its seeds, which yield an oil used for
+the same purposes as castor oil, but rather more powerful and
+drastic. The seeds have a nutty flavor, but are rather dangerous if
+eaten in any considerable quantities, and death has been known to
+follow excess in this direction.
+
+PHYSIC NUT.--In "Bartram's Travels," he refers to a seed or nut of a
+plant he found growing in Florida under this name, p. 41, as
+follows: " ... some very curious new shrubs and plants, particularly
+the physic nut or Indian olive. The stems arise, many from a root,
+two or three feet high; the leaves sit opposite, on very short
+petioles; they are broad, lanceolate, entire and undulated, having a
+smooth surface, of a deep green color. From the bosom of each leaf
+is produced a single oval drupe, standing erect on long slender
+stems; it has a large kernel and thin pulp. The fruit is yellow when
+ripe, and about the size of an olive. The Indians, when they go in
+pursuit of deer, carry this fruit with them, supposing that it has
+the power of charming or drawing that creature to them, from whence,
+with traders, it has obtained the name of physic nut, which means,
+with them, charming, conjuring or fascinating."
+
+To what kind of fruit Bartram referred under the name of "physic
+nut," is not certain, but his description of the plant comes very
+near that of the American olive (_Olea Americana_), but the fruit of
+this and other closely allied plants of the same family are not
+"yellow" when ripe, but purple.
+
+PIGNUT, OR HOGNUT.--See chapter on Hickory.
+
+PINE NUT.--A name applied indiscriminately to the many species of
+pine trees (_Pinus_) bearing seeds large enough to be conveniently
+used as food. In southern Europe, and especially in Italy and the
+south of France, the seeds of the stone pine (_Pinus Pinea_) have
+been extensively used as food, from the earliest times down to the
+present day. Nearly all the ancient authors refer to them as among
+the valuable products of the country. Macrobius, in his story of the
+_Saturnalia_, speaks of the cones as _Nuces vel Poma Pinea_. These
+pine nuts are called _Pinocchi_ in Italy and Sicily, and
+occasionally a few reach this country, where the Italian name has
+been corrupted into Pinolas. These seeds or nuts are used for
+desserts, puddings and cakes, also eaten raw at table, as with
+almonds. They have a slight taste of turpentine, but it is not
+strong enough to be at all disagreeable.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 104. BRANCH OF NUT PINE.]
+
+In this country we have several native species bearing very large
+edible seeds, and they are known in the West under the general name
+of _Pinon_, or nut pines. The best of these nuts, to my taste, are
+the seeds of _Pinus edulis_, so named by the late Dr. Engelmann,
+because of its large, sweet and edible seeds. It is a small,
+low-growing tree, more or less common on dry hills and slopes, from
+Colorado southward through New Mexico, and into western Texas. The
+seeds of _Pinus Parryana_ and _Pinus cembroides_, of Arizona and
+Lower California, are also called Pinons, and largely gathered by
+the Indians. Farther east and north, we find the one-leaved pine
+(_Pinus monophylla_), and although the seeds are much smaller than
+those of _P. edulis_, they were formerly gathered in immense
+quantities by the Indians, to help eke out their often scanty winter
+store of food. Occasionally a small quantity of these pine nuts is
+sent to Eastern markets, but rarely, unless ordered early in the
+season. The trees of _P. edulis_ and _P. monophylla_ are perfectly
+hardy here, and worth cultivating for ornament, as well as their
+nuts, although their slow growth is a rather severe test of one's
+patience. Fig. 104 shows a Pinon branch.
+
+PISTACHIO NUT.--Historically, this is a very ancient nut, for Bible
+commentators claim that it is the one sent by Jacob into Egypt. It
+is the fruit of a small, deciduous tree of the cashew family
+(_Anacardiaceae_), a native of western Asia, but many centuries ago
+it had become naturalized in Palestine and throughout the
+Mediterranean regions. It has shining evergreen winged leaves, and
+the bark on the young twigs is brown, becoming russet-colored with
+age. There are several different species, but the one producing the
+nuts of commerce is the _Pistacia vera_, having brownish-green
+flowers in loose panicles, and these are succeeded by bunches of
+reddish fruit, about an inch long, with an oblique or bent point.
+The nuts have a double shell, the outer one usually red, the inner
+one smooth and brittle; the kernel is pale green, sweet, and of
+rather pleasant taste. There are a number of varieties, differing
+only slightly in form and size. This nut has been cultivated
+sparingly in Great Britain since 1570, but the climate is not quite
+warm enough to insure its ripening in the open air. It would
+probably succeed throughout the greater part of California, as well
+as in the extreme Southern States, but Mr. Berckmans writes me that
+it is not hardy in his grounds at Augusta, Ga. There is a species of
+pistacia known as _P. Mexicana_, found in central Mexico, and
+extending as far north as San Diego, in California, according to the
+report of Dr. Cooper (Botany of California, Vol. I, p. 109).
+
+QUANDANG NUT.--A medium size Australian tree, the _Santalum
+acuminatum_, of the sandalwood family (_Santalaceae_). It produces a
+plum-like fruit, which is best known in its native country as the
+quandang nut. It is used as a preserve, but is little known, except
+in or near its native habitats.
+
+QUEENSLAND NUT.--See Australian hazelnut.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105. PARADISE OR SAPUCAIA NUT.]
+
+SAPUCAIA NUT.--The Brazilian name of, at least, two species of large
+forest trees growing in the valley of the Amazon and its
+tributaries. The best known of these is the _Lecythis Zabucajo_, a
+lofty tree of the myrtle family (_Myrtaceae_). It is closely allied
+to the more common Brazil nut of commerce. The sapucaia nuts are
+produced in an urn-shaped, woody capsule, which has received the
+name of Monkey-pot, because when these capsules ripen the lid at the
+top is suddenly liberated, emitting a sharp sound, which, as heard
+by the monkeys, gives them notice that the nuts are falling, and
+that the first on the ground becomes the fortunate possessor of the
+largest number. The capsules or pots are about six inches in
+diameter, and the lid opening at the top about two inches. The nuts,
+which are packed very closely in the shell, are about one inch in
+diameter, and two to three in length, with a thin, brown, and very
+much wrinkled and twisted shell (Fig. 105). The kernel is white,
+sweet, oily, and somewhat more delicate in flavor than that of the
+common Brazil nut. In New York city these nuts are sold under the
+name of Paradise nuts. But this is probably only a local name, for I
+have been unable to find it in any botanical work. These nuts rarely
+come to this country in any considerable quantities; a few hundred
+pounds at a time would be considered a large consignment.
