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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The South American Republics Part I of II, by 
+Thomas C. Dawson
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The South American Republics Part I of II
+
+Author: Thomas C. Dawson
+
+Release Date: November 4, 2011 [EBook #37920]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Adrian Mastronardi and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  Story of the Nations
+
+      A Series of Historical Studies intended to present
+      in graphic narratives the stories of the different
+      nations that have attained prominence in history.
+
+  In the story form the current of each national life is distinctly
+  indicated, and its picturesque and noteworthy periods and episodes
+  are presented for the reader in their philosophical relations to
+  each other as well as to universal history.
+
+  12º, Illustrated, cloth, each net $1.50
+
+  FOR FULL LIST SEE END OF THIS VOLUME.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: CAPE HORN.
+  _Frontispiece_ [From a steel engraving.]]
+
+
+
+
+  THE STORY OF THE NATIONS
+
+
+  THE SOUTH AMERICAN
+  REPUBLICS
+
+
+  BY
+
+  THOMAS C. DAWSON
+  Secretary of the United States Legation to Brazil
+
+
+  IN TWO PARTS
+
+  _PART I_
+
+  ARGENTINA, PARAGUAY, URUGUAY, BRAZIL
+
+
+  G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS
+  NEW YORK AND LONDON
+  The Knickerbocker Press
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT 1903
+  BY
+  THOMAS C. DAWSON
+
+  Eighth Printing
+
+
+  The Knickerbocker Press, New York
+
+
+
+
+  TO MY WIFE
+
+  I DEDICATE THIS STUDY OF THE HISTORY
+  OF HER NATIVE CONTINENT
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The question most frequently asked me since I began my stay in South
+America has been: "Why do they have so many revolutions there?" Possibly
+the events recounted in the following pages may help the reader to
+answer this for himself. I hope that he will share my conviction that
+militarism has already definitely disappeared from more than half the
+continent and is slowly becoming less powerful in the remainder.
+Constitutional traditions, inherited from Spain and Portugal, implanted
+a tendency toward disintegration; Spanish and Portuguese tyranny bred
+in the people a distrust of all rulers and governments; the war of
+independence brought to the front military adventurers; civil disorders
+were inevitable, and the search for forms of government that should be
+final and stable has been very painful. On the other hand, the generous
+impulse that prompted the movement toward independence has grown into an
+earnest desire for ordered liberty, which is steadily spreading among
+all classes. Civic capacity is increasing among the body of South
+Americans and immigration is raising the industrial level. They are
+slowly evolving among themselves the best form of government for their
+special needs and conditions, and a citizen of the United States must
+rejoice to see that that form is and will surely remain republican.
+
+It is hard to secure from the tangle of events called South American
+history a clearly defined picture. At the risk of repetition I have
+tried to tell separately the story of each country, because each has its
+special history and its peculiar characteristics. All of these states
+have, however, had much in common and it is only in the case of the
+larger nations that social and political conditions have been described
+in detail. A study of either Argentina, Brazil, Chile, or Venezuela
+is likely to throw most light on the political development of the
+continent, while Peru, Bolivia, and Colombia are more interesting to the
+seeker for local colour and the lover of the dramatic.
+
+The South American histories so far written treat of special periods,
+and few authorities exist for post-revolution times. Personal
+observations through a residence of six years in South America;
+conversations with public men, scholars, merchants, and proprietors;
+newspapers and reviews, political pamphlets, books of travel, and
+official publications, have furnished me with most of my material for
+the period since 1825. The following books have been of use in the
+preparation of the first volume, and are recommended to those who care
+to follow up the subject:
+
+ARGENTINA: Mitre's _Historia de Belgrano and Historia de San Martin_,
+in Spanish; Torrente's _Revolucion Hispano-Americano_, in Spanish;
+Lozano's _Conquista del Paraguay, La Plata y Tucuman_, in Spanish;
+Funes's _Historia de Buenos Aires y Tucuman_, in Spanish; Lopez's
+_Manuel de Historia Argentina_, in Spanish; Page's _La Plata_, in
+English; Graham's _A Vanished Arcadia_, in English.
+
+PARAGUAY: All of the above and Thompson's _Paraguayan War_, in English;
+Washburn's _History of Paraguay_, in English; Fix's _Guerra de
+Paraguay_, in Portuguese.
+
+URUGUAY: Bauza's _Dominacion Espanola_, in Spanish; Berra's _Bosquejo
+Historico_, in Spanish; Saint-Foix's _L'Uruguay_, in French.
+
+BRAZIL: Southey's _History of the Brazil_, in English; Varnhagem's
+_Historia do Brasil_, in Portuguese; Pereira da Silva's _Fundacao do
+Imperio, Segundo Periodo, Historia do Brasil, e Historia do Meu Tempo_,
+in Portuguese; Nabuco's _Estadista do Imperio_, in Portuguese; Rio
+Branco's sketch in _Le Bresil en 1889_, in French; Oliveira Lima's
+_Pernambuco_, in Portuguese.
+
+All of the above books may be found in the Columbian Memorial Library of
+the Bureau of American Republics at Washington, which, taken as a whole,
+is one of the best collections on South America in existence.
+
+                                                              T. C. D.
+
+WASHINGTON, January 22, 1903.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                         PAGE
+
+  INTRODUCTORY: THE DISCOVERIES AND THE CONQUEST                     3
+
+  _ARGENTINA_
+      I. THE ARGENTINE LAND                                         37
+     II. THE SPANISH COLONIAL SYSTEM                                47
+    III. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY                                    58
+     IV. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY                                     70
+      V. THE BEGINNINGS OF THE REVOLUTION                           80
+     VI. COMPLETION OF THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE                      97
+    VII. THE ERA OF CIVIL WARS                                     115
+   VIII. CONSOLIDATION                                             130
+     IX. THE MODERN ARGENTINE                                      141
+
+  _PARAGUAY_
+      I. PARAGUAY UNTIL 1632                                       165
+     II. THE JESUIT REPUBLIC AND COLONIAL PARAGUAY                 177
+    III. FRANCIA'S REIGN                                           188
+     IV. THE REIGN OF THE ELDER LOPEZ                              198
+      V. THE WAR                                                   206
+     VI. PARAGUAY SINCE 1870                                       220
+
+  _URUGUAY_
+      I. INTRODUCTION                                              227
+     II. PORTUGUESE AGGRESSIONS AND THE SETTLEMENT OF THE COUNTRY  239
+    III. THE REVOLUTION                                            247
+     IV. INDEPENDENCE AND CIVIL WAR                                259
+      V. CIVIL WAR AND ARGENTINE INTERVENTION                      265
+     VI. COLORADOS AND BLANCOS                                     272
+
+  _BRAZIL_
+      I. PORTUGAL                                                  287
+     II. DISCOVERY                                                 295
+    III. DESCRIPTION                                               305
+     IV. EARLY COLONISATION                                        316
+      V. THE JESUITS                                               326
+     VI. FRENCH OCCUPATION OF RIO                                  333
+    VII. EXPANSION                                                 342
+   VIII. THE DUTCH CONQUEST                                        350
+     IX. EXPULSION OF THE DUTCH                                    361
+      X. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY                                   371
+     XI. GOLD DISCOVERIES--REVOLTS--FRENCH ATTACKS                 378
+    XII. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY                                    386
+   XIII. THE PORTUGUESE COURT IN RIO                               401
+    XIV. INDEPENDENCE                                              411
+     XV. REIGN OF PEDRO I.                                         421
+    XVI. THE REGENCY                                               436
+   XVII. PEDRO II.                                                 449
+  XVIII. EVENTS OF 1849 TO 1864                                    458
+    XIX. THE PARAGUAYAN WAR                                        468
+     XX. REPUBLICANISM AND EMANCIPATION                            478
+    XXI. THE REVOLUTION--THE DICTATORSHIP--THE ESTABLISHMENT OF
+              THE REPUBLIC                                         492
+
+  INDEX                                                            513
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+  CAPE HORN                                             _Frontispiece_
+    _From a steel engraving._
+
+  FERDINAND, KING OF SPAIN                                           6
+    _Redrawn from an old print._
+
+  FRANCISCO PIZARRO                                                  9
+    _From Montain's "America."_
+
+  THE AUTHENTIC PORTRAIT OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS                    11
+
+  MINING SCENE                                                      16
+    _Redrawn from Gottfriedt's "Neue Welt."_
+
+  A YOUNG GAUCHO                                                    28
+    _From a lithograph._
+
+  FOREST SCENE IN ARGENTINA                                         39
+    _From a steel print._
+
+  DOCKS AT BUENOS AIRES                                             44
+
+  AN OLD SPANISH CORNER IN BUENOS AIRES                             76
+
+  MANUEL BELGRANO                                                   95
+    _From an oil painting._
+
+  GENERAL SAN MARTIN                                                99
+    _From a steel engraving._
+
+  PLAZA DE MAYO AND CATHEDRAL AT BUENOS AIRES                      113
+    _From a lithograph._
+
+  BUENOS AIRES IN 1845                                             127
+    _From a steel engraving._
+
+  BARTOLOMÉ MITRE                                                  139
+    _From a steel engraving._
+
+  JULIO ROCA                                                       145
+
+  GATEWAY OF THE CEMETERY AT BUENOS AIRES                          151
+    _From a lithograph._
+
+  A RIVER ROAD IN ARGENTINA                                        159
+    _From a lithograph._
+
+  ASUNCION                                                         167
+
+  GUAYRÁ FALLS                                                     179
+
+  JOSÉ RODRIGUEZ GASPAR FRANCIA                                    193
+    _From an old woodcut._
+
+  FRANCISCO SOLANO LOPEZ                                           211
+    _From a photograph taken in 1849._
+
+  PALM GROVES IN EL CHACO                                          217
+
+  HARBOUR AT MONTEVIDEO                                            231
+
+  MONTEVIDEO                                                       243
+    _From an old print._
+
+  BRIDGE AT MALDONADO                                              249
+
+  GENERAL DON JOSÉ GERVASIO ARTIGAS                                257
+    _From an old woodcut._
+
+  THE SOLIS THEATRE                                                275
+
+  THE CATHEDRAL, MONTEVIDEO                                        283
+
+  OLD TOWER AT LISBON WHENCE THE FLEET SAILED                      296
+
+  A TUPI VILLAGE                                                   299
+
+  A GARDEN IN PETROPOLIS                                           307
+
+  BAHIA                                                            324
+
+  PADRE JOSÉ DE ANCHIETA                                           330
+    _From an old-woodcut._
+
+  PLANTERS GOING TO CHURCH                                         337
+    _From an old print._
+
+  A CADEIRA                                                        340
+
+  OLD FORT AT BAHIA                                                353
+
+  RIO GRANDE DO SUL                                                387
+
+  OLD RANCH IN RIO GRANDE                                          390
+
+  WASHING DIAMONDS                                                 391
+
+  BOATS ON THE RIO GRANDE                                          395
+    _From a steel print._
+
+  DOM JOHN VI.                                                     403
+    _From an old woodcut._
+
+  DOM PEDRO I.                                                     414
+    _From an old woodcut._
+
+  DOM JOSÉ BONIFACIO DE ANDRADA                                    418
+    _From a steel print._
+
+  EVARISTO FERREIRA DA VEIGA                                       431
+    _From a steel engraving._
+
+  DONNA JANUARIA                                                   445
+    _From a steel engraving._
+
+  DOM PEDRO II.                                                    447
+    _From a steel engraving._
+
+  BARON OF CAXIAS                                                  453
+    _From an old woodcut._
+
+  PRINCESS ISABEL IN 1889                                          456
+
+  PAMPAS OF THE RIO GRANDE                                         460
+
+  OLD MARKET IN SÃO PAULO                                          465
+
+  GOVERNER'S PALACE IN SÃO PAULO                                   469
+
+  HOSPITAL AND OLD CHURCH AT PORTO ALEGRE                          475
+
+  BRIDGE AT MENDANHA                                               480
+
+  CITY OF OURO PRETO                                               483
+
+  EMPEROR DOM PEDRO IN 1889                                        491
+
+  MILITARY SCHOOL OF RIO JANEIRO                                   493
+
+  GENERAL BENJAMIN CONSTANT                                        496
+    _From a woodcut._
+
+  THE EMPRESS IN 1889                                              498
+
+  AMERICAN LEGATION NEAR RIO                                       505
+
+  CAMPOS SALLES                                                    510
+    _From a woodcut._
+
+
+MAPS
+
+  MAP OF ARGENTINA, PARAGUAY, URUGUAY, BOLIVIA, AND CHILE           38
+
+  OUTLINE MAP OF BRAZIL                                            288
+
+  MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA                                        _At end_
+       _Showing the progress of settlement and present populated area_
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+THE DISCOVERIES AND THE CONQUEST
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+THE DISCOVERIES AND THE CONQUEST
+
+
+_Spain's Discovery of America._--Town or communal government has been
+characteristic of Spain since before the Roman conquest. The Visigoths,
+who destroyed the advanced civilisation they found in the Peninsula,
+never really amalgamated with the subject population, and, happily, they
+did not succeed in destroying the municipalities. The liberal,
+civilised, and tolerant Saracens who drove out the Goths, left their
+Christian subjects free to enjoy their own laws and customs. The
+municipalities gave efficient local self-government while a system of
+small proprietorships made the Peninsula prosper, as in the best days of
+the Roman dominion. The population of Spain reached twenty millions
+under the Moors, but finally dynastic civil wars enabled the remnant of
+Visigoths who had taken refuge in the northern mountains to begin the
+gradual expulsion of the Mahometans. In the midst of these currents of
+war and conquest setting to and fro, the old municipalities survived
+unchangeable, and always supplying local self-government.
