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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:09:07 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:09:07 -0700 |
| commit | 58b491cc06ab72181973118c2bc3b8bcff24d819 (patch) | |
| tree | e4efddca32afa1037fb1a0d194abe35dcb934eaa /37920-h | |
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diff --git a/37920-h/37920-h.htm b/37920-h/37920-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0f75456 --- /dev/null +++ b/37920-h/37920-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,17961 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Story of the Nations (Part I), by Thomas C. Dawson. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + text-indent: 1em; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + .half { margin-top: .5em; margin-bottom: .5em;} + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .bblockquot{margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%;} + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + .nblockquot{margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + .sblockquot{text-indent: 0em; font-size: small; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%;} + .indexquot{text-indent: 0em; font-size: 0.9em; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%;} + .noin {text-indent: 0em;} + + .bbt {border-bottom: solid 1px; border-top: solid 1px; padding-top: 3em; padding-bottom: 3em; width: 100%;} + .bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} + .bl {border-left: solid 2px;} + .bt {border-top: solid 2px;} + .br {border-right: solid 2px;} + .bbox {border: solid 2px; width: 400px; padding-left: 10px; padding-right: 10px; + margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-bottom: 3em; margin-top: 3em;} + + .center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .notebox {border: solid 2px; padding: 1em; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%; background: #CCCCB2;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The South American Republics Part I of II, by +Thomas C. Dawson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The South American Republics Part I of II + +Author: Thomas C. Dawson + +Release Date: November 4, 2011 [EBook #37920] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS *** + + + + +Produced by Adrian Mastronardi and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<div class="bbox"> +<h2>Story of the Nations</h2> + +<p class="nblockquot"><b>A Series of Historical Studies intended to present in +graphic narratives the stories of the different +nations that have attained prominence in history.</b></p> + +<hr class="half" /> +<p>In the story form the current of each national +life is distinctly indicated, and its picturesque and +noteworthy periods and episodes are presented for +the reader in their philosophical relations to each +other as well as to universal history.</p> + +<hr class="half" /> +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="" width="100%"> +<tr><td align='left'><b>12º, Illustrated, cloth, each</b></td><td align='right'><b>net $1.50</b></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr class="half" /> +<p class="center"><b><small>FOR FULL LIST SEE END OF THIS VOLUME.</small></b></p> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<p><a name="Frontispiece" id="Frontispiece"></a><i>Frontispiece</i></p> +<img src="images/illus-002.jpg" width="1024" height="682" alt="CAPE HORN." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CAPE HORN.<br /> +[From a steel engraving.]</span> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p> </p> +<h4>THE STORY OF THE NATIONS</h4> +<hr class="half" /> + +<p> </p> +<h1>THE SOUTH AMERICAN<br /> +REPUBLICS</h1> + +<p> </p> +<h5>BY</h5> +<h2>THOMAS C. DAWSON</h2> +<h5>Secretary of the United States Legation to Brazil</h5> + +<p> </p> +<h4>IN TWO PARTS<br /> +<br /> +<i>PART I</i><br /> +ARGENTINA, PARAGUAY, URUGUAY, BRAZIL</h4> + +<p> </p> +<h4><big>G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS</big><br /> +NEW YORK AND LONDON<br /> +The Knickerbocker Press</h4> + + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Copyright 1903</span><br /> + +<small>BY</small><br /> + +THOMAS C. DAWSON<br /> +<br /> +Eighth Printing</p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center">The Knickerbocker Press, New York</p> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h3>TO MY WIFE<br /> +<br /> +<small>I DEDICATE THIS STUDY OF THE HISTORY<br /> +OF HER NATIVE CONTINENT</small></h3> + + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-1.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>The question most frequently asked me since I +began my stay in South America has been: +"Why do they have so many revolutions there?" +Possibly the events recounted in the following pages +may help the reader to answer this for himself. I +hope that he will share my conviction that militarism +has already definitely disappeared from more than +half the continent and is slowly becoming less powerful +in the remainder. Constitutional traditions, inherited +from Spain and Portugal, implanted a +tendency toward disintegration; Spanish and Portuguese +tyranny bred in the people a distrust of all +rulers and governments; the war of independence +brought to the front military adventurers; civil disorders +were inevitable, and the search for forms of +government that should be final and stable has been +very painful. On the other hand, the generous impulse +that prompted the movement toward independence +has grown into an earnest desire for +ordered liberty, which is steadily spreading among +all classes. Civic capacity is increasing among the +body of South Americans and immigration is raising +the industrial level. They are slowly evolving among +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span>themselves the best form of government for their +special needs and conditions, and a citizen of the +United States must rejoice to see that that form is +and will surely remain republican.</p> + +<p>It is hard to secure from the tangle of events +called South American history a clearly defined +picture. At the risk of repetition I have tried to +tell separately the story of each country, because +each has its special history and its peculiar characteristics. +All of these states have, however, had +much in common and it is only in the case of the +larger nations that social and political conditions +have been described in detail. A study of either +Argentina, Brazil, Chile, or Venezuela is likely to +throw most light on the political development of the +continent, while Peru, Bolivia, and Colombia are +more interesting to the seeker for local colour and +the lover of the dramatic.</p> + +<p>The South American histories so far written treat +of special periods, and few authorities exist for post-revolution +times. Personal observations through a +residence of six years in South America; conversations +with public men, scholars, merchants, +and proprietors; newspapers and reviews, political +pamphlets, books of travel, and official publications, +have furnished me with most of my material for the +period since 1825. The following books have been +of use in the preparation of the first volume, and +are recommended to those who care to follow up +the subject:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Argentina</span>: Mitre's <i>Historia de Belgrano and +Historia de San Martin</i>, in Spanish; Torrente's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span> +<i>Revolucion Hispano-Americano</i>, in Spanish; Lozano's +<i>Conquista del Paraguay, La Plata y Tucuman</i>, +in Spanish; Funes's <i>Historia de Buenos Aires y +Tucuman</i>, in Spanish; Lopez's <i>Manuel de Historia +Argentina</i>, in Spanish; Page's <i>La Plata</i>, in English; +Graham's <i>A Vanished Arcadia</i>, in English.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Paraguay</span>: All of the above and Thompson's +<i>Paraguayan War</i>, in English; Washburn's <i>History +of Paraguay</i>, in English; Fix's <i>Guerra de Paraguay</i>, +in Portuguese.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Uruguay</span>: Bauza's <i>Dominacion Espanola</i>, in Spanish; +Berra's <i>Bosquejo Historico</i>, in Spanish; Saint-Foix's +<i>L'Uruguay</i>, in French.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Brazil</span>: Southey's <i>History of the Brazil</i>, in +English; Varnhagem's <i>Historia do Brasil</i>, in Portuguese; +Pereira da Silva's <i>Fundacao do Imperio, +Segundo Periodo, Historia do Brasil, e Historia do +Meu Tempo</i>, in Portuguese; Nabuco's <i>Estadista do +Imperio</i>, in Portuguese; Rio Branco's sketch in <i>Le +Bresil en 1889</i>, in French; Oliveira Lima's <i>Pernambuco</i>, +in Portuguese.</p> + +<p>All of the above books may be found in the Columbian +Memorial Library of the Bureau of American +Republics at Washington, which, taken as a whole, +is one of the best collections on South America in +existence.</p> + +<p style='text-align: right'>T. C. D.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Washington</span>, January 22, 1903.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p> + + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-2.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left' colspan='2'><small>CHAPTER</small></td><td align='right'><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' colspan='2'><a href="#INTRODUCTORY">INTRODUCTORY: THE DISCOVERIES AND THE CONQUEST</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br /> +<a href="#ARGENTINA"><i>ARGENTINA</i></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>THE ARGENTINE LAND</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>THE SPANISH COLONIAL SYSTEM</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'>THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>V.</td><td align='left'>THE BEGINNINGS OF THE REVOLUTION</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VI.</td><td align='left'>COMPLETION OF THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VII.</td><td align='left'>THE ERA OF CIVIL WARS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VIII.</td><td align='left'>CONSOLIDATION</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IX.</td><td align='left'>THE MODERN ARGENTINE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br /> +<a href="#PARAGUAY"><i>PARAGUAY</i></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>PARAGUAY UNTIL 1632</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>THE JESUIT REPUBLIC AND COLONIAL PARAGUAY</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>FRANCIA'S REIGN</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'>THE REIGN OF THE ELDER LOPEZ</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>V.</td><td align='left'>THE WAR</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VI.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span></td><td align='left'>PARAGUAY SINCE 1870</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br /> +<a href="#URUGUAY"><i>URUGUAY</i></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>INTRODUCTION</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>PORTUGUESE AGGRESSIONS AND THE SETTLEMENT OF THE COUNTRY</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>THE REVOLUTION</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'>INDEPENDENCE AND CIVIL WAR</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>V.</td><td align='left'>CIVIL WAR AND ARGENTINE INTERVENTION</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VI.</td><td align='left'>COLORADOS AND BLANCOS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_272">272</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><br /> +<a href="#BRAZIL"><i>BRAZIL</i></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'>PORTUGAL</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_287">287</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'>DISCOVERY</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'>DESCRIPTION</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'>EARLY COLONISATION</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_316">316</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>V.</td><td align='left'>THE JESUITS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VI.</td><td align='left'>FRENCH OCCUPATION OF RIO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_333">333</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VII.</td><td align='left'>EXPANSION</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_342">342</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VIII.</td><td align='left'>THE DUTCH CONQUEST</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_350">350</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IX.</td><td align='left'>EXPULSION OF THE DUTCH</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_361">361</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>X.</td><td align='left'>THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_371">371</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XI.</td><td align='left'>GOLD DISCOVERIES—REVOLTS—FRENCH ATTACKS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_378">378</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XII.</td><td align='left'>THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_386">386</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XIII.</td><td align='left'>THE PORTUGUESE COURT IN RIO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_401">401</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XIV.</td><td align='left'>INDEPENDENCE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_411">411</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XV.</td><td align='left'>REIGN OF PEDRO I.</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_421">421</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XVI.</td><td align='left'>THE REGENCY</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_436">436</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XVII.</td><td align='left'>PEDRO II.</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_449">449</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XVIII.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></td><td align='left'>EVENTS OF 1849 TO 1864</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_458">458</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XIX.</td><td align='left'>THE PARAGUAYAN WAR</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_468">468</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XX.</td><td align='left'>REPUBLICANISM AND EMANCIPATION</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_478">478</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXI.</td><td align='left'>THE REVOLUTION—THE DICTATORSHIP—THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_492">492</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' colspan='2'><br /> +<a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_513">513</a></td></tr> +</table></div> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-3.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td> </td><td align='right'><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>CAPE HORN +<br /> <i>From a steel engraving.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>FERDINAND, KING OF SPAIN +<br /> <i>Redrawn from an old print.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>FRANCISCO PIZARRO +<br /> <i>From Montain's "America."</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>THE AUTHENTIC PORTRAIT OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MINING SCENE +<br /> <i>Redrawn from Gottfriedt's "Neue Welt."</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>A YOUNG GAUCHO +<br /> <i>From a lithograph.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>FOREST SCENE IN ARGENTINA +<br /> <i>From a steel print.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>DOCKS AT BUENOS AIRES</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>AN OLD SPANISH CORNER IN BUENOS AIRES</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MANUEL BELGRANO +<br /> <i>From an oil painting.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>GENERAL SAN MARTIN +<br /> <i>From a steel engraving.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>PLAZA DE MAYO AND CATHEDRAL AT BUENOS AIRES +<br /> <i>From a lithograph.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>BUENOS AIRES IN 1845<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span> +<br /> <i>From a steel engraving.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>BARTOLOMÉ MITRE +<br /> <i>From a steel engraving.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>JULIO ROCA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>GATEWAY OF THE CEMETERY AT BUENOS AIRES +<br /> <i>From a lithograph.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>A RIVER ROAD IN ARGENTINA +<br /> <i>From a lithograph.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ASUNCION</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>GUAYRÁ FALLS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>JOSÉ RODRIGUEZ GASPAR FRANCIA +<br /> <i>From an old woodcut.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>FRANCISCO SOLANO LOPEZ +<br /> <i>From a photograph taken in 1849.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>PALM GROVES IN EL CHACO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>HARBOUR AT MONTEVIDEO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MONTEVIDEO +<br /> <i>From an old print.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>BRIDGE AT MALDONADO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>GENERAL DON JOSÉ GERVASIO ARTIGAS +<br /> <i>From an old woodcut.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>THE SOLIS THEATRE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>THE CATHEDRAL, MONTEVIDEO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_283">283</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>OLD TOWER AT LISBON WHENCE THE FLEET SAILED</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_296">296</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>A TUPI VILLAGE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>A GARDEN IN PETROPOLIS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_307">307</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>BAHIA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_324">324</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>PADRE JOSÉ DE ANCHIETA<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span> +<br /> <i>From an old-woodcut.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>PLANTERS GOING TO CHURCH +<br /> <i>From an old print.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>A CADEIRA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>OLD FORT AT BAHIA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_353">353</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>RIO GRANDE DO SUL</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_387">387</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>OLD RANCH IN RIO GRANDE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_390">390</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>WASHING DIAMONDS</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_391">391</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>BOATS ON THE RIO GRANDE +<br /> <i>From a steel print.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_395">395</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>DOM JOHN VI. +<br /> <i>From an old woodcut.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_403">403</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>DOM PEDRO I. +<br /> <i>From an old woodcut.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_414">414</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>DOM JOSÉ BONIFACIO DE ANDRADA +<br /> <i>From a steel print.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_418">418</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>EVARISTO FERREIRA DA VEIGA +<br /> <i>From a steel engraving.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_431">431</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>DONNA JANUARIA +<br /> <i>From a steel engraving.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_445">445</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>DOM PEDRO II. +<br /> <i>From a steel engraving.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_447">447</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>BARON OF CAXIAS +<br /> <i>From an old woodcut.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_453">453</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>PRINCESS ISABEL IN 1889</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_456">456</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>PAMPAS OF THE RIO GRANDE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_460">460</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>OLD MARKET IN SÃO PAULO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_465">465</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>GOVERNER'S PALACE IN SÃO PAULO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_469">469</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>HOSPITAL AND OLD CHURCH AT PORTO ALEGRE<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_475">475</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>BRIDGE AT MENDANHA</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_480">480</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>CITY OF OURO PRETO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_483">483</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>EMPEROR DOM PEDRO IN 1889</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_491">491</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MILITARY SCHOOL OF RIO JANEIRO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_493">493</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>GENERAL BENJAMIN CONSTANT +<br /> <i>From a woodcut.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_496">496</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>THE EMPRESS IN 1889</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_498">498</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>AMERICAN LEGATION NEAR RIO</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_505">505</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>CAMPOS SALLES +<br /> <i>From a woodcut.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_510">510</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='2'><big><b>MAPS</b></big></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MAP OF ARGENTINA, PARAGUAY, URUGUAY, BOLIVIA, AND CHILE</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>OUTLINE MAP OF BRAZIL</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA +<br /> <i>Showing the progress of settlement and present populated area.</i></td><td align='right'><a href="#AtEnd"><i>At end</i></a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-b.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + + +<div class="bbt"> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<h1>INTRODUCTORY</h1> + +<h2>THE DISCOVERIES AND THE CONQUEST</h2> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-4.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<h2><a name="INTRODUCTORY" id="INTRODUCTORY"></a>INTRODUCTORY</h2> + +<h3>THE DISCOVERIES AND THE CONQUEST</h3> + + +<p><i>Spain's Discovery of America.</i>—Town or communal +government has been characteristic of Spain +since before the Roman conquest. The Visigoths, +who destroyed the advanced civilisation they found +in the Peninsula, never really amalgamated with the +subject population, and, happily, they did not succeed +in destroying the municipalities. The liberal, +civilised, and tolerant Saracens who drove out the +Goths, left their Christian subjects free to enjoy +their own laws and customs. The municipalities +gave efficient local self-government while a system +of small proprietorships made the Peninsula prosper, +as in the best days of the Roman dominion. The +population of Spain reached twenty millions under +the Moors, but finally dynastic civil wars enabled the +remnant of Visigoths who had taken refuge in the +northern mountains to begin the gradual expulsion +of the Mahometans. In the midst of these currents +of war and conquest setting to and fro, the old +municipalities survived unchangeable, and always +supplying local self-government.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p> + +<p>A tendency toward decentralisation was ingrained +in the Spanish people from the earliest times. It +was increased by the method in which the Christian +conquest of Mahometan Spain was achieved. The +Visigothic nobility, starting from separate points in +Asturias and Navarre, advanced into Saracen territory +and established counties and earldoms which +were virtually independent of their mother-kingdoms. +The Asturians expanded into Leon and +thence over Galicia, northern Portugal, Old and +New Castile. The power of the Leonese monarch +over Galicia was nominal; Castile and Portugal separated +from Leon almost as soon as they were wrested +from the Mahometans. The Basques were always +independent, and Navarre, though it became the +mother of Aragon, had little connection with the +latter region. On the Mediterranean shore Charlemagne +drove the Moors from Catalonia and made it +a province of his empire, but no sooner was he dead +than it became independent. Toward the end of the +thirteenth century. The Christian conquest was virtually +completed, and the Peninsula had been divided +into four kingdoms. Each of these was, however, in +reality only a federation of semi-independent feudal +divisions and municipalities united by personal allegiance +to a single sovereign. In the course of the +continual quarrelling of the monarchs their kingdoms +frequently divided, coalesced, and separated again. +The death of a king or the marriage of his daughter +was often the signal for war and a readjustment of +boundaries, but these overturnings did not much affect +the component and really vital political units.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p> + +<p>More significant than the political kingdoms were +the linguistic divisions. Spain then spoke, and still +speaks, three languages, each of which has many +dialects. From Asturias and Navarre the language, +now known as Castilian, had spread over the central +part of the Peninsula south to Cadiz and Murcia. +From Galicia the Gallego had spread directly south +along the Atlantic, where one of its dialects grew +into the Portuguese. On the east coast the Catalonian, +imported from Languedoc by the French +conqueror, is a mere derivative of the Provençal. +Its dialects are spoken all along the Mediterranean +coasts of Spain as far south as Alicante, as well as +in the Balearic islands.</p> + +<p>By 1300 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> two great political divisions, Castile +and Aragon, covered three-fourths of the Peninsula, +and their boundaries were well established; each, +however, was a mere loose aggregation of provinces, +and every province had its own laws and customs, +its jealously guarded privileges, its legislative assembly, +and its free municipalities. Galicia had never +become incorporated with Leon; the Basques ruled +themselves; Catalonia was really independent of +Aragon; Castile had, from the beginning, been +virtually independent, although under the same +monarch as Leon, and, indeed, had taken the latter's +place as the metropolitan province of the kingdom.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/illus-024.jpg" width="600" height="662" alt="FERDINAND, KING OF SPAIN." title="" /> +<span class="caption">FERDINAND, KING OF SPAIN.<br /> +[Redrawn from an old print.]</span> +</div> + +<p>The one great unifying force was religious sentiment, +stimulated into fanaticism by centuries of wars +against the infidels. Nevertheless, during the two +centuries before the discovery of America the +Spaniards absorbed much culture from their Moorish +subjects. In 1479, the whole Peninsula, except +Portugal and Granada, was politically united by the +accession of Ferdinand to the throne of Aragon, and +of Isabella to that of Castile and Leon. With local +liberties intact, and peace prevailing throughout its +whole extent, the Peninsula enjoyed a prosperity +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>unknown since the golden era of the Moors. The +population rose to twelve millions; Andalusia, +Galicia, Catalonia, and Valencia were among the +most flourishing and thickly settled parts of Europe, +while the military qualities of the aristocracy of Castile +and Leon and Aragon gave the new power the +best armies of the time.</p> + +<p>Colonies founded by a monarchy so organised +could never be firmly knit to each other nor to the +mother country. The nobility of the sword would +try to establish feudal principalities; the new cities +would endeavour to exercise the local functions of +the old Peninsular municipalities; and the spirit +of local independence still animating Catalonians, +Basques, Galicians, and Andalusians would be repeated +on a new continent. The only bond of union +would be personal allegiance to the monarch.</p> + +<p>In the fourteenth century, Christian navigators +reached the Canary Islands—sixty miles from the +African coast and six hundred south-east of Gibraltar. +The assurance that land did really exist below the +horizon of that western ocean, so mysterious and +terrible to the early navigators, gave them confidence +to push farther into the deep. In navigation, +the Spaniards lagged behind their Portuguese neighbours. +But among the Spanish kingdoms Castile +took the lead because her Andalusian ports of Cadiz, +San Lucar, Palos, and Huelva faced on the open Atlantic. +These towns swarmed with sailors who had +followed in the track of the Portuguese and visited +their new possessions. The Castilians and Andalusians +were naturally jealous of the successful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> +Portuguese. Madeira, the Azores, the Cape Verdes, +and the gold mines of the Guinea coast had fallen +to the latter, while the Spaniards had only the +Canaries. They gave an eager ear to the rumours +that were rife in the Portuguese islands of more +marvellous discoveries still to be made—of islands +beyonds the Azores. An adventurous Italian, +Christopher Columbus, wandering among the Portuguese +possessions, heard the stories. Happily for +Spain, he believed them and resolved to lead an expedition +to the farther side of the Atlantic. He +entered her service and proved to be an enthusiast +of rare pertinacity. It is immaterial whether the +idea of a route to the East Indies by the west +occurred to him at the same time he became convinced +that there were islands in the far Atlantic +waiting to be discovered. That which is certain +is that he devoted his life to persuading someone +in authority to entrust him with ships and +men to make a voyage to the far West. The pilots +at Palos backed him, and he finally secured the desired +permission and means from Isabella of Castile. +Her interest in exploration and colonisation had +been shown fifteen years before, in her energetic +measures in conquering the Canaries and forcing +the Portuguese to renounce their claims to those +islands, and she well deserves the title of founder of +the colonial empire of Spain.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 676px;"> +<img src="images/illus-027.jpg" width="676" height="1024" alt="THE AUTHENTIC PORTRAIT OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE AUTHENTIC PORTRAIT OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS.</span> +</div> + +<p>The story of Columbus's first voyage needs no retelling. +He journeyed so far to the west that he +returned convinced he had reached the longitude of +eastern Asia, and the noise of his great discovery +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>resounded through Europe and began the transformation +of the world. Since the last great century—the +thirteenth—Christendom had retrograded. +The Tartars dominated Russia and the Turks were +pressing hard on Germany. Unless the Christian +world could find an outlet—unless it could create +other resources for itself and outside of itself; unless +feudalism should find an employment for its military +energies outside of the vicious circle of fruitless and +purposeless dynastic wars, it seemed not improbable +that Mahometan aggression would continue until all +Europe lay under the deadening influence of the +Turk. Only in the Peninsula was apparent that +spirit of expansion which is the best indication of +internal vitality in a nation. The military nobility, +whose determined fanaticism, magnificent courage, +and spirit of individual initiative had driven the +Moors out of Spain in the thirteenth century, welcomed +this fresh opportunity to slay the infidel and +carve out new fiefs for themselves.</p> + +<p><i>Conquest of the Andes.</i>—Columbus showed strategic +genius of the highest order in choosing Hayti as +the site of the first settlement. That island afforded +an admirable base for the conquest of the New +World. It was large enough to furnish provisions, +and was conveniently situated with reference to the +coasts and islands of the Caribbean. Gold washings +were soon discovered in the interior and the unwarlike +inhabitants were at once impressed into slavery +to dig in the mines. The news of gold stimulated +interest as nothing else could have done. The Castilian +government took immediate steps to exclude all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +other nations. The Pope divided the globe between +Spain and Portugal, and a treaty to this effect +was negotiated between the two countries. Spaniards +swarmed over to Hayti, and thence expeditions +were sent out in every direction, headed by private +adventurers bearing their sovereign's commission. +The other Antilles were soon explored and, by the +end of the century, the Spaniards had reached the +South American mainland and rapidly explored its +coast from the Amazon up to the Isthmus. Gold +was picked up in the streams flowing from the +Columbian Andes into the Caribbean. A few years +later the north-western coast of South America was +granted out to noble adventurers who undertook +its conquest and exploitation with their own means. +The Isthmian region became the new centre of +Spanish power and commerce in America. In 1513, +Balboa crossed the Isthmus to the Pacific Ocean—an +event second in its far-reaching consequences +only to Columbus's first voyage. During the following +years the Gulf of Mexico was explored, and in +1518 the greatest statesman and general whom Spain +ever sent to the new world—Hernando Cortes—began +the conquest of the empire of the Aztecs.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 713px;"> +<img src="images/illus-030.jpg" width="713" height="1024" alt="FRANCISCO PIZARRO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">FRANCISCO PIZARRO.<br /> +[From Montain's America.]</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>The +mining done in Hayti and along the Caribbean +coast seemed pitiably insignificant compared +with the treasures found in Mexico. There followed +a new influx of gentleman adventurers who scoured +the coast in every direction seeking another defenceless +empire and mines as good as those of Mexico. +The expeditions down the Pacific coast of South +America started from the Isthmus. Peru was soon +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> +found, and in 1532, Pizarro and his band of blood-thirsty +desperadoes, with inconceivable audacity, +struck a vital blow at the heart of the great empire +of the Incas by capturing its emperor. Within half +a dozen years nearly the whole of the vast region +over which the Inca power had extended was overrun +and the outlying provinces were ready to submit +at demand.</p> + +<p>The rapidity with which a little band of Spaniards +conquered the vast and warlike empire of the +Incas is well-nigh incredible. The terror inspired +by horses and firearms did much, but the capture +of their emperor demoralised the imperial Inca tribes +still more. Once in the possession of the sacred person +of the monarch, the Spaniards were regarded by +the Indians as his mouthpiece and the successor to his +power. From Cuzco, the capital, a splendid system +of roads and communications radiated to every part +of the empire. The military and political dominance +of the imperial tribes had weakened the power +of resistance in the provinces. The elaborate structure +which had been built up by the Incas rather +facilitated than hindered the Spanish conquest, once +the decisive blow had been given at the centre. The +provinces submitted to the new rulers as fast as the +Spanish columns could march over the magnificent +mountain roads.</p> + +<p>South from Cuzco the Inca empire extended +2000 miles. It covered the whole Andean region +as far as the 37th degree of south latitude and extended +from the Pacific to the eastern slopes of +the Andean foothills. In the present Argentine it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +included the tribes living in the lesser chains which +occupy the north-western part of the republic. +Some of these Argentine tribes seem to have been +only tributary to the Incas, others were completely +dependent, and extensive colonies had been founded +in the cotton regions. The general language was +Inca, and that admirable system of irrigation and +intensive culture which made Peru proper a garden +had been introduced on the eastern slopes of +the southern Andes.</p> + +<p>The southern part of the great Bolivian plateau +seems to have submitted quietly to the Spanish +conquerors, and the stream of adventurers passed on +to the south. In 1542, Diego de Rojas led the first +expedition, of which a record has survived, down +through the Humahuaca valley into the actual territory +of the Argentine. He himself perished in a +fight with a wild tribe near the main chain of the +Andes, but his followers continued their march. +Near Tucuman, they passed out from the mountain +defiles unto the pampa, and, leaving the desert to +their right penetrated through Santiago and Cordoba, +to the Paraná.</p> + +<p>No permanent settlement was then made, but the +reports of thousands of peaceable and wealthy Indians +inhabiting irrigated valleys, and the accounts +of the magnificent pastures which stretched away +to the east, soon tempted the Spaniards to take permanent +possession. Seven years after the first exploration +a town was founded in latitude 27°, midway +between the Andes and the Paraná. About +the same time other adventurers came pouring over<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +the Andes from northern Chile, and this current +soon joined that from the north. The Spaniards +established themselves as feudal lords, and the unhappy +Indians were divided among them. In one +district, forty-seven thousand Indians were divided +among fifty-six grantees. In 1553, Santiago de +Estero, for many years the capital of the province +of Tucuman was founded.</p> + +<p>In 1561, the governor of Chile sent from Santiago +de Chile over the Andes an expedition which founded +the city of Mendoza in a most beautiful region, +where the vine flourishes in perfection, and where a +wonderful system of irrigation, inherited from the +Indians, still exists to attest the latters' engineering +skill. Next year San Juan was founded, and these +two towns were the centres for the settlement of the +province of Cuyo, which remained a part of Chile for +two hundred years. The immigrants from northern +Chile and Bolivia established Tucuman in the tropical +garden spot of the republic in 1565. From +Santiago del Estero, in 1573, an expedition was sent +two hundred and fifty miles to the south to a region +of fertile valleys and plains at the foot of a beautiful +mountain range. This was Cordoba, which at once +became, and has since remained, the most populous +of the interior provinces.</p> + +<p>By the end of the sixteenth century the Spanish +power was firmly established in settlements that have +since become the Argentine provinces of Jujuy, +Salta, Tucuman, Catamarca, Santiago, Rioja, and +Cordoba. All these really formed a southern extension +of Upper Peru. Their geographical, political,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +and commercial relations were with Charcas, Potosí, +and Lima. The discovery, in 1545, of the +great silver mines at Potosí at once made the high +Bolivian plateau, then known as the Audiencia of +Charcas, the most valuable and important province +of all the Spanish monarch's South American empire. +In 1571, the discovery of quicksilver mines in +Peru vastly increased the output of precious metals; +in 1575, the wonderful Oruro mines were opened, +and before the end of the century the copper-pan +amalgamation process was invented in Bolivia, revolutionising +the production of silver.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 741px;"> +<img src="images/illus-034.jpg" width="741" height="600" alt="MINING SCENE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">MINING SCENE.<br /> +[Redrawn from Gottfriedt's Neuw Welt.]</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p> + +<p>The resulting prosperity of the mining regions of +Bolivia stimulated the settlement of the north-western +provinces of the Argentine. The miners needed +provisions which could not well be raised in the +neighbourhood of Potosí. There was a demand for +cattle for beef, and for horses and mules for transportation. +A solid economic foundation was thus +provided for the plains settlements, and the enslavement +of the Indians and the breeding of cattle went +on apace. By the end of the sixteenth century +north-western Argentine—the province of Tucuman, +as it was then called—was the seat of many thriving +settlements whose Spanish inhabitants were mostly +pastoral. The Indians in the neighbourhood of +each settlement had been reduced to slavery, and +cultivated the fields that had been their fathers' for +the benefit of their white masters. The Spanish +proprietors lived like feudal lords, while the Spanish +authorities left these remote regions largely to their +own devices.</p> + +<p>Conditions in Cuyo, the western province just +across the Andes from Santiago de Chile, were substantially +the same. A political dependency of +Chile, the few external relations it had were with +that captaincy-general. The Spanish grantees ruled +their Indian slaves in patriarchal fashion; agriculture +was the principal occupation; pastoral industry was +not so profitable as in Tucuman, and the region was +more isolated. In both Tucuman and Cuyo Spanish +rule was superimposed upon a previously existing +commercial and social structure. There was no +attempt to expel or destroy the aborigines. On<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +the contrary, they were the sole labourers and their +exertions the chief source of the wealth of their conquerors. +There began a process of approximation +and mutual assimilation between the Spaniards and +their semi-civilised subjects. While the former continued +to be a privileged and ruling caste, the latter +absorbed much European knowledge from them. +The Indian language long held its own alongside of +the Spanish and is still spoken in many parts of the +region.</p> + +<p>On the Atlantic side, among degraded peoples +who had not progressed beyond the wandering +and tribal stages of existence. Spanish settlement +proceeded on entirely different lines. There existed +no well-organised body politic, into whose +control the conquerors could step with hardly an interruption +to industry. Campaigns could not be +made with the confident expectation of finding +abundant accumulations of food <i>en route</i>. Expeditions +among the squalid tribes were slow and +dangerous and settlement stuck close to the rivers +instead of following fearlessly across the plateau to +the spots where the finest lands and the most flourishing +Indian communities lay ready for the spoiler.</p> + +<p>The beginnings of the coast provinces were painful +and disastrous; the settlements were feeble; +centuries elapsed before the natural advantages of +the region were utilised, and before its accessibility +and fertility drew a great immigration. The assimilation +of Indian blood did not take place on a large +scale, and the immigrants and their descendants became +perforce horsemen and fighters.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Discovery of the Plate.</i>—The Portuguese discovery +of the east coast of South America, in 1500, was a +disagreeable surprise to the Spanish government. +The Treaty of Tordesillas had been framed with the +purpose of giving America to Spain, while Africa +and the shores of the Indian Ocean were left to +Portugal. Nevertheless, the Portuguese vigorously +asserted their right to the prize they had picked up +by accident and insisted on the letter of the treaty. +They promptly explored the coast as far south as +Santa Catharina, six hundred miles north of the +Plate, but they had asserted no ownership farther +south at the date when the Spanish expeditions +began to be sent to the South Atlantic.</p> + +<p>In 1516, a celebrated sea-captain from the north +of Spain—Juan Diaz de Solis—was sent out by +the Castilian government to explore the southern +part of the continent. He simply reconnoitred the +Brazilian coast, where the Portuguese had not yet +established any settlements, and, pressing on to the +south, finally reached the Plate. His first impression +on rounding Cape St. Maria, where the Uruguayan +shore turns to the north-west, was that he +had reached the southern point of the continent and +discovered the sea route into the Pacific. But the +freshness of the water in the great estuary undeceived +him. Following along the northern bank, he +landed with a small party and was attacked and +slain by a tribe of fierce and intractable Indians.</p> + +<p>When the news reached Lisbon, the Portuguese +government protested against this invasion of territory, +which it claimed lay east of the Tordesillas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +line. Portugal, however, did not follow up her +protest or try to take possession for herself. At +this very time a celebrated Portuguese navigator, +Fernando Magellan, disgusted by the neglect of his +own country, was urging the Spanish government +to give him the means of carrying out his great project +for the circumnavigation of the globe. He was +confident he could reach the East Indies by rounding +the southern point of South America or by finding a +passage through the continent in higher latitudes +than had yet been reached. The year 1519, when +Magellan sailed from San Lucar on the first voyage +around the world, was big with fate for Spain. +Cortes was adding a new empire by the conquest of +Mexico, thus giving Spain control of the world's +supply of precious metals. The popular assemblies +of Castile and Aragon, of Catalonia, Valencia, and +Galicia, were preparing for a hopeless struggle +against the might of a monarch who ruled two-thirds +of Europe. At the very moment that Charles +V. was crushing Peninsular freedom by brutal military +force, the genius of Magellan and Cortes gave +him the whole of America. Spain had heretofore been +a federation of self-governing communes and provinces, +but their independence was now destroyed. +Military despotism proved strong enough to crush +liberty, although it was unable to stamp out the feeling +of local segregation. The very soldiers that conquered +America took over an instinctive feeling that +the central government was dangerous and inimical +to the people—a sentiment which has always survived +in some form among their descendants.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p> + +<p>Magellan stopped at the Plate in the beginning of +1520, and explored the estuary to make sure that it +did not afford the passage he was seeking. In +October he reached the mouth of the strait that +bears his name, and, wonderfully favoured by wind +and weather, threaded his way to the Pacific in five +weeks. Subsequent wayfarers were not so fortunate +and the strait never became a practicable commercial +route until after the introduction of steam navigation. +In the succeeding hundred years not half +a dozen ships reached the Pacific around South +America. Practically, the Pacific was accessible +only over the Isthmus or by the immensely long +journey around the Cape of Good Hope. Nevertheless, +the importance of this epoch-making voyage +has not been overestimated. The Pacific became, +in a sense, a Spanish lake, in which she could maintain +at will a naval preponderance. She occupied +the Philippines and secured control at leisure of the +Pacific coast of America. However, the scientific +results were more important. Thereafter, the thorough +exploration of all the shores of the South Sea +was only a question of time. Magellan's voyage +made geography an exact science. He sketched the +map of the world with broad and sure strokes and +left nothing for subsequent explorers except the +filling-in of details.</p> + +<p>The occupation of the Philippines and Moluccas +gave rise to new disputes between Spain and Portugal +as to their rights under the Treaty of Tordesillas. +The imperfect instruments of those days left +the line doubtful on the eastern South American<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +coast, as well as on the other side of the world. In +1526, Sebastian Cabot was sent by the Spanish +government to determine astronomically the location +of the line in America, and then to follow Magellan's +track to western Asia. At the mouth of the Plate +he heard rumours among the Indians of silver mines +on the river's banks and of the existence of a +great and wealthy empire at its headwaters. This +was Peru—not yet reached by the Castilians on +their way south from the Isthmus, but the coast +Indians showed Cabot silver ornaments which had +been passed from hand to hand from the highlands +of Peru and Bolivia down the river to the +Atlantic.</p> + +<p>Cabot and his band of adventurers determined to +neglect their surveying, trusting that the discovery +of silver mines would excuse their disobedience. +They spent three years in vain journeying and prospecting—exploring +the Uruguay to the head of +navigation and following up the Paraná as far as the +Apipé rapids. Signs of neither silver nor gold, nor +of civilised inhabitants, were found on either river. +Their upper courses came down from the east—the +direction opposite to that in which Eldorado was +reported. The gently flowing Paraguay, coming +down the plains in the centre of the continent, +seemed to offer a better hope of success. But +Cabot's forces and provisions were inadequate to +penetrating farther north than the present site of +Asuncion. Returning to a fort he had left on the +lower Paraná, he found that it had been taken by +Indians and its garrison massacred. Discouraged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +by such a succession of difficulties and misfortunes, +he returned to Spain.</p> + +<p>The news of Cabot's expedition, and its failure, +stimulated the Portuguese to undertake the colonisation +of the east coast of South America. Affonso +da Souza started from Lisbon with an expedition, +intending to take possession of the Plate. Lack of +provisions, fear of the Indians, the presence of a +Portuguese castaway—one of those insignificant +chances that sometimes change the course of empires +as a twig diverts the current of a river—stopped +Alfonso before he reached his destination. +Instead of establishing a colony on the estuary he +founded San Vicente, just south of the Tropic of +Capricorn. This became the southern outpost of +the Portuguese possessions, and the temperate zone +of South America was left open for the Spaniards to +occupy when they chose.</p> + +<p>Two years after Cabot's failure, Pizarro overran +Peru. All Europe rang with the exploit. The +Spanish king was besieged by nobles who literally +begged the privilege of risking their lives and fortunes +in America. These "adelantados" contracted +to conquer, at their own charges, the particular districts +granted them, certain profits being reserved to +the crown, and Charles V. freely granted such +patents. Among the grantees was a Basque nobleman, +Pedro de Mendoza, to whom was given the +territory beginning at the Portuguese possessions +south two hundred leagues along the Atlantic coast +toward the Strait of Magellan. He raised more +than two thousand men and reached the Plate in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +1535, where he immediately founded a city on the +south bank which he named Buenos Aires. He +intended to make it a base for an advance up the +Paraná to find and conquer another Peru. His attempt +was foredoomed to failure. The Indians +surrounding Buenos Aires were implacable in their +hatred of the invaders. They lived in scattered +little tribes, and neither would nor could furnish +food enough to maintain the Spaniards. The provisions +brought from Spain were inadequate; sorties +were useless; the Indians fled from large parties and +ambushed small ones. The preparations for the +advance up the river were delayed for months. +Hundreds died of hunger and disease. Within a +year the place had to be abandoned, and in a desperate +condition the expedition fled up the river to +Cabot's solid fort. Here the adelantado stopped, +sick and discouraged, while a few hundreds of the +more daring and persevering pressed on to the +north, determined to reach Eldorado. Arrived at +the junction of the Paraguay and Paraná, they chose +the former river, and pushed on up it as far as the +twentieth degree, to a place they called Candelaria. +There they found vast lakes and swamps spreading +to the west. It was necessary to protect their retreat +before plunging into the difficult country that +extends across to Bolivia. Accordingly, they divided +and one party remained on the dry ground +near the river, while two hundred desperate adventurers +pressed on through the wilderness, hoping to +reach the Bolivian plateau.</p> + +<p>The party that stopped behind as a reserve was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +commanded by Domingo Irala, the real founder of +the Spanish settlements in the Paraná valley. The +main expedition never returned. Years afterward +friendly Indians brought back the tale that it had +reached the slopes of the Bolivian mountains, obtained +much gold and silver and started back +triumphantly, but had perished to the last man in +an Indian ambush not far from the Paraguay and +safety. Irala waited the appointed time and then +floated down the river. He and his companions +were well-nigh in despair. So far as they knew, +they were the only survivors of the three thousand +people who had accompanied Mendoza. To the +north the country was inhospitable and impenetrable, +and from their experiences of the year before +they knew that at the mouth of the river no provisions +or succour were to be had. On their way up +the river they had passed, about the twenty-fifth +degree, a beautiful and fertile rolling country, covered +with magnificent forests, with park-like openings, +and inhabited by a large and friendly Indian +population. Opposite the mouth of the Pilcomayo, +where there was a large Indian village, they stopped +on their downward journey, determined to settle +down and take some repose from their interminable +and fruitless wanderings in search of the will-o'-the-wisp +Eldorado. There, in 1536, they founded the +city of Asuncion, the first Spanish settlement on the +Atlantic slope of South America.</p> + +<p><i>The Foundation of Buenos Aires.</i>—The failure of +Mendoza, first adelantado, to establish a colony on +the Plate, did not discourage others from soliciting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +the grant of his territory. In 1540, Cabeza de +Vaca, a "conquistador" celebrated for his feats in +Florida, was appointed adelantado and set out gallantly +to find the second Peru, which everyone believed +to exist at the headwaters of the Paraguay. +Intent on reaching the interior as soon as possible, +he made no attempt to establish a town and port at +the mouth of the river Plate, but landed at Santa +Catharina on what is now the Brazilian coast in the +latitude of Paraguay, and set off across country with +four hundred men and twenty horses. The distance +was a thousand miles; the route led up a heavily +wooded mountain range on the coast, and thence +across a broken, but open, plateau, where great +rivers point out the natural routes to the Paraná. +The soil was fertile and the Indians along the road +were able to furnish considerable food supplies. +Cabeza de Vaca made the journey without appreciable +loss and arrived in Asuncion eager to +take command and dash across to the Andes. +But the sturdy Basques had selected their able +countryman—Domingo Irala—as chief of the +colony and gave the new adelantado a cold welcome. +Irala insisted that a reconnoitring expedition +be sent before risking the body of the Spaniards. +Its command was given him and he penetrated +almost to the headwaters of the Paraguay. Next +year Cabeza de Vaca followed, but as soon as he +left the Paraguay he got into difficulties. He could +not penetrate the swamps nor make headway against +the savage Indians who lived between the river and +the eastern slopes of the Cordillera. He returned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +defeated and discouraged, and the people of Asuncion +bundled him back to Spain.</p> + +<p>Though Irala subsequently did succeed in reaching +Peru, by the route up the Paraguay, no practical +results followed. Paraguay remained isolated from +the Spanish empire on the Pacific coast until a +roundabout communication was established down +the river and thence west across the dry and level +plains that stretch from the mouth of the river Plate +to the Cordillera.</p> + +<p>The early days of the Asuncion settlement were +stormy. The rough adventurers fell to fighting +among themselves, and their cruelties often drove +the patient and submissive Indians into rebellion. +Their greed for bigger plantations and more slaves +pushed them on to conquering the aborigines in an +expanding circle. By 1553 they had founded a +settlement on the Upper Paraná and were dominant +from river to river in the southern half of the present +territory of Paraguay. Until his death, in 1557, +Irala was the dominating personality in the colony. +According to his lights he was just in his dealings +with the Indians. When he died the settlement +was firmly on its feet, and even the Indians revered +him as their benefactor. The mass of the population +was Indian, and Guarany has always remained the +prevalent language in Paraguay. Absolutely isolated +from the other European colonies, and almost +without communication with the mother country, +the settlement was, however, an unpromising affair. +The few hundreds of Spaniards might have sustained +their social and military superiority over the hordes of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +Indians by whom they were surrounded, but, without +material and intellectual communication with +Spain, they could achieve no commercial success.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/illus-046.jpg" width="600" height="731" alt="YOUNG GAUCHO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">YOUNG GAUCHO.<br /> +[From a lithograph.]</span> +</div> + +<p>An outlet to the sea was necessary. The original +settlers had been adventurers, willing to follow Mendoza +through swamp and forest up to the walls of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +Eldorado, and their children were not less enterprising. +The horses brought over by the adelantados +had multiplied amazingly, and were spreading +wild over the pampa to the south. Cattle, sheep, +and goats bred by millions. Before long the attractions +of a pastoral life began to appeal to the +Spaniards and creoles of Asuncion. The braver +and more energetic preferred the free open existence +of the pampa to idleness in the sleepy villages of +Paraguay.</p> + +<p>The Argentine nation proper began its existence +when the creole mounted his horse and took to +cattle-breeding on the plains. The possession of +horses, as much as of firearms, gave the gaucho his +military predominance over the fiercest aborigines, +and the horse was also the cornerstone of his industrial +system. The cattle of the open pampa gave +him an unlimited supply of the best food, and his +horses enabled him to procure it with a minimum of +effort. Irala's successors repeatedly tried to establish +a colony near the mouth of the Plate, but they +were not successful until the creoles on horseback had +pushed their way south along the pampa and driven +back or subdued the wandering Indians. In 1560, +the Guaranies of Paraguay were definitely crushed +in the horribly bloody battle of Acari, but it was +not until 1573 that the Spaniards from Asuncion +succeeded in founding a city south of the confluence +of the Paraná and Paraguay. Santa Fé was the first +Spanish settlement on the Plate in territory now a +part of the Argentine Republic.</p> + +<p>The man who led the creoles to the pampa was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +Juan de Garay, a Basque, who had been one of the +soldiers in the army that conquered Peru. His +energy and vigour, and the bravery of the creole +cavalry who followed his expeditions down the river +and over the pampas, at length opened up communication +from Paraguay to Europe and gave Spain a +seaport on the South Atlantic. Curiously enough, +in the very year that Garay founded Santa Fé, the +Spaniards from Peru founded Cordoba—the most +eastward of the Andean settlements. Their hard +riders had pushed on from Cordoba, reconnoitring +as far as the Paraná and there ran across Garay's +men. The two currents of Argentine settlements +met almost at the beginning, though two centuries +were to elapse before they completely coalesced.</p> + +<p>Eight years later, Garay succeeded in founding +Buenos Aires after Zarate, the third adelantado, +had failed as badly as any of his predecessors. +Garay, by sheer force of energy and fitness, became +the real ruler of the settlements. Active, far-sighted, +and able, he perceived that a purely military establishment +at the mouth of the river was foredoomed +to failure. To be permanent, the port and town +must be self-sustaining, and therefore must be surrounded +by farms and ranches and be accessible by +land from the upper settlements. In the spring of +1580, the acting governor sent overland from Santa +Fé two hundred families of Guarany Indians, accompanied +by a thousand horses, two hundred cows, and +fifty sheep, besides mares, carts, oxen, and other +necessaries. The soldiers of the convoy were +mostly creoles born in Paraguay. Boats carried<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +down from Santa Fé arms, munitions, seed grain, +tools, and whatever in those rude days was essential +to a settlement. He, himself, went by land with +forty soldiers, following the highland that skirts the +west bank of the Paraná from Santa Fé to Buenos +Aires.</p> + +<p>The Plate estuary affords no proper harbours; the +immense volume of water spreading over vast shallow +beds chokes it with sand-bars, and the shores are +so shelving that even small boats cannot approach +the land. The north side is bolder, and at Montevideo +and at the mouth of the Uruguay affords bays +partly sheltered from the storms which sweep up over +the level pampas and make anchorage in the river so +unsafe. But the north bank was cut off from land +communication with the existing Spanish towns by +the mighty Uruguay and Paraná, and Garay desired +that his new city should be always accessible from +his older settlements on the right bank of the Paraná. +His choice of the particular spot where the largest +city of the southern hemisphere has since grown up, +seems to have been determined by a few trifling circumstances. +He kept as near the head of the estuary +as possible, in order to shorten the land route +from Santa Fé, and picked upon a slight rise of +ground between two draws, which made the site +defensible. The fact that a nearby creek—the +Riachuelo—afforded a shelter for little boats, may +also have been given weight in reaching a decision.</p> + +<p>Though his settlers did not number five hundred, +Garay laid out his city like a town-site boomer. +The surrounding country was divided into ranches<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +and the neighbouring Indians were distributed +among the citizens of the new town. A "Cabildo," or +city council, was named, with the full paraphernalia +of a Spanish municipal government. The new town +started off in the full enjoyment of all the guarantees +known to immemorial Spanish constitutional law. +Troubles broke out almost immediately between the +creole settlers and the Spaniards who had been sent +over by the adelantado to fill offices and get the best +things in distributions of land and slaves. Garay +had hardly left the town to look after the rest of the +province than the creoles, indignant over unfair +treatment, forcibly demanded an open Cabildo. +This was an extraordinary popular assembly which, +according to old Spanish custom, might be called at +critical times, and was something like a town meeting. +In theory, the property-owners and educated +citizens were called together merely to give advice, +but in practice, it was a tumultuous assemblage to +overawe the office-holders. The Argentine creoles +were doing nothing more than asserting their constitutional +rights as vassals of the king of Castile. +They compelled the Spanish office-holders to compromise.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, Garay was clinching his claim to immortality +as the founder of the Spanish power on +the Plate. He explored the pampas to the south +and west of the new city, and reduced many of the +tribes to slavery or vassalage. He found the plains +already overrun with hundreds of thousands of +horses—the descendants of the few abandoned there +forty-five years before when the remnants of Men<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>doza's +ill-starred expedition fled up the river. On +his way back to Santa Fé this great Indian fighter +was ambushed by Indians and stabbed while he +slept.</p> + +<p>His death was followed by outbreaks among the +creoles, who resented the efforts of the adelantado's +new representatives to establish a monopoly in +horse-hair. Scarcely had they found a way to make +a little money, by hunting wild horses for their hair, +than the officials tried to absorb all the profit. The +struggle between the repressive commercial policy +of Spain, and the interests of the Plate colonists, +began with the foundation of the colony of Buenos +Aires and went on for more than two hundred years.</p> + +<p>In 1588, the creoles obtained a foothold in the extreme +north of the mesopotamian region by founding +the city of Corrientes near the junction of the Paraná +and Paraguay. All the new commonwealths south +of Asuncion obtained a solid economic foundation in +the herds of cattle and horses which covered the +plains. In the regions adjacent to the Andes the +Spaniards did not become so exclusively pastoral as +their brethren of the pampas near the Plate. While +they had more and better Indian slaves, their pasturage +was not so good. Though apparently more +isolated, their proximity to Upper Peru and the +trade that went on with that great mining country—the +goal of fortune-hunting Spaniards in those +years—placed them more directly under the control +of the viceregal authorities. Tucuman was a mere +southern extension of the jurisdiction of the Audiencia +at Charcas, and Cuyo was an integral part of Chile,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +but this did not prevent the early development of a +strong sentiment in favour of local self-government +and of hatred of the imported Spanish satraps.</p> + +<p>By the year 1617 the settlements on the Lower +Paraná had become of considerable importance. +Buenos Aires was a town of three thousand people; +the right bank of the river as far as Santa Fé was a +grazing-ground for the herds of the creoles; towns +and ranches were flourishing in Corrientes. In that +year the Spanish crown abolished the office of adelantado +and erected the lower settlements into a +province separate from Paraguay. The new province +included the territory that is now Uruguay, +as well as the four actual Argentine provinces of +Buenos Aires, Santa Fé, Entre Rios and Corrientes. +Entre Rios and Uruguay were, however, as yet +entirely unsettled.</p> + +<p>While the creoles were thus firmly establishing +themselves along the Lower Paraná and in the Andean +provinces, the Jesuits were converting the +Indians in the east of Paraguay, and early in the +seventeenth century these indefatigable missionaries +had penetrated to the Upper Paraná, crossed it, and +were gathering the Indians by thousands into peaceful +villages.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<div class="bbt"> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="ARGENTINA" id="ARGENTINA"></a>ARGENTINA</h1> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-2.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>THE ARGENTINE LAND</h3> + + +<p>South from where the great mass of the Bolivian +Andes shoves a shoulder to the east, as if +seeking to join the Brazilian mountain system, and +from where a low ridge stretches out to form the +watershed between the Madeira and the eastward-flowing +affluents of the Paraguay, extends an immense +flat plain. Two thousand miles from north +to south, and nearly five hundred miles in breadth, +hardly a hillock rises above its surface from the +foothills of the Andes westward to the sea. In the +tropical North its surface is partly covered with +trees, but south of the Chaco the only woodlands +are narrow belts following the streams. Everywhere +stretch the grassy plains, without an obstruction or +interruption. The soil is a fine alluvium, full of the +right chemical elements, and admirably adapted to +agriculture, wherever the rainfall is sufficient. As +a pasture-ground it is the finest on the planet. +Within recent geological times this plain was the +bottom of a great shallow gulf which received the +detritus washed down from the Andes on the one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +side and the Brazilian mountains on the other. The +gradual uplifting of those youngest mountains—the +Andes—raised their flanks until the adjacent +floor of the gulf appeared dry land, a land all ready +and prepared for human occupancy. Nowhere does +man encounter fewer obstacles to his freedom of +movement or find it easier to procure his food supply +than on the pampa—the characteristic topographical +feature of the political division of South America +known as Argentina.</p> + +<p>Skirting the ridge on the east and draining the +vast slopes of the Brazilian mountains of their tropical +rainfall, is the great river Paraná. In latitude +27° it turns abruptly to the west, as if about to cross +the pampa, but a hundred miles farther on it resumes +its southward course. At this last turn the +Paraná flows into a river which comes straight +down from the north, draining the bed of the old +inland sea that used to divide South America. This +junction of the Paraná and the Paraguay forms the +second largest river in the world—a river without +obstructions to navigation, but which is so immense +that it cannot be bridged. In latitude 32° it turns +back to the south-east, soon receives the Uruguay,—a +swifter stream, that drains the southern part of the +Atlantic highlands,—and then opens out into the +great shallow estuary known as the River Plate. +Between the Uruguay and the Paraná is the Argentine +Mesopotamia,—a flat region where the low-lying +plains, covered with luscious grasses, intersected with +streams, and interspersed with timber, gradually rise +up-stream into the highlands of the Missions.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 714px;"> +<img src="images/s-058.jpg" width="714" height="1024" alt="ARGENTINA, PARAGUAY, +URUGUAY, BOLIVIA AND CHILE" title="" /> +<span class="caption">ARGENTINA, PARAGUAY, +URUGUAY, BOLIVIA +AND CHILE</span> +<p class="center"><a href="images/illus-058.jpg">Click here for a larger image</a></p> +</div> +<p><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<img src="images/illus-059.jpg" width="1024" height="650" alt="FOREST SCENE IN ARGENTINA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">FOREST SCENE IN ARGENTINA.<br /> +[From steel print.]</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p> +<p>To the west the pampa is bounded by the foothills +of the Andes and the parallel chains with which +that great mountain system reinforces its flanks. +At the Bolivian frontier, the great outward-jutting +shoulder of the Andes looms up among a series of +subordinate chains. South of them, for a thousand +miles, is a belt of broken country averaging two +hundred miles in width. The pampa creeps up to +the very foot of the mountain ranges and where it +is watered blossoms like a garden. A quarter of the +population of the Republic lives in the irrigated +valleys of these Andean provinces.</p> + +<p>A comparatively narrow, arid, belt stretches diagonally +across the South American continent from the +Pacific, in Northern Chile, to the Atlantic in Northern +Patagonia. Consequently, from north to south, +and from the Atlantic back toward the north-east +border of this arid belt, the rainfall of Argentina decreases. +On the north-eastern frontier it is about 80 +inches a year; at Rosario, 40; at Cordoba, 30; at +Buenos Aires, 35. In the Andean provinces it decreases +from over forty, near the Bolivian frontier, +to five or six at San Juan in the latitude of Santa Fé +and Cordoba. In the eastern part of the great +pampa the rainfall is ample for cereal crops; in the +western half the rains are periodical and the region +is better adapted to grazing than to agriculture, and +there the grass lands are intersected with tracts of +desert which grow larger towards the south. In the +Andes the eastern ranges, catching the rain-laden +upper currents, send down ample water to irrigate +the valleys and adjacent plains.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p> + +<p>The mesopotamian region and the country directly +south of the Plate estuary have, of course, an ample +rainfall. South of the latitude of Buenos Aires the +rainfall of the Andean region, which has grown +steadily less from the northern boundary, begins +again to increase. The eastern slopes of the mountains +south for an indeterminate distance are well +watered, while the Patagonian plains to their east +are dry and desolate.</p> + +<p>The climate varies from tropical, on the northern +frontier, to arctic in Tierra del Fuego. The southern +pampa and the Andean provinces are temperate or +subtropical, and admirably adapted for habitation +by men of European descent. Tucuman is the hottest +of these provinces. There the average temperature +of the coldest month is 53°; at Buenos Aires +it is 50°; at Cordoba 47°. The average temperatures +in these localities for the whole year are, respectively, +63°, 61°, and 63°.</p> + +<p>When Columbus landed in the West Indies, this +vast territory was occupied by two separate sets of +aborigines. The Andean provinces were a part of +the great Inca Empire. South as far as Mendoza, +the Andean valleys were filled with a vigorous yet +peaceful population who had brought the art of +irrigation to a high degree of perfection. Plantations +of corn, mandioc, and potatoes flourished on +the terraced hillsides and in the fertile valleys. The +lower and hotter plains furnished cotton. Constant +communication, both commercial and governmental, +was kept up with the centre of the Inca power in +Cuzco, along roads that followed the easiest routes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +along the valleys and up over the passes to the +Bolivian plateau, and thence to the central provinces +of the Empire. Chile, on the other side of the Cordillera, +was a sister province, and the passes over the +great range were well known and constantly used. +The population was greater than it is at the present +day. While the political solidity of the Inca Empire +is doubtless exaggerated, it is certain that the same +civilisation extended from Ecuador to Mendoza and +Santiago de Chile, and that the Cordilleran region +was the home of twenty millions of people, organised +into vigorous, progressive, and expanding communities.</p> + +<p>The Andean civilisation never showed any tendency +to expand over the tropical plains of the great +central depressions. The Incas themselves never +cared to penetrate far down the wooded and steaming +slopes of the Andes lying directly to the east of +their own capital. Their dependent states bordering +on the Argentine pampa did not cross the desert +plains, where irrigating ditches could not reach. So +far as we now know, the Andean Indians had never +penetrated to the Atlantic.</p> + +<p>East of the pampas, in the hilly woods of Paraguay +and Brazil, tribes vastly inferior in intelligence, political +organisation, and civilisation, maintained a precarious +existence. Many of those who belonged to +the great Guarany family lived in palisaded villages +and cultivated the soil, but none had advanced far +on the road toward a reasonably efficient social and +military organisation. The procuring of food for +their daily wants was their chief occupation; the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +tribes were too small to make effective warfare on a +large scale; there was no prospect of any development +into a higher culture. Certain tribes, inferior +to the Guaranies, had spread from the wooded +regions over the mesopotamian provinces and into +the adjacent pampa, and the districts on both sides +of the estuary, but they never ventured far from the +water-supply. Though brave and intractable, these +people showed no real fighting capacity until after +white men had taught them the use of horses. +With this knowledge, however, they were able to +offer a very effective resistance, which was not completely +overcome until twenty years ago.</p> + +<p>The area of the whole Republic is 1,212,600 square +miles. The mesopotamian region contains 81,000 +square miles, being larger than England and even +more uniformly fertile. The pampa suitable for +grain production, including the semi-forested Chaco +plain in the north, has an area of not less than 350,000 +square miles. The Andean provinces contain +nearly 300,000, and Patagonia 316,000. The grazing +pampa is partly included in the Andean provinces; +its boundaries to the south and toward the Atlantic +are not capable of exact definition, but it includes +perhaps half the territory of the Republic. Except +the higher mountains, and the so-called deserts of +the centre, the whole territory is productive.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 786px;"> +<img src="images/illus-064.jpg" width="786" height="600" alt="DOCKS AT BUENOS AIRES." title="" /> +<span class="caption">DOCKS AT BUENOS AIRES.</span> +</div> + +<p>The description of the white man's spread over +this immense country—the largest, except Brazil, of +the South American states, and of all these the most +immediately and unquestionably suitable for maintaining +a large population of European blood—is +tedious when told in detail. But it is a story fraught +with significance for the future of the world. On +the plains of Argentina the descendants of the Spanish +conquerors have fought out among themselves +all the perplexing questions arising from the adaptation +of Spanish absolutism and ancient burgh law to +a new country and to personal freedom. After more +than half a century of civil war, constitutional equilibrium +has been attained. The country ought to +be interesting where there has grown up within a +few decades the largest city in the Southern Hemisphere, +and the largest Latin city, except Paris, in +the world. The growth of Buenos Aires has been as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +dizzying as that of Chicago, and the world has never +seen a more rapid and easy multiplication of wealth +than that which took place in Argentina between the +years of 1870 and 1890. Interesting, too, is Argentina +as the scene of the most extensive experiment +in the mixture of races now going on anywhere in +the world except in the United States. In forty +years more than two millions of immigrants have +made their homes in Argentina. The majority are +from Southern Europe, but the proportion of British, +Germans, French, Belgians, and Swiss is a fifth +of the whole. Will the Northerners be assimilated +and disappear in the mass of Southerners, or will +they succeed in impressing their characteristics on +the latter? Will a mixed race be evolved especially +suited to success in subtropical America? Will the +system of administration painfully evolved out of +the old Spanish laws prove permanently suited to the +great industrial and commercial state that is growing +up on the Argentine pampa? Will the municipal +and bureaucratic system prove adaptable and elastic +enough to furnish a political framework for the tremendous +economic development which has already +made such strides, but which really has only begun? +Will the intellectual and social ideals of the coming +Argentine nation be military, bureaucratic, leisurely, +or will they be purely commercial? Certain answers +to these questions cannot yet be deduced from the +data furnished by the history of Argentina. Their +solution, however, inheres in the past of its people. +The future of Argentina will have a profound influence +on the rest of the continent. It has the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> +largest territory except Brazil, the greatest per capita +wealth, its population is increasing most rapidly, and +it has received the greatest amount of foreign capital. +Immigration and investment in the other countries +may be expected soon to begin on a large scale. +The experience of Argentina promises to prove invaluable +to all of South America.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-c.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-2.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>THE SPANISH COLONIAL SYSTEM</h3> + + +<p>Spain, as a world-power, reached her apogee in +the year 1580, when Juan de Garay founded +Buenos Aires. In that year Portugal was united to +the Spanish Crown, and the East Indies and Brazil +doubled Spain's colonial dominions. But at the +very same moment the first symptom of her decline +appeared. For the first time it was proved to the +world that she could not hold the seas against her +young rivals from Northern Europe. Sir Francis +Drake, the earliest harbinger of Britain's dominance +on the seas, appeared off the Plate on his way to the +Pacific. Spain had trusted that the difficulty of +threading the Straits of Magellan would protect the +South Sea, but Drake slipped through in a spell of +favourable weather and found few Spanish ships +which were fit to fight him along all the coast to +Panama. Drake's wonderful raid humbled Spanish +pride where Spain was thought strongest, and encouraged +Englishmen to fight with a good heart, +a few years later, the overwhelming Invincible +Armada.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p> + +<p>In 1616 a great Dutchman, Schouten, found the +passage into the Pacific around Cape Horn. This +discovery revolutionised the navigation routes of the +world. Heretofore the only practicable commercial +route to the Pacific had been across the Atlantic to +the north shore of the Isthmus. Nombre de Dios +was the metropolis and the market where all the +goods for South America were landed. Those intended +to be sold on the shore of the Caribbean +were sent along its coast, and those intended for the +Pacific were carried overland to Panama to be +shipped on coasters down to their destination. Direct +communication across the Atlantic to Buenos +Aires was forbidden by the Spanish government.</p> + +<p>Schouten's epoch-making discovery opened up +the way for countless Dutch and English ships to +ply a contraband trade with the towns of the Pacific +coast, but did not induce the Spanish government +to change its time-honoured policy or vary its trade +routes. America was treated as the private property +of the sovereign of Castile, and its commerce +was to be exploited for his sole benefit. No Spaniard +was allowed to freight a ship for the colonies, +or to buy a pound of goods thence, without obtaining +a special permission and paying for that privilege. +Cadiz was the only port in Spain from which ships +were permitted to sail for America, and the whole +trade was farmed out to a ring of Cadiz merchants. +To protect this monopoly and to prevent the export +of gold and silver were the chief purposes of the +Spanish colonial policy. Every port on the seaboard +of Spanish South America was closed to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +trans-oceanic traffic, except Nombre de Dios on the +north shore of the Isthmus. The towns on the +Pacific and Caribbean coasts might admit coasting +vessels properly identified as coming from the Isthmus +and loaded with the consignments of the Cadiz +monopolists, but the South Atlantic ports were +absolutely closed so far as law could close them. +Legally, no ships whatever, coasters or ocean carriers, +could enter and unload at Buenos Aires. Her +imports from Spain must first go to the Isthmus, be +disembarked, and then transported across the mule-paths +to the Pacific. Thence the goods had to go in +coasters to Callao, in Peru, where they were again +disembarked, transported up the Andean passes +along the Bolivian plateau, and finally down into +the Argentine plain. Under such conditions in the +southern provinces European manufactures could +only be sold at fabulous prices.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, such a system made exports +impossible, except those of precious metals and +valuable drugs. Hides, hair, wool, agricultural products, +would not stand the cost of such long transport +by land and sea. The Spanish authorities seem +deliberately to have come to the conclusion that +America should be confined to producing gold and +silver, and they ruthlessly strangled all other industries. +The Plate settlements especially suffered +from the ruinous consequences of this system. +Having no mines of precious metals, they were +considered worthless; their interests were ignored, +and their complaints given no attention. The mere +existence of Buenos Aires was a source of anxiety<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +to the monopolists and to the Spanish government. +They feared that the English or Dutch might take +possession of the mouth of the Plate and thence +send expeditions to intercept gold and silver shipments +along the overland routes. More immediate +and real was the danger of the establishment of a +contraband trade which would deprive the Cadiz +merchants of their enormous profits on goods sent +by the Isthmian route.</p> + +<p>The home government enacted laws of incredible +severity in trying to enforce this policy. In 1599 +the governor of Buenos Aires was instructed to forbid +all importation and exportation under penalty of +death and forfeiture of property. The shipping of +hides and horsehair to Spain would seem to be +harmless enough, but the Spanish government +dreaded that gold and silver might be smuggled out +in the packages. The government would lose its +royal fifth and the precious metals might be sent to +Spain's rivals and enemies in Europe. According +to the economic ideas then accepted, gold and silver +alone constituted wealth, and every ounce mined in +America which did not reach Spain's coffers was +considered irretrievably lost. To prevent clandestine +shipments of the precious metals all commercial +intercourse from the coast to the interior was made +illegal, and no goods whatever were permitted to +pass along the road between Buenos Aires and +Cordoba.</p> + +<p>In the very nature of things such laws were unenforcible. +Even the governors sent out for the +special purpose of repressing evasions recommended<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +modifications. But the Cadiz monopolists were +stubborn and their influence with the Court was all-powerful. +The laws remained on the statute books +only to be constantly disregarded. No human +power could keep people who lived on the seashore, +and who had hides, wool, and horsehair to sell, from +exchanging them for clothing and tools. Perforce +Buenos Aires became a community of smugglers. +English and Dutch ships surreptitiously landed their +cargoes of manufactures and took their pay in hides +or in silver dollars that had escaped the Spanish +soldiers on the road down from Potosí.</p> + +<p>Rio and Santos, in Brazil, became intermediate +warehouses for the commerce of the Plate. The +officials in Buenos Aires itself connived at evasions, +and the very governors made great fortunes in partnership +with smugglers. The guards along the interior +routes shut their eyes when the mule trains +passed, and the goods of Flanders and France +reached Cordoba, Santiago, Potosí, and even Lima, +by way of Buenos Aires, and were sold at prices with +which the Cadiz monopolists could not compete. +Silver came surreptitiously from Chile and Bolivia +to pay for these goods. The net result was that +trade followed its natural and easiest route, although +there was a fearful waste of energy in the process. +The bribe-taking official, the idle soldier at the road +station, the smuggler handling his goods in small +boats and risking his life at night, and the numerous +middle men absorbed what might have been legitimate +profit to the seller or to the consumer. Commerce +was half strangled, and with it the industries<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +of the Spanish colonies. Civil government itself +suffered, for a community whose daily occupation it +was to break one law could not be expected to have +much respect for other laws, nor for the bribe-taking +rulers and mulish legislators.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, against these outrageously unreasonable +regulations the colonists for centuries made no +armed protest. They never questioned the abstract +right of the Crown to forbid them to sell what the +labour of their hands had produced. They evaded +but did not contest. Centuries of this sort of thing +ingrained into South Americans the belief that industrial +and commercial activity exists only by sufferance +of the government. The right to sell, to +buy, to exercise a profession or a trade, depended +on the permission of the government. The people +saw the executives taxing industry at their pleasure, +and suppressing its very beginnings, until such a +procedure came to seem a matter of course. Commercial +spirit was constantly hampered and business +skill deprived of its rewards. The evil effects of +such a policy can be seen at every step of the development +of the Spanish-American countries. It +is no wonder that office-holding became the most +popular of avocations. The farmer, the stock-raiser, +and the merchant seemed to be allowed to exist only +to pay the Spanish functionary, instead of the government's +existing for the benefit of the producing +community. To this day, service with the government +is more esteemed than commercial pursuits. +The national ideals are only slowly becoming industrial.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p> + +<p>The King of Castile was absolute sovereign and +sole proprietor of America. The continent was an +appanage of his crown; it did not form an integral +part of Spain; America and Spain were connected +solely through their common allegiance to him. +The King governed America directly, assisted not +by his regular ministers, but by a body of personal +advisers called the Council of the Indies. His representatives +in South America were the Viceroys +of Mexico and Peru. The latter's jurisdiction extended +over all South America. Certain great territorial +divisions had been made Captaincies-General, +and though theoretically subordinate to the Viceroy, +they were in effect independent of him. In the great +capital cities sat bodies of high judicial and executive +officials known as Audiencias. Among their +functions was that of exercising the powers of the +Viceroy during his absence. Charcas, the capital of +the mining region of Bolivia, was the seat of an +Audiencia, and since this city had no resident Viceroy +or Captain-General its Audiencia was the real +supreme authority over the Argentine and all the +territory east of the Cordillera, from Lake Titicaca +to the Straits.</p> + +<p>Viceroyalties and Captaincies-General were divided +into provinces, each of which was ruled by a +royal governor. When the Spaniards permanently +occupied a new region their first step was to found +a city and organise a municipal government. Like +the Romans, they knew no other unit of political +structure. The governing body was called a Cabildo +and consisted of from six to twelve members<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +who held office for life. It conducted the ordinary +judicial and civil administration through officers +selected by itself and from its own members. +Though the governor was <i>ex-officio</i> president of +this body, and although its members had bought +their places, they were not mere figureheads to +register his will. Limited though their functions +were, they represented the time-honoured governmental +form into which Spaniards had always +crystallised, and the Creoles could not be prevented +from obtaining a preponderant influence in +them. Throughout colonial times they represented +local and Creole interests and operated continually +as a check to the aggression of the military governors.</p> + +<p>The territorial jurisdiction of a municipality was +usually ill-defined. Indeed, as a rule, in the days +of settlement it extended in every direction until +the claim of another city was encountered, and the +terms "city" and "province," were, therefore, usually +synonymous. As population grew denser new +cities were founded which as municipalities were +independent of the capital town, but they were +not necessarily separated from the original province. +The Cabildo of the capital of a province bore a +peculiar relation to the royal governor, and often +tried to exercise a control over the affairs of the +whole province, deeming themselves his associates +and the sharers of the functions he exercised, outside +of its own boundaries, as well as within them. +This assumption was favoured by the fact that no +general body representing all the cities of a province<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +existed, nor any constitutional machinery by which +they could act in common.</p> + +<p>Spanish-Americans have known only two forms of +government, which have everywhere and always co-existed, +though they seem inconsistent. First, there +is an executive—the limits of his power ill-defined, +and often imposing his will by force, in essence +arbitrary and personal, and feared rather than respected +by the people; secondly, the Cabildos and +the modern deliberative bodies. Never really elective, +these have nevertheless performed many of the +functions of bodies truly representative; they have +checked the arbitrary executives and furnished a +basis for government by discussion. For centuries +the communities looked to them for the conduct of +ordinary local governmental affairs, and they survived +all the storms of colonial and revolutionary +times. On the other hand, their importance in the +Spanish governmental scheme has been a most potent +influence in preventing the growth of local representative +government by elective assemblies and +officials. Consequently, in national matters, freely +elected and truly representative assemblies have +been hard to obtain. Legislation has been controlled +by the functionaries, and there has been no +general and continuous participation in governmental +affairs by the body of the people. Government +by discussion and by the common-sense of the +majority is difficult to establish among a people accustomed +for centuries to seeing matters in the +hands of officials whom they had no practical means +of holding to responsibility. The people have rarely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +felt that the executive was their own officer. He +was imposed on them from above, he was not amenable +to them, and so far as they were concerned he +ruled at his own risk. The Creoles were intensely +democratic in feeling and hard to control, and when +they could not tolerate an executive they turned him +out by force, because no effective machinery existed +by which they could turn him out peaceably.</p> + +<p>Though the colonial governor was required to give +an account of his administration at the close of his +term, as a matter of fact he was an irresponsible and +despotic satrap, who taxed, judged, and imprisoned +people at his pleasure, restrained only by his traditional +respect for the Cabildos and by the fear of +exciting revolt. He commanded the armed forces, +and his power was, in fact, rather military than civil +in origin, method, and application. The Cabildos +selected the ordinary judicial officers of first resort +from among their own members' list, but their +authority was not very effective outside the town +itself. The vast plains between the settlements +were largely governed patriarchally by the ranch +owners and the popular and capable gauchos who +grew into leaders.</p> + +<p>A taste for town life soon became characteristic +of the Spanish-Americans, and wherever able they +crowded into the towns in preference to staying on +their ranches. Wealth, intelligence, and political +activity, therefore, came to be concentrated in a few +<i>foci</i>. The system of granting immense tracts of +land and dividing up the Indians as slaves among +the proprietors would apparently have a tendency<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +to produce a landed aristocracy. But the money +profits in colonial days were small, and the great +landowner lived in the same style as his poorer +neighbour. Titles of nobility did not exist, and the +constitution of society was decidedly democratic. +From the very earliest times no love was lost between +the Creoles and the newly arrived Spaniards. +The governor was almost invariably a Spaniard, +while the Cabildo and its officers were usually +Creoles.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-d.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-5.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY</h3> + + +<p>The greatest name in the history of Buenos +Aires during the early years of the seventeenth +century is that of Hernandarias Saavedra. Of distinguished +ancestry and pure Spanish blood, he was +born at Asuncion in 1561. A thorough Creole, his +education was confined to the instruction he received +at the convent of the Franciscan Fathers in +his native town. At fifteen he left school and joined +an expedition against the Indians of the Andes. +He showed remarkable capacity in fighting on the +plains, and his shrewdness and firmness in dealing +with the aborigines were even more valuable than +his courage. Juan de Garay, the far-sighted Basque +who founded Buenos Aires, was the patron, model, +and hero of young Hernandarias, who followed him +in his great expedition over the southern pampa. +When Garay, the great Indian fighter and coloniser, +perished, his mantle fell on the young man's shoulders. +In 1588 Hernandarias distinguished himself +in the defence of Corrientes against the Indians of +Chaco and was the leader in the difficult campaigns<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +undertaken in retaliation. By the time he had +reached thirty he was the leading Creole in all the +vast region from the Upper Paraguay down to +Buenos Aires, and when the Spanish Lieutenant-General +of Asuncion was deposed an open Cabildo +called him to the vacancy.</p> + +<p>Eleven years later (1602) the governor of Buenos +Aires died, and by common consent Hernandarias +filled the office <i>ad interim</i>. This popular selection +was soon confirmed by royal commission. He +signalised his term of office by an expedition down +the coast in which he carried the terror of the +white man's arms to the limits of the continent, +and defeated the Indians wherever they resisted. +Severe with the Indians when occasion demanded, +he was inflexibly just, and as a rule protected them +against the unlawful aggressions of his countrymen. +Though he did so much to curb their military +power, he left behind him the name of being their +best friend. He manumitted his own slaves; he opposed +the extension of the system of "encomiendas" +with its enslavement of wild Indians, and after his +first term as governor of Buenos Aires he was named +official protector of the aborigines.</p> + +<p>Although a Creole, such was his ability as a military +leader, and his shrewdness, wisdom, and firmness +as a civil ruler, that the Spanish government +could not ignore him. Though a governor was soon +sent out from Spain to replace him and fatten off +the provincials, Hernandarias remained the most +powerful man in the colony. The Spanish authorities +found that they needed him, and he retained their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +confidence as well as that of the Creoles. He wisely +advised the latter against open opposition, believing +that continued peace must make the colony so +strong that its interests could not continue to be +ignored. In 1610 the Spanish government promulgated +laws forbidding the further enslavement of +Indians, and Hernandarias did much to secure their +enforcement. At the same time he encouraged the +Jesuits to extend their missions over the upper valley +of the Uruguay, while he secured the ranchers +of the western plains against the encroachments of +these energetic priests. The Creoles prospered in +the pastoral pursuits on the pampas, while the +Jesuits developed the more purely agricultural +resources of the wooded hills in the east. The success +of his policy soon became evident in the increasing +prosperity of the colony. Three hundred +thousand hides were smuggled out of Buenos Aires +in British ships alone in the year 1658, and by 1630 +the Jesuit missions extended in a broad, continuous +belt along the Paraná and the Uruguay from the +Tropic of Capricorn to the thirtieth degree. They +were the rulers of a great theocratic republic, whose +area could not have been less than 150,000 square +miles, and whose population of something like a +million was concentrated in thriving and peaceful +villages. The Jesuits systematically studied the +resources of the country and taught their Indians +the cultivation of many crops suitable for export. +Their territory was commercially tributary to Buenos +Aires and contributed to her growth and prosperity.</p> + +<p>When the governorship of Buenos Aires again<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> +became vacant in 1615, by the death of the Spanish +incumbent, Hernandarias entered on his own third +term, and two years later, by his advice, the rapidly +growing province was divided. Paraguay became a +separate province, and the new province of Buenos +Aires included all the territory east of Tucuman and +south and east of Paraguay. The three provinces +of Paraguay, Buenos Aires, and Tucuman were +administratively separate, and each was directly +dependent upon the Audiencia at Charcas and the +Viceroy at Lima. One immediate purpose of the +Spanish government, in erecting Buenos Aires into +an independent province, was the enforcement of +the prohibition of trade. It was thought that a +governor always on the ground, and concentrating +his attention on the subject, would be efficient in +that direction. However, the result was the opposite +of that expected. No governor of Buenos Aires +could avoid making the interests of his capital city +his own. If honest, he was constantly pressing the +home government to open the doors a little and to +make exceptions of particular cases; if dishonest, he +went into partnership with the traders.