+
+SASSAFRAS NUT.--See Nutmeg, Chilean.
+
+SASSAFRAS NUT.--See Nutmeg, Puchury.
+
+SNAKE NUT.--A large, roundish fruit, about the size of the black
+walnut, the product of the _Ophiocaryon paradoxum_, a large tree of
+the soapberry family (_Sapindaceae_), native of British Guiana. This
+nut takes its name of "Snake nut," from the peculiar form of the
+embryo of the seed, which is curled up spirally. The Indians,
+thinking there must be some virtue in form, use these nuts as an
+antidote for snake bites, although, so far as known to science, they
+do not possess any medicinal properties.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106. SOUARI NUT.]
+
+SOUARI NUT, OR BUTTERNUT.--This nut, like the last, is a native of
+British Guiana, and is the fruit of the _Caryocar nuciferum_, a
+noble tree, growing a hundred feet high, having large, broad,
+trifoliate leaves, resembling those of our common horse-chestnut,
+but not quite as broad. The flowers are very large, and, with the
+tube, fully a foot long, of a deep purple on the outside, and yellow
+within. They are composed of five thick, fleshy petals, and as showy
+as some of our best and brightest-colored magnolias. The flowers are
+produced in terminal clusters or corymbs, succeeded by a large,
+round, four-celled fleshy fruit five to six inches in diameter; but
+as some of the embryo nuts usually fail to grow, it changes the form
+of the fruit as it enlarges towards maturity, and only one or two of
+the nuts mature and ripen, very much as frequently occurs in both
+the sweet and horse-chestnuts. The nuts are affixed to a central
+axis, and are of a rounded, subreniform shape, and even flattened to
+an almost sharp edge on one side, and broadly truncate at the scar
+(hilum) where they are attached to the pericarp or central axis. The
+shell is of a deep brown color, embossed, as it were, with smooth
+tubercles. They are from two to two and a half inches or more in
+their broadest diameter, as shown in Fig. 106. The kernel or meat is
+pure white, soft, rich and oily, with a pleasant flavor. This nut is
+a rarity in our markets, and Mr. H. R. Davy of New York, to whom I
+am indebted for a specimen, as well as other rare kinds, assures me
+that in his forty-five years' experience as a dealer in foreign
+fruits and nuts, he has never known of but one lot, and that one
+consisted of about one-half bushel, brought into his store by a
+sailor, who only knew their common South American name. These nuts
+are more frequently seen in European seaports than in those of this
+country.
+
+SOUTH SEA CHESTNUT.--See Tahitian chestnut.
+
+TAHITIAN CHESTNUT.--The seeds of a tree known in the South Sea
+islands by the native name of Toi, but to botanists as _Inocarpus
+edulis_. It belongs to the bean family (_Leguminosae_). The tree
+grows sixty to eighty feet high, and when young the stems are fluted
+like a Grecian column, but as they increase with age the projections
+extend outward, until they form a kind of buttress all around the
+lower part, gradually decreasing upward. This so-called chestnut
+tree has yellow flowers, succeeded by fibrous pods containing one
+large seed or nut, which, when roasted or boiled, resembles the
+chestnut in taste. The nuts have a different local name in almost
+every one of the Pacific islands where it is at all abundant.
+
+TAVOLA NUT.--See Myrobalan nut.
+
+TALLOW NUT.--A local and nearly obsolete name for the fruit of the
+Ogeechee lime or sour gum tree (_Nyssa capitata_) of the swamps of
+Florida, Georgia and westward. The fruit is about an inch long,
+resembling a small plum, the pulp having an agreeable acid taste.
+Bartram, p. 94, refers to this fruit under the name of "Tallow nut,"
+but why so called is not explained.
+
+TALLOW NUT.--The fruit of the Chinese Tallow tree, _Stillingia
+sebifera_, of the spurgewort family (_Euphorbiaceae_), a native of
+China, where it is, as well as in some of the warmer parts of
+America, extensively cultivated. It has been planted in a few
+localities in the Southern States, and appears to thrive. It is a
+small tree thirty to forty feet high, with rhomboid tapering leaves
+and a three-celled capsuled fruit, each cell containing only a
+single seed thickly coated with a yellow, tallow-like substance,
+hence its common name. This tallow or grease is used for making
+soap, burning in lamps, and also for dressing cloth.
+
+TEMPERANCE NUT.--An English name of cola nut.
+
+TORREY NUT.--The hard, nut-like seeds of _Torreya nucifera_, of
+Siebold, or _Taxus nucifera_, of Kaempfer, and _Caryotaxus nucifera_,
+of Zuccarini, a tree native of Japan, where these nuts are eaten by
+the Japanese, either raw or roasted. An oil is also extracted from
+the nuts, for use in cooking or for burning in lamps. This Japanese
+tree belongs to the same genus as the so-called California nutmeg
+(see Nutmeg) and our Florida stinking cedar (_T. taxifolia_), also
+the great Chinese cedar (_T. grandis_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107. WATER CHESTNUT.]