+
+A tendency toward decentralisation was ingrained in the Spanish people
+from the earliest times. It was increased by the method in which the
+Christian conquest of Mahometan Spain was achieved. The Visigothic
+nobility, starting from separate points in Asturias and Navarre,
+advanced into Saracen territory and established counties and earldoms
+which were virtually independent of their mother-kingdoms. The Asturians
+expanded into Leon and thence over Galicia, northern Portugal, Old and
+New Castile. The power of the Leonese monarch over Galicia was nominal;
+Castile and Portugal separated from Leon almost as soon as they were
+wrested from the Mahometans. The Basques were always independent, and
+Navarre, though it became the mother of Aragon, had little connection
+with the latter region. On the Mediterranean shore Charlemagne drove the
+Moors from Catalonia and made it a province of his empire, but no sooner
+was he dead than it became independent. Toward the end of the thirteenth
+century. The Christian conquest was virtually completed, and the
+Peninsula had been divided into four kingdoms. Each of these was,
+however, in reality only a federation of semi-independent feudal
+divisions and municipalities united by personal allegiance to a single
+sovereign. In the course of the continual quarrelling of the monarchs
+their kingdoms frequently divided, coalesced, and separated again. The
+death of a king or the marriage of his daughter was often the signal for
+war and a readjustment of boundaries, but these overturnings did not
+much affect the component and really vital political units.
+
+More significant than the political kingdoms were the linguistic
+divisions. Spain then spoke, and still speaks, three languages, each of
+which has many dialects. From Asturias and Navarre the language, now
+known as Castilian, had spread over the central part of the Peninsula
+south to Cadiz and Murcia. From Galicia the Gallego had spread directly
+south along the Atlantic, where one of its dialects grew into the
+Portuguese. On the east coast the Catalonian, imported from Languedoc by
+the French conqueror, is a mere derivative of the Provençal. Its
+dialects are spoken all along the Mediterranean coasts of Spain as far
+south as Alicante, as well as in the Balearic islands.
+
+By 1300 A.D. two great political divisions, Castile and Aragon, covered
+three-fourths of the Peninsula, and their boundaries were well
+established; each, however, was a mere loose aggregation of provinces,
+and every province had its own laws and customs, its jealously guarded
+privileges, its legislative assembly, and its free municipalities.
+Galicia had never become incorporated with Leon; the Basques ruled
+themselves; Catalonia was really independent of Aragon; Castile had,
+from the beginning, been virtually independent, although under the same
+monarch as Leon, and, indeed, had taken the latter's place as the
+metropolitan province of the kingdom.
+
+  [Illustration: FERDINAND, KING OF SPAIN.
+  [Redrawn from an old print.]]
+
+The one great unifying force was religious sentiment, stimulated into
+fanaticism by centuries of wars against the infidels. Nevertheless,
+during the two centuries before the discovery of America the Spaniards
+absorbed much culture from their Moorish subjects. In 1479, the whole
+Peninsula, except Portugal and Granada, was politically united by the
+accession of Ferdinand to the throne of Aragon, and of Isabella to that
+of Castile and Leon. With local liberties intact, and peace prevailing
+throughout its whole extent, the Peninsula enjoyed a prosperity unknown
+since the golden era of the Moors. The population rose to twelve
+millions; Andalusia, Galicia, Catalonia, and Valencia were among the
+most flourishing and thickly settled parts of Europe, while the military
+qualities of the aristocracy of Castile and Leon and Aragon gave the new
+power the best armies of the time.
+
+Colonies founded by a monarchy so organised could never be firmly knit
+to each other nor to the mother country. The nobility of the sword would
+try to establish feudal principalities; the new cities would endeavour
+to exercise the local functions of the old Peninsular municipalities;
+and the spirit of local independence still animating Catalonians,
+Basques, Galicians, and Andalusians would be repeated on a new
+continent. The only bond of union would be personal allegiance to the
+monarch.
+
+In the fourteenth century, Christian navigators reached the Canary
+Islands--sixty miles from the African coast and six hundred south-east
+of Gibraltar. The assurance that land did really exist below the horizon
+of that western ocean, so mysterious and terrible to the early
+navigators, gave them confidence to push farther into the deep. In
+navigation, the Spaniards lagged behind their Portuguese neighbours. But
+among the Spanish kingdoms Castile took the lead because her Andalusian
+ports of Cadiz, San Lucar, Palos, and Huelva faced on the open Atlantic.
+These towns swarmed with sailors who had followed in the track of the
+Portuguese and visited their new possessions. The Castilians and
+Andalusians were naturally jealous of the successful Portuguese.
+Madeira, the Azores, the Cape Verdes, and the gold mines of the Guinea
+coast had fallen to the latter, while the Spaniards had only the
+Canaries. They gave an eager ear to the rumours that were rife in the
+Portuguese islands of more marvellous discoveries still to be made--of
+islands beyonds the Azores. An adventurous Italian, Christopher
+Columbus, wandering among the Portuguese possessions, heard the stories.
+Happily for Spain, he believed them and resolved to lead an expedition
+to the farther side of the Atlantic. He entered her service and proved
+to be an enthusiast of rare pertinacity. It is immaterial whether the
+idea of a route to the East Indies by the west occurred to him at the
+same time he became convinced that there were islands in the far
+Atlantic waiting to be discovered. That which is certain is that he
+devoted his life to persuading someone in authority to entrust him with
+ships and men to make a voyage to the far West. The pilots at Palos
+backed him, and he finally secured the desired permission and means from
+Isabella of Castile. Her interest in exploration and colonisation had
+been shown fifteen years before, in her energetic measures in conquering
+the Canaries and forcing the Portuguese to renounce their claims to
+those islands, and she well deserves the title of founder of the
+colonial empire of Spain.
+
+  [Illustration: THE AUTHENTIC PORTRAIT OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS.]
+
+The story of Columbus's first voyage needs no retelling. He journeyed so
+far to the west that he returned convinced he had reached the longitude
+of eastern Asia, and the noise of his great discovery resounded
+through Europe and began the transformation of the world. Since the last
+great century--the thirteenth--Christendom had retrograded. The Tartars
+dominated Russia and the Turks were pressing hard on Germany. Unless the
+Christian world could find an outlet--unless it could create other
+resources for itself and outside of itself; unless feudalism should find
+an employment for its military energies outside of the vicious circle of
+fruitless and purposeless dynastic wars, it seemed not improbable that
+Mahometan aggression would continue until all Europe lay under the
+deadening influence of the Turk. Only in the Peninsula was apparent that
+spirit of expansion which is the best indication of internal vitality in
+a nation. The military nobility, whose determined fanaticism,
+magnificent courage, and spirit of individual initiative had driven the
+Moors out of Spain in the thirteenth century, welcomed this fresh
+opportunity to slay the infidel and carve out new fiefs for themselves.
+
+_Conquest of the Andes._--Columbus showed strategic genius of the
+highest order in choosing Hayti as the site of the first settlement.
+That island afforded an admirable base for the conquest of the New
+World. It was large enough to furnish provisions, and was conveniently
+situated with reference to the coasts and islands of the Caribbean. Gold
+washings were soon discovered in the interior and the unwarlike
+inhabitants were at once impressed into slavery to dig in the mines. The
+news of gold stimulated interest as nothing else could have done. The
+Castilian government took immediate steps to exclude all other nations.
+The Pope divided the globe between Spain and Portugal, and a treaty to
+this effect was negotiated between the two countries. Spaniards swarmed
+over to Hayti, and thence expeditions were sent out in every direction,
+headed by private adventurers bearing their sovereign's commission. The
+other Antilles were soon explored and, by the end of the century, the
+Spaniards had reached the South American mainland and rapidly explored
+its coast from the Amazon up to the Isthmus. Gold was picked up in the
+streams flowing from the Columbian Andes into the Caribbean. A few years
+later the north-western coast of South America was granted out to noble
+adventurers who undertook its conquest and exploitation with their own
+means. The Isthmian region became the new centre of Spanish power and
+commerce in America. In 1513, Balboa crossed the Isthmus to the Pacific
+Ocean--an event second in its far-reaching consequences only to
+Columbus's first voyage. During the following years the Gulf of Mexico
+was explored, and in 1518 the greatest statesman and general whom Spain
+ever sent to the new world--Hernando Cortes--began the conquest of the
+empire of the Aztecs.