</p> + +<p>Hernandarias's career is the one striking example +of success by a Creole in colonial times. Though +the conquest and settlement of South America was +accomplished by individual initiative, the men who +had done the pioneering, who had fought and journeyed +and suffered, who had stained their souls with +horrible cruelties, whose adventures and successes +would not be credited if the physical evidences did +not prove the truth of the chronicles, were displaced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +with scant ceremony to make room for impoverished +Court favourites. If the original conquerors were +thus badly treated, the Creoles, unfortunate to have +missed the inestimable advantage of being born on +Castilian soil, could not look for favour, or equal +treatment with the office-holders sent out from +Madrid year after year.</p> + +<p>The story of the provinces that now form the territory +of the Argentine Republic has not great interest +during the long years that intervene from the +completion of the romantic conquest until the uprising +against Spanish authority. With the end of +the sixteenth century, the spirit of enterprise among +both Spaniards and Creoles diminished. Throughout +the seventeenth century little progress was made +in extirpating the savage Indians even in regions as +close to Buenos Aires as Entre Rios and Uruguay. +Settlements were confined to the right bank of the +Paraná, and the Indians on the left bank, protected +behind the wide flood of that river's delta, were left +undisturbed. On the other hand, the dry and level +pampas gave easy access to the thriving towns of +the province of Tucuman. The Cordoba range, the +greatest of the outworks of the Andes, rises from +the plain less than two hundred miles from the Paraná +at Santa Fé, and only four hundred miles from +Buenos Aires itself. The city of Cordoba, in the +fertile and well-watered slope at the foot of the +sierra, was the capital of the province, the seat of a +university from 1613, and the centre of Creole culture. +The intercourse of the Buenos Aireans with +their neighbours of the interior constantly increased<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +in spite of the prohibitions of the Spanish government, +while Cordoba and the other towns of Tucuman +prospered with the sale of pack-mules to the +mines of Bolivia.</p> + +<p>In the fertile Andean valleys of Rioja and Catamarca +had lived since Inca times the powerful nation +of the Calchaquies. Though they had acknowledged +the suzerainty of the Cuzco emperors, they were +ruled by their own chiefs. The first Spaniards that +penetrated south from the Bolivian plateau failed to +reduce them to submission. After a bitter experience +the invaders passed to the west. For fifty +years this gallant people were left undisturbed in +their Andean fastnesses. Late in the sixteenth +century aggressions again began. The Indians +fought desperately, but were overcome. Forty +thousand were sold into slavery; eleven thousand +were exiled to Santiago del Estero, to Santa Fé, +and Buenos Aires. The town of Quilmes, now one +of the suburbs of Buenos Aires, was named from the +mountain fastness where the Calchaquies made their +last stand. Rosario was also settled by families of +these brave Indians who were dragged across the +pampas by the victorious Spaniards.</p> + +<p>About 1655 a leader presented himself to the remnants +of this warlike people, claiming to be the +descendant and heir of the ancient Inca princes. +He was known to the Indians as Huallpa-Inca, while +the Spaniards called him Bohorquez. A woman of +his own race, by the name of Colla, accompanied +him, and she was greeted with all the ceremonious +honours that belonged to the Inca Queen according<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +to ancient customs. Even the Jesuit missionaries +recognised the validity of the claims of Bohorquez, +but the governor regarded him only as a menace to +Spanish rule. He was pursued relentlessly; his followers +rose in revolt; the rebellion spread northwards, +but with the capture of the Inca it collapsed. +He was sent to Lima, tried for treason, and executed, +while the Calchaquies were placed under a +military deputy-governor, subordinate to the governor +of Tucuman. Their descendants have repeatedly +proved that they came of fighting stock. They were +among the best soldiers on the patriot side in the +war of independence; the province of Rioja never +submitted to Rosas, it resisted Mitre even after +Pavon, the last and decisive battle of the civil wars, +and it was the last province to give its allegiance to +the confederation.</p> + +<p>The third province into which the whole territory +which is now Argentina was then divided, was Cuyo,—including +the three modern provinces of Mendoza, +San Juan, and San Luiz. In its early years, these +settlements did not extend far from the Andes. +Late in the sixteenth century San Luiz was added, +thus connecting the Spanish dominions from Chile +across to the borders of Cordoba.</p> + +<p>The complicity of the Spanish governors with the +contraband commerce which they were especially +charged to suppress is abundantly shown by contemporary +documents. The very first governor sent to +Buenos Aires after its erection into a separate province +was accused of agreeing to allow a Lisbon merchant +to land a shipload of goods. He fled to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +sanctuary among the Jesuits and there perished of +grief and shame. But others were more impudent +and successful. Mercado Villacorta came to his post +announcing that he would so effectively enforce the +prohibition that "not a bird could pass with food in +its beak from Buenos Aires to the interior." However, +not many months passed before a Dutch ship +applied for permission to disembark its cargo, presenting +papers signed by a natural son of King Philip +himself. The captain offered to turn over his cargo +in return for a certain amount of hides, wool, silver, +and enough food to take him back to Flanders. The +proposition, on its face, was very advantageous, and +Villacorta accepted it on account of the royal treasury. +He made a faithful return of the enormous +profits accruing from the cargo of the ship in question, +but neglected to report that three other Dutch +ships were anchored just out of sight and that she +passed over to them in the night what had been +laden on her the day before. By chance, a royal +commissioner was in Flanders and watched the unlading +of all four ships. He certified that three +million dollars worth of hides, wool, woods, and +silver were taken out of their holds. Villacorta was +cashiered for the moment, but a few years later we +find him installed as governor of Tucuman. Another +governor, Andres de Robles, engaged so publicly +and impudently in fraudulent transactions and corrupt +contracts that his conduct was the text of sermons +in all the churches, but he calmly went his +way and paid no attention to the clerical boycott +and priestly denunciations. Imports by way of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +Buenos Aires increased so rapidly that soon the +Cadiz monopolists were complaining to the Council +of the Indies that the Potosí shops were filled with +goods which had come by way of the Plate. Absolute +prohibition had manifestly failed, and so palliative +measures were tried. Permission was given to +special ships to sail from Cadiz for Buenos Aires, +carrying only enough merchandise to supply the +demand of Buenos Aires itself, and giving bonds to +return to Cadiz, so that the return cargo could be +checked over to see that no silver was included. +Naturally, this system proved impracticable and +only opened another road to evasion.</p> + +<p>The first severe blow to the extension of the +Spanish dominions over the valley of the Paraná +was struck by the Portuguese Creoles of São Paulo +in 1632. Though King Philip of Spain was at that +time also monarch of Portugal and Brazil, the Paulistas +viewed with alarm and jealousy the encroachments +of the Jesuits into the regions lying to the +south-east of the homes they had occupied for a +century. They had had a hard fight to keep the +Jesuits from establishing villages in their own neighbourhood, +and now they saw these old enemies +creeping up the slope of the tributaries of the Upper +Paraná, shutting them off from expansion over the +remoter interior. The Paulistas hated Spaniards +and Jesuits; they wanted Indian slaves; they recked +little of the fine-spun discussions as to the whereabouts +of the dividing line between the Castilian +and Portuguese possessions; their allegiance to the +Spanish monarch sat lightly upon them. Their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> +homes were on the headwaters of tributaries of the +Paraná, and their expeditions followed fearlessly +down the streams and across the plateau and burst +unheralded on the northern villages of the Jesuits. +The poor Indians were defenceless and totally unprepared. +The Jesuits had taught them the arts of +peace but not of war; they had no arms; their +spiritual rulers had bethought themselves safe in +these remote plateaux in the middle of the continent; +the few thousands of Paulistas, away over on +the Atlantic border, had not been considered worth +taking into consideration. Though few in number, +the band of Portuguese Creoles created immense +havoc. The Jesuit chroniclers say that three thousand +Paulistas killed and carried away into captivity +four hundred thousand Indians in a few years. This +is certainly an exaggeration, but we know that all +the Jesuit villages were wiped out as far south as +the Iguassu, and that north of that tributary the +Spanish line was pushed back to the Paraná. The +Jesuits protested, but their complaints availed nothing. +A few years later Portugal regained its independence +of Spain and the work of the Paulistas +stood. Spain lost her opportunity of securing the +whole Plate valley, and the way was opened to the +Brazilians to make the interior of the continent +Portuguese.</p> + +<p>The Paulistas' raids extended as far as the Jesuit +villages in Paraguay and those on the Upper Uruguay, +but here the priests managed to hold their +own. Portugal's next move toward getting possession +of all the territory east of the Paraná and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +Uruguay was made from the coast. In 1680, an +expedition sent by the governor of Rio landed +directly opposite the city of Buenos Aires and built +a fort—calling it Colonia. This was the first permanent +occupation of Uruguayan soil, either by +Portugal or Spain. Both nations claimed it under +differing interpretations of the Treaty of Tordesillas. +Portuguese historians claim that the Paulistas +had explored and asserted a right to the region in +the early years of the seventeenth century; and +Spanish authorities state that Jesuits had established +a mission on the Lower Uruguay about the +same time. As a matter of fact, Colonia was the +first permanent European settlement south of Santa +Catharina and north of the Plate, on or near the +Atlantic coast.</p> + +<p>The governor of Buenos Aires promptly raised a +force, sailed across the estuary, and captured the +new fort. However, Spain's diplomatic position in +Europe at the time did not justify risking serious +trouble over a matter that seemed so trifling as the +possession of a piece of desert in South America. +The governor was ordered to restore Colonia to the +Portuguese authorities, leaving open for subsequent +discussion and determination the question as to +which nation was entitled to the territory on the +north bank. With some interruptions, Portugal +remained in possession of the port of Colonia for a +century, and its existence was a constant source of +annoyance to the Buenos Aireans. It immediately +became a rival for the trade with the interior, and +its merchants had the advantage of the open aid of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +their own government. Their competitors at Buenos +Aires across the river were confessedly engaged in +breaking the law of their country. Exportable +goods were never safe from seizure until they had +left Argentine soil. Colonia was a convenient storing-place, +and the river crafts, once within its port, +could discharge at their leisure, free from anxiety +that active officials might threaten to enforce inconvenient +laws. Every time a war broke out between +the two countries in Europe, the exasperated governor +of Buenos Aires would send over an expedition +and capture the Portuguese town. Three times was +it taken and as often restored on the conclusion of +peace. Colonia in Portuguese hands interfered with +the trade of Buenos Aires merchants, and the illicit +gains of Spanish officials, and also destroyed any +remnant of efficiency remaining to the prohibition +of commerce across the Atlantic. Back of these +commercial and temporary considerations was the +menace to the future occupancy by Spaniards of the +vast and fertile region extending from the boundaries +of São Paulo to the mouth of the Uruguay.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-6.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY</h3> + + +<p>The rapid decadence of Spain itself during the +reigns of the last kings of the House of Austria +was reflected in the colonies. With the accession +of the Bourbons a forward movement began, and +the colonial administration was roused into an appearance +of activity. Something was done in the +direction of adopting a more rational commercial +policy, but it was already too late. The control of +trade had irrevocably passed to Holland and England, +and Spain could not recover the business of +her own colonies. The efforts to improve administration +were largely nullified by the conservatism of +her aristocracy. It seemed that her mediæval governmental +machinery could not be adapted to the +conditions created by her active rivals.</p> + +<p>In 1726, Montevideo, the strategic key to Uruguay +and the north bank of the Plate, was occupied and +fortified. Thereafter, though Colonia still remained +in Portuguese hands, it was isolated and scarcely tenable. +Immediately the north shore of the Uruguay +began to be settled by Spaniards. Simultaneously<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +the ranchers of the right bank of the Paraná, who +had long been tempted by the fine pastures on +the opposite shore, finally ventured to secure a foothold +in Entre Rios. The warlike Charruas had kept +the white man out of this favoured region for two +centuries, although it was so near to Buenos Aires. +They did not yield without a struggle, but they +were overcome, and those who refused to submit +fled to the east bank of the Uruguay River—the present +country of that name. There they were followed +by the proselyting Jesuits, and it was only a +question of a few years before the Argentines proper +had crossed the Uruguay and were pasturing their +herds in the rolling champaign country that extends +from that river to the sea. The Spanish advance +would have continued up the coast, probably as far +as the northern boundary of the Rio Grande do Sul, +if the Portuguese had not in the meantime established +a town and fort at the mouth of the Duck +Lagoon, which is the only port that gives access to +the interior of that most valuable region.</p> + +<p>The increase of population, the extension of the +occupied pasture-ground, and the greater demand +from Europe for hides and wool, tended to multiply +the volume and value of Argentine exportable commodities. +Northern Europe made marvellous strides +in purchasing power during the eighteenth century, +and prices all over the world felt the impetus. The +commercial policy of the Spanish government became +more lax and the trade prohibition fell into +contempt and disuse. The system of fleets of Spanish +ships under convoy was abandoned, and single<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +ships, mostly foreign owned, and trusting to their +sailing qualities and equipment to escape capture, +carried all the trade. The trade of Buenos Aires +grew and the population of the city increased in proportion. +The exhaustion of the surface deposits +and richer lodes of precious metals in the mining +provinces during the eighteenth century tended to +increase the relative importance of Buenos Aires and +her territory, even in the mind of the Spanish government, +and to turn a current of immigration toward +the pastoral and agricultural provinces.</p> + +<p>In 1750 the Spanish government made an effort to +get rid of the Portuguese in Colonia by negotiation. +Portugal agreed to exchange that port for the Jesuit +Missions which covered the fine pastures in the western +half of the present Brazilian state of Rio Grande. +The helpless Indians were driven off or massacred in +spite of their feeble resistance, but as soon as the +treaty was made public, Spanish and Jesuit protests +against the abandonment of the territory were so +violent that the agreement was formally annulled by +mutual consent. The Portuguese retained Colonia, +and though they gave up their formal claims to +the Missions the military operations they had so +promptly undertaken against that region had pretty +well rooted out Spanish influence on the east bank +of the Upper Uruguay. It was never re-established, +and the dividing line of 1750 is still substantially the +boundary between Spanish and Portuguese South +America.</p> + +<p>In 1767 Spain followed the example of Portugal +and France and expelled the Jesuits from her<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +dominions. For generations they had been the largest +property holders in the Plate provinces. In the +larger towns popular education was in their hands. +Their great schools, convents, and churches were +the finest edifices in the country. To endow their +educational and religious work they had accumulated +town houses, ranches, plantations, mills, cattle, +ships, and even slaves. Along the banks of +the Upper Paraná and Uruguay they had succeeded +in dominating and absorbing the whole productive +life of the community. Their system in the Indian +regions smothered everything else; no white man +was allowed to visit their settlements; the Indians +were kept in absolute ignorance of the existence of +an external world; the Jesuits required their subjects +to work, gathering matte tea, cutting wood, +cultivating the soil, and tending cattle. However, +the Indians were kindly treated and were content +with the easy life they enjoyed under the mild Jesuit +rule. The Fathers exported immense quantities of +hides and controlled the production of matte, then, +as now, the favourite drink of Creoles and Indians +in the southern half of the continent. The Indians +received their living and the Jesuits absorbed the +surplus. Their misfortunes in Brazil had taught +them a lesson, and they had tried to erect their theocracy +in regions where they need not come into close +contact and constant conflict with the lay settlers. +For a century, they had been left undisturbed in +South-eastern Paraguay and the region between the +Upper Paraná and Paraguay.</p> + +<p>Neither their services to civilisation nor regard for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +the interests of the Indians, nor their wealth and influence, +could avail anything against the mandate of +the Spanish monarch, backed by the Vatican and +joyfully enforced by the colonial authorities. The +Jesuits who had been employed in teaching in the +towns were incontinently imprisoned and summarily +shipped off across the seas, while their schools were +placed under the charge of other ecclesiastics, and +their estates sold at auction. In the missions resistance +was anticipated, but none was made. The +Indians, accustomed to look to the Fathers for +guidance in everything, were aghast when they saw +the Jesuits leaving, and Spanish officials taking their +places. The new shepherds had not the skill to +drive the flocks to the shearing, and could not keep +the Indians together so as to exploit them for the +benefit of the royal treasury. From their cruelties +and exactions the Indians fled and sought refuge +among the Creole settlements of Entre Rios and +Uruguay, where they constituted a valuable addition +to the population.</p> + +<p>This transplantation had hardly been accomplished +when the Spanish government took a step +which revolutionised the administration of the +southern half of the continent during the remainder +of colonial times, and determined the future boundaries +of the nations of South America. On the +1st of August, 1776, the Viceroyalty of Buenos +Aires was created. All the territory south of Lake +Titicaca was separated from the Viceroyalty of Peru, +and the province of Cuyo was detached from the +Captaincy-General of Chile. The new Viceroyalty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +covered the territory that has since become the four +countries—Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Argentina. +In colonial times it was divided into eight +"intendencias," of which the northern four covered +the region that is now Bolivia and was then known +as Upper Peru. The four southern intendencias +were: Paraguay; Salta, covering the northwestern +provinces; Cordoba, covering the central and western +provinces; and, finally, Buenos Aires, which, +besides the present province, included Santa Fé, the +whole mesopotamian region, Uruguay, and the +Jesuit country of the Upper Paraná.</p> + +<p>The creation of the Viceroyalty was a reluctant +and tardy reversal of the colonial policy which had +steadfastly refused to recognise in Buenos Aires the +inevitable outlet of the region. Although the four +northern intendencias contained more than half the +population, and Paraguay probably half the remainder, +Buenos Aires was made the capital. Situated +at the mouth of the great system of waterways, it +was the natural commercial centre of the whole +Viceroyalty. In fifty years it had doubled in population, +while the old cities on the Bolivian plateau +had remained stationary. In 1776 its population +did not much exceed twenty thousand souls, but +was rapidly increasing. Heretofore, it had been +rather a resort of smuggling merchants than a centre +of political and social influence. Nevertheless, from +this unpromising root was to spring the spreading +tree of South American independence. Buenos +Aires is the only capital that never readmitted the +Spanish authorities, once they had been expelled,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> +and within her walls San Martin drilled the nucleus +of the armies that drove the Spaniards out of Chile +and Peru.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<img src="images/illus-096.jpg" width="1024" height="736" alt="AN OLD SPANISH CORNER IN BUENOS AIRES." title="" /> +<span class="caption">AN OLD SPANISH CORNER IN BUENOS AIRES.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>The alarming growth of the Portuguese power +southward was another potent reason for the establishment +of a strong and independent military jurisdiction +at the mouth of the Plate. The Spanish +government had at last determined on vigorous +measures to take Colonia, drive the Portuguese from +Rio Grande, and push the Spanish boundaries east +to the original Tordesillas line. Pedro de Zeballos, +the first Viceroy, sailed in November, 1776, in +command of the largest force which up to that time +had been sent to the Western Continent. Against +his twenty-one thousand men and great fleet the +Portuguese had no force, military or naval, strong +enough to make a serious resistance.</p> + +<p>The flourishing Brazilian settlement of Santa +Catharina was easily reduced, and, leaving it garrisoned, +the fleet and army went on to the Plate. +Colonia surrendered without resistance, and the +army prepared to march northward and drive the +Portuguese from all the coast as far north as Santa +Catharina. Hardly was the advance begun, when +news was received that peace between Spain and +Portugal had been signed. The latter retained +eastern Rio Grande, and Santa Catharina was restored, +while Spain's title to Uruguay and the Missions +was recognised.</p> + +<p>Zeballos returned to Buenos Aires and actively +engaged in the military and civil organisation of the +new Viceroyalty. A fresh set of special regulations<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +had been prepared in Spain, creating an elaborate +hierarchy of executives. The chief provincial governors, +now called "intendentes," were subject to +the orders of the Viceroy in military matters, but as +to taxation they were directly responsible to the +Crown. They were entrusted with the paying of +governmental employees, which gave them great +influence with the Cabildos and functionaries.</p> + +<p>The intention of the Spanish government was +manifestly to enforce close relationship and greater +subjection to the central authority at Madrid. In +practice, however, the financial independence of the +provincial governors stimulated the feeling of local +independence, increased the influence of the Cabildos, +and paved the way for the revolution.</p> + +<p>Since 1765 the rest of South America had enjoyed +the privilege of free commerce from the mother +country. Now, the same rule was applied to Buenos +Aires, and trade with Spain quickly attained respectable +dimensions. In the five years from 1792 to +1796 more than one hundred ships made the voyage +to Spain, and exports ran up to five million dollars +annually. Buenos Aires became the <i>entrepôt</i> of the +wine and brandy of Cuyo; the poncho and hides of +Tucuman; the tobacco, woods, and matte tea of +Paraguay; the gold and silver of Upper Peru; the +copper of Chile; and even the sugar, cacao, and rice +of Lower Peru. By the end of the century the +population of the city was forty thousand. Thirty +thousand more lived in the immediate vicinity; +Montevideo had seven thousand, and the outlying +settlements of Uruguay twenty-five thousand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> +inhabitants. The civilised population of the Buenos +Aires intendencia was about one hundred and seventy +thousand, and in population and in wealth it +had become easily the first among the eight great +districts of the Viceroyalty.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-e.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-6.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3>THE BEGINNINGS OF THE REVOLUTION</h3> + + +<p>The Viceroyalty was a heterogeneous mass. The +common subjection of its component parts to +the Viceroy gave it a mere appearance of cohesion. +The centring of the commercial currents in Buenos +Aires did not furnish an organic connection sufficiently +strong to unite provinces and cities so widely +separated and so different in social and industrial +constitution. Upper Peru had been a mining region, +and its white population was largely of a shifting +character. The bulk of the population were Indians, +and the inhabitants of Spanish blood were +still taskmasters. Society was as yet in unstable +equilibrium, and the different elements had not +thoroughly coalesced. Paraguay was an isolated +and almost self-sufficing commonwealth. It was essentially +theocratic, and averse to receiving external +impressions. In Salta and Cordoba the proportion +of Indian blood was not so preponderant as in Bolivia +and Paraguay; agriculture was the economic basis; +the Creoles and Indians had largely amalgamated +politically and socially; and, though the people of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +Spanish descent lived mostly in the towns, they +were in close and friendly contact with the civilised +Indians who laboured in the irrigated valleys. On +the wide pampas a new race of men had sprung into +existence—the gauchos, whose business was the +herding of cattle, whose homes were their saddles, +and who were as impatient of control and as hard to +deprive of personal liberty as Arabs or Parthians. +The proportion of white blood increased toward the +coast. Buenos Aires was the boom town of the +region and the time. Its population was recruited +from among the most adventurous and enterprising +Spaniards and Creoles. Lima and Mexico were +centres of aristocracy and bureaucracy, while the +social organisation of Buenos Aires and its surrounding +territory was completely democratic. All were +equal in fact; neither nobles nor serfs existed; the +Viceroy was little more than a new official imposed +by external authority, and having no real support in +the country itself. It is not a mere coincidence that +the three centres—Caracas, Buenos Aires, and Pernambuco—whence +the revolutionary spirit spread +over South America should all have been democratic +in social organisation and far distant from the +old colonial capitals. In Buenos Aires, the Viceroy +himself could not find a white coachman. An +Argentine Creole would no more serve in a menial +capacity than a North American pioneer; and a +Creole hated a Spaniard very much as his contemporary, +the Scotch-Irish settler of the Appalachians, +hated an Englishman.</p> + +<p>Not even religion furnished a strong bond of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +union between the widely dispersed cities and provinces +of the Viceroyalty. The priests had not been +organised into a compact hierarchy. They had little +class feeling; they lived the life of the Creoles and +shared the same prejudices. Half the members of +the first Congress after the revolution were priests, +but they pursued no distinctive policy of their own +and offered no effective resistance to the growth of +the power of the military chiefs.</p> + +<p>Commerce with Spain had been authorised, but +with other nations it was still unlawful. The Cadiz +monopolists still fought hard to preserve their privileges +and to control the Atlantic trade as they had +controlled the route by the Isthmus. Great Britain +had enjoyed a monopoly of the traffic in negroes during +most of the colonial period, but in 1784 all foreign +ships carrying slaves were allowed to enter, unload, +and take a return cargo of the "products of the +country." The Cadiz merchants contended that +hides—then the principal article of export—were +not "products" within the meaning of this law, and +the Spanish courts decided in their favour. This +absurd decision created a storm of opposition in +Buenos Aires, but even more unreasonable restrictions +continued to be insisted upon. The proposition +to allow the colonies to trade with one another +was vehemently opposed by the people of Cadiz and +their agents in Buenos Aires.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, England's maritime victories in the +wars of the French Revolution were sweeping Spanish +commerce from the sea, and the people of the +Plate saw themselves again about to be shut off from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +the sea unless permission were granted to ship in +foreign vessels. Dissatisfaction grew apace, and +the prestige of the Viceregal government and the +influence of resident Spaniards were seriously compromised. +At the same time there were fermenting +among the intelligent and educated youth of the +city the new ideas of the North American and +French revolutions—liberty, the rights of man, representative +government, and popular sovereignty.</p> + +<p>For generations England had cast covetous eyes +at South Africa and South America. Menaced with +exclusion from Europe in her giant conflict with +Napoleon, her statesmen determined to seize outside +markets and possessions. The Cape was captured +in 1805, and the next year came the turn of +Argentina. June 25, 1806, Admiral Popham appeared +in the estuary, and fifteen hundred troops, +under the command of General Beresford, were disembarked +a few miles below Buenos Aires. The +Viceroy fled without making resistance, and on the +27th the British flag was run up on his official residence. +At first the population appeared to acquiesce, +but finally Liniers, a French officer in the Spanish +employ, gathered together at Montevideo a thousand +regulars and a small amount of artillery. The +militia of Buenos Aires soon proved themselves anxious +to rise against the heretic strangers. Liniers +crossed the estuary and, advancing without opposition +to the neighbourhood of Buenos Aires, established +a camp to which the patriotic inhabitants +flocked. Within a short time he had armed an +overwhelming number of the citizens, the scanty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +British garrison was shut up in the fort, and on the +12th of August the Argentines advanced. After +some hard street fighting, the English were forced +to surrender, and the flags which were captured that +day are still exhibited in the city of Buenos Aires +with just pride as trophies of Argentine valour. +The British expedition might have been successful +had it been more numerous, or had it been promptly +re-enforced. If the capture of Montevideo had followed +that of Buenos Aires, the Argentines would +have had no base of operations, and their militia +would have remained without ammunition and artillery +stores. It is interesting to speculate what +would have been the subsequent history of the temperate +part of South America in such a case. It is +possible that the Plate would have become part of +the British Dominion; British immigration would +have followed, and the Plate might have become the +greatest of British colonies.</p> + +<p>But the opportunity was quickly gone. The successes +of 1806 so strongly aroused the spirit of national +and race pride that thereafter the conquest +of Argentina was a task too great for the small +armies which in those days could be transported +overseas. No sooner was Beresford expelled than +the victors met in open Cabildo, declared the cowardly +Viceroy suspended from office, and installed +the royal Audiencia in his place. A few months +later the dreaded British re-enforcement came. +Four thousand men disembarked in eastern Uruguay, +and Montevideo was taken by assault. In Buenos +Aires all was confusion, but the people were resol<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>ute +to resist. Again an open Cabildo assembled, +and Liniers, the French officer under whose leadership +the victory of last year had been won, was given +supreme authority. Military enthusiasm spread +among all classes and the people were rapidly enrolled +in volunteer regiments. When General +Whitelocke approached the city with several thousand +regulars the Argentines confidently marched +out to meet him. In the open they stood no chance, +and they were compelled to fly back to the shelter +of their narrow streets and stone houses. On the +5th of July, 1807, the British troops, disdaining all +precautions, marched into the city. Both sides of +the narrow streets were lined with low, fireproof +houses, whose flat roofs afforded admirable vantage-ground. +The Buenos Aires men were well supplied +with muskets, and the women and boys rained +down stones, bricks, and firebrands on the masses +crowding the pavements below. The British could +not retaliate on their enemies, but pushed stubbornly +on toward the centre of the city, dropping by +hundreds on the way. At the main square, in front +of the fort, barricades had been thrown up, and +there the English met a reception which flesh and +blood could not endure. For two days the conflict +raged, but finally the English general was obliged +to give up and ask for terms. He had lost a fourth +of his force and was allowed to withdraw the remainder +only on agreeing to evacuate Montevideo +within two months.</p> + +<p>The political and commercial consequences of the +English invasions were vastly important. The mili<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>tary +power of the Argentine Creoles, hitherto unsuspected, +stood revealed; local pride had been +stimulated; and, at the same time, the invasions +gave a tremendous impulse to foreign commerce. +A fleet of English merchantmen had followed the +warships. Untrammelled commerce with the world +at last became a fact. English manufactured goods +flooded the market. Articles until then beyond +the reach of all but the wealthiest now became +cheap enough for the purses of the gauchos. Buenos +Aires's trade was boomed by the sales of imported +goods to the interior provinces. Creole +jealousy of Spaniards rapidly became accentuated. +From this time dates the general use of "Goths," +applied to Spaniards as a term of opprobrium, and +of "Argentines," as a designation for the natives +of the Plate. Recognition could no longer be withheld +from the men who had organised and commanded +victorious troops, and henceforth the Creoles +were in fact, as well as in law, eligible to offices of +trust and profit. Even in the Buenos Aires Cabildo, +though all the members were native Spaniards, +Creole ideas predominated.</p> + +<p>Scarcely had the English retired from Montevideo +when the course of events in Europe precipitated +Spanish South America into confusion. Charles +IV., the pusillanimous King of Spain, allied himself +with Napoleon and aided the latter's aggressions +against Portugal. The Portuguese monarch +was driven to Brazil, the latter country thereby +gaining complete commercial freedom and virtual +political independence. This naturally suggested<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +to the Argentines that they were entitled to the +same privileges from Spain. Charles IV. and +Godoy, the accomplice of his wicked wife, who +really governed in his name, were bitterly hated at +home. Napoleon's troops swarmed over the country +and the monarchy itself was clearly tottering to +its fall. Ferdinand, heir of Charles IV., conspired +against his father and forced the latter to resign in +his favour. The Spanish governor of Montevideo +at once took the oath of allegiance to the new monarch, +an act of insubordination to his titular superior, +the Viceroy. The latter was the Frenchman, +Liniers, who sympathised with the Creole party in +desiring to wait and obtain concessions for the colony +before recognising any of the various claimants. +A dispute over the oath of allegiance to Ferdinand +arose which marked a definite rupture between the +Creoles and the old-line Spaniards—between those +who regarded the special interests of the colony as +paramount and those who wished at all hazards to +maintain connection with the mother country.</p> + +<p>Charles's abdication was only the beginning of +complications. He protested that it had been obtained +from him by duress, and with Ferdinand he +appealed to Napoleon as arbiter. The latter forced +them both to renounce their claims in favour of his +brother Joseph. Everyone in South America was +agreed not to recognise Joseph Bonaparte as King +of Spain, but there was wide diversity of opinion as +to what affirmative action ought to be taken. Most +regarded Ferdinand as the legitimate king, but he +was in a French prison. Charles still claimed the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +throne, while provisional governments were formed +in many cities of Spain to resist the enthroning of +Joseph. A central junta at Seville claimed to be +the depositary of supreme executive power pending +Ferdinand's return, and to this junta the Spaniards +of the Plate gave their earnest and unhesitating +allegiance. But the Creoles could not see their way +clear to an unconditional recognition of such a self-constituted +revolutionary body. Few believed that +the Spanish patriots could withstand Napoleon's armies. +If Spain had submitted to Joseph the various +parts of South America would have become +independent without any serious struggle. The +"Goths" in the Plate were united in a definite policy—loyalty +to the only Spanish government that +was vindicating the nationality. The Creoles could +agree on no affirmative programme, but all of them +were determined that the "Goths" should not get +the upper hand. The latter rose against Liniers and +tried to install a junta on the model of that at Seville. +In view of the menacing attitude of the +Creole militia, the attempt was a failure, but the +Frenchman did not have the resolution to maintain +his advantage. The Seville junta finally named a +Viceroy, and, though some of the resolute spirits +among the militia leaders wished to resist, the majority +shrank from open defiance of the highest +existing Spanish authority. On the 30th of July, +1809, the new Viceroy took possession. He gained +popularity by his decree declaring free commerce +with all the world, but his next act opened the eyes +of the Creoles to the real effect of the re-establish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>ment +of the Spanish system. He sent a thousand +men to Charcas, in the northern part of the Viceroyalty, +to aid in the bloody suppression of a +revolutionary movement undertaken by the Creole +inhabitants of that city. The story that shortly +came back of wholesale confiscations and executions +widened the breach between Spaniards and Creoles.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, another crisis in Spanish home affairs +was approaching. Napoleon's armies were sweeping +the Peninsula from end to end. In the early months +of 1810 they overran Andalusia, the centre of resistance. +It seemed as if the subjection of Spain was +about to be completed. On the 18th of May, Viceroy +Cisneros issued a proclamation frankly revealing +the critical situation of the Spanish patriot, and of +the junta under whose commission he was acting. +All classes of Buenos Aires immediately engaged in +feverish discussions as to what should be done. The +Spaniards wished to retain their privileged position; +the Creoles were determined to put an end to +discrimination against themselves. These were the +real purposes of the two parties. The Spaniards +did not especially favour absolutism, nor did the +Creoles in general intend to renounce the sovereignty +of Ferdinand, should he ever escape from +captivity. Among the Creoles were many liberals, +mostly young and ardent men, whom study and +travel had convinced of the necessity for racial reform +and colonial autonomy. Among their leaders +were Saavedra, commander of the most efficient +militia regiment; Vieytes, at whose house the meetings +of the conspirators were held; Manuel Belgrano,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +afterwards the brains and right arm of the movement; +and two eloquent young lawyers, Castelli +and Paso. The active spirits conspired to depose +the Viceroy, confident that this measure would be +popular among all classes of Creoles. On the 22nd +of May a committee of popular chiefs waited on him +to demand his resignation. Resistance was futile, +for he could not rely on the troops. They were +Creoles and proud of the fact that Argentines had +expelled the British. The office-holders tried to +arrange a compromise by which an open Cabildo +should elect the ex-Viceroy president of a new +governing junta. The populace and the militia +would not submit, and on the 25th of May—now +celebrated as the anniversary of the establishment +of Argentine liberty—a great armed assembly met +in the Plaza. The Creole badge was blue and white—then +adopted as the Argentine colours. The proceedings +were frankly revolutionary. A junta was +named from among the Creole leaders, and the +Buenos Aires Cabildo obediently proclaimed this +body the supreme authority of the Viceroyalty. +There was no pretence of consulting the other provinces. +Spanish constitutional law provided no +machinery through which they could be heard, and +the capital assumed, as a matter of course, the right +of governing the dependencies.</p> + +<p>The events of the 25th of May were not intended +to sever relations between Spain and Buenos Aires. +The acts of the new government ran in the name of +Ferdinand VII., King of Castile and Leon. An able +and ambitious coterie of young men came to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +front, whose achievements in war, administration, +and diplomacy were to change the face of South America. +In the neighbouring cities there were no spontaneous +uprisings against the Spanish governors, but +the Buenos Aires patriots lost no time in sending +out armies to spread their liberal and anti-Spanish +doctrines. The first movement was towards the old +university town of Cordoba. Here ex-Viceroy +Liniers had managed to get a few troops together, +but not enough to make effective resistance. At +the first encounter they were all captured, and the +Buenos Aires junta immediately ordered the execution +of the captured officers and of the anti-Creole +chiefs. This barbarous act is a fair sample of the +horrible bloodthirstiness of the war between Creoles +and Spanish sympathisers. As a rule, both sides +slew their prisoners, and the combats were, therefore, +incredibly bloody for the numbers engaged.</p> + +<p>The Buenos Airean army continued its triumphal +march through the provinces of Cordoba and +Salta up to the Bolivian mountains. The Creole +townspeople reorganised the municipal governments +on an anti-Spanish basis, and the army increased +like a rolling snowball. Not until it had reached the +high lands of Bolivia was serious resistance encountered. +On the 7th of November the patriots +gained the battle of Suipacha. The Creoles of +Bolivia rose, and the Buenos Aireans penetrated +rapidly as far as the boundaries of the Viceroyalty. +Meanwhile, Manuel Belgrano had led a small expedition +to Paraguay. However, the inhabitants of +that isolated region showed no disposition to join<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +the Buenos Aireans in their revolutionary movement. +The Spanish governor allowed Belgrano to +advance nearly to Asuncion, but there his little +army was overpowered and forced to surrender on +honourable terms. Montevideo's capture seemed +essential to the safety of Buenos Aires itself. Spanish +ships under the orders of its governor blockaded +the river and constantly menaced an attack on the +patriot capital. Early in 1811, Artigas with a band +of gauchos from Entre Rios crossed the Uruguay +and overran the country up to the walls of the fortress, +defeating the Spaniards in the battle of Piedras. +Re-enforcements came from Buenos Aires, and a +siege of Montevideo was begun.</p> + +<p>At this juncture news came of a great disaster in +the north. The Argentines had at first been joined +by Bolivian patriots, but the latter were jealous; +and the former, bred on the plains, could not well +endure the high altitude, suffering in health and efficiency. +The Viceroy of Peru rapidly recruited a +considerable army among the sturdy and obedient +Indians of the high Peruvian plateau. On the 20th +of June, 1811, the patriot army was attacked at +Huaqui, near the southern end of Lake Titicaca, and +was virtually annihilated. Bolivia was lost to the +patriots and Spanish authority was re-established as +far down as the Argentine plains.</p> + +<p>This great defeat completely changed the attitude +of affairs. The Argentines evacuated Uruguay, and +the Spanish colonial authorities everywhere took the +offensive. The heroic resistance which the Spanish +people were now making to the army of Napoleon's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +marshals encouraged the Viceroy and governor to +believe that Ferdinand would soon again be seated +on the throne of his fathers. Spanish ships dominated +the delta of the Paraná, and the Spanish troops +from Montevideo descended at pleasure on the banks +of the Plate or its tributaries. The Spanish residents +at Buenos Aires plotted against the junta, but +their conspiracy was betrayed, and in the middle of +1812 their chiefs, to the number of thirty-eight, +mostly wealthy merchants, were arrested and garrotted. +The situation of the revolutionary government +was so desperate that it is not hard to +understand why the junta ruthlessly repressed all +signs of disaffection. Victorious Spanish armies +threatened them from both Bolivia and Montevideo, +and fire in the rear would have been fatal.</p> + +<p>In this crisis of their fate, Manuel Belgrano, the +great leader of the Buenos Aires Creoles, came to +the front. A native of the city, he had been educated +in Spain, where he had imbibed liberal principles. +On his return he threw himself with all the +prestige of his learning, talents, and wealth on the +side of the Creoles. His faith in the triumph of +liberal principles was unalterable, and he was a more +radical advocate of independence than most of his +associates. Though without military training, and +though his expeditions in Paraguay and Uruguay +had not been successful, his prestige and his unwavering +confidence in the patriot cause pointed +him out as naturally the fittest leader. Again he +was entrusted with the command, and went north +to Tucuman, where the disheartened fragments of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +the patriot army were fearfully waiting for the descent +of the victorious Spaniards. The inhabitants +of Jujuy and Salta had been driven from their homes, +and for the first time gaucho horsemen appeared as +the principal element of an Argentine army. The +junta ordered Belgrano to retire, so as to protect +Buenos Aires, but he disobeyed and stuck to Tucuman +and let the Spaniards get between him and the +capital. With the country up in arms, and the exasperated +gauchos harassing his march, the Spanish +general did not dare leave Belgrano's army behind +him. The Spanish army turned back to Tucuman +to finish with the mass of militia there before resuming +its march on the capital. To the surprise +of South America, the result was a decisive patriot +victory. The gaucho cavalry, armed with knives +and bolos, mounted on fleet little horses, carrying +no baggage, and living on the cattle they killed at +the end of each day's march, followed the fleeing +Spaniards up into the mountains and inflicted enormous +losses. This victory gave the Argentines for +another year assurance against invasion by land, and +Buenos Aires remained a focus whence anti-Spanish +influences could spread over the rest of South America. +The patriots again invaded Uruguay, shut up +the Spaniards within the walls of Montevideo, and +prepared once more to carry the war into Bolivia.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-115.jpg" width="600" height="764" alt="MANUEL BELGRANO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">MANUEL BELGRANO.<br /> +[From an oil painting.]</span> +</div> + +<p>All this while the government at Buenos Aires +was involved in internal quarrels. The first junta +soon expelled its fiercest, strongest, and most active +spirit,—Moreno,—who seems to have been the only +man of the period who foresaw the necessity of +establishing a federative form of government. With +the disaster of Huaqui the necessity for a more +compact executive became urgent. A triumvirate +assumed the direction of affairs. Its policy was at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +once despotic and feeble and satisfied neither federalists, +advanced liberals, nor the military element. +The latter was becoming daily more predominant. +A radical republican society called the "Lautaro," +composed largely of young officers, was organised +and became virtually a ruling oligarchy. San Martin +and Alvear arrived from Europe, and the prestige +which they had acquired on European battle-fields +at once secured for them prominent positions. +When the news of the victory of Tucuman reached +the city the military classes revolted, deposed the +old triumvirate, and installed a new one. This +revolution marked the final triumph of the sentiment +of independence. The new government was +active in every sense of the word. Belgrano was re-enforced; +San Martin was encouraged in his chosen +work of forming the nucleus of a disciplined army, +fit for offensive warfare; the worn-out pretence of +employing Ferdinand's name on public documents +was dropped; the inquisition, the use of torture, and +titles of nobility were abolished. The Argentine +revolution had finally assumed a military and republican +character; independence was clearly henceforth +its end and purpose.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-b.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-2.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h3>COMPLETION OF THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE</h3> + + +<p>Belgrano followed up his victory at Tucuman +by another invasion of the Bolivian plateau. +Even to a trained general and a regular army such a +campaign would have been difficult. The defective +organisation of his hastily gathered militia, his own +unfamiliarity with the art of war, and the fact that +he was opposed by a clever commander whose army +was better drilled and better adapted to operations +in that high altitude, all conspired to leave the result +in no doubt. October 1, 1813, he was badly defeated +at Vilapugio, and six weeks later his army +was nearly destroyed at Ayohuma. With the remnant +he fled south to Argentine territory and was +replaced in his command by San Martin.</p> + +<p>The advent of this consummate general and single-minded +patriot revolutionised the character of the +military operations. Unlike his predecessors and +colleagues, he did not concern himself with political +ambitions. He had but one purpose—to drive the +Spaniards from South America; he knew but one +way of achieving it—to whip them on the field of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +battle. He had none of the brilliantly attractive +qualities, none of the eloquence or charm of most +South American leaders; he had a horror of display, +and made but one speech in all his life.</p> + +<p>By sheer force of will and attention to detail, he +organised an efficient regular army. The victories +that followed were as much due to his painstaking +care and foresight as to his brilliant strategical combinations +and admirable tactical dispositions. Because +he thought another could finish his work better +than himself he voluntarily resigned supreme power +on the very eve of the campaign which expelled the +last Spaniard from South America, and, disdaining +to offer an explanation, went into life-long exile. +So modest was he that his name and services well-nigh +fell into oblivion. That he is now recognised +as the saviour of South American liberty is due as +much to the literary labours of the greatest of +Argentine historians, Bartolomé Mitre, as to the +spontaneous opinion of his countrymen during the +first decades after his retirement.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 639px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-119.jpg" width="639" height="600" alt="GENERAL SAN MARTIN." title="" /> +<span class="caption">GENERAL SAN MARTIN.<br /> +[From a steel engraving.]</span> +</div> + +<p>General San Martin was born on the 25th of February, +1778, in a little town which had been one of +the Jesuit missions far up the Uruguay River. His +mother was a Creole and his father a Spanish officer, +who destined his son to his own profession. When +a child of only eight, he was taken to the mother +country and educated in the best military schools of +Spain. At an early age he entered the army and +served in all the many wars in which Spain engaged +after the outbreak of the French Revolution. He +saw much active service and became a thorough +master of his profession. He imbibed liberal ideas +and joined a secret society pledged to the work of +establishing a republic in Spain and independent +governments in her colonies. When the Spanish +people rose against the French conquests, San Martin +threw himself heart and soul into the conflict on +the side of the patriots, and distinguished himself +in the battles that opened the way to the recovery +of Madrid. He was promoted to a lieutenant-colo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>nelcy, +but the next year he resigned his commission +to return to his native land to aid her in her +fight for independence. By a curious coincidence +the ship that bore the South American who achieved +the independence of his country was called the +<i>George Canning</i>, after the European who, thirteen +years later, did most to secure the independence of +South America from external attack. He landed +in Buenos Aires in March, 1812. At that moment +the anti-Spanish revolution seemed everywhere to +be on the point of suffocation. Bolivia and Uruguay +were lost; the reaction was gaining ground in +Venezuela; Chile was menaced by an army from +Lima and shortly fell back into Spanish hands; +Peru was steady for the old system. Only in +Argentina and New Granada were the fires of insurrection +still burning, and between them intervened +Peru, the stronghold of Spanish power in South +America—a citadel impregnable behind mountains, +deserts, and the ocean. The War of Independence +could only succeed by aggressive campaigns which +must be conducted through difficult country and +over the whole continent, and against forces superior +in both numbers and equipment.</p> + +<p>San Martin's first step was to organise and drill +some good regiments in Buenos Aires. He selected +the finest physical and moral specimens of youth +that the province afforded and subjected them to a +rigid discipline. After his ruthless pruning only the +born soldiers remained, and this select corps furnished +generals and officers for the wars that followed. +On succeeding Belgrano in command of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +army of the north, San Martin saw at once that +all attempts to conquer Peru by an advance through +Bolivia were foredoomed to failure. A campaign +over a mountainous plateau, with the Spaniards in +possession of the strategic points, and the inhabitants +divided in their sympathies, would be suicidal. +On the other hand, to attack and defeat the Spanish +forces in Peru itself was absolutely necessary. +The three hundred thousand inhabitants of Argentina, +distracted by intestine warfare, could not hope +indefinitely to resist the Spanish power, backed by +secure possession of the rest of the continent. Decisive +victories were necessary to encourage the +partisans of independence in Chile, Peru, Bolivia, +and Ecuador.</p> + +<p>San Martin's solution of the problem was to organise +an army on the eastern slope of the Andes; +to invade Chile; to drive the Spaniards thence, and +make that country the base of further operations; to +improvise a fleet and with it gain command of the +Pacific; and, finally, to attack Peru from the coast. +The scheme seemed complicated, but San Martin +was one of those rare geniuses born with a capacity +for taking infinite pains, and his pertinacity was indefatigable. +He foresaw and provided against every +contingency and carried his plan to a triumphant +conclusion. The story of the liberation of South +America within the succeeding eight years might be +completely told in the form of two biographies—San +Martin's and Bolivar's.</p> + +<p>Trusting the defence of the Bolivian frontier to +a few line soldiers and the gauchos of Salta, San<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +Martin solicited and obtained an appointment as +Governor of Cuyo. This province was directly east +of the populous central part of Chile, and was the +refuge of the patriot Chileans who had been compelled +to flee into exile after quarrels among themselves +had delivered their country to the Spaniards. +His authority was purely military and derived only +from the dictum of the revolutionary government at +Buenos Aires, but San Martin was not a man +to hesitate on account of scruples over constitutional +questions. He laid the province under contribution +and started to create an army capable of +crossing the Andes and coping with the Spanish +regulars in Chile. The inhabitants of Cuyo were +determinedly anti-Spanish, brave, enduring, and +enthusiastic. It was a good recruiting ground in +itself; the Chilean exiles were numerous and all +anxious to join in an effort to redeem their country. +The government at Buenos Aires sent him a valuable +addition in a corps of manumitted negro slaves, +but his nucleus was the regiments which he himself +had drilled at Buenos Aires. Though civil wars +went on in the coast provinces, he was not to be +diverted from his purpose. He kept aloof from +them, and for three years laboured steadily, building +his great war machine—recruiting, drilling, instructing +officers, taxing his province, gathering +provisions, building portable bridges, making powder, +casting guns, organising his transport and commissariat.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, Alvear, his old colleague in the Spanish +army, had assumed the leading position in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> +oligarchy that ruled at Buenos Aires. He suppressed +the triumvirate and placed his relative, +Posadas, at the head of the government. The patriot +armies were besieging Montevideo from the +land side, but it was not until a fighting demon of +an Irish merchant captain, William Brown, had been +placed in command of a few ships which the Buenos +Aireans had gathered, that there was any hope +of reducing the place. This remarkable man was +nearly as important a factor as San Martin himself +in the war against Spain. With incredible audacity +he attacked the Spanish ships wherever he found +them. Numbers and odds made no difference, and +he was never so dangerous as just after an apparent +reverse. His victory of the 14th of June put the +Spanish fleet out of commission; the reduction of +Montevideo followed, as a matter of course; and the +destruction of the Spanish sea power on the Atlantic +side made San Martin's campaign on the Pacific +coast possible.</p> + +<p>Civil wars broke out between the Buenos Aires +oligarchy and local military chiefs in the gaucho +provinces and soon hurled Posadas from power. He +was succeeded by Alvear, but the commanders of +the armies refused to recognise the latter's authority +and an insurrection in Buenos Aires itself drove him, +too, into exile. One military dictator succeeded +another, while the provinces more and more ignored +the Buenos Aires pretensions to hegemony. The +frail fabric of the confederation fast crumbled into +fragments. With the end of the Napoleonic wars +re-enforcements began to arrive from Spain, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> +royal arms were again victorious and threatened to +wipe out the distracted Republic. Rondeau, one +of the generals who had helped depose Posadas and +Alvear, had been rewarded with command of the +army of the north. Disregarding the experience of +his predecessors, he made the third great effort to +conquer Bolivia and strike at the heart of Spanish +power in Peru by the overland route. His campaign +ended with the crushing defeat at Sipe-Sipe. +Considerable Spanish forces followed him down into +the Argentine plains, but, as San Martin had predicted, +the gaucho cavalry under Guëmes were able +to keep back their advance.</p> + +<p>Belgrano and Rivadavia had been sent to Spain +in 1813 to try to arrange terms on the basis of +autonomy, or the making of Buenos Aires a separate +kingdom under some member of the Spanish +family. They were informed that nothing except +unconditional submission would be accepted, and +they were then ordered to leave Madrid. Scheme +after scheme was presented in Buenos Aires, discussed, +and abandoned. Belgrano wanted to make +a descendant of the Incas emperor of South America. +Others wished to offer submission to Great +Britain in return for a protectorate. The English +government rejected the overtures. A more popular +idea was to elect a monarch from the Portuguese +Braganza family, then reigning in Brazil. The only +definite result of all these confused negotiations was +a formal declaration of independence made on the +9th of July, 1816, by a Congress at which most of +the provinces were represented, and which met in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +the city of Tucuman. Many of the members had no +hope of being able to enforce such a declaration. +However, it cleared the way for obtaining foreign +help, and negotiations were continued with a view to +inducing some European prince to accept the throne.</p> + +<p>Artigas, the independent military chieftain of +Uruguay and Entre Rios, attacked in 1813 the Missions +to the left of Upper Uruguay which the Rio +Grande Brazilians had seized twelve years before. +He was defeated by the troops of John VI., who +followed him into Uruguay proper and in 1816 captured +Montevideo. Though the Buenos Aireans +had been compelled to concede Uruguay's independence, +this movement excited among them an +intense jealousy of the Portuguese. The scheme +for a Braganza monarch at once became unpopular +and impracticable.</p> + +<p>The taciturn general in Cuyo was, however, preparing +a thunderbolt that would clear the Argentine +sky of all these clouds except that most portentous +of all—civil war. After three years of incessant +preparation, San Martin believed that his army was +ready to undertake the great campaign. Though it +numbered only four thousand men, it was the most +efficient body of troops that ever gathered on South +American soil. Among the Argentine contingent +were the picked youth of Buenos Aires and the provinces—reckless, +enthusiastic youths whose ambition, +patriotism, or love of adventure made them +willing to follow anywhere San Martin might dare +to lead. Not inferior to their white comrades were +the manumitted negroes. The cruelest charges and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +the heaviest losses fell to their lot and few of them +ever returned over the Andes. The Chilean exiles +were picked men—those who preferred death to +submission, or who had offended so deeply that +their only hope of seeing their homes was to return +sword in hand. This force had been drilled and instructed +in all the art of war as practised during the +Napoleonic era by San Martin himself, a veteran +soldier of the great European campaigns—one who +had fought with Wellington and against Massena +and Soult. He was indefatigable in attending to +details, and he seems to have foreseen everything. +The last months were spent in preparing rations of +parched corn and dried beef; in gathering mules for +mountain transportation, and in making sledges to +be used on the slopes which were too steep for cannon +on wheels. The most careful calculations were +made of the distances to be traversed; every route +was surveyed; spies were in every pass; the Spaniards +were kept in uncertainty as to which of the +numerous passes along hundreds of miles of frontier +would be used for the attack. San Martin's real +intentions were not revealed by him even to the +members of his staff until the very eve of the advance.</p> + +<p>When summer came in 1817, and all the passes +were freed from snow, he was ready. In the middle +of January he broke camp at Mendoza and divided +his army into two divisions. Directly to the west +was the Uspallata Pass, then as now the usual route +between western Argentina and central Chile. Its +Chilean outlet opens into the plain of Aconcagua,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> +which is north of Santiago and only separated from +that capital by one transverse spur of the Andes. +Off to the north was the more difficult pass of Patos, +its eastern entrance also easily accessible from Mendoza, +though by a longer detour, and opening at its +other end into the same valley of Aconcagua. The +smaller of the two divisions was to advance over +the Uspallata Pass, so timing its movements as +to reach the open ground of the Aconcagua valley +at the same time as the larger division, which, +under San Martin himself, went to the north around +the Patos route. The Spaniards had a guard at the +summit of the Uspallata Pass, but the advance +troops of the Argentines charged it. Before re-enforcements +could come up, the division was over +and advancing confidently down the cañon on the +Chilean side. Had the Spaniards sent up a force +sufficient to prevent the Uspallata division from debouching +on to the Aconcagua plain it would have +been caught in a trap. The second division could +have bottled it up from below by leaving a small +body at the mouth of the cañon. But before the +Spanish commander had made up his mind what to +do, news came that another army was rapidly coming +down the valley leading into the Aconcagua +valley from the north. Disconcerted by this attack +from an unexpected direction, the Spanish commander +hastened off with an inadequate force to repel +it. He did not reach a defensible point in time; his +vanguard was defeated and he retreated along the +highroad to Santiago, leaving San Martin to reunite +his two divisions at his leisure in the broad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> +Aconcagua plain. Though the army had crossed the +Andes over two of the loftiest and steepest passes +in the world, so admirably had all dispositions been +made that hardly a stop was necessary to refit and +recruit. Artillery and cavalry, as well as infantry, +were ready within four days after reaching the Chilean +side to take up the pursuit of the Spaniards.</p> + +<p>Marco, the Spanish governor, had not had sufficient +time to concentrate his scattered regiments +since the first news had come that San Martin was +coming in force by the northern passes. Of his five +thousand men only two thousand were able to get +between San Martin's advance and Santiago. The +Argentine general was sure of having the largest +numbers at the point of conflict, but the Spanish +troops were veterans of the Peninsula and were commanded +by a skilful and resolute general. He concentrated +his force in a strong position in a valley +on the south side of the transverse range that separates +Santiago from the Aconcagua valley. He had +hoped to make his stand at the top of the pass, there +four thousand feet high, but San Martin had been +too quick for him. However, the position was admirable +for a stubborn defence. The highroad to +Santiago descended from the pass down a narrow +valley, which, just in front of the Spanish position, +opened into a larger valley running at right angles. +The artillery of the Spaniards commanded the narrow +mouth of the upper valley, and on a side hill +there was room to deploy the infantry and cavalry. +The Argentine troops would be enfiladed in the close +gut before they could form in line of battle. San<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +Martin employed the tactics of the Persians at Thermopylæ. +There was an abandoned road running +over the summit a little to the west of the travelled +route and debouching into the same valley a little +below the Spanish position. Through this O'Higgins, +the chief of San Martin's Chilean allies, at two +o'clock in the morning of February 12th, started +with eighteen hundred men. By eleven he had +reached the main valley and turned up it to attack +the Spaniards on their left flank. His first assault, +made without waiting for the other division to come +down in front, was repulsed. San Martin, sitting on +his war-horse on the heights above, galloped down +the slope, leaving orders to hasten the descent of +the main body. As he reached the lower ground +and joined the Chileans, he saw the head of his +main column appear through the mouth of the pass. +O'Higgins again attacked, and the Spaniards, taken +in flank and with their centre assailed in <i>échelon</i> by +the Argentine squadrons and battalions, were at a +hopeless disadvantage. The position of their infantry +was carried by the bayonet, while the patriot +cavalry charged the artillery and sabred the men at +their guns. The infantry were the flower of the +Spanish regulars; they formed a square and for a +time held their stand. Finally, surrounded on +three sides, their artillery gone, and fighting against +double their number, they broke and retreated over +the broken ground in their rear. Less than half +escaped and a quarter were killed on the field and in +the pursuit. The patriots lost only twelve killed and +one hundred and twenty wounded.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p> + +<p>Though the numbers engaged were insignificant, +and though the victory was easily won, the battle +of Chacabuco was decisive in the struggle between +Spain and her revolted subjects in the southern +colonies. Since the outbreak of 1810 the revolutionary +cause had been losing not alone territory +but morale, conviction, and self-confidence. Spanish +authority seemed certain finally to be completely +re-established, perhaps by a compromise and concession +of autonomy, but still on a basis gratifying +to the pride of the mother country. The day before +San Martin started on his march over the +Andes, Chile was quietly submissive; Uruguay was +occupied by Portuguese troops; Argentina was a +mere loose aggregation of discordant and warring +provinces, whose most intelligent statesmen had +nearly given up hope of peace and autonomy, except +by foreign aid or submission to some alien +monarch. But the day after Chacabuco the Spanish +governor was flying from Santiago to the coast; +Chile had become, and has remained, independent. +In Argentina there was no more talk of Portuguese +princes, of British protectorates, of compromise with +Spain. The declaration of Tucuman had become a +reality. There was much more hard fighting still to +be done, and time after time during the next seven +years the final result seemed to tremble in the +balance, but hope and national spirit had been so +aroused in South America that defeat was never +irremediable.</p> + +<p>The rest of San Martin's military career belongs +rather to the history of Chile and Peru than to that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> +of Argentina. It is enough to say that he established +his friend O'Higgins as dictator of Chile, thus +assuring her co-operation in the prosecution of the +war against Peru. Spanish successes in Chile and +civil war in Argentina delayed for years his overmatching +the Spanish naval power on the Pacific. +Without command of the sea he would have had to +march his army up a desert coast between the Cordillera +and the ocean—an undertaking almost impossible. +The help of the Buenos Aires fleet was +essential and so was the aid of the Argentine treasury +in buying more ships and paying foreign seamen. +His friends at Buenos Aires were struggling for their +lives against their rivals for supreme power. To San +Martin's demand for assistance they responded by +begging him first to use his army to crush the rebellion. +That he refused them in their hour of bitter +need has been pointed out as a blot upon his fame, +but his resolution was Spartan. Not even the considerations +of gratitude to personal friends diverted +him from his great purpose. He had that element +of supremely great achievement—steadfastness to +adhere to a purpose once conceived that nothing +could shake. Puerreyedon might be driven into +exile; the warring factions might tear Argentina +into fragments, and jealous Cochrane might unjustly +accuse him; the ambitious and selfish Bolívar might +regard him only as an obstacle to his own supremacy; +none of these things could change his course +or alter his devotion to the one great purpose of his +life.</p> + +<p>In 1820 he finally started up the coast, and in four<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +months, without a pitched battle, he had rendered +the Spanish position on the coast of Peru untenable. +He met Bolívar at Guayaquil, and the personal interview +between the liberators of the northern and +southern halves of South America was the end of +San Martin's public career. He went to it with the +purpose of arranging a joint campaign to drive the +Spanish from their last stronghold, the highlands of +Peru. But Bolívar did not see his own way clear to +co-operation. San Martin explained his predicament +to no one; he uttered no word of complaint or regret; +he simply gave up the command of the army +which he had led for seven years and resigned the +Dictatorship of Peru. There was no place for him +in distracted Argentina except as a leader in the +civil wars—a rôle he disdained. He went into exile +without saying a word as to the reasons for his +action. Rather than precipitate a division between +the patriots before the last Spaniard had been driven +from South America, he submitted in silence to the +reproach of cowardice. Rather than jeopard independence +he sacrificed home, money, honours, even +reputation itself. The history of the world records +few examples of finer civic virtue.</p> + +<p>The rest of his life he spent poverty-stricken in +Paris. Only once he tried to return to his native +country. At Montevideo he heard that Buenos +Aires was in the throes of another revolution and +that his presence might be misconstrued. Without +a word, he took the next ship back to Europe. For +many years his struggles against poverty and ill-health +were pathetic. It was the generosity of a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>Spaniard, and not a fellow-countryman, that relieved +the last days of his life. But throughout those +weary thirty years he never wavered in his devotion +to South America. His last utterance about public +affairs was a vehement laudation of Rosas—tyrant +though he thought him—because the latter had +defied France and England when they disregarded +Argentina's rights as a sovereign member of the +family of nations.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<img src="images/illus-133.jpg" width="1024" height="585" alt="PLAZADE MAYO AND CATHEDRAL AT BUENOS AIRES." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PLAZADE MAYO AND CATHEDRAL AT BUENOS AIRES.<br /> +[From a lithograph.]</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>Reading was the only resource left to lighten his +old age, and his last months were embittered by +the approach of blindness. His heart began to be +affected, symptoms of an aneurism appeared, and +he went to Boulogne to take the sea air. Standing +one day on the beach he felt the awful shock of pain +that announced his approaching end. "Gasping and +raising his hand to his heart, he turned with a touching +smile to that daughter who ever followed him like +a latter-day Antigone, and said, '<i>C'est l'orage qui +mene au port</i>.' On the 17th of August, 1850, being +seventy-two years of age, he expired in the arms of +his beloved daughter. Chile and Argentina have +raised him statues; Peru has decreed a monument +to his memory. The Argentine nation, at last one +and united as he had ever desired, has brought back +his sacred remains and celebrated his apotheosis. +To-day his tomb may be seen in the metropolitan +cathedral, bearing witness for Argentina to his just +distinction as the greatest of all her men of action."</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-2.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h3>THE ERA OF CIVIL WARS</h3> + + +<p>For half a century, from 1812 to 1862, the story +of Argentina is one of almost continual civil +wars, of disturbances, and armed revolutions affecting +every part of the Republic. But through the +confused records of this half-century there runs +the thread of a steady tendency and purpose. The +nation was instinctively seeking to establish an +equilibrium between its centripetal and centrifugal +forces, between the spirit of local autonomy and the +necessity for union. At the same time, the irrepressible +conflict between military and civil principles +of government was fought out. Argentina +emerged strong and united, while the provinces retained +the right of local self-government, and the +military classes were relegated to their proper subordinate +position as servants of the civil and industrial +interests of the community. When studied in +detail the story of the civil wars is confusing and +tedious: it is my purpose to omit all that does not +bear on the final rational and beneficent result.</p> + +<p>At the outset of the revolution against Spain, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +oligarchy of liberals who ruled Buenos Aires assumed +the sovereignty of the whole Viceroyalty. They +regarded themselves as successors to the power of +the Viceroy himself, and attempted to rule the outlying +provinces with no more regard for the latter's +interests than if they had been delegates of an absolute +monarch. Though the people of the city of +Buenos Aires often quarrelled as to what individual +should exercise the supreme power, they were united +in insisting that the capital should continue to enjoy +the privileges and exclusive commercial rights with +which the Spanish system had endowed it. Hardly +had the revolution begun when the districts in the +neighbourhood of Buenos Aires showed symptoms +of revolt against the central authorities. The cities +of Santa Fé, Concepcion, and Corrientes, each with +its dependent territory, aspired to the status of +independent provinces. Military chieftains, called +"caudillos," organised the gauchos, who were excellent +cavalry ready-made to their hands, and defied +the Buenos Aires oligarchy. José Artigas, a fierce +chieftain of the plains on the Lower Uruguay, +gathered about him a considerable army from among +the gauchos east of the Paraná, and did more than +the Buenos Aireans themselves to shut up the Spaniards +in the fortress of Montevideo. He refused to +accept the concessions offered by the Buenos Aires +oligarchy, and a desperate civil war broke out. +Buenos Aires successively lost Uruguay, Entre +Rios, Corrientes, and Santa Fé. The fighting was +bloody and these districts were all terribly devastated. +Cordoba and the Andean provinces also re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>fused +to recognise the validity of orders emanating +from Buenos Aires. By the year 1818 all the provinces +were practically independent of Buenos Aires, +though the latter abated not a jot of her pretensions +to hegemony, and continued to send troops against +the various caudillos. Her armies obeyed their own +generals rather than the orders of the central government. +In desperation the oligarchy finally peremptorily +ordered San Martin and Belgrano to bring +down their armies from the western and northern +frontiers and suppress the independent chiefs. San +Martin refused to obey, but the imaginative, warm-hearted +Belgrano was not made of the same sterling +stuff. He managed to lead the army of the north +as far as the province of Cordoba, but at Arequito +the troops, at the instigation of ambitious officers, +revolted and scattered. Many joined the caudillos, +and on the 1st of February the provincials completely +overthrew the Buenos Aires militia in the decisive +battle of Cepeda.</p> + +<p>This ended for a time the capital's pretensions to +hegemony. Decentralisation went on apace. Cuyo +dissolved into the three provinces of Mendoza, San +Luiz, and San Juan; the old intendencia of Salta +became four new provinces,—Santiago del Estero, +Tucuman, Catamarca, and Salta,—to which a fifth +was added when the city of Jujuy erected itself into +a separate jurisdiction in 1834. From the Cordoba +of colonial times Rioja split off, while the intendencia +of Buenos Aires had been divided into four great +provinces, Santa Fé, Corrientes, Entre Rios, and +Buenos Aires, besides the independent nation of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> +Uruguay. Each of these provinces practically corresponded +with the leading city and its dependent +territory, and the Cabildo of each municipality was +the basis of new local government.</p> + +<p>This process was spontaneous, and the provinces +then formed have ever since been the units of the +Argentine confederation. To many intelligent patriots +of the time, however, decentralisation seemed +to be only a sure sign of swiftly approaching +anarchy. Power fell more and more into the hands +of the military leaders, and war became almost the +normal condition of the country. During the four +years from 1820 to 1824, there was no material +change in the position of the contending forces. +The provinces much desired to make a confederation +of which Buenos Aires should be an equal member, +but the latter refused and only waited for an opportunity +in order to renew her pretensions to hegemony.</p> + +<p>Two opposing tendencies were, however, at work +which soon created two parties within the walls of +Buenos Aires itself. Commercial interests had suffered +so severely in the civil wars, and communications +were so uncertain and so burdened with +arbitrary exactions by the provincials, that the property-holding +classes began to press hard upon the +office-holders of the oligarchy with demands for an +accommodation and some sort of a union with the +provinces. This was the beginning of the federalist +party, which naturally found efficient support among +the cattle-herding inhabitants on the great pampas +of the province of Buenos Aires.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span></p> + +<p>On the other hand, the unitarians were becoming +more compact, more determined, and more definite +in their purposes. Rivadavia, the greatest constructive +statesman of the era, undertook the reform of +the laws and the administration. He created the +University of Buenos Aires; founded hospitals and +asylums; introduced ecclesiastical and military reform; +bettered the land laws, and infused into the +legislation a modern spirit. The improved tone +of political thought tended to stimulate a more +general and rational discussion of a <i>modus vivendi</i> +with the provinces. The federalists favoured the +establishment of a system like that of the United +States, while the unitarians clung to the idea of a +nation organised more after the model of the French +Republic.</p> + +<p>In 1825 the provinces were represented at a general +constituent congress which assembled in Buenos +Aires. After much discussion the unitarians, with +Rivadavia at their head, finally obtained control. +In 1826 he was elected executive chief of the federation. +This election, however, did not make him +president in fact. Recognition from the Cabildos +and the caudillos was practically of greater importance +than the vote of a congress of delegates who +were unable to insure the acquiescence of their constituencies. +Rivadavia's favourite plan of placing +the city of Buenos Aires directly under the control +of the central government excited bitter opposition +among the federalists of Buenos Aires. Under their +leader, Manuel Dorrego, they protested vehemently +against the dismemberment of their home province.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p> + +<p>Meanwhile the crazy fabric was subjected to the +strain of a serious foreign war. In 1825 the country +districts of Uruguay rose against their Brazilian +rulers. The Argentines went wild with joy when +they heard of the victory which the gauchos +won over the imperial forces at Sarandi. Congress +promptly decreed that Uruguay had reunited herself +to the confederation. The Emperor's answer +was a declaration of war and a blockade of Buenos +Aires. The fighting Irish sailor, Admiral William +Brown, again came to the front, and his daring seamanship +rendered the Brazilian blockade ineffective. +He destroyed a large division of their fleet at the +battle of Juncal, while fast Baltimore clippers, commanded +by English and Yankee privateer captains, +swept Brazilian commerce from the seas. Late in +1826 an Argentine army of eight thousand men was +assembled for the invasion of Rio Grande do Sul. +Alvear, now returned from exile, was entrusted with +its command, and on the 20th of February, 1827, +the Brazilians were overwhelmingly defeated at Ituzaingo, +far within their own boundary. The Argentines +were not able to follow up their victory, +and shortly returned to Uruguayan territory, but +the Emperor was never again able to undertake an +aggressive campaign. Negotiations for peace were +begun, and Rivadavia's envoy signed a treaty by +which Uruguay was to remain a part of the empire +of Brazil. A storm of indignation broke forth at +Buenos Aires, and Rivadavia had to disavow his minister +and continue the war. The blow to his prestige +was, however, mortal; the federalists had, indeed,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> +never ceased to make war against him; and the unitarian +constitution which Congress had adopted at +his dictation was rejected unanimously by the provinces. +He resigned, and Dorrego, chief of the unitarians, +succeeded him as nominal executive chief +of the confederation. In reality, however, the Republic +was divided into five quasi-independent +military states. Dorrego ruled in Buenos Aires, +Lopez in Santa Fé, Ibarra in Santiago, Bustos in +Cordoba, and Quiroga in Cuyo.</p> + +<p>Many of the officers of the army which had been +victorious at Ituzaingo were dissatisfied with the +triumph of Dorrego at Buenos Aires. They belonged +to the unitarian party, and they were anxious +themselves to usurp the places of the various caudillos. +The first division that reached Buenos Aires +after the signing of the preliminary peace with Brazil +raised the standard of rebellion in the city itself. +General Lavalle declared himself Governor, while +Dorrego fled to the interior, only to be pursued, +captured, and shot, without the form of trial, by +Lavalle's personal order. This began the fiercest +and bloodiest civil war which ever desolated the +Argentine. The gauchos of the southern provinces +rose <i>en masse</i> to fight the unitarian regulars, while +the generals of the latter began a series of campaigns +against all the federalist provincial governments and +caudillos. General Paz advanced on Cordoba to +give battle to Bustos, while Lavalle's forces invaded +Santa Fé. Rosas, the chief of southern Buenos +Aires, had rallied the federalists of that province. +He himself joined Lopez, the caudillo of Santa Fé,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +while he left behind a considerable force of his +gauchos to threaten the city from the south. Lavalle +sent some of his best regiments against the +latter body, but to his surprise his veterans were +completely cut to pieces by the fierce riders of the +plains. He himself had to retreat to Buenos Aires, +while Rosas and Lopez defeated him under the very +walls of the city.</p> + +<p>These victories made the Buenos Aires federalist +leader, Juan Manuel Rosas, the chief figure in Argentine +affairs. Thenceforth, for more than twenty +years, he was the absolute dictator and tyrant of +Buenos Aires. The most bitterly hated man in +Argentine history, probably no other leader had as +profound an influence in preparing the Argentine +nation for the consolidation which was so shortly to +follow his own fall from power. His personal characteristics +and his public career are equally interesting. +The scion of a wealthy Buenos Aires family, +from his childhood he devoted himself to cattle-raising +on the vast family estates of the southern +pampas. He became the model and idol of the +gauchos. By the time he was twenty-five, he was +the acknowledged king of the southern pampas, with +a thousand hard-riding, half-savage horsemen obeying +his orders. In 1820 he and his regiment were +chief factors in the revolution that placed General +Rodriguez in power at Buenos Aires. Through the +more peaceful years that followed, his power grew +until he was the acknowledged head of the country +people of Buenos Aires province and their champion +against the city. He had been fairly well educated,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> +his information was wide, and his intellectual abilities +were of a high order. But he thoroughly identified +his tastes and prejudices with those of his rude +followers, and in politics he was fiercely unitarian. +The victories of 1829 over Lavalle placed him in +supreme power at Buenos Aires and made him the +nominal head of the whole Argentine.</p> + +<p>His real power was, however, far from extending +over the whole territory. General Paz with his +veterans of the Brazilian war had expelled Bustos +from Cordoba and firmly established himself as ruler +of that province. Quiroga, the redoubtable caudillo +of the Cuyo province, gathered his swarms of fierce +gauchos from the western pampas in the slopes of +the Andes, and descended to the very walls of Cordoba, +there to be twice defeated with awful slaughter +by General Paz. The latter followed up his victories +by establishing unitarian governments in the north-western +provinces. In Cuyo he was not so successful, +and Quiroga managed to sustain himself. Rosas +came to the rescue of the despairing federalists with +the whole force of Buenos Aires. In that province +all opposition to him had been crushed and he was +able to send a strong army against Cordoba which +surprised and captured General Paz himself. This +misfortune demoralised the unitarians. The federalists +and the terrible Quiroga again triumphed in +most of the western provinces. It is estimated that +more than twenty-three thousand unitarians fell in +battle. Part of Paz's army retired to Tucuman and +were there surrounded by an overwhelming force +under Quiroga. Though their position was hopeless<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +they did not offer to surrender, nor would quarter +have been given them had they asked it. In +these internecine conflicts, the beaten side usually +fought it out to the last man, selling their lives as +dearly as possible. Five hundred prisoners taken +at Tucuman were shot in cold blood, and only a few +small bands escaped to Bolivia.</p> + +<p>Rosas filled the offices in the provinces with his +partisans, while the obsequious authorities of the +capital conferred upon him the high-sounding title, +"Restorer of the Laws." He made a feint or two +of resigning the governorship, and in fact left it in +other hands while he led an army against the Indians +of the South. He soon returned with the +prestige of having extended white domination far +beyond its former boundaries. After much show +of reluctance, in 1835 he accepted the title of Governor +and Captain-General, and a special statute expressly +confided to him the whole "sum of the public +power."</p> + +<p>The thousands of murders, betrayals, and treasons +of the long civil wars had sapped the foundations of +good faith in human kindness. The unitarians were +mere outlaws, their property was constantly subject +to confiscation, and their lives were never safe. +Rosas himself, least of all, could confide in the faithfulness +of his partisans. Things had come to such +a pass that no one could rule except by force. +Whoever was in power was sure to be hated by the +majority and plotted against by many, though he +might have been raised to command by the acclamation +of the whole population. Rosas was a product<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +of the conditions that surrounded him. Belgrano, +Rivadavia, and every one who had tried to establish +a civil government had failed. The forces of militarism +and federalism had been too strong for them. +From among the ambitious military chieftains the +strongest and fittest survived. Rosas understood +the conditions under which he held power and took +the measures his experience had taught him would +be most effective in preserving it. He undertook to +forestall revolt by creating a reign of terror; he replaced +the blue and white of Buenos Aires by red—the +colour of his own faction; the wearing of a scrap +of blue was considered proof of treason. A club of +desperadoes, called the Massorca, was formed of +men sworn to do his bidding, even though it might +be to murder their own relatives. No one suspected +of disaffection was safe for a day. Sometimes a +warning was given so that the victim might flee, +leaving his property to be confiscated; sometimes +he was dragged from his bed and stabbed. The +charge of deliberate bloodthirstiness against Rosas +is, however, hardly borne out by the facts. For +political reasons he did not hesitate to kill, and to +kill cruelly, but he did not kill for the mere sake of +killing.</p> + +<p>He was passionately jealous of foreign interference. +Early in his reign he quarrelled with the +government of France over questions in regard to +the domicile and obligations of foreign residents. +The French fleet, assisted later by that of Great +Britain, blockaded Buenos Aires. But Rosas defied +their combined power; although in this very year<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +(1835) he was menaced by a formidable invasion +from the banished unitarians. In Uruguay the +"colorados" occupied Montevideo and had formed +a close alliance with the Argentine exiles. Montevideo +was the centre of resistance to Rosas and from +its walls went out expeditions to end the revolts +which continually broke forth. In 1842 the allied +unitarians and colorados suffered a great defeat from +Rosas's right arm in the field, General Urquiza, and +thenceforth Oribe, chief of the Uruguayan "blancos" +besieged the colorados in Montevideo and controlled +the country districts. This apparently ended +all hope of expelling Rosas from power. The emigration +of the intelligent and high-spirited youth of +Buenos Aires to Montevideo and Chile increased. +Among these exiles and martyrs to their devotion +to constitutional government were many Argentines +who shortly rose to the top in politics and whose +abilities gave a great impulse to the intellectual +movement. Among them were Mitre, Vicente +Lopez, Sarmiento, Valera, and Echeverria, who +share the honour of establishing civil government in +Buenos Aires, and who aided Urquiza in preventing +South America from becoming a military empire, and +in uniting the Argentine province into a stable nation.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-147.jpg" width="1024" height="684" alt="BUENOS AIRES IN 1845." title="" /> +<span class="caption">BUENOS AIRES IN 1845.<br /> +[From a steel engraving.]</span> +</div> + +<p>The longer the tyrant reigned, the less men remembered +their own factional divisions. Practically +the whole civil population of the capital was ready +to support a rebellion. Rosas, however, was to +fall, not by a revolution in Buenos Aires, but because +his system was inconsistent with the local +autonomy of the provinces. He put his partisans +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>into power as military governors, but no bond was +strong enough to keep them faithful to his interests. +As soon as they were well established in their satrapies, +they became jealous of their own prerogatives +and of the rights of their people. Rosas ceased to +be a real federalist when he made Buenos Aires the +centre of his power. He lived there, he raised most +of his revenue there, and the city's interests became +in a sense synonymous with his own. He excluded +foreigners from the provinces, he forbade direct communication +between the banks of the Paraná and +Uruguay and the outside world. Everything was +required to be trans-shipped at Buenos Aires so that +it might be subject to duty.</p> + +<p>The chief lieutenant of Rosas was General Urquiza, +whom he had appointed governor of Entre Rios. +The latter's generalship overcame the unitarian rebellions +in that province and repelled the invasions +from Uruguay. Under his wise and moderate rule +the province flourished and recovered from the +devastations of the previous civil wars. Its fertile +plains were covered with magnificent herds of cattle +and horses, which fed and mounted an admirable +cavalry. Urquiza himself was the greatest rancher +in the province and could raise an army from his own +estates. Entrenched between the vast-moving floods +of the Uruguay and Paraguay, he was practically +safe from attack, and his relations with his neighbours +in Corrientes, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Brazil +were those of warm friendship and alliance, as soon +as he had declared against the tyrant, who, seated +at the mouth of the Plate, cut off the countries<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +above from free access to the sea. Though Urquiza +was a caudillo he had no such ambition for supreme +power as plagued Rosas. He was even-tempered, +of simple tastes, and careless of military glory.</p> + +<p>In 1846 the rupture between him and Rosas came, +and thenceforth he devoted himself to the overthrow +of the tyrant. Three times his attacks failed; but, +in 1851, he arranged an alliance with Brazil and +with the colorado faction in Uruguay. The war was +opened by Urquiza's crossing the Uruguay and, in +conjunction with a Brazilian army, suddenly falling +upon the blancos, who, in alliance with Rosas, were +besieging Montevideo. Most of the defeated forces +joined his army, and accompanied by his Brazilian +and Uruguayan allies he recrossed the Uruguay and +moved over the Entre Rios plains to a point on the +Paraná just at the head of the delta. The Brazilian +fleet penetrated up the river to protect his crossing, +and on the 24th of December the entire force of +twenty-four thousand men, the largest which up to +that time had ever assembled in South America, was +safely over and encamped on the dry pampas of +Santa Fé. The road to Buenos Aires was open. +Rosas could do nothing but wait there and trust all +to the result of a single battle. On the 3rd of February +he was crushingly defeated in the battle of +Caseros, fought within a few miles of the city. Of +the twenty thousand men he led into action half +proved treacherous, and many of his principal officers +betrayed him. He took refuge at the British Legation, +and thence was sent on board a man-of-war +which carried him into exile.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-1.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h3>CONSOLIDATION</h3> + + +<p>After forty years of struggle no formula had +been found which would satisfy the aspirations +for local self-government and at the same time +secure the external union so essential to the welfare +of the whole country. The questions between the +provinces and Buenos Aires, and between the different +cities which were rivals in the race for national +leadership, seemed to a superficial glance to be as far +as ever from solution. There had, however, been a +shifting of the material balance of power which was +soon to change the situation. The provinces had +suffered most severely from the long civil wars. +Corrientes was well-nigh a desert, in Santa Fé the +Indians roamed up to the gates of the capital town, +and the Andean provinces were isolated and poor. +The long peace under Rosas's rule had increased +the wealth and population of Buenos Aires. The +city lost hundreds of enthusiastic young liberals, +but it gained thousands who fled from the disorders +of the interior. Its population had doubled since +his accession. Thirty thousand English, Irish, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> +Scotch had crowded in to engage in sheep-raising, +and the rural population of Buenos Aires province +was nearly two hundred thousand. City and country +together had doubled, while the rest of the confederation +had only increased one-half. The capital +province now contained twenty-seven per cent. of +the total population, and the disproportion in wealth +and percentage of foreigners was far greater. The +number of sheep increased from two and a half million +in 1830 to five times that number, and by 1850 +there were eight million cattle and three million +horses in the single province.</p> + +<p>All over the country rational ideas about government +had made progress. The people were +thoroughly sickened of military rule. Civilisation, +education, and general intelligence were spreading +their beneficent influences; industry, commerce, and +the pursuit of wealth were absorbing more of the +national energies.