+
+WATER CHESTNUT.--Also known as water caltrops. The seeds of several
+species of water plants of the genus _Trapa_, of the evening
+primrose family (_Onagraceae_). In southern Europe and eastward there
+is a species found in ponds, the seeds of which are called Jesuit
+chestnuts (_T. natans_), and in India and Ceylon a closely allied
+one, the Singhara-nut plant (_T. bispinosa_), while in Lago Maggiore
+there is another (_T. verbanensis_), but all may be varieties of one
+and the same species, including the _Trapa bicornis_, a two-horned
+water chestnut, extensively used in China and Japan as food under
+various local names. In China they are called Ling, and of late
+years have been occasionally imported and sold, more as curiosities
+than for eating. These seeds or nuts are of a dark brown color, and
+of the form and size shown in Fig. 107, resembling, in miniature,
+the skull of an ox with abbreviated horns. When fresh, the kernel is
+of an agreeable nutty flavor.
+
+WATER CHESTNUT, OR CHINQUAPIN.--The seeds of the large yellow water
+lily (_Nelumbium luteum_), a very common plant in small ponds in the
+West and South, but more rare in the East. The seeds are about the
+size and shape of small acorns, and produced in a large, top-shaped,
+fleshy receptacle. They are edible, and are supposed to have been
+extensively used as food by the aborigines of this country.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+Ackawai nutmeg, 274
+
+Acorn, 254
+
+Acrodiclidium camara, 274
+
+AEsculus hippocastanum, 268
+
+Agathophyllum aromaticum, 274
+
+Aleurites triloba, 259
+
+Almond, 12
+  bitter, 34
+  budding, bud in position, 28
+    incision for bud, 27
+    budding knife, 24
+    budding knife, Yankee, 24
+    prepared shoot of buds, 26
+    season for budding, 22
+  culture in California, 17
+  history of the, 13
+  insects and diseases, 39
+    Cercospora circumscissa, 43
+    Goes pulverulenta, 52
+    Scolytus rugulosus, 42
+    Taphrina deformans, 43
+  orchard in California, 18
+  planting and pruning, 32
+  propagation of the, 19
+  properties and uses of, 39
+  pruning, 33
+  raising seedlings for stocks, 20
+  soil and exposure for the, 30
+  varieties, 34
+    hard-shelled, 35, 36
+    large-fruited, 37
+    ornamental varieties, 38
+    peach, 37
+    soft or brittle-shelled, 36
+    sweet, 40
+    thin-shelled, 37
+
+Amygdalus argentea, 39
+  Cochinchinensis, 38
+  communis amara, 34
+    dulcis, 35
+    fragilis, 36
+    macrocarpa, 37
+    persicoides, 37
+  incana, 39
+  nana, 39
+  orientalis, 39
+
+Anacardium occidentale, 260
+
+Apios tuberosa, 267
+
+Arachis hypogaea, 275
+
+Aralia trifolia, 266
+
+Areca catechu, 256
+
+Atherosperma moschata, 274
+
+Attalea funifera, 264
+
+Australian chestnut, 255
+
+Australian hazelnut, 256
+
+Aydendron cujumary, 274
+
+
+Beech, American, 48
+  Chile, 48
+  European, 48
+  evergreen, 48
+  history of, 44
+  injurious insects, 52
+  properties and uses, 52
+  propagation of, 47
+  soil and location for the, 47
+  species and varieties, 48
+
+Beechnut, 44
+  leaf, bur and nut, 51
+
+Ben nut, 256
+
+Bertholletia excelsa, 267
+
+Betel nut, 256
+
+Bladder nut, 257
+
+Brazil nut, 257
+
+Brazilian nutmegs, 273, 274
+
+Bread nut, 258
+
+Brosimum alicastrum, 258
+
+Buffalo nut, 259
+
+Bunium bulbocastanum, 265
+
+Butternut, 259, 280
+
+Byzantium nut, 259
+
+
+California chestnut, 55
+
+California nutmeg, 275
+
+Calodendron Capense, 259
+
+Candle nut, 259
+
+Cape chestnut, 259
+
+Caryocar nuciferum, 280
+
+Caryotaxus nucifera, 283
+
+Cashew nut, 260
+
+Castanea chrysophylla var. minor, 57
+
+Castanea chrysophylla var. pumila, 57
+
+Castanea sempervirens, 55
+
+Castanopsis, 55
+  bur, 57
+  chrysophylla, 55
+  leaves and nuts, 56
+
+Castanospermum Australe, 255
+
+Caucasian walnut, 261
+
+Chestnut, 60
+  budding, 80
+  diseases of the, 116
+  distance between trees, 82
+  European varieties of, 99
+    Comfort, 100
+    Cooper, 100
+    Corson, 100
+    Dager, 101
+    Moncur, 101
+    Numbo, 102
+      spines of, 102
+    Miller's Dupont, 102
+    Paragon, 102
+      bur, 103
+      nut, 104
+      spines of, 103
+      tree, four years old, 105
+    Ridgely, 104
+      bur, 106
+    Scott, 107
+    Styer, 108
+  flowers, 61
+  French variety of the, 108
+  gathering and assorting, 65
+  grafting, 71
+    cleft, 77
+    growth of cion, 78
+    large trees, 79
+    materials, 72
+    modes of, 75
+    season for, 71
+    splice, 75
+    sprouts, 79
+    success in, 78
+    wax, 72
+  history of the, 62
+  insects injurious to, 113
+    Balaninus carytripes, 113
+    weevil, 114
+  Japan, 109
+    Advance, 110
+    Alpha, 111
+    Beta, 111
+    Early Reliance, 111
+    Felton, 111
+    Giant, 110, 111
+    Killen, 112
+    Parsons, 112
+    Parry's Superb, 112
+    Success, 112
+  mulching, 82
+  native varieties of the, 94
+    burless, 94
+    bush chinquapin, 96