+
+The mining done in Hayti and along the Caribbean coast seemed pitiably
+insignificant compared with the treasures found in Mexico. There
+followed a new influx of gentleman adventurers who scoured the coast in
+every direction seeking another defenceless empire and mines as good as
+those of Mexico. The expeditions down the Pacific coast of South America
+started from the Isthmus. Peru was soon found, and in 1532, Pizarro
+and his band of blood-thirsty desperadoes, with inconceivable audacity,
+struck a vital blow at the heart of the great empire of the Incas by
+capturing its emperor. Within half a dozen years nearly the whole of the
+vast region over which the Inca power had extended was overrun and the
+outlying provinces were ready to submit at demand.
+
+  [Illustration: FRANCISCO PIZARRO.
+  [From Montain's _America_.]]
+
+The rapidity with which a little band of Spaniards conquered the vast
+and warlike empire of the Incas is well-nigh incredible. The terror
+inspired by horses and firearms did much, but the capture of their
+emperor demoralised the imperial Inca tribes still more. Once in the
+possession of the sacred person of the monarch, the Spaniards were
+regarded by the Indians as his mouthpiece and the successor to his
+power. From Cuzco, the capital, a splendid system of roads and
+communications radiated to every part of the empire. The military and
+political dominance of the imperial tribes had weakened the power of
+resistance in the provinces. The elaborate structure which had been
+built up by the Incas rather facilitated than hindered the Spanish
+conquest, once the decisive blow had been given at the centre. The
+provinces submitted to the new rulers as fast as the Spanish columns
+could march over the magnificent mountain roads.
+
+South from Cuzco the Inca empire extended 2000 miles. It covered the
+whole Andean region as far as the 37th degree of south latitude and
+extended from the Pacific to the eastern slopes of the Andean foothills.
+In the present Argentine it included the tribes living in the lesser
+chains which occupy the north-western part of the republic. Some of
+these Argentine tribes seem to have been only tributary to the Incas,
+others were completely dependent, and extensive colonies had been
+founded in the cotton regions. The general language was Inca, and that
+admirable system of irrigation and intensive culture which made Peru
+proper a garden had been introduced on the eastern slopes of the
+southern Andes.
+
+The southern part of the great Bolivian plateau seems to have submitted
+quietly to the Spanish conquerors, and the stream of adventurers passed
+on to the south. In 1542, Diego de Rojas led the first expedition, of
+which a record has survived, down through the Humahuaca valley into the
+actual territory of the Argentine. He himself perished in a fight with a
+wild tribe near the main chain of the Andes, but his followers continued
+their march. Near Tucuman, they passed out from the mountain defiles
+unto the pampa, and, leaving the desert to their right penetrated
+through Santiago and Cordoba, to the Paraná.
+
+No permanent settlement was then made, but the reports of thousands of
+peaceable and wealthy Indians inhabiting irrigated valleys, and the
+accounts of the magnificent pastures which stretched away to the east,
+soon tempted the Spaniards to take permanent possession. Seven years
+after the first exploration a town was founded in latitude 27°, midway
+between the Andes and the Paraná. About the same time other adventurers
+came pouring over the Andes from northern Chile, and this current soon
+joined that from the north. The Spaniards established themselves as
+feudal lords, and the unhappy Indians were divided among them. In one
+district, forty-seven thousand Indians were divided among fifty-six
+grantees. In 1553, Santiago de Estero, for many years the capital of the
+province of Tucuman was founded.
+
+In 1561, the governor of Chile sent from Santiago de Chile over the
+Andes an expedition which founded the city of Mendoza in a most
+beautiful region, where the vine flourishes in perfection, and where a
+wonderful system of irrigation, inherited from the Indians, still exists
+to attest the latters' engineering skill. Next year San Juan was
+founded, and these two towns were the centres for the settlement of the
+province of Cuyo, which remained a part of Chile for two hundred years.
+The immigrants from northern Chile and Bolivia established Tucuman in
+the tropical garden spot of the republic in 1565. From Santiago del
+Estero, in 1573, an expedition was sent two hundred and fifty miles to
+the south to a region of fertile valleys and plains at the foot of a
+beautiful mountain range. This was Cordoba, which at once became, and
+has since remained, the most populous of the interior provinces.
+
+By the end of the sixteenth century the Spanish power was firmly
+established in settlements that have since become the Argentine
+provinces of Jujuy, Salta, Tucuman, Catamarca, Santiago, Rioja, and
+Cordoba. All these really formed a southern extension of Upper Peru.
+Their geographical, political, and commercial relations were with
+Charcas, Potosí, and Lima. The discovery, in 1545, of the great silver
+mines at Potosí at once made the high Bolivian plateau, then known as
+the Audiencia of Charcas, the most valuable and important province of
+all the Spanish monarch's South American empire. In 1571, the discovery
+of quicksilver mines in Peru vastly increased the output of precious
+metals; in 1575, the wonderful Oruro mines were opened, and before the
+end of the century the copper-pan amalgamation process was invented in
+Bolivia, revolutionising the production of silver.
+
+  [Illustration: MINING SCENE.
+  [Redrawn from Gottfriedt's _Neuw Welt_.]]
+
+The resulting prosperity of the mining regions of Bolivia stimulated the
+settlement of the north-western provinces of the Argentine. The miners
+needed provisions which could not well be raised in the neighbourhood of
+Potosí. There was a demand for cattle for beef, and for horses and mules
+for transportation. A solid economic foundation was thus provided for
+the plains settlements, and the enslavement of the Indians and the
+breeding of cattle went on apace. By the end of the sixteenth century
+north-western Argentine--the province of Tucuman, as it was then
+called--was the seat of many thriving settlements whose Spanish
+inhabitants were mostly pastoral. The Indians in the neighbourhood of
+each settlement had been reduced to slavery, and cultivated the fields
+that had been their fathers' for the benefit of their white masters. The
+Spanish proprietors lived like feudal lords, while the Spanish
+authorities left these remote regions largely to their own devices.
+
+Conditions in Cuyo, the western province just across the Andes from
+Santiago de Chile, were substantially the same. A political dependency
+of Chile, the few external relations it had were with that
+captaincy-general. The Spanish grantees ruled their Indian slaves in
+patriarchal fashion; agriculture was the principal occupation; pastoral
+industry was not so profitable as in Tucuman, and the region was more
+isolated. In both Tucuman and Cuyo Spanish rule was superimposed upon a
+previously existing commercial and social structure. There was no
+attempt to expel or destroy the aborigines. On the contrary, they were
+the sole labourers and their exertions the chief source of the wealth of
+their conquerors. There began a process of approximation and mutual
+assimilation between the Spaniards and their semi-civilised subjects.
+While the former continued to be a privileged and ruling caste, the
+latter absorbed much European knowledge from them. The Indian language
+long held its own alongside of the Spanish and is still spoken in many
+parts of the region.
+
+On the Atlantic side, among degraded peoples who had not progressed
+beyond the wandering and tribal stages of existence. Spanish settlement
+proceeded on entirely different lines. There existed no well-organised
+body politic, into whose control the conquerors could step with hardly
+an interruption to industry. Campaigns could not be made with the
+confident expectation of finding abundant accumulations of food _en
+route_. Expeditions among the squalid tribes were slow and dangerous and
+settlement stuck close to the rivers instead of following fearlessly
+across the plateau to the spots where the finest lands and the most
+flourishing Indian communities lay ready for the spoiler.
+
+The beginnings of the coast provinces were painful and disastrous; the
+settlements were feeble; centuries elapsed before the natural advantages
+of the region were utilised, and before its accessibility and fertility
+drew a great immigration. The assimilation of Indian blood did not take
+place on a large scale, and the immigrants and their descendants became
+perforce horsemen and fighters.
+
+_Discovery of the Plate._--The Portuguese discovery of the east coast of
+South America, in 1500, was a disagreeable surprise to the Spanish
+government. The Treaty of Tordesillas had been framed with the purpose
+of giving America to Spain, while Africa and the shores of the Indian
+Ocean were left to Portugal. Nevertheless, the Portuguese vigorously
+asserted their right to the prize they had picked up by accident and
+insisted on the letter of the treaty. They promptly explored the coast
+as far south as Santa Catharina, six hundred miles north of the Plate,
+but they had asserted no ownership farther south at the date when the
+Spanish expeditions began to be sent to the South Atlantic.
+
+In 1516, a celebrated sea-captain from the north of Spain--Juan Diaz de
+Solis--was sent out by the Castilian government to explore the southern
+part of the continent. He simply reconnoitred the Brazilian coast, where
+the Portuguese had not yet established any settlements, and, pressing on
+to the south, finally reached the Plate. His first impression on
+rounding Cape St. Maria, where the Uruguayan shore turns to the
+north-west, was that he had reached the southern point of the continent
+and discovered the sea route into the Pacific. But the freshness of the
+water in the great estuary undeceived him. Following along the northern
+bank, he landed with a small party and was attacked and slain by a tribe
+of fierce and intractable Indians.
+
+When the news reached Lisbon, the Portuguese government protested
+against this invasion of territory, which it claimed lay east of the
+Tordesillas line. Portugal, however, did not follow up her protest or
+try to take possession for herself. At this very time a celebrated
+Portuguese navigator, Fernando Magellan, disgusted by the neglect of his
+own country, was urging the Spanish government to give him the means of
+carrying out his great project for the circumnavigation of the globe. He
+was confident he could reach the East Indies by rounding the southern
+point of South America or by finding a passage through the continent in
+higher latitudes than had yet been reached. The year 1519, when Magellan
+sailed from San Lucar on the first voyage around the world, was big with
+fate for Spain. Cortes was adding a new empire by the conquest of
+Mexico, thus giving Spain control of the world's supply of precious
+metals. The popular assemblies of Castile and Aragon, of Catalonia,
+Valencia, and Galicia, were preparing for a hopeless struggle against
+the might of a monarch who ruled two-thirds of Europe. At the very
+moment that Charles V. was crushing Peninsular freedom by brutal
+military force, the genius of Magellan and Cortes gave him the whole of
+America. Spain had heretofore been a federation of self-governing
+communes and provinces, but their independence was now destroyed.
+Military despotism proved strong enough to crush liberty, although it
+was unable to stamp out the feeling of local segregation. The very
+soldiers that conquered America took over an instinctive feeling that
+the central government was dangerous and inimical to the people--a
+sentiment which has always survived in some form among their
+descendants.
+
+Magellan stopped at the Plate in the beginning of 1520, and explored the
+estuary to make sure that it did not afford the passage he was seeking.