</p> + +<p>Urquiza, greatest of the caudillos, saw that without +peace and union Entre Rios could not be insured +prosperity. He had no sooner entered Buenos Aires +than he took measures looking to the framing and +adoption of a federal constitution. After his victory +he was named provisional director of the confederation, +but he showed no wish to play the rôle +of a Rosas. All the governors met and agreed to +the calling of a Constituent Congress, in which each +province was to have an equal vote. As a further +precaution against the predominance of Buenos +Aires the session was to be held in Santa Fé. The +provinces were anxious to form a strong federation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +and the only opposition came from Buenos Aires. +Her statesmen did not realise that she was bound +to be the centre of the system and that the pull +of her superior mass would, before many years, be +sufficient to control the aberrations of the satellites. +Though the governor of Buenos Aires had agreed +on behalf of his province, and though Urquiza's +military power was overwhelming, the legislature of +that province refused its assent. It was clear that +Buenos Aires and the other provinces would not be +able to agree upon a basis of union. The ambitious +cities of the interior each aspired to take the place +of Buenos Aires as the capital, and to this humiliation +the latter city would never submit unless after +another civil war.</p> + +<p>Urquiza determined not to use force, and retired +to his ranch. As soon as he was out of sight, the +city rose in arms against his nominees. The broad-minded +Entre Rios chieftain sent back word that he +had won the battle of Caseros for the sole purpose +of giving Buenos Aires her liberty and that he would +not now intervene to prevent her making the use of +it she chose. He even disbanded his troops. However, +when the Buenos Aireans marched an army to +the attack of Santa Fé where the Constituent Congress, +attended by delegates from all the other provinces, +was holding its sessions, he again took the +field. A counter-revolution broke out in the rural +districts of the Buenos Aires province against the +faction dominant in the city. Urquiza joined his +forces to theirs and besieged the town. A land +siege was useless without a blockade on the water<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> +side, and Urquiza tried to establish one. He was +unsuccessful because the commanders of his ships +treacherously betrayed him, surrendering to the city +party for a heavy bribe. He raised the siege and +retired to the northern provinces.</p> + +<p>Buenos Aires virtually declared her independence +of the other provinces by this action, but the latter +took no further steps to force her into their union. +Urquiza and his followers had, however, accomplished +more toward uniting the Argentine into a +firmly knit nation than had been done in the previous +forty years. The opposition of Buenos Aires +helped convince the other provinces of the necessity +of a union. With the mouth of the river in the +hands of a hostile state more powerful than any +one of them separately, the position of Entre Rios, +Santa Fé, or any one of the others, would have been +critical. Only by uniting could they hope to maintain +themselves and avoid absorption in detail. Intelligent +Argentines had long been convinced of the +desirability of a firm and enduring union, and the +present danger crystallised that conviction in men's +minds. Back of all this was Urquiza's influence. +At last a military chief had come to the possession +of supreme power who was willing to aid his country +in establishing a stable and free government, and +whose purpose was not merely the gratification of +his own love of power. Argentine writers are divided +in their opinion of Urquiza's real abilities, and many +think that ignorance and irresolution, rather than a +lofty patriotism, caused his moderation after his victory +over Rosas. Intelligent foreigners, however,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> +who saw the Plate for themselves during this +period are unanimous in praising his character, his +dignified bearing, his liberality, and his capacities. +Argentina had passed the stage when a military dictator +was her natural chief. The day for constitutional +government had arrived; Urquiza was a +product of his time, and consciously or unconsciously +embodied the changed political sentiments +of his countrymen.</p> + +<p>On the 1st of May, 1853, the Constituent Congress +adopted a constitution substantially copied +from that of the United States of North America—and +that constitution, with a few amendments, has +continued to be the fundamental law of the Argentine +Republic. The navigation of the Paraná and +the Uruguay was declared free to all the world, +largely as a reward to Brazil for her assistance +against Rosas, although she protested against the +extension of that liberty to any nations except those +who had territory on the banks. The city of Paraná, +in the province of Entre Rios and on the eastern +shore of the Paraná River, was made temporary +capital of the Republic. The various provincial +capitals had been unable to agree that any one of +them should have the honour and profit of being the +political metropolis, and the city of Buenos Aires +was selected as the permanent capital, to become +such as soon as the province of that name should +enter the confederation. The delegates had a +double purpose in making this selection. Buenos +Aires was the natural commercial and political +centre, and, all things considered, the most con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>venient +location in the provinces. In the second +place, they desired to weaken the great province of +Buenos Aires by cutting it in two, and to curb the +city's political influence by placing it directly under +the control of the federal government.</p> + +<p>Urquiza was naturally selected as the first President, +and was recognised by foreign nations. Buenos +Aires protested, claiming still to be, for international +purposes, the Argentine nation. She did not, however, +formally declare her independence and seek for +recognition as a new power. Buenos Aires, as well +as the confederation, looked forward to the time +when she would join the latter. Throughout +Urquiza's six-year term, the provinces prospered +amazingly. His administration of his province had +guaranteed the security of property, and now as +President he extended the blessings of peace to +much of the rest of the confederation. The new +bonds sat lightly on the outlying provinces of the +Andean regions, but Urquiza did not stretch his +constitutional authority to interfere with them, satisfied +to let them learn by degrees that the right of +local self-government guaranteed by the paper constitution +would be respected in practice. The freedom +of navigation caused unprecedented prosperity +in the river provinces. The towns on the Paraná +and Uruguay doubled in population during his six-years' +service. Corrientes had been continually +ravaged by the civil wars as lately as the last few +years of Rosas's reign, but the assurance of peace +was all that was needed to start the rebuilding of +the houses and the restocking of the ranches. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> +impulse in population, wealth, and commerce then +given to the river provinces has never since lost +its force. Foreign capital and immigration were +invited and the rivers and harbours carefully surveyed. +Rosario, in Santa Fé, was made a port of +entry and began a growth that has made it second +only to Buenos Aires itself.</p> + +<p>In Buenos Aires events were gradually shaping +themselves toward reuniting that province with the +confederation. A liberal provincial constitution +was adopted, and though the ruling bureaucracy +preferred the <i>statu quo</i>, fearing that their own fall +from power would follow any triumph of the provincials, +they were unable to hold the city in check. +It was too evident that the real interests of the city, +and even her future commercial supremacy, were +menaced by a continuance of the separation. In +1859 the situation became so strained that Buenos +Aires marched an army to attack the federal government. +Urquiza met it near the borders of Santa Fé +and Buenos Aires, and administered a defeat. He +advanced to the city and required his vanquished +opponents to agree to accept the constitution of +1853, and to consent that Buenos Aires should become +a member of the confederation. He yielded, +however, to the wishes of many Buenos Aireans +and consented in the interests of harmony, that the +question of the dismembering of the city from the +province and capitalising the former should remain +open for future determination. The essential justice +in all other respects of the constitution of 1853 had +long been admitted even in Buenos Aires and there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +remained no reason why the latter should not enter +the confederation once and for all. On the 21st of +October, 1860, General Bartolomé Mitre, Governor +of Buenos Aires, swore to the constitution, saying: +"This is the permanent organic law, the real expression +of the perpetual union of the members of the +Argentine family, so long separated by civil war and +bloodshed."</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, Urquiza's term had expired. Dr. +Derqui, his successor, was suspected of designs +against the autonomy of the provincial governments. +The assassination of the Governor of San Juan and +the succession of a member of an opposite faction, +was made the occasion for Federal intervention in +the affairs of that province. The government of +Buenos Aires protested and it became evident that +this untoward event was soon to disturb the peace +of the newly formed confederation. The Federal +Congress, under Derqui influence, refused to admit +the members from Buenos Aires. Mitre marched +out at the head of her forces and at the battle of +Pavon, September 17, 1861, he overthrew the provincial +forces. Buenos Aires remained mistress of +the situation. The governments of certain provinces +had been imposed on their people by the Derqui +administration, or they were obnoxious to the +triumphant Buenos Aires party. They were overthrown +and Derqui was deposed. Happily for the +Argentine, Mitre was a sincere patriot and, though +young, was moderate and conciliatory. Made president +of the republic as the representative of the +victorious Buenos Aireans, he set about the final<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> +reorganisation of constitutional government in a +spirit of unselfishness and with a foresight and skill +that greatly aided to save his country from the +sterilising anarchy of civil war.</p> + +<p>The accession of Mitre in 1862 marked the end of +the period of uncertainty. The government of the +Argentine Republic was now finally and definitely +established and fixed, after fifty-two years of conflict. +The constitution of 1853 was left unamended, +except that Buenos Aires became the seat of federal +government without being separated from its province +or ceasing to be the provincial capital. The +free international navigation of the rivers was not +interfered with, and Buenos Aires abandoned her +pretensions to special commercial privileges. She +was thenceforward more and more the centre of +gravitation and power for the whole republic, but +her influence came from legitimate natural causes +and was exercised within constitutional limits. The +autonomy of the provinces was not interfered with, +and it was no longer possible, even in the remotest +districts, for a caudillo to rally at his call the gauchos, +always ready for a raid, a campaign, or an +invasion.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-159.jpg" width="600" height="618" alt="MITRE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">BARTOLOMÉ MITRE.<br /> +[From a steel engraving.]</span> +</div> + +<p>Though the form of the federal government was +fixed and its theoretical supremacy has never since +been questioned, its real power at first was feeble. +Urquiza was master in the mesopotamian provinces, +and in case of need Mitre could count on little military +help except from his own province. The only +result of the battle of Pavon which was immediately +apparent was the shifting of the centre of power +from Urquiza's capital to Buenos Aires. Nevertheless, +henceforth the tendency was constantly toward +strengthening the bonds of union. Urquiza and the +other provincial governors showed no disposition to +attack the central authority, and in turn the latter +was careful to avoid useless aggressions against them. +The problem of reconciling provincial rights with the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>existence of an adequate federal government had at +last been solved. The nation passed on to a still +more difficult question,—the smooth and satisfactory +working of democratic representative institutions +in the absence of an effective participation in +public affairs on the part of the bulk of the population. +Elections have not carried the prestige of +being the expression of the majority will. The ruling +classes have been anxious enough to obey the +popular voice and to govern wisely, but people can +only gradually be trained into the habit of expressing +their will clearly and indisputably at regular +elections. The insignificant disturbances to public +order which have occurred since 1862 have been +indications of dissatisfaction with the imperfect detail +workings of the complicated system of ascertaining +the popular wishes, or hasty protests against +mistakes on the part of those in power. Never +have they endangered the Federal constitution nor +diverted the steady course of the nation's progress +in the art of self-government.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-1.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<h3>THE MODERN ARGENTINE</h3> + + +<p>General Mitre's administration is memorable +for the beginning of that tremendous +industrial development which in thirty years made +Argentina, in proportion to population, the greatest +exporting country in the world. Foreign capital +and immigration were chief factors in the transformation +that within a few decades changed an +isolated and industrially backward community into +a nation possessing all the appliances and luxuries +of the most advanced material civilisation.</p> + +<p>In 1865 circumstances forced Mitre into the Paraguayan +war. Lopez, the Paraguayan dictator, hated +the Buenos Aireans quite as much as he did the +Brazilians with whom he was constantly quarrelling, +and he was only awaiting a favourable opportunity +to vent his dislike on either or both. He counted +on the coolness that naturally existed between Urquiza +and Mitre to insure him the former's aid. +In 1864 Brazil intervened in the affairs of Uruguay +by assisting one of the parties in the civil war then +raging. Lopez regarded the action of Brazil as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> +endangering the balance of power in the Plate regions. +In retaliation he seized the Brazilian province +of Matto Grosso, which lay along the Paraguay north +of his own territory. Mitre wished to remain neutral, +although he had no sympathy with the brutal +despot, and had an understanding about Brazil's +action in Uruguay which safeguarded the interests +of Argentina. Lopez, however, insolently demanded +free passage across Argentine territory for +the troops which he wished to send against Brazil +and Uruguay. Mitre's refusal was followed by a +Paraguayan invasion, and national honour required +that this violation of territory be resented. Brazil +and the Flores faction in Uruguay welcomed the +alliance of Argentina. The Paraguayan invasion +was repulsed by their combined forces, and the allies +advanced up the Paraná against Lopez in his own +dominions. It was natural that Mitre should be +commander-in-chief of the allied armies, although +Brazil furnished the bulk of the troops and bore the +brunt of the expense. Urquiza disappointed Lopez +in refusing to revolt against Buenos Aires, and although +he took no great personal interest in the war +he co-operated in many ways with Mitre.</p> + +<p>The enormous expenditures of the Brazilian government +furnished a splendid cash market for Argentine +stock and produce, and the resulting profits +compensated for the pecuniary sacrifices involved. +In two years' fighting both the Argentine and the +Brazilian armies suffered tremendous losses on the +field and in the cholera hospitals. After the great +repulse at Curupayty in 1867 the number of Argen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>tine +troops was largely reduced. When the Brazilian +fleet finally forced the passage of the river, opening +the way to Asuncion, Mitre resigned the command +into the hands of the Brazilian general Caxias, and +the last two years of the war were carried on principally +by Brazilian troops. By the peace of 1870 +Argentina's title to certain valuable territory was +quieted, and she gained an important commercial advantage +by the opening of Paraguay to her trade. +Her commercial and industrial leadership in the +Plate valley has never since been endangered. Politically +also the indirect results were gratifying. +The tremendous sacrifices in men and money had +sickened the Brazilian government and people of +foreign complications. Thereafter, the emperor +pursued a policy of non-interference, which has left +to his Spanish neighbours a free hand among themselves. +With the withdrawal of the Brazilian troops +from Paraguay, the balance of political power began +slowly to pass from Rio to Buenos Aires.</p> + +<p>Sarmiento, the "schoolmaster president," succeeded +Mitre in 1868. His election is said to have +been the freest and most peaceful ever held in the +republic and to have represented as nearly as any +the will of the electors. The development of population, +wealth, and industry continued in increasing +geometrical proportion. During forty-five years +before 1857 the population had only a little more +than doubled; during the forty-five years since that +date, the increase has been four hundred and fifty +per cent. The yearly increment holds fairly steady +at four per cent., which is as large as that of any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> +country in the world. In 1869 the city of Buenos +Aires had one hundred and eighty thousand people, +and in 1902 it contained eight hundred and fifty +thousand. Immigration had begun to pour in at +the rate of twenty thousand per annum, and had +rapidly increased to over a hundred thousand, when +the great crisis of 1890 temporarily interrupted the +flow. The years from 1868 to 1872 were prosperous +over much of the civilised world, but nowhere more +so than in Argentina. Sarmiento's administration +was, however, characterised by the beginning of +that policy of governmental and commercial extravagance +which has so deeply mortgaged the future +of Argentina, and has repeatedly hampered the +legitimate development of this marvellously fertile +region. In the ten years prior to 1872 foreign +commerce doubled, but the foreign debt increased +fivefold.</p> + +<p>The last of the caudillos, Lopez Jordan of Entre +Rios, revolted in 1870 against Urquiza, who was +still governor of that province. The redoubtable +old patriot was captured by the rebels and assassinated. +In 1901 a monument was erected to his +memory in the city of Paraná, his old capital, and +the day of the unveiling was a national festival in +all the republic. The Federal government avenged +his death and suppressed the insurrection after an +obstinate, expensive, and bloody little war. Sarmiento's +administration was, however, not popular, +and the news that he had virtually determined to +name his successor created much dissatisfaction. +Mitre headed the opposition in the city, while in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +the provinces some of the discontented went so far +as to take up arms. Julio Roca, then a young +colonel, defeated them at Santa Rosa, and Sarmiento +was able to hand over +the reins of government to +Dr. Avellaneda without +any further serious opposition.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 336px;"> +<img src="images/illus-165.jpg" width="336" height="435" alt="JULIO ROCA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">JULIO ROCA.</span> +</div> + +<p>A commercial crisis was +beginning when the new +President took office in +1874. He initiated a +policy of retrenchment, +under which the government +managed to pay its +obligations and weather +the storm. General Roca +was made Minister of War and came into further +prominence as the conqueror of the Indians, who +had hitherto prevented white men from settling +on the vast and valuable southern pampas. In +1854, after the fall of Rosas, the Indians recovered +most of the territory from which he had driven +them twenty years before. Later, the frontier was +advanced very slowly, but in 1877 Alsina, one of the +most successful governors Buenos Aires ever had, +undertook a vigorous campaign. In the following +year General Roca threw the power of the Federal +government into this vastly important enterprise. +He carried the frontier south to the Rio Negro and +west to the Andes, attacking the Indians in their +fortresses—a policy which insured permanent white<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +domination. The ultimate consequences of opening +up to civilised settlement the immense territories +comprised in Roca's conquests cannot yet properly +be estimated. The vast region of Patagonia, that was +marked on the maps in our boyhood as an unclaimed +and uninhabitable arctic waste, has since been +added to Argentina as an indirect result of Roca's +campaign of 1878. Buenos Aires put in a claim for +the whole of the territory conquered from the Indians, +but the Federal statesmen refused to allow +one province to become well-nigh as large as all the +rest together. By a compromise her area was increased +to sixty-three thousand square miles, while +most of the new acquisition was divided into territories +under the direct administration of the Federal +government.</p> + +<p>As the time for the presidential election of 1880 +approached, political matters began to look ugly. +It was evident that Avellaneda intended to choose +his successor. Through the provincial governors, +the police, the army, the employees on the public +works, and the officials of all kinds he had easy +control of the election machinery. Even the most +scrupulous President often cannot prevent the exercise +of coercion in his name and without his knowledge. +The opposition in South America usually +refrain from voting: indeed, it is considered almost +indelicate for outsiders to interfere in a matter so +strictly official as an election. The privilege of voting +is not so highly prized and so jealously guarded +as in the United States and the northern countries +of Europe.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p> + +<p>Avellaneda and his adherents had fixed upon General +Roca as the next President. The principal +opposing candidate was Dr. Tejedor, governor of +Buenos Aires, who was supported by Mitre's party +and also by many of the other Buenos Aires party, +the "autonomists." The contest was really between +Buenos Aires and the provinces. General Roca was +strong with the army and with the country, but so +tremendously had Buenos Aires grown that the result +appeared doubtful. Her population, city and +province, had in 1880 reached six hundred and fifty +thousand,—more than a quarter of the total in the +whole Confederation. The next three provinces +put together did not equal her numbers and lagged +still farther behind in wealth and ability to concentrate +their forces.</p> + +<p>Radical counsels prevailed in Buenos Aires. Roca's +opponents, seeing that they were at a hopeless +disadvantage with the election machinery in Avellaneda's +hands, determined to use violence. In +June, 1880, the partisans of Tejedor rose against the +Federal government. The police and militia of +the city joined them and paraded the streets, while +the alarm flew to the country, and the troops of the +line began to concentrate outside the city. Presently +the President and his Cabinet fled for safety to the +Federal camp. For a few weeks there was some +skirmishing and much negotiating, and in one encounter +near the south end of the city a thousand +Buenos Aireans were killed. Finally, the two sides +came to an agreement by which the Roca party retained +substantially all that they had been contend<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>ing +for. The General succeeded to the Presidency +without further opposition, and the city of Buenos +Aires was detached from the province. The federalisation +of the great city was the last step in the process +of adaptation that had been going on ever since +the expulsion of the Spaniards. Political equilibrium +between the provinces and Buenos Aires had been +reached. Thenceforth the latter's direct predominance +was to be purely intellectual, commercial, and +social. For the privilege of being capital of the +republic, the city exchanged her provincial autonomy. +Buenos Aires province, as formerly constituted, +was the greatest menace to a peaceful federal +union. In an assembly where the rights and influence +of all the provinces were supposed to be equal, +the magnitude of Buenos Aires was a constant occasion +for the jealousy of her smaller sisters and for +aggressions on her own part. Deprived of the city, +the remainder of the province was not powerful +enough to be dangerous. Now that it is federalised, +the city itself proves to be the strongest tie binding +together the different parts of the Confederation.</p> + +<p>The greatest of all the waves of material prosperity +reached its culmination during Roca's first administration. +Business fairly boomed; foreign commerce +increased seventy-five per cent. from 1875 to 1885; +the exports of hides, cattle, wool, and wheat swelled +from year to year; the railroad mileage tripled in +ten years; the revenues mounted sixty per cent. in +five years; the use of the post-office, that excellent +measure of education, wealth, and higher national +energies, tripled. All danger of disturbances serious<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +enough to affect property rights had long since +passed; the provincial governors worked harmoniously +with the Federal authorities. A part of Roca's +system was to rest his power as chief executive on +the co-operation of the governors; the members of +Congress also bore somewhat the same relation to +the President. As a rule, a majority in Congress +supported his measures.</p> + +<p>In spite of present prosperity, dangers had been +inherited from past administrations. There were +weak spots in the political and financial structure +that had grown too rapidly to be altogether well +built. The people still lacked the hard and continued +training in business that older nations have +had, and the national temperament tended toward +a reckless optimism. European money lenders +stood ready to stimulate this tendency by offering +easy credit facilities in return for careless promises +of exaggerated interest rates. The medium of exchange +was a vastly inflated and fluctuating paper +currency. From the beginning Argentine rulers +had resorted to note issues to tide over their pecuniary +difficulties. When Rosas assumed power +in 1829 the paper dollar was worth fifteen cents, and +by 1846 he had driven it down to four cents. In +1866, Mitre's administration had established a new +arbitrary par at twenty-five paper dollars for one +gold dollar. Sarmiento's extravagances made suspension +necessary and sent gold to a premium. In +1883 President Roca remodelled the currency, issuing +new notes convertible into gold, and exchanging +them for the old paper at the rate of twenty-five for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +one. But his effort to contract and steady the circulating +medium excited protests from a community +that was growing rich in the rapid inflation of values. +Foreign money was being loaned to all sorts of +Argentine enterprises on a scale that, considering the +small population of the country, has never been +precedented anywhere. Railroads, ranches, commercial +houses, banks, land schemes, building enterprises, +were capitalised for the asking. The provincial +governments borrowed money recklessly, while interest +was guaranteed on new railroads, and charters +granted to all sorts of speculative enterprises. The +nation undertook to supply itself in a single decade +with the drainage works, the docks, the public buildings, +the parks, the railroads, that older countries +have needed a generation to provide. So much +capital was being fixed that the attempt at specie +resumption cramped the speculative world. Within +two years it was given up, and issues of paper money +resumed.</p> + +<p>General Roca retired from office in 1886, and was +succeeded by his brother-in-law, Juarez Celman. +The four years during which the latter remained in +office are memorable for reckless private and public +borrowing. The healthy activity of General Roca's +administration gave place to a mad fever of speculation. +Congress passed a national banking act, and +under its provisions banks of issue were established +in nearly every province. The paper circulation almost +quadrupled and the premium on gold doubled. +The Federal government followed the example set +by the provinces and municipalities, and burdened +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>the country with an indebtedness which has mortgaged +the future of the country for years to come. +Between 1885 and 1891 the foreign debt was increased +nearly threefold.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<img src="images/illus-171.jpg" width="1024" height="577" alt="GATEWAY OF THE CEMETERY AT BUENOS AIRES." title="" /> +<span class="caption">GATEWAY OF THE CEMETERY AT BUENOS AIRES.<br /> +[From a lithograph.]</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>During 1887 and 1888 few apprehensions of the +inevitable result of the inflation seem to have been +entertained. Up to the very day of the crash of +1889 the government cheerfully continued to borrow, +to plan magnificent public improvements, and +to build expensive railways. The public speculated +confidently in the mortgage scrip issued through the +provincial mortgage banks. Early in 1889 the government +began to have difficulty in meeting some of +the enormous obligations which it had undertaken. +Conservative people became apprehensive; the independent +press raised a warning voice. A ministerial +crisis was followed by a panic in the Exchange. +The new Secretary of the Treasury, in an effort to +prevent further depreciation of the currency, diverted +the redemption fund held by the government +for bank issues. The currency dropped with sickening +rapidity; the bubble companies collapsed; the +public realised that many of the banks were unable +to meet their obligations.</p> + +<p>At this crisis public alarm and indignation found +a vent in the formation of a revolutionary society, +called the Civic Union, which was pledged to overthrow +President Celman. On July 26, 1890, disturbances +began and there was a little fighting in the +streets. Police and troops, however, put no spirit +into their efforts to suppress the rioters. The President's +best friends urged him to resign, and Congress<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +passed a formal memorial to that effect. There was +nothing for him to do but to obey the manifest wish +of the people; he handed in his resignation and the +Vice-President, Dr. Carlos Pellegrini, peacefully succeeded +him.</p> + +<p>The situation went from bad to worse; in 1891 +the currency dropped to twenty-three cents on the +dollar, the banks failed, and the laws for collection +of debts were suspended for two months. The +most which Dr. Pellegrini could hope to do was to +hold things together until the general election should +be held fifteen months later. No human wisdom +could devise measures that would give immediate +prosperity, and the public would be satisfied with +nothing less. Dr. Pellegrini had to wait until later +years for a proper appreciation of his labours. The +other two great national figures were General Roca +and General Mitre. The first had the prestige of his +strong and successful administration; he enjoyed the +confidence of the army, and he was the head of the +great Nationalist party which was especially powerful +in the provinces. General Mitre, the most eminent +citizen of Buenos Aires, and in a way the living +embodiment of the previous forty years of national +history, had inevitably been selected as chief of the +Civic Union. He had therefore led the movement +through which the public opinion of the capital had +overthrown Celman.</p> + +<p>Mitre and Roca had co-operated in securing a +peaceful transfer of the government from Celman to +Pellegrini. Roca was inclined to favour Mitre for +the presidency, but it soon became evident that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> +latter could not control the more radical members +of the Civic Union, and that his candidacy would +not reconcile all parties. February 19, 1891, an +attempt to assassinate Roca was perpetrated in the +streets of Buenos Aires. The spirit of mutiny grew +alarmingly, and a state of siege was proclaimed; the +Civic Union split into warring camps; trouble broke +out in Cordoba, and successful revolutions overthrew +the legal state governments in Catamarca and +Santiago del Estero. Mitre and Roca formally withdrew +from active political life in the hope that this +might placate the dissident politicians.</p> + +<p>The candidate fixed upon by the wing of Nationals +who adhered to Roca, and the moderates of the Civic +Union led by Mitre, was Doctor Luiz Saenz Peña, +ex-Justice of the Supreme Court. The Pellegrini +government gave him its earnest support, and charges +were made by the Radicals that their votes would +be forcibly suppressed in the election of October, +1891. They determined to anticipate violence with +violence, but, on the eve of the election in October, +1891, their leaders were imprisoned and a state of +siege declared. Saenz Peña was elected, but the +Radicals began to intrigue to obtain control of the +provincial governments, which would enable them +to force his resignation or his compliance with their +wishes. Serious trouble broke out early in 1892 in +the province of Corrientes, with which the Buenos +Aires radicals openly sympathised. The new President +quickly cut loose from the Roca wing of the +Nationalist party and allied himself closely with the +moderate Civic Unionists, now usually called "Mit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>ristas." +The President's own son, who had been a +candidate against him, headed the faction of the +Nationalist party that had renounced Roca's leadership. +Revolutionary movements against the governors +who belonged to the Roca faction began in +several provinces. In February there were armed +protests in Santa Fé against a new wheat tax; a revolt +broke out in Catamarca in April; by July the +Saenz Peña administration was in the gravest difficulties. +San Luiz and Santa Fé rebelled, and in +August Salta and Tucuman followed. It was manifest +that the President was not strong enough to +hold down the selfish factions who saw in the general +dissatisfaction and financial distress only an opportunity +to get into office by force of arms.</p> + +<p>Congress remained neutral until it became evident +that no accommodation could be reached between +the President and his opponents, and that the latter +would press on to overthrowing the government +and probably precipitate a serious civil war. In this +crisis, however, the majority agreed to laws which +authorised armed Federal intervention in the troubles +in San Luiz and Santa Fé. But in September the +national troops themselves showed symptoms of +mutiny and by this time most of the provinces +were convulsed by revolutionary movements which +the central government was manifestly not strong +enough to suppress or control.</p> + +<p>On September 25th, General Roca took command +of the army; the most dangerous radical leaders in +Buenos Aires were thrown into prison; and on October +1st he captured Rosario, the second city of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> +Republic, and the chief place in Santa Fé, which +for months had been in the hands of revolutionists. +This was a beginning of the end of the troubles +that menaced public order. Six million dollars had +been expended by the government in fruitless +marchings to and fro of troops, but no serious harm +had been done. The scene of the contest between +the ambitious factions was transferred to Congress, +the Cabinet, and the Press. Throughout 1893 and +1894 the President struggled with his factional and +financial difficulties, and gradually lost control of +Congress and prestige in the country.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, commercial liquidation was proceeding +normally and, as always, painfully. The great +Provincial Mortgage Bank, through the agency of +which a vast amount of the land scrip had been issued +in the Celman days, was granted a moratorium +for five years. Other actual bankruptcies were +legally admitted and enforced. The mortgage scrip +payable in gold was replaced by currency obligations. +The government had proved unequal to the +task of balancing its own receipts and expenses. +Taxes were increased until rebellion seemed imminent, +but expenditures still outran them. The deficits +mounted in spite of the efforts toward economy +and the returning prosperity of the business world. +The boundary dispute with Chile had assumed a +threatening aspect; war seemed imminent, and the +military and naval estimates were largely increased. +In January, 1895, President Saenz Peña called an +extra session of Congress to vote supplies for the +expected war with Chile and to consider the financial<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +proposals of the government. Congress demanded +that political grievances should be redressed. The +President had been persecuting the army officers +who had been implicated in the revolutionary disturbances, +and a vast majority of Congress insisted +that a complete amnesty be granted to all political +offenders. When the President refused, the Cabinet +resigned in a body and Congress and the opposition +brought every pressure to bear. It was soon evident +that Congress must win, and on January 22, +1895, the President resigned.</p> + +<p>The Vice-President, Doctor Uriburu, succeeded +for the unexpired period of three years, during +which little progress was made toward a settlement +of the nation's financial difficulties. Symptoms of +renewed extravagance appeared. In 1897, the issuance +of $10,000,000 of mortgage scrip was authorised, +and the city of Buenos Aires received permission +to borrow $5,000,000. Work on the great docks +of Buenos Aires, costing $35,000,000, was pushed +to completion, and in February the paper dollars +dropped back to 33 cents, while the deficit for the +year was over $20,000,000.</p> + +<p>In July, 1897, General Roca was nominated for +the Presidency by the Convention of the National +party, with Dr. Pellegrini in the chair. There was +no real opposition to his election. Again and again +during a quarter of a century he had proved himself +able to cope with the most difficult situations which +had arisen in Argentine affairs. In 1890, his firmness +and adroitness had saved the country from the +agony of a useless political upheaval after the failure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> +of the Celman administration. During the anxious +months that followed the panic, his generosity had +secured a co-operation of the moderates of Buenos +Aires with his own immediate followers in holding +back the Radicals and revolutionists in check. During +the critical year of 1892, the outbreaks against +the Saenz Peña administration increased in violence +until it seemed as if the country would be convulsed +with a serious civil war, but when Roca stepped in +the tide of disorganisation turned, and his firm hand +re-established the authority of the Federal government. +His prestige and his personality enabled him +to count upon an obedience from the chiefs of the +provincial factions which was of inestimable value. +He possessed those rare and indispensable qualities +which make a man a centre around which other men +can rally. He had built up the one really national +party in the country and was faithful to his friends +and his adherents, but sufficiently broad-minded to +combine with other parties when the interests of the +whole country demanded it.</p> + +<p>General Roca entered upon his second presidential +term in the beginning of 1898. One of his first acts +was to intervene in Buenos Aires province and put +an end to a deadlock between the governor and the +Provincial Assembly. The boundary dispute with +Chile, a question which, in spite of the earnest desire +of both governments for peace, might at any +time precipitate a ruinous war, was submitted for +settlement by arbitration. W. J. Buchanan, the +United States Minister at Buenos Aires, named as +arbitrator for the northern frontier, quickly an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>nounced +a decision which was promptly accepted by +both parties. The more complicated southern frontier +could not so easily be prepared for submission; +a serious misunderstanding arose, and both countries +felt compelled to spend large sums for armaments +which they knew they could ill afford. +Happily, a decision was at last rendered in 1902. +No question now remains open which is likely to +involve the external peace of Argentina.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/illus-179.jpg" width="800" height="466" alt="A RIVER ROAD IN ARGENTINA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A RIVER ROAD IN ARGENTINA.<br /> +[From a lithograph.]</span> +</div> + +<p>Internal peace has not been menaced during General +Roca's term. The commercial situation of the +country has vastly improved. Immigration, which +had largely ceased after 1890, has again risen to +over a hundred thousand a year. Wheat exports +rose from 4,000,000 bushels in 1897 to 61,000,000 +in 1900. The total exports in 1899 were $185,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>000,000, +twice as great per capita as the record +export of the United States. There have been no +issues of paper money, and the value of the currency +has risen to forty cents. The government has +established a new artificial par at a little more than +this sum, and has begun accumulating a gold reserve. +A resumption of specie payments is soon expected.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless the chief difficulties and preoccupations +of the Roca administration have been with +financial questions. A deficit of $70,000,000 had +accumulated in the few years before 1898, and the interest +on the immense public debt makes an equilibrium in +the budget almost impossible. Many of the +provincial governments have defaulted, and the +national government has had to carry their burdens +in addition to its own, to satisfy clamorous foreign +creditors. In 1901 it was proposed to unify the debt, +refunding the whole at a lower rate of interest, and +specifically pledging certain sources of public income. +This plan had the approval of the government, but +the national pride was touched by the latter feature. +The populace could not bear the idea of giving a +sort of mortgage on the country. The passage of +the bill by Congress was met with so many demonstrations +of popular disapproval that it was abandoned. +This change of front was accompanied by +the formation of an alliance between the followers +of General Mitre and those of General Roca.</p> + +<p>The industrial impetus already acquired by the +Argentine Republic is sufficient to carry it over all +obstacles, and it seems assured that there will be a +rapid settlement of the whole of this immense and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> +fertile plain. Here nature has done everything to +make communication easy, and a temperate climate +insures crops suited to modern European civilisation. +Two grave perils have so far been encountered—namely, +a tendency toward political disintegration +and an abuse of the taxing power. The former is +now remote, for since the railways began to concentrate +wealth and influence at Buenos Aires, and to +destroy the prestige and political power of the provincial +capitals, the national structure built by the +patriots of 1853 has stood firmer each year.</p> + +<p>The Argentine has had a bitter lesson of the evils +of governmental extravagance, and still groans under +the burden of a debt which seems disproportionately +heavy, but the growth of population and wealth will +soon overtake it, and the very difficulties of meeting +interest are the cause of an economy in administration, +of which the good effects will be felt long after +the debt itself has been reduced to a reasonable per +capita. A nation is in the process of formation +in the Plate valley whose material greatness is certain, +and whose moral and intellectual characteristics +will have the widest influence on the rest of South +America.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-b.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="bbt"> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="PARAGUAY" id="PARAGUAY"></a>PARAGUAY</h1> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-4.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>PARAGUAY UNTIL 1632</h3> + + +<p>The beginnings of the settlements in Paraguay +have been sketched in the introductory chapter +on the discoveries and conquest. In 1526, +Cabot, searching to find a route to the gold and +silver mines of the centre of the continent, penetrated +as far as the site of the present city of Asuncion. +He had already, in the exploration of the +Upper Paraná, skirted the southern and eastern +boundary of what has since become the country of +Paraguay. Ten years later the exhausted and discouraged +remnants of Mendoza's great expedition +sought rest and refuge among the peaceful agricultural +tribes of this region. Under Domingos Irala, +these six hundred surviving Spanish adventurers +founded Asuncion in 1536, the first settlement of +the valley of the Plate. They reduced the Indians +to a mild slavery, compelling them to build houses, +perform menial services, and cultivate the soil. The +country was divided into great tracts called "encomiendas," +which, with the Indians that inhabited +them, were distributed among the settlers. Few<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> +women had been able to follow Mendoza's expedition, +so the Spaniards of Asuncion took wives from +among the Indians. Subsequent immigration was +small, and the proportion of Spanish blood has +always been inconsiderable, compared with the +number of aborigines. The children of the marriages +between the Spanish conquerors and Indian +women were proud of their white descent. The +superior strain of blood easily dominated, and the +mixed Paraguayan Creoles became Spaniards to all +intents and purposes. Spaniards and Creoles, however, +learned the Indian language; Guarany rather +than Spanish became, and has remained, the most +usual method of communication.</p> + +<p>The Spaniards of Asuncion were turbulent and +disinclined to submit to authority. They paid scant +respect to the adelantados, whom the Castilian king +sent out one after another as feudal proprietors. +Until his death Irala was the most influential man +in the colony, but his power rested on his own +energy and capacity, and on the fear and respect in +which he was held by his companions, more than on +the royal commission that finally could not be withheld +from him.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-187.jpg" width="1024" height="668" alt="ASUNCION." title="" /> +<span class="caption">ASUNCION.</span> +</div> + +<p>Across the river from Asuncion stretched away to +the west the vast and swampy plains of the great +Chaco. It was inhabited by wandering tribes of +Indians whom the Spaniards could not subdue. +They fled before the expeditions like scared wild +beasts, only to turn and mercilessly massacre every +man when a chance was offered for ambush or surprise. +To the east of the Paraguay River the coun<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>try +was dry, rolling, and extremely fertile. Though +covered with magnificent forests it was easily penetrable +all the way across to the Paraná. Its inhabitants +were the docile Guaranies, who knew something +of agriculture and in whose villages considerable +stores of food were to be found. The population +was dense for savages, but they had no political or +military organisation. Divided into small tribes +which did not co-operate, they rendered little respect +or obedience to their chiefs. Under these +conditions Spanish authority rapidly spread over +central and southern Paraguay. Before Irala died, +in 1557, the settlers had reached the Paraná on the +western boundary and founded settlements nearly +as far north as the Grand Cataract.</p> + +<p>Shortly afterwards, the Creoles of Asuncion began +their expeditions to the South. By 1580 they +controlled the Paraná River from its confluence with +the Paraguay to the ocean, had established Santa +Fé and Buenos Aires on its right bank, and opened +up the southern pampa. The pastoral provinces on +the Lower Paraná were slowly peopled. A large +proportion of the energetic Paraguayan Creoles preferred +the semi-nomadic life of the plains to indolence +among their Indian slaves in the tropical forests +of Paraguay. The two regions were distinct in climate, +habits of life, social and industrial organisation. +They became separated in interests and soon +were to be divided politically. Though, until 1619, +the whole province continued to bear the name of +Paraguay, the usual residence of the governor was +Buenos Aires. Asuncion was often forced to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> +content with a lieutenant-governor, and was fast +relegated to the position of a neglected and isolated +district.</p> + +<p>In the days of the Spanish conquest, Franciscan +monks were the priests who most often accompanied +the expeditions, and they took the most prominent +part in the earliest establishment of religion. The +members of this Order, however, with a few notable +exceptions, took no special interest in the evangelisation +of the aborigines. On the contrary, they +were as fierce as the soldiers themselves in their +cruelties to the poor Indians. The shouts of a +Franciscan monk set on Pizarro's ruffians to the +slaughter of the Incas that surrounded Atahualpa. +Those that came to Paraguay preferred to live in +the towns, and their conduct toward the Indians +differed little from that of the lay Spaniards. It +was the genius of Ignatius Loyola that conceived +and perfected a machine able to carry Christianity +and civilisation to these remote and inaccessible +peoples and regions. Within a few years after its +foundation, the Society of Jesus turned its attention +to the evangelisation of South America; in 1550 the +Jesuit Fathers began their work in Brazil. Their successes +and failures in that country had little relation +with their work in Spanish South America. It is curious, +however, that their most successful early work +in Brazil should have been done in São Paulo, on the +extreme eastern border of the wide plateau which +drains to the west into the Paraná. For a decade +or two after 1550, they laboured hard to gather the +Indians of that region into villages, to teach them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +Christianity, and protect them against the tyrannies +and exactions of the Portuguese settlers. The contest +was unequal; the Jesuits were not long able to +prevent the enslavement of their proselytes. The +Paulistas destroyed the Jesuit missions in their +neighbourhood and became the most expert in Indian +warfare and the most terrible foes of the Jesuit +system of all the colonists of South America. Their +determined opposition was the most potent cause +in preventing the subjection of South America to a +theocratic system of government.</p> + +<p>About 1586 the Jesuit Fathers entered Paraguay +for the purpose of beginning the evangelisation of +the Indians of the Plate valley. They established +a school in Asuncion and pushed out on foot into +the remoter districts. Their success was phenomenal. +They spared no pains to learn the language of the +savages so that they might teach them in their own +tongue. They approached them with kindness and +benevolence showing in every gesture. They availed +themselves of the Indians' love of bright colours and +showy processions. They went unarmed and alone, +offering useful and attractive presents, conforming +to savage customs and prejudices, and imposing on +the vivid savage imagination with the pomp of +Catholic worship. They taught their savage pupils +how to cultivate the ground to get greater results, +how to save themselves unnecessary labour, and how +to live comfortably. They persuaded them to +gather into towns, where they built comfortable +houses and tight warehouses, while the men cultivated +the soil and the women spun and wove cotton.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></p> + +<p>The Jesuits came almost immediately into conflict +with the interests of the Spanish colonists. +They were welcomed at first, because they were expected +to lend themselves to the enslavement of the +Indians. When their real purposes were discovered +feeling against them rose high. The Creoles clearly +saw that it was going to be far more difficult to extend +their power over the Indians gathered together +in villages under Jesuit protection than over +unorganised and friendless bands of unconverted +savages.</p> + +<p>Before 1610 the number of Jesuits that had come +to Paraguay was very small. Among the first was +the Father named Thomas Fields, a Scotchman. +As a matter of fact, the Jesuits were recruited from +all the nations of Europe and under their military +system had to go wherever they might be sent. +English, Irish, and German names, as well as Spanish, +are to be found in the lists of Jesuits who +laboured in Paraguay.</p> + +<p>In 1608 Philip III. of Spain attended to the complaints +that came to him through the powerful chiefs +of the Order of the indifference and opposition +shown by the settlers and colonial authorities, and +gave his royal and official sanction to the Jesuit +conversion of the Indians along the Upper Paraná. +By this time the Fathers had penetrated across to +the Paraná and had followed up that stream far +north of the Grand Cataract in latitude 24°, which +marks the northern boundary of Paraguay proper. +It is hard to understand how they overcame the +difficulties of travelling. To this day it is well-nigh<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> +impossible to reach the Grand Cataract, and years +pass without that wonder of nature's being seen by +the eyes of civilised man. No part of the world, +outside the Arctic regions, is less accessible than the +Paraná above the Grand Cataract. Yet these heroic +priests made that region the principal theatre of +their operations in the early years of the seventeenth +century. The territory is now all Brazilian,—the +boundaries of that republic extend on the east bank +of the Paraná south nearly to the twenty-sixth degree +and on the west bank to the twenty-fourth. +The rivers Paranapanema and Ivahy are great +tributaries coming down from the east between the +twenty-second and twenty-third degrees, and draining +a vast extent of the plateau that extends to the +Brazilian coast mountains between Curitiba and São +Paulo, and on their banks the Jesuits established +their principal missions.</p> + +<p>In those days there were no clearly defined boundaries +between the Portuguese and Spanish dominions. +From 1580 to 1640 the king of Spain was +also monarch of Portugal. The Jesuits held his +royal letters patent for the conversion of the Indians +of the province of Guayrá—the name which this remote +region bore. They had no reason to anticipate +that they would be accused of being invaders of +Portuguese territory, or that they would be interfered +with by any Portuguese subjects of the Spanish +Crown. The nearest Portuguese settlement was at +São Paulo, from which Guayrá could be reached +only by the long and tedious descent of the Tieté +River to its confluence with the Paraná, and thence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +down that river to the Ivahy. Months would be +necessary to make such a journey, great difficulties +encountered with waterfalls and rapids, and great +privations from want of food in the vast uninhabited +regions on the route.</p> + +<p>The first Jesuits to arrive after the granting of +formal authorisation by the Spanish king were two +Italians. They left Asuncion October 10, 1609, and +it took them five months of incessant travelling to +reach the Paranapanema. The work already done +there by the earlier Fathers had borne some fruit. +The Indians were prepared for the coming of the new +missionaries and readily gathered into the towns +which they founded in rapid succession. For the +first few years all went well, and within a very short +time they claimed to have at least forty thousand +souls under their guidance. In 1614 there were 119 +Jesuits in Paraguay and Guayrá, and the work +of evangelising and reducing to obedience the +whole Guarany population of the Paraná valley +went on apace. For twenty years these Guayrá +missions spread and prospered, while to the east and +south the Jesuits acquired more and more influence +with the Indians in Paraguay proper, and more and +more hemmed in the Creoles of Asuncion.</p> + +<p>In 1629 a thunderbolt burst upon Guayrá out of +a clear sky. The Portuguese from São Paulo appeared +before the Mission of San Antonio and destroyed +it utterly, burning the church and houses +and driving off the Indians as slaves. Other missions +shortly suffered the same fate, and within the +short space of three years the towns had been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +sacked, most of the inhabitants of the region carried +off or killed, and the remnants had fled down the +river under the leadership of the Fathers. The +Paulistas were animated by motives, some good, +some bad. Primarily they wished to capture slaves. +They hated the Jesuits and had themselves suffered +from the latter's system of segregating the aborigines. +Only a few decades before, their fathers +had destroyed the Jesuit missions near São Paulo, +and they were determined not to permit themselves +to be hemmed in and crowded out by Indians ruled +and protected by Jesuits. They believed in the doctrine +of "Brazil for the White Brazilians," and they +regarded the Jesuits and their neophytes as natural +enemies and fair prey. The sentiment of nationality +also animated them. As descendants of Portuguese +they hated the Spaniards and their rule. Their allegiance +to the Spanish dynasty that had usurped +the crown of Portugal sat lightly. The Jesuits came +by way of Asuncion, their communications were +with the Spanish authorities, and most of them were +Spaniards. The Paulistas, as Portuguese, viewed +with alarm a rapid spread of Spanish ecclesiastics +up the Paraná valley, which threatened soon to +reach their own neighbourhood. Avarice, love of +adventure, race pride, patriotism, hatred of priestly +domination, all co-operated to push them on to undertaking +these memorable expeditions.</p> + +<p>The great extension of the Jesuits over the northern +and eastern regions of the Paraná valley occurred +during the period when Hernandarias was +the dominant figure of the Plate. Creole though he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +was, this remarkable man was a friend to the Indian +and to the missionary work of the Jesuits. His aid +and encouragement in 1609 were essential to the +latter's success, for he might easily have nullified the +effect of the royal permission to evangelise Guayrá, +a formal document that would have been of little +value against the delays and excuses of an unwilling +governor aided by the jealous people. After his +first term as governor at Buenos Aires, the Spanish +government determined to put a stop to the more +flagrant of the abuses practised against the savages +and created the office of "Protector of the Indians." +Hernandarias was named to fill it, and carried out his +instructions in a moderate spirit. He understood +the country and the situation of the colony well, +and did not undertake to abolish Indian slavery. In +that tropical climate the whites will not labour in +the fields so long as there are Indians who can be +forced to work, and the Spaniards still regarded the +Indian as little better than an animal.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, Hernandarias was too intelligent +not to see that there must be restraints on the +cruelties and exactions of the Creoles if the Indians +of Paraguay were to be saved from the extermination +that had been the fate of the Haytians a century +before. The outcome was, that though a new +code of laws was promulgated by the impracticable +Spanish king, which forbade any further enslavement +of the aborigines, its provisions were largely disregarded. +At the same time, however, the Indians +acquired a legal status, and their condition was gradually +improved until it became not much worse than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> +that of the contemporaneous European peasantry. +The Jesuits were guaranteed against interference +and allowed to go out into the remoter wilderness +and give to the yet unslaved inhabitants the invaluable +protection of membership in their missions.</p> + +<p>In 1619 the natural and commercial division between +Paraguay proper and the rest of the province +was officially recognised. The region between the +Paraguay and the Paraná rivers was made a separate +province, directly dependent upon the Viceroy at +Lima and the Audiencia at Charcas in Bolivia. It +included officially the Jesuit missions south-east of +the Paraná as well as the present territory of Paraguay.</p> + +<p>When the Paulistas began their terrible attacks on +the Guayrá missions in 1629, the governor of Paraguay +refused to send any assistance to the Jesuits. +The latter charged him with a corrupt understanding +with the invaders, by which he was to share in the +profits of the slaves sold. The Order had agreed +with the Spanish government not to put any arms +into the hands of the Indians, so the latter were defenceless +against the Paulistas, who attacked musket +in hand. The Creoles and Spaniards in Asuncion +resented more and more the presence and power of +the Jesuits, and viewed with ill-concealed satisfaction +the misfortunes that now overwhelmed the priests. +The governor, in declining to send help, was only +carrying out the wishes of the people around him. +Had the number of whites in Paraguay not been so +very small the Jesuits might have been expelled as +they were in São Paulo.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-2.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>THE JESUIT REPUBLIC AND COLONIAL PARAGUAY</h3> + + +<p>We have no accounts of the Jesuit missions in +Guayrá, or of the tragedy of their destruction, +except those that were written by the Fathers +themselves. These are filled with manifest exaggerations +and marred by omissions which we have +few means of correcting. Nevertheless, the bold +outlines of a story that for bravery, pathos, and devotion +rivals any ever told are clear and indisputable. +Within such a short period as twenty years the +Jesuits had not succeeded in training the Guayrá +Indians to any very high degree of civilisation. +They complain that the Indians were still prone to +return to the worship of their devils. Nevertheless, +the massive walls of churches which have survived +the devastation wrought by three centuries of tropical +rains bear witness that the Jesuits had gathered +together a multitude of people and had taught them +a measure of skilled labour.</p> + +<p>Of the completeness of the victory of the Paulistas +there is no doubt. Within three years, tens of +thousands of Indians were carried off to São Paulo,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> +and hardly a town was left standing in the province +of Guayrá. Father Montoya, chief Jesuit, has left +an account of the Hegira which he led down the +river. Though he is silent as to the part he took +himself, it is hard to read his pages and not give him +a place among the world's great heroes. Twelve +thousand Indians of every sex and age assembled +on the Paranapanema with the few belongings +which they had been able to bring from the homes +that they were forced to abandon. The Paulistas +were daily expected to return, and the only hope of +escape was to float down the river and get beyond +the Grand Cataract of the Paraná. The journey to +the beginning of the falls was made without any +great losses; there the difficulties began. Ninety +miles of falls and rapids intervene between navigable +water above and below the Grand Cataract. Across +the river valley extends a mountain chain with +slopes rugged and covered with dense vegetation. +The river divides into various channels, and the sides +of the gorges are clothed in cane-brakes and tangled +forests through which a path had to be cut with +machetes. These poor Jesuits and their thousands +of scared, patient Indians had no boats awaiting +them at the foot of the falls, so they had to continue +their dreary passage through the gorges and +cane-brakes, where wild Indians lay in ambush with +poisoned arrows, until at last a place was reached +where canoes could be built. Still they struggled +on, the indomitable Jesuits taking every precaution. +Though out of immediate danger from the Paulistas +when they had passed the cataract, the Spaniards on +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>the right bank below were hardly less to be feared. +They were waiting on the shore of the Paraná for +news of the fugitives in order to pounce on them and +make a rich haul of slaves. The provisions were +exhausted, but the Jesuits dared not apply for help +to the Creoles. Fever broke out and, sick and starving, +the devoted Jesuits and their uncomplaining +followers worked away on their boats and rafts. +At last they got them ready, and, slipping past the +Spanish settlements in the night, they finally reached +some small Jesuit missions near the mouth of the +Iguassú, five hundred miles from their starting-point.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<img src="images/illus-199.jpg" width="1024" height="667" alt="FALLS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">GUAYRÁ FALLS.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>The Jesuits resolved to evacuate Guayrá completely +and to build up their power anew in the +country between the Paraná and the Uruguay. +Within the next few years they had occupied the +country that is now the Argentine Territory of the +missions. This tract lay directly across the Paraná, +from that part of Paraguay proper in which the +Jesuits were most powerful, to the other side of +the Uruguay, where was a fertile territory which +proved an excellent field for the extension of the +settlement. Before many years these missions +stretched in a broad band from the centre of Paraguay +three hundred miles to the south-east; they +dominated southern Paraguay and half the present +Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul with the +country that lies between, while their towns lined +both banks of the Upper Uruguay and the Middle +Paraná, cutting off the Creoles from extending their +settlements up either of these great rivers.</p> + +<p>Now that the priests had concentrated their forces<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +so near, the alarm of the Creoles became acute. +The Jesuits managed to obtain the dismissal of the +governor who had refused to send them aid when +they were attacked by the Paulistas and were driven +from Guayrá, but his successor also became a partisan +of the Creoles as soon as he reached Asuncion. +He visited the missions near the river Paraná and +ordered that they be secularised on the ground that +these regions had already been subjected by Spanish +arms before its occupation by the priests. But the +Jesuits were good lawyers and had powerful friends +at every Court, so the governor was forced to reverse +his action.</p> + +<p>The next governor helped to make the Jesuits +secure from Paulista interference below the Grand +Cataract, by defeating an important expedition +which had reached the new missions. The Paulistas +did not confine their aggressions to the missions, +but alarmed the Spanish Creoles themselves by penetrating +west of the Paraná into Paraguay proper. +Even Asuncion did not feel safe for a time. The +Jesuits had now begun to arm and drill the Indians. +Though the Paulistas made expeditions from time +to time, and the Spanish and Jesuit frontier settlements +were frequently aroused by the news of a +bloody raid and of the rapid depredations of a band +of these dreaded marauders, there was never again +such wholesale destruction as had taken place in +Guayrá. The frontiers of the Spanish and Portuguese +peoples on the Paraná remain to this day +substantially as they were fixed by the Paulista +expeditions of 1630 to 1640.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p> + +<p>In their conflict with the Jesuits, the Creoles +shortly received a valuable reinforcement in Bishop +Cardenas, a very able and energetic prelate, and a +man gifted as a ruler and statesman. Born in the +city of Charcas, on the Bolivian plateau, he was a +Creole of the Creoles. He became a great missionary +and evangelist throughout Upper Peru and +Tucuman, acquiring wonderful fame and popularity +by his eloquence. In spite of the fact that he was +a Creole, he was immensely popular among the Indians, +and seems to have been a natural leader of +both branches of the native population. He bitterly +hated the Jesuits. As a member of the rival Franciscan +Order, his professional jealousy was aroused +by their success, and his Creole prejudices were +outraged by their efforts to prevent the extension +of white power among the aborigines.</p> + +<p>By sheer force of ability and eloquence, he rose +into great prominence in southern Spanish America, +and was rewarded for his successful labours in Tucuman +by being appointed Bishop of Paraguay. +There the Creoles accepted him as their leader, and +he soon became the dominant figure in the community. +He quarrelled repeatedly with the governor, +but such was his force of character, and the +skill with which he took advantage of the superstitious +reverence for his apostolic office, that he +invariably achieved his ends. Once the governor, +at the head of a file of soldiers, presented himself at +the bishop's door to arrest a fugitive whom the +bishop had undertaken to protect. When the door +was opened there stood the dauntless priest in full<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> +canonicals, defying the governor to cross his threshold. +He excommunicated the governor and every +soldier who had dared take part in this affront to +his dignity, and, like Hildebrand, was only appeased +when the governor had begged for pardon on his +knees.</p> + +<p>When the governor died, Bishop Cardenas succeeded +<i>ad interim</i>. His popularity and prestige +were unbounded, and his audacity and courage unprecedented. +Uniting in himself the religious, civil, +and popular power, he controlled the forces of the +community more completely than any one who had +preceded him. His great work was the humiliation +and destruction of the Jesuits. He hampered their +insidious spread on the hither side of the Paraná, +and attempted the secularisation of many of their +missions. In 1649 he took the audacious step of +issuing a decree expelling all the members of the +Society of Jesus, and he actually drove the Fathers +from their churches and schools in Asuncion itself. +The Jesuits appealed to the Viceroy, and a governor +was sent out to depose him.</p> + +<p>Twenty years had now elapsed since the Jesuits +had armed the Mission Indians and organised them +into an efficient militia. An army was, therefore, +ready to the new governor's hand. The Creoles of +western Paraguay were riotous and tumultuous, +but in that tropical climate they had lost much of +the military capacity of their Spanish ancestors. +The number of people of Spanish descent was small +and while the secular Indians made admirable soldiers +when disciplined and well led, they had never been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> +organised by the Creoles for serious warfare. The +military system of the Jesuits immediately proved +its superiority. Aided by the prestige of his Viceregal +commission, the new governor at the head +of the Jesuit army quickly overcame the hastily +gathered levies of the Bishop.</p> + +<p>For the next one hundred and twenty years the +Jesuits maintained their system in south-eastern +Paraguay and the regions on both banks of the +Paraná and the Upper Uruguay. Until 1728 their +territory was nominally under the jurisdiction of +the governor of Asuncion. Really, however, it was +an independent republic ruled by a superior whose +capital was at Candelaria, and who was actually +responsible to no one except his General at Rome +and the authorities at Madrid. In the secular part +of Paraguay, the formerly turbulent and secular +Creoles sank more and more into the indifference +characteristic of the Indians who surrounded them. +Early in the eighteenth century a governor named +Antequera, whom the Viceregal authorities attempted +to depose, was forcibly maintained for a +time by the Paraguayan Creoles—probably the +earliest instance of an important movement toward +independence which occurred in South America. +The Paraguayans only yielded when a compromise +was offered. The old ferocity which the original +conquerors had felt against the Indians gave place +gradually to kindlier sentiments. From slaves the +Indians rose into serfs and then into peasants, living +on good terms with the proprietors of their lands, +and not more oppressed by Spanish officials than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +the whites themselves. Secular Paraguay, shut in +on the west by the impenetrable Chaco with its +hordes of dreaded wild Indians, and on the east by +the Jesuit territory, could not expand. Indeed the +impulse toward conquest and exploration which so +distinguished the Paraguayan Creoles in the latter +part of the sixteenth century, had completely died +out as early as the middle of the seventeenth century.</p> + +<p>In 1728, the Jesuit republic was formally detached +from the jurisdiction of Paraguay and placed under +that of the government of Buenos Aires. The missions +were all situated on or near the banks of the +Upper Paraná and Uruguay, and their line of communication +with the outside world ran directly to +Buenos Aires. They had few commercial relations +with Asuncion and it was inconvenient to maintain +even a shadow of political relation with that capital. +The Jesuit missions prospered, although, curiously +enough, their population remained stationary. South +and east of the Paraná, the country which they occupied +was mostly an open, rolling plain admirably +suited for pasturage. Herding cattle was the chief +employment of the Indians and the chief source of +the exports. However, in the forests north-west of +the Paraná, agriculture was more practised, and the +principal exports thence were the matte tea and +timber. In the pastoral country the Jesuits did not +expand farther. They had already gathered most +of the Indians who inhabited that region into their +missions, and the natural increase of population did +not justify any new settlements. But in the wooded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> +country across the Paraná a few tribes of Guaranies +had hitherto escaped subjection to either Creoles or +Jesuits, and farther to the west, in the great Chaco, +there were many tribes of savage and intractable +Indians. In both these directions the Jesuits kept +up their missionary efforts. In Paraguay, they +were successful and converted many tribes of the +northern part of that country, but in the Chaco they +could make little progress.</p> + +<p>In 1769 the king of Spain issued his famous decree +banishing the Jesuits from all his dominions. +It was feared that in the centre of their power on the +Upper Paraná they might offer resistance. They +commanded a population of more than two hundred +thousand Indians, fairly well armed and disciplined +and absolutely devoted to them; nevertheless, they +submitted quietly. Spanish officials replaced the +Jesuits in control of the civil and commercial interests +of the mission towns, and priests of other Orders +were sent up to continue spiritual instruction. The +Spanish officials were, however, not successful in +holding the Indians together. Their exactions and +cruelties drove the Indians to despair, and within a +very few years emigration began. The seven missions +to the east of the Uruguay had been traded by +Spain to Portugal in 1750, and most of their inhabitants +had then been killed or driven across the Uruguay. +The most populous missions lay between the +Uruguay and the Paraná, in the territory that to-day +forms the upper part of Corrientes, and the +Missions Territory. A large proportion of their inhabitants +fled down the Uruguay into Entre Rios<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> +and Uruguay proper. Those on the west side of +the Paraná largely remained or removed only far +enough to coalesce with the secular Indians of Paraguay; +some of the outlying and more remote missions +were abandoned altogether, and Paraguay then +assumed its present extent.</p> + +<p>The population was fairly homogeneous, and its +vast majority was composed of descendants of the +aborigines, with comparatively few Spaniards and +Creoles of mixed blood forming the upper strata of +society. The country felt few of the quickening +and disturbing influences which were already animating +the regions at the mouth of the river toward +the end of the eighteenth century. Little effort +was necessary to get a subsistence from the teeming +soil, and, content with their luscious oranges, their +matte, and their unlimited tobacco, the Paraguayans +led an idyllic existence. They had little sympathy +with the turbulent, active-minded population which +was crowding into Buenos Aires and making it a +commercial, political, and intellectual focus. Agricultural +in their habits, they disliked the hard-riding +gauchos of the southern plains hardly less than the +turbulent Indians of the Chaco. In the movements +that preceded the revolution of 1810 they took no +part.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-5.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>FRANCIA'S REIGN</h3> + + +<p>On the 25th of May, 1810, a revolutionary movement +in Buenos Aires overthrew the Spanish +Viceroy. Its leaders were young Creole liberals, +natives of Buenos Aires, and a junta was formed +from their number which undertook the supreme +direction of affairs. Prompt measures were taken +to overthrow the Spanish provincial authorities and +to secure the co-operation and obedience of all the +subdivisions of the Viceroyalty. Manuel Belgrano, +one of the enthusiastic leaders of the movement, +was sent up the river to take possession of Entre +Rios and Corrientes for the junta, and to attack the +Spanish governor of Paraguay. He was accompanied +by only a few hundred troops, but he counted +on the sympathy and help of the people among +whom he was going.</p> + +<p>In Entre Rios and Corrientes, which were mere +administrative divisions of the province of Buenos +Aires, he encountered no difficulty. The gauchos, +who formed almost the whole population, hated +outside control and cared little who claimed to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> +supreme at Buenos Aires. Belgrano marched +through the centre of these districts and reached +the Paraná at the old Jesuit capital of Candelaria. +Once across the river he found a different atmosphere. +The home-loving Indian population regarded +Belgrano's band as invaders and responded +promptly to the call of the Spanish governor, old +Velasco, to take up arms and repel the aggression. +The Paraguayans hated the Buenos Aireans with an +intensity born of ignorance and isolation, and a considerable +force of militia assembled for the defence +of Asuncion. Among its most popular leaders was +a native Paraguayan named Yegros. Belgrano was +not opposed until he approached within sixty miles +of Asuncion, but on the 19th of January, 1811, the +Paraguayans turned and crushed his little army. +He retreated to the south and on March 9th was +captured with his whole force.</p> + +<p>This repulse ended, once for all, the hope cherished +by the Buenos Aires liberals of persuading or compelling +the submission of Paraguay. The battle of +the 19th of January, and the hostile attitude of the +whole Paraguayan people, definitely assured Paraguay's +independence from Buenos Aires. It soon +became evident that independence from Spain had +been secured as well. In contact with their Argentine +prisoners, the more intelligent Paraguayan +leaders were quickly convinced of the advantages +which home rule would bring to Paraguay, and that +they themselves ought to control the government until +affairs in Spain should be settled. The governor +had no Spanish troops nor any hope of receiving<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> +help, either from the distracted mother-country or +from the governors of other parts of South America. +Each of them had enough to do in taking +care of himself. Velasco's secretary was an educated +Buenos Airean, a liberal, and an autonomist. +He plotted the overthrow of his chief in connection +with a Paraguayan officer who was popular with the +troops in Asuncion.</p> + +<p>Two months after Belgrano's surrender, a bloodless +revolution occurred. The governor offered no +resistance; he simply stepped to one side and became +a private citizen, while the patriots took possession +of the barracks and began casting about blindly for +a solid basis for a new government. After a good +deal of confusion the prominent citizens of the province +were called together in a sort of rude Constituent +Congress, and a junta was formed. General +Yegros and Dr. Francia were the two most prominent +and popular men in the country, and they were +naturally and inevitably selected as chief members. +Yegros had been the principal leader of the militia, +and Francia was considered the most learned and +able man in the community. He was a lawyer who +had become a sort of demigod to the lower classes +by his fearless advocacy of their rights, and inspired +almost superstitious reverence by his reputation for +learning and disinterestedness. He was selected as +secretary, while Yegros, an ignorant soldier, became +president of the junta. Francia's abilities and courage +immediately made him the dominating figure. +Jealousies arose and he stepped out for a while, but +the weaker men who succeeded him could not con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>trol +the situation. Two years later a popular assembly +met which was ready to submit to his advice +in everything. The junta was dismissed and he and +Yegros were invested with supreme power under the +title of Consuls. A year later he forced Yegros out +and with general consent assumed the position of +sole executive, and in 1816 he was formally declared +supreme and perpetual dictator.</p> + +<p>For the next twenty-five years he was the Government +of Paraguay. History does not record another +instance in which a single man so dominated and +controlled a people. A solitary, mysterious figure, +of whose thoughts, purposes, and real character little +is known, the worst acts of his life were the most +picturesque and alone have been recorded. Although +the great Carlyle includes him among the +heroes whose memory mankind should worship, the +opinion of his detractors is likely to triumph. Francia +will go down to history as a bloody-minded, implacable +despot, whose influence and purposes were +wholly evil. After reading all that has been written +about this singular character, my mind inclines more +to the judgment of Carlyle. I feel that the vivid +imagination of the great Scotchman has pierced the +clouds which enshrouded the spirit of a great and +lonely man and has seen the soul of Francia as he +was. Cruel, suspicious, ruthless, and heartless as +he undeniably became, his acts will not bear the interpretation +that his purposes were selfish or that he +was animated by mere vulgar ambition.</p> + +<p>The population over which he ruled had for centuries +been trained to obedience by the Jesuits and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> +the Creole landowners. The Creoles were few and +the Spaniards still fewer. Francia based his power +upon the Indian population and not on the little +aristocracy whose members boasted of white blood. +Convinced that the Indians were not fit for self-government, +he also believed that it would be disastrous +to permit the white oligarchy to rule. He +proposed to save Paraguay from the civil disturbances +that distracted the rest of South America. +He therefore absorbed all power in his own hands +and ruthlessly repressed any indications of insubordination +among those of Spanish blood. The Indians +blindly obeyed him, and he relentlessly pursued +the Creoles and the priests, seeming to regard them +only as dangerous firebrands who might at any time +start up a conflagration in the peaceful body politic, +and not as citizens entitled to the protection of the +State.</p> + +<p>He absorbed in his own person all the functions +of government; he had no confidants and no assistants; +he allowed no Paraguayan to approach him on +terms of equality. When he died, a careful search +failed to reveal any records of the immense amount +of governmental business which he had transacted +during thirty years. The orders for executions were +simply messages signed by him and returned, to be +destroyed as soon as they had been carried out. +The longer he lived the more completely did he +apply his system of absolutism, and the more confident +he became that he alone could govern his people +for his people's good. He adopted a policy of +commercial isolation, and intercourse with the out<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>side +world was absolutely forbidden. Foreigners +were not permitted to enter the country without a +special permit, and once there were rarely allowed +to leave.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 603px;"> +<img src="images/illus-213.jpg" width="603" height="1024" alt="JOSE RODRIGUEZ GASPAR FRANCIA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">JOSÉ RODRIGUEZ GASPAR FRANCIA.<br /> +[From an old wood-cut.]</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>He neither sent nor received consuls nor ministers +to foreign nations. Foreign vessels were excluded +from the Paraguay River and allowed to visit only +one port in the south-eastern corner of the country. +He was the sole foreign merchant. The communistic +system inherited from the Jesuits was developed and +extended to the secular parts of the country. The +government owned two-thirds of the land and conducted +great farms and ranches in various parts of +the territory. If labour was needed in gathering +crops, Francia had recourse to forced enlistment. +Those Indian missions which remained free he +brought gradually under his own control and followed +the old Jesuit policy of compelling the wild +Indians to work like other citizens. Dreading interference +by Spain, Brazil, or Buenos Aires, he improved +the military forces and began the organisation +of the whole population into a militia. His policy, +however, was peaceful, and the difficulty of getting +arms up the river, past the forces of the Argentine +warring factions, prevented his organising an army +fit for offensive operations even if he had desired to +have one.</p> + +<p>As he grew older he became more solitary and +ferocious. Always a gloomy and peculiar man, absorbed +in his studies and making no account of the +ordinary pleasures and interests of mankind, he had +reached the age of fifty-five and assumed supreme<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> +power, without marrying. His public labours still +further cut him off from thoughts of family and +friends; and, although it has been asserted that he +married a young Frenchwoman when he was past +seventy, nothing is known about her. It is certain +that he left no children and died attended only by +servants. His severities against the educated classes +increased; he suffered from frequent fits of hypochondria; +he ordered wholesale executions, and seven +hundred political prisoners filled the jails when he +died. His moroseness increased year by year. He +feared assassination and occupied several houses, +letting no one know where he was going to sleep +from one night to another, and when walking the +streets kept his guards at a distance before and behind +him. Woe to the enemy or suspect who attracted +his attention! Such was the terror inspired +by this dreadful old man that the news that he was +out would clear the streets. A white Paraguayan +literally dared not utter his name; during his lifetime +he was "El Supremo," and after he was dead +for generations he was referred to simply as "El +Defunto." For years when men spoke of him they +looked behind them and crossed themselves, as if +dreading that the mighty old man could send devils +to spy upon them,—at least this is the story of +Francia's enemies who have made it their business +to hand his name down to execration. The real +reason may have been that Francia's successors regarded +defamation of "El Defunto" as an indication +of unfriendliness to themselves.</p> + +<p>Devil or saint, hypochondriac or hero, actuated by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> +morbid vanity or by the purest altruism, there is no +difficulty in estimating the results of Francia's work +and the extent of his abilities. That he had a will +of iron and a capacity beyond the ordinary is proven +by his life before he became dictator, as well as his +successes afterwards. All authorities agree that he +had acquired as a lawyer a remarkable ascendancy +over the common people by his fearlessness in maintaining +their causes before the courts and corrupt +officials. He did not rise by any sycophant arts; +indeed, he never veiled the contempt he felt for the +party schemers and officials around him. When he +had supreme power in his hands he used it for no +selfish indulgences. His life was austere and abstemious; +parsimonious for himself, he was lavish for +the public. He would accept no present, and either +returned those sent him, or sent back their value in +money. Though he had been educated for the +priesthood and had never been out of South America +he had absorbed liberal religious principles from his +reading. Nothing could have been more likely to +offend the Catholic Indians, upon whose good will +his power rested, than his refusal to attend mass, +but he was honest enough with himself and with +them not to simulate a sentiment which he did not +feel. In his manners and life he was absolutely +modest; he received any who chose to see him; if +he was terrible it was to the wealthy and the powerful; +the humblest Indian received a hearing and +justice. During his reign Paraguay remained undisturbed, +wrapped in a profound peace; the population +rapidly increased, and though commerce and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> +manufactures did not flourish, nor the new ideas +which were transforming the face of the civilised +world penetrate within his barriers, food and clothing +were plenty and cheap, and the Paraguayans +prospered in their own humble fashion. Though +they might not sell their delicious matte, there was +no limitation on its domestic use, and although +money was not plentiful and foreign goods were a +rarity, a fat steer could be bought for a dollar, and +want was unknown.</p> + +<p>The old man lived until 1840 in the full possession +of unquestioned supreme power, dying at the age of +eighty-three years. His final illness lasted only a +few days, and he went on attending to business to +the very end. When asked to appoint a successor +he refused, bitterly saying that there would be no +lack of heirs. His legitimate and natural successor +could only be that man who could raise himself +through the mass by his force of character and +prove himself capable of dominating the disorganising +elements of Creole society.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-f.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-7.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>THE REIGN OF THE ELDER LOPEZ</h3> + + +<p>Once the breath was out of the old man's body, +his secretary attempted to seize the government. +He concealed Francia's death for several +hours and issued orders in the dead man's name. +But as soon as the news came out, the army officers, +whose assistance was essential, refused to obey him. +The poor secretary escaped a worse fate by hanging +himself in prison, and the troops amused themselves +setting up and pulling down would-be dictators. +After several months of anarchy, it was determined +to assemble a Congress in imitation of the first Congress +which had named Francia consul. A real +representative government was, of course, impossible +in Paraguay, but the Creoles, who naturally +formed the bulk of the Congress, were desirous of +insuring themselves against another dictatorship. +They wanted a government where the offices would +be passed around. However, an executive was +necessary and the only executive they knew was an +irresponsible one. The title borne by Yegros and +Francia in the early days seemed a good one, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> +so it was agreed that two consuls should be elected +for a limited period, during which, however, they +were to exercise very limited power.</p> + +<p>Among the ambitious and turbulent deputies a +directing spirit arose in the person of Carlos Antonio +Lopez, a well-to-do rancher who had received a +lawyer's education and had been careful to keep out +of public view during Francia's reign. At this juncture +he inevitably came to the front, because he was +the most learned and far-sighted among his fellow +Creoles. He was a man of great natural ability and +shrewdness, highly intelligent, well read, agreeable +and affable in his manners. Selected as one of the +two Consuls by the Congress of 1841, he soon pushed +his colleague to one side, and became dominant. +In 1844 an obsequious Congress which had been +summoned by him and whose members he virtually +named, conferred upon him the title of President +for the nominal term of ten years, which really was +intended to be for life. It is, however, significant of +the milder character of Lopez and the increased +power of the office-holding class that he preferred +the more republican title of President, held for a +nominally limited period, to the semi-monarchical +one of "El Supremo," borne by his terrible predecessor. +As a matter of fact, Lopez succeeded +to all the absolute power and prerogatives of +Francia.</p> + +<p>The new ruler was no such determined <i>doctrinaire</i> +as Francia. He was rather a clever opportunist than +a gloomy idealist. He adopted many liberal measures, +such as the law providing that all negroes there<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>after +born should be free, and he even attempted +to frame a regular constitution. He abandoned the +policy of isolation, so dear to Francia, and opened +the country in 1845. He loved appreciation and +especially wished the approbation of foreigners. +Though cautious and reluctant to engage in outside +complications, he was by nature and taste a diplomat, +and he welcomed the opportunity to try his wits +in wider competition than Paraguay afforded. In +1844, Rosas, the tyrant of Buenos Aires, was engaged +in a contest with revolutionists in Corrientes. +His ultimate purpose was manifestly to unite the +whole Plate valley under his authority. Lopez +shared the uneasiness of other neighbouring rulers +at the growth of Rosas's power. The latter promulgated +a decree forbidding the navigation of the +Paraná to any but Argentine vessels. This decree +was an attack on Paraguay's very plain and natural +right to reach the ocean, and absolutely shut her +off from the outside world. Lopez resented the +aggression, and after many protests declared war +against Buenos Aires in 1849. Nothing came of it, +however, except to give his oldest son a chance to +see actual service and to emphasise Lopez's enmity +to Rosas and his policy. The way was prepared +for his friendship with Urquiza, the great leader of +the Argentine provincials, and for the opening of +Paraguay to foreign commerce.</p> + +<p>Permission was granted in 1845 for foreign ships +to ascend the Paraguay as far as Asuncion, and +foreigners were no longer forbidden to enter the +country. On the contrary, Lopez evinced a marked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> +desire for their society and encouraged them to +come and engage in trade. His manners were engaging +and his courtesies untiring, unless his will +was crossed or his suspicions aroused, when he +could be very unreasonable and arbitrary.</p> + +<p>The spirit of the Paraguayan Creoles had been so +broken by the terrible proscriptions of Francia's +reign that Lopez did not experience much difficulty +in ruling them. His milder methods and the terror +of a renewal of the cruelties of Francia's time succeeded +in holding all demonstrations of lawlessness +or rebellion in check. He was averse to shedding +blood, and his subjects enjoyed substantial liberty +in their goings and comings. Justice was well and +regularly administered, and life and property were +almost absolutely safe. Over every kind of affairs, +however, he exercised a patriarchal supervision. +One trustworthy traveller tells of being waited on +at table in a remote part of Paraguay by a fine-appearing +man whose face was very sad and who +seemed very awkward in handling the dishes. On +inquiry, it turned out that the waiter was the richest +man in eastern Paraguay and had been condemned +by the President to serve in a menial capacity as a +punishment for insulting a woman. Lopez's ideas +of freedom did not contemplate that his people +might engage in politics or the discussion of any +public affairs. During the civil war in Corrientes, +Paraguayans were forbidden to speak of what was +going on across the river. Sometimes farmers were +required to cultivate a certain area in a certain crop. +He maintained the government monopoly of yerba<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> +and completed Francia's work of incorporating the +free Indians.</p> + +<p>An instance of his ready interest in foreigners was +his connection with a young American, named Hopkins, +who had been sent out in 1845 by the United +States Government to investigate the advisability of +recognising Paraguay, then accessible for the first +time. This enterprising young man fired Lopez's +imagination with his accounts of the material progress +of the United States, and Lopez even lent him +money to return and form a company for the purpose +of introducing American goods and cigar manufacture +into Paraguay. Hopkins, after several years, +succeeded in interesting some American capitalists +and came back and established his factory. At first +Lopez was delighted, but he soon quarrelled with +the Americans. The etiquette in Paraguay was that +the President should remain seated with his hat on +when he granted an audience, and the manners of +the visitor were expected to be correspondingly +humble. The Americans mortally offended him +by forgetting themselves in his presence. The +situation soon became intolerable and the company +retired.</p> + +<p>After the overthrow of Rosas in 1851 the Paraná +was declared free for navigation to vessels of all +nations by Argentine law and by treaties to which +Brazil and Uruguay were parties, although Paraguay +was not. Nevertheless, Lopez permitted ships to +ascend freely to Asuncion. Lopez wished to concentrate +all trade at Asuncion and opened no ports +north of his capital. The upper course of the river<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> +belonged to Brazil, but the boundary between Brazil +and Paraguay had remained unsettled from colonial +times. In his control of the Lower Paraguay, Lopez +had a lever to force Brazil to terms. He steadfastly +refused to permit ships to ascend into Brazil in spite +of the latter's persistent efforts to procure the natural +and necessary right of egress to the ocean by an +international river. While this matter still remained +unsettled, Lieutenant Page of the United States +Navy appeared in the <i>Water Witch</i> at Asuncion on +his survey of the Paraguay. Lopez was delighted, +and extended every facility to the officer as far as +the northern boundary of Paraguay. Page went on +up to Brazil. Lopez was offended, for he feared +that he would be at a disadvantage in his further +negotiations with Brazil by having apparently granted +to an American ship the permission which he had +steadily refused to Brazilians. Unfortunately, just +at this time occurred the quarrel with the American +promoter, Hopkins. The American officer took his +countryman's side, giving him refuge on board the +<i>Water Witch</i>. This so enraged Lopez that he issued +a decree prohibiting foreign war-vessels from entering +Paraguayan waters, and one of his forts fired at +the Lieutenant's vessel, killing a man. This outrage +brought about Lopez's ears a naval expedition +which compelled him to apologise and to agree to +reimburse the Hopkins Company.</p> + +<p>Brazil also sent a fleet up the Paraná to coerce +Lopez into granting free transit along the Paraguay, +but he cleverly held the Brazilians in parley until he +had an opportunity to fortify the river. England's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> +gunboats at Buenos Aires virtually held the Paraguayan +flagship, with Lopez's eldest son on board as +hostage for a young British subject named Canstatt, +who had been imprisoned and condemned to death +for complicity in a conspiracy at Asuncion. Lopez +was forced to release him and pay damages.</p> + +<p>These humiliations changed his love for foreigners +into a bitter hatred, and he began to prepare his +country to resist their aggressions more effectively. +From his youth he had trained his sons to succeed +him. Francisco, the eldest, early evinced a taste +for military affairs. When only eighteen years of +age, he commanded the expedition of 1849 into the +Argentine, and thenceforward continued to be his +father's general-in-chief and minister-of-war and +the active agent in improving Paraguay's military +resources. The second son, Venancio, was commander +of the garrison at Asuncion, and the third, +Benigno, was Admiral. Though so rigid with his +other subjects, he gave both his sons and daughters +unlimited license and they grew up to regard themselves +as members of a royal family. They enriched +themselves at the public expense. The sons took +as many mistresses as they pleased and gave free +rein to all their cruel and bad instincts. The selfishness, +obstinacy, unspeakable cruelty, and hard-heartedness +of Francisco were soon to bring the +guiltless Paraguayan people to the verge of extinction.