+    common chinquapin, 97
+    Fuller's chinquapin, 97
+      chinquapin burs, 97
+      chinquapin tree, 98
+    Hathaway, 95
+    Phillips, 95
+  planting, 68
+    in nursery rows, 69
+  propagation of the, 64
+  seedbed and soil for, 67
+  soil and climate for, 83
+  species of, 86
+    American, 88
+  species bush chinquapin, 89
+    Castanea Americana, 88
+      Japonica, 93
+      nana, 89
+      pumila, 90, 91
+      sativa, 91
+      vesca, 91
+    European, 91
+    Japan, 93
+      leaf, 92
+  staking transplanted trees, 81
+  stocks from the forests, 70
+  transplanting and pruning, 80
+  uses of, 119
+
+Chile hazelnut, 268
+
+Chocolate nut or bean, 261
+
+Clearing nut, 262
+
+Clove nutmeg, 274
+
+Cocoanut, 262
+  double, 263
+
+Cocos nucifera, 262
+
+Cola acuminata, 264
+  nut, 264
+
+Coquito nut, 264
+
+Coquilla nut, 264
+
+Cream nut, 265
+
+Crescentia cujete, 269
+
+Cryptocarya moschata, 274
+
+Cujumary beans, 274
+
+
+Dawa nut, 265
+
+Dimocarpus longana, 271
+
+
+Earth nut, 265
+  chestnut, 265
+
+Elk nut, 265
+
+Euryale ferox, 265
+
+Evergreen chestnut, 55
+
+
+Fagus antarctica, 48
+  betuloides, 48
+  ferruginea, 48
+  obliqua, 48
+  sylvatica, 48
+
+Fisticke nut, 265
+
+Filbert or hazelnut, 118
+
+Fox nut, 265
+
+
+Galeruca calmariensis, 5
+
+Ginkgo biloba, 265
+  nut, 265
+
+Goober, 275
+
+Goora nut, 264
+
+Gorgon nut, 266
+
+Groundnut, 266, 267, 275
+
+Guevina Avellana, 268
+
+Guilandina bouduc, 273
+  bonducella, 273
+
+
+Hamiltonia oleifera, 275
+
+Hazelnut or filbert, 118
+  American species of hazel, 126
+    beaked hazel, 127
+    Corylus Americana, 126
+    Corylus rostrata, 127
+  Asiatic species of hazel, 128
+    C. ferox & heterophylla, 128
+  blight, 138
+    Cryptospora anomala, 139
+    fungus, 141
+  European species of, 127
+    Constantinople hazel, 129
+    Corylus Avellana, 127
+      Colurna, 128
+      tubulosa, 130
+  history of the filbert, 120
+  insects injurious to filberts, 145
+  personal experience with filberts, 132
+  planting and pruning filberts, 124
+  propagation of the filbert, 122
+  soil, location, etc., for filberts, 123
+  varieties of filbert and hazel seedlings, 135
+  varieties extra large hazel seedling, 136
+  varieties large filbert, 119
+    large seedling hazelnut, 120
+    select list of, 130
+    Alba or white filbert, 130
+    Cosford, or Miss Young's thin-shelled, 130
+    Crispa, or frizzled filbert, 130
+    Downton, large square, 130
+    Grandis, or round cob-nut, 131
+    Lambert's filbert, 130
+    Purple-leaved filbert, 131
+    red filbert, red hazel, etc., 131
+    Spanish filbert, 132
+
+Horse-chestnut, 268
+
+Hickory nuts, 147
+  age of fruiting the, 193
+  big bud, 160
+  big shellbark, 157
+  bitter pecan, 165
+  bitternut, 163, 164
+  brown, 162
+  budding and grafting, 183
+    crown, on roots, 189
+    sprouts from roots, 190
+  Carya amara var. myristicaeformis, 165
+  Carya olivaeformis, 155
+  cultivation of the, 177
+  Hicoria pecan and synonyms, 155
+  Hicoria alba, 155
+     "     "   synonyms, 157
+  Hicoria aquatica, 165
+     "       "     synonyms, 166
+  Hicoria glabra, 162
+     "      "    synonyms, 164
+  Hicoria laciniosa, 157
+     "        "     synonyms, 159
+  Hicoria minima, 164
+     "      "    synonyms, 165
+  Hicoria myristicaeformis, 165
+  Hicoria tomentosa, 160
+     "        "     synonyms, 162
+  history of the, 148
+  hognut, 162
+  Illinois nut, 155
+  insect enemies of the, 195
+    American silk worm, 202
+    Attacus luna, 202
+    belted chion, 199
+    bud worm, 202
+    burrows of scolytus, 200
+    Catocala, 202
+    Chion cinctus, 199
+    Chramesus icoriae, 201
+    Clisiocampa sylvatica, 202
+    Cyllene crinicornis, 198
+      pictus, 198
+      robiniae, 198
+    Elaphidion inerme, 199
+    Goes, beautiful, 199
+      pulchra, 199
+      tiger, 199
+      tigrinus, 199
+    Grapholitha caryana, 201
+    bark borer, 199
+    nut weevil, 202
+    shuck worm, 201
+    twig girdler, 196
+    leaf miners, 202
+    leaf rollers, 202
+    locust borer, 198
+    luna moth, 202
+    Oncideres cingulatus, 196
+    orange sawyer, 199
+    painted borer, 198
+    plant lice, 202
+    Scolytus 4-spinosus, 199
+    Sinoxylon basilare, 201
+    Telea polyphemus, 202
+    tent caterpillar, 202
+    Tortricidae, 201
+  king nut, 160
+  mocker nut, 160
+  Pecan nut, 155
+    varieties of, 167
+      Alba, 167
+      Biloxi, 167
+      Colorado, 169
+      Columbian, 167
+      Early Texan, 168
+      Faust, 168
+      Frotscher, 168
+      Georgia Melon, 168
+      Gonzales, 168
+      Harcourt, 168
+      Idlewild, 169
+      Jewett, 169
+      Lady Finger, 169
+      large, long, 167
+      Little Mobile, 167
+      Longfellow, 168
+      Pride of the Coast, 169
+      Primate, 168
+      Mexican, 169
+      Meyers, 170
+      Ribera, 168
+      Risien, 169
+      Stuart, 169
+      Turkey Egg, 169
+      Van Deman, 169