+In October he reached the mouth of the strait that bears his name, and,
+wonderfully favoured by wind and weather, threaded his way to the
+Pacific in five weeks. Subsequent wayfarers were not so fortunate and
+the strait never became a practicable commercial route until after the
+introduction of steam navigation. In the succeeding hundred years not
+half a dozen ships reached the Pacific around South America.
+Practically, the Pacific was accessible only over the Isthmus or by the
+immensely long journey around the Cape of Good Hope. Nevertheless, the
+importance of this epoch-making voyage has not been overestimated. The
+Pacific became, in a sense, a Spanish lake, in which she could maintain
+at will a naval preponderance. She occupied the Philippines and secured
+control at leisure of the Pacific coast of America. However, the
+scientific results were more important. Thereafter, the thorough
+exploration of all the shores of the South Sea was only a question of
+time. Magellan's voyage made geography an exact science. He sketched the
+map of the world with broad and sure strokes and left nothing for
+subsequent explorers except the filling-in of details.
+
+The occupation of the Philippines and Moluccas gave rise to new disputes
+between Spain and Portugal as to their rights under the Treaty of
+Tordesillas. The imperfect instruments of those days left the line
+doubtful on the eastern South American coast, as well as on the other
+side of the world. In 1526, Sebastian Cabot was sent by the Spanish
+government to determine astronomically the location of the line in
+America, and then to follow Magellan's track to western Asia. At the
+mouth of the Plate he heard rumours among the Indians of silver mines on
+the river's banks and of the existence of a great and wealthy empire at
+its headwaters. This was Peru--not yet reached by the Castilians on
+their way south from the Isthmus, but the coast Indians showed Cabot
+silver ornaments which had been passed from hand to hand from the
+highlands of Peru and Bolivia down the river to the Atlantic.
+
+Cabot and his band of adventurers determined to neglect their surveying,
+trusting that the discovery of silver mines would excuse their
+disobedience. They spent three years in vain journeying and
+prospecting--exploring the Uruguay to the head of navigation and
+following up the Paraná as far as the Apipé rapids. Signs of neither
+silver nor gold, nor of civilised inhabitants, were found on either
+river. Their upper courses came down from the east--the direction
+opposite to that in which Eldorado was reported. The gently flowing
+Paraguay, coming down the plains in the centre of the continent, seemed
+to offer a better hope of success. But Cabot's forces and provisions
+were inadequate to penetrating farther north than the present site of
+Asuncion. Returning to a fort he had left on the lower Paraná, he found
+that it had been taken by Indians and its garrison massacred.
+Discouraged by such a succession of difficulties and misfortunes, he
+returned to Spain.
+
+The news of Cabot's expedition, and its failure, stimulated the
+Portuguese to undertake the colonisation of the east coast of South
+America. Affonso da Souza started from Lisbon with an expedition,
+intending to take possession of the Plate. Lack of provisions, fear of
+the Indians, the presence of a Portuguese castaway--one of those
+insignificant chances that sometimes change the course of empires as a
+twig diverts the current of a river--stopped Alfonso before he reached
+his destination. Instead of establishing a colony on the estuary he
+founded San Vicente, just south of the Tropic of Capricorn. This became
+the southern outpost of the Portuguese possessions, and the temperate
+zone of South America was left open for the Spaniards to occupy when
+they chose.
+
+Two years after Cabot's failure, Pizarro overran Peru. All Europe rang
+with the exploit. The Spanish king was besieged by nobles who literally
+begged the privilege of risking their lives and fortunes in America.
+These "adelantados" contracted to conquer, at their own charges, the
+particular districts granted them, certain profits being reserved to the
+crown, and Charles V. freely granted such patents. Among the grantees
+was a Basque nobleman, Pedro de Mendoza, to whom was given the territory
+beginning at the Portuguese possessions south two hundred leagues along
+the Atlantic coast toward the Strait of Magellan. He raised more than
+two thousand men and reached the Plate in 1535, where he immediately
+founded a city on the south bank which he named Buenos Aires. He
+intended to make it a base for an advance up the Paraná to find and
+conquer another Peru. His attempt was foredoomed to failure. The Indians
+surrounding Buenos Aires were implacable in their hatred of the
+invaders. They lived in scattered little tribes, and neither would nor
+could furnish food enough to maintain the Spaniards. The provisions
+brought from Spain were inadequate; sorties were useless; the Indians
+fled from large parties and ambushed small ones. The preparations for
+the advance up the river were delayed for months. Hundreds died of
+hunger and disease. Within a year the place had to be abandoned, and in
+a desperate condition the expedition fled up the river to Cabot's solid
+fort. Here the adelantado stopped, sick and discouraged, while a few
+hundreds of the more daring and persevering pressed on to the north,
+determined to reach Eldorado. Arrived at the junction of the Paraguay
+and Paraná, they chose the former river, and pushed on up it as far as
+the twentieth degree, to a place they called Candelaria. There they
+found vast lakes and swamps spreading to the west. It was necessary to
+protect their retreat before plunging into the difficult country that
+extends across to Bolivia. Accordingly, they divided and one party
+remained on the dry ground near the river, while two hundred desperate
+adventurers pressed on through the wilderness, hoping to reach the
+Bolivian plateau.
+
+The party that stopped behind as a reserve was commanded by Domingo
+Irala, the real founder of the Spanish settlements in the Paraná valley.
+The main expedition never returned. Years afterward friendly Indians
+brought back the tale that it had reached the slopes of the Bolivian
+mountains, obtained much gold and silver and started back triumphantly,
+but had perished to the last man in an Indian ambush not far from the
+Paraguay and safety. Irala waited the appointed time and then floated
+down the river. He and his companions were well-nigh in despair. So far
+as they knew, they were the only survivors of the three thousand people
+who had accompanied Mendoza. To the north the country was inhospitable
+and impenetrable, and from their experiences of the year before they
+knew that at the mouth of the river no provisions or succour were to be
+had. On their way up the river they had passed, about the twenty-fifth
+degree, a beautiful and fertile rolling country, covered with
+magnificent forests, with park-like openings, and inhabited by a large
+and friendly Indian population. Opposite the mouth of the Pilcomayo,
+where there was a large Indian village, they stopped on their downward
+journey, determined to settle down and take some repose from their
+interminable and fruitless wanderings in search of the will-o'-the-wisp
+Eldorado. There, in 1536, they founded the city of Asuncion, the first
+Spanish settlement on the Atlantic slope of South America.
+
+_The Foundation of Buenos Aires._--The failure of Mendoza, first
+adelantado, to establish a colony on the Plate, did not discourage
+others from soliciting the grant of his territory. In 1540, Cabeza de
+Vaca, a "conquistador" celebrated for his feats in Florida, was
+appointed adelantado and set out gallantly to find the second Peru,
+which everyone believed to exist at the headwaters of the Paraguay.
+Intent on reaching the interior as soon as possible, he made no attempt
+to establish a town and port at the mouth of the river Plate, but landed
+at Santa Catharina on what is now the Brazilian coast in the latitude of
+Paraguay, and set off across country with four hundred men and twenty
+horses. The distance was a thousand miles; the route led up a heavily
+wooded mountain range on the coast, and thence across a broken, but
+open, plateau, where great rivers point out the natural routes to the
+Paraná. The soil was fertile and the Indians along the road were able to
+furnish considerable food supplies. Cabeza de Vaca made the journey
+without appreciable loss and arrived in Asuncion eager to take command
+and dash across to the Andes. But the sturdy Basques had selected their
+able countryman--Domingo Irala--as chief of the colony and gave the new
+adelantado a cold welcome. Irala insisted that a reconnoitring
+expedition be sent before risking the body of the Spaniards. Its command
+was given him and he penetrated almost to the headwaters of the
+Paraguay. Next year Cabeza de Vaca followed, but as soon as he left the
+Paraguay he got into difficulties. He could not penetrate the swamps nor
+make headway against the savage Indians who lived between the river and
+the eastern slopes of the Cordillera. He returned defeated and
+discouraged, and the people of Asuncion bundled him back to Spain.
+
+Though Irala subsequently did succeed in reaching Peru, by the route up
+the Paraguay, no practical results followed. Paraguay remained isolated
+from the Spanish empire on the Pacific coast until a roundabout
+communication was established down the river and thence west across the
+dry and level plains that stretch from the mouth of the river Plate to
+the Cordillera.
+
+The early days of the Asuncion settlement were stormy. The rough
+adventurers fell to fighting among themselves, and their cruelties often
+drove the patient and submissive Indians into rebellion. Their greed for
+bigger plantations and more slaves pushed them on to conquering the
+aborigines in an expanding circle. By 1553 they had founded a settlement
+on the Upper Paraná and were dominant from river to river in the
+southern half of the present territory of Paraguay. Until his death, in
+1557, Irala was the dominating personality in the colony. According to
+his lights he was just in his dealings with the Indians. When he died
+the settlement was firmly on its feet, and even the Indians revered him
+as their benefactor. The mass of the population was Indian, and Guarany
+has always remained the prevalent language in Paraguay. Absolutely
+isolated from the other European colonies, and almost without
+communication with the mother country, the settlement was, however, an
+unpromising affair. The few hundreds of Spaniards might have sustained
+their social and military superiority over the hordes of Indians by
+whom they were surrounded, but, without material and intellectual
+communication with Spain, they could achieve no commercial success.
+
+  [Illustration: YOUNG GAUCHO.
+  [From a lithograph.]]
+
+An outlet to the sea was necessary. The original settlers had been
+adventurers, willing to follow Mendoza through swamp and forest up to
+the walls of Eldorado, and their children were not less enterprising.
+The horses brought over by the adelantados had multiplied amazingly, and
+were spreading wild over the pampa to the south. Cattle, sheep, and
+goats bred by millions. Before long the attractions of a pastoral life
+began to appeal to the Spaniards and creoles of Asuncion. The braver and
+more energetic preferred the free open existence of the pampa to
+idleness in the sleepy villages of Paraguay.
+
+The Argentine nation proper began its existence when the creole mounted
+his horse and took to cattle-breeding on the plains. The possession of
+horses, as much as of firearms, gave the gaucho his military
+predominance over the fiercest aborigines, and the horse was also the
+cornerstone of his industrial system. The cattle of the open pampa gave
+him an unlimited supply of the best food, and his horses enabled him to
+procure it with a minimum of effort. Irala's successors repeatedly tried
+to establish a colony near the mouth of the Plate, but they were not
+successful until the creoles on horseback had pushed their way south
+along the pampa and driven back or subdued the wandering Indians. In
+1560, the Guaranies of Paraguay were definitely crushed in the horribly
+bloody battle of Acari, but it was not until 1573 that the Spaniards
+from Asuncion succeeded in founding a city south of the confluence of
+the Paraná and Paraguay. Santa Fé was the first Spanish settlement on
+the Plate in territory now a part of the Argentine Republic.