</p> + +<p>In 1854 Lopez had sent Francisco to Europe as +ambassador. The young man spent eighteen months +in the different Courts of Europe, and returned an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> +expert in the vices of great capitals and enamoured +of military glory. After seeing the reviews of European +armies, he became convinced that Paraguay +could be made an efficient military power and that +he himself might play a Napoleonic rôle in South +America. His father, exasperated by the repeated +humiliations put upon him by other countries, gave +hearty support to his plans for the improvement of +the Paraguayan army. In 1862, after a long and +painful illness, the elder Lopez died. Francisco +took possession of his effects and papers and produced +a will naming himself Vice-President. Word +sent to the military chiefs of the different towns +insured the assembling of an obedient Congress at +Asuncion, by which he was formally elected and +proclaimed President and invested with all the absolute +power wielded by his father and Francia.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-g.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-8.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3>THE WAR</h3> + + +<p>The new President was thirty-five years old, +good-looking, careful of his appearance, fond +of military finery, and strutted as he walked. He +spoke French and Spanish fluently, but with his +officers and men used only Guarany. He was an +eloquent speaker and had the gift of inspiring his +troops with confidence in himself and contempt for +the enemy. He had a will of iron; his pride was +intense; he was absolutely unscrupulous, and had +no regard for the truth. He never showed any +feeling of kindness to his most devoted subjects. +He ordered his best friends to execution; he tortured +his mother and sisters and murdered his brothers. +The only natural affection he ever evinced was a +fondness for Madame Lynch, a woman whom he had +picked up in Paris, and for her children. He seems +to have treated her well to the last, but his numerous +other mistresses and their children he heartlessly +abandoned. Though physically an arrant coward, +no defeats could discourage him. He fought to the +last against overwhelming odds and was able to re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>tain +his personal ascendancy over his followers, even +after he had been driven into the woods and all +reasonable hope was lost.</p> + +<p>He began his reign like a Mahometan sultan by +ridding himself of his father's most trusted counsellors, +imprisoning and executing the most intelligent +and powerful citizens, and banishing his brothers. +The military preparations which he had begun as +his father's Minister of War were continued with increased +vigour. The warlike Argentines and Uruguayans +and the powerful empire of Brazil laughed +at his pretensions to become a real factor in South +American international affairs, but their laughter +soon cost them dear. He was a monarch of a compact +little state whose position behind rivers in the +centre of the continent made it admirably defensible. +Its eight hundred thousand inhabitants were obedient, +brave, and physically vigorous. Accustomed +for generations to regard their dictator as the greatest +ruler in the world, knowing no duty except absolute +compliance with his will, they never doubted that +under his leadership they would be invincible. He +knew that he could raise an army out of all proportion +to the size of his country. The problem was +how to arm it. With Buenos Aires commanding +the only route of ingress from abroad it had been +difficult for his father and himself to obtain war +material from Europe. For years, however, they +had been buying all that they could and had accumulated +several hundred cannon, most of them antiquated +cast-iron smooth-bores. They had fortified +the point of Humaitá which admirably protected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> +the Paraguay River from naval attacks, and had +established an arsenal at Asuncion.</p> + +<p>Against Brazil Lopez had serious cause of complaint. +The boundary question was still unsettled +and his possession of the Lower Paraguay placed +the great province of Matto Grosso at his mercy, +while the existence of that province, geographically +a mere northern extension of Paraguay, was a menace +to his own safety. Against the Argentines his +hatred was not so well founded, but none the less +bitter.</p> + +<p>The usual civil war was going on in Uruguay in +1863. The party which held the capital was out of +favour at Rio and at Buenos Aires, and Brazil and +Argentine were both inclined to support the pretensions +of Florés, who led the revolutionists. +Lopez thought that his own interests were concerned +and asserted his right to be consulted as to +Uruguayan affairs. A mighty shout of laughter +went up from the Buenos Aires press at the pretensions +of the cacique of an Indian tribe to the position +of guardian of the equilibrium of South America. +Brazil ignored his protests and calmly went on with +her preparations to establish her protégé in Montevideo. +In the beginning of 1864 Lopez began active +preparations for war. His army already numbered +twenty-eight thousand men, and by the end of +August sixty-four thousand more had been enrolled +and drilled. Although ill provided with artillery +and horses, and although the infantry were mostly +armed with old-fashioned flintlocks, no such formidable +force had ever assembled in South America.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> +The news of Lopez's preparations exasperated and +somewhat alarmed the people of Buenos Aires, +though no one knew his exact intentions. Lopez +had, in fact, determined to compel the Brazilian +and Argentine governments to accept his wishes as +to Uruguay or to risk all in the hazard of war. +Perhaps hazy dreams of himself as emperor of a +domain extending from the southern sources of the +Amazon far down the Plate valley and over to the +Atlantic coast passed through his brain. Possibly +he foresaw clearly that Paraguay had come to the +parting of the ways, and that she must either fight +her way to the sea or reconcile herself to slow suffocation +between the immense masses of Brazil and +Argentina. In such a contest the only allies he +could hope for would be revolutionary factions in +Uruguay and Corrientes, and possibly the virtually +independent ruler of Entre Rios. In case of a war +with Brazil alone, the neutrality of Argentina might +have been secured by careful management, but in +the freer countries the feeling against him as a +despot was strong, and the extension of his system +would have been regarded as a menace to civilisation.</p> + +<p>Late in 1864 the Brazilian forces marched into Uruguay +and joined Florés. Lopez promptly retaliated +by seizing a Brazilian steamer which was passing +Asuncion on its way to Matto Grosso and followed up +this aggression by an invasion of the latter province. +His forces quickly reduced the towns on the banks +of the Paraguay as far as steamers could penetrate. +It was impossible to send reinforcements overland<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> +from Rio; Brazil's counter-attack must be delivered +from the south. The empire was unprepared, but +its troops poured into Uruguay and Rio Grande as +fast as they could be mobilised. The anti-Florés +party were crushed by the siege and capture of +Paysandu late in 1864. The Argentine government +under Mitre proclaimed its neutrality. Lopez was +flushed with his easy success in Matto Grosso. The +forces he had on foot overwhelmingly outnumbered +those of the Brazilians in Uruguay and Rio Grande. +He wished to strike the latter before they could be +re-enforced, overrun Rio Grande, and, as master of +one of Brazil's most valuable provinces, dictate +terms. To reach the Brazilians it was necessary to +cross the Argentine province of Corrientes. He +asked for permission to do so and Mitre refused. +Notwithstanding the risk involved, he promptly decided +to finish up both Argentine and Brazil at the +same time. Sending his troops across the Paraná +he virtually annexed Corrientes and declared war +on Buenos Aires. Lopez destined twenty-five +thousand men for the invasion of Corrientes and +the conquest of the Lower Uruguay valley, but the +difficulties of getting so large an army across the +river and ready for an advance into a hostile country +were unexpectedly great. The gauchos of Corrientes, +trained for generations in civil wars, quickly +assembled to oppose the Paraguayans. Meanwhile, +a Brazilian fleet came up; and, on June 2, 1865, at +Riachuelo, decisively defeated the Paraguayan naval +forces. Lopez thereby lost all hope of commanding +the river. The communications of his army in Cor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>rientes +might be cut off at any time and an advance +became impossible. The battle of Riachuelo threw +Paraguay on the defensive and made Lopez's great +plan of carrying the war to the Uruguay impracticable.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/illus-231.jpg" width="600" height="682" alt="FRANCISCO SOLANO LOPEZ." title="" /> +<span class="caption">FRANCISCO SOLANO LOPEZ.<br /> +[From a photograph taken in 1849.]</span> +</div> + +<p>Nevertheless, Lopez did not recall the twelve +thousand men he had sent across the missions to +invade the valley of the Upper Uruguay and the +state of Rio Grande. The Brazilians were taken<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> +unprepared, and early in August the Paraguayans +had captured the chief Brazilian town in that region—Uruguayana. +The failure of the Corrientes army +to reach the Lower Uruguay left the route up that +river free. The Brazilian and Uruguayan army, +which had been victorious at Paysandú, marched up +the west bank and defeated and destroyed the rear-guard +which the Paraguayans had left on the Argentine +side opposite Uruguayana. Lopez's army was +therefore cut off from retreat. It was promptly +surrounded, and on the 17th of September, 1865, +had to surrender.</p> + +<p>This put an end to Lopez's plan of an offensive +campaign. Indignant at the invasion of her soil, +Argentina had allied herself with Brazil against him. +A secret treaty was signed between Brazil, Argentina, +and Florés, now recognised as ruler of Uruguay, +to prosecute the war to a finish, to depose Lopez +from his throne, and to disarm the Paraguayan +fortifications. Lopez withdrew his army from Corrientes +and concentrated all his forces in the south-west +angle of his own territory.</p> + +<p>The position was admirable for defence. North +of the Paraná and east of the Paraguay stretched a +low, wooded country subject to overflow, and intersected +by shallow, mud-bottomed lagoons, which +were old abandoned beds of the rivers. The Paraguay +protected his right flank and afforded him +a direct and easy communication with Asuncion. +Batteries on the point of Humaitá, which the Brazilian +fleet did not dare to try to pass, insured this +line of communication. West of the Paraguay the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> +great Chaco, there impenetrable, prevented a movement +to get north of Humaitá on that side. To the +east the swamps along the Paraná extended indefinitely, +and an advance of the enemy in that +direction would have had its communications cut by +an army encamped near Humaitá. Humaitá was, +therefore, the key to the situation, and the allies +could not advance until they captured it or, by running +the batteries with their fleet, destroyed Lopez's +control of the Paraguay.</p> + +<p>By March, 1866, the allies had concentrated a +force of forty thousand men just south of the fork +of the rivers. About twenty-five thousand were +Brazilians, twelve thousand Argentines and three +thousand Uruguayans. The Brazilian fleet, numbering +eighteen steam gunboats carrying one hundred +and twenty-five guns, lay near at hand ready +to co-operate. Protected by the fire of the gunboats, +the whole allied army had little difficulty in +crossing the Paraná and establishing itself on Paraguayan +soil. Lopez lost heavily in vain attempts +to prevent this landing. On May 2nd, a force of +Paraguayans surprised the allies a few miles north +of the river and badly cut up the vanguard. The +allies, however, continued advancing and took a +strong position just south of a great lagoon. Here, +on the 24th of May, they were attacked by the +whole Paraguayan army of twenty-five thousand +men, who fought with desperate valour, but at a +hopeless disadvantage. A quarter of the Paraguayan +soldiers were left dead on the field, and +another quarter were badly wounded, while the loss<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> +of the allies was half as great. The Paraguayan +army was apparently destroyed, but the allies had +suffered so severely, and the difficulties of transportation +through the swamps were so great, that +they did not make the sudden dash upon the +trenches at Humaitá which might have ended the +war. Lopez did his utmost to reorganise his army. +Practically the whole male population was impressed +into service. The river line of communication to +Asuncion, and the strategic railroad thence up into +the most fertile and populous interior of the country, +enabled him comfortably to command all the resources +of the country, both in men and provisions.</p> + +<p>Humaitá had already been well fortified on the +land side, and Lopez now threw up the trenches at +the top of the bluff at Curupayty, the first high land +on the Paraguay River north of the allied army and +south of Humaitá, and connected it with the latter +fortress. Lopez had the advantage of the services +of a clever English civil engineer; and the fortifications, +though rude, were soon made practically impregnable +to assault. In spite of their defeats, the +Paraguayans were as ready as ever to attack when +Lopez commanded, or to stand up and be shot down +to the last man. They were the most obedient soldiers +imaginable; they never complained of an injustice +and never questioned an order when given. +Even if a soldier were flogged, he consoled himself +by saying, "If my father did not flog me, who +would?" Every one called his superior officer his +"father," and Lopez was the "Great Father." +Each officer was responsible with his life for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> +faithfulness and conduct of his men and had orders +to shoot any that wavered. Each soldier knew that +the men who touched shoulders with him right and +left were instructed to shoot him if he tried to desert +or fly, and those two knew that the men beyond +them would shoot them if they failed to kill the +poor fellow in the centre of the five. This cruel +system answered perfectly with the Paraguayans, +and to the very end of the war they never refused +to fight steadily against the most hopeless odds.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, the allies awaited reinforcements and +supplies in the noisome swamps, dying meantime +by thousands of fever. By the end of June, when +the allies finally determined to assault the fortifications +around Humaitá, Lopez had twenty thousand +men on the ground. After some bloody and indecisive +fighting in the swamps, General Mitre, the +Commander-in-Chief, ordered a grand attack upon +the entrenchments at Curupayty. On the 22nd of +September, 1866, it began with the bombardment +by the Brazilian ironclads. Eighteen thousand men +in four columns advanced from the south, and threw +themselves blindly against the fortifications. When +they came to close quarters they were thrown into +disorder by the terrible artillery fire from the Paraguayan +trenches, which cross-enfiladed them in +different directions. The enormous canisters discharged +from the eight-inch guns point-blank, at a +distance of two or three hundred yards, wrought +fearful execution. The rifle fire of the allies was +useless, and the Paraguayans simply waited behind +their trenches until the Brazilians and Argentines<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> +were close at hand and then fired. The allies retired +in good order, after suffering a loss of one-third their +number. The soldiers obediently kept rushing on +to certain death until their officers, seeing that success +was hopeless, told them that they might retreat. +The courage of the Paraguayans had been proved +in their unsuccessful assaults on the allies the year +before, and now the Argentines and Brazilians +showed even in this awful defeat what a stomach +they, too, had for hand-to-hand fighting.</p> + +<p>After the battle of Curupayty, nothing was attempted +on either side for fourteen months. Both +sides had had enough of attacking fortified positions. +The Paraguayans lay in Humaitá and the allies occupied +themselves with fortifying their camps. The +imperial government made tremendous exertions to +reinforce the army. The Argentines also did their +best, but the efforts of both were hardly sufficient to +make good the terrible ravages of the cholera, which +by the beginning of May, 1867, had put thirteen +thousand Brazilians in hospitals. It was not until +July that the allies felt themselves again ready to +take the offensive. A division marched up the +Paraná with the purpose of outflanking Humaitá on +the east, while cavalry raids were sent out to the +north and rendered the outlying positions of the +Paraguayans unsafe. Finally, in November, 1867, +the Brazilian troops succeeded in getting over to the +Paraguay River, north and in the rear of Lopez, and +General Barreto captured and fortified a strong position +on the bank fifteen miles north of Humaitá. +This was fatal to the security and communications +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>of Lopez. He made one more desperate and unsuccessful +assault on the main position of the allies, +and then began to plan to retire toward Asuncion. +At the same time the Brazilian ironclads passed the +batteries at Curupayty, compelling Lopez to withdraw +his troops up the river to Humaitá. The war +became virtually a siege of the latter place, which +was constantly bombarded by the fleet from the +front and by the army from the rear. The Brazilian +position on the river to the north cut Lopez off from +direct river communication with Asuncion, and he +had to transport his supplies on a new road built +in the Chaco swamps. He began preparations to +evacuate Humaitá and retreat to the north. In +January, 1868, Mitre definitely retired from the +command of the allies and was succeeded by the +Brazilian Marshal Caxias. A month later (February +18th) the Brazilian fleet of ironclads finally succeeded +in running the batteries at Humaitá, and after +throwing a few bombs at Asuncion, devoted themselves +to the more useful task of cutting off the +transports to Lopez's army.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<img src="images/illus-237.jpg" width="1024" height="686" alt="PALM GROVES IN EL CHACO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PALM GROVES IN EL CHACO.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>Lopez's line of river communication was now +completely at the enemies' mercy, and a large force +could not be maintained at Humaitá. He transported +his army to the right bank of the Paraguay, +recrossing when he got beyond the Brazilian positions. +The garrison of three thousand men which +he left at Humaitá defended itself for six months. +In the meantime, he had fortified a new position less +than fifty miles from Asuncion and accessible across +the country from his base of supplies in central<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> +Paraguay. On his right flank a river battery was +erected which again prevented the Brazilians from +reaching the upper river. Opposite this point, however, +the Chaco is penetrable, and Caxias landed a +force on the west bank and, marching up, crossed +the river in the rear of Lopez's position. The Brazilians +closed in from the north and south on the +few thousand Paraguayans, who were all that survived, +and after several days of desperate fighting, +December 27, 1868, the Brazilians carried Lopez's +position and he fled for his life to the interior, followed +by a thousand men.</p> + +<p>Even after such a defeat he was indomitable and +succeeded in gathering another small army which +was pursued and destroyed in August, 1869. Lopez +again escaped and took refuge in the wild and mountainous +regions in the north of Paraguay. The Brazilian +cavalry pursued him relentlessly, but it was +not until March 1, 1870, that he was caught. In an +attempt to escape he was speared by a common +soldier.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-c.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-3.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h3>PARAGUAY SINCE 1870</h3> + + +<p>No modern nation has ever come so near to complete +annihilation as Paraguay during her five +years' war against the Triple Alliance. Out of two +hundred and fifty thousand able-bodied men who +were living in 1864, less than twenty-five thousand +survived in 1870. Not less than two hundred and +twenty-five thousand Paraguayan men—the fathers +and bread-winners, the farmers and labourers—had +perished in battle, by disease or exposure or starvation. +One hundred thousand adult women had died +of hardship and hunger, and there were less than +ninety thousand children under fifteen in the country. +The surviving women outnumbered the men +five to one; the practice of polygamy naturally +increased, and women were forced to become the +labourers and bread-winners for the community.</p> + +<p>The slaughter was greatest in proportion among +the people of white blood. When Lopez was waiting +in 1868 for the final attack of the Brazilians, he +made use of the last months of his power to arrest, +torture, and murder nearly every white man left in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> +Paraguay, including his own brother, his brother-in-law, +and the generals who had served him best, and +the friends who had enjoyed his most intimate confidence. +Even women and foreigners did not escape +the cold, deliberate bloodthirstiness of this demon. +He had his own sister beaten with clubs and +exposed her naked in the forest; had the wife of +the brave general who was forced to surrender at +Humaitá speared, and subjected two members of +the American Legation to the most sickening tortures. +The Minister himself barely escaped with +his life.</p> + +<p>When the Brazilians captured Asuncion in 1868 +they installed a provisional triumvirate of Paraguayans, +but the country was really under their +military government until after the death of Lopez. +A new constitution was proclaimed on November +25, 1870, but it was not until a year later that the +provisional government was superseded by Salvador +Jovellanos, the first President. The new President +had no elements with which to establish a government,—neither +money nor men. The country Paraguayans +refused to recognise his authority and he +was shut up in Asuncion. There were three so-called +revolutions in 1872, which were suppressed +by the Brazilian troops. The country really remained +under a Brazilian protectorate for the first +few years after the war, and the government was +largely a convenience to make treaties and to try to +place loans abroad. Toward the end of 1874 Jovellanos +was succeeded by Gill, and by 1876 the country +was finally enjoying peace and freedom from foreign<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> +control. The integrity of Paraguay and her continuance +as an independent power had been mutually +guaranteed by Brazil and Argentina when they began +the war against Lopez, and neither of them +could afford to let the other take possession of her +territory. So Paraguay was left substantially intact, +although she was compelled to give up the +territorial claims the Lopezes had so long made +against Brazil and the Argentine. The latter even +submitted to arbitration her right to a portion of +the Chaco north of the Pilocomayo. President +Hayes was the arbitrator and he decided in favour +of Paraguay in 1878. In the treaty of peace Paraguay +had agreed to bear the war expenses of the +allies and these immense sums are still nominally +due from her. As a matter of fact, she has not +been able to pay anything thereon, and the matter +of forgiving the debt is one frequently discussed in +Brazil.</p> + +<p>Population rapidly increased after peace was thoroughly +established, and has more than doubled in +the last thirty years. In the late eighties the influence +of the Buenos Aires boom extended to Paraguay, +and the government offered great inducements +to attract immigration. The movement was not +very successful, but it had the indirect effect of +transferring great tracts of land from government +to private ownership. Previously, two-thirds of +the land belonged to the State. One of the colonies +was composed of socialists from Australia who +promptly split on their arrival over the question of +total abstinence. Those who insisted on being<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> +allowed to drink were obliged to leave. Subsequently, +disagreements about doctrine and the application +of the principles of socialism drove out +others. The soil of Paraguay is marvellously fertile, +but its isolation and the want of markets for +the national products make it unattractive to European +immigrants.</p> + +<p>Happily Paraguay has not suffered from civil disorders +during the slow process of national regeneration +which has been going on since 1870. Most of +the Presidents have served out their full four-years +term, and the one or two changes which have occurred +have not been accompanied by any bloodshed +or interruption in administration. The chief +difficulties of the government have been financial. +Revenue is small and paper currency has been issued +until it is at a discount of several hundred per cent. +compared with its nominal value in gold; but since +foreign commerce is inconsiderable and the population +lives off the products of its own farms the results +of inflation have not been so disastrous as they +might have been in a commercial country.</p> + +<p>The wave of twentieth-century progress and immigration +may strike this Arcadian region at any +moment, but up to the present time the body of the +Paraguayans live much as their ancestors. Existence +can be maintained with hardly an effort; the +people can always get oranges in default of more +nourishing food; the climate is lovely; the forests +surrounding the peasant's cabin beautiful. Why +should a Paraguayan work when he can live happily +and comfortably without labour, merely to procure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> +things which to him are superfluities? It must be +remembered that the bulk of the Paraguayan people +are descended from the Indians which were found +crowded into this garden spot three centuries ago +by the Spaniards and the Jesuits. They have never +lost their simple, submissive, stoical character, and +the rule of the three dictators did not tend to change +them. The modern improvements of which they +saw most during the reign of Lopez were muskets +and cannon, and they can hardly be blamed for preferring +old-fashioned ways after their experience +during the war. Though the nation was almost +destroyed, the surviving remnants show the same +characteristics which distinguished their ancestors. +The new Paraguay, however, is not ruled by any +bloody-minded despot, and the military possibilities +of the people will never again be a menace to the +liberties of the surrounding nations. Rather is the +present ruling class disposed to welcome foreign influences +and immigration, and this beautiful, fertile, +and easily accessible country stands open to the +world.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<div class="bbt"> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="URUGUAY" id="URUGUAY"></a>URUGUAY</h1> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-4.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>INTRODUCTION</h3> + + +<p>The most fertile parts of the globe have always +been fought for the most. Uruguay has been +the Flanders of South America. Her admirable commercial +position at the mouth of the river Plate has +made her capital one of the great emporiums of the +continent. On the track of the world's commerce, +open to the currents of intellectual and industrial +life which sweep from Europe into the luxuriant +country of the southern half of South America or +around to the Pacific, her people have always been +in the vanguard of Spanish-American civilisation. +Her productive, well-watered, and gently rolling +plains are well adapted for agriculture and unsurpassed +for pasturage. Here the Indians struggled +hardest to maintain themselves and longest resisted +the Spanish conquest. From colonial times, Argentines +have crowded in from the west, Brazilians from +the north, and Buenos Aireans and Europeans from +the coast, until this favoured spot has become the +most thickly populated country of South America.</p> + +<p>The very strategic and industrial desirability of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> +this region, and the ease with which it can be invaded, +have made it the scene of constant armed +conflict. Uruguay has been the cockpit of the +southern half of the continent, and its people have +been fighting continually through the one hundred +and fifty years during which the country has been +inhabited. They fought for their independence +against the Spaniards, then against the Buenos +Aireans, then against the Brazilians, then against +the Buenos Aireans again, and in the intervals they +have fought pretty constantly among themselves. +In colonial times Montevideo was Spain's chief fortress +on this coast, and that city has always been the +favourite refuge for the unsuccessful revolutionists +and exiles from the neighbouring states. The blood +of the bravest and most turbulent Argentines and +Rio Grandenses has constantly mixed with its population. +By habit, tradition, and inheritance the older +generation of Uruguayans in both city and country +are warlike.</p> + +<p>Though the military spirit had been vastly stimulated +by peculiar political and racial circumstances, +in later times commercialism has been nourished by +geographical situation and the fertility of the soil +and by European immigration. The interplay of +these contending forces has been producing a marked +people—a vigorous, turbulent race whose energies +have apparently been chiefly employed in war, but +who have found time in the intervals of foreign +and civil conflict to make their country one of the +wealthiest and most industrially progressive countries +in South America. They are like the Dutch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> +in their turbulence and in their eagerness to make +money; and they are also like the Dutch in their +determination to maintain at all hazards their separate +national existence. Nevertheless, the origin of +Uruguay was artificial. The reason for the country's +separation from Buenos Aires was that Brazil +regarded it as unsafe to permit Argentina to spread +north of the Plate.</p> + +<p>The territory of Uruguay is that irregular polygon +which is bounded on the south by the Plate estuary; +on the west by the Uruguay River; on the south-east +by the Atlantic; and on the north-east by the artificial +line which separates it from Brazil. Though +the most favoured in soil, climate, and geographical +position, it is the smallest country in South America, +the area being only seventy-three thousand square +miles. In prehistoric days, when a vast inland sea +occupied what is now the Argentine pampa, Uruguay +was the northern shore of the great strait which +opened into the pampean sea. It is the southern +extremity of the eastern continental uplift of South +America. The last outlying ramparts of the Brazilian +mountain system, greatly eroded and planed +down into low-swelling masses little elevated above +the sea, run south-west from Rio Grande into Uruguay, +dipping into the Plate at the southern border. +The north shore of the Plate estuary is bold, and +not flat as is the opposite shore of Buenos Aires. +There are, however, no mountains, properly so-called, +in Uruguay, and nearly the whole surface is +a succession of gently undulating plains and broad +ridges intersected by countless streams, and covered,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> +for the most part, with luxuriant pasture. The +abundance of wood and water is an immense advantage +to settlers, whether pastoral or agricultural. +The extreme south-western corner, near the mouth +of the Uruguay River, is alluvial. On the Atlantic +coast there are level, marshy plains, due to the slow +secular rising of the land and consequent baring of +the ocean's bed.</p> + +<p>The country is easily penetrable in every part. +There are no mountain ridges or dense forests to +interrupt travel, and most of the rivers are easily +fordable. On the west, the broad flood of the Uruguay +River gives easy communication to the ocean, +while it affords protection against sudden invasions +from the Argentine province of Entre Rios. The +low and sandy foreshore of the Atlantic has no harbours, +but after rounding Cape Santa Maria and +entering the estuary of the Plate, there are several +bays which afford some shelter for shipping. Maldonado, +Montevideo, and Colonia are the principal +ports, but the extreme shallowness of the Plate prevents +them from being classed as first-rate harbours +for modern vessels. At Montevideo itself, large +modern steamers must anchor several miles out.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-251.jpg" width="1024" height="523" alt="HARBOUR AT MONTEVIDEO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">HARBOUR AT MONTEVIDEO.</span> +</div> + +<p>Possibly the present territory of Uruguay was +reached by the Portuguese navigators who reconnoitred +the coast of Brazil in the first few years of +the sixteenth century, but they certainly made no +settlements and left no clear record of their voyagings. +In 1515, Juan Diaz de Solis, Grand Pilot of +Spain, was sent out by Charles V. to reconnoitre +the Brazilian coast in Spanish interests. He did +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> +not land on the shore of Brazil proper, but kept on +to the south until he reached Cape Santa Maria, +which marks the northern side of the entrance to +the river Plate. To his left hand stretched beyond +the horizon a flood of yellow fresh water flowing +gently over a shifting, sandy bottom nowhere more +than a few fathoms below the surface. It was evident +that he was out of the ocean and sailing up a +river of such magnitude as had never been dreamed +of before. He followed along the coast, skirting +the whole southern boundary of what is now the republic +of Uruguay and finally reached the head of +the estuary. Directly from the north the Uruguay, +a river five miles wide, clear and deep, seemed a +continuation of the Plate, but from the west the numerous +channels of the Paraná delta poured in an +immense muddy discharge double the volume of +the wider river. At the junction was an island which +Solis named <i>Martin Garcia</i> after his pilot. He +resolved to take possession of the country in the +name of the Crown of Castile, and to explore the +coast. He disembarked with nine companions on +the Uruguayan shore: here the little party was unexpectedly +attacked by Indians; Solis and all his +men but one were killed, and the ships sailed back +to Spain without their commander.</p> + +<p>Three years later Ferdinand Magellan, on his +epoch-making voyage around the world, visited the +coast of Uruguay. On the 15th of January, 1520, +he came in sight of a high hill overlooking a commodious +bay. This he called Montevideo—a name +which has been extended to the city which long<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> +after grew up on the other side of the harbour. +Magellan ascended the estuary, hoping that he might +find a passage through to the Pacific Ocean, but after +he had entered the Uruguay its clear water, rapid +current, and want of tides convinced him that it +was only an ordinary river and not a strait.</p> + +<p>Spain determined to take possession of the Plate, +and in 1526 sent out an expedition for that purpose +under Diego Garcia. At the same time Sebastian +Cabot was preparing another expedition, which was +ordered to follow in Magellan's track and to make +observations of longitude on the Atlantic coast of +South America and in the East Indies. Spain and +Portugal had already begun to dispute about the +correct location of the line which they had agreed +should divide the world into a Spanish and a Portuguese +hemisphere, and which was believed to pass +near the Plate. Garcia was delayed on the coast of +Brazil, so Cabot reached the mouth of the estuary +first. The latter had encountered bad weather and +lost his best ship, and when he sighted the coast of +Uruguay his men were discouraged. They remained +in the mouth of the river for some time, and to their +surprise a solitary Spaniard was encountered on the +shore, who proved to be the only survivor of the party +that had gone ashore with Solis ten years before.</p> + +<p>Soon Cabot and his men heard tales of silver +mines far up the river, and of the existence of a +great civilised empire on its remote headwaters. +Silver ornaments were shown which had come down +hand to hand from Peru or Bolivia. Cabot determined +to abandon his commission to the Moluccas,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> +and to find the country whence the silver came. +Naturally, his first effort was directed up the broad +channel of the Uruguay, but on ascending this river +it was soon evident that the mines and civilised +country he was seeking did not lie on its banks. +Fifty miles up the river at San Salvador the Spaniards +attempted to establish a little post which is +sometimes referred to as the earliest settlement in +Uruguay or Argentina. It was probably intended +as a mere supply depot and point of refuge, conveniently +near the sea to aid the up-river expedition. +However, the warlike Indians of Uruguay soon left +no trace of it. Cabot entered the Paraná, where he +spent three years in an unsuccessful effort to reach +Bolivia. He and Garcia sailed back to Spain without +leaving even a settlement behind them, but +they were thoroughly convinced that an adequate +expedition could find the silver country.</p> + +<p>The tribes who inhabited Uruguay were the fiercest +Indians encountered by the conquerors of South +America. For two centuries they succeeded in preventing +the establishment of settlements in their +territory and kept out Spanish intruders at the point +of the sword. The Spaniards greatly coveted the +north bank of the Plate and made effort after effort +to get a foothold there, but these savages managed +to maintain themselves for a hundred and fifty years +in the very face of Buenos Aires. The river shore +itself was the last accessible and fertile region to be +subjected to the whites. A century elapsed after +the foundation of Buenos Aires before Colonia was +occupied by the Portuguese, and another fifty years<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> +went by before Montevideo had been settled and +fortified. Uruguay in pre-Spanish times, as well as +since, was a meeting-ground for different peoples. +One after another the Guarany tribes crowded into +this favoured region from the north and west, and +the old inhabitants had to fight and conquer, or be +thrust into the sea. The bravest, best armed, and +best organised tribes survived in the harsh struggle. +Of the Indians inhabiting Uruguay when the Spaniards +discovered the Plate, the principal ones were +the Charruas. They occupied a zone extending +around from the Atlantic, along the Plate, and a +short distance up the Uruguay. This strong and +valiant race never submitted to the Spaniards, and +when at last they were defeated and crowded back +from the coast well on in the eighteenth century, +they retired to the north and maintained their freedom +for many years. They belonged to the great +family of Tupi-Guaranies, who occupied most of +eastern South America at the white man's advent, +but they were more nomadic in their habits and had +developed the art of war to greater perfection than +the mother tribes of the more tropical parts of South +America.</p> + +<p>In their fights against the Spaniards, they sometimes +gathered armies of several hundreds which +fought with a rude sort of discipline, forming in +column and attacking in mass with clubs after discharging +their arrows and stones. Possibly they +learned some of their tactics from the white men, +but it is certain that before the invasion they had +developed a tribal organisation which enabled them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> +to bring far larger bodies into the field than the +tribes to the north, and that soon after the arrival +of the whites they learned the military uses of the +horse. Personal bravery and fortitude were the virtues +most admired among the Charruas, and they +chose their chiefs from those who had most distinguished +themselves in battle. They did not practise +cannibalism like their brother Guaranies on the Brazilian +coast; they killed defective children at birth; +they were moderate in their eating, lived in huts, +and in winter covered themselves with the skins of +animals. Altogether, they seem to have much resembled +the more warlike tribes among the North +American Indians and to have made the same effective +resistance to the whites as did the Iroquois or +Creeks. Such a fierce and indomitable people terrorised +the Creoles, and settlement proceeded on +lines of less resistance. The coast of Uruguay was +long known as the abode of red demons who showed +little mercy to the adventurous white who dared +build a cabin on the shore, or ride the plains in chase +of cattle. The forts established from time to time +by the Spanish authorities in the early days were invariably +starved out and abandoned, and the white +man obtained a foothold only after the Portuguese +and Spanish governments had fortified towns with +walls, ditches, and artillery, which could be supplied +with provisions from the water side, and after Entre +Rios had been overrun by the gauchos.</p> + +<p>Warned by the experiences of Solis and Cabot on +the north shore, Mendoza, the first adelantado of +the Plate, on his arrival in 1535, selected the south<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> +bank of the river as the site of the fortified port +which he proposed to establish at the mouth of the +Paraná as a base for his projected expedition up the +river. His effort failed completely; he abandoned +Buenos Aires, and the remnants of his expedition +fled to Paraguay and founded Asuncion. In 1573 +Zarate, the third adelantado, made a serious effort +to establish a post in Uruguay. He had three hundred +and fifty well-armed Spanish soldiers, more +than the number with which Pizarro had conquered +the empire of Peru, but they were not enough to +make any impression on the Charruas. A company +of forty men hunting wood was set upon and massacred, +and when the main body tried to avenge this +defeat, it, too, was driven back and only escaped to +the island of Martin Garcia after losing a hundred +men. The survivors were rescued by Garay, the most +expert and successful Indian fighter of the time.</p> + +<p>This experienced and far-sighted officer wisely +left the Charruas alone and devoted his efforts to +the other side of the river, where, in 1580, he +founded the city of Buenos Aires. Hernandarias, +the Creole governor of Buenos Aires, who shares +with Garay the honour of establishing the Spanish +power in Argentina, and who had already defeated +the Pampa Indians from the Great Chaco in +the north to the Tandil Range in Buenos Aires +province, attempted, in the early years of the +seventeenth century, to subdue the Charruas. He +disembarked at the head of five hundred men in the +western part of Uruguay. Few details of the campaign +which followed have been preserved, but it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> +certain that the Spanish force was destroyed and +that Hernandarias himself barely escaped with his +life. Thenceforth, for more than a century, the +Spaniards made no serious attempts to interfere +with the Charruas; the coast of Uruguay was +shunned by European ships, and the interior remained +absolutely unknown.</p> + +<p>It is probable, although not certain, that the +Jesuits on the Upper Uruguay established some villages +of peaceable Indians in the north-western corner +of Uruguay proper, in the middle of the seventeenth +century. A few Indians, it is certain, gathered +under Jesuit control on an island in the Lower Uruguay, +some fifty miles above Martin Garcia, about +1650. This was known as the Pueblo of Soriano, +and is often referred to by Uruguayan historians as +the first permanent settlement in their country. +However, no real progress was made toward getting +possession of Uruguay. The Charruas proved refractory +to Jesuit influence, and only the milder +Yaros and the tribes on the Brazilian border could +be converted.</p> + +<p>The horses and cattle which the Spaniards had +introduced multiplied into hundreds of thousands +and roamed undisturbed over the rolling, grassy +plains of Uruguay, and occasionally parties of Creoles +would land on the shore of the Plate and at the risk +of their lives kill some steers and strip them of their +hides. As time went on, the Indians became used +to the white men and some trading sprang up, but +for a full century after Buenos Aires had been in existence +Uruguay remained unsettled by civilised man.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-2.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>PORTUGUESE AGGRESSIONS AND THE SETTLEMENT +OF THE COUNTRY</h3> + + +<p>In 1680 the governor of Rio de Janeiro sent some +ships and a force of soldiers to the Plate, with +orders to occupy a point on the north bank in the +name of the king of Portugal. Spain claimed that +her dominions extended as far up the coast as the +southern border of the present state of São Paulo, +and Portugal was equally stubborn in insisting that +her rightful territory extended west and south as far +as the mouth of the Uruguay. Neither country had +made any settlements in the disputed region, and +Portugal had determined to take advantage of the +negligence of the Spanish government and be first +in the field. To establish a post only twenty miles +from the capital of the Spanish possessions and +more than a thousand miles south of the last Portuguese +town seemed an audacious step, but its success +would secure for Portugal the whole intermediate +territory, as well as give her a port which would insure +her merchants the command of the trade of the +Plate valley.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span></p> + +<p>The Portuguese commander landed unopposed on +the shore of the estuary directly opposite Buenos +Aires, and immediately began to throw up walls, +dig a ditch, and lay out a town called Colonia. +When the news reached Buenos Aires, the indignant +governor raised a force of two hundred and sixty +Spaniards and three thousand Indians, crossed the +river, and fell upon the little body of Portuguese +in the midst of their delving and shovelling. The +attack was at first repulsed, but superior numbers +were soon effective. The enemy surrendered, and +the Spaniards threw down the walls and destroyed +the beginnings of the town. The Portuguese government +protested, claiming that the governor's +action was a wilful and inexcusable aggression +against the forces of a friendly power operating in +territory which had never been occupied by Spain. +The Madrid government disavowed the act, and the +Portuguese resumed possession of Colonia in 1683. +They rebuilt its walls and made the place safe against +the attacks of Indians. At once it became a centre +for contraband traffic. The Spanish laws and colonial +policy forbade vessels to land at Buenos Aires. +In defiance of the prohibition, illegal trade had been +carried on, but the lading of vessels lying in the +Buenos Aires roads was conducted at great risk. +Officials might order the seizure of the goods, and +enormous bribes had to be paid to functionaries; +often the governor was the smuggler's partner, but +he was a partner who demanded an exorbitant share +of the profit. In Colonia, however, merchandise +could be safely stored and embarked at leisure, so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> +the latter place rapidly absorbed the export trade +and became an <i>entrepôt</i> for imported goods destined +for sale in the valley of the Plate and in Bolivia.</p> + +<p>Spain had restored Colonia under protest and +without prejudice, explicitly reiterating her own +claim to exclusive proprietorship of the north bank +of the Plate. The diplomatists agreed that the +question of right should remain open for determination +at some future day, but all Spanish subjects +considered the existence of Colonia as a violation +of Spanish soil, and whenever a war broke out in +Europe between the mother countries, the Buenos +Aireans were in the habit of promptly sending an +expedition across the river to capture the Portuguese +town. Three times was it wrenched from the Portuguese, +and three times was it restored on the conclusion +of peace.</p> + +<p>In 1705, Spain and Portugal being engaged in +war, the governor of Buenos Aires dislodged the +Portuguese garrison from Colonia and the place remained +in Spanish possession until after the conclusion +of the Peace of Utrecht. Their eleven years' +possession at last convinced the Spaniards that the +settlement of the north bank was feasible. By 1708 +the Charrua raids had so far lost their terrors that +the Jesuit mission at Soriano was safely removed +from the island in the Uruguay River to the mainland +opposite. The trade in Uruguayan hides and +horsehair increased, and private expeditions henceforth +frequently crossed the estuary.</p> + +<p>It had long been known that the best harbours +on the Uruguayan coast were at Montevideo and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> +Maldonado, where partially sheltered bays, with +water deep enough for the vessels of the eighteenth +century, were overlooked by beautiful and defensible +town sites. Montevideo is a hundred miles east of +Colonia, and Maldonado another hundred miles +farther on toward the Atlantic. The advisability +of seizing and fortifying one or both of these places +was frequently mooted in Buenos Aires, after the +restoration of Colonia in 1716. Nothing, however, +was done until 1723, when word came that the +Portuguese had again anticipated the Spanish authorities +and had occupied and begun to fortify +Montevideo for themselves. The governor of Buenos +Aires immediately sent an overwhelming force +which compelled the Portuguese to retire. This +time neither dilatory diplomacy nor official ineptitude +prevented his doing the right thing to save Uruguay +to the Spanish Crown, and the following year +he finished the Portuguese walls at Montevideo, and +in 1726 the ground plan of a town was laid out +and a few families were brought from Buenos Aires +and the Canary Islands. Within a few years there +were a thousand people in the place, and it had been +surrounded with walls and defended by artillery. +Four years later, Maldonado was established. No +serious trouble was experienced with the Indians at +either place, and the Spaniards began to spread their +ranches over the neighbouring south-eastern part of +Uruguay.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-263.jpg" width="1024" height="633" alt="MONTEVIDEO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">MONTEVIDEO.<br /> +[From an old print.]</span> +</div> + +<p>Almost simultaneously with this important event, +the Creoles from Santa Fé province crossed over +into the wide plains which lie between the Paraná +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span>and the Uruguay, and defeated the Charrua tribes +who had kept the Spanish out of that region for one +hundred and fifty years. Soon the gauchos were in +possession of Entre Rios as far as the Uruguay. +The Charruas east of the Uruguay could not prevent +the gauchos from making their way across the +river to build their cabins and ride the plains after +cattle. The settlement of western Uruguay began, +but, except Colonia and Soriano, no towns were +founded. The half-Indian gauchos lived a semi-nomadic +life and needed and received little help from +the authorities in their constant fights against the +Indians.</p> + +<p>Shortly after the foundation of Montevideo, a +Portuguese expedition tried to recover the place, but +it was found to be too strong to attack, and the +party resolved to establish a town farther up the +coast. Three hundred miles to the north-west is +found the only opening into the great system of +lagoons which stretches along the seaward side of +Rio Grande do Sul, and at that strategic point the +Portuguese, in 1735, built a fort and town.</p> + +<p>By the middle of the eighteenth century, the situation +between Spain and Portugal in the whole region +between the Plate, the Uruguay, and the sea had +become very strained. Colonia was completely isolated +and the Spaniards controlled all the rest of +Uruguay's western and southern water-front. The +Portuguese settlements in the seaward half of Rio +Grande were prospering and multiplying, soon to +furnish thousands of gauchos, as ready as any who +rode the Argentine pampas to sally forth for war<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> +or plunder. The territory which the Jesuits had +held for more than a century on the east bank of +the Upper Uruguay lay directly back of these Portuguese +settlements and was more easily accessible +therefrom than from Montevideo. In 1750 Spain +agreed to exchange the Seven Missions for Colonia. +The Portuguese promptly took measures to secure +the ceded territory, attacked the Indian villages, and +massacred or drove off most of the inhabitants. +The Jesuits vigorously protested, and outraged +Spanish public opinion demanded the abrogation of +the treaty, so a few years later the desolated territory +was restored to Spanish possession and Colonia +remained Portuguese.</p> + +<p>In 1762 Spain and Portugal were again engaged +in war, and the governor of Buenos Aires attacked +Colonia with a force of twenty-seven hundred men +and thirty-two ships. The fortifications were strong +and the Portuguese offered a tenacious resistance. +After a well-contested siege the place surrendered, +only to be given back to Portugal the ensuing year. +Meanwhile, troops had been sent up from Montevideo +against Rio Grande and the Portuguese settlers +driven back to the north-east corner of the state, +only to rise again when the Spanish troops were gone +and to begin a guerrilla warfare which never ceased +until they had regained their towns.</p> + +<p>The eighteenth century had entered on its last +quarter before the Spanish home government took +any real steps to drive the Portuguese out of Colonia +and to reclaim the disputed territory as far north as +São Paulo. The Atlantic slope of Spanish South<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> +America was erected into a Viceroyalty, and in +1777 the greatest fleet and army ever sent by Spain +to America reached Buenos Aires under command +of the new Viceroy. The Portuguese had no forces +able to cope with his army and fleet, and he carried +all before him. The island of Santa Catharina in +the north of the disputed territory was captured, +Colonia was taken, and an army of four thousand +men started on a triumphal march north-westward +to sweep the Portuguese from the coast. The Spaniards +were at the gates of Rio Grande when news +came that peace had been declared. Orders from +home compelled the Viceroy to stop his northward +progress while the diplomats agreed on a division. +The treaty of San Ildefonso in the main gave each +country the territory its citizens actually occupied. +The Seven Missions remained Spanish, and the +Portuguese were deprived of the southern half of +the great lagoon and of Colonia. Santa Catharina +was restored, and the right of Portugal to the vast +interior and to the regions of the Upper Paraná and +Paraguay were confirmed. Rio Grande remained +Portuguese and Uruguay was assured of being +thenceforth and for ever Spanish in blood and speech.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-b.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-5.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>THE REVOLUTION</h3> + + +<p>With the treaty of San Ildefonso, Uruguay +began her real existence. Montevideo was +made the greatest fortress on the Atlantic coast, +commanded by its own military governor, strongly +garrisoned and provisioned, and with over one hundred +cannon mounted on its walls. The Charruas +had long been driven back from the coast, and as +soon as the danger of Portuguese interference was +over settlements spread rapidly along the whole +southern border. Prior to 1777 there were only +five towns in Uruguay, but within the next five +years the number tripled. By the year 1810 there +were seventy-five hundred people living in the city +of Montevideo, seventy-five hundred in its immediate +district, and sixteen thousand in the outlying +settlements. Outside of Montevideo, cattle-herding +was the sole business, and the people were a hard-riding, +meat-eating, bellicose race. Immediately to +the north-east lived fifty thousand Rio Grandenses +of Portuguese blood and speech, who, in like surroundings, +had acquired the same pastoral and semi-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>nomadic +habits as their Argentine and Uruguayan +neighbours, and who constantly made incursions +over the Spanish border. The Uruguayan gauchos +retaliated, and for nearly a century continuous +partisan warfare went on, for these half-savage +cattle-herders recked little of treaties or boundary +lines. The Spanish guerrillas bore the name of +<i>blandenques</i>, and in this school of arms the future +generals of Uruguay's war of independence were +trained. Most of the forays were only for the purpose +of stealing cattle or burning cabins built in +coveted regions; nevertheless, one of these expeditions +changed the nationality of a territory larger +than England. In 1801 the Rio Grandenses conquered +the Seven Missions, thus doubling at a single +stroke the area of their own state and reducing +Uruguay to substantially its present dimensions.</p> + +<p>As the seat of the largest Spanish garrison, Montevideo +naturally became the centre of pro-Spanish +feeling and influence in the Plate and the home of +families who boasted distinguished Castilian descent +and conservative principles. In the interior +settlements Creole influences predominated, and +the population was substantially homogeneous with +that of the Argentine provinces on the other side +of the Uruguay River. Between the aristocratic +Montevideans and the gauchos of the country districts +there was little sympathy.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-269.jpg" width="1024" height="695" alt="BRIDGE AT MALDONADO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">BRIDGE AT MALDONADO.</span> +</div> + +<p>In 1806, the English captured Buenos Aires, and +many Spanish officials and officers fled to Montevideo +for refuge. The garrison of Montevideo furnished +troops and arms for the expedition which +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> +soon went across the Plate and triumphantly recaptured +Buenos Aires. Late that same year, British +troops from the Cape of Good Hope seized Maldonado +harbour in eastern Uruguay. As soon as re-enforcements +arrived a movement was made against +Montevideo. On the 14th of January, 1807, the +city was besieged by sea and land. The attacking +and defending forces were about equal in number, +although the British regulars were far superior in +discipline and effectiveness to their opponents, half +of whom were militia. A sortie in force was completely +defeated, with a loss of one thousand men, +and after eight days of bombardment the British +effected a breach in the wall and took the town by +assault, the Spaniards losing half their force and the +remainder scattering. A great fleet of merchant +vessels had accompanied the British expedition, and +as soon as the town surrendered their goods were +landed, and the English traders took possession of +the shops almost as completely as the British soldiers +did of the fortifications. Uruguay was opened up +to free trade, the gauchos were soon selling their +hides and horsehair for higher prices than they had +ever received, and buying clothes, tools, and the +comforts and luxuries of civilised life at rates they +had never dreamed possible.</p> + +<p>A few months later the English attacked Buenos +Aires, but were overwhelmingly defeated, and the +British general found himself in such an awkward +situation that, in order to obtain permission to withdraw +his army, he had to agree to evacuate Montevideo. +The convention was carried out and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> +British soldiers left the Plate forever, but the British +merchants remained behind. Although the English +occupation of the city had lasted so short a time, it +created an unwonted animation in Montevideo by +the establishment of a great number of mercantile +and industrial houses. From this time, Montevideo's +commerce assumed greater proportions and +it became a place of real commercial importance, as +well as a military post. Both city and country had +tasted the delights of commercial freedom, and material +civilisation had received its first great impulse.</p> + +<p>Elio, the Spanish military governor of Montevideo, +suspected the loyalty of Liniers, the Frenchman, +who, because he had led in the fighting against +the English, had been created viceroy at Buenos +Aires. Spanish affairs at home were in confusion +and fast becoming worse confounded. The old king +had abdicated in favour of his son; civil war had +broken out on the Peninsula; the new king had +been compelled by Napoleon to resign, and Joseph +Bonaparte was proclaimed monarch of Spain. The +Spanish nation refused to accept Joseph and a revolutionary +government was set up in Seville. Elio, +as a patriotic Spaniard, promptly swore allegiance +to this junta, but the Viceroy and the Buenos Aires +Creoles hesitated as to their course of action. The +Montevidean governor and the Buenos Aires Viceroy +quarrelled; the former accused the latter of unfaithfulness +to Spain and disavowed his authority, +and the latter retaliated by issuing a decree deposing +Elio. On receiving news of this act, which was +strictly legal under Spanish law, the Montevideo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> +Cabildo met in extraordinary session and appointed +a junta, which was to be dependent solely and +directly upon the authority of the banished legitimate +king and in no way upon Buenos Aires so +long as Liniers remained Viceroy. Thus early did +Montevideo act independently of Buenos Aires.</p> + +<p>Although the sentiment of loyalty was much +stronger in Montevideo than in Buenos Aires, the +English invasion was no sooner over than there became +manifest something of the same profound +division between Creoles and Spaniards. Three +years, however, passed without disturbances; and +even when the news of the overthrow of the new +Spanish Viceroy by the populace of Buenos Aires +on the 25th of May, 1810, reached Montevideo, the +governor was able to prevent any revolutionary +manifestations of sympathy. On the 12th of July +a small part of the garrison rose in a mutiny, which +was easily suppressed. In January, 1811, Elio returned +to Montevideo with a commission as Viceroy +and bringing considerable re-enforcements. He declared +war on Creole revolutionists at Buenos Aires +and imprisoned the Montevideans suspected of Creole +sympathies and revolutionary ideas.</p> + +<p>Among those who escaped to Buenos Aires was +one destined to be the founder of Uruguayan +nationality. This was José Artigas, then captain +of guerrilla cavalry. Although born in Montevideo +he had lived the life of a gaucho from boyhood, and +since 1797 had been a leader of the gaucho bands +who were continually fighting the Rio Grandenses. +He happened to be in Colonia on the occasion of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> +Elio's declaration of war against the Creoles and at +once fled to Buenos Aires. The junta there gave +him a lieutenant-colonel's commission and some +substantial help. The gauchos of the south-eastern +part of Uruguay had meanwhile risen against the +Spanish governor, and within a few weeks Artigas +was back on Uruguayan soil at the head of a considerable +force, while all around him bands of gauchos +under other chiefs were preparing to resist the Spaniards. +His bravery, energy, and good luck in the +field, and his ruthless maintenance of discipline, +gave him an ascendancy over all the others.</p> + +<p>In April, 1811, Belgrano, the chief general of +Buenos Aires, arrived with re-enforcements. Shortly +after, a Spanish detachment, which had reached the +western part of Uruguay, was captured, and the +gaucho leaders advanced almost to the walls of +Montevideo. A force of one thousand Spaniards +started out to meet them and, on the 18th of May, +met with complete defeat at the battle of Las +Piedras. For this victory Artigas was promoted by +the Buenos Aires Junta, and became the greatest +military figure on the patriot side. With a considerable +army of gauchos from both banks of the +Uruguay and of patriots from Buenos Aires he +began a siege of Montevideo.</p> + +<p>The siege, however, did not last long. The great +expedition sent by the patriots to Bolivia was overwhelmingly +defeated in the battle of Huaqui, and +the Buenos Aires Junta, horribly alarmed for their +own safety, ordered all the troops under their control +to return and help defend that city. At the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> +same time a Portuguese army advanced from Brazil +with the avowed purpose of saving Montevideo from +being lost to Spain, but really to take possession of +Uruguay for King John's own benefit. Artigas was +compelled to retire to the Argentine, and Uruguayan +historians say that on his long retreat to the Uruguay +River he was accompanied by practically the +whole rural population of the country. The semi-nomadic +habits of the gauchos made such a migration +easy, and they quickly found new homes on the +opposite shore in Entre Rios, whence it would be +easy to return as soon as the Portuguese troops +retired.</p> + +<p>Considerations of international politics and English +pressure compelled King John to withdraw his +troops from Uruguay in the middle of the year +1812, and the Buenos Aires government immediately +began to assemble an army on the right bank +of the Uruguay. Artigas was still encamped with +his Uruguayan forces in the same neighbourhood, +and although he held an Argentine commission he +was virtually independent. The Argentine army, +under the command of José Rondeau, who in colonial +days had been captain of guerrillas alongside +Artigas, advanced against Montevideo, and on the +last day of 1812 won the bloody battle of Cerrito, in +sight of the city, and shut the Spaniards up within +its walls. Artigas followed and assisted in the siege, +but he refused to unite his forces with those of +Rondeau until his own claims should be recognised +and his demands complied with. He assumed a +dictatorship and sent delegates to Buenos Aires<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> +to advocate the formation of a federal republic, of +which Buenos Aires was to be simply one member. +Buenos Aires refused to receive his delegates, and +civil war broke out. Rondeau adhered to the +Buenos Aires interest; and after a year of disputes, +in the beginning of January, 1814, Artigas withdrew +his own followers from Montevideo, leaving +the partisans of Buenos Aires to continue the siege +alone. In May the celebrated Irish admiral, William +Brown, destroyed the Spanish fleet, which had +hitherto dominated the Plate. Montevideo's communications +with both land and sea were shut off, +and the fortress shortly afterwards surrendered to +General Carlos Alvear, the Argentine general who +was then commanding the besieging forces.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, Artigas had retired to the west, and +the gauchos, not only of western Uruguay, but also +of Entre Rios, Corrientes, the Missions, and Santa +Fé, rallied around his standard. Independent chiefs +in these various provinces had been resisting the +efforts of Buenos Aires to reduce them to obedience. +Artigas was, in a way, recognised as their leader, +but only as the greatest among equals. The conflict +with the Buenos Aires party went on throughout +the year 1814, and the federalists continually +gained ground. In January, 1815, Fructuoso Rivera, +one of the lieutenants of Artigas, defeated an Argentine +force at the battle of Guayabos, and the +Buenos Aires Junta was compelled to withdraw its +troops from Montevideo.</p> + +<p>This, however, did not amount to a separation of +Uruguay from the Confederation. It only marked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> +a triumph of the provinces in their efforts to prevent +Buenos Aires from establishing a centralised government. +Artigas had his friends in Entre Rios, Corrientes, +the Missions, and Santa Fé, and even as far +as Cordoba; and Francia, dictator of Paraguay, was +another of his allies in this struggle against Buenos +Aires. However, he was nothing more than a military +chief, without the capacity or even the desire of +uniting these vast territories under a rational and +stable government.</p> + +<p>At the very height of his power he made the fatal +mistake of embroiling himself with Brazil. In 1815 +he invaded the territory of the Seven Missions, +which the Rio Grandenses had conquered fourteen +years before. The Portuguese king retaliated by +sending a well-equipped army of several thousand +men, and in October, 1816, the forces of Artigas +were overwhelmed and driven with great slaughter +from the disputed territory. Artigas made stupendous +efforts to retrieve this loss, but the four +thousand men which he assembled to resist the +Portuguese army, which was now advancing upon +Montevideo itself, were defeated and scattered in +January, 1817. The Portuguese occupied Montevideo, +and Artigas and his lieutenants, Rivera, Lavelleja, +and Oribe, each of whom later became a +great figure in the civil wars, retreated to the interior, +where they maintained themselves for two +years. After many defeats, Artigas himself lost +the support of the chiefs of Entre Rios and Santa +Fé. He was finally driven out of Uruguay and +attempted to establish himself in the Argentine +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span>provinces, only to be completely overwhelmed by +his rivals. On the 23rd of September, 1820, he presented +himself with forty men, all who remained +faithful to him, at the Paraguayan town of Candelaria +on the Paraná, begging hospitality of Francia. +Francia granted him asylum, and this indomitable +guerrilla chief, who for twenty-five years had kept +the soil of Uruguay and of the Argentine mesopotamia +soaked in blood, spent the rest of his life +peacefully cultivating his garden in the depths of +the Paraguayan forests. He died in 1850 at the age +of eighty-six years; six years later his remains were +brought from Paraguay to Montevideo and interred +in the national pantheon. On the sarcophagus are +engraved these words: "Artigas, Founder of the +Uruguayan Nation."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/illus-277.jpg" width="600" height="724" alt="GENERAL DON JOSE GERVASIO ARTIGAS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">GENERAL DON JOSÉ GERVASIO ARTIGAS.<br /> +[From an old wood-cut.]</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>Rivera was the last Uruguayan chief to lay down +his arms before the Portuguese. When he surrendered, +early in 1820, most of the other leaders had +already given up and accepted service in the Portuguese +army of occupation. In 1821, a Uruguayan +Congress, selected for this purpose, declared the +country incorporated with the Portuguese dominions +under the name of the Cisplatine Province. For +five years Montevideo and the country remained +quiet under the Portuguese dominion, and Uruguay +peacefully became a province of Brazil when that +country declared her independence. The most celebrated +chiefs of the civil war were officers in the +Brazilian army, and few external signs of dissatisfaction +were apparent. Underneath the surface, however, +fermented a hatred of the foreign rule, and +the proud Creoles only awaited an opportunity to +revolt.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-7.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>INDEPENDENCE AND CIVIL WAR</h3> + + +<p>In the beginning of 1825 a group of patriots met in +Buenos Aires and planned an invasion of Uruguayan +territory. Word was sent to different chiefs +in the country districts, and on the night of the 19th +of April thirty-three adventurers, with Lavalleja at +their head, landed on the shore of the river in the +extreme south-western corner of the country. No +sooner had they landed than the country rose; the +troops sent from Montevideo to meet the band of +revolutionists refused to fight, and, deserting the +Brazilian banner, joined their compatriots. The +revolutionists advanced east along the Negro and +the Yi to Durazno, one hundred and thirty miles +north of Montevideo, where they found Rivera, then +general in the Brazilian service. He promptly deserted +and was at once associated with Lavalleja in +the command.</p> + +<p>Lavalleja advanced to the south, calling the +population to arms, while the northern detachments +rose in response to Rivera. Only fifteen days after +the thirty-three had crossed the Uruguay, the flag<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> +of the revolution was floating over the Cerrito Hill +in front of Montevideo, and Brazilian power was +virtually confined to the walls of that city and +Colonia. The military chiefs formally declared +Uruguay separated from Brazil, and proclaimed its +reincorporation with the Argentine. The number +of Brazilians then in Uruguay was small, and infantry +could not be expected to do much fighting +on the plains against gaucho cavalry led by such experienced +guerrilla fighters as Rivera and Lavalleja. +A division of Rio Grandense cavalry, under their +own chiefs, Bento Manoel and Bento Goncalvez, +met the Uruguayans at Sarandi. The two armies +used substantially the same methods, charging into +each other, sword in hand and carbine at shoulder. +The Brazilians were caught in a disadvantageous +position and suffered a complete and bloody overthrow.</p> + +<p>The result of this battle was to insure to the +revolutionists the continuation of their complete +dominance in the country. Their cavalry bands +roamed at will up to the very walls of Montevideo. +Buenos Aires received the news with extravagant +demonstrations of joy, and formal notice was given +to Brazil that Uruguay would henceforth be recognised +as an integral part of the Argentine Confederation. +The emperor promptly responded with a +declaration of war. His fleet blockaded Buenos +Aires, while he poured re-enforcements into Montevideo +and sent an army to invade northern Uruguay. +Argentine troops likewise swarmed across the +Uruguay River into the country, and the Brazilians<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> +could make little progress. On sea they were not +more successful, and by the beginning of 1826 Admiral +Brown was blockading Colonia and menacing +the communications of Montevideo.</p> + +<p>In August, 1826, the famous Argentine general, +Carlos Alvear, took command of the patriot forces. +Jealousies and quarrels had meantime broken out +between Lavalleja and Rivera. Alvear took the +former's side and Rivera's partisans revolted. But +the arrival of more re-enforcements for the Brazilians +hushed up for the moment the intestine quarrels of +the Spanish-Americans. Alvear determined to carry +the war into Brazil, and early in January, 1827, succeeded +in passing between the northern and southern +Brazilian armies, and penetrated across the frontier +to the north-east. He had sacked Bagé, the principal +town of that region, before the Brazilian general, +the Marquis of Barbacena, was able to concentrate +his forces and start in pursuit. Alvear turned north +toward the Missions, but he was in a hostile country +where defeat meant total destruction. Though his +army numbered eight thousand men he had cut himself +off from his base, and an enemy in equal force +was close at his heels. He resolved to turn and give +battle, and on the 20th of February, 1827, his army +met that of Barbacena in the decisive battle of Ituzaingo, +which ended in the defeat of the Brazilians. +Although Barbacena was able to withdraw his army +without material loss, and Alvear retired at once to +Uruguayan soil, the Brazilians were never afterwards +able to undertake a vigorous offensive. The result +of that battle insured that the north bank of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> +Plate should remain Spanish in blood, language, and +government.</p> + +<p>A few days before Ituzaingo, Admiral Brown had +won the great naval fight of Juncal at the mouth of +the river Uruguay, and thenceforth the Brazilian +blockade of Buenos Aires was entirely ineffective. +If it had not been for the civil disturbances in +Argentina that paralysed the Buenos Aires government, +the Brazilians might have been swept out of +Montevideo at the point of the sword, and the +Argentines might have undertaken the conquest of +Rio Grande itself. Though considerable Argentine +forces remained in Uruguay during 1827 and 1828, +they put no vigour into their operations, and on +their part the Brazilians were able to do little more +than hold Montevideo. So hampered was Rivadavia, +the president of Buenos Aires, by revolts, uprisings, +and disorders throughout Argentina that +he thought himself obliged to agree to abandon +Uruguay. Public opinion in Argentina would not +accept the treaty which he made; he was deposed, +and a leader of the opposite party installed in +power.</p> + +<p>Rivera, operating on his own account, had undertaken +a campaign against the western Rio +Grande, but so bitter was factional feeling that his +rival, Lavalleja, sent a force to pursue and fight +him, while the new Buenos Aires government was +induced to sign a treaty of peace largely because +Rivera's success against the Brazilians might make +him strong enough to be dangerous. Both Brazil and +Argentina were tired of the tedious, expensive war,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> +and both governments had preoccupations within +their own territories. Through the intervention of +the British Minister the terms were agreed upon. +Brazil and Argentina both gave up their claims to +Uruguay, the region was erected into an independent +republic, and Brazil and Argentina pledged +themselves to guarantee its independence during +five years.</p> + +<p>At that time Argentina was convulsed by the +struggle between the federalists and the unitarians, +and the Uruguayans were also divided into two +camps—the followers of Lavalleja and those of +Rivera. Neither in Argentina nor in Uruguay were +these divisions parties in any proper sense of that +term. They were military factions, whose ambitious +leaders seem to have been always willing to +sacrifice the interests of the country at large to secure +a partisan advantage. The Argentine troops +who returned home from the war against Brazil +promptly plunged their country into the bloodiest +civil war known in her history, and Uruguay did +not delay in following the example.</p> + +<p>The first chief magistrate of independent Uruguay +was José Rondeau, an Uruguayan who had become +one of the greatest Argentine generals. However, +Lavalleja and Rivera were the real factors in the +situation, and Rondeau's efforts to conciliate both +at the same time failed. The Constituent Assembly, +which soon met and framed a paper constitution, +was controlled by Lavalleja's partisans. Rondeau +was deposed and Lavalleja assumed the reins of +power. Rivera prepared to march on Montevideo<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> +and dispute the matter by arms, but the representatives +of Argentina and Brazil intervened and a +compromise was effected. Rivera got the best of +the bargain, being given command of the army, and +after the constitution had been declared (July 18, +1830), he became, as a matter of course, the first +president of Uruguay.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-f.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-8.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3>CIVIL WAR AND ARGENTINE INTERVENTION</h3> + + +<p>Except for an expedition against the remnants +of the once formidable Charrua Indians, the +first two years of independence passed in peace. +Since the expulsion of Artigas, the country had +prospered and its population had risen nearly threefold +within twenty-five years, in spite of the bloody +fighting which occurred from 1811 to 1817 and from +1825 to 1828. The settlements had spread far back +from the coast, and many of the principal interior +towns date from this period.</p> + +<p>In 1832 the civil wars began again. Lavalleja's +partisans organised a conspiracy, and a certain +Colonel Garzon took advantage of Rivera's absence +from Montevideo to raise a mutiny in the garrison +and to issue a pronunciamento deposing the president. +The latter soon recovered the city, and after +two years of intermittent fighting the Lavalleja +party was overthrown for the moment and Rivera +finished his term in peace.</p> + +<p>Manuel Oribe, a chief of the anti-Rivera faction, +succeeded to the presidency by a compromise agree<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>ment, +but the breach between the two factions had +really grown wider and their mutual hatred became +irrepressibly bitter. Oribe soon began to persecute +his opponents. Meanwhile, the five years had expired +during which Uruguayan independence had +been guaranteed by the treaty between Argentina +and Brazil. Argentina was free to solicit the reincorporation +of Uruguay into the Confederation. +Rosas, the head of the federalist party, had made +himself master of Buenos Aires, and his authority +was recognised in most of the Argentine provinces, +although the unitarians continued their ineffectual +revolts. The new Uruguayan president sympathised +with the federalists, while his rival, Rivera, +could count on the unitarians. The plan of Rosas +was to establish Oribe firmly in Uruguay and +through his aid to incorporate that country with +Argentina, while the unitarians were desperately +anxious that Rivera should triumph, knowing that +Montevideo would be a base for the organisation of +their own forces for invasions of Buenos Aires and +central Argentina.</p> + +<p>Thenceforward for many years Uruguay's history +is inexplicably entwined with the story of the +struggle between the two great Argentine factions. +The little country became the storm-centre of South +American politics and the chief battlefield of the +contending forces. Now for the first time we encounter +references to "blancos" and "colorados," +which remain to this day the names of Uruguayan +political parties. All the forces of the community +lined up on either side and never have political<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> +parties fought more determinedly and relentlessly. +The divisions between them entered into all social +and business relations, and even friendly intercourse +between the members of the two factions was almost +impossible. Men have often been more blanco or +colorado than Uruguayan. The old conservative +resident Spanish families were the basis of the blanco, +or Oribe party, while the colorados, or partisans of +Rivera, were the progressive faction. The latter +attracted the Argentine refugees fleeing from the +tyranny of Rosas, and could count upon the +support of resident Europeans and upon the sympathy +of foreign governments. Rosas in Argentina +and the blancos in Uruguay represented the +spirit of exclusivism and opposition to foreign +influences.</p> + +<p>After Oribe's accession to power Rivera hastened +to raise a revolt in the western districts. He obtained +help from the unitarians, and his invasion was +accompanied by many Argentine generals who had +distinguished themselves in the wars against Rosas. +The Argentine dictator sent help to Oribe, but for +two years the tide of battle set in favour of the +colorados and unitarians. Rivera had obtained so +decided an advantage by 1838 that Oribe abandoned +Montevideo and embarked for Buenos Aires, followed +by the chiefs of his party. The colorado +chief, now in control of all Uruguay, celebrated a +formal alliance with the province of Corrientes, +then in revolt against Rosas, and war was declared +against the latter. A large Argentine army, accompanied +by many blancos, invaded Uruguay, but was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> +decisively defeated at the battle of Cagancha, December +10, 1839.</p> + +<p>The interval of unquestioned colorado supremacy +which followed was one of the most flourishing periods +in the history of Uruguay. Large numbers +of the intellectual élite of Buenos Aires swarmed +across the river; Montevideo became the centre of +arts and letters of Spanish America; the civil wars +of the last few years had not been severe, and even +during their continuance property had suffered little. +Immigration from England, France, and Italy began +on a large scale, and the population increased at the +rate of four per cent. per annum. In the year 1840 +nine hundred ocean-going ships entered the port of +Montevideo, more than three thousand houses were +erected, and twenty-seven great meat-curing establishments +were in active operation. However, Rosas +and the blancos were only awaiting a good opportunity +to attack.</p> + +<p>In 1841 Oribe, in command of one of Rosas's +armies, defeated the Argentine unitarians under +General Lavalle, and marched into Entre Rios to +suppress the insurrection in that province. In January, +1842, Rivera took an army of three thousand +men to the rescue of his unitarian allies. He crossed +the river Uruguay and united his forces to those of +General Paz, but after a year's desperate fighting on +Argentine soil he and the unitarian general were +overthrown and their armies completely destroyed +in the battle of Arroya Grande. The way was +open to Montevideo; the colorados and Argentine +exiles shut themselves up in that city, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> +so-called nine-years' siege began. Rosas's power +seemed overwhelming, and although Rivera and +other colorado chiefs at the head of scattered bands +managed to make some headway in the outlying +departments, they were finally driven into Brazil, +while the unhappy country was given up to pillage +and slaughter. This <i>guerra grande</i> was the bloodiest, +longest, and most stubborn war ever fought on +Uruguayan soil.</p> + +<p>Montevideo seemed doomed to an early surrender +when an opportune intervention by France and +England upset the plans of Rosas. He had embroiled +himself with the ministers of those powers +by refusing to give satisfaction for certain alleged +injuries to foreign merchants and naval officers, and +the dispute became so acrimonious that the European +powers finally resorted to the most drastic +coercive measures. A French, and later a British, +fleet blockaded Buenos Aires and drove Rosas's +vessels from the Plate. Under these circumstances +it was impossible for him to land re-enforcements on +the Uruguayan shore. In 1845 the European navies +forced a passage at the head of the estuary into the +Paraná and Uruguay, destroying the batteries which +Rosas had erected there and opening up those rivers +to foreign navigation. Thereafter, troops could be +sent from Argentina into Uruguay only by a long +détour to the north.</p> + +<p>In spite of this hampering of his military operations, +and the injury which the blockade caused to +the commerce of Buenos Aires, the Argentine dictator +stubbornly refused to yield an inch to foreign<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> +pressure. France and England were finally tired +out; they raised the blockade; Rosas regained his +control of the Plate and the early capture of Montevideo +seemed certain. Just at this time, however, +General Urquiza, governor of Entre Rios, and +Rosas's best lieutenant and most successful general, +broke with his chief. Entre Rios became a virtually +independent state, and Rosas's efforts to reduce +it were unavailing. Urquiza's defection again +rendered it impossible properly to reinforce Oribe's +army. The colorados of the interior plucked up +courage and during four years no material progress +was made on either side. A tedious and exhausting +partisan warfare went on in the interior; guerrilla +bands scoured the country in every direction; inhabitants +of the same town were arrayed against +each other, and surprises, treasons, and massacres +were almost daily occurrences. One of the most +successful leaders on the colorado side was the +famous Giuseppe Garibaldi. The future liberator +of Italy had made his début as a revolutionist in the +insurrection which broke out in 1835 in the Brazilian +province of Rio Grande. Later he crossed the +Uruguayan border and fought against Rosas for +several years.</p> + +<p>Early in 1851 a grand combination to overthrow +Rosas was made between Entre Rios, Corrientes, +the unitarians, the colorados, and Brazil. The constant +policy of the latter power had been to secure +and maintain the independence of Uruguay, and she +welcomed the opportunity to open up the Paraná +and Uruguay, on whose headwaters she had great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> +territories, inaccessible except along those rivers. +Urquiza naturally became the general-in-chief of the +alliance. On the 18th of July he crossed the Uruguay, +followed by a large army from his own provinces. +A Brazilian army soon joined him and the +colorados flocked to his standard. The Brazilian +fleet came down the coast and controlled the estuary. +An overwhelming force advanced on Montevideo +and the blanco army found itself with a hostile +city and fleet in front, a superior army behind, and +deprived of the hope of receiving help from Buenos +Aires. The officers hastened to make terms with +Urquiza. Whole divisions deserted, and Oribe himself +was obliged to surrender. Many of the soldiers +who had been fighting in the blanco ranks joined +Urquiza, and the latter, after a vain attempt to reconcile +the Uruguayan factions among themselves, +marched his army back through Uruguay and Entre +Rios, crossed the Paraná, and, descending to Buenos +Aires, defeated Rosas in the great battle of Monte +Caseros.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-3.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h3>COLORADOS AND BLANCOS</h3> + + +<p>The overthrow of Rosas and Oribe marked the +end of the effort to re-incorporate Uruguay +with the Argentine Confederation. Uruguay was +no longer in peril from foreign aggression, but she +was far from being united. The blancos had apparently +been completely crushed, but their wealth, +prestige, and numbers still made them formidable. +The seeds of division lay thickly in the soil of the +national society and character, sure to spring up and +bear many crops of wars and pronunciamentos.</p> + +<p>For the moment, however, the fierce Uruguayan +partisans had had enough of fighting. The colorados +were dominant and the blancos disorganised and +discouraged. It seemed likely that Uruguay would +enjoy a prolonged peace. The wars which lasted +almost continuously from 1843 to 1851 had interrupted +immigration from Europe; unitarians had, +however, crossed in multitudes from Buenos Aires +and many of their families remained after the proclamation +of peace. To this day Montevideo is full +of families descended from Buenos Aires refugees;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> +the same names constantly recur on both banks of +the Plate, and the social ties uniting the two cities +are intimate. Uruguay's herds of cattle and sheep +had suffered from the depredations of the armed +marauding bands which had scoured the country +districts for nine years, but man's cruel destructiveness +could not injure the magnificent pasturage with +which nature had endowed the nation, and animals +quickly multiplied again by hundreds of thousands. +In 1860 the cattle in Uruguay numbered more than +five millions, the sheep two millions, and the horses +nearly one million. The population increased at the +almost incredible ratio of nine per cent. per annum +after the overthrow of Oribe in 1851 until civil war +again broke out in 1863.</p> + +<p>During these years colorado chiefs occupied the +presidency, sometimes succeeding one another, +sometimes by pronunciamento, and sometimes by a +form of election. General Venancio Flores, an able +and ruthless officer, became the principal figure +among the colorados. In 1853 he was a member of +a triumvirate which forced the legal president to +withdraw, and in 1854 he was himself raised to the +presidency, only to be obliged to resign the following +year. As is usual in South America, the dominant +party split into factions, led by ambitious chiefs, +and lost popularity. The blancos, as soon as they got +into power, obtained control of the senate, and their +prestige and wealth soon balanced the military force +of their opponents. In 1860 they finally prevailed, +and their leader, Berro, became constitutional president +of the republic.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span></p> + +<p>The colorados, however, did not propose to submit. +Massed upon the Argentine frontier, they +held themselves ready to fall upon their successful +opponents at the first opportunity. Flores had +been exiled and joined the Argentine army, but in +1863 he obtained aid in Buenos Aires and disembarked +upon the Uruguayan coast with a considerable +force. His partisans rose and he obtained +possession of a large portion of the country and set +up a government of his own. For a year the contest +went on with varying fortunes, and then this +fight between blancos and colorados involved all the +neighbouring nations and brought on the greatest +war which has ever devastated South America and +which resulted in the nearly complete destruction +of the Paraguayan people.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-295.jpg" width="1024" height="672" alt="THE SOLIS THEATRE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE SOLIS THEATRE.</span> +</div> + +<p>The unitarians, then in power at Buenos Aires, +naturally sympathised with the leader of their old +colorado allies, and were inclined to aid Flores's +attempt to regain control of Montevideo. Brazil +favoured his pretensions even more actively. The +Brazilians of Rio Grande owned most of the land +and cattle just over the Uruguayan border, a third +of all the rural properties in the republic being taxed +to them, and complaints of extortion often came to +the Rio government. The blanco president refused +the satisfaction demanded, and Brazil determined to +enforce the claims of her citizens. Flores was formally +recognised as the legitimate ruler of the country, +and a fleet and army were sent to his assistance. +Lopez, dictator of Paraguay, thought Brazil's intervention +in Uruguay dangerous to the international +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> +equilibrium of South America. He protested, and +when the Brazilian government persisted and sent +its army over the border he began war. The +Brazilians advanced to Montevideo and their fleet +came down the coast. The city was blockaded by +sea and besieged by land, while the main body of +the allies advanced against the town of Paysandù on +the Uruguay River, where the blancos had assembled +in force. The place was taken by assault and given +up to a horrible pillage, the recollection of which is +still graven in the memory of Uruguayans. The +blanco party never recovered from the slaughter. +Those in Montevideo saved themselves by surrendering +the town without resistance. Flores +entered in triumph and the blanco leaders fled into +exile.</p> + +<p>Flores was under obligations to lead a division in +the war against Paraguay, and he absented himself +for that purpose for nearly two years, during which +the country districts were somewhat disturbed. In +1867 he returned and restored order with a strong +hand. This short lease of undisturbed power was +employed in making many important improvements. +Great public edifices were completed, the telegraph +cable was laid to Buenos Aires, the building of railroads +was begun, and a new civil code adopted. +Immigration was resumed on a large scale and the +country felt the economic impulse that was already +transforming the whole Plate valley. Although the +country rapidly prospered under the military administration +of Flores, the feeling of the blancos remained +intensely bitter, and on the 15th of February,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> +1868, the colorado president was assassinated in the +streets of Montevideo.</p> + +<p>Flores's death was the signal for wholesale executions +and for the outbreak of another long blanco +insurrection. Although the growth of wealth and +population had never been more rapid than at this +very time, the country was not free from civil disturbance +until 1872, when an armistice was signed. +A year later troubles broke out again and the troops +refused to march against the insurgents. To the +bitterness of party feeling and the official corruption +which diminished the revenue and hampered commerce +was added the embarrassment of the financial +difficulties which followed the great panic of 1873. +The public debt had doubled in the ten years between +1860 and 1870 and now reached the enormous +figure of over forty million dollars, nearly $150 for +each inhabitant in the country. One president after +another was unable to maintain himself in the face +of the financial and political difficulties of the situation, +but in 1876 General Lorenzo Latorre, an intelligent +and determined colorado chief, became +dictator. For economy's sake, he reduced the +number of army officers, of whom there were over +twelve hundred for two thousand privates. He +rooted out the worst frauds in the customs service, +and refunded the public debt, compelling the foreign +creditors to accept six instead of twelve per cent. +interest. At the same time he rigidly suppressed +the disorders which had harassed the country since +the murder of Flores. The bands of marauders, +assassins, and bandits, who had exercised their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> +nefarious occupations under cover of belonging to +the insurrectionists, were relentlessly pursued and +brought to justice. For the first time in years a +traveller could traverse the country from end to end +without arms. Like Flores, Latorre often used +brute force to secure peace and order, and the +Uruguayans were too turbulent to submit long to +such dictation. Countless conspiracies were formed +which were bloodily suppressed, but public fear and +dislike of Latorre grew continually more menacing. +In 1880, tired out with constant anxieties and +grieved over what he considered the ingratitude of +his countrymen, Latorre resigned his office and went +into exile.</p> + +<p>His successor, Dr. Vidal, held the presidency for +only two years, when he, too, was forced to resign. +The next president, Maximo Santos, served his +complete term of four full years, ending in 1886. +Then Vidal managed to get back into power for a +few months and was again replaced by Santos, who, +in turn, was succeeded by Tajes, who governed the +country until 1890. The ten years succeeding the +resignation of Latorre were materially very prosperous. +The sheep industry developed tremendously; +the production of wheat was more than doubled; +immigration ran up to nearly 20,000 a year; the population +of the country reached 700,000, having increased +from 400,000 in twelve years. Immigration +had been so great that the number of the foreign-born +almost equalled the natives, even when including +in the latter those of foreign parentage. In the +mixture of nationalities the foundations have been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> +laid for a race of unusual vigour and of pure Caucasian +descent.</p> + +<p>The bitterness of the old factional feeling largely +died out during the disturbances which succeeded +the murder of Flores. The blancos had suffered +terrible losses in 1864, and the colorados had become +far the more numerous party. During Latorre's +dictatorship the distinctions between the +two were almost lost, and the blanco party, by that +name at least, ceased to be an active factor in politics. +New factions, however, took their place, but +the struggles for place and power lacked the conviction +and ferocity of the old civil wars. The gaucho +and Creole element, although still politically dominant, +was diluted by the infiltration of a more industrially +minded population. The people were not so +exclusively pastoral and had ceased to be so military +in their tastes. The foreign immigrants wanted +peace,—a chance to sow their wheat and tend their +sheep undisturbed,—and the gaucho, living on his +horse, feeding on beef alone, and always ready to +ride off to fight by the side of his favourite chief, +ceased in many of the departments to be the dominant +factor. Politics became largely a game played +by the ruling Spanish-American caste and did not +directly interfere with the material interests of the +country, and rarely affected the maintenance of law +and order.</p> + +<p>The prosperity of the eighties had been accompanied +by an enormous increase in governmental +expenditures and debt. The economies so painfully +enforced in Latorre's administration were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> +abandoned. Nearly as much money was spent in ten +years as had been in the previous fifty years of the +republic's existence. The debt more than doubled, +and the deficit each year equalled fifty per cent. +of the receipts. The Buenos Aires panic of 1890 +brought on grave commercial difficulties; real estate +dropped one-half; prices fell, and, as usual, the +people blamed the government. Political disturbances +began with an attempt at a blanco uprising in +Montevideo in 1891. The clergy were active in +fomenting dissatisfaction, but the trouble was suppressed +for the time. Herrera y Obes, elected in +1890, served his term out, but the government was +getting deeper and deeper into the financial mire, +in spite of having cut down the rate of interest on +the public debt fifty per cent. The murmurs of the +public grew constantly more menacing against a +taxation which had become so excessive that it +almost threatened the destruction of industries.