+  pignut 162, 164
+  planting for profit, 194
+  propagation of the, 180
+  shellbark or shagbark, 155
+    varieties of, 170
+      Hales' paper-shell, 172
+      long hickory, 173
+      from Missouri, 173
+    Western, varieties of, 174
+      Floyd pecan, 177
+      long, 174
+      Nussbaumer's, 174-176
+  species and varieties, 224
+  swamp hickoria, 164, 165
+  switch bud, 162
+  thick, or western shellbark,  157, 158
+  white-heart, 160
+
+
+Inocarpus edulis, 282
+
+Introduction, 1
+
+Importation of nuts, 8
+
+Imported nuts, value of, 9
+
+Ita palm nut, 271
+
+Ivory nut, 269
+
+
+Jesuit chestnuts, 269, 283
+
+Jicara nut, 269
+
+Juba nut, 270
+
+Jubaea spectabilis, 264
+
+Juvia nut 258, 270
+
+
+Kipper nut, 270
+
+Kola nut, 264
+
+
+Laurelia sempervirens, 275
+
+Lecythis Zabucajo, 279
+
+Leechee nut, 270
+
+Litchi nut, 270
+
+Lodoicea Sechellarum, 263
+
+Longan, 270
+
+Longyen, 270
+
+Lousy nut, 271
+
+
+Macadamia ternifolia, 256
+
+Madagascar nutmeg, 274
+
+Marking nut, 271
+
+Mauritia flexuosa, 271
+
+Miriti nut, 271
+
+Miscellaneous nuts, 254
+
+Monkey-pot nut, 272
+
+Moreton Bay chestnuts, 255
+
+Moringa optera, 256
+  pterygosperma, 256
+
+Myristica fatua, 273
+  fragrans, 273
+  otoba, 274
+  sebifera, 274
+
+Myrobalan nut, 272
+
+
+Nectandy puchury, 274
+
+Nelumbium luteum, 284
+
+Nephelium pinnatum, 271
+
+Nepheliums, 271
+
+Nickar nut, 272
+
+Nittar, or Nutta, 273
+
+Nuces vel Poma Pinea, 277
+
+Nutmeg, 273
+
+Nutmeg hickory, 165
+
+Nyssa capitata, 282
+
+
+Oak nut, 254
+
+Oil nut 265, 275
+
+Olea Americana, 276
+
+Openawk, 267
+
+Ophiocaryon paradoxum, 280
+
+
+Paradise nut, 275
+
+Parkia Africana, 273
+
+Peanut, 275
+
+Pekea nut, 275
+
+Peruvian nut, 275
+  nutmeg, 274
+
+Phytelephas macrocarpa, 269
+
+Physic nut, 276
+
+Pinang, 256
+
+Pine nut, 276
+
+Pinocchi, 277
+
+Pinolas, 277
+
+Pinon, 277
+
+Pinus cembroides, 277
+  edulis, 277
+  monophylla, 278
+  Parryana, 277
+  pinea, 276
+
+Piper betel, 256
+
+Pistacia Mexicana, 278
+  vera, 278
+
+Pistachio nut, 278
+
+Plum nutmeg, 274
+
+Pterocarya fraxinifolia, 261
+
+Puchurim beans, 274
+
+Pyrularia oleifera, 275
+
+
+Quandang nut, 279
+
+Qudria heterophylla, 268
+
+Queensland nut, 256
+
+Quercus virens, 255
+
+
+Raffia, or Roffia, 25
+
+Rambutan, 270
+
+
+Salisburia adiantifolia, 265
+
+Santalum acuminatum, 279
+
+Sapucaia nut, 279
+
+Sardis nut, 63
+
+Sassafras nut, 280
+
+Semecarpus anacardium, 271
+
+Singhara-nut plant, 283
+
+Snake nut, 280
+
+Sonari nut, 280
+
+South Sea chestnut, 282
+
+Staphylea trifolia, 257
+
+Stillingia sebifera, 282
+
+Stinking nutmeg, 275
+
+Strychnos potatorum, 262
+
+
+Tahitian chestnut, 282
+
+Tallow nut, 282
+
+Tavola nut, 282
+
+Taxus nucifera, 283
+
+Temperance nut, 283
+
+Terminalia Catappa, 272
+
+Theobroma cacao, 261
+
+Torrey nut, 283
+
+Torreya Californica, 275
+  nucifera, 283
+
+Trapa bicornis, 283
+  bispinosa, 283
+  natans, 283
+  verbanensis, 283
+
+
+Walnut, 203
+  American, 224
+    black, 232
+    black, in husk, 232
+      varieties of, 233
+    butternut, 224
+      sugar, 227
+      varieties of, 225
+    California, 234
+    Carya cathartica, 225
+    Juglans Californica, 234
+      cathartica, 225
+      cinerea, 224
+      hybrida, 225
+      oblonga alba, 225
+      nigra, 232
+      nigra, husk removed, 233
+      nigra oblonga, 233
+      rupestris, 235
+    New Mexico, 235
+    Texas, 235
+    Wallia cinerea, 225
+    white, 224
+  budding and grafting, 218
+    flute, 220
+  history, 203
+  husking, 250
+  hybrids in California, 227
+    flowering branch of, 228
+    Juglans Californica, 229
+      Sieboldiana, 231, 237
+  insect enemies of the, 251
+    Citheronia regalis, 252
+    Regal walnut moth, 252
+  Jovis glans, 203
+  Juglans, 203
+  Oriental, 236
+    Juglans ailantifolia, 237
+      Camirium, 236
+      Catappa, 236
+      cordiformis, 239
+      Japonica, 236
+      Mandshurica, 237
+  Persian, 204
+    in America, 209
+  Persian, Barthere, 242
+    Chaberte, 242
+    Chile, 240, 242
+    Cluster, 243
+    Cut-leaved, 243
+    English, 240
+    Franquette, 243
+    French, 240
+    Gant, or Bijou, 243
+    Juglans regia, 240
+      regia octogona, 245
+      serotina, 247
+    Kaghazi, 244
+    Large-fruited Praeparturiens, 244
+    Late Praeparturiens, 244
+    Late, 247
+    Madeira nut, 240
+    Mayette, 245
+    Mesange, or paper-shell, 245
+    Meylan, 246
+    Octogona, 246
+    Parisienne, 246
+    Praeparturiens, 246
+    Precocious, 246
+    Racemosa, or Spicata, 243
+    Royal, 240
+    Small fruited, 240
+    St. John, 247
+    Variegated, 248
+    Vilmorin, 247
+    Vourey, 247
+    Weeping, 248
+  planting and pruning, 223
+  propagation of, 215
+  seedling, 216
+
+Water chestnut, 269, 283, 284
+  chinquapin, 284
+  hickory, 165
+
+Western cashew, 260
+  chinquapin, 55
+
+Winged-seeded moringa, 256
+
+Winged walnut, 261
+
+
+
+
+  SENT FREE ON APPLICATION.