+
+The man who led the creoles to the pampa was Juan de Garay, a Basque,
+who had been one of the soldiers in the army that conquered Peru. His
+energy and vigour, and the bravery of the creole cavalry who followed
+his expeditions down the river and over the pampas, at length opened up
+communication from Paraguay to Europe and gave Spain a seaport on the
+South Atlantic. Curiously enough, in the very year that Garay founded
+Santa Fé, the Spaniards from Peru founded Cordoba--the most eastward of
+the Andean settlements. Their hard riders had pushed on from Cordoba,
+reconnoitring as far as the Paraná and there ran across Garay's men. The
+two currents of Argentine settlements met almost at the beginning,
+though two centuries were to elapse before they completely coalesced.
+
+Eight years later, Garay succeeded in founding Buenos Aires after
+Zarate, the third adelantado, had failed as badly as any of his
+predecessors. Garay, by sheer force of energy and fitness, became the
+real ruler of the settlements. Active, far-sighted, and able, he
+perceived that a purely military establishment at the mouth of the river
+was foredoomed to failure. To be permanent, the port and town must be
+self-sustaining, and therefore must be surrounded by farms and ranches
+and be accessible by land from the upper settlements. In the spring of
+1580, the acting governor sent overland from Santa Fé two hundred
+families of Guarany Indians, accompanied by a thousand horses, two
+hundred cows, and fifty sheep, besides mares, carts, oxen, and other
+necessaries. The soldiers of the convoy were mostly creoles born in
+Paraguay. Boats carried down from Santa Fé arms, munitions, seed grain,
+tools, and whatever in those rude days was essential to a settlement.
+He, himself, went by land with forty soldiers, following the highland
+that skirts the west bank of the Paraná from Santa Fé to Buenos Aires.
+
+The Plate estuary affords no proper harbours; the immense volume of
+water spreading over vast shallow beds chokes it with sand-bars, and the
+shores are so shelving that even small boats cannot approach the land.
+The north side is bolder, and at Montevideo and at the mouth of the
+Uruguay affords bays partly sheltered from the storms which sweep up
+over the level pampas and make anchorage in the river so unsafe. But the
+north bank was cut off from land communication with the existing Spanish
+towns by the mighty Uruguay and Paraná, and Garay desired that his new
+city should be always accessible from his older settlements on the right
+bank of the Paraná. His choice of the particular spot where the largest
+city of the southern hemisphere has since grown up, seems to have been
+determined by a few trifling circumstances. He kept as near the head of
+the estuary as possible, in order to shorten the land route from Santa
+Fé, and picked upon a slight rise of ground between two draws, which
+made the site defensible. The fact that a nearby creek--the
+Riachuelo--afforded a shelter for little boats, may also have been given
+weight in reaching a decision.
+
+Though his settlers did not number five hundred, Garay laid out his city
+like a town-site boomer. The surrounding country was divided into
+ranches and the neighbouring Indians were distributed among the
+citizens of the new town. A "Cabildo," or city council, was named, with
+the full paraphernalia of a Spanish municipal government. The new town
+started off in the full enjoyment of all the guarantees known to
+immemorial Spanish constitutional law. Troubles broke out almost
+immediately between the creole settlers and the Spaniards who had been
+sent over by the adelantado to fill offices and get the best things in
+distributions of land and slaves. Garay had hardly left the town to look
+after the rest of the province than the creoles, indignant over unfair
+treatment, forcibly demanded an open Cabildo. This was an extraordinary
+popular assembly which, according to old Spanish custom, might be called
+at critical times, and was something like a town meeting. In theory, the
+property-owners and educated citizens were called together merely to
+give advice, but in practice, it was a tumultuous assemblage to overawe
+the office-holders. The Argentine creoles were doing nothing more than
+asserting their constitutional rights as vassals of the king of Castile.
+They compelled the Spanish office-holders to compromise.
+
+Meanwhile, Garay was clinching his claim to immortality as the founder
+of the Spanish power on the Plate. He explored the pampas to the south
+and west of the new city, and reduced many of the tribes to slavery or
+vassalage. He found the plains already overrun with hundreds of
+thousands of horses--the descendants of the few abandoned there
+forty-five years before when the remnants of Mendoza's ill-starred
+expedition fled up the river. On his way back to Santa Fé this great
+Indian fighter was ambushed by Indians and stabbed while he slept.
+
+His death was followed by outbreaks among the creoles, who resented the
+efforts of the adelantado's new representatives to establish a monopoly
+in horse-hair. Scarcely had they found a way to make a little money, by
+hunting wild horses for their hair, than the officials tried to absorb
+all the profit. The struggle between the repressive commercial policy of
+Spain, and the interests of the Plate colonists, began with the
+foundation of the colony of Buenos Aires and went on for more than two
+hundred years.
+
+In 1588, the creoles obtained a foothold in the extreme north of the
+mesopotamian region by founding the city of Corrientes near the junction
+of the Paraná and Paraguay. All the new commonwealths south of Asuncion
+obtained a solid economic foundation in the herds of cattle and horses
+which covered the plains. In the regions adjacent to the Andes the
+Spaniards did not become so exclusively pastoral as their brethren of
+the pampas near the Plate. While they had more and better Indian slaves,
+their pasturage was not so good. Though apparently more isolated, their
+proximity to Upper Peru and the trade that went on with that great
+mining country--the goal of fortune-hunting Spaniards in those
+years--placed them more directly under the control of the viceregal
+authorities. Tucuman was a mere southern extension of the jurisdiction
+of the Audiencia at Charcas, and Cuyo was an integral part of Chile,
+but this did not prevent the early development of a strong sentiment in
+favour of local self-government and of hatred of the imported Spanish
+satraps.
+
+By the year 1617 the settlements on the Lower Paraná had become of
+considerable importance. Buenos Aires was a town of three thousand
+people; the right bank of the river as far as Santa Fé was a
+grazing-ground for the herds of the creoles; towns and ranches were
+flourishing in Corrientes. In that year the Spanish crown abolished the
+office of adelantado and erected the lower settlements into a province
+separate from Paraguay. The new province included the territory that is
+now Uruguay, as well as the four actual Argentine provinces of Buenos
+Aires, Santa Fé, Entre Rios and Corrientes. Entre Rios and Uruguay were,
+however, as yet entirely unsettled.
+
+While the creoles were thus firmly establishing themselves along the
+Lower Paraná and in the Andean provinces, the Jesuits were converting
+the Indians in the east of Paraguay, and early in the seventeenth
+century these indefatigable missionaries had penetrated to the Upper
+Paraná, crossed it, and were gathering the Indians by thousands into
+peaceful villages.
+
+
+
+
+ARGENTINA
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE ARGENTINE LAND
+
+
+South from where the great mass of the Bolivian Andes shoves a shoulder
+to the east, as if seeking to join the Brazilian mountain system, and
+from where a low ridge stretches out to form the watershed between the
+Madeira and the eastward-flowing affluents of the Paraguay, extends an
+immense flat plain. Two thousand miles from north to south, and nearly
+five hundred miles in breadth, hardly a hillock rises above its surface
+from the foothills of the Andes westward to the sea. In the tropical
+North its surface is partly covered with trees, but south of the Chaco
+the only woodlands are narrow belts following the streams. Everywhere
+stretch the grassy plains, without an obstruction or interruption. The
+soil is a fine alluvium, full of the right chemical elements, and
+admirably adapted to agriculture, wherever the rainfall is sufficient.
+As a pasture-ground it is the finest on the planet. Within recent
+geological times this plain was the bottom of a great shallow gulf which
+received the detritus washed down from the Andes on the one side and
+the Brazilian mountains on the other. The gradual uplifting of those
+youngest mountains--the Andes--raised their flanks until the adjacent
+floor of the gulf appeared dry land, a land all ready and prepared for
+human occupancy. Nowhere does man encounter fewer obstacles to his
+freedom of movement or find it easier to procure his food supply than on
+the pampa--the characteristic topographical feature of the political
+division of South America known as Argentina.
+
+Skirting the ridge on the east and draining the vast slopes of the
+Brazilian mountains of their tropical rainfall, is the great river
+Paraná. In latitude 27° it turns abruptly to the west, as if about to
+cross the pampa, but a hundred miles farther on it resumes its southward
+course. At this last turn the Paraná flows into a river which comes
+straight down from the north, draining the bed of the old inland sea
+that used to divide South America. This junction of the Paraná and the
+Paraguay forms the second largest river in the world--a river without
+obstructions to navigation, but which is so immense that it cannot be
+bridged. In latitude 32° it turns back to the south-east, soon receives
+the Uruguay,--a swifter stream, that drains the southern part of the
+Atlantic highlands,--and then opens out into the great shallow estuary
+known as the River Plate. Between the Uruguay and the Paraná is the
+Argentine Mesopotamia,--a flat region where the low-lying plains,
+covered with luscious grasses, intersected with streams, and
+interspersed with timber, gradually rise up-stream into the highlands of
+the Missions.
+
+  [Illustration: ARGENTINA, PARAGUAY, URUGUAY, BOLIVIA AND CHILE]
+
+  [Illustration: FOREST SCENE IN ARGENTINA.
+  [From steel print.]]
+
+To the west the pampa is bounded by the foothills of the Andes and the
+parallel chains with which that great mountain system reinforces its
+flanks. At the Bolivian frontier, the great outward-jutting shoulder of
+the Andes looms up among a series of subordinate chains. South of them,
+for a thousand miles, is a belt of broken country averaging two hundred
+miles in width. The pampa creeps up to the very foot of the mountain
+ranges and where it is watered blossoms like a garden. A quarter of the
+population of the Republic lives in the irrigated valleys of these
+Andean provinces.
+
+A comparatively narrow, arid, belt stretches diagonally across the South
+American continent from the Pacific, in Northern Chile, to the Atlantic
+in Northern Patagonia. Consequently, from north to south, and from the
+Atlantic back toward the north-east border of this arid belt, the
+rainfall of Argentina decreases. On the north-eastern frontier it is
+about 80 inches a year; at Rosario, 40; at Cordoba, 30; at Buenos Aires,
+35. In the Andean provinces it decreases from over forty, near the
+Bolivian frontier, to five or six at San Juan in the latitude of Santa
+Fé and Cordoba. In the eastern part of the great pampa the rainfall is
+ample for cereal crops; in the western half the rains are periodical and
+the region is better adapted to grazing than to agriculture, and there
+the grass lands are intersected with tracts of desert which grow larger
+towards the south. In the Andes the eastern ranges, catching the
+rain-laden upper currents, send down ample water to irrigate the valleys
+and adjacent plains.
+
+The mesopotamian region and the country directly south of the Plate
+estuary have, of course, an ample rainfall. South of the latitude of
+Buenos Aires the rainfall of the Andean region, which has grown steadily
+less from the northern boundary, begins again to increase. The eastern
+slopes of the mountains south for an indeterminate distance are well
+watered, while the Patagonian plains to their east are dry and desolate.