</p> + +<p>When the election came on in 1894 the outgoing +president found that he had not control of Congress, +the body which elects the president. A deadlock +ensued and the ballots were taken amid confusion +and fears of intimidation. Ellaure, the president's +candidate, dared not accept because of the threatening +attitude of the opposition. Finally, Juan Idiarte +Borda was declared elected, amid outcries and protests +against dictation and terrorism. The new +president pledged himself to reform the finances and +pursue a conciliatory policy toward the different +factions, but he was soon accused of extravagance +and favouritism. The blancos had again become a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> +formidable party after twenty years of eclipse, and +they believed that they were being deprived of their +political rights by the colorado president. In 1896 +he procured the election of a Congress completely +under his control, and early in 1897, seeing no hope +of a constitutional change, a blanco colonel named +Lamas raised the standard of revolt, assembled a +force in the western provinces, and gained a victory +over the president's soldiers. He marched east +and joined Aparicio Saraiva, a chief belonging to a +family celebrated in the military annals of Brazil, +who had brought a considerable force over the border. +The rebels soon had possession of the eastern +departments and menaced Montevideo, while +Borda borrowed money right and left and armed and +drilled regiment after regiment to prosecute the war +against them. Nevertheless, the rebels maintained +themselves and roamed the country at will. They +would listen to no terms that did not include Borda's +resignation, and it seemed as if the country was +doomed to pass through another long and bloody +civil war.</p> + +<p>On August 25, 1897, President Borda was assassinated +in the streets of Montevideo by a respectable +grocer's clerk. The vice-president, Juan L. Cuestas, +succeeded peacefully to the control of the government +in Montevideo, and at once entered into negotiations +with the leaders of the insurrectionists in +the departments. Terms were quickly agreed upon. +Cuestas conceded minority representation and electoral +reform, and in a very short time the rebels +had laid down their arms. The few months of war<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> +had cost Uruguay dear. Thirteen million dollars had +been spent by the government, the collection of the +revenue had been interrupted, and internal transportation +had been demoralised. Now, however, +industry and commerce resumed their usual course, +and, since President Cuestas's accession to power, +the peace of the country has been undisturbed. +Political manifestations have been confined to disputes +in Congress and the press. They became so +violent that in 1898 the president dissolved the +chambers and declared himself dictator. He reorganised +the army on a basis which insured that +there would be no mutinies, and at the same time +pursued a policy of administrative reform which +has done much to bring order out of the financial +confusion. The obligations of the government have +been religiously performed, and Uruguay's currency +is on a gold basis. In 1899 Cuestas was elected +president according to the forms of the Constitution. +He carried out the pledge he had given the blancos +not to interfere with the elections, and in 1900 +they made great gains and elected enough members +to control the Senate. The political situation has, +therefore, been somewhat strained, but there seems +to be no danger that the congressional opposition +will try to interfere with the executive functions of +the president.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-303.jpg" width="1024" height="660" alt="THE CATHEDRAL, MONTEVIDEO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE CATHEDRAL, MONTEVIDEO.</span> +</div> + +<p>This gallant and pugnacious little people will continue +to play a rôle in South American affairs out +of all proportion to the size of their country. Uruguay +seems certain to continue to be the political +storm-centre of the Atlantic coast. Climate, soil, and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> +geographical position insure a rapid increase in population +and wealth, while its political independence +must continue to be an object of constant solicitude +on the part of its gigantic neighbours, Argentina and +Brazil. Montevideo is a formidable trade rival to +Buenos Aires, and must always be, as it has so often +been in the past, the base for any attach at the heart +of the Argentine Republic. To the north nothing +but an artificial boundary separates Uruguay from +Rio Grande do Sul, and the two regions are alike in +everything except language. Should the Portuguese-Americans +again evince those tendencies toward +expansion which distinguished them in the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Uruguay +would be the natural point of attack, and if Brazil +should ever divide into its component parts, as it +came so near doing in 1822 and again in 1837, Rio +Grande and Uruguay might find it necessary to +coalesce, or possibly wars might ensue between +them which would change the face of South America. +A not improbable alternative would be the +establishment of a power on the north bank of +the Plate strong enough to hold its own, and which +might play the same rôle in the interaction of Spanish +and Portuguese Americans as did Flanders between +the Teutons and Latins in Europe.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-b.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + + +<div class="bbt"> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="BRAZIL" id="BRAZIL"></a>BRAZIL</h1> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-4.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>PORTUGAL</h3> + + +<p>The motherland of Brazil is Portugal. Profound +as were the changes incident to transplanting +a people to a virgin continent; notwithstanding +Spanish dominion and Dutch conquests; large as +were the admixtures of negro, Indian, and alien +blood; in spite of independence and Republicanism; +the language, customs, religion, and laws of Brazil +are to-day substantially like those of Portugal.</p> + +<p>The parallel between the United States and Britain +is not closer. Brazil has diverged even less than her +model. Her population may have a larger admixture +of non-Portuguese blood than the North Americans +have of non-British, but politically there was +less opportunity for divergence, for Brazil was kept +under much closer subordination. The discovery of +Brazil coincided with the destruction of popular +liberties in the mother-country. Thereafter, the +Portuguese government was a centralised despotism, +and its hand lay heavy on the Brazilian provinces. +They were forbidden intercourse with the rest of the +world; functionaries of every kind were continually<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> +imported; the provinces never dreamed of asserting +any right to self-government; from the beginning +the system was centralising and stifling. The North +American colonies of England were left to grow up +by themselves; they were never under a colonial +government properly so called; a revolt followed +the first serious attempt to subject them to a real +colonial régime. But the independence of Brazil +came because liberties were finally granted, not because +they were threatened to be taken away. The +country remained under a tutelage, growing continually +more rigorous, and which ceased only after +the Portuguese monarch had fled from Lisbon and +the colony had become greater than the mother-country.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 768px;"> +<img src="images/s-310.jpg" width="768" height="789" alt="" title="" /> +<span class="caption">OUTLINE MAP OF BRAZIL</span> +<p class="center"><a href="images/illus-310.jpg">Click here for a larger image</a></p> +</div> + +<p>It is, therefore, in the little peninsular kingdom, +during the centuries before Cabral caught sight of +the South American coast, that we must look for +the beginnings of Brazil. Rome gave to Portugal +laws, language, religion, and architecture; the forests +of Germany modified her political institutions; the +Saracens gave her the arts, navigation, and material +civilisation. Her happy geographical position near +the Straits of Gibraltar made her the meeting-place +for the Mohammedan and Christian religions—of +Levantine civilisation with Teutonic barbarism and +liberty. That position also enabled the qualities of +daring and enterprise and the scientific knowledge +acquired in centuries of long conflicts and intercourse +with the Moors to be turned to immediate +advantage when the Renaissance came. Portugal +was the pioneer of Europe in discovery and colonisa<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span>tion, +though Spain followed close after. Together +they led in making Western European civilisation +dominant beyond seas. The nations who followed +in their track have long since passed them, but +Portugal had once the opportunity of spreading her +influence and institutions over half the planet. In +Brazil she mixed success with the failure that was +her fate elsewhere. Brazil is to-day the nation +which has inherited Roman civilisation in the least +modified form, and is the country where the genuine +Latin spirit has the best opportunity for growth and +survival.</p> + +<p>The study of Portugal takes on a new dignity and +importance when we reflect that she has given language, +institutions, and laws to half of South America +and to a population that already outnumbers her +own four to one. She is entitled to the interest of +the world if only because she has placed her indelible +imprint on a region which is as large as Europe +and as fertile as Java, and which is destined within +the next two centuries to support the largest population +of any of the great political divisions of the +globe.</p> + +<p>In the twelfth century, the coalescence of a fragment +of the kingdom of Leon with the Moorish +territory near the mouth of the Tagus originated +Portugal as a separate country. The race was very +mixed. Its principal elements were the Leonese +and the Mosarabes—the latter being the Christians +of Moorish Portugal left undisturbed from Visigothic +times by their tolerant Mohammedan conquerors. +Each of these elements was, in its turn, of mixed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> +origin. To the original Iberian population, which +had occupied the Peninsula two thousand years before +the Christian era, had been successively added +Phenicians, Greeks, Celts, Ligurians, Carthaginians, +Latins,—and in Roman times,—officials, soldiers, +and slaves from all over the empire, including many +Jews. The long Roman dominion welded all these +together into a homogeneous mass. Later, the Visigothic +conquest added a large Teutonic contingent, +which is especially evident in northern and Leonese +Portugal. Still later, the Saracens intermarried in +considerable numbers with the Mosarabes of southern +Portugal. After the formation of the modern +kingdom, another element was added in the French, +Provençals, Flemings, and English who came in +large numbers to aid in the final expulsion of the +Moors. By the end of the fourteenth century, the +Portuguese had become a distinct nation. Racial +and religious tolerance were more advanced than +in the rest of Europe; self-governing municipalities +covered the greatest part of the country, each privileged +within a definite territory. The nobles, prelates, +and monastic and military orders were still +privileged, and their property was not subject to +tribute, but their power was not predominant. The +king was chief of the army and the proprietor of a +very considerable proportion of the land, but he was +under constant pressure to grant it to the religious +orders and to the nobles. The people were everywhere +heavily taxed—in the municipalities and +Crown lands by the king, and on the estates of the +privileged orders for the benefit of their great pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span>prietors. +The nobles were under no enforceable +obligation to perform military service. A great general +deliberative and representative assembly—the +Cortes—had come into being when the monarchy +was founded. It included representatives of the +municipalities as well as nobles and clergy, and its +importance and vitality are shown by the fact that +from 1250 to 1376 it met twenty-five times. By the +latter date, jurisprudence had become generalised +and its administration had fallen into the hands of +the Crown. The nation had developed out of local +and class privilege a reasonably consistent and uniform +administration. The municipalities were the +basis of the governmental structure, and a rude but +effective local self-government existed through their +instrumentality. The norm for the centralisation +and organisation had not been, as in nearly all the +rest of Europe, the feudal system, but the surviving +fragments of the Roman structure. To the municipalities +was largely due the astonishing vigour shown +by the Portuguese people in the fifteenth and sixteenth +centuries. The norm even survived the destruction +of liberty, and its influence can be seen in +every step of the subsequent development of Portugal +and also of Brazil.</p> + +<p>Portugal's heroic era began near the close of +the fourteenth century. The great King John I., +founder of the dynasty of Aviz, secured Portugal for +ever from absorption by Spain when he won the battle +of Aljubarrota in 1385. This was the signal for +a rapid transformation of the character and policies +of the Portuguese people. The thirst for war and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> +adventure grew. The old Portugal—laborious, agricultural, +home-loving, conservative—was replaced +by a new Portugal—adventurous, seafaring, eager, +romantic, longing for conquest, glory, and wealth, +its eyes straining over the sea, the embodiment of +the spirit of the Renaissance on its material side. +The meeting of the Levant and the Baltic, the East +and the West, Mohammedans and Christianity, the +arts and knowledge of the old races with the energy +of the new, had at last produced its perfect work. +In 1415 an army was sent into Africa, and Ceuta +was conquered; and there began that marvellous +series of voyages which not only transformed Portugal +into an empire, but gave a new world to Europe +and revolutionised the planet. Modern scientific +navigation began with the sailors instructed in the +school which was set up at Sagres by Prince Henry, +King John's son. Until then, European nautical +knowledge had been very meagre. The compass +served only to indicate direction, not distance or +position, and did not suffice for the systematic navigation +of the open Atlantic. The Portuguese first +made that possible by using astronomical observations +and inventing the quadrant and the astrolabe.</p> + +<p>This knowledge, once acquired, was promptly applied +to the work of navigation. Madeira was discovered +in 1418; the Canaries in 1427; the Azores +in 1432. The first and last were colonised and +rapidly became populous. To the West the explorers +pushed no farther for the present, but to the +south they reached Cape Blanco in 1441, Senegambia +and Cape Verde in 1445, and the Cape Verde Islands<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> +in 1460. In 1469, they turned into the Gulf of +Guinea, and in 1471 were the first Europeans to +cross the Equator. Their search, at first random, +now became definite. They believed it was only +necessary to keep on and they would round the +southern extremity of Africa and reach Abyssinia +and India by sea, a hope which became a certainty +in 1487, when Bartholomew Diaz finally reached the +Cape of Good Hope.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, a political revolution had been going +on. The strong kings of the line of Aviz had won +for the Crown a moral preponderance over the nobility +and clergy. The latter resisted the royal +encroachments, but the municipalities joined the +monarchs in the struggle against them. The king +who established centralised despotism—the Richelieu +of Portugal—was John II., the third of the Aviz +dynasty, and who reigned from 1481 to 1495. Under +his rule, the whole military power was concentrated +in the Crown; the nobility became a class living at +Court; the king was the fountain of all honour and +advancement; local officers were replaced by officials +appointed by and responsible to the central government; +piece by piece the independent functions of +the municipalities were taken away.</p> + +<p>Concentration of power in the hands of monarch +and bureaucracy produced its inevitable effect. A +short period of marvellous brilliancy in arms, statecraft, +literature, and the arts was followed by sudden +decay. The self-governing municipalities had +nurtured a multitude of men whom small power and +responsibility fitted for great things. The nation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> +turned eagerly to the work of exploration and conquest +and prosecuted it efficiently.</p> + +<p>Such a people would undertake conquest for their +king, rather than colonisation on their own account; +they would emigrate under military leadership and +forms; their colonies would tolerate a close control +by the mother country; they would seek to convert +the aborigines and reduce them to slavery; private +initiative would be stifled and overshadowed by +that of the government; large proprietorship would +be the rule; the colonies would be burdened with +functionaries sent in successive swarms from home; +taxation would be excessive; the best talent would +go into the bureau and not concern itself with industrial +matters; invention and originality would be +discouraged; agriculture would not be diversified, +nor manufactures thrive. To this day a few staple +crops predominate in Brazil; small landownership +is the exception, and the people show little aptitude +for change when unfavourable circumstances make +their crops unprofitable. Brazilian Creoles have +little taste for manual pursuits, and not much more +for commerce. Non-Portuguese immigration has +supplied most of the labour; foreigners have always +conducted most of the trade.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-2.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>DISCOVERY</h3> + + +<p>On the 9th of March, 1500, Pedro Alvarez Cabral, +a Portuguese nobleman of illustrious birth, +but not yet distinguished by any notable feats in +war or seamanship, sailed from Lisbon for the East +Indies. This expedition was sent out to continue +the work begun by Vasco da Gama in the first all-sea +voyage to India. It was an advance-guard for +the larger armament that two years later founded +the Portuguese empire on the coasts of India. +Vasco da Gama himself wrote Cabral's sailing orders. +The latter was instructed, after passing the Cape +Verde Islands in 14° North, to sail directly south, +as long as the wind was favourable. If forced to +change his course, he was ordered to keep on the +starboard tack, even though it led him south-west. +When he reached the latitude of the Cape of Good +Hope—34° South—he was to bear away to the east.</p> + +<p>These sailing instructions have been the subject +of much discussion. Many believe their sole purpose +was to enable Cabral to avoid the Guinea calms, +so annoying to sailing ships near the African coast.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> +Others contend that Da Gama had seen signs of land +to the west on his own voyage, and that its discovery +was a real, though secondary, object of the expedition. +In any event the Brazilian coast is too near +the natural route around Africa to have escaped +encounter, and would infallibly have shortly been +seen by some one else.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 787px;"> +<img src="images/illus-316.jpg" width="787" height="600" alt="OLD TOWER AT LISBON WHENCE THE FLEET SAILED." title="" /> +<span class="caption">OLD TOWER AT LISBON WHENCE THE FLEET SAILED.</span> +</div> + +<p>Forty-two days after leaving Lisbon, Cabral's +fleet saw unmistakable signs of land, being then in +latitude 17 degrees south and longitude 36 degrees +west. From the Cape Verde Islands, just off the +western point of Africa, he had made 2300 miles, +and had come 500 miles to the west. The next day +a mountain was sighted, which he called Paschoal,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> +because it was Easter week. This mountain is in +the southern part of the state of Bahia, about four +hundred miles north-east of Rio, and on a coast that +to this day is sparsely inhabited and rarely visited. +The following day the whole fleet came to an anchor +a mile and a half from the shore, and just north of +the dangerous Abrolhos reefs. This was the 23rd +of April, Old Style, which corresponds with the 3rd +of May in the Gregorian calendar. The date is a +national holiday in Brazil, and the anniversary for +the annual convening of Congress.</p> + +<p>Because no quadrupeds or large rivers were seen, +Cabral thought he had discovered an island and +named it the "Island of the True Cross." The +name has not survived except in poetry. He +stopped ten days on the coast, took formal possession, +and sent expeditions on shore which entered +into communication with the Indians, who were seen +in considerable numbers. It is characteristic that +the first question asked of the Indians was if they +knew what gold and silver were. They were peaceable +and friendly, and the old chronicle describes +them as of a dark reddish complexion with good +features, and muscular, well-shaped bodies. They +wore no clothes, their lower lips and cheeks were +perforated to carry great ornaments of white bone, +and their hair was elaborately dressed and adorned +with feathers.</p> + +<p>These were fair specimens of the Tupi-Guaranies, +the largest of the four great families into which the +Brazilian aborigines have been classified. The others +are the Caribs, the Arawaks, and the Botacudos.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> +There are also traces of tribes who inhabited the +country remote centuries ago. In caves in Minas +Geraes skeletons have been found remarkably like +those of the earliest Europeans. The theory is that +these Indians came from Europe by land in that remote +geological epoch when Scandinavia was joined +to Greenland. Later came Mongoloids, probably +by way of the Behring Strait, who appear largely to +have exterminated their European predecessors, and +to have been the ancestors of the modern Indians.</p> + +<p>When America was discovered, the four great families +were spread in scattering and widely differing +tribes over the whole of Brazil and the adjacent +countries. Their state of culture varied from that +of the most squalid tribes of Botacudos, who had +not even reached the Stone Age, lived in brush +shelters, slept in the ashes of their fires, practised +promiscuous marriage, and had no idea of religion +except a fear of malignant spirits; up to Arawaks, +who were cleanly, had a well-defined tribal organisation, +and built marvellous canoes, or Tupis, who +cultivated the soil, built fair houses, used rude machinery +for making mandioc flour, spun cotton, wove +cloth, and were good potters. But the civilisation +of the best of them was stationary. No Brazilian +tribe ever got beyond the condition where the +struggle to obtain food was its sole preoccupation. +No civilisation like that of Mexico, Peru, or Yucatan +ever existed. Disaggregation, failure, and obliteration +were the rule. Organically unfitted to cope +with their surroundings they never devised a method +of getting a good and permanent food-supply. De<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span>fective +nutrition sapped their powers to resist strains. +Their muscular appearance was not accompanied by +corresponding endurance. Their European taskmasters +could never understand why they died from +the effects of exertion to which a white man would +easily have been equal. The vast majority had no +regular agriculture and lived on the spontaneous +products of the forests and the streams. Land game +is not abundant in the tropics, and they had developed +only few good food plants. What they did +procure was spoiled by bad preparation. Such a +people had no chance of successfully resisting the +Portuguese invaders, and their only hope of survival +was in contact and admixture with the more +vigorous white and black races.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/illus-319.jpg" width="800" height="491" alt="A TUPI VILLAGE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A TUPI VILLAGE.</span> +</div> + +<p>The Tupi-Guaranies occupied one-fourth of Brazil,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> +all of Paraguay and Uruguay, and much of Bolivia +and the Argentine, and it is probable that the original +seats of this family were in the central table-lands or +in Paraguay. All Tupi Indians spoke dialects of one +language, which the Jesuit missionaries soon reduced +to grammatical and literary form, and which became +a <i>lingua franca</i> that was understood from the Plate +to the Amazon. Back of the coast Tupis were the +Botacudos, the most degraded and intractable of +Brazilian savages, remnants of whom still survive in +their original seats in Espirito Santo, Minas, and São +Paulo. The Caribs, with whom students of the history +of the Caribbean Sea are familiar, originated in +the plains of Goyaz and Matto Grosso and emigrated +as far north as the Antilles. The Arawaks were +most numerous in Guiana and on the Lower Amazon, +but were also spread over central Brazil.</p> + +<p>The Brazilian Indians did not survive the white +man's coming to as large an extent as in Spanish-America. +The pure Indian is found in Brazil only +in regions where the white man has not thought it +worth while to take possession, and the proportion +of Indian blood is much smaller than in surrounding +countries. In many localities, evidences of Indian +descent are so rare as to be remarkable.</p> + +<p>Cabral's voyage was the real discovery of Brazil, +if we consider historical and political consequences. +It was the first reported to Europe; and the Portuguese +Crown immediately made formal claim to the +territory. But, as a matter of fact, land which to-day +is a part of Brazilian territory had been seen by +Europeans before Cabral landed. In January, 1500,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> +Vincente Yanez Pinzon, who had commanded the +<i>Niña</i> on the first voyage of Columbus, saw land in +the neigbourhood of Cape St. Roque. Bound westward, +he bore away to the west and north, following +the prevailing winds and currents as far as the +Orange Cape, the present extreme northern limits +of Brazil. He was, therefore, the discoverer of the +great estuary which forms the mouth of the Amazon. +He named it the "Fresh-Water Sea," because the +great river freshens the open ocean far out of sight +of land, but he did not ascend, nor even see, the +river proper. It is also claimed on good evidence +that, six months before Pinzon, another Spanish +navigator, Alonso de Ojeda, accompanied by Amerigo +Vespucci, had made the South American coast +not far from Cape St. Roque; and that a month +later still another, Diego de Lepe, did the same.</p> + +<p>None of these Spanish voyages produced any results. +They were not reported until after the news +of Cabral's discovery had been solemnly promulgated +to the Courts of Europe, and were soon forgotten. +The honour of making Brazil known to +Europe belongs to Cabral just as certainly as that +of discovering America does to Columbus. The +Spanish voyages are interesting to antiquarians, +but neither they nor the Norwegian voyages of the +eleventh century were followed up, or produced any +permanent results.</p> + +<p>The news reached Portugal in the fall of 1500, +and no time was lost in sending out a small fleet to +ascertain definitely the extent, value, and resources +of the region. The Portuguese hoped to find a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> +wealthy and civilised population like that of India—rich +and unwarlike nations, such as the Spaniards +did encounter a few years later in Peru and Mexico. +The exploring expedition was under the command +of Amerigo Vespucci, the greatest technical navigator +of the age. He shaped his course so as to +keep to the windward and south of the redoubtable +promontory of St. Roque, which the clumsy ships +of that day could not weather in the teeth of the +trade-winds and the equatorial current, and, turning +to the south, made a systematic examination of +the coast nearly as far as the river Plate, employing +five months in the task. In naming the rivers, +capes and harbours, he saved his inventive faculty +and gratified the popular religious sentiment by +calling each one by the name of the saint on whose +anniversary it was reached. Most of these names +have survived. For example, the São Francisco, +the largest river between the Amazon and the Plate, +is so called because Vespucci reached it on October +1, 1501, which date is sacred to St. Francis in the +Roman calendar. Rio de Janeiro is so named because +he saw the great bay, whose entrance is narrower +than many rivers, on New Year's Day, 1501. +He coasted along for two thousand miles, looking +eagerly for gold, silver, spices, and civilised inhabitants. +He was disappointed. The only thing found +which seemed to have an immediate market value +was brazil-wood—a dye-wood that had been used in +Europe for centuries and was in great demand. Its +colour was a bright red—hence its name, which +means "wood the colour of fire." It was found in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> +such abundance that the world's supply has since +been drawn from this coast, and among sailors and +merchants the country soon became known as "the +Country of Brazil-wood." The name almost immediately +supplanted "Santa Cruz." Vespucci saw +that the country was fertile and the climate pleasant. +This was not enough to satisfy his greedy employers. +A government whose coffers were beginning to overflow +with the profits of the Indian spice-trade and +the African mines was not inclined to pay much +attention to a region without the precious metals, +and inhabited only by naked savages. The reports +of the abundance of brazil-wood, however, induced +private adventurers to go and cut that valuable +commodity. The government declared it a Portuguese +monopoly, but the high price of the article +made the trade so enormously profitable, that ships +of other nationalities, especially French, could not +be excluded.</p> + +<p>The coast soon became well known, but the Portuguese +government did not extend its explorations +to the south. It was left to the Spaniards to find +the passage into the Pacific Ocean and to explore +the tributaries of the Plate. The southern extension +of the continent became and remains Spanish. +No exact records exist of the earliest Portuguese +explorations of the northern coast from Cape St. +Roque to the mouth of the Amazon. We only +know that some Portuguese ships navigated those +waters and that Spain never seriously disputed +Portugal's title to that region.</p> + +<p>For thirty years Brazil remained unsettled, though<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> +the fleets going to the East Indies often stopped +in its admirable harbours to refit and take water. +Private adventurers came for brazil-wood and the +French poached more and more frequently. Soon +the latter began to establish little factories to which +they returned year after year, and got on good terms +with the aborigines. It became evident that Portugal +must establish fortified, self-sustaining posts if +she expected to retain the territory.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-c.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-5.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>DESCRIPTION</h3> + + +<p>Cabral's discovery bequeathed to the Portuguese +race one of the largest, most productive, +and valuable political divisions of the globe. +The area is 3,150,000 square miles—larger than the +United States without Alaska, and surpassed only +by the British, Russian, Chinese, and American empires. +From north to south it extends 2600 miles, +and east and west 2700. Lying across the equator +and traversed by no very high mountain ranges, its +climate is more uniform than any other equally large +inhabited region, but its extent is so immense that +there are very considerable variations.</p> + +<p>Compact in form, with a continuous seacoast, +unsurpassable harbours, and a great extension of +navigable rivers, water communication between the +different parts is easy and the danger of dismemberment +by external attack a minimum. Occupying +the central portion of South America it touches all +the other countries of the continent except Chile, +uniting them geographically, and to a large extent +controlling land communication among them. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> +is nearer Europe and Africa than any other South +American country, and is also on the direct route +between the North Atlantic and both coasts of +South America. Situated in latitudes where evaporation +and precipitation are largest, where the trade-winds +unfailingly bring moisture from the Atlantic, +and on the eastern and windward slope of the narrowest +of the continents, Brazil has the steadiest +and most uniformly distributed rainfall of any large +part of the globe.</p> + +<p>The exuberance of life in Brazil must be seen to +be realised. The early voyagers related the wonder +and admiration which they felt. Amerigo Vespucci +said that if Paradise did exist on this planet it could +not be far from the Brazilian coast. Agassiz believed +that the future centre of the civilisation of +the world would be in the Amazon valley. The +plants useful for food, and in industry, commerce, +and medicine, are innumerable. Nowhere except in +Ceylon does the palm flourish so. There are more +plants indigenous to Brazil than to any other country, +and many species, like coffee, transplanted there +have doubled in productiveness. Indian corn and +mandioc were already cultivated by the Indians when +Cabral landed, and both upland and lowland rice +grew wild. The soil lends itself kindly to any kind +of culture, and in most cases two crops may be +reaped annually. In a word the subsoil, the soil, +the atmosphere, the forests, and the waters of Brazil +are teeming with life and full of potential wealth—too +much so, perhaps, for the most wholesome development +of the human race.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<img src="images/illus-327.jpg" width="1024" height="589" alt="A GARDEN IN PETROPOLIS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A GARDEN IN PETROPOLIS.</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span></p> + +<p>The most extensive and the least-developed part +of Brazil is the Amazon valley. The Brazilian portion +of the Amazon basin comprises forty-five per +cent. of the whole territory of the republic. The +northern and south-eastern borders slope up to the +surrounding mountains, but the rest is an early level +plain, little elevated above the sea. The plains are +covered with dense forests, much of the country +is frequently flooded, and communication is only +possible by the streams. In their neighbourhood +the climate is in many localities unhealthful, and +is everywhere tropical and rainy. Back from the +rivers is an unexplored and unknown wilderness. +The Amazon with its tributaries forms the greatest +of all navigable fluvial systems. Ten thousand seven +hundred miles are already known to be suitable for +navigation by steamboats, and four thousand eight +hundred more for smaller boats.</p> + +<p>It is in the narrow coast-plain on the Atlantic, and +in the high regions lying to the east and south of +the great central depression, that the Brazilian people +live.</p> + +<p>The main orographical feature of non-Amazonian +Brazil is the great mountain system which extends +uninterruptedly from the northern coast through +the whole country. This continental uplift corresponds +to the Andes on the west coast, just as the +Apalachians do to the Rockies in North America. +Its relative importance is many times greater on account +of its great width, and because a broad plateau +nearly connects it with the Andes between the +headwaters of the Amazon and Plate river systems.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> +The joint result is that two-thirds of Brazil is high +enough to have a moderate and healthful climate, +but the cataracts in the rivers and the steep escarpments +of the mountains make it difficult of access.</p> + +<p>The promontory of South America which reaches +out to the north-east, looking in a direct line to the +western extremity of Africa, is a region of gentle +slopes, of wide, sparsely wooded plateaux, and of +brush-covered hills. At long intervals, the interior +is subject to severe drouths. The soil is fertile as a +rule and the rainfall generally sufficient for cereal +crops. Nearing the sea precipitation increases, and +cotton and sugar thrive. The mountain ranges +rarely exceed three thousand feet in height, and lie +far back from the coast, from which the country +slopes up gradually. This region was the first in +Brazil to contain a large population, and the Dutch +fought hard for it during the seventeenth century. +In its area of 430,000 square miles seven of the +Brazilian states are included—Maranhão, Piauhy, +Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Parahyba, Pernambuco, +and Alagoas. The promontory of St. Roque, where +the coast turns from an east-and-west direction to +a north-and-south, marks a commercial division. +Sailing vessels found it difficult to round this cape +from the north, and consequently the commercial relations +of Maranhão, Piauhy, and Ceará have been +rather with the Amazon than southern Brazil. +South of St. Roque the region is most easily accessible +from Europe and is on the direct line of communication +between both sides of the North Atlantic +and the coasts to the south.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span></p> + +<p>The region drained by the Tocantins and Araguaya +very nearly corresponds with the state of +Goyaz. It is the western slope of the Brazilian +Cordillera, and differs radically from the Amazonian +plain, which it adjoins. As one ascends the Tocantins +and Araguaya from their mouths in the Amazon +estuary the altitude rapidly rises and navigation is +quickly interrupted by cataracts. In the south the +level rises to over four thousand feet, and the climate +shows a considerable range of temperature, with the +thermometer sometimes falling below freezing in the +higher mountains. Though the area is 350,000 square +miles, the population hardly reaches a quarter of a +million, and has not been increasing rapidly since the +exhaustion of the alluvial gold deposits. Roughly +speaking, it may be described as a region well adapted +to cattle and agriculture, and composed of high, open, +rolling plateaux traversed by low mountain ranges +and well-wooded river valleys.</p> + +<p>The next natural division comprises the oval depression +lying between the great central watershed +and the high range which runs straight north from +Rio within a few hundred miles of the coast. This +is the São Francisco valley. Politically and commercially +connected is the adjacent coast-plain. +Valley and plain are divided into the four states of +Minas, Bahia, Sergipe, and Espirito Santo, with +430,000 square miles and 6,000,000 inhabitants. In +the coast-plain the rainfall is greater than farther +north, and the soil is very fertile, producing not +only cotton, sugar, and tobacco, but coffee, maize, +and mandioc. The slopes are more abrupt and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> +mountains begin closer to the sea. The interior is +a great plateau traversed by high mountain ranges +and the tributaries of the São Francisco River. +Most of this plateau is included in the great state of +Minas, the most populous member of the Brazilian +union, which is agriculturally self-sufficing, and one +of the great mineral regions of the world. The rainfall +is abundant, the climate is healthful and bracing, +the birth-rate is large, and the region is admirably +adapted to the white races. Its general character is +a rolling plateau, three to four thousand feet above +the ocean, forming extensive, treeless plains, which +are interspersed with wooded mountain chains, river +valleys, and extensive tracts of brush-land. The +European who visits the São Francisco valley is +astonished to find a country where the climate is +temperate and the soil fitted to the production of all +sorts of food crops including the cereals, and where, +nevertheless, proximity to the equator makes practicable +a multiplicity of crops in a single year. The +coast-plain, which forms the greatest part of Bahia, +Sergipe, and Espirito Santo, is fertile, but the +climate is enervating to Europeans, and the proportion +of black blood there is the largest in Brazil.</p> + +<p>About the twentieth degree the mountains approach +close to the coast, and from Victoria south +to the thirtieth degree the Atlantic border of Brazil +is steep and mountainous, often rising directly from +the sea to a height of two thousand to six thousand +feet. It is a coast of splendid harbours and magnificent +scenery. The drainage is mostly inland into +the Plate system, and water falling within a dozen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> +miles of the ocean flows 2500 miles before reaching +the sea.</p> + +<p>To this rule there is but one important exception—the +Parahyba River, the basin of which is practically +coterminous with the state of Rio de Janeiro +and the federal district. This state is commercially +and politically very important, although its +area is small. The surface is very mountainous and +the soil mostly inferior to that of the divisions to +the north and south. However, it is still an immense +producer of coffee and sugar. Its geographical situation +and great harbour have made it the most thickly +settled part of the country. The rainfall is very +large, especially on the mountains nearest the sea, +which are covered with magnificent forests. The +coast-plain is warm though not unhealthful, save in +the vicinity of the infected city of Rio, and in the +higher regions the climate is delightful and in temperature +almost European. The northern boundary +is the Mantiqueira range which divides the Parahyba +basin from the valleys of the Paraná and São Francisco. +This range is the highest in Brazil, and its +culminating peak—Itatiaya—is ten thousand feet +high, though it is only seventy miles from the sea. +Slightly lower ranges lie between the Mantiqueira +and the ocean, and of these the highest is Pedro +d'Assu—7365 feet—which overlooks Rio harbour, +only twenty miles away.</p> + +<p>The Brazilian portion of the great Paraná valley +presents a remarkable uniformity of general characteristics. +Bordering the sea is a range of mountains, +or rather the abrupt escarpment of the plateau,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> +some three thousand feet high. From its summit +the surface slopes gently to the west, draining into +the Paraná by a hundred streams, many of which +are navigable in their middle courses. This great +plateau—with its area of about 250,000 square miles—is +mostly treeless toward the north, but in the +south is covered with pine forests. It lies in the temperate +zone and snow sometimes falls on the higher +peaks and <i>chapadas</i> of São Paulo. The soil is remarkably +fertile, and this is the coffee region <i>par +excellence</i> of the world. A coffee tree in São Paulo +produces two to four times as much as in other parts +of the globe. Food crops grow well, and the country +might be economically independent of the rest +of the world. The contour of the country is favourable +to railroad-building and the region is easily +penetrable. From their settlements on the seaward +border of this plateau the Paulistas of the seventeenth +century roamed over the whole interior of +South America, enslaving the Indians and driving +out the Spanish Jesuits. The rainfall diminishes +toward the interior, and there is an ill-defined limit +where it ceases to be sufficient for coffee. The coffee +district is also limited by the lowering of average +temperature with increasing latitude. The three +states of São Paulo, Paraná, and Santa Catharina +contain most of the region under description, but +south-western Minas and extreme southern Goyaz +also belong to it.</p> + +<p>The great plateau gradually dies away to the +south ending with a low escarpment across the state +of Rio Grand do Sul. Physically and geographic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span>ally, +this State is different from the rest of Brazil. +Most of its area is drained by the Uruguay River, +and its natural relations and affinities are with the +republic of that name. Rio Grande's ninety-five +thousand square miles contain over a million inhabitants, +and the open, rolling plains, nowhere much +elevated above the sea, are excellently adapted to +cattle. The northern portion is higher, more broken, +and more wooded than the southern, and agriculture +has made greater progress. The climate is distinctly +that of the temperate zone—hot in summer, cold in +winter, and subject to sudden variations on account +of the winds which sweep up from the vast Argentine +pampas. The inhabitants are big, vigorous, +and hardy, and great riders. All the products of +the temperate zone, including the cereals, flourish, +and this part of Brazil seems destined to great things +in the near future.</p> + +<p>From Bolivia around to Uruguay sweeps in a +great semicircle, convex to the north, a plateau that +nearly unites the Andes with the Eastern Cordillera, +and forms the watershed between the Amazon and +the Plate. Its eastern horn has already been described +as forming the states of São Paulo, Paraná, +and Santa Catharina; its western and central portions +form the great interior state of Matto Grosso. +Here the headwaters of the Madeira, Tapajos, and +Xingu, tributaries of the Amazon, intertwine with +those of the Paraguay and Paraná. The narrow +depression which the Upper Paraguay forms across +it is the only portion that has yet been described. +The rest of the 410,000 square miles of Matto<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> +Grosso is abandoned to Indians and wild beasts. +Only enough is known of these solitudes to prove +that in the centre of the continent exists a well-watered, +fertile, and healthful region, capable of +sustaining an immense population, but which is shut +off from development by lack of means of communication. +The northwestern part could be reached +from the Amazon if the Falls of the Madeira could +be overcome, a route which would also open up a +great and now inaccessible portion of Bolivia.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-f.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-7.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>EARLY COLONISATION</h3> + + +<p>The permanent settlement of Brazil was begun +by deserters and mutineers set on shore from +ships on their way to India or to cut brazil-wood. +In 1509 a certain Diego Alvarez, nicknamed by the +Indians "Caramuru," or "man of lightning," landed +at Bahia and escaped being eaten by frightening the +Indians with his musket. He married a chief's +daughter, and when a real colony was established +years later he and his numerous half-breed descendants +proved of great use to his compatriots. Two +years later John Ramalho did much the same near +Santos, hundreds of miles to the south. The story +of the last of the three authentic <i>degradados</i> is even +more romantic. His name was Aleixo Garcia, and +with three companions he landed about 1526 in +the present state of Santa Catharina. Collecting +an army of Indians he led them on a conquering +and gold-hunting expedition over the coast-range, +across the great plateau, into the valley of the Paraguay, +and even penetrated ten years before Pizarro +into territory tributary to the Incas of Peru. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> +finally perished in the centre of the continent, but +when, years afterwards, the Spaniards penetrated +the valley of the Paraná they found that the Indians +already knew of white men and firearms.</p> + +<p>As early as 1516 the Portuguese government offered +to give farming utensils free to settlers in Brazil, +and it is probable that shortly afterwards some +sugar was planted. The first serious and official +effort to cultivate sugar was made in 1526. Christovão +Jaques founded a factory on the island of Itamarica, +a few miles north of Pernambuco. It was +shortly destroyed by the French brazil-wood hunters, +and the settlers fled to the site of Pernambuco +and renewed the effort pending the arrival of re-enforcements. +Seekers of brazil-wood hailing from +Honfleur and Dieppe were swarming along the coast. +The value of the region for sugar raising began to +be appreciated. When the news came of the failure +of the Spanish expedition which Cabot had led to +the Plate, the Portuguese government determined +to fit out a considerable expedition, composed of +colonists and families as well as soldiers and adventurers. +Seduced by the cry, "We are going to the +Silver River," four hundred persons enlisted. The +five vessels were commanded by Martim Affonso da +Souza, a great general and navigator, who had already +proved his capacity and who later went to +the very top in the East Indian wars. He was instructed +to expel all intruders and establish a permanent +fortified colony. Early in 1531 he reached +the coast near Pernambuco, captured three French +ships laden with brazil-wood, and sent two caravels<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> +north to explore the coast beyond Cape St. Roque, +while he himself sailed south with the idea of founding +a colony on the Plate. But after passing Santa +Catharina he was unfortunate in losing his largest +ship with most of his provisions, and deemed it safer +to return toward the north. At São Vicente, now +a little town near the great coffee port of Santos, he +dropped anchor, and there, January, 1532, founded +the first Portuguese colony in Brazil. Near this +point lived the solitary Portuguese, John Ramalho, +surrounded by his half-breed descendants, and he +gave his countrymen a glad reception. He soon +showed them the way up the mountains to the high +plateau which begins only a few miles from the sea. +Another settlement was founded on these fertile +plains near the site of the present city of São Paulo.</p> + +<p>In the west of Brazil the settlements were established +at a striking distance from the coast, but in +São Paulo the colonists could more easily spread +over the open plains of the interior than along the +mountainous coast. On top of their plateau they +were cut off from ready communication with the +mother country; they struck out for themselves, and +their development was something like that of the +British in North America. They were the pioneers +of Brazil, corresponding closely in character and habits, +in the virtues of daring, hospitality, and self-confidence, +and in the vices of cruelty, rudeness, and +ignorance, with the pioneers of the Mississippi valley.</p> + +<p>The Paulistas were all profoundly influenced by +their intimate association with the Indian tribes. +In the early days intermarriages were frequent, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> +the continual re-enforcement of the European element, +and the inferiority in capacity of reproduction +which the Indian has shown in Brazil, make the +traces of that intermixture hard to discover at the +present time. The Paulistas and their descendants +in the interior states are taller, slenderer, darker, +and more active and graceful than the modern Portuguese. +Their hands and feet are smaller, their +movements more nervous, their manners more self-confident.</p> + +<p>The successful founding of a considerable colony +in Brazil aroused interest at home, and many courtiers +solicited the Crown for grants. It was decided +to partition the whole coast into feudal fiefs, each +proprietor undertaking the expenses of colonisation +and being given virtually sovereign powers in return +for a tax on the expected production. Each of +these "captaincies" measured fifty leagues along +the coast, and extended indefinitely into the interior. +In 1534 twelve such fiefs were created, covering the +whole coast from the mouth of the Amazon to the +island of Santa Catharina—these being the points +where the Tordesillas line met the seaboard.</p> + +<p>Six of these proprietors succeeded in establishing +permanent colonies. Martim Affonso's settlement +has already been described. In 1536 his brother, +Pero Lopes, established Santo Amaro within a few +miles of São Vicente. Naturally its history soon +became confounded with that of the larger settlement. +Duarte Coelho founded Pernambuco in +1535, and in it was soon absorbed Itamarica, the +second of the two colonies founded by Pero Lopes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> +in 1536. The other three permanent settlements +were Victoria, the nucleus of the present state of +Espirito Santo, Porto Seguro, and Ilheos. No one +of them prospered, and their territories are still +among the most backward parts of the Brazilian +coast. The donatory of the territory which included +the bay of Bahia, started a town, but it was +destroyed by Indians. The other five captaincies +were not taken hold of seriously by their proprietors. +The four nuclei for the settlement of Brazil were +São Paulo, Pernambuco, and the later colonies of +Bahia and Rio de Janeiro.</p> + +<p>Martim Affonso recked little of his fief or its revenues +and left his Paulistas to work out their own +destiny. Pernambuco was on the track of every +ship which came to South America, the neighbouring +interior was level and easily accessible from +the coast, the soil and climate were suitable for +sugar, and from the beginning relations with the +mother country were intimate and continuous. Its +proprietor, Duarte Coelho, determined to devote +himself to his colony, and he personally headed a +numerous and carefully selected colonising expedition. +He spent the rest of his life there, and died +twenty years later, surrounded by a large and prosperous +colony, which was already a self-supporting +state with all the elements of permanence. A good +business man and liberal for that age, he granted +land on easy terms; its possession was secure; contributions +were moderate; and he resolutely defended +himself and his grantees from the exactions +of the Crown.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span></p> + +<p>The Portuguese occupation of Brazil was induced +solely by commercial considerations. Explorers +and emigrants went out to make their fortunes, not +to escape religious or political tyranny. When the +first voyagers were disappointed in not finding gold +mines, they turned their attention to brazil-wood. +Soon the suitability of the territory for sugar was +discovered. The European demand for this luxury +was increasing, and the Portuguese had become +familiar with its culture in Africa. Cane was taken +from Madeira and the Cape Verdes to Brazil before +1525, and there is a record of exportation at least as +early as 1526. Here was found the basis for the +real colonisation. From the very start the industry +prospered in Pernambuco, and Brazil became the +main source of the world's supply.</p> + +<p>Near Pernambuco little trouble was experienced +with the Indians. Many of the tribes were allies of +the Portuguese, though the fierce Aymorés fought +the settlers and once reduced the infant colony to +the verge of destruction. Although the law of +Portugal forbade the enslavement of Indians except +as a punishment for crime, they were reduced to +bondage on a large scale in Pernambuco, and the +Paulistas never paid any attention to this prohibition.</p> + +<p>By the middle of the sixteenth century Brazil +contained one rapidly expanding colony of sugar-planters, +Pernambuco, which gave sure promise of +wealth if not attacked from without,—a half dozen +moribund settlements on the thousand miles of +coast to the south, and an isolated but vigorous and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> +self-sufficing group in São Paulo, whose inhabitants +produced little for export, but who were reducing +the aborigines to slavery in an expanding circle. In +the last there was a considerable proportion of Indian +blood and in the first a large number of negroes. +The smaller captaincies were little more than resorts +for pirates and contraband traders in brazil-wood. +The settlers were powerless to prevent the French +expeditions which yearly became more numerous. +Serious apprehensions were felt that the French +would occupy the coast and make Brazil a basis for +attacks on Portugal's African and Indian empires.</p> + +<p>The best blood of the Portuguese nation was being +drained away in exhausting wars and expeditions to +India and Africa; absolute government was sapping +civic vitality; the extravagances of Court and nobles +were impoverishing the country. However, enough +vitality remained, before the terrific destruction of +Portuguese power and pride at Alcacer-Kibir in +1580, to secure such a firm establishment of the Portuguese +race on the whole coast of Brazil that it +never has been dislodged, and only once seriously +threatened. This result was largely due to the +founding of a strong military and naval post at +Bahia, around which grew up a prosperous colony, +and under whose protection Pernambuco spread out +over the north-east coast, São Paulo developed uninterruptedly, +and Rio Bay was saved from the +French.</p> + +<p>The first proprietary settlement in Bahia Bay had +been destroyed by the Indians, but this magnificent +and central harbour was manifestly the most con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span>venient +point whence to send assistance to the other +settlements and guard the whole coast. In 1549 the +king determined to build a fortress and city there. +Thomas de Souza, the illegitimate scion of a great +house, was chosen the first governor-general. He +sailed in April, 1549, with six vessels, and accompanied +by three hundred and twenty officials and a +number of colonists. The new capital commanded +the entrance to a magnificent inland sea which offered +splendid facilities for the establishment of a +flourishing state. Bahia Bay is nearly a hundred +miles in circumference; its shores are fertile and +penetrated by rivers; each plantation has its own +wharves. Within a few months a town of a hundred +houses had been built, surrounded by a wall and defended +by batteries; a cathedral, a custom house, a +Jesuit college, and a governor's residence were under +way.</p> + +<p>Thomas de Souza was instructed to strike at the +root of the difficulties that were supposed to have +prevented the success of the proprietary captaincies. +He was the direct representative of the king and had +supreme supervisory power. Other officers, however, +were associated with him who were independently +responsible in judicial, financial, and naval +matters. He was closely bound by instructions +covering every detail that could be foreseen, and +these instructions clearly show the centralising and +jealous spirit of Portuguese institutions and ideas.</p> + +<p>Few Portuguese of that age were capable of rising +to an appreciation of the economical advantages of +freedom. The liberal concessions to the original<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> +proprietors—free trade with the mother country, the +right of communication with foreign countries, and +judicial and administrative independence—availed +nothing. Neither colonists, proprietors, nor the +central government could understand or apply them. +Brazil was subjected to a systematic and continually +more rigorous exploitation by the home government, +and to the irresponsible and uncontrolled +military despotism of little satraps.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/illus-344.jpg" width="800" height="355" alt="BAHIA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">BAHIA.</span> +</div> + +<p>In Bahia, as in Pernambuco, the sugar industry +prospered from the beginning. Bahia is close to +Africa and navigation across is safe and easy. The +importation of blacks began immediately, and the +port continued to be the greatest <i>entrepôt</i> and distributing +point for the trade during three centuries. +Bahia's population is more largely black than that +of any other city in Brazil, and the pure African +type is frequently seen on its streets. The local +cuisine includes many dishes of African origin, and +the local dialect many African words. Certain Af<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span>rican +dialects are spoken to this day, and a few +Mohammedan negroes there still perform the rites +of the Koran in the most absolute secrecy.</p> + +<p>The municipal government of the town, though +under the overshadowing power of the governor, +showed some vitality and independence. The fertile +island of Itaparica, just opposite the city, had been +granted to the mother of a minister. Though the +donation was repeatedly confirmed by the king himself, +she and her heirs were never able to put their +agents in possession. The municipal council successfully +insisted that the original royal instructions +to the governor required all grantees to occupy their +estates in person.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-c.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-8.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3>THE JESUITS</h3> + + +<p>One of John III.'s strongest reasons for undertaking +a more extensive colonisation of Brazil +was the pious conviction that it was his Christian +duty to promote the dissemination of the true religion +in dominions which he owed to the gift of the +Holy Father. He was the first and most steadfast +friend of the Jesuits, then just organised and San +Francisco Xavier, the Apostle of the East Indies, +was sent out to one hemisphere, while the conversion +of the Brazilian aborigines was determined upon +in the other. With Thomas de Souza sailed an able +Jesuit, Manuel Nobrega, accompanied by several +other Fathers. They began a carefully planned +campaign to convert the Indians and, incidentally, +to exploit them in the interests of the Order.</p> + +<p>It is impossible not to admire the courage, shrewdness, +and devotion of the Jesuits. They went out +alone among the savage tribes, living with them, +learning their languages, preaching to them, captivating +their imaginations by the pomp of religious +paraphernalia and processions, baptising them, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> +exhorting them to abandon cannibalism and polygamy. +Tireless and fearless, they plunged into an +interior hitherto unpenetrated by white men. The +reports they made to their superiors frequently +afford the best information that is yet extant as to +the customs of the Indians and the resources of the +regions they explored.</p> + +<p>The Indians were easily induced to conform to +the externals of the Christian cult. Wherever the +Jesuits penetrated, the aborigines soon adopted +Christianity, but to hold the Indians to Christianity +the Fathers were obliged to fix them to the soil. +As soon as a tribe was converted, a rude church +building was erected, and a Jesuit installed, who remained +to teach agriculture and the arts as well as +ritual and morals. His moral and intellectual superiority +made him perforce an absolute ruler in +miniature. Thus that strange theocracy came into +being, which, starting on the Brazilian coast, spread +over most of central South America. In the early +part of the seventeenth century the theocratic +seemed likely to become the dominant form of government +south of the Amazon and east of the Andes.</p> + +<p>The Jesuit wanted the Indian to himself, and +fought against the interference or enslavement by +the lay Portuguese. The colonists wanted the Indians +to work on their plantations, to incorporate +them as slaves, or in some analogous capacity, with +the white man's industrial and civil organisation. +The home government stood by the Jesuits, but the +colonists constantly evaded restrictions and steadily +fought the priests. The encouragement of the negro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> +slave trade was an attempt at a compromise—intended +to induce the colonists to leave the Indians +alone by furnishing another supply of labour.</p> + +<p>Primarily, at least, the Jesuit purpose was altruistic, +though the material advantages and the fascination +of exercising authority were soon potent +motives. The Jesuits gave the South American +Indian the greatest measure of peace and justice he +ever enjoyed, but they reduced him to blind obedience +and made him a tenant and a servant. +Though virtually a slave, he was, however, little +exposed to infection from the vices and diseases of +civilisation; he was not put at tasks too hard for +him; and under Jesuit rule he prospered. On the +other hand, if this system had prevailed there would +have been little white immigration, the Indian race +would have remained in possession of the country, +and real civilisation would never have gained a foothold.</p> + +<p>Immediately after the founding of Bahia, Nobrega +sent members of the Order to the other colonies. +He himself visited Pernambuco, where the stout +old proprietor met him with effective opposition. +Duarte did not welcome a clergy responsible solely +to a foreign corporation, and over which he could +have no control. In Bahia and the south the Jesuits, +however, prospered amazingly. In São Paulo +they laboured hard, spread widely, converted a large +number of Indians, and perfected their system, but +it was there they came most sharply in conflict with +the spirit of individualism, and there they suffered +their first and most crushing overthrow.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span></p> + +<p>Thomas de Souza laboured diligently during the +four years of his administration, fortifying posts, +driving away contraband traders, dismissing incompetent +officials, and even building jails and +straightening streets where the local authorities had +neglected them. He visited all the captaincies south +of Bahia and entered Rio Bay, then the principal +rendezvous for the French privateers and traders. +He appreciated its strategic and commercial importance, +and was only prevented by lack of means from +establishing a strong post there. In São Paulo he +prohibited the flourishing trade which had grown +with the Spaniards in Paraguay and Buenos Aires. +Duarte da Costa, his successor, was accompanied by +a large re-enforcement of Jesuits. Among them was +Anchieta, one of the most notable men in the history +of the Order, whose genius, devotion, and +pertinacious courage laid the foundations of Jesuit +power so deeply in South America that its effects +remain to this day. This remarkable man was born +in Teneriffe, the son of a banished nobleman, who +had married a native of the island. Educated at +home, from his infancy he showed marvellous talents. +At fourteen, his father, not daring to risk his son's +life in Spain, sent him to the Portuguese University +at Coimbra. His career was so brilliant, the reputation +he acquired for profound and ready intelligence, +his eloquence, and his pure and elevated +ideals so remarkable, that he attracted the attention +of Simon Rodrigues, John III.'s great Jesuit minister, +who, like all the leaders of the Order, was on +the watch for talented young men. The ardent +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span>youth was easily convinced that no career was so +glorious as that of a missionary, and when only +twenty years old he solicited and obtained permission +to go to Brazil. Nobrega, the Provincial, +selected him to go to São Paulo and establish a +school to train neophytes and proselytes into evangelists. +His own letter to Nobrega best tells what +a life he found and what sort of man he was:</p> + + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Here we are, sometimes more than twenty of us together +in a little hut of mud and wicker, roofed with +straw, fourteen paces long and ten wide. This is at once +the school, the infirmary, dormitory, refectory, kitchen, +and store-room. Yet we covet not the more spacious +dwellings which our brethren have in other parts. Our +Lord Jesus Christ was in a far straiter place when it was +His pleasure to be born among beasts in a manger, +and in a still straiter when He deigned to die upon the +cross."</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 608px;"> +<img src="images/illus-350.jpg" width="608" height="600" alt="PADRE JOSE DE ANCHIETA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PADRE JOSE DE ANCHIETA.<br /> +[From an old wood-cut.]</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>They herded together to keep warm, for in winter +it is cold on the São Paulo plateau. They had no +food except the mandioc flour, fish, and game which +the Indians gave them. To the little college came +Creoles and half-breeds and learned Latin, Portuguese, +Spanish, and Tupi. Anchieta was indefatigable. +Within a year he had acquired a complete +mastery of the Indian tongue, and had devised a +grammar for it. He wrote his own text-books, and +employed his great poetical talents in composing +hymns and verses to be chanted to the pupils, recounting +the stories of Holy Scripture. He visited +the most savage tribes in person, and acquired a +marvellous moral supremacy over them. When the +Tamoyos attacked the Portuguese, and the destruction +of all the southern settlements seemed inevitable, +he fearlessly went to the Indian camps and +persuaded the chiefs to consent to a truce while he +remained among them three years as a hostage to +guarantee its faithful performance by his countrymen. +The savages regarded him as more than human, +and tradition tells of the miracles he performed. +It is related that during these three years of solitary +captivity he composed, without the aid of pen or +paper, his Latin "Hymn to the Virgin," celebrated +as one of the masterpieces of ecclesiastical poetry.</p> + +<p>He and his companions did not disdain to labour +with their hands. They used the spade and trowel,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> +made their own shoes, taught the Indians agriculture, +introduced new plants from Europe, practised +medicine, and studied the botany, topography, and +geology of the country. The villages of converted +Indians under their government and protection +rapidly spread over the São Paulo plains, and they +were refuges for Indians flying from slavery on the +plantations. The colonists pursued their fugitive +slaves, and soon were at open war with the Jesuits. +In the course of this conflict the original half-breed +settlement on the plateau was destroyed and the lay +Portuguese came near being wiped out. Peace was +temporarily patched up, but the Paulistas soon +turned the tables and compelled the Jesuits to devote +themselves to their educational institutions in +the towns, or to withdraw farther and farther into +the wilderness.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-3.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h3>FRENCH OCCUPATION OF RIO</h3> + + +<p>During Duarte's administration troubles with +the Indians broke out along the whole coast. +In Bahia itself the new governor had disobeyed the +orders of the home government to protect the Indians. +He joined with the colonists in exploiting +them. A formidable Indian conspiracy was formed +and the settlements on both sides of the city were +simultaneously attacked. Many farms and villages +were sacked, but soon the Indians were finally and +crushingly defeated. The coast towns of São Paulo +were menaced by a great confederation of tribes +who used war canoes and had learned to overcome +their terror of firearms. At Espirito Santo the +Indian slaves rose <i>en masse</i>, killed most of the Portuguese, +and destroyed the sugar plantations.</p> + +<p>A more serious danger was the settlement of the +French at Rio de Janeiro. They had formed friendly +relations with the Indians, and the name of Frenchman +was sufficient to insure good treatment from +most of the tribes, while that of Portuguese was a +signal for its bearer to be killed and devoured. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> +was the epoch of the religious wars in France, and +the traders to Brazil came mostly from Huguenot +ports. Admiral Coligny conceived the idea of establishing +a Huguenot settlement in South America, +and Rio was chosen as the most available site. +In 1555 a considerable expedition was sent under +the command of Nicolas Villegagnon, a celebrated +adventurer, who had distinguished himself in escorting +Mary Queen of Scots from France to Scotland. +He fortified the island in Rio harbour that +still bears his name—a barren rock which commanded +the entrance and was safe from attacks by land. +The French kept on good terms with the neighbouring +Indians, and remained unmolested by the Portuguese +for four years. But Villegagnon was not +faithful to his employers, though most of his party +were Protestants, and Huguenot leaders had furnished +the money for the expedition. He quarrelled +with the Huguenots and finally gave up the command +and returned to France in the Guise interest. +Coligny's project of establishing a new and Protestant +France in South America lost its very good +chance of success. It is interesting to conjecture +what would have been the history of Brazil if Villegagnon +had stuck to the Huguenot side. In all +probability re-enforcements would have been sent, +and St. Bartholomew's Day—fourteen years later—might +have been followed by a great emigration like +that which went to New England during the Laud +persecution. Rio and perhaps the whole of South +Brazil would have become a French possession or a +French-speaking state.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span></p> + +<p>Not until 1558 was a strong and able Portuguese +governor selected, and vigorous measures taken to +expel the French. The new governor was Mem da +Sa, a nobleman of the highest birth, a soldier, a +scholar, and an experienced administrator. His +name will always be associated with the establishment +of the Portuguese power in Brazil on a footing +firm and broad enough to enable it to withstand the +Dutch attacks and the lean years of Spanish domination.</p> + +<p>Upon his arrival he took measures to quiet the +Indian slavery question by reducing the import duties +on black slaves and by aiding each planter to +acquire as many negroes as he needed to work his +plantation. When his ships and armament arrived +he proceeded to the south. He found that the +French, though weak in numbers, could count on +Indian allies. As he himself writes to the Court: +"The French do not treat the natives as we do. +They are very liberal to them, observing strict justice, +so that the commander is feared by his countrymen +and beloved by the Indians. Measures have +been taken to instruct the latter in the use of arms, +and as the aborigines are very numerous the French +may soon make themselves very strong." He +harassed the French and destroyed their fortifications +but could not completely dislodge them, and +returned to Bahia with his work only half accomplished. +Porto Seguro and Ilheos were attacked +by the ferocious Aymorés and with difficulty saved +from total destruction. In the South another great +Tamoyo confederation had been formed with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> +deliberate purpose of rooting the Paulistas out of +the country and putting a stop once for all to their +slave-hunting. When all seemed lost, Anchieta intervened, +and succeeded in fixing up a peace. The +Tamoyos were cajoled into becoming allies of the +Portuguese in a final attempt to expel the French +from Rio. Mem da Sa's nephew appeared with a +considerable fleet, and after a desultory campaign of +a year the French were obliged to retire. France +did nothing to prevent or recover this inestimable +loss, and Mem da Sa immediately laid out and fortified +a city on a site which to-day is the business +centre of the capital of Brazil. From the time of +its founding Rio was the most important place in +southern Brazil and the key to the whole region, +but its great prosperity dates from a hundred and +fifty years later, when gold was discovered in Minas +Geraes.</p> + +<p>Mem da Sa continued to rule Brazil until his death +in 1572. The work of centralisation went on apace, +fiscal and administrative officers were multiplied, +and taxes and restrictions imposed at will. The +Lisbon government laid the foundations of that restrictive +system which finally confined Brazil to +communication with the mother country. Nevertheless +most of the settlements grew rapidly. Sugar-planting, +cattle-raising, and general agriculture +flourished. The Indians were expelled or reduced +to impotence within striking distance of the centres +of population.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-357.jpg" width="1024" height="652" alt="PLANTERS GOING TO CHURCH." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PLANTERS GOING TO CHURCH.<br /> +[From an old print.]</span> +</div> + +<p>At Mem da Sa's death the civilised population +numbered about sixty thousand, of whom twenty +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> +thousand were white. The provinces of Pernambuco +and Bahia had each twenty-five thousand inhabitants. +Rio had some two thousand and São +Paulo perhaps five, the remainder being divided between +the smaller settlements—Parahyba, Rio Real, +Ilheos, Porto Seguro, and Espirito Santo. Except +in São Paulo most of the inhabitants were engaged +in sugar-raising. The hundred and twenty plantations +produced annually forty-five thousand tons of +sugar, while Portuguese goods to the value of a million +dollars a year were imported.</p> + +<p>A sugar <i>fazenda</i>, or plantation, constituted a +little independent village, where the owner lived surrounded +by his slaves in their cabins, his shops and +stables, mills and mandioc fields. The grantees had +paid no purchase price for the land, and held it on +condition of paying a tenth of the product and a +tenth of that tenth, a tax which survives to the +present time, only it is now called an export duty of +eleven per cent. Land was not otherwise taxed, and +to this day direct taxes on farm property are almost +unknown, though imposts of every other conceivable +kind have been multiplied. The tracts granted +were large; the owner could hold them unused without +expense; the most powerful incentive to sale +and division of land did not, therefore, exist. Brazil +became and remains a country of large rural proprietorship. +Landowners are reluctant to sell or +divide their estates, taxes on transfers are excessive, +and land is not freely bought and sold. Consequently +the rural population is widely scattered, +grants extend far beyond the limits of actual settle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span>ment, +there are few small farmers and very little +careful culture. Brazil is a country of staple crops +and non-diversified agriculture. A fall in sugar or +coffee produces a disproportionate disturbance in +financial conditions, and land not suitable to the +staple crop of a region is left to lie idle. Immigration +has been retarded because land has been hard +to obtain except by special government concession, +and because private owners do not care +to sell their land to settlers. Except in restricted +cases, the rural immigration—negro and +South European—has been for the purpose of +furnishing labour for the large proprietors, and not +to form a landowning and permanently established +population.</p> + +<p>The Jesuit travellers describe the Brazilian people +in 1584 as pleasure-loving and extravagant. In the +sugar provinces fortunes were very unequal. In +Pernambuco alone more than a hundred planters +had incomes of ten thousand dollars a year. Their +capital, Olinda—now the northern suburb of the +city of Pernambuco—was the largest town in Brazil +and the one where there was most luxurious living +and the most polite society. In general the people +were spendthrifts, and notwithstanding large incomes +were heavily in debt. Great sums were +spent on fêtes, religious processions, fairs, and dinners. +The simple Jesuit Fathers were shocked to see such +velvets and silks, such luxurious beds of crimson +damask, such extravagance in the trappings of +the saddle-horses. Carriages were unknown, and +instead litters and sedan chairs were used, and these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span> +remained in common use in Bahia until very recent +times.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 740px;"> +<img src="images/illus-360.jpg" width="740" height="600" alt="A CADEIRA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A CADEIRA.</span> +</div> + +<p>From Pernambuco and Bahia communication with +the mother country was constant and easy. São +Paulo, however, differed radically from the sugar +districts. Wheat, barley, and European fruits grew +on the São Paulo plateau, but there was little export +to Portugal, and imported clothes were scarce and +dear. The Paulistas were constantly on horseback +and wore the old Portuguese costume of cloak and +close-fitting doublet long after it had been disused +at home.</p> + +<p>Bahia and Pernambuco were fairly well built +towns, though unfortunately in the Portuguese style<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> +of architecture, whose solid walls, few windows, and +contiguous houses make it ill adapted to a tropical +climate. In spite of its unsuitability it was universally +adopted, and even yet largely prevails in +Brazil.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-9.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h3>EXPANSION</h3> + + +<p>In 1581 Philip II. of Spain succeeded in establishing +himself on the throne of Portugal as the +successor of the rash Sebastian, dead fighting the +Moors at Alcacer-Kebir. The decadent and demoralised +Portuguese nation made hardly the semblance +of a struggle for its independence. The very +ease with which Philip obtained the kingdom left +him no pretext for depriving it of administrative independence. +Native Portuguese continued to hold +office in the colonies and to enjoy a monopoly of +Brazilian commerce. Internally, therefore, the +change did not much affect Brazil. But in foreign +relations the effect was profound. Brazil became a +part of a well-nigh universal monarchy, and one of +the battle-fields of the struggle which had begun between +Spain and the Protestant powers.</p> + +<p>All South America was now under the same +monarch; boundary questions between Portuguese +and Spanish America apparently ceased to have any +importance. The enormous extension of Brazil toward +the interior over territory formerly conceded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span> +to be Spanish occurred during the sixty years of +Spanish domination. The Spanish monarch did +not have time to spend on Brazilian matters, and +the colonists were less interfered with from Lisbon +and Madrid than might have been expected. Portuguese +historians have much exaggerated the evil +effects of the English, Dutch, and French half +filibustering, half-trading descents on the coast, +which occurred during this period. The pillage of +a few towns was more than compensated by the +commerce that sprang up; much Brazilian sugar +escaped paying the heavy export duties; settlement +extended rapidly over new territory, and the importation +of negroes continued.</p> + +<p>As early as 1575 a settlement had been made in +Sergipe, but the great expansion over northern Brazil +began under the rule of Philip's first governor-general. +In 1583 he sent troops to take possession +of the important port of Parahyba, where some +French traders had obtained a foothold that prevented +the inhabitants of Pernambuco from spreading +north beyond Itamarica. The Spanish mercenaries +were at first successful, but they could not stifle the +serious Indian war which broke out. The Pernambucanos +had better success, because they knew how +to take advantage of the dissensions among the +savages. Fortifying a town at Parahyba, they permanently +established their sugar plantations in its +neighbourhood, and then these indefatigable and +land-hungry Creoles pushed on farther to the north. +In 1597 Jeronymo de Albuquerque, the greatest of +Brazilian colonial generals, attacked and defeated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span> +the powerful Pitagoares Indians, and established the +colony of Natal, the nucleus of the present state of +Rio Grande do Norte. This brought the Pernambucanos +to Cape St. Roque. To the south they +had spread as far as the San Francisco River, there +meeting the Bahianos who, by 1589, had taken possession +of the present state of Sergipe.</p> + +<p>North of St. Roque the Portuguese so far had +done nothing except make some desultory voyages +of observation, though they claimed the coast to +and beyond the mouth of the Amazon. The donatories +of the captaincies in that region had not succeeded +in establishing any settlements. In 1541, +Orellana, one of those recklessly heroic Spaniards +who had helped Pizarro conquer the empire of the +Incas, was a member of an expedition which crossed +the Andes near Quito and descended into the forested +plains, looking for another Peru—the fabled +El Dorado. They finally found themselves on a +great river flowing to the east, and, since their provisions +were exhausted, boats were built and Orellana +was sent on ahead to try to find supplies. He +could not find enough to feed the main body and +decided to float on down the river, well knowing it +must finally bring him to the ocean. After a voyage +of more than three thousand miles he came to the +great estuary of the Amazon and thence made his +way to Spain. No important results followed this +wonderful discovery. Orellana himself shortly returned +to the mouth of the river, but he could not +find his way up the labyrinth of waters.</p> + +<p>To reach the plains from the Pacific or Caribbean<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span> +settlements is nearly impracticable, and the Amazon +valley remained unsettled. Meanwhile the seed +planted by old Duarte Coelho germinated and grew +into a vigorous tree whose branches were spreading +out over all North Brazil. The seventeenth century +had hardly begun when the hardy Pernambucanos +invaded the country lying north and west of St. +Roque, hunting Indian slaves, and good places for +cattle- and sugar-raising. In 1603 Pero Coelho, an +adventurous Brazilian then living at Parahyba, made +a settlement far to the north-west of Natal, on the +coast of Ceará, and penetrated eight hundred miles +from Pernambuco. Unreasonable aggressions against +the Indians brought on temporary reverses, but the +Pernambucanos persevered, and the Jesuits also established +missions. By 1610 the region was pretty +well under white control, the Indians being incorporated +to a greater extent than was usual in the settlements +farther south.</p> + +<p>The next forward movement was precipitated by +a formidable French attempt to colonise Maranhão. +Daniel de la Rivardière, a Huguenot nobleman, conceived +the idea of carrying out on the north coast +Coligny's plan of a French Protestant colony. In +1612 he landed on the island of Maranhão with a +large and well-appointed expedition.</p> + +<p>Jeronymo de Albuquerque fortunately happened +to be on the north coast when news came of this +alarming intrusion. Sending his ships on to ascertain +the truth of the report, he hastened overland +to Pernambuco to get a force together. With three +hundred whites and two hundred Indians he started<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span> +to expel the French. An assault on a fort defended +with artillery was out of the question, so in his turn +he fortified himself, cut off the French from access +to the sea, and ambushed their foraging expeditions. +In such a game, his men, inured to the climate, had +an immense advantage. Forced to assault Albuquerque's +position, the French were repulsed. They +begged for a truce, and went home at the end of a +year. Albuquerque took possession of the French +town, and in 1616 secured all the rest of the northern +coast to Portugal by founding Pará, just to the +south of the mouth of the Amazon. Several settlements +were made along the coast east of Pará and +also west in the estuary itself. The Indians proved +docile and were easily incorporated to so great an +extent that the Indian element is more predominant +in Pará than in any other state on the Brazilian +littoral.</p> + +<p>On the island and around the bay of Maranhão a +prosperous colony grew up. Certain enterprising +business men made a contract with the government +and started a regular propaganda for immigrants, and +induced a large number to come from the Azores. +The state thus founded was one of the most prosperous +in Brazil, and was especially celebrated for +the politeness and cultivation of its inhabitants. +Some of the greatest names in Portuguese literature +are those of Maranhenses. It is commonly said that +the best Portuguese is spoken in Maranhão, and +not in Lisbon, Rio, or Porto—just as the English +of Dublin, Aberdeen, or Boston is considered better +than that of London or New York, and the Spanish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span> +of Lima and Bogotá better than that of Madrid, +Barcelona, or Buenos Aires.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile population and wealth had been increasing +satisfactorily in the older provinces south +of Cape St. Roque. By 1626 Pernambuco and +Bahia had grown to be towns of something like ten +thousand inhabitants, and the people of the respective +provinces numbered about a hundred thousand. +Ilheos, Porto Seguro, and Espirito Santo had +made no progress, but Rio had become a city of six +thousand, while the shores of her bay and the adjacent +coast were now fairly settled. Rio and Santos +really performed the function of ports for the foreign +commerce of Paraguay and the Argentine because +the Spanish laws did not permit these colonies to +have ports of their own. Campos was now settled +and its sugar industry was prospering. On the São +Paulo plains the Paulistas had spread to the north-east +to the headwaters of the Parahyba and borders +of the present state of Rio, and north-west down +the navigable Tieté, along which they found an easy +track for their expeditions in search of slaves. The +Jesuits had long since been unable to control or +check the Paulistas, and had abandoned the missions +near the coast. In the remote interior, along the +Paraná and its great tributaries, the defeated priests +thought that they would be safe, and about the end +of the sixteenth century they entered that region +by way of Paraguay. The Paulistas recked little of +the government, especially now that the king was +Spanish, and, advancing the claim that Spanish +Jesuits had established missions on Portuguese<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> +territory, they proceeded to wipe out the new +missions.</p> + +<p>It seems incredible that their little bands could +have penetrated such distances and accomplished +such results, but it is on record that they tracked +nearly to the Andes, and practically exterminated, +the aboriginal population of half Brazil. The Jesuits +tell us that between 1614 and 1639 four hundred +Paulistas with two thousand Indian allies captured +and killed three hundred thousand natives. In 1632 +they utterly destroyed the great Jesuit settlements +on the Upper Paraná, though this involved an expedition +of fifteen hundred miles, much of which +is to this day rarely penetrable. One of their expeditions +was like an ambulating village—women, +children, and domestic animals accompanying it. +They sometimes were obliged to stop, sow a crop, +and wait for it to mature before they could proceed. +For the time being, these predatory Paulistas almost +reverted to the nomadic stage.</p> + +<p>Naturally, no complete record of these expeditions +survives. Their members were not literate men, and +it is only when they fought the Jesuits, or when +they discovered minerals, that a record of their +routes has been preserved. We know that before +1632 they had traversed all of southern Brazil, and +Paraguay, and even eastern Argentina and Uruguay. +Incursions to the north and west followed +shortly. There is an authentic record of an expedition +reaching Goyaz as early as 1647, and it is +probable that by that time they had penetrated the +central plateau which stretches across to the Andes,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> +had seen the headwaters of the southern tributaries +of the Amazon, and had followed the eastern mountain +chain almost to the northern ocean. The Paulistas +secured to their country and their race more +than a million square miles of fertile and salubrious +territory.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-f.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-6.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h3>THE DUTCH CONQUEST</h3> + + +<p>By the end of the sixteenth century Holland was +practically independent, and the "Beggars of +the Sea" were carrying her arms and trade all over +the world. Numerous private companies of Dutch +merchants made war against Spain on their own account, +and great fortunes were made in the capture +of Spanish fleets and in trade with Spanish and Portuguese +colonies. The Dutch East India Company +within a few years possessed itself of the better part +of the Portuguese empire in the Indian Ocean, and +the West India Company was organised to do the +same in South America. Incorporated in 1621, it included +various smaller companies already engaged in +trade and privateering, and was an immense corporation +which finally owned more than eight hundred +ships, and sent to Brazil alone more than seventy +thousand troops. Although protected, subsidised, +and conceded a monopoly by the Dutch government, +it always remained essentially a company for +private profit.</p> + +<p>The Company's primary object was to capture the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> +Spanish treasure fleets; its secondary object was to +conquer the possessions of Spain and Portugal in +South America. Brazil furnished the best base for +the operations that were intended to make the +South Atlantic a Dutch lake; Bahia and Pernambuco +were near Europe, had good harbours, lay on the +direct route to the Plate and the Pacific, and from +them Africa could be conveniently attacked. The +sugar trade was a large thing in itself and the daring +Dutch traders believed that the Portuguese colonists +might welcome a deliverance from Spanish domination. +Spain's power was a rotten shell, and impulses +lying deep in the national spirit pushed the Dutch +on to aggression. The peoples of Western Europe +had finally felt all the stimulating influences of the +Renaissance, of the Lutheran and Jesuit Reformations, +and of the Era of Discovery. It was the +epoch of the Thirty Years' War, of the League of +Avignon, and of that confused fighting caused by +the more vigorous peoples grasping for a share of +the spoils of the New World.</p> + +<p>In 1623 news came of the equipping by the West +India Company of an expedition whose destination +was manifestly to be Bahia. The Spanish government +took no measures for defence. The local +authorities half-heartedly began to fortify the city, +but there were no troops except militia to man the +works, and when the Dutch fleet hove in sight a +panic ensued. The governor was captured, but +many of the inhabitants fled into the back country, +and a guerrilla warfare was kept up which shut up +the Dutch inside the fortifications. They made use<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> +of their time in improving the defences, and soon +made Bahia the best fortress in South America.</p> + +<p>The news of the capture created consternation in +Lisbon. Great exertions were made by the Portuguese +merchants, as well as by the Spanish government, +and the most formidable armament which up +to that time had crossed the equator was prepared. +It was composed of fifty-two ships and of twelve +thousand men—the latter being mercenaries gathered +from every country in Europe. The Dutch +commander had not yet been re-enforced and made +little resistance when such an overwhelming force +arrived in Bahia harbour. He surrendered with the +honours of war and the Spanish fleet retired. In a +few weeks another Dutch fleet appeared, bringing +provisions and re-enforcements. It was too late, +however, and the Dutch did not venture to attack +an enemy whom they themselves had furnished with +such excellent re-enforcements. The Dutch, driven +from the land, remained undisputed masters of the +sea, and the Spanish and Portuguese could no longer +trade except in convoys. In 1627 the celebrated +Piet Heyn—the Dutch Sir Francis Drake—sailed +boldly into Bahia harbour, and despising the fire of +the forty guns of the forts, captured twenty-six ships +within pistol-shot of the shore cannon. He ran his +own ship right in between the two best Portuguese +men-of-war, the forts did not dare fire for fear of +wounding their own men, the Portuguese flagship +was sunk, and the rest surrendered in terror. +Among the spoils were three thousand hogsheads +of sugar, which Piet Heyn sent home at his leisure,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span> +while he ravaged the shores of the bay. The following +year he fell in with the Mexican treasure fleet +and captured it bodily. This was the greatest capture +ever made at sea. The West India Company +declared a dividend of fifty per cent. after paying +the expenses of the unsuccessful Bahia expedition, +and resumed its plans of conquest with more vigour +than ever.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/illus-373.jpg" width="800" height="400" alt="OLD FORT AT BAHIA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">OLD FORT AT BAHIA.</span> +</div> + +<p>After careful consideration Pernambuco was selected +as a more vulnerable point of attack than Bahia. +The fortifications were feeble, and there were +numerous Jewish merchants in the city whose +friendship could be counted on. Once more the +Spanish government did nothing to avert the +threatened blow, and in February, 1630, a Dutch +fleet of fifty sail with seven thousand men arrived in +front of Pernambuco. Three thousand men were +landed to the north of the town and easily defeated +the militia which tried to prevent their taking the +place from the rear. The inhabitants fled to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span> +interior, and after a creditable resistance the forts fell. +The property captured was estimated at near ten +million dollars. In the meantime, Albuquerque, the +Brazilian commander, had retired to a defensible +ranch commanding the road between Recife and +Olinda, and whence communication could be kept up +with the sea by way of Cape St. Augustine. This +ranch is celebrated in Brazilian tradition as the "Arraial +de Bom Jesus." The Brazilians rallied and from +this vantage-ground began to harass the Dutch. The +promises of commercial, religious, and political tolerance +had produced little effect on the more ardent +spirits. The Indians remained faithful to the Portuguese, +and with the negroes did good service in the +guerrilla warfare. For the first two years the Dutch +could accomplish little except to improve the fortifications +around the town, and the Brazilians acquired +a confidence in their own ability to make head +against regular troops which later stood them in +good stead.</p> + +<p>In 1631 a fleet of twenty ships appeared from +Spain, but the Dutch Admiral sailed boldly out and +gave them battle. The net results to the Spaniards +were the landing of only a thousand men, who, after +some difficulty, joined the militia at Bom Jesus. +But the seeds of discontent were germinating among +the Brazilians. On closer contact the heretics +proved to be human. The planters wanted peace +and an opportunity to sell their sugar. The Indians, +negroes, and other adventurous spirits composing +the guerrilla bands robbed both friend and foe. +The soldiers were tired of serving without pay. A<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span> +half-breed named Calabar, a man of remarkable +bravery, cunning, and skill in woodcraft, deserted +to the Dutch and gave them valuable assistance. +Re-enforcements came from Holland, and under +Calabar's guidance the Dutch learned the value of +ambuscading and made sudden expeditions which +took the important settlements by surprise.</p> + +<p>In 1633 two special representatives of the Company +came with instructions to prosecute the war +vigorously and to endeavour to conciliate the Brazilians. +The latters' resistance weakened; many of +Albuquerque's volunteers deserted; the Dutch expeditions +up and down the coast were successful. +The island of Itamarica, Rio Grande do Norte, +Parahyba, and the settlements in Alagoas were successively +reduced. Resistance was soon confined to +the country just back of Pernambuco itself, and in +1635 the last posts which held out—Bom Jesus and +St. Augustine—surrendered. The whole coast from +the San Francisco River north to Cape St. Roque +was in the hands of the Dutch. There was nothing +for it but submission or emigration. Many laid down +their arms, but Albuquerque and his faithful lieutenants, +the negro Dias and the Indian Camarrão, reluctantly +took their way toward Bahia, the only place +of refuge. The Brazilian historians claim that ten +thousand Pernambucanos, men, women, and children, +accompanied Albuquerque, preferring to leave +their homes, property, and friends rather than accept +the foreign and heretic yoke. A sweet bit of +revenge awaited them on their journey. Encountering +and overpowering a small Dutch garrison at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span> +Porto Calvo, they took its members prisoners, and +among them found the traitor, Calabar. Him they +hanged, while the Dutchmen were let go unharmed.</p> + +<p>When Albuquerque reached the San Francisco he +was replaced by a Spaniard, Rojas, who had brought +re-enforcements of seventeen hundred Spanish +troops. The new commander gave battle to the +Hollanders, but in the first action was utterly defeated +and lost his own life. For the next two years +Pernambuco was ravaged by the most frightful burnings +and massacres. The Spanish mercenaries and +the bands of negroes and Indians scoured the interior, +and the Dutch retaliated with the same +methods. The prosperous colony was fast being +depopulated and its industries ruined. It became +manifest that a policy at once vigorous and conciliatory +was necessary, and the Company determined to +send out a governor-general with vice-regal powers.</p> + +<p>The merchants of the Directory chose Count John +Maurice, of Nassau-Siegen, a scion of the reigning +house, and a descendant of William the Silent. A +more fortunate selection could not have been made. +Though only thirty-two years old, Count Maurice +had already proved himself a brave and skilful +soldier; he was a man of culture, a thorough son of +the Renaissance, a lover of the arts, and, like most +of his house, religiously tolerant and liberal to an +extent extraordinary for that bitter age. He was +one of those few spirits, in advance of their time, to +whom Catholic and Protestant, Jew and Gentile +were the same—to whose instincts religious and +commercial intolerance was repugnant.