+
+  DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE
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+  --OF--
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+  RURAL BOOKS,
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+  CONTAINING 116 8VO. PAGES,
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+  PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED, AND GIVING FULL DESCRIPTIONS OF
+  NEARLY 600 WORKS ON THE FOLLOWING SUBJECTS:
+
+  Farm and Garden,
+
+              Fruits, Flowers, Etc.
+
+                             Cattle, Sheep, and Swine,
+
+      Dogs, Horses, Riding, Etc.,
+
+                 Poultry, Pigeons, and Bees,
+
+                                   Angling and Fishing,
+
+  Boating, Canoeing, and Sailing,
+
+             Field Sports and Natural History,
+
+                                 Hunting, Shooting, Etc.,
+
+    Architecture and Building,
+
+                   Landscape Gardening,
+
+                            Household and Miscellaneous.
+
+  PUBLISHERS AND IMPORTERS:
+
+  ORANGE JUDD COMPANY,
+
+  52 & 54 Lafayette Place, New York.
+
+  =Books will be Forwarded, postpaid, on receipt of Price.=
+
+
+
+
+STANDARD BOOKS.
+
+=Mushrooms: How to Grow Them.=
+
+    Any one who has an ordinary house cellar, woodshed or barn, can
+    grow Mushrooms. This is the most practical work on the subject
+    ever written, and the only book on growing Mushrooms published
+    in America. The author describes how he grows Mushrooms, and how
+    they are grown for profit by the leading market gardeners, and
+    for home use by the most successful private growers. Engravings
+    drawn from nature expressly for this work. By Wm. Falconer.
+    Cloth. Price, postpaid. 1.50
+
+=Land Draining.=
+
+    A Handbook for Farmers on the Principles and Practice of
+    Draining, by Manly Miles, giving the results of his extended
+    experience in laying tile drains. The directions for the laying
+    out and the construction of tile drains will enable the farmer
+    to avoid the errors of imperfect construction, and the
+    disappointment that must necessarily follow. This manual for
+    practical farmers will also be found convenient for references
+    in regard to many questions that may arise in crop growing,
+    aside from the special subjects of drainage of which it treats.
+    Cloth, 12mo. 1.00
+
+=Allen's New American Farm Book.=
+
+    The very best work on the subject; comprising all that can be
+    condensed into an available volume. Originally by Richard L.
+    Allen. Revised and greatly enlarged by Lewis F. Allen. Cloth,
+    12mo. 2.50
+
+=Henderson's Gardening for Profit.=
+
+    By Peter Henderson. The standard work on Market and Family
+    Gardening. The successful experience of the author for more than
+    thirty years, and his willingness to tell, as he does in this
+    work, the secret of his success for the benefit of others,
+    enables him to give most valuable information. The book is
+    profusely illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 2.00
+
+=Henderson's Gardening for Pleasure.=
+
+    A guide to the amateur in the fruit, vegetable and flower
+    garden, with full descriptions for the greenhouse, conservatory
+    and window garden. It meets the wants of all classes in country,
+    city and village who keep a garden for their own enjoyment
+    rather than for the sale of products. By Peter Henderson. Finely
+    Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 2.00
+
+=Johnson's How Crops Grow.=
+
+    New Edition. A Treatise on the Chemical Composition, Structure
+    and Life of the Plant. Revised Edition. This book is a guide to
+    the knowledge of agricultural plants, their composition, their
+    structure and modes of development and growth; of the complex
+    organizations of plants, and the use of the parts; the
+    germination of seeds, and the food of plants obtained both from
+    the air and the soil. The book is a valuable one to all real
+    students of agriculture. With numerous illustrations and tables
+    of analysis. By Prof. Samuel W. Johnson of Yale College. Cloth,
+    12mo. 2.00
+
+=Johnson's How Crops Feed.=
+
+    A Treatise on the Atmosphere and the Soil, as related in the
+    Nutrition of Agricultural Plants. This volume--the companion and
+    complement to "How Crops Grow"--has been welcomed by those who
+    appreciate the scientific aspects of agriculture. Illustrated.
+    By Prof. Samuel W. Johnson. Cloth, 12mo. 2.00
+
+=Market Gardening and Farm Notes.=
+
+    By Barnet Landreth. Experiences and Observations for both North
+    and South, of interest to the Amateur Gardener, Trucker and
+    Farmer. A novel feature of the book is the calendar of farm and
+    garden operations for each month of the year; the chapters on
+    fertilizers, transplanting, succession and rotation of crops,
+    the packing, shipping and marketing of vegetables, will be
+    especially useful to market gardeners. Cloth, 12mo. 1.00
+
+=Forest Planting.=
+
+    A Treatise on the Care of Woodlands and the Restoration of the
+    Denuded Timber-Lands on Plains and Mountains. By H. Nicholas
+    Jarchow, LL. D. The author has fully described those European
+    methods which have proved to be most useful in maintaining the
+    superb forests of the old world. This experience has been
+    adapted to the different climates and trees of America, full
+    instructions being given for forest planting on our various
+    kinds of soil and subsoil, whether on mountain or valley.