+
+The climate varies from tropical, on the northern frontier, to arctic in
+Tierra del Fuego. The southern pampa and the Andean provinces are
+temperate or subtropical, and admirably adapted for habitation by men of
+European descent. Tucuman is the hottest of these provinces. There the
+average temperature of the coldest month is 53°; at Buenos Aires it is
+50°; at Cordoba 47°. The average temperatures in these localities for
+the whole year are, respectively, 63°, 61°, and 63°.
+
+When Columbus landed in the West Indies, this vast territory was
+occupied by two separate sets of aborigines. The Andean provinces were a
+part of the great Inca Empire. South as far as Mendoza, the Andean
+valleys were filled with a vigorous yet peaceful population who had
+brought the art of irrigation to a high degree of perfection.
+Plantations of corn, mandioc, and potatoes flourished on the terraced
+hillsides and in the fertile valleys. The lower and hotter plains
+furnished cotton. Constant communication, both commercial and
+governmental, was kept up with the centre of the Inca power in Cuzco,
+along roads that followed the easiest routes along the valleys and up
+over the passes to the Bolivian plateau, and thence to the central
+provinces of the Empire. Chile, on the other side of the Cordillera, was
+a sister province, and the passes over the great range were well known
+and constantly used. The population was greater than it is at the
+present day. While the political solidity of the Inca Empire is
+doubtless exaggerated, it is certain that the same civilisation extended
+from Ecuador to Mendoza and Santiago de Chile, and that the Cordilleran
+region was the home of twenty millions of people, organised into
+vigorous, progressive, and expanding communities.
+
+The Andean civilisation never showed any tendency to expand over the
+tropical plains of the great central depressions. The Incas themselves
+never cared to penetrate far down the wooded and steaming slopes of the
+Andes lying directly to the east of their own capital. Their dependent
+states bordering on the Argentine pampa did not cross the desert plains,
+where irrigating ditches could not reach. So far as we now know, the
+Andean Indians had never penetrated to the Atlantic.
+
+East of the pampas, in the hilly woods of Paraguay and Brazil, tribes
+vastly inferior in intelligence, political organisation, and
+civilisation, maintained a precarious existence. Many of those who
+belonged to the great Guarany family lived in palisaded villages and
+cultivated the soil, but none had advanced far on the road toward a
+reasonably efficient social and military organisation. The procuring of
+food for their daily wants was their chief occupation; the tribes were
+too small to make effective warfare on a large scale; there was no
+prospect of any development into a higher culture. Certain tribes,
+inferior to the Guaranies, had spread from the wooded regions over the
+mesopotamian provinces and into the adjacent pampa, and the districts on
+both sides of the estuary, but they never ventured far from the
+water-supply. Though brave and intractable, these people showed no real
+fighting capacity until after white men had taught them the use of
+horses. With this knowledge, however, they were able to offer a very
+effective resistance, which was not completely overcome until twenty
+years ago.
+
+The area of the whole Republic is 1,212,600 square miles. The
+mesopotamian region contains 81,000 square miles, being larger than
+England and even more uniformly fertile. The pampa suitable for grain
+production, including the semi-forested Chaco plain in the north, has an
+area of not less than 350,000 square miles. The Andean provinces contain
+nearly 300,000, and Patagonia 316,000. The grazing pampa is partly
+included in the Andean provinces; its boundaries to the south and toward
+the Atlantic are not capable of exact definition, but it includes
+perhaps half the territory of the Republic. Except the higher mountains,
+and the so-called deserts of the centre, the whole territory is
+productive.
+
+  [Illustration: DOCKS AT BUENOS AIRES.]
+
+The description of the white man's spread over this immense country--the
+largest, except Brazil, of the South American states, and of all these
+the most immediately and unquestionably suitable for maintaining a large
+population of European blood--is tedious when told in detail. But it is
+a story fraught with significance for the future of the world. On the
+plains of Argentina the descendants of the Spanish conquerors have
+fought out among themselves all the perplexing questions arising from
+the adaptation of Spanish absolutism and ancient burgh law to a new
+country and to personal freedom. After more than half a century of civil
+war, constitutional equilibrium has been attained. The country ought to
+be interesting where there has grown up within a few decades the largest
+city in the Southern Hemisphere, and the largest Latin city, except
+Paris, in the world. The growth of Buenos Aires has been as dizzying as
+that of Chicago, and the world has never seen a more rapid and easy
+multiplication of wealth than that which took place in Argentina between
+the years of 1870 and 1890. Interesting, too, is Argentina as the scene
+of the most extensive experiment in the mixture of races now going on
+anywhere in the world except in the United States. In forty years more
+than two millions of immigrants have made their homes in Argentina. The
+majority are from Southern Europe, but the proportion of British,
+Germans, French, Belgians, and Swiss is a fifth of the whole. Will the
+Northerners be assimilated and disappear in the mass of Southerners, or
+will they succeed in impressing their characteristics on the latter?
+Will a mixed race be evolved especially suited to success in subtropical
+America? Will the system of administration painfully evolved out of the
+old Spanish laws prove permanently suited to the great industrial and
+commercial state that is growing up on the Argentine pampa? Will the
+municipal and bureaucratic system prove adaptable and elastic enough to
+furnish a political framework for the tremendous economic development
+which has already made such strides, but which really has only begun?
+Will the intellectual and social ideals of the coming Argentine nation
+be military, bureaucratic, leisurely, or will they be purely commercial?
+Certain answers to these questions cannot yet be deduced from the data
+furnished by the history of Argentina. Their solution, however, inheres
+in the past of its people. The future of Argentina will have a profound
+influence on the rest of the continent. It has the largest territory
+except Brazil, the greatest per capita wealth, its population is
+increasing most rapidly, and it has received the greatest amount of
+foreign capital. Immigration and investment in the other countries may
+be expected soon to begin on a large scale. The experience of Argentina
+promises to prove invaluable to all of South America.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE SPANISH COLONIAL SYSTEM
+
+
+Spain, as a world-power, reached her apogee in the year 1580, when Juan
+de Garay founded Buenos Aires. In that year Portugal was united to the
+Spanish Crown, and the East Indies and Brazil doubled Spain's colonial
+dominions. But at the very same moment the first symptom of her decline
+appeared. For the first time it was proved to the world that she could
+not hold the seas against her young rivals from Northern Europe. Sir
+Francis Drake, the earliest harbinger of Britain's dominance on the
+seas, appeared off the Plate on his way to the Pacific. Spain had
+trusted that the difficulty of threading the Straits of Magellan would
+protect the South Sea, but Drake slipped through in a spell of
+favourable weather and found few Spanish ships which were fit to fight
+him along all the coast to Panama. Drake's wonderful raid humbled
+Spanish pride where Spain was thought strongest, and encouraged
+Englishmen to fight with a good heart, a few years later, the
+overwhelming Invincible Armada.
+
+In 1616 a great Dutchman, Schouten, found the passage into the Pacific
+around Cape Horn. This discovery revolutionised the navigation routes of
+the world. Heretofore the only practicable commercial route to the
+Pacific had been across the Atlantic to the north shore of the Isthmus.
+Nombre de Dios was the metropolis and the market where all the goods for
+South America were landed. Those intended to be sold on the shore of the
+Caribbean were sent along its coast, and those intended for the Pacific
+were carried overland to Panama to be shipped on coasters down to their
+destination. Direct communication across the Atlantic to Buenos Aires
+was forbidden by the Spanish government.
+
+Schouten's epoch-making discovery opened up the way for countless Dutch
+and English ships to ply a contraband trade with the towns of the
+Pacific coast, but did not induce the Spanish government to change its
+time-honoured policy or vary its trade routes. America was treated as
+the private property of the sovereign of Castile, and its commerce was
+to be exploited for his sole benefit. No Spaniard was allowed to freight
+a ship for the colonies, or to buy a pound of goods thence, without
+obtaining a special permission and paying for that privilege. Cadiz was
+the only port in Spain from which ships were permitted to sail for
+America, and the whole trade was farmed out to a ring of Cadiz
+merchants. To protect this monopoly and to prevent the export of gold
+and silver were the chief purposes of the Spanish colonial policy. Every
+port on the seaboard of Spanish South America was closed to
+trans-oceanic traffic, except Nombre de Dios on the north shore of the
+Isthmus. The towns on the Pacific and Caribbean coasts might admit
+coasting vessels properly identified as coming from the Isthmus and
+loaded with the consignments of the Cadiz monopolists, but the South
+Atlantic ports were absolutely closed so far as law could close them.
+Legally, no ships whatever, coasters or ocean carriers, could enter and
+unload at Buenos Aires. Her imports from Spain must first go to the
+Isthmus, be disembarked, and then transported across the mule-paths to
+the Pacific. Thence the goods had to go in coasters to Callao, in Peru,
+where they were again disembarked, transported up the Andean passes
+along the Bolivian plateau, and finally down into the Argentine plain.
+Under such conditions in the southern provinces European manufactures
+could only be sold at fabulous prices.
+
+On the other hand, such a system made exports impossible, except those
+of precious metals and valuable drugs. Hides, hair, wool, agricultural
+products, would not stand the cost of such long transport by land and
+sea. The Spanish authorities seem deliberately to have come to the
+conclusion that America should be confined to producing gold and silver,
+and they ruthlessly strangled all other industries. The Plate
+settlements especially suffered from the ruinous consequences of this
+system. Having no mines of precious metals, they were considered
+worthless; their interests were ignored, and their complaints given no
+attention. The mere existence of Buenos Aires was a source of anxiety
+to the monopolists and to the Spanish government. They feared that the
+English or Dutch might take possession of the mouth of the Plate and
+thence send expeditions to intercept gold and silver shipments along the
+overland routes. More immediate and real was the danger of the
+establishment of a contraband trade which would deprive the Cadiz
+merchants of their enormous profits on goods sent by the Isthmian route.
+
+The home government enacted laws of incredible severity in trying to
+enforce this policy. In 1599 the governor of Buenos Aires was instructed
+to forbid all importation and exportation under penalty of death and
+forfeiture of property. The shipping of hides and horsehair to Spain
+would seem to be harmless enough, but the Spanish government dreaded
+that gold and silver might be smuggled out in the packages. The
+government would lose its royal fifth and the precious metals might be
+sent to Spain's rivals and enemies in Europe. According to the economic
+ideas then accepted, gold and silver alone constituted wealth, and every
+ounce mined in America which did not reach Spain's coffers was
+considered irretrievably lost. To prevent clandestine shipments of the
+precious metals all commercial intercourse from the coast to the
+interior was made illegal, and no goods whatever were permitted to pass
+along the road between Buenos Aires and Cordoba.
+
+In the very nature of things such laws were unenforcible. Even the
+governors sent out for the special purpose of repressing evasions
+recommended modifications. But the Cadiz monopolists were stubborn and
+their influence with the Court was all-powerful. The laws remained on
+the statute books only to be constantly disregarded. No human power
+could keep people who lived on the seashore, and who had hides, wool,
+and horsehair to sell, from exchanging them for clothing and tools.