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span></p> + +<p>He arrived in 1637, and his keen eye at once saw +that the two obstacles to pacification were the military +raids which the new Spanish commander, Bagnuoli, +was directing from his position near the San +Francisco; and the fear of the Pernambuco sugar +planters that Dutch dominion meant their forcible +conversion to Calvinism. The Dutch troops were +now well equipped and seasoned for warfare in the +tropical woods, and their officers had learned how +to exercise their trade under these difficult circumstances +with all the coolness, shrewdness, and steadiness +of their race. Commanded by Maurice they +easily inflicted a crushing defeat upon the motley +crew Bagnuoli had been able to gather. The whole +country north of the San Francisco fell into Maurice's +hands, and he crossed that river and destroyed +the Brazilian base of supplies in Sergipe. The next +year he was ordered by the Directory to attack Bahia +with insufficient forces, and was compelled to retire +after a forty-days siege. Two years later, however, +his fleet defeated and nearly destroyed the largest +naval force Spain had sent out since the Invincible +Armada. Of the six thousand soldiers on board who +had been expected to drive him from Brazil, only +one thousand were landed, away north of Cape St. +Roque, whence they barely managed to reach Bahia +after a march of over a thousand miles through the +wilderness, suffering the most frightful hardships. +Maurice followed up this victory by occupying +Sergipe (1640) and Maranhão (1641). Ceará had +fallen into his hands in 1637. The whole of Brazil +from the 3rd to the 12th degree of latitude, a solid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span> +body of territory containing more than two-thirds +of the population and developed resources, was apparently +irretrievably lost to the Portuguese. They +only retained Bahia and the isolated settlements in +Pará and the southern provinces.</p> + +<p>In internal administration Maurice was equally +vigorous. He suppressed the exactions of Dutch +soldiers and functionaries, and established law, order, +and justice. Agriculture, industry, and commerce +flourished as never before. He found Recife +a miserable port village and left it a city of two +thousand houses. He does not seem to have made +any especial exertions to secure Dutch immigration. +The Brazilians were not displaced as landed proprietors, +and most of the plantations confiscated +from the persistently rebellious were resold to Brazilians +who accepted the Dutch rule. He permitted +to Romanists and Jews the free and public exercise +of their faith. Many Jews came to Pernambuco, +and with their characteristic capacity soon became +prominent and useful in the commercial life of the +colony. The courts were so organised as to secure +representation for Brazilians. He summoned a sort +of legislature of the principal colonists—the first representative +assembly on South American soil—and +put into effect the measures it proposed. Local +administration was entrusted to Brazilians, and his +aim was evidently to make the colony self-governing.</p> + +<p>But this positivist of the seventeenth century, this +genial pagan who had caught the essential spirit of +the Renaissance and had the courage to put it into +practice centuries before it became dominant even in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span> +the realm of thought, was too far in advance of his +time. His countrymen could not understand him or +his ideas, and the Portuguese colonists were equally +incapable of appreciating what he was trying to do +for them. His edifice scattered like a card house the +moment he left. To all appearances every vestige +of his work was swept away; it is only a memory +and an example; a wave that dashed far up the +beach at the beginning of the flood-tide, leaving a +mark that long served only to show how far the +water had once come. It remained for the nineteenth +century and another nation of shopmen to +put into practice, on a scale large enough to convince +the world, the great principle of non-interference by +the central government with the religious beliefs +and the local self-government of colonies.</p> + +<p>The moneyed aristocrats of the West India Company +distrusted Maurice as a member of a reigning +family which was maintained in power by its popularity +with the masses. The Directory wanted immediate +profits, not an empire established on a broad +and sure foundation. In their hearts they preferred +a steward and bookkeeper to a prince and a statesman. +The Calvinist clergy bitterly complained of +the liberties conceded their Catholic competitors for +tithes, and succeeded in imposing on Maurice the +execution of the prohibition against religious processions—then +as now so dear to the Brazilian heart. +Spies were sent out to report on him and he was +continually hampered.</p> + +<p>Among the Brazilians he was equally misunderstood. +While personally so popular that not one of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span> +their chroniclers has a word of dispraise for him, +they could not forget that he was of a different race +and religion, and he did not succeed in converting +them to his ideas. His best personal friends were +among those most influential, after his departure, in +stirring up the exclusive Brazilian feeling.</p> + +<p>Maurice was not a man to be easily daunted. For +seven years he remained in office, fighting the Directory, +the Calvinist ministers, the corrupt officials, +trying to reconcile the jealousies between +Dutchmen and Brazilians, and to create a homogeneous +community. But after the power of the Nassau +family began to decline with the rise of the Witt +oligarchy, the Directory determined to be rid of him. +In 1644 he made a vigorous demand for more troops, +and when it was refused sent in a Bismarckian resignation, +which, to his surprise, was immediately accepted +with many polite protestations of thanks for +his services.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-b.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-1.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<h3>EXPULSION OF THE DUTCH</h3> + + +<p>Four years before Maurice's retirement Portugal +broke loose from Spain, and that part of Brazil +which had escaped conquest by the Dutch promptly +threw off the Spanish yoke. In Europe Holland +and the new Portugal were naturally in alliance, but +the former was not magnanimous enough to stop her +aggressions in Brazil, and the latter was too weak +to resent them. Among the Brazilians dissatisfaction +began to brew as soon as Maurice left. +The prohibition of religious processions, the severe +financial crisis among planters who were unable to +pay off the heavy mortgages which they had given +when they purchased confiscated plantations, the +low price of sugar, and the impulse to national feeling +given by the news of the success of the mother +country in achieving independence all co-operated.</p> + +<p>The opportunity brought forth the man. The +head of the rebellion was John Fernandes Vieira, +who is the great creator of the Brazilian nationality. +A native of Madeira, he ran away as a boy to seek +his fortune in Brazil. Engaged at first in menial<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span> +employments, his honesty and capacity soon enabled +him to strike out for himself as a sugar planter. +When the Dutch attacked Pernambuco in 1630 he +took up arms, and only surrendered when Bom Jesus +fell. Convinced that further resistance was useless +he returned to his business and within ten years was +the richest man in the colony. Though a devoted +Catholic and a patriotic Portuguese, he was one of +Maurice's most trusted advisers. When the Prince +departed John Fernandes thenceforward devoted +his life to the expulsion of the Dutch.</p> + +<p>The first revolt occurred in Maranhão, where the +small Dutch garrison had to abandon that captaincy +as early as 1644. In Pernambuco John Fernandes +organised a formidable conspiracy, and letters were +despatched to the new Portuguese king asking his +aid. John IV. did not dare to comply openly, for +such action might have involved him in a war with +the States-General, but the governor-general at Bahia +was as unscrupulous as he was patriotic, and +secretly afforded the conspirators every facility in +his power. The celebrated chiefs of the guerrilla +fighting of 1630 to 1635, Vidal, Camarrão, and Dias, +were only too anxious to have another chance, and +gathered their bands in the wilderness. Arms were +obtained from Bahia, and in 1645 the insurrection +broke out. The first move was to have been the +massacre of the principal Hollanders, but the plot +was discovered and the conspirators fled for their +lives to the interior. At a place called Tabocas +John Fernandes gathered a motley crew of a few +hundred together. Only three hundred of his fol<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span>lowers +had muskets, but they were protected by +marshy ground in front, and the hill was surrounded +by almost impenetrable cane-brakes. There on the +3rd of August the Dutch troops to the number of a +thousand found and attacked the Brazilians. The +bulk of the population was standing aloof, his camp +was full of mutiny, nevertheless John Fernandes +stood firm. The Dutch charged confidently, but +they could not use their firearms to advantage, and +the Brazilians showed the traditional valour of their +race in the use of pike and sword. The Dutch were +not able to dislodge the rebels, and after losing three +hundred and seventy men they retreated to Pernambuco, +leaving the insurgents with all the moral prestige +of victory.</p> + +<p>The whole province rose; the troops, which had +come from Bahia ostensibly to aid the Dutch in +pacifying the province, went over <i>en masse</i> to the +patriots; the Dutch garrisons in the outlying towns +were everywhere attacked and everywhere retreated. +A few grudgingly paid mercenaries were not the +material with which to defend such an empire. +Within a few months the Dutch were expelled from +the interior and shut themselves up in the fortified +seaports waiting for re-enforcements. The Indians +and guerrillas spread fire and destruction through +Itamarica, Parahyba, Rio Grande do Norte, and +Ceará. In spite of this sudden success the position +of the patriots was very critical. Without the aid +of regular troops they could hardly hope to make +head against the Dutch so soon as the latter received +adequate re-enforcements. The news of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span> +insurrection aroused great indignation in Holland. +The house of the Portuguese ambassador was surrounded +by an infuriated mob, and his government +had to disavow the rebellion. Willing as John IV. +might be to help the Brazilians, he dare not. By +the middle of 1646 an able commander, von +Schoppke, arrived from Holland with a fine army. +At first John Fernandes and the militia did not dare +meet him in the field. The provincials hovered +about the Dutch columns, cutting off detachments, +and burning sugar plantations in the line of march. +John Fernandes set the example by ordering the +destruction of his own property.</p> + +<p>In 1647 Barreto de Menezes, an able professional +soldier, arrived in Brazil bearing a secret commission +from the Portuguese king. The bickering and +despairing provincials made no difficulty about +recognising it, and Barreto at once began uniting +the scattered militia bands and the few regulars who +had clandestinely come up from Bahia.</p> + +<p>A few miles south of Pernambuco the low hills +encroach on the coast-plain, leaving only a narrow +pass between themselves and the marshes. +Schoppke made a sortie along the coast road with +the largest part of his force,—about four thousand +men,—and there at the hills of Guararapes found the +patriot army, numbering two thousand two hundred. +Encamped across the level ground they barred his +way, with the evident intention of giving him battle, +and there on the 18th of August, 1648, was fought +out the question whether Brazil should be Dutch or +Portuguese. The defeat of the patriots would have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span> +meant the hopeless collapse of the rebellion and the +giving up by poor little Portugal of the last vestige +of her claim to Brazil. Success meant that they +might prolong the war for years and finally tire out +Holland, or give the Portuguese government a +chance to do something by negotiation.</p> + +<p>The battle began with the Dutch taking possession +of the higher ground whence their artillery inflicted +some damage, but when they charged down +the hill, attempting to outflank and surround the +Brazilians, there ensued a confused and desperate +struggle with cold steel. The regulars proved no +match for these farmers, who were fighting for their +homes and religion. The Dutch battalions broke and +fled up the hill, followed by the Brazilians. Then +the Dutch reserve came into action and the battle +rolled back to the low ground, where the result was +decided face to face and man to man. Some of the +braver of the Dutch imprudently went through the +Brazilian lines into the marshes, where they suffered +terrible slaughter at the hands of the reserve. More +than a thousand Hollanders perished, with seventy-four +officers. Thirty-three standards remained in +the hands of the Brazilians, and the remnants of the +Dutch army fled to the shelter of the walls of Pernambuco. +The cowardice shown by many of his +troops is the only excuse offered by the Dutch general +for this shameful defeat suffered at the hands of +a militia inferior not only in equipment and artillery, +but in numbers and advantage of position.</p> + +<p>The descendants of the victors at Guararapes +have never forgotten that it was a Brazilian and not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span> +a Portuguese triumph. The Brazilians proved to +their own satisfaction that their resources were sufficient +to defend their institutions, and it has been +well said that on that day the Brazilian nation was +born.</p> + +<p>The parsimonious merchants whose money was +invested in the Company made a half-hearted effort +to retrieve this unexpected reverse, but re-enforcements +were sent out so grudgingly that a similar +sortie next year was even more overwhelmingly +defeated at the very same place. Even then the +Brazilian hopes of ultimate success would have +been small if at this very juncture the world-power +of Holland had not received its first great check by +the breaking out of the war with Oliver Cromwell. +With English fleets sweeping the North Sea and +Blake's cannon thundering at the Texel, the States-General +had no forces to spare on far-away Brazil. +The patriots kept the Dutch shut up in Pernambuco +and were undisputed masters of the rest of the province. +So long as communication by sea remained +open the Dutch, however, could maintain themselves +indefinitely. Re-enforcements might come +at any time from Holland and the negotiations by +Portugal were uncertain, and might, indeed, lead to +Brazil's being exchanged for an advantage elsewhere.</p> + +<p>John Fernandes steadfastly maintained the siege, +urging his followers not to lay down their arms so +long as a Dutchman remained in Brazil. The pusillanimous +Portuguese king did not dare help the Pernambucanos, +and neither was he honest enough to +abide by the treaties he had made with Holland, giv<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span>ing +up all claim to North Brazil. Matters remained +in this anomalous position until 1654, when John +Fernandes by a single audacious stroke cut through +the tangle made by complicated and timid European +diplomacy.</p> + +<p>In the fall of 1653 the annual Bahia fleet sailed +from the Tagus, convoyed by powerful men-of-war. +The Dutch had no naval force on the South American +coast able to cope with it. When the +Portuguese fleet hove in sight of Pernambuco, the +Brazilian commanders from their fortified besieging +camp just to the south of the city entered into +communication with the Admiral. John Fernandes +begged the latter to lend him some cannon for a +few days and meanwhile to blockade the port. The +patriot leader saw that the isolated garrison of +mercenaries would have no heart to hold out for +long. The Portuguese Admiral refused, saying, +truly enough, that he had no instructions to aid the +insurgent Brazilians, and that he did not care to risk +his head by precipitating a war between Portugal +and Holland. Fernandes answered that with or +without his aid the assault would be made, and the +Admiral yielded to his natural feelings and lent the +Brazilians some big guns. John Fernandes planted +them where they commanded an outlying fort he +knew to be vital to the city's defences. Schoppke +was compelled to retire within the central city; the +Brazilians made successful night assaults on several +positions, and drew their lines closer and closer +until the place was untenable. On the 26th of January, +1655, the Dutch general signed a capitulation,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span> +surrendering not only Pernambuco, but all the other +places held by the Dutch in Brazil. His twelve +hundred troops were given safe passage home, and +all resident Hollanders were allowed three months +to settle their affairs before leaving.</p> + +<p>Thus ended the Dutch dominion in Brazil. Four +provinces, three cities, eight towns, fourteen fortified +places, and three hundred leagues of coast were +definitely restored to the Portuguese Crown. A +gigantic commercial speculation had failed before +the obstinate resistance of a few farmers animated +by a love of country and religion. Twenty-five +years of bloody warfare or sulky acquiescence in +alien rule had welded the Portuguese colonists along +the Brazilian coast into a nation. Directly from the +Dutch they had learned little or nothing. Rather +were the traits which have ever since been the cause +of Brazil's industrial backwardness intensified.</p> + +<p>The characteristics of the leaders in the Pernambuco +war of independence epitomise the races of +Brazil. Vidal is the type of a high-class Brazilian—generous, +jealous, spendthrift, proud, intelligent, +quick at expedients, and not too scrupulous in his +use of them. Camarrão, the Indian, perished before +the final victory as if to show symbolically that +his race had not the stamina to hold out in competition +with white or black. Dias represents the +negro—unsurpassable in fidelity and personal courage, +and needing only leadership to show transcendent +military qualities.</p> + +<p>John Fernandes was a curious mixture of the +mediæval and modern. His wealth did not make<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span> +him cautious where his country was concerned; he +had been honoured with the intimate confidence of +those whom he fought; he was grave, silent, reserved, +strongest when others were most discouraged; +no feeling of vanity ever interfered with his +purposes; if another man could do a piece of work +better than he, he stepped aside; when success was +in sight he imperturbably let showier men have +the glory. Religious faith and feudal loyalty were +the mainsprings of his nature; nevertheless in war +he was cautious, indefatigable, and calculating. In +crises he struck like a sledge-hammer, though he +could wait patiently and uncomplainingly for an +opportunity. His was not a pride that disdains +artifices. He conspired secretly and subtly, and +with all his apparent moderation of character he +blindly and unreasoningly hated everything Protestant +and non-Portuguese. On the hill at Tabocas +his battle-cry was: "Portuguese! At the heretics! +God is with us!" When the Dutch made their last +desperate charge, and it seemed as if all was up with +his band of insurgents, he refused to flee, but stood +beside the crucifix, calling on the Virgin and the +saints, and exhorting his companions to die rather +than yield to the unbelievers. When the Dutch +gave back he fell on his knees and intoned a hymn. +With each new victory gained he vowed a church to +the Virgin. When desperate over the hesitation of +the Admiral in the last scene of the war, his final +argument, made in all sincerity, was that failure +to expel the Dutch meant exposing thousands of +Catholics to the temptation of denying their faith<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span> +by a renewal of the heretic rule, and that for himself, +rather than share the responsibility for the +murder of thousands of souls, he would lead his Brazilians +to certain death.</p> + +<p>Relentless to his enemies, to his friends and dependents +he was kindness itself. It is related that +a Portuguese, landed with hardly clothes enough to +cover him, and seeking a protector, was directed to +Fernandes. The latter was mounting his horse +to go on a journey. To the man's offer of allegiance +and appeal for help, he answered: "I am +going to my house ten miles away and have no +leisure now to relieve you, but follow me thither on +foot. If you are too weak to walk, take this horse I +am on. If you are faithful you shall have support +as long as my means hold out; if they fail, and there +should be nothing else to eat, I will cut off a leg +and we will eat it together." This was said with so +grave a face and severe a manner that the poor +Portuguese thought he meant to repulse him. But +on inquiry he found that Fernandes rarely smiled +and that literally all that he had was at the service +of his adherents.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-4.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<h3>THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY</h3> + + +<p>In 1621 the northern provinces, Ceará, Maranhão, +and Pará, had been separated from the rest of +Brazil and erected into an independent government +called the State of Maranhão. In Ceará the cattle-industry +flourished; around the beautiful bay of +Maranhão the Azoreans multiplied their colonies. +Cotton, mandioc, and sugar were grown in large +quantities; the cotton manufacture soon became an +important industry. But the mysterious Amazon, +whose entrance was guarded by the town of Pará, +seemed most attractive of all. No civilised man +had penetrated its length since Orellana's adventurous +voyage of a century before. In 1638 Jacomé +Raymundo, an able Brazilian, temporarily acting as +governor of Pará, determined to explore the great +river. The expedition which he sent out found its +way up the windings of the multitudinous channels, +and after eight months reached the first Spanish +settlement in the east of Ecuador. The Spanish +authorities at Lima and Quito saw no particular +value in a route through a territory in which no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span> +gold or silver had been discovered, and which by +the Spanish policy could not be used for commerce. +But when, two years, later Portugal regained her independence +the expedition turned out to have been +of vast importance. The Portuguese had found the +practicable route into the great river valley; they +controlled the mouth of the stream; and though +the whole territory lay west of the Tordesillas line +Spain never asserted any effective claim to it.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the conquest of the great interior +plateaux to the south was rapidly proceeding. The +wars with the Dutch rather stimulated than retarded +it, for, so long as the Dutch commanded the sea, +the widely separated provinces were obliged to communicate +by land, and the Indian routes became +better known to the Brazilians. Settlers driven +from the sugar plantations on the coast took up +cattle-raising in the interior of the northern provinces. +In the extreme South, as early as 1635 the +Paulistas had rooted out the Jesuit settlements from +the whole region of the Paraná. To the North they +traversed the São Francisco valley and the plateau +of Goyaz. Manoel Correa explored the latter region +in 1647, and in 1671 another Paulista, Domingos +Jorge, penetrated with a force of subject Indians +into the great treeless plains which extend beyond +the mountain ranges bounding the São Francisco +valley on the north. These plains are now the +state of Piauhy. At about the same time the cattle-raisers +who had established themselves on the lower +São Francisco in Bahia, crossed over into the same +territory of Piauhy. Within a short time the In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span>dians +were reduced to submission, and the cattle +ranges were extended over the plains of Piauhy, +southern Ceará, and the adjacent provinces. This +great conquest completed the junction of southern +and central Brazil with Maranhão and Pará. Long +lines of land communication were established, and +over them travel was more frequent than would +seem likely. Piauhy and Ceará soon produced an +enormous surplus of cattle whose export into other +provinces brought about a revolution in the alimentation +of the coast Brazilians. The Indians along +the north-east coast were gradually incorporated, +destroyed, or pushed back, though it was not until +1699 that they were finally subdued in Rio Grande +do Norte. From this time dates the astonishing +development of the population of Ceará, who during +this century have furnished nearly all the labour for +the gathering of rubber.</p> + +<p>In the South, settlements multiplied up and down +the coast from Rio until nearly the whole of the +present state was occupied. Rio and São Paulo +flourished with the profits of the clandestine trade +with the Spanish colonies. The Paulistas continued +to spread in every direction. By 1654 they +had occupied the headwaters of the Parahyba and +west as far as Soracaba.</p> + +<p>During the period just following the expulsion of +the Dutch the Portuguese government was not able +to enforce its policy of commercial exclusivism. +Treaties with Holland and England gave the citizens +of those countries a right to trade with Brazil, +and the colonists kept up their commerce with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span> +Spanish possessions. Municipal charters were freely +granted to Brazilian towns, and the existing franchises +reformed according to the most liberal model +in Portugal—that of Porto. Brazilians were relieved +of the absurd feudal distinctions which exempted +nobles alone from liability to torture, and regulated +the clothes a man might wear. The extraordinary +rapidity of Brazil's increase in population and territory +during the middle of the seventeenth century +was largely due to comparative freedom from vexatious +restrictions and exactions—commercial and +governmental. By the end of the century there +were three-quarters of a million people in Brazil—a +fivefold increase in seventy years, in spite of the fact +that the most populous provinces had been the +scene of war for twenty-four years of that time.</p> + +<p>But the Portuguese government lost little time in +returning to the old restrictive conditions. Since +the loss of the Indies, Brazil was Portugal's principal +source of wealth, and aristocracy and Court made +the most of the unhappy colony.</p> + +<p>Navigation companies were chartered and given a +monopoly of all commerce—export and import. +The Jesuits renewed their efforts to gain control of +the Indians. In São Paulo they had no chance of +success, but in the North the celebrated Padre Antonio +Vieira, one of the greatest geniuses that Portugal +has ever produced, was given a free hand. He +nearly smothered the whites of Maranhão and Pará +with a ring of missions, and his successors established +settlements on the Amazon which finally +spread so as to communicate with the Spanish mis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span>sions +in Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay. The Brazilians +of Maranhão and Pará did not object to the occupation +of the valley of the Amazon, but they bitterly +resented the Jesuit encroachments in their own +neighbourhood. In 1684 a rebellion finally broke +out in Maranhão under the leadership of Manoel +Beckman. He paid the forfeit with his life, but his +work had warned the Portuguese authorities that +they must not push their favours to the Jesuits too +far.</p> + +<p>During the long Dutch war many Pernambucan +negroes had fled into the interior, where they had +established themselves in independent communities +and refused to recognise white supremacy. They +fortified their villages with palisades, obtained wives +by raids on the plantations, elected chiefs, devised +rude forms of administering justice, and adopted a +religion which was a mixture of the nature worship +of their African ancestors with the outward forms of +Christianity. In spite of numerous efforts to destroy +them, these strange republics lasted fifty years. +It was not until 1697 that a Paulista chief, Domingos +Jorge, who was employed after the regulars had +failed, succeeded in shutting the negroes up in their +great palisade at Palmares. Seven thousand men +took part in the assault, and of the ten thousand +negroes who defended it none were spared.</p> + +<p>This was the only serious attempt at revolt on the +part of the blacks which ever occurred in Brazil. +Except for a few easily suppressed insurrections +which mostly occurred in Bahia among the recent +arrivals, the negroes remained in abject submission<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span> +until nearly the end of the nineteenth century. +The comparative mildness of the Brazilian treatment +of negroes, the practice of voluntary manumission, +and the fact that no impenetrable race barrier existed +all contributed to make slavery a less fearful thing in +Brazil than in North America.</p> + +<p>Both Spain and Portugal claimed the coast between +Santos and the river Plate under the treaty of +Tordesillas, but neither nation had made any serious +attempt to take possession up to the end of the +seventeenth century. As a matter of fact, the Tordesillas +line passed near the southern boundary of +the Brazilian state of São Paulo, but the Portuguese +maps pushed all Brazil eight degrees to the east, and +Portugal claimed that the line passed near the point +where the Paraná and Uruguay unite to form the +Plate. The Paulistas had made this claim effective +over much of the disputed territory.</p> + +<p>For a century after the foundation of Buenos +Aires the Spaniards failed to occupy the north margin +of the Plate, and in 1680 the Portuguese fore-stalled +them by founding a colony and fort, called +Colonia, directly opposite Buenos Aires. The +Spanish governor promptly resented this piece of +audacity and captured the place, but was compelled +to restore it immediately by orders from Madrid. +Louis XIV., who was then arbiter of Europe, had +no mind to allow a war to be precipitated over so +insignificant a matter as a post in an uninhabited +part of South America. However, the question of +right to the territory was left open for future determination. +Colonia at that time was chiefly valued<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span> +as an <i>entrepôt</i> for clandestine trade with the Spanish +provinces, but to its existence can be traced Brazilian +possession of the great states of Paraná, Santa +Catharina, and Rio Grande do Sul, and even Brazil's +dominance in the Upper Paraná valley, a dominance +which would have been lost had Spain insisted upon +the true Tordesillas line.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-c.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-2.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<h3>GOLD DISCOVERIES—REVOLTS—FRENCH ATTACKS</h3> + + +<p>The early attempts to find gold and silver had +not been successful. A little gold was found +in São Paulo in the sixteenth century, but no great +discoveries were made until nearly the end of the +seventeenth. The Paulistas, who scoured the interior +in their slave-hunts, occasionally came across indications +of gold, and rumours constantly reached the +coast. But for a long time the Paulistas failed, +either through ignorance or design, to give sufficiently +exact information. After 1670 the rumours +became so circumstantial that no doubt was felt that +the mountain ranges around the headwaters of the +São Francisco River were gold-bearing. Stimulated +by government promises of liberal treatment, the +Paulistas undertook the hunt in earnest. About +1690 they found the rich gold washings of Sabará, +where to-day is one of the great mines of the world—the +Morro Velho. This is three hundred miles +directly north of Rio. In 1693, Antonio Arzão, a +Paulista, penetrated west from this region to the +seacoast at Victoria, bringing with him native gold<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span> +in large nuggets. These were sent to Portugal and +created intense excitement. The Paulistas followed +up these first discoveries by soon finding half a +dozen other fields—all of them yielding gold in +abundance to the crudest processes. A rush started +that threatened to depopulate the seacoast and +even Portugal itself. The find was the greatest gold +discovery which had been made in the history of the +world up to that time. The one province of Minas +Geraes produced seven million five hundred thousand +ounces within the first fifty years, and its total +product to the present time has been twenty-five +million ounces.</p> + +<p>The Paulista discoverers of the mines soon became +involved in quarrels with the swarms of adventurers +who poured in from Portugal. The government at +first did not establish any regular control over the +mining region, and disputes arose between the old +and new comers as to proprietorship of claims. +Anarchy and civil war ensued, but the foreign element, +nicknamed the "emboabas," came out on top +with a strong man, Nunes Vianna, at the head of +affairs. He became the virtual ruler of the region, +and the Portuguese authorities at Rio, seeing their +perquisites endangered, tried to get rid of him by +force. They were unsuccessful, but finally managed +to seduce his followers and secure a recognition of +their own paramount authority by solemn promises +to concede the reasonable demands of the miners. +These promises were not kept. Vianna, though he +had been induced to surrender on assurances that +his life would be spared, was assassinated.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span></p> + +<p>The mining laws, at first liberal, were narrowed +until exploration was discouraged and production +oppressed. For years the authorities tried to collect +a fixed amount for each slave employed—a provision +which discouraged searches for new deposits. +Then the system of requiring all gold to be taken to +government melting-houses was enforced. Export +in dust or nuggets was forbidden, and no gold was +allowed in circulation except that which bore the +government stamp showing it had paid the king's +fifth. This involved the searching of every traveller's +pockets and the posting of detachments of soldiers +at every crossroads. So oppressive and inconvenient +was this that finally the chief miners and municipal +authorities agreed to be responsible for a lump sum +yearly.</p> + +<p>The war of the emboabas ended in 1709, but +troubles broke out in the mining regions from time +to time down to the end of the colonial period. +These struggles for local self-government—for the +right to exist—were not confined to Minas. In +various forms and at various times they were repeated +in most of the provinces, and a strong belief +in local autonomy never died out, though for long +periods it was apparently crushed out of existence.</p> + +<p>Simultaneously with the overthrow of the semi-independent +government of Minas, which had been +set up by the emboabas, a civil war broke out in the +old province of Pernambuco. This was a struggle +of the oligarchy of native Brazilian sugar-planters +against the rigorous and corrupt rule of the royal +governors and against the encroachments of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span> +newly arrived Portuguese. Then, as now, foreigners +conducted the trade of Brazil; the Brazilian aristocrats +remained on their plantations, disdaining the +small economies and anxieties of commerce. The +Portuguese were the peddlers, shopkeepers, and +money-lenders for the community, as well as the +officials of the government. In both capacities +they pressed hard on the extravagant Brazilians. +Olinda, the old capital, was the headquarters of the +latter. Recife, three miles south, was the port and +chiefly inhabited by native Portuguese. It had outrun +Olinda during the Dutch occupation, but was +legally only an administrative dependency of the +older and smaller town. In 1709 the Portuguese +government made Recife a separate city—a step +which was bitterly resented by the Brazilians and +especially by the close corporation of native families +who controlled the Olinda municipal government. +Hostilities broke out between them and the governor. +Two thousand Pernambucanos invaded Recife; +the troops deserted and the governor fled for +his life, while the royal charter to Recife was torn +to bits by the mob. The heads of the insurrection +met to determine what form of government should +be adopted. Bernardo Vieira, the best soldier in +the colony, proposed that a republic should be +founded on the plan of Venice, probably the first +time a republic was ever advocated on American soil. +The proposition met with much favour, but the conservatives +shrank from so radical a departure. The +bishop was made acting-governor, but his hand +proved not firm enough to control the divergent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span> +interests and ambitions. The Portuguese—"mascates" +they were called—revolted in their turn and +drove him from Recife. The Pernambucanos besieged +the place, but the loss of the seaport was a +heavy blow. The Olinda oligarchy was not able to +secure the co-operation of the smaller municipalities, +and civil war spread throughout the province. +When a new governor appeared with a commission +from the king, he had little difficulty, by promises +of fair treatment, in inducing all parties to lay down +their arms. No sooner, however, was he safely in +power than he imprisoned and banished the chiefs +of the revolt, especially selecting those who had +favoured an independent republic.</p> + +<p>All three great revolts—Beckman's in Maranhão, +that of the emboabas in Minas, and the Olinda rebellion +of 1710—followed substantially the same +course. Local feeling was strong enough to sweep +all before it for a time, but lack of capacity for organisation, +intestine quarrels, want of persistency, +soon enabled the Portuguese officials to re-establish +themselves more firmly than ever.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Portugal had become involved in the +War of the Spanish Succession. Colonia was again +captured by the Spanish of Buenos Aires, and +though it was restored at the end of the war its +trade was never so prosperous afterwards. In the +Upper Amazon Spanish Jesuits had come down +from Quito, but the Portuguese expelled them, +thereby confirming Portugal's title as far as the +foothills of the Andes. The Spaniards of the +eighteenth century no more than the Peruvians and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span> +Bolivians of the nineteenth were able to cope with +the difficulties of transit from the Pacific side of the +mountains. Portugal's effective possession reached +to the 70th meridian from Greenwich—sixteen hundred +miles west of the Tordesillas line.</p> + +<p>Rio was the only important Brazilian port which +had escaped attack by hostile fleets during the preceding +century, and the discovery of the gold mines +gave a tremendous impetus to its prosperity and +wealth. The only gateway to the mining territory, +its population of over twelve thousand was soon one +of the richest and busiest in all America. The opportunity +was too tempting to be neglected by the +French prize-hunters. A daring Frenchman, named +Duclerc, appeared before the city in 1710, but, seeing +that he had not ships strong enough to force the +entrance, landed with a thousand marines forty miles +down the coast. They met with no resistance in +their march through the woods and arrived back +of the city without loss. Thence they proceeded +coolly to charge into the narrow streets in the face +of the artillery fire from the hilltop forts that surround +the city. The audacious enterprise was very +nearly successful. The Portuguese regulars offered +no effective resistance, and the main body of the +French penetrated to the very centre of the city. +There they were checked by a little party of students +who had climbed into the governor's palace and were +firing out of the windows. The French finally took +the palace by assault, but meanwhile the city had +risen behind them, their scattered detachments were +massacred in detail, and the main body in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span> +palace had to surrender at discretion. The Portuguese +sullied their victory by acts of mediæval +cruelty—killing most of the prisoners.</p> + +<p>The victims did not long remain unavenged. As +soon as the news reached France, Admiral Duguay-Trouin, +one of the ablest seamen his nation has +produced, volunteered to lead an expedition to Rio. +Wealthy merchants of St. Malo supplied the money, +and in June, 1711, he sailed with seven line-of-battle +ships, six frigates, and four smaller vessels, manned +by five thousand picked men. Secretly as the +expedition had been despatched, the Portuguese +had received warning. The garrison had been re-enforced +and the narrow-mouthed harbour and hill-commanded +city were defended by three forts and +eleven batteries, besides four ships of the line and +four frigates. Favoured by a foggy morning he ran +boldly in, suffering little loss. Of the Portuguese +men-of-war not one escaped. Fort Villegagnon was +blown up by the mismanagement of its garrison, the +Portuguese became demoralised, Trouin put a battery +on an unoccupied island within cannon-shot of +the city, and disembarked troops to the left of the +town where a range of hills made it easy to dominate +the low ground. The poor governor knew no +better tactics than to let the French enter the +streets and then overpower them in fighting from +the houses. But Trouin was too old a soldier to +be caught like his fellow-countrymen the year before. +He coolly advanced his batteries and soon +had the town commanded on three sides; it was +only a question of getting his cannon into position<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span> +when he could batter the place at his leisure. Panic +extended from the citizens to the soldiers, and a +week after the French had entered the harbour the +governor fled ignominiously to the interior, and the +French took possession unopposed.</p> + +<p>Revenge and plunder had been the objects of the +expedition. It would have been very difficult for the +French to have remained in permanent possession +of the city, and a conquest of the interior, with its +large population and mountainous character, was not +to be thought of. The city was admitted to ransom +on giving up the surviving prisoners of the Duclerc +expedition. Duguay-Trouin sailed triumphantly +back to France with a treasure which netted the +Norman merchants who had fitted him out ninety-two +per cent. on their investment, in spite of the +wrecking of the biggest ship on the homeward voyage.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-h.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-5.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<h3>THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY</h3> + + +<p>Montevideo was founded in 1726 and became +the nucleus of the Spanish settlements +which have grown into the modern country of Uruguay. +Except Colonia, the only Portuguese settlements +south of the 25th degree were the town of +Santa Catharina Island, the unimportant village of +Laguna on the coast-plain, and the scattered ranches +of a few adventurous Paulistas on the plateau.</p> + +<p>The founding of Montevideo drew the serious attention +of the Rio government to the valuable country +between the Plate and Santa Catharina. The +Paulistas had thoroughly explored the plains and +found them swarming with cattle. The chief obstacle +to the foundation of a military post as a nucleus +for the settlement of Rio Grande and eastern Uruguay +was the lack of a harbour on that sandy coast. +When the next European war broke out, in 1735, +the Spaniards again besieged Colonia, and established +forts and settlements along the Uruguayan +coast, from Montevideo to the present Brazilian border. +In 1737, the Portuguese authorities sent an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span> +expedition to take Montevideo, which failed. On +the way back the Portuguese built a little fort at the +only entrance which gives access to the great series +of lagoons which run parallel to the coast for two +hundred and fifty miles north of the southern Brazilian +frontier. This is the site of the present city of +Rio Grande do Sul. A few years later, a considerable +number of settlers from the Azores Islands were +introduced, who engaged in agriculture along the +fertile borders of the great Duck Lagoon.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/illus-407.jpg" width="800" height="418" alt="RIO GRANDE DO SUL." title="" /> +<span class="caption">RIO GRANDE DO SUL.</span> +</div> + +<p>In 1750, Spain and Portugal made an attempt to +reach an amicable and rational agreement about +their South American boundaries. Up to that time, +Spain had stubbornly claimed the territory as far +north and east as Santos, and Portugal was even +more unreasonable in asserting her exclusive right +to the coast as far south and west as the mouth of +the Uruguay. The treaty of 1750 virtually recognised +the <i>uti possidetis</i>. Portugal agreed to give up<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span> +Colonia, and the boundary to her possessions and +those of Spain was drawn between the Spanish settlements +in Uruguay and the Portuguese settlements +in Rio Grande. The seven Jesuit missions in the +interior, two hundred miles to the north, were +abandoned by the Spanish government. Spain deliberately +ceded these tens of thousands of peaceful +and prosperous civilised Indians, and even agreed +that her troops should assist the Portuguese in the +cruel dispossession. The Indians fought desperately +and unavailingly. But this iniquitous provision of +the treaty was the only part of it which was ever carried +into effect. Spanish public opinion protested, +the boundary commissions could not agree, Portugal +put off the surrender of Colonia on one pretext or +another, and in 1761 the treaty fell to the ground +and all the questions were left open.</p> + +<p>That year Spain and Portugal became embroiled +on opposite sides in the Seven Years' War, and the +Spaniards from Buenos Aires invaded the disputed +territory in overwhelming force. Colonia was taken +and in 1763 the Spanish governor led his army +against the Portuguese settlements in Rio Grande. +The fortified town of Rio Grande fell, the superior +Argentine cavalry drove the Rio Grandenses back +to the coast, and the Portuguese territory was reduced +to the north-east quarter of the state. The +flourishing farms of the Azorean settlers were laid +waste, and from this invasion dates the adoption by +the Rio Grandenses of pastoral habits. The Treaty +of Paris put an end to the war in Europe. The +Spaniards ceased their advance, they restored Co<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span>lonia +once more, but retained their conquests in +southern Rio Grande.</p> + +<p>The Rio Grandenses made good use of the breathing-spell. +They cared little whether there was peace +or war in Europe, and four years later made a desperate +effort to recapture their old capital and regain +their farms in the south. Disavowed by their +government, they still kept on fighting; soon they +made a regular business of raiding the territory occupied +by the Spaniards; the beef they found on +the plains was their food; they were always in the +saddle and soon became the finest of irregular cavalry +and partisan fighters.</p> + +<p>The Spaniards retaliated by invading northern +Rio Grande, but never succeeded in routing the Rio +Grandenses from their last strongholds. In 1775 the +Brazilians were re-enforced from São Paulo and Rio +and took the aggressive, and the following year +recaptured the city of Rio Grande. The Spanish +government took prompt steps to avenge this loss. +A great fleet was sent out, Santa Catharina was captured, +an army of four thousand men was on the +march up from Montevideo to sweep the Portuguese +out of all southern Brazil once and for all. But in +this crisis European politics again saved Brazil from +dismemberment. France and Spain were forming +a coalition against England in the War of American +Independence. Spain wished to have her hands +free and to isolate England. The Spanish fleet and +army were at the gates of Rio Grande when the +Treaty of San Ildefonso was signed in 1777. The +Portuguese definitely relinquished Colonia; Uruguay<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span> +and the Seven Missions remained Spanish, but most +of southern Rio Grande which the Portuguese had +lost in 1763, as well as Santa Catharina, was restored +to them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/illus-410.jpg" width="800" height="509" alt="OLD RANCH IN RIO GRANDE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">OLD RANCH IN RIO GRANDE.</span> +</div> + +<p>The thirty-four years of peace which followed in +Rio Grande were employed in steady growth. A +craze for cattle-raising set in, and the plains were divided +up into great <i>estancias</i> which were distributed +among the governor's favourites or those who had +distinguished themselves during the war. Substantially +the entire population engaged in the cattle +business. The Rio Grandenses and their cattle +multiplied so rapidly that they spread out over the +western part of the state, which was still Spanish, and +to the south. In 1780 the curing of beef by drying +and salting was introduced, which permitted its shipment, +and afforded a stable market.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 777px;"> +<img src="images/illus-411.jpg" width="777" height="600" alt="WASHING DIAMONDS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">WASHING DIAMONDS.</span> +</div> + +<p>After the great gold discoveries in Minas during +the late years of the seventeenth and early years of +the eighteenth centuries, the prospectors ranged +north from Sabará along the great Backbone Mountains, +finding washings at many places in North +Minas and Bahia. By 1740 the fields in Bahia were +producing fifty to a hundred thousand ounces a year. +As early as 1718 an expedition had penetrated fifteen +hundred miles to the west and discovered good +placers on the plateau where the headwaters of the +Madeira and the Paraguay intertwine. This was +the beginning of Cuyabá and the state of Matto +Grosso. In ten years a million five hundred thous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span>and +ounces were taken out from these diggings. A +little later still other fields were discovered farther +west on the Madeira watershed.</p> + +<p>The miners at the gold camp of Tijuca in North +Minas had noticed some curious little shining stones +in the bottom of their pans and thought them so +pretty that they used them for counters in games. +Soon a wandering friar who had been in India recognised +them as diamonds. This occurred in 1729, +and the field thus opened up supplied the world +with diamonds until the discovery of Kimberley. +In the years from 1730 to 1770 five million carats +were taken from the original Diamantina district, +and the deposits are still second in productiveness +only to those of South Africa. The diamond region +was at once declared Crown property and a deadline +drawn around it which none except officials +were allowed to cross.</p> + +<p>In 1716 an exploring expedition ascended the +Madeira, and in the years following the Tocantins, +the Araguaya, the Rio Negro, and the principal +tributaries of the Upper Amazon were navigated. +The Jesuit settlements in the Amazon valley continued +to flourish. While the interior and the South +were expanding rapidly, the coast provinces were +relatively declining. The growing competition of +the West Indies reduced the price of sugar. During +the seventeenth century Brazil had furnished the +bulk of European sugar consumption, selling her +product at non-competitive prices. But the growth +of the English and Dutch colonial empires brought +into the field competitors who possessed as good a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span> +climate and soil and enjoyed the inestimable advantage +of better government. Portugal's vicious and +narrow-minded colonial system was not changed +until Brazil's competitors had so far passed her that +she has never since been able to make up lost +ground.</p> + +<p>The wealth from mines and taxes that Brazil +poured into the Portuguese treasury was squandered +by the dissipated bigot, John V. When he died in +1750 he left Portugal in a bad way, and though Brazil +had managed to grow in spite of mismanagement, +the outlook was discouraging. The Spaniards were +threatening the new settlements in the South; São +Paulo had been depopulated by the migration to the +mines; Bahia's and Pernambuco's sugar and tobacco +industries were decadent; in Ceará and Piauhy the +golden days of the cattle business had passed; Maranhão +and Pará had stopped short in their development, +and their spread into the interior had been cut +off by the Jesuits.</p> + +<p>Contemporary documents prove the horrible corruption. +From ministers of State down to the +humblest subordinate every official had his share in +the pickings. The farmers of the revenues openly +paid bribes and might exact what they pleased from +the taxpayers. All trade except that with Portugal +was forbidden, and this was hampered in a hundred +ways. Salt, wine, soap, rum, tobacco, olive oil, and +hides were monopolies. All legal transactions were +burdened with heavy fees; slaves paid so much a +head; every river on a road was the occasion for a +new toll; the exercise of professions and trades was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span> +forbidden except on the payment of heavy fees; +anything that could compete with Portugal was +prohibited altogether. Taxation shut off industrial +enterprise at its very sources, and many of the worst +features of the system then put in vogue have never +been discontinued.</p> + +<p>The governors and military commanders interfered +constantly with the administration of justice +in favour of their friends and favourites; they accepted +bribes for allowing contraband trade and +permitting the immigration of foreigners; they misappropriated +the funds of widows and orphans; they +ignored the franchises of the municipalities; they +imposed unauthorised taxes; they forced loans from +suitors having claims before them; they obliged free +men to work without pay; they forcibly took wives +away from their husbands; they impressed the +young men for the wars on the Spanish border, +required every able bodied man to serve in the militia, +and commonly practised arbitrary imprisonment. +How even one of the best of them interfered to regulate +private affairs can best be shown by his own +words:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"I promoted the good of the people by forcibly compelling +them to plant maize and pulse, and threatening +to take away their lands altogether if they did not cultivate +them diligently; I required the militia colonels to +make exact reports about this matter and thus brought +about a great increase in the production of food crops +and sugar. I called the militia together for exercise on +Sundays and holidays, days which otherwise the people +would have spent in idleness and pleasure. Many have +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span>complained, but I have never given their complaints the +slightest attention, having always followed the system of +taking no notice whatever of the people's murmurs."</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<img src="images/illus-415.jpg" width="1024" height="678" alt="BOATS ON THE RIO GRANDE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">BOATS ON THE RIO GRANDE.<br /> +[From a steel print.]</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>He describes the Brazilians as vain, but indolent +and easily subdued; robust and supporting labour +well, but inclined to an inaction from which only +extreme poverty or the command of their superiors +could rouse them. They had no education, for the +only schools were a few Jesuit seminaries, and no +printing-press existed. They were licentious, had +no aristocracy, were unaccustomed to social subordination, +and would obey no authority except +the military.</p> + +<p>Underneath the surface fermented a deep disgust. +Even in the seaports the very name of government +was hated, and in the interior the people withdrew +themselves as much as possible from contact or participation +with it. A dull hatred of Portugal and +Portuguese spread among all classes of natives. In +much of the country the only law was the patriarchal +influence of the heads of the landed families, who +often exercised powers of life and death. Instances +are on record where fathers ordered their sons to kill +their own sisters when the latter had dishonoured +the family name.</p> + +<p>With the death of John V. in 1750 the great Marquis +of Pombal became prime minister. The enormous +energy and activity of this remarkable man +revolutionised the administration of Portugal and +Brazil. Official corruption was severely punished; +order replaced confusion; agriculture, industry, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span> +commerce were protected and encouraged. In spite +of the threatened exhaustion of the placers mining +flourished. Maranhão and Pará took a new start; +the worst monopolies were abolished; the price of +sugar rose with the great colonial wars and the +adoption of reasonable regulations. Wealth and +revenues increased apace and peace and security +were self-guarded. When Pombal fell, after twenty-seven +years in power, Brazil's population had risen +to two millions; Rio was a city of fifty thousand +and the capital had been transferred there; Bahia +had forty thousand; Minas contained four hundred +thousand people; the yield of gold was four hundred +thousand carats yearly, and the diamond production +one hundred and fifty thousand carats, and, +finally, Santa Catharina and Rio Grande had been +saved from the Spaniards and settled. Pombal had +made short work of the Jesuits. In 1755 he took +away their rights over their Indians, and four years +later issued an order for their immediate and unconditional +expulsion and the confiscation of their +property.</p> + +<p>Pombal had no favourites; he spared no individuals +and no classes in his work of ruthlessly concentrating +all power in the Crown. But he built a +Frankenstein of which he himself was the helpless +victim the moment his old master died. Unwittingly +he prepared the way for the triumph of the +ideas of the French Revolution both in Portugal +and Brazil, and his most beneficent measures were +the most fatal to the permanence of his despotic +system. Commercial prosperity gave the Brazilian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span> +people resources; the impartial administration of +law gave them some conceptions of civic pride and +independence; the encouragement of education, +small as it was, helped start an intellectual movement +which spread over the wilds of Brazil the +liberal principle then fermenting in Europe.</p> + +<p>Immediately upon his fall in 1777 the Portuguese +government reverted to most of the old abuses, but +the economic impulse did not at once die out.</p> + +<p>Pombal had not only expelled the Jesuits, but +had taken effective measures against enslaving the +Indians. The latter separated themselves from the +whites, and miscegenation largely decreased. On +the other hand, the importation of negro slaves had +been continued on a large scale throughout the +eighteenth century and the proportion of blacks in +the mining and sugar districts had increased. Intermixture +with negroes was stimulated by the seclusion +of the white women. The young men often took +mistresses from among the slaves, and these unions +sometimes subsisted after legitimate marriage. The +system of double <i>ménages</i>, however, decreased as +manners became more liberal, and opportunities for +social intercourse between the sexes increased.</p> + +<p>The more energetic Brazilians acquired the rudiments +of learning in the Jesuit schools, and a few +fortunate youths were sent to the University at +Coimbra in Portugal. In the early decades of the +eighteenth century societies for the discussion of +literary and scientific questions were established in +Rio and Bahia. In the centres of population little +groups of scholars began to gather who surrepti<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span>tiously +obtained the writings of French and English +political philosophers. Suddenly, in the latter half +of the century, a dazzling literary outburst occurred. +Its seat was not in Rio, the political, nor Bahia, +the ecclesiastical capital, nor yet in Pernambuco, the +cradle of the nationality, but in Ouro Preto, the +chief place of the mining province of Minas, twenty +days' journey on muleback from the coast, and +among a rude and unlettered population. Within a +few years appeared six of the foremost poets of the +Portuguese language: the lyrics, Gonzaga, Claudio, +Silva Alvarengo, and Alvarengo Peixoto, and the +epics, Basilio da Gama and Santa Rita Durão. He +who writes the songs of a people rather records their +history than influences it. The writings of the Minas +lyric poets are the best documents extant on the +character of the Brazilians of the colonial period. +They clearly reveal that culture was only at its beginnings; +that patriotism and national pride were +indefinite and shadowy; that religion was neither +dogmatic nor absorbing; that polite society had not +come into being, and that the intellectual element +entered little into the relations of the sexes.</p> + +<p>The independence of the United States suggested +to a few Brazilians the possibility of freeing their +country from Portugal. In 1785 a dozen Brazilian +students at Coimbra formed a club for this purpose, +and one of them wrote to Thomas Jefferson, then +Minister to France, asking American aid. Jefferson +was interested, but answered that nothing could be +done until the Brazilians themselves had risen in +arms. A like impulse was working in the minds of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span> +the poets and their friends at Ouro Preto. A child-like +conspiracy was formed whose object was to +found a republic with San John d'El Rei as capital +and Ouro Preto as the seat of a university. A few +practical men listened to the plans of the conspirators +probably with a view of turning a disturbance +to account in preventing the government from putting +into effect an obnoxious gold tax then being +threatened. Among those let into the inner circle +was a young sergeant nicknamed "Tiradentes." +He undertook the task of fomenting an uprising +among the troops, but before anything practical +had been done the whole thing had been given +away to the authorities. The conspirators were +arrested and taken to Rio, where the frightened +governor instituted a formal and elaborate trial and +took a fearful vengeance upon the helpless boys and +poets. Poor Tiradentes, being without powerful +connections, was hanged and quartered. His memory +is now revered in Brazil as that of the first +martyr to independence and the precursor of the +republic. The gentle Claudio hanged himself in +prison after having been tortured into a confession +implicating his friends. Gonzaga and Alvarengo, +with several others, were banished to Africa.</p> + +<p>Republican and separatist ideas had, however, +made no headway among the Brazilian masses. +Brazil's independence was to come by the force of +circumstances and not by any deliberate national +effort, and for a republic she was destined to wait a +century more.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-10.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER XIII</h2> + +<h3>THE PORTUGUESE COURT IN RIO</h3> + + +<p>The political development of colonial Brazil may +be divided into three epochs. First, there was +the confusion of early colonisation, the unsuccessful +attempt to establish a system of feudal captaincies, +the struggles against the Indians, French, and +Jesuits, and the search for a solid economic foundation +for the new commonwealth. On the whole, +this era contained the promise of the ultimate development +of a freer governmental system than that +of Portugal.</p> + +<p>Next followed the Spanish dynasty and the wars +against the Dutch. Control of Brazil by the home +government was weakened, and the colonists learned +their own military power. The years following the +expulsion of the Dutch—1655 to 1700—were the +brightest politically in Brazil's colonial history. +The municipalities, governed by local oligarchies of +landowners, exercised functions not contemplated +by the Portuguese code. Though the military governors +were continually encroaching, and the system +was imperfect, it was in essence thoroughly local.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span> +Its fundamental defect was the want of co-operation +between the towns.</p> + +<p>The third period began with the consolidation of +Portugal's international position in the closing years +of the seventeenth century. Once secure from +foreign attacks, she renewed the exploitation of +Brazil with redoubled eagerness. The discovery of +the mines made the plunder enormous. At first +there were resistance and even formidable rebellions +like Beckman's in Maranhão, of the mascates in +Pernambuco, or of the emboabas in Minas. But +the civic vitality of the people was not great enough +to sustain any continuous and effective opposition. +Early in the eighteenth century the municipalities +were already at the mercy of the military governors, +and Brazil was governed partly by petty despots and +partly by numerous feeble local bodies who were +without cohesion or power to resist interference. +Brazil would have remained a dependency of Portugal +during an indefinite period had it not been for a +series of events which arose in Europe out of the +French Revolution.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 639px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-423.jpg" width="639" height="600" alt="DOM JOHN VI." title="" /> +<span class="caption">DOM JOHN VI.<br /> +[From an old woodcut.]</span> +</div> + +<p>By 1807 England was the only power which still +defied Napoleon. Portugal had been Great Britain's +ally for a century, but Napoleon found it necessary +to have command of Lisbon and Porto in order to +enforce his Berlin and Milan decrees. He peremptorily +commanded Portugal to give up her English +alliance. The pusillanimous John, who had been +prince regent since the insanity of his mother in +1792, hesitated and shuffled, seeking to put off the +emperor with negotiations and evasions and a show +of hostility to England. A single despatch indicating +his double dealing was enough for Napoleon, +who promptly made an agreement with Spain for the +division of Portugal and ordered Junot to march on +Lisbon. The people were ready to make a desperate +resistance, but their king was in two minds each +day, and the army had been withdrawn from the +frontier to bid the British fleet a hypocritical defiance. +John shed tears over his unhappy country, +but prepared to save his own person by a flight to +Rio. Junot had passed the frontier and was advancing +on Lisbon by forced marches. The Prince +Regent and his Court huddled their movable property +on board the men-of-war lying in the Tagus. +Fifteen thousand persons, including most of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span> +nobility, and fifty millions of property and treasure +were embarked. Junot's advance guard arrived at +the mouth of the river on the 27th of November, +1807, in time to see the fleet just outside and bearing +south under British convoy.</p> + +<p>Six weeks later the exiles caught sight of the coast +of Brazil, destined thereafter to be the principal seat +of the Portuguese race. The Prince Regent disembarked +at Bahia, where the people received him +with enthusiastic demonstrations of loyalty and tried +desperately hard to induce him to make their city +his capital. He adhered to the original plan, and +on the 7th of March, 1808, arrived at Rio, where he +was received with equal cordiality. No conditions +were imposed on the helpless fugitives. The first +acts of the prince regent proved that the removal +would be of inestimable advantage to Brazil. He +promulgated a decree opening the five great ports to +the commerce of all friendly nations. The system +of seclusion and monopolies fell to the ground at a +single blow. Other decrees removed the prohibitions +on manufacturing and on trades. Foreigners +were allowed to come to Brazil either for travel +or residence, and were guaranteed personal and +property rights; a national bank was established; +commercial corporations were given franchises; a +printing-press was set up; military and naval schools +and a medical college were founded. Foreigners +were encouraged to immigrate and that improvement +in art, industries, civilisation, and manners began +which can only result from the daily contact of different +types of humanity. For the first time Brazil<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span> +was opened to scientific investigation, and scholars, +engineers, and artists were imported to aid in making +its resources known. The commercial nations lost +no time in trying to get a foothold in this virgin +market; they sent their consuls and salesmen, and +within a few months importations, principally from +Great Britain, far exceeded any possible demand.</p> + +<p>The prince regent found his South American +empire divided into eighteen provinces. These +constitute the present states of the Brazilian union—the +only changes having been the separation of +Alagoas from Pernambuco and of Paraná from São +Paulo, besides the erection of the city of Rio into a +neutral district. Of the three millions of people +one-third were negro slaves, and the free negroes and +mulattos numbered as many more. The proportion +of whites in the whole country was not more +than a fourth, and in the larger coast cities, in the +sugar districts, and the mining regions, it descended +to a seventh and even a tenth. Civilised Indians +were most numerous in Pará and Amazonas, and +whites predominated most in the extreme South and +in the stock-raising interior. In the century since, +the whites have increased to forty per cent. and the +negroes have fallen to less than twenty-five, in spite +of the large slave importation in the first half of the +nineteenth century. Sugar was still the great staple. +Exports of gold and precious stones had fallen with +the exhaustion of the best placers late in the preceding +century. Tobacco was largely produced, +especially in Bahia, and Maranhão and Pará were +centres of a flourishing cotton trade. Rice, indigo,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span> +and pepper were exported on a considerable scale, +and the production of coffee had been carried from +Pará to Rio, and was rapidly increasing.</p> + +<p>The people of the interior were mostly clothed in +coarse cottons manufactured at home; probably +nine-tenths went barefoot and lived in rude houses +without ornamentation and conveniences. The slave +system, the large landed estates, the want of diversification +of industry, the general apathy, the ease of +maintaining one's self in the mild climate—all these +causes co-operated to lessen consuming power and +to diminish Brazil's value as a market for imported +merchandise.</p> + +<p>Great estates, many of them owned by religious +corporations, were the rule. Only the best parts +of these estates were cultivated. Enclosures were +almost unknown, and the farm buildings were dilapidated. +Though next to sugar the chief wealth, +cattle were neglected, breeds were not kept up, and +the making of butter was so little understood that +it was worth a dollar a pound. The proprietors of +the sugar ranches left everything to their slaves. +Ploughs were unknown; lumber was sawed by hand; +water power was rarely used for any purpose, though +so abundant. The only schools were a few in the +towns; artificial light was practically unused; the +cities were dilapidated, and their filthy streets were +full of stagnant water. Horsemen rode on the sidewalks +in the centre of Rio itself.</p> + +<p>Freight was brought from the interior on muleback +over narrow trails, and hardly any roads for +wheeled vehicles existed. The mountains and heav<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span>ily +forested coast regions were extremely difficult to +penetrate, but in the sparsely forested interior the +old Indian trails furnished facilities for constant communication, +which was astonishingly rapid considering +the circumstances.</p> + +<p>The people were very hospitable; to receive a +guest was an honour; each ranch had special quarters +for travellers, and the only pay the stranger +could offer was to tell the news. Outside the ports +no foreigner had ever been seen, and the first Englishman +who visited São Paulo in 1809 was as much +of a curiosity as an Esquimau would be to-day.</p> + +<p>During John's stay in Rio, Brazil was little involved +in foreign difficulties. In 1808 an expedition +was sent from Pará, which took possession of Cayenne, +but the place was restored to the French in +1815. In the south the breaking out of the Argentine +revolution in 1810 was a temptation for the +Prince Regent to increase Brazil's territory. After +the expulsion of the Spaniards by the populace of +Buenos Aires, the Spanish forces in Montevideo +held that place against the patriots for four years. +John sent an army into Uruguay in 1811 nominally +to help the Spaniards, but he had to withdraw it +because of British pressure. After the surrender of +Montevideo by the Spaniards a civil war broke out +amongst the patriots of Uruguay and the adjacent +Argentine provinces. The warring factions trespassed +on the territory of their Brazilian neighbours. +John determined to seize the coveted north bank of +the Plate for himself. In 1815 the celebrated guerrilla +chief, Artigas, invaded the Seven Missions,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</a></span> +which had been seized in 1801, and throughout that +year and the next the Rio Grandenses fought desperately +to expel him. Finally Artigas was decisively +defeated, and the Portuguese army marched +down the coast and entered Montevideo without +opposition. They were welcomed by the factions +opposed to Artigas, but the Buenos Aires government +protested and Artigas kept up a resistance in +the interior until he was overthrown by rival Argentine +chieftains. From 1817 to 1821 Uruguay +remained in the military occupation of Brazilian +troops, and in the latter year it was formally annexed +under the title of the Cisplatine Province.</p> + +<p>Brazil had had to assume the burdens as well as +reap the advantages of being an independent nation. +The whole extravagant government with its swarm +of hangers-on, who had bankrupted both nations +together, was now saddled on Brazil alone. John's +advisers regarded liberal principles as dangerous to +civil order, and considered all French and North +Americans as firebrands whose presence in Brazil +might start the flame of revolution. The United +States minister was treated as if he were a Jacobin +agent, and American ships were searched for Napoleon's +spies. However, the removal of the Court to +Rio had set forces in motion which ultimately transformed +Brazil. Free ports were open doors for ideas +and education as well as merchandise. Free manufacturing +and immigration diversified industry and +spread energetic habits. The influx of so many +educated Portuguese and the introduction of the +printing-press stimulated a desire for instruction<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</a></span> +among the Brazilians. Ambition for employment +in the public service, the road to which, under the +Portuguese system, has always lain through the gates +of a university, co-operated. A considerable educated +class began to be formed, though the intellectual +movement never extended into the body of +the people. Through the former class the nation +found a means of expression. A spirit of inquiry +and unrest was roused, but the movement was intellectual +rather than instinctive; theoretical rather +than practical; from the top down, and directed +more toward revolutionising the central government +than developing local administration.</p> + +<p>The first outbreak on Brazilian soil against absolutism +was the Pernambuco revolution of 1817. +Five lodges of Free Masons existed in the city; +the priests themselves were most earnest preachers +of political freedom; merchants and sugar-planters +wanted lower taxes; the prosperity of the sugar +trade had made the people self-confident. A conspiracy +was formed which had the sympathy of +many of the clergy and influential citizens. An attempt +to arrest the principal agitators resulted in a +riot; the troops were mostly Brazilian, and rose in +favour of their compatriots, and the populace joined +them. The governor fled, leaving the public departments, +and the treasury containing a million dollars +in the hands of the revolutionists. The movement +became at once frankly separatist and republican. +A Committee of Public Safety was named; the +Portuguese flags were torn down; a temporary +constitution proclaimed; a printing-press set up<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</a></span> +to publish a liberal newspaper. Messengers were +despatched to the interior and to the neighbouring +provinces to announce the overthrow of despotism +and to invite co-operation, but they met with no enthusiastic +reception. Fear of the aggressive Jacobinism +of the city of Pernambuco cooled the slave-owners +and conservatives, and the dignitaries on the +revolutionary committee were shocked by the impetuosity +of their radical colleagues. The insurgents +had not had time to provide themselves with arms, +and a Portuguese fleet from Bahia quickly blockaded +the port. When the royal troops came up they +found the interior of the province in civil war, and +the radicals were soon backed into the city, where a +short siege compelled them to capitulate. The more +aggressive leaders were shot by court-martial and a +military government was set up. Hundreds of prisoners +were carried off to Bahia, where they remained +until the great reaction of 1821.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-c.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-8.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER XIV</h2> + +<h3>INDEPENDENCE</h3> + + +<p>In 1820 the standard of revolt was raised in Cadiz +against the Spanish Bourbons, who, with the aid +of the Holy Alliance, had re-established absolutism +after the fall of Napoleon. The feeble Ferdinand +was compelled to accept a liberal constitution. +When the news reached Lisbon the Regency, acting +there for King John, was panic-stricken. Communication +with Spain was forbidden and word sent off +post-haste to John to urge his immediate return to +Portugal, or at least the sending of his eldest son, as +the only means of pacifying the deep dissatisfaction +felt because of the absence of the Court and government. +In Porto—always the centre of liberal movements—a +formidable conspiracy was formed which +included the leading citizens and the officers of the +garrison, and in August, 1820, the royal authority +was overthrown after scarcely a show of resistance, +and a provisional junta installed. The movement +spread over the northern provinces and thence to +Lisbon, where a junta assumed power in December. +After some confusion it was agreed temporarily to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</a></span> +adopt the Spanish Constitution, to summon the +Cortes, and to retain the Braganza dynasty as constitutional +monarchs.</p> + +<p>The news of the rising in Porto spread like wildfire +through the Portuguese possessions beyond sea. +Madeira and the Azores immediately installed revolutionary +juntas, and some of the Brazilian provinces +could not wait until the assembling of the +Cortes before establishing free governments. Among +native Brazilians and immigrated Portuguese, among +soldiers and citizens alike, the enthusiasm for a constitution +was well-nigh universal. In Pará, Pernambuco, +and Rio Grande do Sul, the royal governors +were dispossessed by the united soldiers and people, +and the Spanish Constitution proclaimed as the law +of the land. Rio, however, lay quiet, and it was +not until February, 1821, that the Bahia garrison +deposed the governor, and installed a provisional +junta, which, protesting allegiance to the House of +Braganza, proclaimed the Spanish Constitution, +nominated deputies to the Cortes, and promised to +adopt whatever definite constitution might be framed +by that body.</p> + +<p>The action of Bahia was decisive. Throughout +the interior it met with approval. That John could +hope for no support from Brazil in case he decided +to make a struggle against the Portuguese revolutionists, +was evident. Reluctantly he issued a proclamation +announcing his intention to send Dom +Pedro, his eldest son, to treat with the Cortes, and +he promised to adopt such parts of the new constitution +as might be found expedient for Brazil. To<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</a></span> +such delay native Brazilians and the Portuguese-born +were alike opposed. In Rio the troops and +people arose, demanding an unconditional promise +to ratify any constitution the Cortes might adopt. +On the 26th of February a great crowd assembled +in the streets, and while the cowardly King skulked +in his suburban palace, the Prince Pedro addressed +the people, swearing in his father's name and his +own to accept unreservedly the expected constitution. +The multitude insisted on marching out to the +King's palace to show their enthusiastic gratitude. +Trembling with fear John was forced to get into his +carriage, and the miserable man was frightened out +of his wits when the crowd took the horses out to +drag him with their own hands. He fainted away +and, when he recovered his senses, sat snivelling, +protesting between his sobs his willingness to agree +to anything, and sure that he was going to suffer the +fate of Louis XVI.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 702px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-434.jpg" width="702" height="1024" alt="DOM PEDRO I." title="" /> +<span class="caption">DOM PEDRO I.<br /> +[From an old woodcut.]</span> +</div> + +<p>Thereafter Dom Pedro, though only twenty-two +years old, was the principal figure in Brazil. He +resembled his passionate, unrestrained, and unscrupulous +mother rather than his vacillating, pusillanimous +father. He had grown up neglected and +uncontrolled in the midst of his parents' quarrelling +and the confusion of the removal to Brazil, receiving +no education except that of a soldier, and hardly +able to write his native tongue correctly. He was +handsome, brave, wilful, arrogant, loved riding and +driving, was eager and shameless in the pursuit of +pleasure. His manners were frank and attractive +and he was active-minded, quick to absorb new +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span>impressions, enterprising, strong-willed, loved popularity, +and intensely enjoyed being the principal dramatic +figure in any crisis. His personal courage was +unquestionable, and he was prompt of decision in +the face of dangers and difficulties. While capable +of warm friendships and with strong impulses of devotion +and gratitude, he lacked real faithfulness. +Between him and his father little love and no sympathy +existed. Prior to the events of 1821 he had not +been admitted to the councils in state affairs, and +his closest friends were among the young Portuguese +officers, who, like most of their class, sympathised +with the constitutional movement. Pedro was a +Free Mason, and the Liberal opinions advocated in +the lodges greatly influenced him. To Pedro, therefore,—young, +ardent, popular, holding progressive +notions,—both Brazilian and Portuguese Liberals +naturally turned.</p> + +<p>Seeing the rôle of leader and ruler of Brazil ready +to his hand, Pedro favoured the departure of his +father for Portugal. A meeting of the Rio electors, +held on the 21st of April, to elect members to the +Cortes suddenly changed into a tumult, and demanded +that the King assent to the Spanish Constitution +before his departure. He had no choice but +to yield, though probably neither he nor the popular +leaders had ever read the document. The demonstrations +continuing, Pedro became uneasy lest his +father's journey should be delayed, and marched his +troops into the square and cleared the people out +at the point of the bayonet. This audacious move +was followed by general stupefaction, and the King<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</a></span> +quietly escaped, leaving Pedro as regent. As his +vessel weighed anchor he said to his son: "I fear +Brazil before long will separate herself from Portugal; +if so, rather than allow the crown to fall to some +adventurer, place it on thy own head."</p> + +<p>The grasping policy of the Portuguese members +of the Cortes furnished the impulse that drove the +Brazilians into union and independence. The Cortes +met in Lisbon, and, although most of the Brazilian +delegates had not arrived, immediately undertook +to pass measures touching the most important interests +of the younger kingdom. In December, 1821, +news reached Brazil that decrees had been enacted +requiring the prince to leave Brazil, abolishing the +appeal courts at Rio, creating governors who were +to supersede the juntas and be independent of +local control, and sending garrisons to the principal +cities. Tremendous popular excitement followed. +The coupling of the order for Pedro's retirement +with the provisions for the enslavement and disintegration +of Brazil, made the provinces realise that +he was the only centre around which they could +rally for effective resistance. A cry rose up from +the whole country, praying Pedro not to abandon +them. The address sent by the provincial junta of +São Paulo was penned by the hand of José Bonifacio +de Andrada, and may well be called the Brazilian +declaration of independence.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"How dare these Portuguese deputies, without waiting +for the Brazilian members, promulgate laws which +affect the dearest interests of this realm? How dare +they dismember Brazil into isolated parts possessing no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></span> +common centre of strength and union? How dare they +deprive your Royal Highness of the Regency with which +your august father, our Monarch, had invested you? +How dare they deprive Brazil of the tribunals instituted +for the interpretation and modification of laws; for the +general administration of ecclesiastical affairs, of finance, +commerce, and so many institutions of public utility? +To whom are the unhappy people hereafter to address +themselves for redress touching their business and +judicial interests?"</p></div> + +<p>José Bonifacio, whose voice and example, more +than any other man's, gave expression and direction +to the aspiration for independence, belonged to the +English parliamentary school which was dominant +then in liberal thought. The elevation of the young +and progressive prince to an independent throne +seemed an easy method of establishing constitutional +government, as well as of securing Brazil's autonomy. +Pedro did not hesitate long in acceding to the wish +of the Brazilians. On January 9, 1822, he formally +announced that he would remain in Brazil—thus defying +the Portuguese Cortes. The word "independence" +had not yet been employed, and there was a +very general hope that the Portuguese would listen +to reason when the Brazilian deputies arrived in Lisbon. +The only active resistance to Pedro in Brazil +came from the Portuguese soldiers, some of whom +revolted and went so far as to march under arms +to a point commanding the city of Rio, but their +nerve failed them in face of the immense concourse +of citizens who were preparing to fight.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-438.jpg" width="600" height="635" alt="DOM JOSE BONIFACIO DE ANDRADA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">DOM JOSÉ BONIFACIO DE ANDRADA.<br /> +[From a steel print.]</span> +</div> + +<p>Pedro threw himself unreservedly into the hands +of the patriots. José Bonifacio was made Prime +Minister, and measures taken to re-establish the +control of the central over the provincial governments. +But the ruling groups in the various capitals +were not very ready to surrender their authority. +Pedro called a council, but representatives from only +four provinces responded. Bahia and Pernambuco +were held in check by Portuguese garrisons, and +other provinces hesitated before committing them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</a></span>selves. +Meanwhile the Portuguese majority in the +Cortes paid no attention to the warnings of the +Brazilian members, but ruthlessly pushed forward +the measures for the commercial and political subjection +of Brazil. Most of the Brazilian members +withdrew, while a squadron was sent to Rio to +escort the prince back to Portugal. On May 13 +1822, he assumed the title of "Perpetual Defender +and Protector of Brazil," and from this to a formal +declaration of independence was only a step. In +June he notified the Cortes that Brazil must have +her own legislative body, and, on his own responsibility, +issued writs for a constituent assembly. +The Cortes responded by re-enforcing the Bahia garrison, +and the Bahianos retaliated by attacking the +Portuguese troops. The Pernambucanos expelled +their garrison and sent promises of adhesion to the +prince. On the 7th of September Pedro was in São +Paulo, and there received despatches telling of still +more violent measures taken by the Cortes, accompanied +by letters from José Bonifacio urging that +the opportunity they had so often planned for together +had at last arrived. Pedro reflected but a +moment, and then, dramatically drawing his sword, +cried, "Independence or Death!" Everything had +been carefully timed, and his entrance into Rio a +few days later, wearing a cockade with the new device, +was greeted with enthusiasm. On the 12th of +October he was solemnly crowned "Constitutional +Emperor of Brazil," announcing that he would accept +the constitution to be drawn up by the approaching +constituent assembly.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</a></span></p> + +<p>Prompt and efficient measures for the expulsion +of the Portuguese garrisons from Bahia, Maranhão, +Pará, and Montevideo were taken. The militia came +forward enthusiastically; the regular forces were +rapidly increased; Lord Cochrane, the celebrated +free-lance English admiral, was placed in command +of a fair-sized fleet which sailed at once for Bahia, +and, defeating the ships which remained faithful to +the Portuguese cause, established a blockade that +soon enabled the land forces besieging the city to +reduce the place. At Maranhão Cochrane's success +was still easier; Pará also fell without resistance at +the summons of one of his captains; and the news +of these successes was followed by that of the surrender +of the garrison at Montevideo. Within less +than a year from the declaration of independence +not a hostile Portuguese soldier remained on Brazilian +soil.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-c.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-3.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER XV</h2> + +<h3>REIGN OF PEDRO I.</h3> + + +<p>Independence was the result of a plan carefully +arranged by José Bonifacio and his Brazilian +associates. Pedro had declared himself emperor +in an access of dramatic enthusiasm. He wanted +the glory of founding a great empire and he loved +to think of his name as that of the first legitimate +monarch who was really self-abnegating enough +to establish constitutional government of his own +free will. The rôle of a Washington, with the +added glory of unselfishly resigning absolute power, +appealed to his boyish vanity. But the cold fit +came on when he undertook to perform his promises. +His loud protestations of constitutionalism +turned out to be mere windy mouthings. Though +his reign largely assisted in maintaining Brazil's territorial +unity, it cut off the promise of local self-government +and helped bring on twenty years of +bloody revolts. He was not exactly a hypocrite; +he loved to hear sonorous periods about liberty rolling +out of his mouth, but he had no idea of what +they really meant.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</a></span></p> + +<p>José Bonifacio and his brothers remained at the +head of affairs when independence was declared, but, +ardent and successful as the older Andrada had been +in that movement, he proved no statesman, and had +not the strength to oppose his wilful young master. +Almost immediately the Andradas engaged in bitter +quarrels with the other leaders of the independence +party, and summarily banished the five ablest advocates +of a liberal constitution. They used their +power to revenge themselves on their personal enemies, +their secret police was worse than anything +John had maintained, and they forcibly suppressed +the newspapers which dared criticise their acts. +Pedro's authority was accepted slowly outside of +Rio. The ties binding the northern provinces to +him were especially feeble. A constituent assembly +had been summoned, but great difficulty was +experienced in securing a full representation. Pernambuco +and the neighbouring provinces hesitated +long before consenting to have anything to do with +it, and Pará, Maranhão, and Piauhy were never represented. +It finally met in May, 1823, with only +fifty out of the one hundred members in their seats. +The Emperor opened the session with an arrogant +and dictatorial speech. "I promise to adopt and +defend the constitution which you may frame if it +should be worthy of Brazil and myself. We need a +constitution that will be an insurmountable barrier +against any invasion of the imperial prerogatives." +Such language excited an unexpected protest even +among the members of this humble and inexperienced +assembly. Though a majority were magis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</a></span>trates, +they were not without a sense of the dignity +of their functions as legislators, and were eager for +liberty—a liberty interpreted according to their own +undigested theories.</p> + +<p>The Andradas bitterly attacked those who dared +protest against the Emperor's language, and a majority +was only obtained for the government programme +by the lavish distribution of decorations. Pedro soon +tired of the Andradas and their fiercely anti-Portuguese +policy, and summarily dismissed them. The +disgraced ministers passed at once into the most +virulent opposition, and they inflamed popular prejudice +against the resident Portuguese and aroused +fears that the Emperor was plotting a reunion of +Brazil with Portugal. As the session went on, the +assembly showed a more independent spirit, and +Pedro became more and more irritated. The Brazilian +newspapers insulted his Portuguese officers and +the assembly took the part of the former. In November +matters reached a crisis. Pedro drew up his +troops in front of the assembly's meeting-house and +demanded immediate satisfaction to the insulted +officers and the expulsion of the Andradas. The +answer was a brave refusal, but against his cannon +nothing availed. He sent up an order for an instant +and unconditional dissolution, and, arresting +the Andradas and other Liberals as they came out +of the building, deported them on board ship without +the formality of charge or trial.</p> + +<p>Pedro ordered a paper constitution to be drawn +up by his ministers. In form it was liberal, but he +had no serious intention of putting it in force.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</a></span></p> + +<p>Even in Rio, the people ignored the invitation to +give their formal adhesion to this delusive document. +A show of acceptance was sought to be obtained +from the provinces by going through the form of +submitting it to the municipal councils. These +councils were then close corporations, largely self-elective, +and dominated by the bureaucratic caste, +but even so, north of Bahia they paid no attention +to the Emperor's communication, and in the South +some members had to be imprisoned before their +consent could be extorted. The Emperor swore to +the constitution, and it was gravely promulgated as +the nation's fundamental law, but no congress was +summoned, as a matter of fact the government +continued a pure despotism wherever the Emperor's +power extended. The press, which had sprung into +existence during the agitation for independence, and +which, after having been throttled by the Andradas, +had partly revived during the session of the constituent +assembly was now definitely suppressed. +Taxes were levied on the sole authority of the +monarch; laws were put into force without other +sanction than his will; citizens were arbitrarily banished, +and military tribunals condemned civilians to +death in time of peace.</p> + +<p>We can never know the extent of the shock felt +by the Liberals on hearing of the forcible dissolution +of the constituent assembly. In Pernambuco it was +one of the stimulating causes of a rebellion. In that +city the press had not been suppressed and the spirit +of 1817 was still alive. A strong separatist feeling +existed, and when the junta resigned, the popular<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</a></span> +choice made Carvalho Paes, who had been engaged +in the former rebellion, governor. The Emperor +sent up his own man, but authorities and people refused +to recognise him. An open breach followed, +and Pedro, with his usual vigour, undertook to +establish his dominion over the hitherto aloof North.</p> + +<p>In July, 1824, the Pernambucanos threw down +the gauntlet by proclaiming the "Confederation of +the Equator." This was intended to be a federal +republic after the model of the union between the +provinces of Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. +The adhesion of Pernambuco, Parahyba, Rio Grande +do Norte, and Ceará could be counted upon, and +that of Maranhão, Pará, and Bahia was hoped for. +Bahia, however, remained apathetic, and that city +furnished Pedro a convenient base for his operations. +He sent Admiral Cochrane to blockade and bombard +Pernambuco, while an army marched up the coast. +Factional civil war had broken out in the interior of +the revolted provinces, and the imperial forces were +joined by Carvalho's local enemies. The patriots +fought desperately, but were overwhelmed before +they could provide themselves with arms or organise +their resistance. The city had to surrender on the +17th of September, though fighting was kept up for +a long time in the interior. Cochrane sailed north, +reducing the ports one by one, and by the end of +the year the serious resistance was at an end.</p> + +<p>The victorious Emperor punished the patriots +with ruthless severity, sending many of the leaders +to the scaffold, and establishing military tribunals +which inaugurated a reign of terror. An Englishman<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span> +named Ratcliff was brought to Rio and hanged, not +so much for his part in the insurrection as because +he had once offended Pedro's mother in Portugal. +"She offered a reward for his head," said the Emperor +as he signed the death-warrant, "but now she +shall have it for nothing." In the spring of 1825 it +seemed as if Pedro was certain to establish himself +at the head of a military despotism extending from +the Amazon to the Plate. Before the Pernambuco +insurrection his revenue and recruits had been drawn +solely from Rio and the adjacent provinces. Now +his fleet and disciplined army, recruited by impressment +and concentrated under his eye, enabled him +to get revenue from all the ports and to hold the provinces +in check. His sea-power and his possession +of the purse-strings gave him a tremendous advantage. +He imported Germans, Swiss, and Irish with +a view to forming a corps of janizaries. All Brazil +seemed submissive, and the enthusiasm which had +flamed out among the Brazilians in 1821 and 1822 +had died down, leaving as its only permanent effect +a strong sentiment against reunion with Portugal.</p> + +<p>Externally his position seemed secure. He was +assured of Canning's active support in securing +formal recognition as an independent monarch; +Portugal was helpless; though his application for +a defensive and offensive alliance had been refused +by Henry Clay, the United States was the first to +recognise Brazil's independence; even the Holy +Alliance had little objection to an independent +American state ruled by a legitimate monarch. In +the summer of 1825 a treaty of peace was framed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span> +between Portugal and Brazil through the intermediation +of England. Independence was formally recognised, +but Pedro made the error of consenting that +his father should take the honorary title of Emperor +of Brazil, and by a secret article he pledged Brazil +to assume ten millions of the Portuguese debt, +though it had been incurred in war against herself.</p> + +<p>In March, 1825, a rebellion against Pedro broke +out in Uruguay, and the Argentine gauchos swarmed +over the border. The Brazilians easily held the +fortified city of Montevideo, but the Spanish-Americans +were successful in the open field, and after six +months of harassing fighting caught the imperial +army in a disadvantageous position and cut it to +pieces in the decisive battle of Sarandy. The Buenos +Aires government at once gave notice that it +must recognise that Uruguay had reunited itself +to the Argentine, and Pedro responded with a +declaration of war and a blockade.</p> + +<p>The preparations for war involved him in unprecedented +expenditures, which piled up the debt already +accumulated in his father's time and added +to by the war of independence and the suppression +of the "Confederation of the Equator." He decided +to call together the representatives of the +people and insist that they bear a share of the responsibility. +So little interest was taken that it +was hard to hold the elections, and the members +had to be urged to present themselves. On the +3rd of May, 1826, the first Brazilian Congress met. +Intended as a mere instrument to furnish supplies +for the war, and meeting with the fear of the fate of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[Pg 428]</a></span> +the constituent assembly before its eyes, it hesitatingly +began the work of parliamentary government. +Except for the revolution of 1889, the sessions have +never since been interrupted.