+    Illustrated, 12mo. 1.50
+
+=Harris' Talks on Manures.=
+
+    By Joseph Harris, M. S., author of "Walks and Talks on the
+    Farm," "Harris on the Pig," etc. Revised and enlarged by the
+    author. A series of familiar and practical talks between the
+    author and the Deacon, the Doctor, and other neighbors, on the
+    whole subject of manures and fertilizers; including a chapter
+    especially written for it, by Sir John Bennet Lawes of
+    Rothamsted, England. Cloth, 12mo. 1.75
+
+=Truck Farming at the South.=
+
+    A work which gives the experience of a successful grower of
+    vegetables or "truck" for Northern markets. Essential to any one
+    who contemplates entering this promising field of Agriculture.
+    By A. Oemler of Georgia. Illustrated, cloth, 12mo. 1.50
+
+=Sweet Potato Culture.=
+
+    Giving full instructions from starting the plants to harvesting
+    and storing the crop. With a chapter on the Chinese Yam. By
+    James Fitz, Keswich, Va., author of "Southern Apple and Peach
+    Culture." Cloth, 12mo. .60
+
+=Heinrich's Window Flower Garden.=
+
+    The author is a practical florist, and this enterprising volume
+    embodies his personal experiences in Window Gardening during a
+    long period. New and enlarged edition. By Julius J. Heinrich.
+    Fully illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. .75
+
+=Greenhouse Construction.=
+
+    By Prof. L. R. Taft. A complete treatise on Greenhouse
+    structures and arrangements of the various forms and styles of
+    Plant Houses for professional florists as well as amateurs. All
+    the best and most approved structures are so fully and clearly
+    described that anyone who desires to build a Greenhouse will
+    have no difficulty in determining the kind best suited to his
+    purpose. The modern and most successful methods of heating and
+    ventilating are fully treated upon. Special chapters are devoted
+    to houses used for the growing of one kind of plants
+    exclusively. The construction of hotbeds and frames receives
+    appropriate attention. Over one hundred excellent illustrations,
+    specially engraved for this work, make every point clear to the
+    reader and add considerably to the artistic appearance of the
+    book. Cloth, 12mo. 1.50
+
+=Bulbs and Tuberous-Rooted Plants.=
+
+    By C. L. Allen. A complete treatise on the History, Description,
+    Methods of Propagation and full Directions for the successful
+    culture of Bulbs in the garden, Dwelling and Greenhouse. As
+    generally treated, bulbs are an expensive luxury, while, when
+    properly managed, they afford the greatest amount of pleasure at
+    the least cost. The author of this book has for many years made
+    bulb growing a specialty, and is a recognized authority on their
+    cultivation and management. The illustrations which embellish
+    this work have been drawn from nature, and have been engraved
+    especially for this book. The cultural directions are plainly
+    stated, practical and to the point. Cloth, 12mo. 2.00
+
+=Henderson's Practical Floriculture.=
+
+    By Peter Henderson. A guide to the successful propagation and
+    cultivation of florists' plants. The work is not one for
+    florists and gardeners only, but the amateur's wants are
+    constantly kept in mind, and we have a very complete treatise on
+    the cultivation of flowers under glass, or in the open air,
+    suited to those who grow flowers for pleasure as well as those
+    who make them a matter of trade. Beautifully illustrated. New
+    and enlarged edition. Cloth, 12mo. 1.50
+
+=Long's Ornamental Gardening for Americans.=
+
+    A Treatise on Beautifying Homes, Rural Districts and Cemeteries.
+    A plain and practical work at a moderate price, with numerous
+    illustrations and instructions so plain that they may be readily
+    followed. By Elias A. Long, Landscape Architect. Illustrated,
+    Cloth, 12mo. 2.00
+
+=The Propagation of Plants.=
+
+    By Andrew S. Fuller. Illustrated with numerous engravings. An
+    eminently practical and useful work. Describing the process of
+    hybridizing and crossing species and varieties, and also the
+    many different modes by which cultivated plants may be
+    propagated and multiplied. Cloth, 12mo. 1.50
+
+=Parsons on the Rose.=
+
+    By Samuel B. Parsons. A treatise on the propagation, culture and
+    history of the rose. New and revised edition. In his work upon
+    the rose, Mr. Parsons has gathered up the curious legends
+    concerning the flower, and gives us an idea of the esteem in
+    which it was held in former times. A simple garden
+    classification has been adopted, and the leading varieties under
+    each class enumerated and briefly described. The chapters on
+    multiplication, cultivation and training are very full, and the
+    work is altogether one of the most complete before the public.
+    Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 1.00
+
+=Henderson's Handbook of Plants.=
+
+    This new edition comprises about fifty per cent. more genera
+    than the former one, and embraces the botanical name,
+    derivation, natural order, etc., together with a short history
+    of the different genera, concise instructions for their
+    propagation and culture, and all the leading local or common
+    English names, together with a comprehensive glossary of
+    Botanical and Technical terms. Plain instructions are also given
+    for the cultivation of the principal vegetables, fruits and
+    flowers. Cloth, large 8vo. 4.00
+
+=Barry's Fruit Garden.=
+
+    By P. Barry. A standard work on Fruit and Fruit Trees; the
+    author having had over thirty years' practical experience at the
+    head of one of the largest nurseries in this country. New
+    edition revised up to date. Invaluable to all fruit growers.