+Perforce Buenos Aires became a community of smugglers. English and Dutch
+ships surreptitiously landed their cargoes of manufactures and took
+their pay in hides or in silver dollars that had escaped the Spanish
+soldiers on the road down from Potosí.
+
+Rio and Santos, in Brazil, became intermediate warehouses for the
+commerce of the Plate. The officials in Buenos Aires itself connived at
+evasions, and the very governors made great fortunes in partnership with
+smugglers. The guards along the interior routes shut their eyes when the
+mule trains passed, and the goods of Flanders and France reached
+Cordoba, Santiago, Potosí, and even Lima, by way of Buenos Aires, and
+were sold at prices with which the Cadiz monopolists could not compete.
+Silver came surreptitiously from Chile and Bolivia to pay for these
+goods. The net result was that trade followed its natural and easiest
+route, although there was a fearful waste of energy in the process. The
+bribe-taking official, the idle soldier at the road station, the
+smuggler handling his goods in small boats and risking his life at
+night, and the numerous middle men absorbed what might have been
+legitimate profit to the seller or to the consumer. Commerce was half
+strangled, and with it the industries of the Spanish colonies. Civil
+government itself suffered, for a community whose daily occupation it
+was to break one law could not be expected to have much respect for
+other laws, nor for the bribe-taking rulers and mulish legislators.
+
+Nevertheless, against these outrageously unreasonable regulations the
+colonists for centuries made no armed protest. They never questioned the
+abstract right of the Crown to forbid them to sell what the labour of
+their hands had produced. They evaded but did not contest. Centuries of
+this sort of thing ingrained into South Americans the belief that
+industrial and commercial activity exists only by sufferance of the
+government. The right to sell, to buy, to exercise a profession or a
+trade, depended on the permission of the government. The people saw the
+executives taxing industry at their pleasure, and suppressing its very
+beginnings, until such a procedure came to seem a matter of course.
+Commercial spirit was constantly hampered and business skill deprived of
+its rewards. The evil effects of such a policy can be seen at every step
+of the development of the Spanish-American countries. It is no wonder
+that office-holding became the most popular of avocations. The farmer,
+the stock-raiser, and the merchant seemed to be allowed to exist only to
+pay the Spanish functionary, instead of the government's existing for
+the benefit of the producing community. To this day, service with the
+government is more esteemed than commercial pursuits. The national
+ideals are only slowly becoming industrial.
+
+The King of Castile was absolute sovereign and sole proprietor of
+America. The continent was an appanage of his crown; it did not form an
+integral part of Spain; America and Spain were connected solely through
+their common allegiance to him. The King governed America directly,
+assisted not by his regular ministers, but by a body of personal
+advisers called the Council of the Indies. His representatives in South
+America were the Viceroys of Mexico and Peru. The latter's jurisdiction
+extended over all South America. Certain great territorial divisions had
+been made Captaincies-General, and though theoretically subordinate to
+the Viceroy, they were in effect independent of him. In the great
+capital cities sat bodies of high judicial and executive officials known
+as Audiencias. Among their functions was that of exercising the powers
+of the Viceroy during his absence. Charcas, the capital of the mining
+region of Bolivia, was the seat of an Audiencia, and since this city had
+no resident Viceroy or Captain-General its Audiencia was the real
+supreme authority over the Argentine and all the territory east of the
+Cordillera, from Lake Titicaca to the Straits.
+
+Viceroyalties and Captaincies-General were divided into provinces, each
+of which was ruled by a royal governor. When the Spaniards permanently
+occupied a new region their first step was to found a city and organise
+a municipal government. Like the Romans, they knew no other unit of
+political structure. The governing body was called a Cabildo and
+consisted of from six to twelve members who held office for life. It
+conducted the ordinary judicial and civil administration through
+officers selected by itself and from its own members. Though the
+governor was _ex-officio_ president of this body, and although its
+members had bought their places, they were not mere figureheads to
+register his will. Limited though their functions were, they represented
+the time-honoured governmental form into which Spaniards had always
+crystallised, and the Creoles could not be prevented from obtaining a
+preponderant influence in them. Throughout colonial times they
+represented local and Creole interests and operated continually as a
+check to the aggression of the military governors.
+
+The territorial jurisdiction of a municipality was usually ill-defined.
+Indeed, as a rule, in the days of settlement it extended in every
+direction until the claim of another city was encountered, and the terms
+"city" and "province," were, therefore, usually synonymous. As
+population grew denser new cities were founded which as municipalities
+were independent of the capital town, but they were not necessarily
+separated from the original province. The Cabildo of the capital of a
+province bore a peculiar relation to the royal governor, and often tried
+to exercise a control over the affairs of the whole province, deeming
+themselves his associates and the sharers of the functions he exercised,
+outside of its own boundaries, as well as within them. This assumption
+was favoured by the fact that no general body representing all the
+cities of a province existed, nor any constitutional machinery by which
+they could act in common.
+
+Spanish-Americans have known only two forms of government, which have
+everywhere and always co-existed, though they seem inconsistent. First,
+there is an executive--the limits of his power ill-defined, and often
+imposing his will by force, in essence arbitrary and personal, and
+feared rather than respected by the people; secondly, the Cabildos and
+the modern deliberative bodies. Never really elective, these have
+nevertheless performed many of the functions of bodies truly
+representative; they have checked the arbitrary executives and furnished
+a basis for government by discussion. For centuries the communities
+looked to them for the conduct of ordinary local governmental affairs,
+and they survived all the storms of colonial and revolutionary times. On
+the other hand, their importance in the Spanish governmental scheme has
+been a most potent influence in preventing the growth of local
+representative government by elective assemblies and officials.
+Consequently, in national matters, freely elected and truly
+representative assemblies have been hard to obtain. Legislation has been
+controlled by the functionaries, and there has been no general and
+continuous participation in governmental affairs by the body of the
+people. Government by discussion and by the common-sense of the majority
+is difficult to establish among a people accustomed for centuries to
+seeing matters in the hands of officials whom they had no practical
+means of holding to responsibility. The people have rarely felt that
+the executive was their own officer. He was imposed on them from above,
+he was not amenable to them, and so far as they were concerned he ruled
+at his own risk. The Creoles were intensely democratic in feeling and
+hard to control, and when they could not tolerate an executive they
+turned him out by force, because no effective machinery existed by which
+they could turn him out peaceably.
+
+Though the colonial governor was required to give an account of his
+administration at the close of his term, as a matter of fact he was an
+irresponsible and despotic satrap, who taxed, judged, and imprisoned
+people at his pleasure, restrained only by his traditional respect for
+the Cabildos and by the fear of exciting revolt. He commanded the armed
+forces, and his power was, in fact, rather military than civil in
+origin, method, and application. The Cabildos selected the ordinary
+judicial officers of first resort from among their own members' list,
+but their authority was not very effective outside the town itself. The
+vast plains between the settlements were largely governed patriarchally
+by the ranch owners and the popular and capable gauchos who grew into
+leaders.
+
+A taste for town life soon became characteristic of the
+Spanish-Americans, and wherever able they crowded into the towns in
+preference to staying on their ranches. Wealth, intelligence, and
+political activity, therefore, came to be concentrated in a few _foci_.
+The system of granting immense tracts of land and dividing up the
+Indians as slaves among the proprietors would apparently have a
+tendency to produce a landed aristocracy. But the money profits in
+colonial days were small, and the great landowner lived in the same
+style as his poorer neighbour. Titles of nobility did not exist, and the
+constitution of society was decidedly democratic. From the very earliest
+times no love was lost between the Creoles and the newly arrived
+Spaniards. The governor was almost invariably a Spaniard, while the
+Cabildo and its officers were usually Creoles.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+The greatest name in the history of Buenos Aires during the early years
+of the seventeenth century is that of Hernandarias Saavedra. Of
+distinguished ancestry and pure Spanish blood, he was born at Asuncion
+in 1561. A thorough Creole, his education was confined to the
+instruction he received at the convent of the Franciscan Fathers in his
+native town. At fifteen he left school and joined an expedition against
+the Indians of the Andes. He showed remarkable capacity in fighting on
+the plains, and his shrewdness and firmness in dealing with the
+aborigines were even more valuable than his courage. Juan de Garay, the
+far-sighted Basque who founded Buenos Aires, was the patron, model, and
+hero of young Hernandarias, who followed him in his great expedition
+over the southern pampa. When Garay, the great Indian fighter and
+coloniser, perished, his mantle fell on the young man's shoulders. In
+1588 Hernandarias distinguished himself in the defence of Corrientes
+against the Indians of Chaco and was the leader in the difficult
+campaigns undertaken in retaliation. By the time he had reached thirty
+he was the leading Creole in all the vast region from the Upper Paraguay
+down to Buenos Aires, and when the Spanish Lieutenant-General of
+Asuncion was deposed an open Cabildo called him to the vacancy.
+
+Eleven years later (1602) the governor of Buenos Aires died, and by
+common consent Hernandarias filled the office _ad interim_. This popular
+selection was soon confirmed by royal commission. He signalised his term
+of office by an expedition down the coast in which he carried the terror
+of the white man's arms to the limits of the continent, and defeated the
+Indians wherever they resisted. Severe with the Indians when occasion
+demanded, he was inflexibly just, and as a rule protected them against
+the unlawful aggressions of his countrymen. Though he did so much to
+curb their military power, he left behind him the name of being their
+best friend. He manumitted his own slaves; he opposed the extension of
+the system of "encomiendas" with its enslavement of wild Indians, and
+after his first term as governor of Buenos Aires he was named official
+protector of the aborigines.
+
+Although a Creole, such was his ability as a military leader, and his
+shrewdness, wisdom, and firmness as a civil ruler, that the Spanish
+government could not ignore him. Though a governor was soon sent out
+from Spain to replace him and fatten off the provincials, Hernandarias
+remained the most powerful man in the colony. The Spanish authorities
+found that they needed him, and he retained their confidence as well as
+that of the Creoles. He wisely advised the latter against open
+opposition, believing that continued peace must make the colony so
+strong that its interests could not continue to be ignored. In 1610 the
+Spanish government promulgated laws forbidding the further enslavement
+of Indians, and Hernandarias did much to secure their enforcement. At
+the same time he encouraged the Jesuits to extend their missions over
+the upper valley of the Uruguay, while he secured the ranchers of the
+western plains against the encroachments of these energetic priests. The
+Creoles prospered in the pastoral pursuits on the pampas, while the
+Jesuits developed the more purely agricultural resources of the wooded
+hills in the east. The success of his policy soon became evident in the
+increasing prosperity of the colony. Three hundred thousand hides were
+smuggled out of Buenos Aires in British ships alone in the year 1658,
+and by 1630 the Jesuit missions extended in a broad, continuous belt
+along the Paraná and the Uruguay from the Tropic of Capricorn to the
+thirtieth degree. They were the rulers of a great theocratic republic,
+whose area could not have been less than 150,000 square miles, and whose
+population of something like a million was concentrated in thriving and
+peaceful villages. The Jesuits systematically studied the resources of
+the country and taught their Indians the cultivation of many crops
+suitable for export. Their territory was commercially tributary to
+Buenos Aires and contributed to her growth and prosperity.