</p> + +<p>A week before the assembling of Congress the +news reached Brazil that King John was dead. Pedro +was the eldest son, but his brother Miguel was +a candidate for the vacant throne. Pedro had to +make an immediate choice between the two crowns. +He decided to keep that of Brazil and to transfer +that of Portugal to his daughter, Maria Gloria, then +a child seven years old. He tried to head off Miguel +by making the latter regent and promising that +Maria should marry him as soon as she was old +enough, while he tied his brother's hands by promulgating +a constitution for Portugal. The scheme +failed to preserve the peace, and the Portuguese +absolutists, supporting Miguel, and the constitutionalists, +Maria Gloria, almost immediately became +involved in a civil war. During the latter part of +Pedro's reign he was continually preoccupied with +Portuguese affairs and trying to promote his daughter's +fortunes in Europe.</p> + +<p>The war on the Plate turned out difficult and disastrous. +Notwithstanding that great land forces +were sent, no progress was made toward reducing +Uruguay to obedience, and the overwhelming naval +force blockading Buenos Aires was harassed by a +small fleet improvised by an able Irishman—Admiral +Brown—in the Argentine service. Fast-sailing +Baltimore clippers fitted out as privateers infested +the whole Brazilian coast, often venturing in sight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</a></span> +of Rio and soon sweeping the coasting trade out of +existence. Fruitless attempts to enforce the blockade +involved Pedro in difficulties with neutral powers; +Brazilian merchants were disgusted with the +war, and communication between the provinces +became nearly impossible.</p> + +<p>The Brazilian land forces in Uruguay were increased +to twenty thousand, but the Argentines under +General Carlos Alvear audaciously averted the +danger of an invasion of their territory by planning +and effecting an inroad into Rio Grande itself. The +Brazilian general allowed Alvear to slip between his +main body and Montevideo, and the latter penetrated +to the East, sacked the important town of +Bagé, and was off to the North with the whole +Brazilian army in hot pursuit. On the 20th of +February, 1827, the Argentines turned and attacked +the Brazilians at a disadvantage, defeating them +with great loss. In this battle of Ituzaingo sixteen +thousand men took part, and the armies were nearly +equal in numbers. The Brazilians escaped without +serious pursuit, while the Argentines retired at their +leisure, assured that no aggressive operations would +soon be undertaken against them. Pedro's hope of +dominance on the south shore of the Plate was +ended. Naval disasters suffered at the hands of the +indefatigable Brown made him still more anxious for +peace. Negotiations were begun with the Argentine +government which was only prevented by lack +of money and internal factional quarrels from undertaking +an aggressive war against Brazilian territory. +Operations were kept up languidly on both sides for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[Pg 430]</a></span> +a year, and finally Pedro in 1828 consented to a +preliminary treaty by which he relinquished his +sovereignty over Uruguay, obtaining in return Argentine +consent that it be erected into an independent +country.</p> + +<p>The first session of the Brazilian Congress had +been very timid and voted as the Emperor desired. +The session of 1827 was not so respectful; the news +of Ituzaingo had made him seem less formidable. +For the first time the chamber became a forum for +the discussion of governmental theories, and the +voice of Vasconcellos, the great champion of parliamentary +government, was heard. In the fall of 1827 +independent newspapers began to make their appearance +and Pedro dared not interfere with them. +The tone of most of them was exaggerated, but in +December the <i>Aurora Fluminense</i>, with Evaristo da +Veiga as editor, issued its first number. By universal +consent he is recognised as the most influential +journalist who ever wielded a pen in Brazil. His +profound and temperate discussions of public affairs +gave him an ascendency over opinion which can +hardly be understood in countries where party conventions +and set speeches give opportunities for +authoritatively outlining policies.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-451.jpg" width="600" height="684" alt="EVARISTO FERREIRA DA VEIGA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">EVARISTO FERREIRA DA VEIGA.<br /> +[From a steel engraving.]</span> +</div> + +<p>When Congress met in May, 1828, the Emperor +and his government had completely lost prestige. +The public's and Chamber's consciousness of their +rights and their power had made a distinct advance. +Vasconcellos infused into the debates an independent +and statesmanlike spirit not unworthy the great +popular assemblies of the most advanced countries. +The youth of this remarkable man had been passed +in pleasure-seeking, but his election to Congress +gave him an object in life commensurate with his +great abilities, and he applied himself with unquenchable +ardour to the study of political science. +Corrupt in morals, inordinate in ambition, his venality +notorious, his constitution ruined by disease, his +skin withered, his hair grey, and his appearance that +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</a></span>of a man of sixty, though he was but thirty, the +spirit within rose superior to all physical and moral +defects. His rôle was peculiarly that of champion +of the prerogatives of Congress. By his side was +Padre Feijó, afterwards regent—incorruptible in +morals and unyielding in will—the champion of +federation and democracy, and the earliest Brazilian +positivist.</p> + +<p>This Chamber of 1828 made a real beginning +toward making ministries responsible to Congress, +and started legal and administrative reforms, but +the Emperor insisted that its sole attention be given +to increasing taxes. When the Chamber definitely +refused in 1829 he dissolved it in the hope that the +next might prove more tractable. This act destroyed +the last remnants of Pedro's popularity. +From that moment his abdication or expulsion was +inevitable. His friends tried to create a reaction +by organising societies in favour of absolutism, and +governors of retrograde principles were appointed, +but the popular irritation against him because he +was a Portuguese by birth and sympathy constantly +grew. Brazil divided into two parties—all the +Brazilians belonged to one and only the resident +Portuguese to the other. The new Chamber was +harder to manage than the old one. The Andradas +had returned from exile, and most of the new members +were bitterly prejudiced against Pedro. In the +midst of the discontent came the news of the July +revolution in Paris, giving the liberal propaganda a +tremendous impetus. The assassination of a newspaper +man named Badaro in November, 1830,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</a></span> +aroused popular indignation to a fearful pitch. +Pedro made a last effort to regain his popularity by +making a journey through the province of Minas. +His cold reception convinced him that the disaffection +was not merely local, and he returned to Rio sick +at heart. In March, 1831, disturbances broke out in +the Rio streets between the radicals and the Portuguese. +Vasconcellos and Feijó were absent, but +Evaristo drew up a manifesto demanding immediate +reparation for the outrages committed by the rioting +Portuguese. The Emperor tried to still the rising +storm by dismissing his ministry, but the rioting +continued and he suddenly again changed front and +appointed a ministry of known reactionary principles. +The announcement was followed on the 7th +of April by the assembling of a mob, among whose +members were professional men, public employees, +and even soldiers and deputies. Pedro's proclamation +was torn from the messengers' hands and +trampled under foot beneath the windows of his +palace. The troops were all on the popular side. +A committee crowded its way into the Emperor's +presence, but he would yield nothing to compulsion, +saying with dignity: "I will do everything for the +people, but nothing by the people." The news of +the desertion of the very troops guarding his person +he received with equanimity, but the populace +showed equal stubbornness. Throughout the night +the crowd stuck to their posts, and about two o'clock +in the morning he suddenly drew up to a table and, +without consulting any one, wrote out an unconditional +abdication in favour of his infant son. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</a></span> +ministers of France and Great Britain had remained +with him during this night of anxiety, and when +the morning came they were reluctant to accept his +abdication as final. All the foreign diplomats except +the representatives of the United States and +Colombia followed him on board the British warship, +where he took refuge. They wished to give +him their moral support in case a counter-revolution +were attempted.</p> + +<p>The most potent cause for Pedro's loss of popularity +was that he was a Portuguese. He offended +the self-love of a jealous people in a hundred ways +by favouring his Portuguese friends. Almost as +fatal was his treatment of his blameless wife. One +mistress after another succeeded to his favours, and +he acknowledged and ennobled his illegitimate +children. Most of his concubines did not hold him +long, but the last, who was said to be of English +descent, acquired a complete ascendancy over him. +He publicly installed her as his mistress; created her +a marchioness; forced the Empress to accept her as +a lady-in-waiting and submit to ride in the same carriage +with her. The court attended in a body the +baptism of her child, and some of his love letters to +her are indescribable. They could have been written +only by a degenerate. In the fall of 1826 the +poor Empress was <i>enceinte</i> with her seventh child +in nine years, and while in this condition Pedro +brutally abused her. She never recovered and died +in the most fearful agony. Pedro was absent looking +after the war in the Plate, but the marchioness +had the heartless effrontery to demand admittance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</a></span> +to the sick-room, and Pedro on his return dismissed +the ministers who had dared to approve the action +of the official who refused to let his mistress gloat +over the tortured deathbed of his wife.</p> + +<p>Pedro was too boyish, talkative, and familiar to +maintain an ascendancy over such a people as the +Brazilians. At all hours of the day and night he +was to be seen driving furiously about the streets, +and he constantly showed himself in the theatres. +He liked to drill his troops himself, and frequently +beat the soldiers with his own imperial hand. Once +he nearly maimed himself striking at a stupid recruit +with his sword, and, missing the blow, catching +his own foot. On another occasion he almost killed +himself and two members of his family by overturning +his carriage. He was always ready to explain +to any mob at hand his reasons for his official policy, +and was too fond of excitement and applause to +refrain from making a speech whenever he had a +chance. The inmost emotions of his heart were too +cheaply exhibited on the Rio streets for the populace +to have much respect for them. He was a belated +knight-errant with a decided touch of the demagogue.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[Pg 436]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-9.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER XVI</h2> + +<h3>THE REGENCY</h3> + + +<p>After Pedro's expulsion the country was left +in a very insecure situation. In Rio the Portuguese +were as numerous as the native Brazilians. +A great part of the population was under +arms and radicalism and revolution were in the air; +but, for the moment, fear of the Portuguese and of +Pedro's restoration enabled cool-headed, conservative +leaders to maintain peace. The members of +Congress in the city selected a provisional regency. +The ministry, whose dismissal had been the occasion +of the outbreak against Pedro, returned to power +and, so far as Rio was concerned, government proceeded +without interruption. Within a few weeks +Congress met in regular session, and a permanent +regency was elected. Bahia had revolted and expelled +the pro-Portuguese military commander even +before Pedro's deposition by Rio. When the news +of the events of the 7th of April reached Pernambuco +and Pará the troops promptly renounced their +commanders.</p> + +<p>In Congress grave differences of opinion appeared.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[Pg 437]</a></span> +The Brazilian party quickly divided into two factions—the +conservatives, who were faithful to the dynasty +and wanted the fewest possible changes, and the +radicals. The former had stepped into control +ahead of the latter, but they had not the real force +of the country behind them. There was a growing +demand for a larger measure of self-government by +the provinces and for sweeping democratic reforms.</p> + +<p>The regency had no real prestige, the military +soon became jealous and dissatisfied, and the party +in favour of the Emperor's restoration began to assume +a formidably menacing attitude. In July Rio +seemed on the point of plunging into a bloody +and desperate civil war. The Regency called upon +Padre Feijó, the great patriot priest and leader of +democratic opinion, and gave him absolute power as +minister of justice. His firm measures soon suppressed +the disorders in Rio, and the national guard +which he organised among the better classes of the +people held the revolting regiments in check. In +the provinces, however, the local authorities often +ignored the commands of the governors appointed +by the regency; ambitious local leaders plotted to +turn the situation to their personal advantage; and +the soldiers and disorderly elements were inflammable +material ready to their hands.</p> + +<p>In nearly every province civil wars broke out. +The typical process was for a military officer, a +national-guard colonel, or any other person who +had acquired local prestige, to issue a pronunciamento +and announce the establishment of a liberal +government whose scope was only limited by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[Pg 438]</a></span> +imagination and knowledge of constitutional law +possessed by the writer of the pronunciamento. If +the municipal authorities resisted they were expelled, +and creatures of the head of the insurrection put in +their places. This overturning of legally existing +authority would usually be resented by some neighbouring +official or some rival of the petty dictator, +and a confused conflict would ensue in which the +rank and file of neither side would have a very clear +conception of what they were fighting about, although +the words of "liberty" and "local rights," +"constitutionalism" and "union," were overworked +in speeches and proclamations. It is not worth while +to give the detailed story of these monotonous and +tedious uprisings, massacres, encounters, and usurpations, +though the operations often rose to the dignity +of campaigns and pitched battles. Hardly a province +escaped. In Pernambuco in 1831 the soldiery +sacked the city and the people avenged themselves +by killing three hundred and banishing the rest. +Next year another military revolt broke out in the +same city, which soon became an insurrection whose +nominal purpose was to restore the Emperor, and +which lasted four years. Two hundred persons +were killed in Pará in 1831 during a single night of +street fighting. A bitter little civil war in Maranhão +lasted all through the winter of 1831-32, and was +only put down by a general sent from Rio. In +Ceará the partisans of the Emperor kept the province +in a state of anarchy for several months. In Minas +Geraes the friends of Pedro obtained possession of +the capital, and the patriots had to fight hard to get<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</a></span> +the better of them. Though most of these insurrections +were suppressed by the people of the state +concerned, disrespect for the central government +was increasing, and a blind and jealous hatred of +the Portuguese and everything foreign grew continuously.</p> + +<p>During the four stormy years which succeeded +Pedro's expulsion, Congress discussed violently the +terms of the constitutional revision which all saw +to be inevitable. Though the radical elements predominated, +the conservatives and the senate succeeded +in bringing about a compromise. A single +regent was substituted for the triple system; he +was to be elected by universal though indirect suffrage; +and, most important of all, each province +was given its own assembly with power to levy +taxes and conduct most of the affairs of local government. +The conservatives managed to preserve the +life senate and the nomination of the provincial +governors by the central government.</p> + +<p>The party in favour of Pedro's restoration had +been gaining ground. The Andradas, always in the +most extreme opposition when out of power, went +over to it, and the conservatives were gravitating in +the same direction when Pedro's own death in 1834 +put an end to the movement. He died at a happy +moment for his fame,—covered with the laurels he +had just won by driving out his usurping and absolutist +brother, Miguel, and by using that opportunity +to endow Portugal with a constitution. By +a curious irony of fate, this reckless soldier and +descendant of a hundred absolute kings was the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[Pg 440]</a></span> +instrument through which constitutional government +was given to both branches of the Portuguese +race.</p> + +<p>The statesman who had proved himself most nearly +master of the situation during these stormy +years was Padre Feijó. He represented the average +Brazilian—the disinterested and honest public. +He had energy and intrepidity; his eloquence was +peculiar and commanding; his advocacy of his beliefs +was uncompromising; he had been a leader in +sustaining liberal ideas; and he had proven his practical +courage and capacity in putting down the +counter-revolution in Rio. He naturally became a +candidate for sole regent after the passage of the +<i>Acto Addicional</i>, or amendment to the constitution. +It seemed appropriate that to him should be entrusted +the putting into force of the law which was +expected to change Brazil into a federation of democracies +united under a constitutional monarchy. +Elected after a close contest, he took office in the +latter part of 1835, sincerely anxious to rule well and +sustained by a popular love and confidence such as +few Brazilian statesmen have enjoyed. However, +from the beginning he was unable to count on the +support of a majority of the Chamber. He was not +the man to manage by adroit manipulation and skilful +distribution of patronage, but his own work and +that of Vasconcellos had borne fruit, and the popular +branch of the legislature had become the dominating +political force in the Brazilian system. The tide +was now setting toward conservatism; the heroic +impulses that had brought about the revolution of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[Pg 441]</a></span> +1831 had lost their force; the nation's temper was +cooled; the politicians had forgotten their fine +enthusiasm and were busily engaged in personal +intrigues.</p> + +<p>Feijó inherited from the former regency the two +most formidable revolutions which so far had broken +out—that of Vinagre and Malcher in Pará, and +the great rebellion in Rio Grande do Sul. He was +hardly fitted to deal with such a complicated situation +as that of Brazil in 1836. He himself said: "I +am a man to break, never to bend." Though he +gave the officeholders of Brazil an object-lesson in +unblemished integrity, his actions were often harsh +and arbitrary. When on the floor of the Chamber +he had been the chief exponent of democracy, but +as chief executive he rode roughshod over his inferiors, +refused to be guided by others, even in +matters where no principle was involved, and proved +that he had the true Latin tendency to centralise +administration.</p> + +<p>Vasconcellos soon outgeneralled Feijó. A dread +of innovation was spreading among the landholding +classes. The merchants and Portuguese of the cities +naturally gravitated away from the radical regent. +The opposition majority in the Chamber, compactly +organised by Vasconcellos's skilful management, +was encouraged, feeling that it was backed by the +mercantile and office-holding classes, and by the +persons of highest intelligence and best social position. +It clung together with a cohesion unusual in +South America, and was the foundation upon which +the historical parties were built whose names are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[Pg 442]</a></span> +constantly encountered in Brazilian political history +for the next fifty years.</p> + +<p>For two years Feijó struggled against the adverse +conditions. For the Pará revolution he found a +clever and faithful general in Andrea, and managed +to keep him well supplied with money and +troops, so that a vigorous pursuit of the guerrilla +chiefs resulted in their capture and the pacification +of the province. But in Rio Grande the people +were too strong and too independent to be reduced +by troops sent from without, and Congress hampered +him by refusing votes of credit. The revolution +which had broken out there three months before he +assumed the regency had been occasioned by anti-Portuguese +feeling and the unpopularity of the governor. +The latter was obliged to flee from Porto +Alegre with hardly a semblance of resistance. At +first Feijó wisely limited his interference to the +nomination of a new governor. It was not safe to +irritate the half-feudal chiefs, backed by their bands +of gauchos trained in constant raids over the Uruguayan +border and who were too accustomed to seeing +revolutions on the Spanish side to hesitate much +about undertaking one on their own account. But +the new governor was ambitious and tried to take +advantage of the jealousies among the gaucho leaders +to make himself supreme. He got some of the +ablest of them on his side, but the others were +stimulated into more determined fighting. The +rebels kept the field in formidable numbers, and +among their able partisan chiefs was Giuseppe +Garibaldi, who here took part in his first war for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[Pg 443]</a></span> +freedom. At first evil fortune followed the patriots, +and they were badly defeated in the battle of Fanfa, +where their greatest leader, Bento Gonçalves, was +captured and carried to Rio. His lieutenants rallied +again and declared Rio Grande an independent republic.</p> + +<p>Feijó despatched a new governor, whose oppressive +measures soon brought about a wholesale desertion +by the Rio Grandenses, who had hitherto +supported the union side. By the middle of 1837 +Rio Grande seemed hopelessly lost to Brazil, and +the government only held the coast towns.</p> + +<p>His bad management of affairs in Rio Grande was +the immediate occasion of Feijó's resignation (September, +1837). The victorious conservative majority +immediately stepped into power. Bernardo de Vasconcellos +reaped at length a personal reward for his +years of labour and intrigue, and became the ruling +force in the Chamber, and Prime Minister, though a +wealthy senator, Araujo Lima by name, had been +elected regent. But Vasconcellos was merely the +first among equals and held his power only so +long as he could command the support of the conservative +majority. A sort of oligarchy grew up +which directed the work of reaction without much +more regard for outside opinion than Pedro himself +had shown. However, Brazil had finally entered +upon a stage of government which in form was +parliamentary and in substance was partly so. It +was rather the parliamentarism of Walpole than of +Gladstone; the members owed their seats to the administration; +they were a sort of self-nominating and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[Pg 444]</a></span> +self-renewing body; and departmental and judicial +administration continued in much the same old way.</p> + +<p>The great task before the conservative regency +was to undo most of the work which had been +wrought by the federalist and democratic movement +of the early 30's. The amendments to the constitution, +known as the <i>Acto Addicional</i>, had apparently +established the autonomy of the provinces +in their local affairs. If these amendments had +been put into effect, Brazil would have become a +federated state like Switzerland or the United +States. The conservatives were alarmed at the +length to which the provincial assemblies were already +going in managing their own affairs, and succeeded +in turning the country back on the road +toward centralisation and unification. A law was +passed which interpreted the <i>Acto Addicional</i> so as +nearly to destroy provincial autonomy. The provincial +assemblies were forbidden to interfere with +the magistracy; their resolutions could be vetoed +by the governors or the national Congress; their +power of controlling the administration of justice was +taken away. They became little more than advisory +bodies completely under the dominance of governors +appointed from Rio, and who rarely were citizens of +the states they ruled. At first there was little opposition, +and the regency easily suppressed a separatist +movement in Bahia which proposed to establish a +republic until the boy emperor should come of age.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[Pg 445]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-465.jpg" width="600" height="726" alt="DONNA JANUARIA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">DONNA JANUARIA.<br /> +[From a steel engraving.]</span> +</div> + +<p>The reorganised regency was, however, weak. +The attitude of the nation was merely tolerant and +expectant. The war in Rio Grande, continued and +the attacks of the Liberals in the Chamber increased +in force and effectiveness. Ministers began to change +and shift; the conviction grew that the conservative +oligarchy would not long rule the country. Liberals +and conservatives alike inclined to the idea that the +best thing was to return to a ruler selected from the +legitimate royal family. According to the constitu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[Pg 446]</a></span>tion +the boy emperor would not become of age until +he reached eighteen, in 1843. If the constitution +were strictly followed the country would have to be +governed for years by a hybrid executive—a regent +who was neither a ruler by popular choice nor yet +a monarch by blood and succession. Many advocated +declaring the Emperor's eldest sister, Januaria, +regent, though the young lady protested tearfully +against being turned into such a thing as she +imagined a regent to be. More insisted that the +Emperor, in spite of his tender years, immediately +assume the functions of supreme ruler.</p> + +<p>The politicians in opposition, with the two surviving +Andradas at their head, took advantage of this +feeling. Bills were introduced in Congress authorising +the Emperor to take the reins at once. The +regent's ministers did not dare directly oppose these +measures; they only tried to compromise as long +as possible. But difficulties and dissatisfaction increased; +a formidable revolution broke out in Maranhão; +the Rio Grandenses invaded Santa Catharina. +It was evident that the regency could not continue +to hold the clashing provinces together. While the +intellectual conviction had never been stronger that +union between the provinces was an advantage, circumstances +were increasing dissatisfaction and insubordination +in every part of the empire.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 604px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[Pg 447]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-467.jpg" width="604" height="600" alt="DOM PEDRO II." title="" /> +<span class="caption">DOM PEDRO II.<br /> +[From a steel engraving.]</span> +</div> + +<p>The contest in Congress over the Emperor's majority +assumed an acute phase as soon as the session +of 1840 began. The ministry in desperation sought +to prevent immediate action by calling Vasconcellos +back to power and proroguing the session. The announcement +of this step was followed by an outburst +that left no recourse but a submission of the matter +in dispute to the boy emperor himself. The opposition +deputies went out in a body to see him, and +begged him to consent to assume his imperial functions +at once. Though entirely unauthorised by the +constitution, no one made serious objection to such +a revolutionary way of proceeding. The young +Pedro accepted with dignity and confidence; the +city and country went wild with delight, and on the +23rd of July, 1840, Congress assembled in a sort of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[Pg 448]</a></span> +extraordinary constituent assembly and without a +dissenting voice proclaimed him of age.</p> + +<p>Although the ten years of the regency were the +stormiest in Brazilian history, they were in many +respects the most fruitful. The nation was serving +an apprenticeship in governing itself; its public men +were being trained; the value of self-restraint and of +peace were being learned. The freedom of the press +and of parliament was definitely established. The +production of literature began; professional schools +were put on a footing not unworthy of any civilised +country; learned societies were organised; the study +of the resources of the country was continued; social +intercourse developed; communication between the +provinces increased; the study of foreign languages +became general among the polite classes.</p> + +<p>Industrially, too, the period was one of germination +of those seeds from which subsequently grew +the prosperity of the country. Though foreign +commerce increased little during the civil wars, the +cultivation of coffee assumed large proportions, +and while sugar and cotton, food crops and tobacco, +suffered much from foreign competition and civil +disturbances, nevertheless they held up pretty well. +The confusion of the times and the weakness of the +central government prevented any great improvement +in the public finances, but neither taxes nor +debt were piled up as they had been under Pedro I. +Though the efficiency and honesty of the administration +left much to be desired, the small resources of +which the central government disposed brought about +an era of comparative economy in the departments.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[Pg 449]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-6.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER XVII</h2> + +<h3>PEDRO II.</h3> + + +<p>The so-called Liberals went into power on the +declaration of the Emperor's majority, and +proved to be more tyrannical and centralising than +the Conservatives whom they had replaced. Provincial +governors were dismissed wholesale solely for +factional advantage. The Chamber of Deputies was +dissolved and a new one elected in the fall of 1840, +and in the choice of deputies the Andradas interfered, +securing an overwhelming Liberal majority.</p> + +<p>In reality, however, the Andradas had not won +the confidence of the ruling <i>coteries</i>, nor of the boy +emperor. When they quarrelled with Aureliano, +one of their colleagues, the matter was submitted to +Pedro, who was then only fifteen and a half years +old. His decision was against the Andradas. They +resigned, and from that moment until his mental +powers began to fail Pedro II. was the supreme +authority in the State. He governed parliamentarily +as far as he deemed it possible, left most matters to +his Cabinets, kept out of view, and was careful to +ascertain public opinion. None the less he was the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[Pg 450]</a></span> +final arbiter in matters of the first importance. In +the politics of the next fifty years he was incomparably +the most potent Brazilian.</p> + +<p>Happily for his country he resembled his mother +rather than his father. Studious and laborious, +books were his great occupation. He was an indefatigable +and omnivorous reader, and, though especially +fond of history and sociology, few subjects +and few literatures escaped him. No fact ever failed +to interest him, but his mind was too discursive and +his studies too widespread and too superficial to give +him a store of sound and well-digested knowledge. +Morally he was a complete contrast to his dissipated +father. He was a monarch of the conscientious nineteenth-century +type. He as a little boy had been +obedient to the priests and ladies to whom his rearing +had been entrusted, but they retained no great +influence over him. Though thoroughly respectful +toward religion he was not especially devout, and +his political ideas were gathered rather from his own +reading than from direct teaching. As a father and +husband he was good and kind, and conscientiously +devoted all his energies to the performance of his +duties, public and private. His first act on assuming +power was to forbid the people of his household +to ask any favours of him in regard to public +affairs.</p> + +<p>His manners were democratic. Though tall and +handsome he cared little for his personal appearance; +his clothing was ill-fitting and ill cared for; he drove +about in rickety old carriages with absurd-looking +horses; he kept no Court properly so called; he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[Pg 451]</a></span> +would gobble through his state dinners in a hurry to +get back to his books; he would call Cabinet meetings +at inconvenient hours of the night if an idea +struck him. Though his subjects loved and trusted +him, the general tendency was rather to laugh at his +peculiarities. It could hardly be said that people +personally stood much in awe of him. At the same +time, when action was to be taken in a crisis, he +could be as arbitrary as any czar. He took no pride +in imposing his will over that of others, and his +manners and methods were always mild and gentle. +Some believe that he deliberately assumed careless, +democratic ways, thinking them best adapted to +maintaining himself in power, and it is certain that +he showed little anxiety about his position and +seemed to value it slightly. Intellectually restless +though he was, his judgment was sound enough to +enable him soon to foresee that the inevitable tendency +was toward a republic, and in the latter part +of his life he often said that he was the best republican +in the empire, and that his main function was to +prepare the way for it. At bottom he was not a +man of strong passions or intense will, but was rather +a mild-mannered and philosophic opportunist whose +greatest merit was that he loved peace, and whose +greatest achievement was that Brazil remained internally +quiet during his long reign.</p> + +<p>With the fall of the Andradas the Conservative +party returned to power, and a reactionary parliamentary +government, with the Emperor as a sort +of regulating and controlling <i>deus ex machina</i>, was +definitely installed. Great things were hoped for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[Pg 452]</a></span> +from the new régime, and loyalty to the young Emperor +was enthusiastic, sincere, and universal. However, +the internal disturbances were too serious to +be calmed in a day. The revolution in Maranhão, +which had been bequeathed by the Regency, was +formidable. In pacifying it a general named Luiz +Lima e Silva first came to the front, and was named +Baron of Caxias for his services. This officer was +less than forty years of age, and came of a family +of soldiers, one of whom had been the military +member of the first Regency. He had served in all +the wars and most of the insurrections since 1822, +and had always shown solid though not especially +brilliant qualities. He was a good manager of men, +and a steady, pertinacious, and shrewd negotiator. +His detractors accuse him of unscrupulous bribery, +and it is certain that he was extraordinarily successful +in sowing discord among his opponents. He obeyed +the orders of his superiors and was faithful to the +Emperor. Probably the limitations of his character +were as important as his affirmative abilities in +enabling him to grow into the great military consolidator +of the distracted empire. His work in the +first years of the forties was hardly inferior in importance +to that of the Emperor himself.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 639px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[Pg 453]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-473.jpg" width="639" height="600" alt="BARON OF CAXIAS." title="" /> +<span class="caption">BARON OF CAXIAS.<br /> +[From an old woodcut.]</span> +</div> + +<p>The return to power of the Conservatives in 1841 +caused great dissatisfaction among the displaced +Liberals and the advocates of provincial autonomy. +The Conservatives seemed to have captured the +young emperor, and the Liberals began to insist on +the application to Brazil of the English maxim, +"The king reigns but does not govern." In 1842 a +revolution broke out in Sorocaba, the home of +Padre Feijó, in the state of São Paulo. The trouble +was aggravated by the harsh measures taken by the +Conservative governor to suppress it, and soon spread +to various points in the province and thence to Minas +Geraes. The revolutionists announced that their +objects were to free the Emperor from the coercion +of the Conservative oligarchy; to maintain the autonomy +of the provinces; and to preserve the constitution, +whose guarantees were being rendered +nugatory. Fighting only lasted two months, but +there were fifteen important fights in Minas and five +in São Paulo. The government forces under Caxias +were completely victorious, and in the final and decisive +battle of Santa Luzia he overwhelmed and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[Pg 454]</a></span> +dispersed three thousand men and captured all the +principal leaders. The Emperor and Caxias adopted +a magnanimous and conciliatory policy toward the +defeated rebels, though the Conservative ministers +persisted in advocating harsh measures.</p> + +<p>Only Rio Grande do Sul remained under arms, +and even there the rebels were not averse to accepting +the Emperor's authority. As soon as Caxias had +finished the pacification of Minas, he was ordered +south. The campaign began by his winning two +important victories, and he followed them up by +promises of amnesty which detached some of the +most formidable rebel chiefs. Finally, in the spring +of 1845, Rio Grande returned to the Brazilian union +on the concession of a full and complete amnesty. +That province has ever since enjoyed a larger measure +of autonomy than any other part of Brazil.</p> + +<p>By the beginning of 1844 the disintegrating effects +of a long continuance in power showed itself among +the Conservatives. The Cabinet came to an issue +with the Emperor over a question of an appointment, +and he called the Liberals to power. The +new government was ready to carry out the Emperor's +policy of full and free amnesty and pacification +by concession. With the collapse of the +revolution in Rio Grande the central government +seemed at length to have passed all danger. The +demands for a juster interpretation of the <i>Acto +Addicional</i> and for a larger measure of autonomy +to the provinces and municipalities died out altogether, +or took a peaceful form. The Liberals in +power turned out to be as conservative as the Con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[Pg 455]</a></span>servatives +themselves, and the work of consolidation +and centralisation proceeded uninterruptedly.</p> + +<p>The Liberal ministry, was, however, in a false +situation. The very name they bore was an implied +promise to effect reforms. Their majority soon split +up into warring factions. Congress spent the session +of 1848 in quarrelsome debates; the fall of +Louis Philippe had diffused a spirit of revolution in +the air; the municipal elections were accompanied by +riots, and the ministry itself deliberately encouraged +a renewal of the anti-Portuguese agitation. The +Emperor thought himself obliged to intervene, and +appointed a Conservative Cabinet. In Pernambuco +the new Conservative governor displaced the Liberal +officials who had been holding office for the last +three years. The latter were anti-Rio and anti-Portuguese, +and they and their partisans started +an insurrection known as that of the <i>praieiros</i>. It +quickly assumed a formidable character and as many +as two thousand revolutionists took part in a single +battle, but after three months of fighting they were +completely defeated. Little difficulty was experienced +in restoring public order. The movement +had been rather a partisan uprising than a general +popular revolution.</p> + +<p>This was the last attempt for more than forty +years to establish a federal system. The necessities +of the stormy period from 1827 to 1848 had led, step +by step, to a form of government which was centralised +and yet not absolute. The imperial system had +been the result of a natural growth. When the +fabric reached stability the professional ruling classes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[Pg 456]</a></span> +feared to disturb it, and the people were too inert +and indifferent to afford support to agitators and +reformers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 549px;"> +<img src="images/illus-476.jpg" width="549" height="800" alt="PRINCESS ISABEL IN 1889." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PRINCESS ISABEL IN 1889.</span> +</div> + +<p>Agriculture, commerce, and industry advanced +only slowly during the first eight years of Pedro's +rule. The country was getting ready for the activity +which followed. Great Britain's efforts to induce +the Brazilian government to carry out its treaty +obligations for the suppression of the slave-trade +had been futile. In 1845 the British Parliament +passed the Aberdeen Bill, which authorised British<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[Pg 457]</a></span> +men-of-war to capture slavers even in territorial +waters. This measure was especially directed at +Brazil, whose coast had become practically the sole +market for the horrible traffic. The bill did not immediately +effect its purpose, and the slavers made +the most of the opportunity. In 1848 over sixty +thousand negroes were imported into Brazil. Immigration +from Europe had practically ceased with +the expulsion of Pedro I. and the anti-foreign demonstrations +of the Regency, but it now slowly +began again. In 1843 Dom Pedro, being then not +quite eighteen years old, was married by proxy to +Theresina Christina, daughter of Francis, King of +Naples. There is a tradition that the Emperor +turned his back when he saw his bride's face. Nevertheless, +he made her a good husband. Their two +boys died in infancy, but in 1846 Isabel was born, +who still survives and lives in Paris with her husband, +a grandson of Louis Philippe, and with her +three sons, the eldest of whom is named for his +grandfather and was twenty-seven years old in 1902.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[Pg 458]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-1.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER XVIII</h2> + +<h3>EVENTS OF 1849 TO 1864</h3> + + +<p>After the final pacification of the country prosperity +came with a rush. In the six years +from 1849 to 1856 foreign commerce more than +doubled. The circulating medium was brought to +a sound basis. Coffee had doubled in value by 1850, +and its culture was rapidly extended. The profits +of sugar-raising had not risen in the same proportion, +and Rio, São Paulo, and Minas drew slaves +from the northern provinces. The decline of mining +in the late years of the eighteenth century and the +profitableness of sugar and tobacco during the great +wars had made Maranhão, Pernambuco, and Bahia +overshadow the South for a time, but now the tide +turned the other way. Brazil's drift has ever since +been to the South.</p> + +<p>The Emperor and government followed an enlightened +and vigorous progressive commercial policy. +The subjects of internal communication, of colonisation, +of better steamship facilities, of the opening +of public lands to settlement, of public instruction, +of liberal treatment to foreigners, and of administra<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[Pg 459]</a></span>tive +and financial reforms were taken up intelligently. +So far as the government was concerned the suspicious +and jealous exclusive policy was abandoned, +and large amounts of foreign capital began to be +invested in commercial houses, preparing the way +for the great government loans and railroad building +soon to come. The British had the lion's share of +the importing and the Americans of the carrying +trade.</p> + +<p>The history of Brazil for the next few decades +contains examples of devotion, of high-mindedness, +and of great capacities worthily employed, of which +any country might well be proud. The higher +officials as a rule left office poorer than they had +entered it. However, in the lower ranks of the +magistracy and the government departments there +was much to be desired. The public service became +more and more the one career sought by young +men of ability. The mercantile and property-owning +classes in general kept out of politics. Only +the landowning and slaveholding aristocracy owed +a nominal allegiance to the two parties whose active +members were the officeholders or those who +hoped to become officeholders. The most promising +and prominent young men were selected from +the graduates of the universities, placed in the magistracy, +thence to be promoted to the Chamber of +Deputies, and to be governors of provinces. The +final goal was a nomination to the senate, where, +from the dignified security of a life position, the +successful Brazilian politician watched the struggles +of those below him.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[Pg 460]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<img src="images/illus-480.jpg" width="800" height="573" alt="PAMPAS OF THE RIO GRANDE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">PAMPAS OF THE RIO GRANDE.</span> +</div> + +<p>The bright young magistrates were preoccupied +with their own ambitions and were not responsible +to the people of the localities they happened to be +governing for the moment. Real local interests +were not studied. Those who reached the highest +positions applied their well-trained minds to larger +problems, but their work was too much from above +down—they produced admirable reports and framed +admirable laws, but among the lazy magistracy and +indifferent people the energy to put them into effect +was too often wanting. But the level of political +well-being rose noticeably, though fitfully. The +Brazil of 1850 had progressed far beyond the Brazil +of colonial times. Liberty of speech was unquestioned +and unquestionable; arbitrary imprisonment<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[Pg 461]</a></span> +had died out; the grosser forms of tyranny had +vanished; property rights and the administration of +civil justice had much improved. Judges no longer +openly received presents from litigants, though the +nation had not risen to the conception of a judiciary +independent of the executive.</p> + +<p>In 1850 the Emperor chose a new Conservative +Cabinet, which proved the most efficient the country +had known. Its first great act was to abolish the +slave trade.</p> + +<p>The year 1850 is also memorable as that in which +the yellow fever began those terrible ravages on +the Brazilian coast which have never since entirely +ceased. The first epidemic is said to have been the +worst which ever visited Rio. Two hundred persons +fell sick daily, and the wealthier classes were +especially attacked. Among the victims was the +great statesman, Bernardo de Vasconcellos, and +many deputies, senators, and diplomatic representatives. +Congress adjourned in terror. In the earlier +epidemics the citizens of Rio were just as susceptible +as foreigners. Later, however, they acquired a relative +immunity—an immunity which is not shared by +Brazilians who have lived in non-infected districts.</p> + +<p>Brazil and Argentina had agreed in 1828 that +Uruguay should be an independent and neutral +buffer state between them. But the Buenos Aireans +never forgot that for geographical and historical +reasons Uruguay naturally belonged to them. +Rosas, the Argentine dictator, assisted the Oribe +faction, which openly advocated entering the confederation, +while the Rio Grande Brazilians who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[Pg 462]</a></span> +owned much property on the Uruguayan side of the +border aided the Rivera faction.</p> + +<p>To protect the property interests of its citizens +and prevent Rosas from conquering Uruguay the +Brazilian government quietly made military preparations +and formed an alliance with the Rivera party +and with Urquiza, the ruler of the province of Entre +Rios, to which the dictator of Paraguay and the +president of Bolivia gave a passive adhesion. It +amounted to a coalition to forestall Rosas's plan of +uniting the whole of the old Viceroyalty and the +Plate valley under his rule. Brazil was virtually +the instigator of a combination of the weaker Spanish-American +states against the strongest one.</p> + +<p>Urquiza crossed the Uruguay, and with the aid of +the Brazilian troops made short work of Oribe's +army, which was besieging Rivera in Montevideo. +Rosas responded with a declaration of war and +began collecting a formidable army. Urquiza resolved +to carry the war to the gates of Buenos +Aires. The allies gathered in camp on the left bank +of the Paraná, a hundred miles above Rosario, a +great army which numbered four thousand Brazilians, +eighteen thousand Argentines, mostly from +the half-Indian provinces of Entre Rios and Corrientes, +and a contingent of Uruguayans. A Brazilian +fleet under Admiral Grenfell had penetrated up +the Paraná and protected their crossing of the great +river. On the 17th of December they got safely +over the Paraná, and out of the low country of +Entre Rios on to the dry pampas of the right bank. +Thence they marched down on Buenos Aires, where<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[Pg 463]</a></span> +Rosas was awaiting them. On the 3rd of February, +1852, he gave them battle in the suburbs of that +city. He was completely defeated and fled to England.</p> + +<p>Brazil found herself in a peculiarly advantageous +situation. The war had cost her little in money or +men. Buenos Aires might no longer hope to dominate +the other Argentine provinces, and seemed likely +to offer small resistance to the unified and centralised +empire. Uruguay's independence of Buenos Aires, +and Brazil's preponderance in Montevideo were assured. +The Rio Grandenses flocked over the border, +bought large amounts of property, and enjoyed +peculiar privileges, while the Uruguayan government +accepted subsidies from that of Brazil.</p> + +<p>The country's commercial development continued +even more rapidly after the war. In 1853 the Bank of +Brazil was authorised to issue circulating notes, and +the expansion of credit stimulated business. The +same year the Conservative ministry, which had so +brilliantly governed the nation since 1848, was forced +to resign on account of the constant interference by +the Emperor. It was replaced by the "Conciliation +Cabinet"—whose chief, the Marquis of Paraná, +adopted the policy of admitting Liberals to administrative +positions. He remained in power until +1858, and his name will always be associated with +one of the most prosperous epochs in Brazilian history. +The first railway systems were inaugurated; +the receipts of the treasury grew fifty per cent.; +European immigration amounted to twenty thousand +a year; private wealth and luxury increased;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[Pg 464]</a></span> +and numerous theatres, balls, and social reunions furnished +an indication of the rise of the level of culture.</p> + +<p>One of Brazil's reasons for entering on the war +against Rosas was to open up the navigation of the +Paraguay, Paraná, and Uruguay, upon which she +depended for access to a large part of her territory. +The treaties made at the conclusion of the war +assured, against her protest, free navigation to all +nations. Brazil has intermittently attempted to +confine the navigation of the international rivers +of South America to the nations having territory +on their banks.</p> + +<p>Paraná's "conciliation" policy seems to have +suited the Emperor very well, although it tended to +hamper the development of two great parties in +clearly defined opposition to each other. The elections +came more and more under the control of the +bureaucracy and were mere ratifications of selections +made by the ministers. Congress lost rather than +gained in influence, and the whole system became +steadily more centripetal.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[Pg 465]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-485.jpg" width="800" height="573" alt="OLD MARKET IN SÃO PAULO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">OLD MARKET IN SÃO PAULO.</span> +</div> + +<p>From 1849 the country had been having prosperous +times, but in 1856 the inevitable commercial +crisis came. Prosperity had brought about extravagances +in governmental administration; the budgets +showed deficits; foreign loans were resorted to; the +currency fluctuated violently. Brazil entered upon +seven lean years, during which foreign trade remained +stationary, the revenues increased only at +the cost of heavy impositions, and the public debt +grew. With the death of the Marquis of Paraná in +1858 the regular Conservatives returned to power. +He had been the dominant figure in politics since +the Regency, and his personal prestige and the confidence +the Emperor reposed in him had had much to +do with holding the government together during the +panic. But the new ministry could not make headway +against the difficulties. A new currency law +was necessary, but the mercantile and speculating +classes bitterly opposed the rigid measures proposed +by successive Cabinets. Paraná's neutral policy had +given the opposition a hold in some of the most +important provinces, and the following elections +showed a vast increase in the number of Liberals +and of dissident Conservatives. Conservative Cabinets +succeeded each other rapidly from 1858 to 1862. +The opposition to a contraction of the currency<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[Pg 466]</a></span> +grew in force, and the dissidents and Liberals finally +obtained a majority. The Emperor at last called +upon the leader of the dissident Conservatives—Zacarias—to +form a government. But he was as +powerless as his predecessors, and as a last resort the +Emperor temporarily gave up the effort to govern +after the English system, and selected a Cabinet outside +of the Chamber of Deputies.</p> + +<p>The elections of 1863 resulted in a complete defeat +of the Conservatives, but the victorious Liberals did +not need to pass any radical currency legislation. +Hard times had disappeared by the operation of +natural law. The bank-notes approached par and +the budgets nearly balanced. With 1864 the country +entered upon a new era of prosperity. The production +of coffee had doubled from 1840 to 1851, +and then had remained stationary. But with the +cessation of the Civil War in the United States an +era of high prices was inaugurated which coincided +with Brazil's financial rehabilitation, and stimulated +planting. Although real activity in the building of +railroads did not begin until after the Paraguayan +war, four short lines had been started before 1862. +The years of peace and order had disaccustomed +the people to the thought of violence, and a steady +advance had been made toward government by law. +The highly educated statesmen placed by the Emperor +at the head of affairs understood the most +important principles of good government and tried +conscientiously to put them in practice. In transportation, +banking, posts, and telegraphs, commercial +methods, etc., the improvements of modern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[Pg 467]</a></span> +civilisation were easily introduced, though in agriculture +the indolence of proprietors and the apathetic +ignorance of the slaves prevented any rapid advance.</p> + +<p>On the whole, Brazil had made greater political and +industrial progress when the Paraguayan war broke +out than any other South American country, though +grave vices remained to hamper her further development. +The mass of the people were apathetic and +ignorant; slavery tended to discredit industrious +habits, at best so difficult to maintain in the tropics; +the upper classes showed little interest in or aptitude +for commercial matters: commerce, banking, railroads, +mining, and engineering prospered only where +foreigners personally engaged in them. The people +themselves, in spite of the enlightenment of the +educated classes, showed little initiative or energy.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-b.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[Pg 468]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-4.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER XIX</h2> + +<h3>THE PARAGUAYAN WAR</h3> + + +<p>Brazilian statesmen might well have been +pardoned if, in 1865, they had claimed for their +country the hegemony of South America. The result +of the war against Rosas had been brilliant; the +Argentine had only just emerged from half a century +of civil war; Uruguay was almost a Brazilian protectorate; +Brazil's internal condition was settled; in +concentration of power, as well as in wealth, population, +and extent, she was at the head of the +continent. With the republics on the west she +maintained good relations, while all the time she +was firmly pressing her territorial claims on toward +the foot of the Andes. She even attempted to control +the navigation of the great waterways of South +America.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[Pg 469]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-489.jpg" width="1024" height="612" alt="GOVERNOR'S PALACE IN SÃO PAULO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">GOVERNOR'S PALACE IN SÃO PAULO.</span> +</div> + +<p>In 1863, Florés, a defeated chief, returned from +Buenos Aires and set up the standard of revolt in +Uruguay. Penetrating as far as the Brazilian border +he received assistance, and Aguirre, the Montevidean +president, protested. At the same time the +latter ruler refused to settle certain claims on behalf +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[Pg 470]</a></span>of Brazilian citizens which the Rio government had +been pressing. The Emperor decided to intervene +and help Florés, and thereupon sent a man-of-war +up the Uruguay River, which blockaded a port and +destroyed Uruguayan public property. Aguirre declared +war, and Brazil and Florés in alliance besieged +and took the principal towns in western Uruguay. +The Argentine received satisfactory assurances and +remained neutral.</p> + +<p>This high-handed adjustment of Uruguayan affairs +furnished a pretext to the Paraguayan dictator, +Francisco Lopez, to intervene in his turn. Under +a line of vigorous dictators who concentrated all the +forces of the nation into their own hands, that +country had become menacing to the loosely organised +Argentine Republic. Lopez even thought he +was strong enough to bid defiance to Brazil. The +tyrant was, in fact, an impossible neighbour for the +two more progressive and civilised powers. For +years he had been preparing for war and at the moment +was stronger in a military way than either of +his bulky neighbours. He hated both Argentines +and Brazilians, and his people had been taught to +despise the courage of the latter. Though Brazil's +intervention in Uruguay was a matter in which he +had an interest, a dignified protest would have obtained +ample assurances that the latter's independence +would be respected, for there is no evidence +that the imperial government intended to do anything +more than to replace its enemy Aguirre by the +friendly Florés. But the arrogant tyrant wanted to +draw the world's attention to himself. He appre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[Pg 471]</a></span>ciated +how difficult it would be for Brazil to send an +army against him and how much more difficult it +would be to maintain one, and he also knew that +she was unprepared to undertake a serious war on +foreign soil.</p> + +<p>Without any declaration of war, in the fall of 1864 +he seized a Brazilian steamer which was making its +regular trip up the Paraguay River to Matto Grosso. +The crew were imprisoned, and only the intervention +of the American minister saved the lives of the +Brazilian minister and his family. This outrage left +Brazil no alternative. Lopez followed up the seizure +of the boat by an expedition up the Paraguay River +against Matto Grosso, and easily conquered the principal +southern settlements in that province.</p> + +<p>The geographical position of the Argentine made +her attitude of decisive importance to both belligerents. +Uruguay and the southern provinces of Brazil +were separated from Paraguay by the Argentine +provinces of Corrientes and the Missions. Argentina +had favoured Florés's pretensions, and Lopez +was so obnoxious that the secret sympathies of Buenos +Aires were with Brazil. Further than neutrality, +Mitre, then president of Argentina, would not go. +He declared that no permission would be given +either belligerent to cross Argentine territory with +troops. Lopez was made desperately angry at this +refusal; he thought he could count on the alliance +and support of Urquiza, the virtually independent +ruler of the province of Entre Rios and Mitre's +enemy, and seems to have believed that he might +as well finish up with both Argentina and Brazil at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[Pg 472]</a></span> +one sitting. In March, 1865, he deliberately declared +war on the Argentine, and eighteen thousand +Paraguayan troops crossed the Paraná and began +offensive operations against Corrientes, Uruguay, +and Brazil.</p> + +<p>Instead of rising against Mitre, Urquiza declared +himself against the Paraguayan dictator, and as his +province of Entre Rios controlled access to Paraguay +by water, Lopez found that the only result of his +rash act was to open up the way by which his +enemies could most conveniently reach him. On +the first of May, 1865, a formal alliance was made +between Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay. Mitre +was agreed upon as commander-in-chief; the allies +promised not to lay down their arms until Lopez +should be overthrown and expelled from Paraguay; +and pledges were given to respect Paraguay's +independence. Of the three allies Brazil was the +only one which could be expected to give its whole +force. Florés could only answer for the colorado +faction of Uruguay. Argentina did not represent +much more than Buenos Aires. Entre Rios was +Urquiza's, and the other outside provinces had +no great interest in the result. Nevertheless, the +alliance was very advantageous to Brazil. It would +have been well-nigh impossible to wage a successful +war against an enemy shut up in the middle +of the continent, and accessible only by a three-months' +march across nearly impassable country, or +by tedious navigation up a single river running +through a third country, and where an army would +have to be disembarked direct from ships on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[Pg 473]</a></span> +enemy's soil. The adhesion of Argentina made an +aggressive war possible, and the event proved how +hopeless would have been a campaign by Brazil +alone.</p> + +<p>The story of the military operations belongs to +the history of Paraguay, and only those events +which bore a direct relation to internal affairs in +Brazil will be mentioned here. The successful naval +battle of Riachuelo, on the Paraná, just below the +southern end of Paraguayan territory, in June, 1865, +aroused great enthusiasm in Brazil. National feeling +was hardly cooled by the news which soon followed +of a Paraguayan invasion of Rio Grande, and +rose again with the defeat of that invasion. Brazil's +regular army numbered less than fifteen thousand +men before the war, but at the Emperor's call fifty-seven +battalions of volunteers were organised in the +fall of 1865. A loan of five million pounds was +arranged in London, and no expense was spared in +fitting out the army and in strengthening the fleet. +By the end of the war Brazil had eighty-five ships, +not counting transports, of which thirteen were +ironclads. The voyage from Rio de Janeiro to +Paraguay takes a month, and the transportation of +men and material was tedious and extremely expensive. +The government resorted to the issue of paper +money, and outraged the feelings of the financial +world by compelling the Bank of Brazil to give up +the reserve it was maintaining for the redemption of +its note issues. The premium on gold rose and the +currency fluctuated wildly, although general trade +continued to boom.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[Pg 474]</a></span></p> + +<p>In September, 1865, the Paraguayan army which +had invaded Rio Grande was captured in a body, and +peace was confidently expected. Lopez, however, +decided to fight it out to the bitter end, and it was +April, 1866, before the allies could gain a foothold +on Paraguayan soil. For the next six months Brazil +was sickened with accounts of desperately bloody +and indecisive battles, of which the last was an +awful repulse before Curupayty. For more than a +year thereafter the allies lay motionless in their +camps in the south-western corner of Paraguay, +while the cholera carried off thousands.</p> + +<p>Though his favourite general, Marshal Caxias, +was a Conservative, and not on good terms with the +Liberal Cabinet, the Emperor insisted that he be +sent to take command. Re-enforcements were vigorously +recruited from all over the empire, and in +July, 1867, the cautious Caxias began a slow advance. +The expenses were mounting up to sixty +millions a year; the country chafed at the delays, +Caxias quarrelled with the ministers. In July, 1868, +the Emperor dismissed them on his own responsibility, +and, though the Liberals had still a large majority +in the Chamber, called in a Conservative Cabinet. +On this occasion the Emperor's pressure was not +influential enough to change a minority into a +majority, and the Chamber preferred dissolution to +submission. Meanwhile Caxias had at last begun +to win victories. The very month of the fall of the +Liberals he took the great fortress of Humaitá, which +guarded the passage up the Paraguay, and Lopez +retreated to the neighbourhood of his capital ac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[Pg 475]</a></span>companied +by almost all the surviving Paraguayans. +In November Caxias cleverly outflanked him and +taking him in the rear compelled him to fight outside +of his trenches until hardly any Paraguayans +were left. By the beginning of 1869 Lopez was a +fugitive, the Brazilians were in possession of Asuncion, +and the war was over except for pursuing Lopez +and the few starving soldiers who followed him +through the woods.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 708px;"> +<img src="images/illus-495.jpg" width="708" height="600" alt="HOSPITAL AND OLD CHURCH AT PORTO ALEGRE." title="" /> +<span class="caption">HOSPITAL AND OLD CHURCH AT PORTO ALEGRE.</span> +</div> + +<p>Elections were held in March, but it was not +worth while for the Liberals to make even the show +of a contest. The Liberal leaders issued a manifesto<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[Pg 476]</a></span> +declining to take any part, and, censuring the Emperor +for calling the Conservatives to power against +the known wishes of the majority of a legally elected +Chamber, announced that they would respect the +laws and would confine themselves to a non-parliamentary +propagation of the doctrines of anti-absolutism, +liberalism, and emancipation. From this +time dates the systematic propaganda for the republic. +The war ended with the Emperor's son-in-law +hunting down the Paraguayan bands. In March, +1870, Lopez was caught with the last few hundred +men who remained faithful and speared by a common +soldier as he tried to escape through the woods.</p> + +<p>The war had cost Brazil three hundred million +dollars and over fifty thousand lives. She had +gained no substantial result except assuring the +safety of Matto Grosso and securing the free navigation +of the Paraguay. The Emperor did not attempt +to use his victory by establishing a hegemony over +South America. Rather did the end of the Paraguayan +war mark the beginning of a policy of systematic +abstention from intermeddling with outside +matters. Paraguay and Uruguay were left in full +enjoyment of their independence, and the Argentine +then began her marvellous industrial progress and +political consolidation. The Plate republics reaped +the benefits of the war, while Brazil bore its heaviest +burdens. Most of the Argentine provinces had +taken little part except to furnish provisions and +horses at high prices, and the opening up of Paraguay +redounded to the benefit of Buenos Aires and +Montevideo—not to that of Rio. No spirit of im<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[Pg 477]</a></span>perialism +spread among the Brazilian people, though +they are still proud of the record their soldiers and +sailors then made. Their bravery in field fighting +and the assault of fortified places was proved beyond +question, no matter how poorly they may have been +commanded, and how deficient their organisation. +The history of no war contains more examples of +heroic and hopeless charges, or stories of more +desperate hand-to-hand fighting. But a successful +battle was followed by torpor; Brazilian tenacity +was shown in the patience with which defeats were +sustained, and in holding on month after month in +camp, rotting in the miasmatic swamps, rather than +in pursuing advantages obtained in the field.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[Pg 478]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-2.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER XX</h2> + +<h3>REPUBLICANISM AND EMANCIPATION</h3> + + +<p>From 1808 to 1837 the tendency had been in the +direction of democracy and decentralisation. +Then the tide turned and from 1837 to the Paraguayan +war the central government grew stronger +and federalism weaker. The power of the Emperor +reached its apogee in 1870. The senators had been +personally selected by him and he could count +on their gratitude and friendship. Deputies were +elected indirectly by electors chosen by a suffrage +nominally universal, but the elections—primary and +secondary—were mere farces, absolutely controlled +by the ministry which happened to be in power. +The local governors and magistrates, the officers of +the national guard, and the police, all dependent +on the central government for their positions, formed +a machine against which opposition was useless. If +intimidation was not sufficient, the baldest frauds +were shamelessly resorted to—false polling lists, +manufactured returns, and the seating of contestants +by the majority in the Chamber or the returning +boards. Of this system the Emperor was the real<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[Pg 479]</a></span> +beneficiary, for the Cabinets held at his pleasure, +and if the majority of a Chamber did not sustain a +ministry which he desired to keep in power, all he +had to do was to order a dissolution. But this +hybrid system contained in itself the elements of +sure decay. The Emperor was no arbitrary despot +and neither wished nor would he have been able to +govern in complete defiance of public opinion. On +the other hand, the system afforded no sure method +of ascertaining public opinion nor of throwing a +proper responsibility upon well-organised political +parties.</p> + +<p>With the close of the Paraguayan war a series of +movements began which ended twenty years later +with the overthrow of the empire. Brazil's history +during those twenty years is an account of the republican +propaganda, the abolition movement, the +attempt to reform the elections, the religious agitation, +the growth of positivist doctrines, the demand +for economic independence by the great provinces, +and finally the infiltration of liberalism and insubordination +into the army. This evolution, however, +affected principally the educated classes. The +masses of the people were and still remain largely +indifferent to the march of public events.</p> + +<p>Commerce and industry continued to expand +throughout the Paraguayan war. From 1865 to +1872 the annual revenues doubled, and though in +1868 the emissions of paper money had reduced its +value one-half, it steadily rose thereafter until in +1873 it again reached par. Just after the war the +budget balanced, and the production of coffee rose<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[Pg 480]</a></span> +one-half. But with relief from financial pressure +the Conservative ministers became extravagant, +and when the great world panic of 1873 came both +government and country were badly caught. A +foreign loan of five millions sterling made in 1875 +was not enough to meet the mounting deficits. In +1878 new issues of paper money were resorted to, +and exchange dropped, remaining below par for ten +years in spite of a subsequent doubling of coffee +production and a great increase in the value of exports. +Population, however, which had increased +from five to ten millions from 1840 to 1870, in the +next twenty years mounted to fifteen millions.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 773px;"> +<img src="images/illus-500.jpg" width="773" height="600" alt="BRIDGE AT MENDANHA." title="" /> +<span class="caption">BRIDGE AT MENDANHA.</span> +</div> + +<p>The suppression of the slave trade by the Aber<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[Pg 481]</a></span>deen +Act and the Queiroz law made it probable +that the institution itself would ultimately disappear. +Brazilian character and customs had always stimulated +voluntary emancipation, and in Brazil the +negro does not reproduce as rapidly as the white. +In 1856 the slaves numbered two millions and a half, +being nearly forty per cent. of the population, but +in 1873 their number had fallen to 1,584,000, or +only sixteen per cent. The institution was, however, +socially and politically very strong. Slaves +furnished nearly all the labour employed in the production +of staple exports, and it was believed that +emancipation would be followed by agricultural collapse. +But the Emperor was too enlightened a +Christian and too susceptible to the good opinion of +the civilised world not be at heart an abolitionist. +However, it was only at the height of his influence +that he deemed it wise to force the consideration of +abolition on the reluctant nation. Agitation had +begun modestly in 1864; in 1866 gradual emancipation +was seriously proposed, but the breaking out +of the war caused the matter to be adjourned. In +1869 Joaquim Nabuco, father of the present Brazilian +minister to Great Britain, succeeded in virtually +committing the Liberal party to emancipation. +With the return of peace the question was taken up +vigorously. The reactionary Conservative Cabinet +resigned rather than be an instrument of the Emperor's +wishes as to emancipation, and Pimenta +Bueno was appointed Prime Minister for the especial +purpose of getting a law through Congress declaring +all children born thereafter free. This statesman<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[Pg 482]</a></span> +failed, but Rio Branco, father of the present Minister +for Foreign Affairs, was more successful. After a +bitter and prolonged parliamentary struggle, in which +Rio Branco used every weapon that his position gave +him in gaining and holding doubtful Congressional +votes, the law was passed in 1871. Thereafter all +children born of slave mothers were free, though +they remained bound to service until twenty-one. +The proprietors were also required to register all +their slaves. Under the influence of these measures +the number of slaves decreased with astonishing +rapidity—falling from 1,584,000 in 1873 to 743,000 +in 1887.</p> + +<p>Rio Branco's victory disrupted the Conservative +party, and after achieving it he was unable to hold +his majority together. The Chamber was dissolved, +and though the new one supported him half-heartedly +the old line Conservatives had become deeply dissatisfied +with the radical tendencies of the government +and the Emperor. Public men of all parties +awoke to realisation of the inconsistency between +the constitution and the Emperor's personal power. +Not much was said in the Chamber, but outside the +republican propaganda assumed an active form, and +the conviction fast crystallised that the empire could +not last for many years. A republican press came +into existence and a republican party was organised +under the leadership of Saldanha Marinho, an able +lawyer of Rio. Republican societies were formed +in all the centres of population, but there was no +thought of armed revolution. There is, indeed, no +evidence that the Emperor ever opposed the repub<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[Pg 483]</a></span>lican +propaganda, though occasionally he detached +some of its able members by promotions to office.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<img src="images/illus-503.jpg" width="1024" height="636" alt="CITY OF OURO PRETO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CITY OF OURO PRETO.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[Pg 484]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>In 1873, 1874, and 1875 the question which most +absorbed public attention was the imprisonment of +the bishops of Pará and Pernambuco by the civil +authorities. The lower ranks of the priesthood +were uneducated, and real interest in religion had +largely been confined to women and the lower +classes. With the growth of liberal ideas among +the laity the Church awoke to the necessity of a reformation. +These two bishops were leaders in this +counter-movement, and they selected the Masonic +Lodges as a point of attack. In spite of the nominal +prohibition of the Church, Free-Masonry had +been permitted in Brazil since 1821, and the lodges +had become mere social clubs and philanthropic societies. +Free-Masons were members of those semi-religious +brotherhoods which take charge of local +church feasts and constitute the most important +link between the lay and spiritual worlds in Brazilian +communities. The two militant bishops ordered +that the brotherhoods should expel their Masonic +members or suffer the penalty of losing their right +to use the church edifices. Where these orders were +not obeyed interdicts were laid. The progressive +element and the magistracy took the side of the +Masons, but the bishops were not without their +supporters. The government insisted that the +obnoxious interdicts be withdrawn: the bishops +refused to yield, and were prosecuted in the civil +courts and sent to prison. The Princess Isabel was +believed to be on the priests' side, and while the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[Pg 485]</a></span> +excitement gradually died out and things went on +as before, a wider breach than ever had been created +between the progressive and conservative classes. +Like the slave-owners devout Catholics now felt +that they could no longer depend on the imperial +system to protect them against the rising tide of +radicalism.</p> + +<p>The financial difficulties growing out of the great +panic drove Rio Branco from power in 1875, and a +succession of Conservative Cabinets struggled along +until 1878. The question of electoral reform came +to the front, for every one was sick of the absurd +system in vogue, and the leaders of both the historical +parties hoped for great things from a radical +change. The Emperor was opposed to giving up +the indirect method of voting, but was anxious to try +some lesser reforms. On his return from the United +States and Europe in 1877 he virtually instructed +the Cabinet to put through a bill drawn after his +suggestions, but the Prime Minister resigned because +the Emperor insisted that the change could not be +made by an ordinary statute, but must go through +the tedious process of an amendment to the constitution. +The Emperor called in a Liberal Cabinet +and a new Chamber was elected.</p> + +<p>The Liberal ministry continued in power until +1880, and then fell, partly because it had lost its hold +with the Liberal majority, and partly because of the +riots in Rio over the street-car tax. A law had been +passed compelling each passenger to pay a cent in +addition to the regular fare. The people refused, +burned the cars, cut the harness in pieces, threw the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[Pg 486]</a></span> +conductors off, and fought the police until the business +of the city was brought to a standstill. The +Emperor called upon a cool and experienced politician, +José Antonio Saraiva. But the latter refused +to take office unless he should be allowed to push +through the election bill in the form of an ordinary +law. Right here the Emperor suffered a great defeat. +He thought himself obliged to yield, and the +vigorous minister at once secured the passage of a +radical law which completely transformed the electoral +system. Suffrage was confined to the educated +and property-holding classes, but the electors voted +directly for deputies, and the country was divided +into districts each of which chose a single deputy. +The electoral body was now permanent, and each +deputy was responsible to a definite constituency. +Saraiva resigned the moment his bill was enacted +into law, and every precaution was taken to ensure +that the election of 1881 should be free from any +suspicion of official pressure. The result was a +revelation to the small-bore politicians of the old +régime. One hundred and fifty thousand voters +registered out of an adult male population of about +three millions, and ninety-six thousand voted. The +new members were divided nearly equally between +the two historical parties—the Liberals getting sixty-eight +and the Conservatives fifty-four. Two ministers +were defeated for re-election and many of the +contests were decided by small majorities. In subsequent +elections the Saraiva law proved not to be +so effective, and since it is not in the Latin nature +to be satisfied with gradual improvement, the liberal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[Pg 487]</a></span> +movement, of which the electoral law was a symptom, +swept on with increasing violence until the +beneficent law was uprooted along with the mistaken +system on which it had been painfully grafted.</p> + +<p>As soon as electoral reform was out of the way +abolition became once more the dominant question +in Brazilian politics. Though the majority of Liberals +were abolitionists and the doctrine was one of +the official principles of the party, the various Liberal +Cabinets which succeeded each other from 1881 to +1884 managed to dodge the dangerous issue. Finally +the Dantas ministry faced it squarely. A bill +was introduced prohibiting the sale of slaves, establishing +an emancipation fund, and freeing slaves as +fast as they reached the age of sixty. A terrific +parliamentary battle followed and the project was +defeated by only seven votes—forty-eight Liberals +and four Conservatives voting for it, and seventeen +Liberals and forty-two Conservatives against. The +Emperor dissolved the Chamber and the excitement +over abolition became national. The abolitionists subsidised +newspapers, held public meetings, and marched +through the streets in procession carrying pictures +representing the torturing of slaves. No means were +spared which might aid to rouse the national conscience. +The negroes were advised to revolt, and +assistance was openly promised to them. The elections +of 1884 were violently contested, instead of +being free from fraud and protest like those of 1881. +Nor did the government so conscientiously abstain +from interference. Nevertheless the Chamber elected +did not differ materially in its composition from that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[Pg 488]</a></span> +which had preceded it. Sixty-five of the one hundred +and twenty members of the new House were +Liberals, but of these fifteen were opposed to abolition. +For the first time avowed republican members +were elected—three being returned, and two of +them came from São Paulo—Prudente Moraes and +Campos Salles, the first two Brazilians to hold office +avowedly as republicans and who reaped their reward +by becoming two decades later the first two +civil presidents of the republic. No election was +ever held in Brazil which was so earnestly contested +and which constituted so genuine an expression of +the wishes of the people. Nevertheless, on the main +question—that of abolition—the result was apparently +a drawn battle.</p> + +<p>With the meeting of the Chamber in 1885 the agitation +broke out afresh. The crowds on the Rio +streets hissed anti-emancipation deputies, and there +was a bitter fight for the control of the organisation +of the Chamber. It was soon evident that the Dantas +ministry could not force abolition through, and +it resigned. Saraiva was called in and he skilfully +arranged a compromise. With the aid of Conservative +votes he passed a bill for gradual and compensated +emancipation. This done, he resigned. The +Liberal party was disorganised and dissatisfied with +him, and he did not deem it worth his while to try +and hold it together. The quarrelling Liberal majority +was aghast when it was announced that a +Conservative Cabinet would take the reins of government. +The Emperor had begun to show decided +symptoms of a failure of his mental powers and was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[Pg 489]</a></span> +ceasing to be a controlling factor in parliamentary +affairs. Saraiva's resignation further exacerbated +the Liberal leaders against the imperial system, and +at the same time continued to lose ground with the +slaveholders.</p> + +<p>In the election the Liberals had no chance and +largely refrained from voting. The governing classes +shrank from the probable consequences of abolition; +the temper of the country seemed to have cooled; +the election reform of 1881 had not proven in practice +to be of much value. Though not so absolute +as before, the provincial governors resumed their +control of the result, and returns were made according +to the wishes of the ministry in power. One +hundred and three Conservatives received certificates +and only twenty-two Liberals, and most of the latter +came from the interior where official pressure +could least easily be applied. Not a republican +was returned, and the declared abolitionists had +almost disappeared, although every one knew that +the final blow to slavery could not long be deferred.</p> + +<p>The new administration devoted itself to the +finances. Since 1871 the deficits had been continuous; +one sarcastic statesman said amid applause that +"the empire is the deficit." The issue of paper +money had been excessive. Better times began in +1886. A loan of six millions sterling was contracted +for on favourable terms; from forty per cent. below +par the currency rose to par in the succeeding three +years; imports and exports increased by leaps and +bounds; and the revenue grew seventy-five per cent. +in a single year. The production of coffee in São<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[Pg 490]</a></span> +Paulo, and of rubber in Pará and Amazonas reached +unprecedented figures; foreign immigration was subsidised +and a systematic propaganda to secure it +undertaken. From thirty thousand it ran up to +one hundred thousand a year, and the apprehensions +that emancipation would cause a dearth of +labour were largely quieted. Government subsidies +had kept up the building of railroads during the +years when the treasury was most embarrassed, and +naturally went on more rapidly when prosperity +came. When the Paraguayan war ended there +were only 450 miles of railroad in the country. In +the decade that followed 1450 were built, while +from 1880 to 1889 five hundred miles a year were +constructed.</p> + +<p>The Conservative Prime Minister, Baron Cotegipe, +struggled hard through 1886 and 1887 to save the +remnants of slavery, but intelligent and unprejudiced +opinion was nearly unanimous for the entire abolition +of the disgraceful and barbarous institution. +Project after project was presented, each one more +radical than the last. The slaves began to flee from +the plantations. The army refused to aid the police +in capturing them. The poor old Emperor had gone +abroad, sick and failing, leaving Isabel as regent. +Her advisers, mostly priests and foreigners, told her +that the delay was endangering the dynasty. Cotegipe +resigned and John Alfredo was made Prime +Minister for the especial purpose of passing an +emancipation act. When Congress met in May, +1888, the speech from the throne announced that +the imperial programme was absolute, immediate,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">[Pg 491]</a></span> +and uncompensated emancipation. The prestige of +the Crown was sufficient to hush nearly all opposition. +Within eight days the law had passed both +Houses and been signed by the princess. The votes +against it were hardly numerous enough to be worth +counting. Only Cotegipe and a few devoted +monarchists stood in their places and read aloud +the handwriting on the wall, prophesying the +sure and speedy overthrow of a monarchy which +had thus cast off its surest and most natural supporters.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/illus-511.jpg" width="600" height="725" alt="EMPEROR DOM PEDRO IN 1889." title="" /> +<span class="caption">EMPEROR DOM PEDRO IN 1889.</span> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">[Pg 492]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-5.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2>CHAPTER XXI</h2> + +<h3>THE REVOLUTION—THE DICTATORSHIP—THE +ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC</h3> + + +<p>Every intelligent man in Brazil had long recognised +the force of the permanently working +causes which were undermining the empire. Affonso +Celso, in 1902 considered the ablest advocate of +restoration, and the son of the last Prime Minister +of the empire, said, in 1886, from his place as national +deputy, that the empire maintained itself +only through the tolerance of its enemies. Neither +one of the two great parties of office-holders was +really monarchical, although the members of both +co-operated with the Emperor for the sake of the +patronage. But the Brazilian masses were too apathetic +to take any violent measures for the overthrow +of the worn-out institution without some +definite stimulus. This was furnished by the "military +question" in 1889.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 800px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">[Pg 493]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-513.jpg" width="800" height="493" alt="MILITARY SCHOOL AT RIO JANEIRO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">MILITARY SCHOOL AT RIO JANEIRO.</span> +</div> + +<p>The teachings of Benjamin Constant, a professor +of the military school at Rio, had thoroughly impregnated +the younger officers of the army with +republican doctrine. The officers were extremely +sensitive about their professional rights, and a spirit +of disaffection and insubordination was rife among +them. In 1886 there was great indignation in the +army because an officer, who had engaged in an undignified +newspaper controversy with a deputy, was +reprimanded by the secretary of war. A little later +another officer insisted on attacking through the press +a pension law advocated by the war department, +and his cause was taken up by the highest generals +with the Marshal Deodoro de Fonseca at their head. +This general was transferred from his post to a less +desirable one, and a new outburst of indignation +among the officers agitated army circles. The ministry +thought it best not to push the matter. In +1888 the bad feeling was further exacerbated by the +police arresting some officers for disorderly conduct<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">[Pg 494]</a></span> +in the streets. Again the army demanded satisfaction, +and again it was given. The favourite champion +of military dignity, Deodoro, was sent off to +Matto Grosso in the spring of 1889, and this was +taken as equivalent to a punishment for his activity +in maintaining the privileges of his profession. +Again the government thought it prudent to yield, +and he was allowed to return.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, the Emperor's health had grown +more feeble and the Princess Isabel was in power. +Herself unpopular, her parsimonious husband, the +Comte d'Eu, was bitterly disliked by most Brazilians. +The rumour gained credence that there was a plan to +have the sick Emperor resign in her favour. Though +the general feeling was that so long as the old man +lived and reigned he ought not to be disturbed, the +hot-headed republican officers were in no humour +to allow the princess to succeed to the throne. The +Conservative Cabinet had been met with a flat refusal +from the army when they ordered it to assist in +capturing fugitive slaves. The government's hand +was thus forced on the slavery question. John Alfredo's +Cabinet succeeded to Cotegipe's, but was +no happier in its dealings with the "military question." +The princess determined to call in the +Liberals, and their hard-headed leader, Ouro Preto, +was made Prime Minister. By many this was believed +to be a part of the plot for an abdication—that +the princess's friends wanted a strong man at +the head of affairs when the <i>coup d'état</i> came.</p> + +<p>Ouro Preto took charge of the government in +June, 1889, and shortly dissolved the Chamber after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">[Pg 495]</a></span> +some bitter debates in which, for the first time in +Brazil, the cry of "Viva a Republica!" was heard on +the floor of Parliament. The new ministry had no +trouble in controlling the elections, and the new +Chamber that met in August was Liberal. Ouro +Preto felt strong enough to undertake to reduce the +malcontents to submission. He began by strengthening +the police force and the national guard, and +removing certain regiments from the capital. But +in September Deodoro returned from the remote +wilds of Matto Grosso and was received with great +demonstrations by his comrades. Secret meetings +of officers were held, and they pledged themselves +to sustain at all hazards the prestige of the military +class. Professor Constant, whose influence with the +younger officers was predominant, openly threatened +the ministry.</p> + +<p>Early in November still another battalion was +ordered off from the capital to the north of Brazil, +and this was the immediate occasion for the formation +of a military conspiracy in which Professor Constant +and Deodoro were the original chiefs. They +determined to make an alliance with the republicans +and invited the co-operation of Quintino Bocayuva, +the chief of the militant republicans; of +Aristides Lobo, a republican editor of Rio; of +Glycerio, one of the republican chiefs in São Paulo; +of Ruy Barbosa, a great lawyer and editor, whose +attacks on the government had been very effective, +though he had not yet declared himself a republican; +and of Admiral Wandenkolk, who was expected +to secure the help of the navy.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">[Pg 496]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 643px;"> +<img src="images/illus-516.jpg" width="643" height="600" alt="GENERAL BENJAMIN CONSTANT." title="" /> +<span class="caption">GENERAL BENJAMIN CONSTANT.<br /> +[From a woodcut.]</span> +</div> + +<p>Deodoro and Constant could absolutely count +upon one brigade—the second—and were well assured +of the sympathy of all the regular forces in +Rio. Of course the plan could not be kept secret +from the government police, though the public +seems to have known nothing of the gravity of +what was going on. On the 14th of November, the +rumour spread that Deodoro and Constant would +be arrested. Orders had, in fact, been given for +the transfer of the disaffected brigade, and the ministers +were warned that it was preparing to resist. +That night the members of the Cabinet did not +sleep, and the morning found them still in anxious +council at the War Department, which faces the +great square of Rio. Constant had ridden out to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">[Pg 497]</a></span> +the quarters of the Second Brigade, and early in the +morning led it to the square and drew up in front of +the War Department. Deodoro took command +of the insurgent troops, sending an officer to demand +the surrender of the ministers. Ouro Preto called +upon the adjutant-general, Floriano Peixoto, to +lead against the revolters the troops which were in +the general barracks. Floriano, after a little hesitation, +refused, and it is doubtful whether the troops +would have followed him had he consented. There +was no one to raise a hand for the ministers. They +surrendered and sent their resignations by telegraph +to the Emperor at Petropolis, twenty-five miles away +in the mountains. Their impression seems to have +been that the insurrection was simply a military mutiny +and that its object was solely to secure their +own downfall. But the fact that Constant, Bocayuva, +and others had been let into the inside enabled +these republicans to direct the movement so that a +permanent change in the form of government was +possible.</p> + +<p>The troops in the barracks joined the Second +Brigade and all together marched through the centre +of the city cheering for the army, for Deodoro, and +the republic, amid the astonishment of the people, +most of whom knew nothing of any trouble until +they saw the parade. No resistance was offered, +and when the Emperor reached the city at three +o'clock in the afternoon the revolution was an accomplished +fact. The chiefs of the revolt had met +and organised a provisional government, naming +themselves ministers. They at once took possession<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">[Pg 498]</a></span> +of their different departments and the public buildings. +A decree was issued announcing that henceforth +Brazil was to be a federal republic. The feeble +old Emperor was visited by a few friends, but there +was no one to raise a hand or strike a blow for him +or the dynasty. He himself would have shrunk +from being the occasion for the shedding of the +blood of any of his people.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/illus-518.jpg" width="600" height="749" alt="THE EMPRESS IN 1889." title="" /> +<span class="caption">THE EMPRESS IN 1889.</span> +</div> + +<p>When night fell, the provisional government formally +announced to the Emperor his deposition, and +that he and his family would be compelled to leave<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">[Pg 499]</a></span> +the country, though their lives would be guaranteed +and ample pecuniary provision be made for them. +The palace was guarded and no one allowed to +enter, though there were no indications of any +counter-revolution. The municipal council of the +city promptly gave its adherence to the new order +of things, and telegrams were coming in hourly from +the provinces to the effect that the latter were universally +satisfied and that republican sympathisers +were taking possession of the local governments +without opposition. During the night of the 16th, +the Emperor and his family were placed on board +ship and sent off to Lisbon.</p> + +<p>The new government was, in fact, a centralised +military dictatorship, but the names of most of its +members were guarantees that the promises of the +establishment of a republic would be carried out. +In all the provinces the new situation was accepted +peacefully. The Rio government named new governors +by telegraph, and the imperial authorities +turned things over to them without resistance. Persons +known to have been advocates of republican +principles were preferred, and a rapid displacement +of the old governing classes ensued.</p> + +<p>The provisional government continued in power +for fourteen months, and in that time promulgated +a series of laws touching almost every subject of +social or political interest. The provinces were organised +into states after the model of the members +of the North American Union; universal suffrage +was established; Church and State were entirely separated; +civil marriage was introduced; a new and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">[Pg 500]</a></span> +humane criminal code was adopted; the judicial +system was reorganised after the American fashion; +and, in general, monarchical characteristics were +removed from the statutes, and the most modern +reforms enacted. A project for a constitution was +carefully framed, and this was submitted to a congress, +which had been summoned to meet early in +1891. This congress was composed of 205 deputies, +elected by states and not by districts, and of three +senators from each state. Acting as a constituent +assembly, it adopted with few modifications the +constitution proposed. The members of the constituent +congress had been almost universally selected +from among those who had been prominent in connection +with the new government, or had given it an +enthusiastic adhesion. With few exceptions, the +new constitution is a copy of that of the United +States. The only important difference is that in +Brazil the enactment of general civil and criminal +law is a federal and not a state attribute. The +revenues of the newly created states were made +much larger than those of the imperial provinces, +principally by transferring to them the duties on +exports.</p> + +<p>Though the constitution of February 24, 1891, +nominally went into effect at once, as a matter of +fact the government continued military. Deodoro +was elected president, and Marshal Floriano Peixoto +vice-president, and the dictatorship was effective, +except so far as it was managed and controlled by +a few leaders who had power in the army, navy, or +financial world. The provisional government had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">[Pg 501]</a></span> +conceded to banks in every important centre of the +country the right to issue circulating notes. The +markets were flooded with money; credit was easy; +an extraordinary speculative boom set in; values +rose tremendously. The last years of the empire +had been prosperous and exchange had gone to par. +Within three years after the empire was overthrown, +the amount of paper money in circulation was more +than tripled, but though exchange had fallen tremendously, +no ill effects were yet apparent. The +nation was drunk with suddenly acquired wealth. +Companies of all sorts were granted government +concessions—railroad companies, mining companies, +harbour improvement companies, banks, factories, +and even sugar and coffee plantation companies. +The price of coffee and rubber was rising in gold, +while the cost of production was falling with the +depreciation of the currency. The flood of Italian +immigration which had been going to the Argentine +was largely diverted to Brazil. Rio, Pará, and São +Paulo were the centres of the prosperity. Business +men from the provinces swarmed into these cities, +and the fortunate owners of plantations emigrated +to Paris to spend their easily acquired wealth.