+    Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 2.00
+
+=Fulton's Peach Culture.=
+
+    This is the only practical guide to Peach Culture on the
+    Delaware Peninsula, and is the best work upon the subject of
+    peach growing for those who would be successful in that culture
+    in any part of the country. It has been thoroughly revised and a
+    large portion of it rewritten, by Hon. J. Alexander Fulton, the
+    author, bringing it down to date. Cloth, 12mo. 1.50
+
+=Strawberry Culturist.=
+
+    By Andrew S. Fuller. Containing the History, Sexuality, Field
+    and Garden Culture of Strawberries, forcing or pot culture, how
+    to grow from seed, hybridizing, and all information necessary to
+    enable everybody to raise their own strawberries, together with
+    a description of new varieties and a list of the best of the old
+    sorts. Fully illustrated. Flexible cloth, 12mo. .25
+
+=Fuller's Small Fruit Culturist.=
+
+    By Andrew S. Fuller. Rewritten, enlarged, and brought fully up
+    to the present time. The book covers the whole ground of
+    propagating Small Fruits, their culture, varieties, packing for
+    market, etc. It is very finely and thoroughly illustrated, and
+    makes an admirable companion to "The Grape Culturist," by the
+    same well known author. 1.50
+
+=Fuller's Grape Culturist.=
+
+    By A. S. Fuller. This is one of the very best of works on the
+    Culture of the Hardy Grapes, with full directions for all
+    departments of propagation, culture, etc., with 150 excellent
+    engravings, illustrating planting, training, grafting, etc.
+    Cloth, 12mo. 1.50
+
+=Quinn's Pear Culture for Profit.=
+
+    Teaching How to Raise Pears intelligently, and with the best
+    results, how to find out the character of the soil, the best
+    methods of preparing it, the best varieties to select under
+    existing conditions, the best modes of planting, pruning,
+    fertilizing, grafting, and utilizing the ground before the trees
+    come into bearing, and finally of gathering and packing for
+    market. Illustrated. By P. T. Quinn, practical horticulturist.
+    Cloth, 12mo. 1.00
+
+=Husmann's American Grape Growing and Wine-Making.=
+
+    By George Husmann of Talcoa vineyards, Napa, California. New and
+    enlarged edition. With contributions from well known
+    grape-growers, giving a wide range of experience. The author of
+    this book is a recognized authority on the subject. Cloth, 12mo.
+    1.50
+
+=White's Cranberry Culture.=
+
+    Contents:--Natural History.--History of Cultivation.--Choice of
+    Location.--Preparing the Ground.--Planting the
+    Vines.--Management of Meadows.--Flooding.--Enemies and
+    Difficulties Overcome.--Picking.--Keeping.--Profit and
+    Loss.--Letters from Practical Growers.--Insects Injurious to the
+    Cranberry. By Joseph J. White, a practical grower. Illustrated.
+    Cloth, 12mo. New and revised edition. 1.25
+
+=Fuller's Practical Forestry.=
+
+    A Treatise on the Propagation, Planting and Cultivation, with a
+    description and the botanical and proper names of all the
+    indigenous trees of the United States, both Evergreen and
+    Deciduous, with Notes on a large number of the most valuable
+    Exotic Species. By Andrew S. Fuller, author of "Grape
+    Culturist," "Small Fruit Culturist," etc. 1.50
+
+=Stewart's Irrigation for the Farm, Garden and Orchard.=
+
+    This work is offered to those American Farmers and other
+    cultivators of the soil who, from painful experience, can
+    readily appreciate the losses which result from the scarcity of
+    water at critical periods. By Henry Stewart. Fully illustrated.
+    Cloth, 12mo. 1.50
+
+=Quinn's Money in the Garden.=
+
+    By P. T. Quinn. The author gives in a plain, practical style,
+    instructions on three distinct, although closely connected
+    branches of gardening--the kitchen garden, market garden, and
+    field culture, from successful practical experience for a term
+    of years. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 1.50
+
+=Roe's Play and Profit in My Garden.=
+
+    By E. P. Roe. The author takes us to his garden on the rocky
+    hill-sides in the vicinity of West Point, and shows us how out
+    of it, after four years' experience, he evoked a profit of
+    $1,000, and this while carrying on pastoral and literary labor.
+    It is very rarely that so much literary taste and skill are
+    mated to so much agricultural experience and good sense. Cloth,
+    12mo. 1.50
+
+=The New Onion Culture.=
+
+    By T. Greiner. This new work is written by one of our most
+    successful agriculturists, and is full of new, original, and
+    highly valuable matter of material interest to every one who
+    raises onions in the family garden, or by the acre for market.
+    By the process here described a crop of 2000 bushels per acre
+    can be as easily raised as 500 or 600 bushels in the old way.
+    Paper, 12mo. .50
+
+=The Dairyman's Manual.=
+
+    By Henry Stewart, author of "The Shepherd's Manual,"
+    "Irrigation," etc. A useful and practical work, by a writer who
+    is well known as thoroughly familiar with the subject of which
+    he writes. Cloth, 12mo. 2.00
+
+=Allen's American Cattle.=
+
+    Their History, Breeding and Management. By Lewis F. Allen. This
+    book will be considered indispensable by every breeder of live
+    stock. The large experience of the author in improving the
+    character of American herds adds to the weight of his
+    observations and has enabled him to produce a work which will at
+    once make good his claims as a standard authority on the
+    subject. New and revised edition. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 2.50
+
+=Profits in Poultry.=
+
+    Useful and ornamental Breeds and their Profitable Management.
+    This excellent work contains the combined experience of a number
+    of practical men in all departments of poultry raising. It is
+    profusely illustrated and forms a unique and important addition
+    to our poultry literature. Cloth, 12mo. 1.00
+
+=The American Standard of Perfection.=
+
+    The recognized standard work on Poultry in this country, adopted
+    by the American Poultry Association. It contains a complete
+    description of all the recognized varieties of fowls, including
+    turkeys, ducks and geese; gives instructions to judges; glossary
+    of technical terms and nomenclature. It contains 244 pages,
+    handsomely bound in cloth, embellished with title in gold on
+    front cover. $1.00
+
+=Stoddard's An Egg Farm.=
+
+    By H. H. Stoddard. The management of poultry in large numbers,
+    being a series of articles written for the AMERICAN
+    AGRICULTURIST. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. .50
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Nut Culturist, by Andrew S. Fuller
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author	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 20:09:13 -0700
committer	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 20:09:13 -0700
commit	0cfb12e5371f108ae91f445748cd576a0790dee1 (patch)
tree	0b9d1391aaa5fc460024126a0996835fb7e363fa