</p> + +<p>During 1891 and 1892 Deodoro became involved +in disputes with republican leaders. To these political +difficulties were added quarrels over the government +concessions which were expected to make +every one rich. Deodoro offended the moneyed +powers by not granting such concessions as freely +as was desired by many influential persons. Finally +Deodoro found that he could no longer count on a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">[Pg 502]</a></span> +majority in Congress, so he arbitrarily dissolved it. +But revolutions broke out in the different states +against the governors who stood by the dictator, +and he also found that he could not rely upon +the unquestioning support of the army. The navy +was decidedly disaffected. After some hesitation +he yielded to the signed demand of a powerful junta +and resigned in favour of the vice-president, whom +the speculators and promoters thought they could +easily control. They were grievously disappointed +in Floriano. The radical republicans found him +more to their liking than did the wealthier classes +and the bureaucrats. The navy has always been recruited +among the aristocrats and looked down upon +the army and soon developed a dislike for the plebeian +and illiterate president. An effort was made to +pass and put into effect a law expelling Floriano +from office before the expiration of the four-years' +term for which Deodoro and he had been elected, +but he flatly announced that he would serve out the +term to which he believed himself constitutionally +entitled.</p> + +<p>In the meantime a rebellion had broken out in +Rio Grande do Sul against Julio de Castilhos, the +radical republican governor. Gaspar Silveira Martims, +the local leader of the old Liberal party, had +been banished, but from Montevideo he organised +the insurrection. The adherents of the two historical +imperial parties and the gauchos of the southern +part of the state joined the movement enthusiastically. +Presently the pampas were swept from one +end to the other by bands of federalists, under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">[Pg 503]</a></span> +dreaded leaders like Gomercindo Saraiva, a ranchman +from near the Uruguayan border. The republicans +stood firm, and Pinheiro Machado and +other gaucho chiefs showed that they, too, possessed +the fighting qualities which have always distinguished +the hard-riding, meat-eating Rio Grandenses. +With the aid of federal troops the republicans +had decidedly the upper hand, but the federalists +kept the field for three years, while the country was +harried and the most frightful destruction of life and +property took place.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the intriguers against Floriano at Rio +took advantage of this formidable complication. +The mercantile classes, the Conservatives, the moderate +republicans, and those who regretted the empire +were opposed to him. The navy was ready to +revolt at any time. A number of powerful men had +bluffed Deodoro into resigning, and they thought +that they could easily do the same with Floriano. A +majority in Congress was against him and he seemed +to be almost isolated. But he had no thought of +yielding or withdrawing. His subsequent actions +show that he certainly was not actuated by any +vaulting personal ambition. His was rather the instinct +of a soldier who stands where he is and fights +to the last without reasoning why. The real crisis +in the establishment of the Republic had, in fact, +arrived. Floriano's overthrow would have meant +anarchy and disintegration, government by pronunciamento, +short-lived administrations established and +overthrown by military force.</p> + +<p>Early in September, 1893, the entire navy, under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">[Pg 504]</a></span> +the lead of Admiral Mello, revolted. The guns of +the fleet commanded the harbour and seemed to +make the city untenable. Floriano acted with great +energy. The army stood by him and he recruited +vigorously. The fleet would not seriously bombard +the city, full of sympathisers with the revolt, and +Floriano held the fortifications around the bay so +that it was difficult for Mello to obtain supplies. +Though the European naval forces, which quickly +assembled, sympathised with the insurgents, they +could hardly give any efficient help so long as +Floriano held the capital. Mello hesitated about +attempting to establish a blockade. At first the +insurgents disclaimed any intention of re-establishing +the empire, but soon the revolt began to take on a +frankly monarchical character. The friends of the +old régime, however, nowhere showed the same +energy and conviction as the republicans who stood +by Floriano.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1024px;"> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">[Pg 505]</a></span> +<img src="images/illus-525.jpg" width="1024" height="638" alt="AMERICAN LEGATION NEAR RIO." title="" /> +<span class="caption">AMERICAN LEGATION NEAR RIO.</span> +</div> + +<p>In Rio harbour matters came to a stand. Neither +side could deal a decisive blow to the other, but in +the end Floriano and the land forces were sure to +win, because without a base of supplies the fleet +could not maintain itself indefinitely. It was necessary +for Mello to start a fire in the rear and to open +communication with the Rio Grande federalists. +He escaped through the harbour entrance with one +of his ironclads, and went to Santa Catharina, where +he established the seat of the revolutionary government. +Gomercindo Saraiva, the able federalist chief, +eluded the superior republican forces in the north of +Rio Grande and attempted an invasion of Santa Cath<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">[Pg 506]</a></span>arina, +Paraná, and São Paulo, where it was hoped +that the monarchical plantation owners would rise. +But he was vigorously pursued and his forces defeated +and scattered. The failure of this daring +expedition was the death-knell of the revolt. Mello +returned to Rio and there his position fast became +untenable. The final crisis came with the refusal of +the American admiral to permit him to establish a +commercial blockade. This took away his last hope +of being able to coerce Floriano to terms. The +naval revolt collapsed in March, 1894: some of the +ironclads escaped from Rio harbour and fled to +Santa Catharina, where they were captured by the +republicans. The Rio Grande federalists kept up +a partisan warfare for a few months longer, but by +1895 they were completely stamped out.</p> + +<p>Floriano was supreme, but instead of establishing +a permanent military dictatorship he declined to be +a candidate for re-election, and selected Prudente +Moraes as his successor for the term beginning in +1894. Prudente had been one of the two republican +deputies elected from São Paulo in 1886, and +had acted as president of the Constitutional Assembly +which framed the new constitution. Moderate +and conservative in his opinions and methods, +his selection was a recognition of the advisability of +civil government and an abandonment of the system +of military dictatorship. With his assumption of +office the Republic may be said to have been at last +definitely established.</p> + +<p>The state governments were now functioning +regularly, and their governors soon began to assume<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507">[Pg 507]</a></span> +a great importance in the political system. These +executives are selected by local cliques instead of +by the central government, as in imperial times; +their command of the police and state patronage +enables them to control elections, name their own +successors, and exercise a predominant influence in +the choice of deputies and senators to the national +Congress. They are the chief instruments through +which the president's control of politics is exercised.</p> + +<p>The majority in Congress, composed of the leaders +of the republican movement, and known as the Federal +Republican party, supported Prudente in the +early part of his administration, but he was too liberal +to suit the Radicals in drawing into participation +in public affairs capable Brazilians of other antecedents. +This policy and the jealousies that always +arise in a dominant party brought about a rupture +between him and the leader of the House majority. +In the trial of strength which followed, the Federal +Republican party was split, and though the president +was victorious by a small margin, his position +became very precarious.</p> + +<p>The Republic had started out on a scale of unprecedented +extravagance. The old provincial governments +had been given only the fragments from the +imperial table, but the republican constitution multiplied +the revenues of the new states many fold. +The issues of paper money, the high prices of coffee +and rubber, and the speculative boom gave both +state and federal government for a while plenty of +money to spend. The Union and the states vied +with each other in multiplying employees, in making<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508">[Pg 508]</a></span> +loans, in spending money on public edifices, and in +building and guaranteeing railroads. The larger the +deficits grew the more paper money was issued, and +exchange fell with sickening rapidity. A larger and +larger proportion of the paper revenue had to be +devoted to the purchase of gold bills for the payment +of the interest on the foreign debt. The deficits increased +in geometrical progression. By 1895 signs +of the coming trouble were apparent, though the +business of the country was still prosperous. In +1896 came an outbreak of religious fanaticism in the +interior of Bahia, which grew into an armed revolt—small, +it is true, but which cost much money to +suppress. The necessity for retrenchment was evident; +railroad building was interrupted; schemes +to rehabilitate the currency were brought forward +and discussed.</p> + +<p>The governments of the poorer states looked for +help to the impoverished federal treasury, and some +of the stronger states showed impatience at being +hampered by an unprofitable connection with their +weak sisters. The president was not on sympathetic +terms with the victorious Radicals in Rio Grande, +and the uncompromising republicans all over the +Union felt that they were not sufficiently favoured. +In the fall of 1897 an attempt was made in broad +daylight to assassinate Prudente, and prominent opposition +politicians were strongly suspected of complicity +in the plot. A state of siege was declared, +but the country remained quiet, and no serious opposition +was apparent when Prudente announced +that his support would be given to Campos Salles as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509">[Pg 509]</a></span> +his successor in office and presumably the continuer +of his policies.</p> + +<p>A great drop in the price of coffee began, and +the financial situation of the government grew worse +and worse. Brazil grows about two-thirds of the +world's coffee and her crop was enormously increasing. +Consequently the production of coffee was +outrunning the world's consuming capacity. The +enormous profits of preceding years and the abundant +supply of good Italian labour had stimulated +planting beyond all reason. New and fertile districts +were opened up in the interior of São Paulo, +with which the older plantations of Rio and the +coast regions could not compete. The poorer districts +were reduced to poverty, while even the more +fertile could not hold their own.</p> + +<p>In government finances the lowest point was +reached in 1898. The paper money had fallen to +seventy-nine per cent. below par and it had become +clearly impossible to continue payments on the +foreign debt. The last act of Prudente's administration +was to make an agreement by which the +foreign creditors consented to waive the receipt of +their interest for three years and the government +pledged itself to reduce the volume of paper currency +and to accumulate a fund for the resumption of +interest payments.</p> + +<p>No contest was made against Campos Salles's election +in the spring of 1898. He took office finding +an empty treasury, a government without financial +credit, and the country in the midst of a severe +commercial crisis. He showed great shrewdness in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_510" id="Page_510">[Pg 510]</a></span> +maintaining an ascendancy over the politicians and +controlling a majority in both branches of Congress, +and, through his minister of finance, relentlessly +followed the policy of contracting the currency and +increasing taxes. In 1901 the payment of interest +on the foreign debt was resumed, and though that +debt had been increased fifty million dollars the currency +had doubled in value and become relatively +stable. The state governments are more dependent +on the Union than in the days of their wealth; there +is little present danger of disintegration; no real +sentiment for the re-establishment of the empire +exists. The same habits of political subordination +which have kept Brazil together so long are increasing +rather than diminishing in force.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 604px;"> +<img src="images/illus-530.jpg" width="604" height="600" alt="CAMPOS SALLES." title="" /> +<span class="caption">CAMPOS SALLES.<br /> +[From a wood-cut.]</span> +</div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511">[Pg 511]</a></span></p> + +<p>The commercial crisis and the high taxes have +created great discontent among merchants. Coffee-planters +and rubber-gatherers have still further suffered +by the rise of the currency. Immigration has +practically ceased, and there is little water left in +speculative enterprises. The great Bank of the Republic +failed in 1900, dragging down many industrial +concerns and ruining thousands of small investors, +and the government's connection with the bank +caused much scandal. Other banks, which had too +much extended their agricultural and industrial +credits, have also failed, and there is great want of +confidence among investors. However, capital is +slowly accumulating, and a healthful tendency toward +industrious habits and the employment of +reasonable and moderate methods in exploiting the +great untouched natural resources of the country is +evident.</p> + +<p>Rodrigues Alves, the third civil president of the +Republic, was peaceably elected in the spring of +1902, and took his seat on November 15th, the thirteenth +anniversary of the Republic. Like both his +predecessors he is from São Paulo, and was virtually +named by his immediate predecessor. His policy +is expected to be the same as Campos Salles's—that +is, to keep expenses within revenue and to maintain +the political <i>status quo</i>.</p> + +<p>Leaving out immigration, the Brazilian people +have shown a steady natural increase of nearly two +per cent. per annum during this century. The total +population has multiplied from less than three to +more than eighteen millions. Not a fiftieth part of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">[Pg 512]</a></span> +the territory is cultivated; its resources have never +been studied, much less developed; the positive +checks hardly exist; the preventive checks are yet +indefinitely remote. Modern altruism makes wars +of extermination unthinkable; the colonial experiences +of the last century have demonstrated that +races possessing a reasonably efficient industrial organisation +do not tend to disappear, even though +nations whose physical force is greater may reduce +them to political subordination. The Brazilians +have the additional advantage of inheriting directly +a European civilisation. They are too firmly established, +too numerous and prolific, and possess a too +highly organised and deeply rooted civilisation to be +in danger of expulsion or political absorption. Immense +immigration into South America is inevitable, +as soon as the pressure of population is strongly +felt in Western Europe and North America. This +may transform Brazil economically, but the new conditions +will have to fit themselves into the political +and social framework already in existence.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-a.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 763px;"> +<a name="AtEnd" id="AtEnd"></a> +<img src="images/s-536.jpg" width="763" height="1024" alt="MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA" title="" /> +<span class="caption">MAP +OF +SOUTH AMERICA<br /> +<i>SHOWING THE PROGRESS OF +SETTLEMENT AND PRESENT +POPULATED AREA</i></span> +<p class="center"><a href="images/illus-536.jpg">Click here for a larger image</a></p> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_513" id="Page_513">[Pg 513]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-7.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> + +<p class="indexquot"> +A<br /> +<br /> +Absolutism, of King of Castile in America, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Francia, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Lopez, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of John II., <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Pombal, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Pedro I., <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolt against, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></span><br /> +<br /> +"Adelantados," <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br /> +<br /> +Affonso Celso, <a href="#Page_492">492</a><br /> +<br /> +Agassiz, Louis, <a href="#Page_306">306</a><br /> +<br /> +Agricultural methods, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a><br /> +<br /> +Alagoas, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br /> +<br /> +Albuquerque, Jeronymo de, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a><br /> +<br /> +Alcacer-Kibir, battle of, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a><br /> +<br /> +Alvarengo Peixoto, poet, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br /> +<br /> +Alvarengo, Silva, poet, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br /> +<br /> +Alvear, General Carlos, leader in Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exiled, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in battle of Ituzaingo, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Montevideo surrenders to, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Amazon, the, estuary discovered, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">extent navigable, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">explored, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settlements along, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Upper, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Amazonas, state of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a><br /> +<br /> +Anchieta, Padre, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a><br /> +<br /> +Anti-foreign sentiment among Creoles, in Argentina, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Uruguay, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Brazil, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Araguaya River, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a><br /> +<br /> +Arawak Indians, <a href="#Page_300">300</a><br /> +<br /> +Architecture, <a href="#Page_341">341</a><br /> +<br /> +Argentina, <a href="#Page_37">37-161</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rainfall in, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">agriculture and grazing in, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">climate in, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">area of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prosperity of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exports of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">national colours of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">independence of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolt of May 25, 1810, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">federalism in, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proposals to make it a monarchy, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civil wars in, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with Brazil, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitution of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">industrial development in, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with Paraguay, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206-219</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">finances of, <a href="#Page_149">149-153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with Chile threatened, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with Uruguay, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Arroyo Grande, battle of, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> +<br /> +Artigas, José, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252-258</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br /> +<br /> +Assassinations, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Asuncion, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founded, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">way opened to, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in possession of Brazil, <a href="#Page_475">475</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_514" id="Page_514">[Pg 514]</a></span><br /> +Audiencia, of Charcas, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ayohuma, battle of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br /> +<br /> +Azores, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +B<br /> +<br /> +Bahia (city), early settlement of Brazil, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">military and naval post, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">industries, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by the Dutch, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by the Portuguese, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">place of refuge, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">siege of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">held by Portuguese, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">guerrillas obtain arms in, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ecclesiastical capital, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reception of the Prince Regent, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">deposes governor, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">garrison re-enforced, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">expulsion of Portuguese garrison from, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Bahia (province), position, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jesuits in, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cattle-raisers of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">insurrections in, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gold-fields in, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward "Confederation of the Equator," <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separatist movement in, <a href="#Page_444">444</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Balboa, Nuñez de, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<br /> +Basques, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> +<br /> +Beckman's rebellion, <a href="#Page_375">375</a><br /> +<br /> +Belgrano, Manuel, Creole leader, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">expeditions to Paraguay, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188-190</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">expedition to Tucuman, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">invasion of Bolivia, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commission to Spain, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Uruguay, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Beresford, General, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> +<br /> +Blancos, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a> <i>et seq.</i><br /> +<br /> +<i>Blandenques</i>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a><br /> +<br /> +Bohorquez. <i>See</i> Huallpa Inca.<br /> +<br /> +Bolivar, Simon, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> +<br /> +Bolivia (Upper Peru), irrigation in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">silver in, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">division of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gold in, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resists revolutionary movement, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish power in, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rondeau's effort to conquer, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">route to, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Bom Jesus stockade, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a><br /> +<br /> +Bonaparte, Joseph, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br /> +<br /> +Bonaparte, Napoleon, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a><br /> +<br /> +Bonifacio de Andrada, José, and independence of Brazil, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made prime minister, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letters to Pedro, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and brothers, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Borda, Juan Idiarte, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a><br /> +<br /> +Botacudo (Aymoré) Indians, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a><br /> +<br /> +Boundary questions, between Spain and Portugal, <a href="#Page_66">66-68</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">between Argentina and Chile, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">between Brazil and Paraguay, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">between Paraguay and Brazil and Argentina, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Brazil, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Brazil, <a href="#Page_287">287-512</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372-374</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with Argentina, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with Uruguay, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with Paraguay, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206-219</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">area of, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">climate, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308-313</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rainfall in, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309-313</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish possession of, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">efforts to establish republic in, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">independence of, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Constituent Assembly of, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitution of, <a href="#Page_422">422-424</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>;</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_515" id="Page_515">[Pg 515]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congress of, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>, <a href="#Page_451">451</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">regency in, <a href="#Page_436">436</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hegemony of, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">republic established in, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Brazil-wood, <a href="#Page_302">302-304</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a><br /> +<br /> +Brazilian Creoles, at war with Spanish Creoles, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br /> +<br /> +Brazilian states, power of governors of, <a href="#Page_507">507</a><br /> +<br /> +Brazilians, character and habits, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a><br /> +<br /> +Brown, William, Admiral, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br /> +<br /> +Buenos Aires (city), founded, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30-32</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">foreign commerce forbidden to, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">smuggling, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prosperity, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commercial centre, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by the British, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by the Argentine Creoles, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">battle of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hegemony of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">blockades of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">detached from province, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Buenos Aires (province), division of Argentina, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">independent, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indians exiled to, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intendencia, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +C<br /> +<br /> +Cabeza de Vaca, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> +<br /> +Cabildos, in Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">organisation and functions, <a href="#Page_53">53-56</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nationality of members, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Montevideo, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cabot, Sebastian, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a><br /> +<br /> +Cabral, Pedro Alvares, <a href="#Page_295">295</a><br /> +<br /> +Cacao, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +<br /> +Cagancha, battle of, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> +<br /> +Calabar (guerrilla chief), <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a><br /> +<br /> +Calchaquie Indians, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> +<br /> +Callao, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> +<br /> +Camarrão (guerrilla chief), <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br /> +<br /> +Campos (city), <a href="#Page_347">347</a><br /> +<br /> +Campos Salles, Manoel Ferraz de, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_508">508-510</a><br /> +<br /> +Canary Islands, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a><br /> +<br /> +Cape Horn, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> +<br /> +Cape Verde Islands, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a><br /> +<br /> +Captaincies, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a><br /> +<br /> +Cardenas, Bishop of Paraguay, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Carib Indians, <a href="#Page_300">300</a><br /> +<br /> +Caseros, battle of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a><br /> +<br /> +Castilhos, Julio de, <a href="#Page_502">502</a><br /> +<br /> +Catamarca, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br /> +<br /> +Cattle industry, in Argentina, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Uruguay, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Brazil, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371-373</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Caudillos, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br /> +<br /> +Caxias, Marshal, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Cayenne, <a href="#Page_407">407</a><br /> +<br /> +Ceará, location, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settlement in, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dutch control of, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">devastated, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separated from Brazil, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">surplus of cattle in, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decline of cattle business in, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adhesion to "Confederation of the Equator," <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">anarchy in, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cerrito, battle of, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> +<br /> +Chacabuco, battle of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> +<br /> +Chaco, the, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plains of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">matter of arbitration, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Charles IV. of Spain, <a href="#Page_86">86</a><br /> +<br /> +Charrua Indians, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> +<br /> +Chile, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> +<br /> +Cholera in Brazilian army, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br /> +<br /> +Cisplatine Province, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a><br /> +<br /> +City life, taste for, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_516" id="Page_516">[Pg 516]</a></span><br /> +Claudio (poet), <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br /> +<br /> +Cochrane, Thomas, Admiral, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a><br /> +<br /> +Coelho, Duarte, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a><br /> +<br /> +Coffee, productiveness, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">districts of cultivation of, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">increased production of, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plantation companies, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trade affected by rise of currency, <a href="#Page_511">511</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Colombia, <a href="#Page_434">434</a><br /> +<br /> +Colonia de Sacramento, founded, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">held by Portuguese, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taken by Spaniards, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">port, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacked, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Colonial governors, corruption of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a><br /> +<br /> +Colonial trade, restrictions on, imposed, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">evil effects of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how enforced, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">removed, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among colonies, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Brazil with Portugal, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Colorados, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a> <i>et seq.</i><br /> +<br /> +Columbus, Christopher, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> +<br /> +Commercial routes to Pacific, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> +<br /> +Concepcion (Argentina), <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br /> +<br /> +"Confederation of the Equator," <a href="#Page_425">425</a><br /> +<br /> +Constant, Benjamin, General, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495-497</a><br /> +<br /> +Contraband trade, in Argentina, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63-66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Colonia, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Thomas de Souza, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Brazil, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Copper, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +<br /> +Copper-pan amalgamation process, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> +<br /> +Cordoba (city), founded, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rainfall in, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on trade route, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prosperity of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cordoba (province), Spaniards pass through, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settled, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intendencia, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian stock in, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">military state, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">governor expelled, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Corrientes (city), founded, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defence of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">desire for independence, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Corrientes (province), flourishing, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ravaged by war, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">troubles in, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">missions in, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Belgrano in, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">invasion of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Artigas, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">alliance with Rivera, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cortes, Hernando, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> +<br /> +Cortes (Portuguese Parliament), <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a><br /> +<br /> +Cotegipe, Baron of, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a><br /> +<br /> +Cotton, cultivation of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">manufacture, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trade, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Council of the Indies, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> +<br /> +Cromwell, Oliver, <a href="#Page_366">366</a><br /> +<br /> +Cruelties in war, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a><br /> +<br /> +Cuestas, Juan L., <a href="#Page_281">281</a><br /> +<br /> +Curitiba, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br /> +<br /> +Curupayty, battle of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +Cuyabá, <a href="#Page_391">391</a><br /> +<br /> +Cuyo, province of Argentina, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">industries in, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political dependency, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">detached from Chile, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">products of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ruler of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Cuzco, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +D<br /> +<br /> +December 27, 1868, battle of, <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br /> +<br /> +Democracy, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a><br /> +<br /> +Diamond mining, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a><br /> +<br /> +Dias, Henrique, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br /> +<br /> +Diaz, Bartholomew, <a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> +<br /> +Discoveries, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a><br /> +<br /> +Drake, Sir Francis, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> +<br /> +Drugs, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_517" id="Page_517">[Pg 517]</a></span><br /> +Duarte Coelho. <i>See</i> Coelho, Duarte.<br /> +<br /> +Duguay-Trouin, Admiral, <a href="#Page_384">384</a><br /> +<br /> +Durão, Santa Rita. <i>See</i> Santa Rita Durão.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +E<br /> +<br /> +Education, popular, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lack of, among Brazilians, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">encouraged in Brazil, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">schools, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">desire for, <a href="#Page_409">409</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Elections, in Argentina, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Uruguay, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Brazil, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485-487</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Emancipation of slaves, in Paraguay, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Brazil, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_491">491</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Emboaba rebellion, <a href="#Page_379">379</a><br /> +<br /> +Encomiendas, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> +<br /> +Entre Rios, province of Argentina, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indians in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gauchos in, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">governor of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolutionary movement in, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">independent, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ruler of, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Espirito Santo, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +F<br /> +<br /> +Federalist party, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> +<br /> +Feijó, Padre, Regent of Brazil, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a><br /> +<br /> +Ferdinand VII. of Spain, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a><br /> +<br /> +Fernandes Vieira, <a href="#Page_361">361</a> <i>et seq.</i><br /> +<br /> +Florés, Venancio, leader of revolutionists in Uruguay, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ruler of Uruguay, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">government of his own, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in war against Paraguay, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Fonseca, Deodoro da, <a href="#Page_493">493-497</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a><br /> +<br /> +Foreign debts, of Argentina, increased, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">how met, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Uruguay, doubled, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Brazil, increased, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">how met, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>, <a href="#Page_510">510</a></span><br /> +<br /> +France, intervenes in Uruguayan civil war, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">poaches, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French traders in Brazil, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settlement at Rio, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">measures to expel, from Rio, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempts to colonise Maranhâo, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">takes Rio, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ministers of, with Pedro I., <a href="#Page_434">434</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Francia, José Gaspar, <a href="#Page_190">190-197</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br /> +<br /> +Franciscans, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Free Masonry, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a><br /> +<br /> +French Revolution, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +G<br /> +<br /> +Gama, Basilio da, poet, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br /> +<br /> +Gama, Vasco da, <a href="#Page_295">295</a><br /> +<br /> +Garay, Juan de, founder of Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_30">30-33</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> +<br /> +Garcia, Aleixo, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br /> +<br /> +Garibaldi, Giuseppe, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a><br /> +<br /> +Gauchos, origin of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">element in Argentine army, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defend Bolivian frontier, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Entre Rios, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Uruguayan, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Rio Grande do Sul, <a href="#Page_502">502</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Glycerio, Francisco, <a href="#Page_495">495</a><br /> +<br /> +Goes, Zacarias de, <a href="#Page_466">466</a><br /> +<br /> +Gold, in Africa, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Hayti, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spain's desire for, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">value of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Peru, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Brazil, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378-380</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391-393</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Gonzaga, poet, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br /> +<br /> +Goyaz, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a><br /> +<br /> +Great Britain, fleet of, before Montevideo, <a href="#Page_83">83-86</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gunboats of, hold Paraguayan flagship, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">besiege Montevideo, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">blockade Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_518" id="Page_518">[Pg 518]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">filibustering of, along Brazilian coast, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">importations of, into Brazil, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ministers of, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Brazil, <a href="#Page_456">456</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Guarany (Tupi), Indians, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a><br /> +<br /> +Guararapes, battle of, <a href="#Page_364">364</a><br /> +<br /> +Guayabos, battle of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br /> +<br /> +Guayaquil, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> +<br /> +Guayrá cataract, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br /> +<br /> +Guayrá province, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +H<br /> +<br /> +Hayes, Rutherford B., <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br /> +<br /> +Hayti, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<br /> +Henry the Navigator, <a href="#Page_292">292</a><br /> +<br /> +Hernandarias Saavedra, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> +<br /> +Heyn, Piet, Admiral, <a href="#Page_352">352</a><br /> +<br /> +Hides, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br /> +<br /> +Holland, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a> <i>et seq.</i><br /> +<br /> +Horses, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> +<br /> +Huallpa Inca (Bohorquez), <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> +<br /> +Huaqui, battle of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br /> +<br /> +Huguenots, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a><br /> +<br /> +Humaitá, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212-218</a>, <a href="#Page_475">475</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +I<br /> +<br /> +Iguassu River, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br /> +<br /> +Ilheos, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a><br /> +<br /> +Immigration, into Argentina, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">into Paraguay, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">into Uruguay, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">into Brazil, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>, <a href="#Page_512">512</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Incas, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> +<br /> +Indian corn, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a><br /> +<br /> +Indian language, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a><br /> +<br /> +Indian wars, with Guaranies, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with inferior tribes, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Andean, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Argentine, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Uruguay, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Calchaquies, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paulistas' raids, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Charruas, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the plains of the Chaco, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Aymorés, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Tamoyos, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Brazil, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Indians, flourishing communities, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Irala's dealing with, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Andean and inferior tribes 42;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jesuits and, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civilised, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">evangelisation of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">social status of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">employment, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cabral and, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with the French, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazilian, <a href="#Page_298">298-300</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Indigo, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br /> +<br /> +Intendencias, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> +<br /> +Intermixture with Indians, in coast provinces, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Argentina, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Paraguay, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Jesuit Republic, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Brazil, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Irrigation, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> +<br /> +Isabel, Princess of Brazil, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a><br /> +<br /> +Itamarica, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a><br /> +<br /> +Ituzaingo, battle of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +J<br /> +<br /> +Januaria, Princess of Brazil, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a><br /> +<br /> +January 19, 1811, battle of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br /> +<br /> +Jesuits, their work in Paraguay, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170-176</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">republic, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Bohorquez, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Paulistas, <a href="#Page_66">66-68</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">their work in Uruguay, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">their work in Brazil, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">missions in northern Brazil, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">missions on Amazon, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pombal and, <a href="#Page_397">397</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Jews, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a><br /> +<br /> +John VI. of Portugal and Brazil, his troops defeat Artigas, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">withdraws troops from Uruguay, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Napoleon, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_519" id="Page_519">[Pg 519]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">flight to Rio, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazil's foreign relations under, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">called back to Portugal, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">unsupported by Brazil, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in fear of the people, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">news of his death, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Jujuy, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> +<br /> +Juncal, battle of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +L<br /> +<br /> +Labour, enforced, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br /> +<br /> +Laguna, <a href="#Page_386">386</a><br /> +<br /> +Land grants, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a><br /> +<br /> +Las Piedras, battle of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br /> +<br /> +Latorre, Lorenzo, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> +<br /> +Lautaro society, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> +<br /> +Lavalle, General, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> +<br /> +Lavalleja, General, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br /> +<br /> +Lima, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> +<br /> +Liniers, General, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br /> +<br /> +Local self-government, strong sentiment in favour of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">right of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">struggles for, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effected, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">impaired, <a href="#Page_444">444</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Lopez II., unnatural cruelties of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br /> +<br /> +Lopez, Carlos Antonio, President of Paraguay, <a href="#Page_199">199-205</a><br /> +<br /> +Lopez, Francisco Solano, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204-221</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a><br /> +<br /> +Lynch, Madame, <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +M<br /> +<br /> +Madeira Islands, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br /> +<br /> +Madeira River, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a><br /> +<br /> +Magellan, Fernando, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> +<br /> +Magellan, Strait of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br /> +<br /> +Maldonado, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> +<br /> +Mandioc, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a><br /> +<br /> +Maranhão, location of, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French attempt to colonise, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by the Brazilian Creoles, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">occupied by Maurice, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolt in, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">new state, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jesuits in, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">development hindered, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">takes a new start, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portuguese expelled from, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not represented in Constituent Assembly, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adhesion to "Confederation of the Equator," <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civil war in, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>, <a href="#Page_452">452</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Maria Gloria of Portugal, <a href="#Page_428">428</a><br /> +<br /> +Mascate rebellion, <a href="#Page_381">381</a><br /> +<br /> +Matte (Paraguayan) tea, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> +<br /> +Matto Grosso, seized by Lopez, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at the mercy of Lopez, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">location of, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">beginning of the state, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">expedition against, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">safety of, assured, <a href="#Page_476">476</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Maurice of Nassau, <a href="#Page_356">356</a><br /> +<br /> +Mello, Admiral, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>, <a href="#Page_505">505</a><br /> +<br /> +Mem da Sa, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a><br /> +<br /> +Mendoza, Pedro de, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> +<br /> +Mendoza (city), <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> +<br /> +Miguel, pretender to Portuguese crown, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a><br /> +<br /> +Military operations among uncivilised Indians, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> +<br /> +Minas Geraes, location of, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">description of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gold in, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">literature in, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude of, toward Pedro I., <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, <a href="#Page_453">453</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Missions, negotiations concerning, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacked, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">established in Paraguay, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquered by Rio Grandenses, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">loyal to Artigas, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">invaded, <a href="#Page_407">407</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Mitre, Bartolomé, resistance of Rioja to, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">historian, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">established civil government in Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on Argentine constitution, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Paraguayan war, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">party leader, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Mohammedanism, <a href="#Page_325">325</a><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_520" id="Page_520">[Pg 520]</a></span><br /> +Monopolies, of Cadiz merchants, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portuguese, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abolished, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Montevideo, harbours, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taken by the Spanish, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sieges of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by the patriots, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by the Portuguese, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">named, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fortified, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by the British, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">blockaded, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founded, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portuguese garrison expelled from, <a href="#Page_420">420</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Montoya, Father, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> +<br /> +Moors, <a href="#Page_3">3-5</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a><br /> +<br /> +Moraes, Prudente, President, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>, <a href="#Page_508">508</a><br /> +<br /> +Mules, trade in, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> +<br /> +Municipal government, characteristic of Spain, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adaptation of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish form of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Portugal, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Bahia, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">granted to Brazilian towns, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +N<br /> +<br /> +Nabuco, Joaquim, <a href="#Page_481">481</a><br /> +<br /> +Napoleon Bonaparte. <i>See</i> Bonaparte, Napoleon.<br /> +<br /> +Natal, <a href="#Page_344">344</a><br /> +<br /> +Negroes, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br /> +<br /> +New Granada, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br /> +<br /> +Nobrega, Padre Manuel, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +O<br /> +<br /> +Office-holding, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_459">459</a><br /> +<br /> +O'Higgins, Bernard, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> +<br /> +Ojeda, Alonso de, <a href="#Page_301">301</a><br /> +<br /> +Orellana, discoverer of the Amazon, <a href="#Page_344">344</a><br /> +<br /> +Oribe, Manuel, retreat of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">president of Uruguay, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">leader of party, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated Argentine unitarians, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">surrendered, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Oruro, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> +<br /> +Ouro Preto, Viscount of, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +Ouro Preto (city), <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +P<br /> +<br /> +Pacific, Spanish control of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> +<br /> +Pampas, explored, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">description, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">expedition over, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Pampean sea, prehistoric, <a href="#Page_229">229</a><br /> +<br /> +Panama, Isthmus of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> +<br /> +Paper currency, in Argentine, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Paraguay, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Uruguay, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Brazil, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>, <a href="#Page_507">507</a>, <a href="#Page_509">509</a>, <a href="#Page_510">510</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Pará, Indians in, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portuguese possession of, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">part of Maranhão, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jesuits in, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">development hindered, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">takes a new start, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cotton trade in, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coffee in, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">expedition from, to Cayenne, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish constitution in, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portuguese garrison expelled from, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Constituent Assembly, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward "Confederation of the Equator," <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">action of troops in, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">production of rubber in, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prosperity of, <a href="#Page_501">501</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Paraguay (country), <a href="#Page_165">165-224</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jesuit missions in, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indians in, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separate province, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intendencia, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">products of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude toward revolutionary movement, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war against Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206-219</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">independence of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">commercial isolation of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazilian protectorate of, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paulistas in, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_521" id="Page_521">[Pg 521]</a></span><br /> +Paraguay River, the, explorations along, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settlement on, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">watershed of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">description of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">free navigation on, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Paraguayan army, discipline in, <a href="#Page_214">214</a><br /> +<br /> +Parahyba do Norte, location, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spaniards take possession of, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reduced by the Dutch, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">devastated, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adhesion to the "Confederation of the Equator," <a href="#Page_425">425</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Parahyba do Sul, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a><br /> +<br /> +Paraná, Marquis of, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>, <a href="#Page_465">465</a><br /> +<br /> +Paraná (Brazilian state), <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br /> +<br /> +Paraná (city), <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br /> +<br /> +Paraná River, the, explorations of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settlements on, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">description of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jesuit missions on, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paulistas on, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">open only to Argentine vessels, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">free navigation on, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">European navies enter, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">valley of, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Patagonia, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br /> +<br /> +Paulista pioneers, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a><br /> +<br /> +Pavon, battle of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br /> +<br /> +Paysandu, capture of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br /> +<br /> +Pedro I. of Brazil, <a href="#Page_412">412-416</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421-435</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a><br /> +<br /> +Pedro II. of Brazil, infancy, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">assumes imperial functions, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">emperor, <a href="#Page_449">449-457</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">power of, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declining health, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">speech of, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">deposition, <a href="#Page_498">498</a>, <a href="#Page_499">499</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Peixoto, Floriano, <a href="#Page_497">497</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502-505</a><br /> +<br /> +Pepper, <a href="#Page_406">406</a><br /> +<br /> +Pernambuco (city), founded, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nucleus of settlement of Brazil, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nobrega visits, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">architecture of, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">advantageous position of, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taken by the Dutch, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">taken by the Brazilian Creoles, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">military revolts in, <a href="#Page_438">438</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Pernambuco (province), location of, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rich planters of, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jews in, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">civil war in, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sugar industry in, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish constitution in, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portuguese garrison in, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">garrison expelled from, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Constituent Assembly, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">action of troops in, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conservative governor of, <a href="#Page_455">455</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Peru, Pizarro in, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">irrigation in, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">silver in, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gold in, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish power in, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war against, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Philip II. of Spain, <a href="#Page_342">342</a><br /> +<br /> +Piauhy, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a><br /> +<br /> +Pilocomayo River, <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br /> +<br /> +Pinheiro Machado, General, <a href="#Page_503">503</a><br /> +<br /> +Pinzon, Vincente Yanez, <a href="#Page_301">301</a><br /> +<br /> +Pitagoares Indians, <a href="#Page_344">344</a><br /> +<br /> +Pizarro, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a><br /> +<br /> +Polygamy, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br /> +<br /> +Pombal, Marquis of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a><br /> +<br /> +Pope's division of the world, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a><br /> +<br /> +Porto Seguro, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a><br /> +<br /> +Portugal, separated from Leon, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Granada united, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">joined to Spanish crown, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">general survey of the history of, <a href="#Page_288">288-292</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Philip II., of Spain on the throne of, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separated from Spain, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with Spain, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolt of 1820 in, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Portuguese Court, flight of, to Rio, <a href="#Page_403">403</a><br /> +<br /> +Portuguese discoveries and conquests, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in South America, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Potatoes, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +Potosí, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_522" id="Page_522">[Pg 522]</a></span><br /> +Press, freedom of, in Brazil, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restricted, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Printing-press in Brazil, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a><br /> +<br /> +Provincial organisation, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Q<br /> +<br /> +Quicksilver mines, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br /> +<br /> +Quintino Bocayuva, <a href="#Page_495">495</a>, <a href="#Page_497">497</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +R<br /> +<br /> +Race elements in population, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br /> +<br /> +Railways, mileage in Argentina, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">source of wealth, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">building of, in Brazil, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">building of, interrupted, <a href="#Page_508">508</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Ramalho, John, pioneer, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a><br /> +<br /> +Religious lay brotherhoods, <a href="#Page_484">484</a><br /> +<br /> +Religious sentiment, in Spain, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Argentina, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Portugal, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Count John Maurice, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Brazil, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Fernandez Vieira, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Riachuelo, battle of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a><br /> +<br /> +Rice, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br /> +<br /> +Rio Branco, Baron of, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Rio de Janeiro (city), commercial port, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prosperity of, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacked and taken by the French, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its reception of the Prince Regent, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Rio de Janeiro (province), why so named, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">description of, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nucleus of the settlement of Brazil, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French occupation of, <a href="#Page_333">333</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by the Portuguese, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uprising in, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Rio Grande city, captured by the Spaniards, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">by the Brazilian Creoles, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Rio Grande do Norte, location, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nucleus of, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reduced by the Dutch, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">devastated, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indians subdued in, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">adhesion to the "Confederation of the Equator," <a href="#Page_425">425</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Rio Grande do Sul (city), <a href="#Page_387">387</a><br /> +<br /> +Rio Grande do Sul (province), Jesuit missions in, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">held by the Portuguese, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">people of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazilian province, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Uruguay, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">description of, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazilian possession of, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settled, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish Constitution in, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Argentine invasion of, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebellions in, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>, <a href="#Page_502">502</a>, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paraguayan invasion of, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>, <a href="#Page_474">474</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Rioja, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> +<br /> +Rio Negro, <a href="#Page_392">392</a><br /> +<br /> +Rio Real, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br /> +<br /> +Rivadavia, Bernardino, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br /> +<br /> +Rivera, Fructuoso, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261-269</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a><br /> +<br /> +Roca, Julio, General, successes of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">candidate for president, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his first administration, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">party leader, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">took command of army, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his second administration, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his followers, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Rodrigues, Alves, President, <a href="#Page_511">511</a><br /> +<br /> +Rojas, Diego de, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> +<br /> +Rondeau, José, General, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> +<br /> +Rosario, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> +<br /> +Rosas, Juan Manuel, laudation of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">federalist leader in Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_122">122</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth of his power, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Montevideo, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Entre Rios, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Oribe faction, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Rubber, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>, <a href="#Page_511">511</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +S<br /> +<br /> +Sabará, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_523" id="Page_523">[Pg 523]</a></span><br /> +Saldanha Marinho, <a href="#Page_482">482</a><br /> +<br /> +Salta, province of Argentina, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intendencia, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">social conditions in, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Buenos Airean army passes through, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">warfare in, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebellion in, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br /> +<br /> +San Ildefonso, treaty of, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a><br /> +<br /> +San John d'El Rei, <a href="#Page_400">400</a><br /> +<br /> +San Juan, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br /> +<br /> +San Luiz, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> +<br /> +San Martin, José, General, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96-114</a><br /> +<br /> +Santa Catharina, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by Spain, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">description of, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exploration of, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazilian possession of, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by the Spaniards, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restored to Portugal, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">invasion of, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>, <a href="#Page_504">504</a>, <a href="#Page_506">506</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">seat of revolutionary government, <a href="#Page_504">504</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Santa Fé, Argentina (city), Spanish settlement of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">desire of, for independence, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founded, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Santa Fé, Argentina (province), governor of, sent Indians and supplies to Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indians in, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a part of intendencia of Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">invasion of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazilian army in, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congress held in, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Creoles of, defeat Charruas, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">loyal to Artigas, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Santa Luzia, battle of, <a href="#Page_453">453</a><br /> +<br /> +Santa Rita Durão (poet), <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br /> +<br /> +Santiago de Chile, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br /> +<br /> +Santiago del Estero (Argentina), <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br /> +<br /> +Santo Amaro, <a href="#Page_319">319</a><br /> +<br /> +Santos, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a><br /> +<br /> +São Francisco River, the, why so named, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">valley of, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pernambucos on, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">military raids near, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cattle-raisers established on, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gold around headwaters of, <a href="#Page_378">378</a></span><br /> +<br /> +São Paulo (city), menaced by Indians, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prosperity of, <a href="#Page_501">501</a>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the home of Rodrigues Alvez, <a href="#Page_511">511</a></span><br /> +<br /> +São Paulo (province), opposition to the extension of Spanish dominions, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jesuits in, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">description of, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conditions of, for settlement, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nucleus of settlement of Brazil, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inhabitants of, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">spread of Indians in, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">not a sugar-raising province, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">profits by secret trade, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gold in, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">depopulated, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">an Englishman in, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">representation of, in Chamber of Brazil, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coffee in, <a href="#Page_489">489</a></span><br /> +<br /> +São Vicente, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a><br /> +<br /> +Saraiva, Aparcicio, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> +<br /> +Saraiva, Gomercindo, <a href="#Page_503">503</a>, <a href="#Page_504">504</a><br /> +<br /> +Saraiva, José Antonio, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>, <a href="#Page_488">488</a><br /> +<br /> +Sarandi, battle of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a><br /> +<br /> +Schouten, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> +<br /> +Sea-power, of England, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Spain, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of France, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Brazil, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Argentina, <a href="#Page_428">428</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Sergipe, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a><br /> +<br /> +Seville Junta, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br /> +<br /> +Sheep-raising, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a><br /> +<br /> +Silver mining, in Bolivia and Peru, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spain's desire for, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">value of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Sipe-Sipe, battle of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br /> +<br /> +Slavery, Indian, in Argentine provinces, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tendency of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hernandarias opposed to, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forbidden by Spanish Government, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">under Spaniards, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paulistas and, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forbidden by Portuguese Government, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jesuits fought against, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mem da Sa and, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pombal and, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_524" id="Page_524">[Pg 524]</a></span><br /> +Slavery, negro, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">encouraged, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">increased, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proportion of slaves in population of Brazil, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> Emancipation of slaves.</span><br /> +<br /> +Solis, Juan Diaz de, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br /> +<br /> +Soracaba, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_453">453</a><br /> +<br /> +Soriano, first settlement in Uruguay, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br /> +<br /> +Souza, Thomas de, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a><br /> +<br /> +Spain, war with Portugal, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolt of 1820 in, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Spanish authority unquestioned, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> +<br /> +Spanish Creoles at war with Brazilian Creoles, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a><br /> +<br /> +Spanish discoveries and conquests, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12-15</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a><br /> +<br /> +Spanish monarchy, structure of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> +<br /> +Spanish possession of Portugal and Brazil, <a href="#Page_342">342</a><br /> +<br /> +Spanish treasure fleet, capture of, by the Dutch, <a href="#Page_353">353</a><br /> +<br /> +Street-car tax riots, <a href="#Page_485">485</a><br /> +<br /> +Sucré (Charcas), <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> +<br /> +Sugar, districts of cultivation of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first cultivation of, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">industry prosperous, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>:</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">annual production of, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trade, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">price, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">industry decadent, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">staple production, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">comparative cultivation, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plantation companies, <a href="#Page_501">501</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Suipacha, battle of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +T<br /> +<br /> +Tabocas, battle of, <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br /> +<br /> +Tamoyo Indians, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a><br /> +<br /> +Tandil Mountains, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> +<br /> +Tapajos River, <a href="#Page_314">314</a><br /> +<br /> +Taxation, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a><br /> +<br /> +Theresina Christina, Empress of Brazil, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>, <a href="#Page_498">498</a><br /> +<br /> +"Thirty-three," the, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> +<br /> +Tierra del Fuego, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<br /> +Tieté River, <a href="#Page_347">347</a><br /> +<br /> +Tiradentes, <a href="#Page_400">400</a><br /> +<br /> +Tobacco, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a><br /> +<br /> +Tocantins River, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a><br /> +<br /> +Tucuman, battle of, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> +<br /> +Tucuman (city), founded, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congress at, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paz's army in, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Tucuman (province), Spanish rule in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political dependency, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">thriving towns in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolt in, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">missionary work in, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +U<br /> +<br /> +Unitarian party, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> +<br /> +United States of America, and Lopez, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arbitrator, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence of, on Brazil, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_500">500</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">recognises Brazil's independence, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">does not support Pedro, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prevents commercial blockade, <a href="#Page_506">506</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Urquiza, Justo José, General, defeats allied unitarians and colorados, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">governor of Entre Rios, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forms alliance with Brazil and colorado faction in Uruguay, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">favours federal constitution, <a href="#Page_131">131-134</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first president of Argentine Republic, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his term expires, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">refuses to revolt against Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolt against, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his friendship with Lopez, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">general-in-chief, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">successes in Uruguay, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lopez angry with, <a href="#Page_471">471</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Uruguay, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227-284</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indians in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first settlement, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish territory, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Portuguese troops in, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with Brazil, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_525" id="Page_525">[Pg 525]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with Paraguay, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206-219</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">area of, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">settlement of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">population of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with Argentina, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">independence of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazilian occupation of, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitution of, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazilian intervention in, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Paulistas in, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebellion against Pedro, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Brazilian protectorate of, <a href="#Page_468">468</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Uruguay River, the, explored, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">harbours, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">course of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Jesuit missions along, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">navigation of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_464">464</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Uruguayana, capture of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a><br /> +<br /> +Uspallata Pass, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +V<br /> +<br /> +Vasco da Gama. <i>See</i> Gama, Vasco da.<br /> +<br /> +Vasconcellos, Bernardo, in Congress of Brazil, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">absent from Rio, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">result of work, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, <a href="#Page_461">461</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Veiga, Evaristo da, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a><br /> +<br /> +Venezuela, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br /> +<br /> +Vespucci, Amerigo, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a><br /> +<br /> +Viceroyalties, divided into provinces, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Peru, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Buenos Aires, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Atlantic slope of Spanish South America, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Victoria, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a><br /> +<br /> +Vidal, guerrilla chief, <a href="#Page_362">362</a><br /> +<br /> +Vieira, Antonio, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br /> +<br /> +Vieira, Fernandes. <i>See</i> Fernandes Vieira.<br /> +<br /> +Vilapugio, battle of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br /> +<br /> +Villegagnon, French adventurer, <a href="#Page_334">334</a><br /> +<br /> +Visigoths, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +W<br /> +<br /> +<i>Water Witch</i>, incident, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br /> +<br /> +Wheat, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br /> +<br /> +Whitelocke, General, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +X<br /> +<br /> +Xingú River, <a href="#Page_314">314</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Y<br /> +<br /> +Yellow fever, <a href="#Page_461">461</a><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Z<br /> +<br /> +Zeballos, Pedro de, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> +</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 30%;"> +<img src="images/dec-b.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<h2><i>A Selection from the<br /> +Catalogue of</i></h2> + +<h2>G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS</h2> + + + +<h4>Complete Catalogues sent<br /> +on application</h4> + +<hr style="width: 15%;" /> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-1.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class="bblockquot"> +<h3>The Story of the Nations</h3> + +<p>In the story form the current of each National life +is distinctly indicated, and its picturesque and noteworthy +periods and episodes are presented for the +reader in their philosophical relation to each other +as well as to universal history.</p> + +<p>It is the plan of the writers of the different volumes +to enter into the real life of the peoples, and to bring +them before the reader as they actually lived, labored, +and struggled—as they studied and wrote, and as +they amused themselves. In carrying out this plan, +the myths, with which the history of all lands begins, +are not overlooked, though they are carefully +distinguished from the actual history, so far as the +labors of the accepted historical authorities have +resulted in definite conclusions.</p> + +<p>The subjects of the different volumes have been +planned to cover connecting and, as far as possible, +consecutive epochs or periods, so that the set when +completed will present in a comprehensive narrative +the chief events in the great <span class="smcap">Story of the Nations</span>; +but it is, of course, not always practicable to issue +the several volumes in their chronological order.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>For list of volumes see next page.</i></p> + +<p class="sblockquot"> +GREECE. Prof. Jas. A. Harrison.<br /> +ROME. Arthur Gilman.<br /> +THE JEWS. Prof. James K. Hosmer.<br /> +CHALDEA. Z. A. Ragozin.<br /> +GERMANY. S. Baring-Gould.<br /> +NORWAY. Hjalmar H. Boyesen.<br /> +SPAIN. Rev. E. E. and Susan Hale.<br /> +HUNGARY. Prof. A. Vámbéry.<br /> +CARTHAGE. Prof. Alfred J. Church.<br /> +THE SARACENS. Arthur Gilman.<br /> +THE MOORS IN SPAIN. Stanley Lane-Poole.<br /> +THE NORMANS. Sarah Orne Jewett.<br /> +PERSIA. S. G. W. Benjamin.<br /> +ANCIENT EGYPT. Prof. Geo. Rawlinson.<br /> +ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. Prof. J. P. Mahaffy.<br /> +ASSYRIA. Z. A. Ragozin.<br /> +THE GOTHS. Henry Bradley.<br /> +IRELAND. Hon. Emily Lawless.<br /> +TURKEY. Stanley Lane-Poole.<br /> +MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA Z. A. Ragozin.<br /> +MEDIÆVAL FRANCE. Prof. Gustave Masson.<br /> +HOLLAND. Prof. J. Thorold Rogers.<br /> +MEXICO. Susan Hale.<br /> +PHŒNICIA. George Rawlinson.<br /> +THE HANSA TOWNS. Helen Zimmern.<br /> +EARLY BRITAIN. Prof. Alfred J. Church.<br /> +THE BARBARY CORSAIRS. Stanley Lane-Poole.<br /> +RUSSIA. W. R. Morfill.<br /> +THE JEWS UNDER ROME. W. D. Morrison.<br /> +SCOTLAND. John Mackintosh.<br /> +SWITZERLAND. R. Stead and Mrs. A. Hug.<br /> +PORTUGAL. H. Morse-Stephens.<br /> +THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. C. W. C. Oman.<br /> +SICILY. E. A. Freeman.<br /> +THE TUSCAN REPUBLICS. Bella Duffy.<br /> +POLAND. W. R. Morfill.<br /> +PARTHIA. Geo. Rawlinson.<br /> +JAPAN. David Murray.<br /> +THE CHRISTIAN RECOVERY OF SPAIN. H. E. Watts.<br /> +AUSTRALASIA. Greville Tregarthen.<br /> +SOUTHERN AFRICA. Geo. M. Theal.<br /> +VENICE. Alethea Wiel.<br /> +THE CRUSADES. T. S. Archer and C. L. Kingsford.<br /> +VEDIC INDIA. Z. A. Ragozin.<br /> +BOHEMIA. C. E. Maurice.<br /> +CANADA. J. G. Bourinot.<br /> +THE BALKAN STATES. William Miller.<br /> +BRITISH RULE IN INDIA. R. W. Frazer.<br /> +MODERN FRANCE. André LeBon.<br /> +THE BRITISH EMPIRE. Alfred T. Story. Two vols.<br /> +THE FRANKS. Lewis Sergeant.<br /> +THE WEST INDIES. Amos K. Fiske.<br /> +THE PEOPLE OF ENGLAND. Justin McCarthy, M.P. Two vols.<br /> +AUSTRIA. Sidney Whitman.<br /> +CHINA. Robt. K. Douglass.<br /> +MODERN SPAIN. Major Martin A. S. Hume.<br /> +MODERN ITALY. Pietro Orsi.<br /> +THE THIRTEEN COLONIES. Helen A. Smith. Two vols.<br /> +WALES AND CORNWALL. Owne M. Edwards.<br /> +MEDIÆVAL ROME. Wm. Miller.<br /> +THE PAPAL MONARCHY. Wm. Barry.<br /> +MEDIÆVAL INDIA. Stanley Lane-Poole.<br /> +BUDDHIST INDIA. T. W. Rhys-Davids.<br /> +THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Thomas C. Dawson. Two vols.<br /> +PARLIAMENTARY ENGLAND. Edward Jenks.<br /> +MEDIÆVAL ENGLAND. Mary Bateson.<br /> +THE UNITED STATES. Edward Earle Sparks. Two vols.<br /> +ENGLAND: THE COMING OF PARLIAMENT. L. Cecil Jane.<br /> +GREECE TO A. D. 14. E. S. Shuckburgh.<br /> +ROMAN EMPIRE. Stuart Jones.<br /> +SWEDEN AND DENMARK, with FINLAND AND ICELAND. Jon Stefansson.<br /> +</p></div> + + +<hr style="width: 15%;" /> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<img src="images/dec-8.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<div class="bblockquot"> +<h3>Heroes of the Nations</h3> + +<p>A series of biographical studies of the lives and +work of a number of representative historical characters +about whom have gathered the great traditions +of the Nations to which they belonged, and who have +been accepted, in many instances, as types of the +several National ideals. With the life of each typical +character is presented a picture of the National conditions +surrounding him during his career.</p> + +<p>The narratives are the work of writers who are +recognized authorities on their several subjects, +and while thoroughly trustworthy as history, present +picturesque and dramatic "stories" of the Men +and of the events connected with them.</p> + +<p>To the Life of each "Hero" is given one duodecimo +volume, handsomely printed in large type, +provided with maps and adequately illustrated according +to the special requirements of the several +subjects.</p> + +<p class="center"><i>For full list of volumes see next page.</i></p> + +<p class="sblockquot"> +NELSON. By W. Clark Russell.<br /> +GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. By C. R. L. Fletcher.<br /> +PERICLES. By Evelyn Abbott.<br /> +THEODORIC THE GOTH. By Thomas Hodgkin.<br /> +SIR PHILIP SIDNEY. By H. R. Fox-Bourne.<br /> +JULIUS CÆSAR. By W. Ward Fowler.<br /> +WYCLIF By Lewis Sargeant.<br /> +NAPOLEON. By W. O'Connor Morris.<br /> +HENRY OF NAVARRE. By P. F. Willert.<br /> +CICERO. By J. L. Strachan-Davidson.<br /> +ABRAHAM LINCOLN. By Noah Brooks.<br /> +PRINCE HENRY (OF PORTUGAL) THE NAVIGATOR. By C. R. Beazley.<br /> +JULIAN THE PHILOSOPHER. By Alice Gardner.<br /> +LOUIS XIV. By Arthur Hassall.<br /> +CHARLES XII. By R. Nisbet Bain.<br /> +LORENZO DE' MEDICI. By Edward Armstrong.<br /> +JEANNE D'ARC. By Mrs. Oliphant.<br /> +CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. By Washington Irving.<br /> +ROBERT THE BRUCE. By Sir Herbert Maxwell.<br /> +HANNIBAL. By. W. O'Connor Morris.<br /> +ULYSSES S. GRANT. By William Conant Church.<br /> +ROBERT E. LEE. By Henry Alexander White.<br /> +THE CID CAMPEADOR. By H. Butler Clarke.<br /> +SALADIN. By Stanley Lane-Poole.<br /> +BISMARCK. By J. W. Headlam.<br /> +ALEXANDER THE GREAT. By Benjamin I. Wheeler.<br /> +CHARLEMAGNE. By H. W. C. Davis.<br /> +OLIVER CROMWELL. By Charles Firth.<br /> +RICHELIEU. By James B. Perkins.<br /> +DANIEL O'CONNELL. By Robert Dunlap.<br /> +SAINT LOUIS (Louis IX. of France). By Frederick Perry.<br /> +LORD CHATHAM. By Walford David Green.<br /> +OWEN GLYNDWR. By Arthur G. Bradley.<br /> +HENRY V. By Charles L. Kingsford.<br /> +EDWARD I. By Edward Jenks.<br /> +AUGUSTUS CÆSAR. By J. B. Firth.<br /> +FREDERICK THE GREAT. By W. F. Reddaway.<br /> +WELLINGTON. By W. O'Connor Morris.<br /> +CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. By J. B. Firth.<br /> +MOHAMMED. D. S. Margoliouth.<br /> +GEORGE WASHINGTON. By J. A. Harrison.<br /> +CHARLES THE BOLD. By Ruth Putnam.<br /> +WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. By F. B. Stanton.<br /> +FERNANDO CORTES. By F. A. MacNutt.<br /> +WILLIAM THE SILENT. By R. Putnam.<br /> +BLÜCHER. By E. F. Henderson.<br /> +ROGER THE GREAT. By E. Curtis.<br /> +CANUTE THE GREAT. By L. M. Larson.<br /> +CAVOUR. By Pietro Orsi.<br /> +DEMOSTHENES. By A. W. Pickard-Cambridge.<br /> +</p></div> + +<hr style="width: 100%;" /> +<div class="notebox"> +<h3>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:</h3> + +<p>1. Images have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the closest +paragraph break.</p> + +<p>2. The punctuation has been normalized within index.</p> + +<p>3. The following misprints have been corrected:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p class="noin"> + "completly" corrected to "completely" (page 81)<br /> + "int rests" corrected to "interests" (page 87)<br /> + "equilibriumin" corrected to "equilibrium in" (page 160)<br /> + "it ecame" corrected to "it became" (page 251)<br /> + "county" corrected to "country" (page 294)<br /> + "though" corrected to "thought" (page 297)<br /> + "commerical" corrected to "commercial" (page 374)<br /> + "municpalities" corrected to "municipalities" (page 454)<br /> + "in creased" corrected to "increased" (page 508) +</p></div> + +<p>4. Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies +in spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, and ligature usage have been +retained.</p> +</div> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The South American Republics Part I of +II, by Thomas C. 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