+
+When the governorship of Buenos Aires again became vacant in 1615, by
+the death of the Spanish incumbent, Hernandarias entered on his own
+third term, and two years later, by his advice, the rapidly growing
+province was divided. Paraguay became a separate province, and the new
+province of Buenos Aires included all the territory east of Tucuman and
+south and east of Paraguay. The three provinces of Paraguay, Buenos
+Aires, and Tucuman were administratively separate, and each was directly
+dependent upon the Audiencia at Charcas and the Viceroy at Lima. One
+immediate purpose of the Spanish government, in erecting Buenos Aires
+into an independent province, was the enforcement of the prohibition of
+trade. It was thought that a governor always on the ground, and
+concentrating his attention on the subject, would be efficient in that
+direction. However, the result was the opposite of that expected. No
+governor of Buenos Aires could avoid making the interests of his capital
+city his own. If honest, he was constantly pressing the home government
+to open the doors a little and to make exceptions of particular cases;
+if dishonest, he went into partnership with the traders.
+
+Hernandarias's career is the one striking example of success by a Creole
+in colonial times. Though the conquest and settlement of South America
+was accomplished by individual initiative, the men who had done the
+pioneering, who had fought and journeyed and suffered, who had stained
+their souls with horrible cruelties, whose adventures and successes
+would not be credited if the physical evidences did not prove the truth
+of the chronicles, were displaced with scant ceremony to make room for
+impoverished Court favourites. If the original conquerors were thus
+badly treated, the Creoles, unfortunate to have missed the inestimable
+advantage of being born on Castilian soil, could not look for favour, or
+equal treatment with the office-holders sent out from Madrid year after
+year.
+
+The story of the provinces that now form the territory of the Argentine
+Republic has not great interest during the long years that intervene
+from the completion of the romantic conquest until the uprising against
+Spanish authority. With the end of the sixteenth century, the spirit of
+enterprise among both Spaniards and Creoles diminished. Throughout the
+seventeenth century little progress was made in extirpating the savage
+Indians even in regions as close to Buenos Aires as Entre Rios and
+Uruguay. Settlements were confined to the right bank of the Paraná, and
+the Indians on the left bank, protected behind the wide flood of that
+river's delta, were left undisturbed. On the other hand, the dry and
+level pampas gave easy access to the thriving towns of the province of
+Tucuman. The Cordoba range, the greatest of the outworks of the Andes,
+rises from the plain less than two hundred miles from the Paraná at
+Santa Fé, and only four hundred miles from Buenos Aires itself. The city
+of Cordoba, in the fertile and well-watered slope at the foot of the
+sierra, was the capital of the province, the seat of a university from
+1613, and the centre of Creole culture. The intercourse of the Buenos
+Aireans with their neighbours of the interior constantly increased in
+spite of the prohibitions of the Spanish government, while Cordoba and
+the other towns of Tucuman prospered with the sale of pack-mules to the
+mines of Bolivia.
+
+In the fertile Andean valleys of Rioja and Catamarca had lived since
+Inca times the powerful nation of the Calchaquies. Though they had
+acknowledged the suzerainty of the Cuzco emperors, they were ruled by
+their own chiefs. The first Spaniards that penetrated south from the
+Bolivian plateau failed to reduce them to submission. After a bitter
+experience the invaders passed to the west. For fifty years this gallant
+people were left undisturbed in their Andean fastnesses. Late in the
+sixteenth century aggressions again began. The Indians fought
+desperately, but were overcome. Forty thousand were sold into slavery;
+eleven thousand were exiled to Santiago del Estero, to Santa Fé, and
+Buenos Aires. The town of Quilmes, now one of the suburbs of Buenos
+Aires, was named from the mountain fastness where the Calchaquies made
+their last stand. Rosario was also settled by families of these brave
+Indians who were dragged across the pampas by the victorious Spaniards.
+
+About 1655 a leader presented himself to the remnants of this warlike
+people, claiming to be the descendant and heir of the ancient Inca
+princes. He was known to the Indians as Huallpa-Inca, while the
+Spaniards called him Bohorquez. A woman of his own race, by the name of
+Colla, accompanied him, and she was greeted with all the ceremonious
+honours that belonged to the Inca Queen according to ancient customs.
+Even the Jesuit missionaries recognised the validity of the claims of
+Bohorquez, but the governor regarded him only as a menace to Spanish
+rule. He was pursued relentlessly; his followers rose in revolt; the
+rebellion spread northwards, but with the capture of the Inca it
+collapsed. He was sent to Lima, tried for treason, and executed, while
+the Calchaquies were placed under a military deputy-governor,
+subordinate to the governor of Tucuman. Their descendants have
+repeatedly proved that they came of fighting stock. They were among the
+best soldiers on the patriot side in the war of independence; the
+province of Rioja never submitted to Rosas, it resisted Mitre even after
+Pavon, the last and decisive battle of the civil wars, and it was the
+last province to give its allegiance to the confederation.
+
+The third province into which the whole territory which is now Argentina
+was then divided, was Cuyo,--including the three modern provinces of
+Mendoza, San Juan, and San Luiz. In its early years, these settlements
+did not extend far from the Andes. Late in the sixteenth century San
+Luiz was added, thus connecting the Spanish dominions from Chile across
+to the borders of Cordoba.
+
+The complicity of the Spanish governors with the contraband commerce
+which they were especially charged to suppress is abundantly shown by
+contemporary documents. The very first governor sent to Buenos Aires
+after its erection into a separate province was accused of agreeing to
+allow a Lisbon merchant to land a shipload of goods. He fled to
+sanctuary among the Jesuits and there perished of grief and shame. But
+others were more impudent and successful. Mercado Villacorta came to his
+post announcing that he would so effectively enforce the prohibition
+that "not a bird could pass with food in its beak from Buenos Aires to
+the interior." However, not many months passed before a Dutch ship
+applied for permission to disembark its cargo, presenting papers signed
+by a natural son of King Philip himself. The captain offered to turn
+over his cargo in return for a certain amount of hides, wool, silver,
+and enough food to take him back to Flanders. The proposition, on its
+face, was very advantageous, and Villacorta accepted it on account of
+the royal treasury. He made a faithful return of the enormous profits
+accruing from the cargo of the ship in question, but neglected to report
+that three other Dutch ships were anchored just out of sight and that
+she passed over to them in the night what had been laden on her the day
+before. By chance, a royal commissioner was in Flanders and watched the
+unlading of all four ships. He certified that three million dollars
+worth of hides, wool, woods, and silver were taken out of their holds.
+Villacorta was cashiered for the moment, but a few years later we find
+him installed as governor of Tucuman. Another governor, Andres de
+Robles, engaged so publicly and impudently in fraudulent transactions
+and corrupt contracts that his conduct was the text of sermons in all
+the churches, but he calmly went his way and paid no attention to the
+clerical boycott and priestly denunciations. Imports by way of Buenos
+Aires increased so rapidly that soon the Cadiz monopolists were
+complaining to the Council of the Indies that the Potosí shops were
+filled with goods which had come by way of the Plate. Absolute
+prohibition had manifestly failed, and so palliative measures were
+tried. Permission was given to special ships to sail from Cadiz for
+Buenos Aires, carrying only enough merchandise to supply the demand of
+Buenos Aires itself, and giving bonds to return to Cadiz, so that the
+return cargo could be checked over to see that no silver was included.
+Naturally, this system proved impracticable and only opened another road
+to evasion.
+
+The first severe blow to the extension of the Spanish dominions over the
+valley of the Paraná was struck by the Portuguese Creoles of São Paulo
+in 1632. Though King Philip of Spain was at that time also monarch of
+Portugal and Brazil, the Paulistas viewed with alarm and jealousy the
+encroachments of the Jesuits into the regions lying to the south-east of
+the homes they had occupied for a century. They had had a hard fight to
+keep the Jesuits from establishing villages in their own neighbourhood,
+and now they saw these old enemies creeping up the slope of the
+tributaries of the Upper Paraná, shutting them off from expansion over
+the remoter interior. The Paulistas hated Spaniards and Jesuits; they
+wanted Indian slaves; they recked little of the fine-spun discussions as
+to the whereabouts of the dividing line between the Castilian and
+Portuguese possessions; their allegiance to the Spanish monarch sat
+lightly upon them. Their homes were on the headwaters of tributaries of
+the Paraná, and their expeditions followed fearlessly down the streams
+and across the plateau and burst unheralded on the northern villages of
+the Jesuits. The poor Indians were defenceless and totally unprepared.
+The Jesuits had taught them the arts of peace but not of war; they had
+no arms; their spiritual rulers had bethought themselves safe in these
+remote plateaux in the middle of the continent; the few thousands of
+Paulistas, away over on the Atlantic border, had not been considered
+worth taking into consideration. Though few in number, the band of
+Portuguese Creoles created immense havoc. The Jesuit chroniclers say
+that three thousand Paulistas killed and carried away into captivity
+four hundred thousand Indians in a few years. This is certainly an
+exaggeration, but we know that all the Jesuit villages were wiped out as
+far south as the Iguassu, and that north of that tributary the Spanish
+line was pushed back to the Paraná. The Jesuits protested, but their
+complaints availed nothing. A few years later Portugal regained its
+independence of Spain and the work of the Paulistas stood. Spain lost
+her opportunity of securing the whole Plate valley, and the way was
+opened to the Brazilians to make the interior of the continent
+Portuguese.
+
+The Paulistas' raids extended as far as the Jesuit villages in Paraguay
+and those on the Upper Uruguay, but here the priests managed to hold
+their own. Portugal's next move toward getting possession of all the
+territory east of the Paraná and the Uruguay was made from the coast.
+In 1680, an expedition sent by the governor of Rio landed directly
+opposite the city of Buenos Aires and built a fort--calling it Colonia.
+This was the first permanent occupation of Uruguayan soil, either by
+Portugal or Spain. Both nations claimed it under differing
+interpretations of the Treaty of Tordesillas. Portuguese historians
+claim that the Paulistas had explored and asserted a right to the region
+in the early years of the seventeenth century; and Spanish authorities
+state that Jesuits had established a mission on the Lower Uruguay about
+the same time. As a matter of fact, Colonia was the first permanent
+European settlement south of Santa Catharina and north of the Plate, on
+or near the Atlantic coast.
+
+The governor of Buenos Aires promptly raised a force, sailed across the
+estuary, and captured the new fort. However, Spain's diplomatic position
+in Europe at the time did not justify risking serious trouble over a
+matter that seemed so trifling as the possession of a piece of desert in
+South America. The governor was ordered to restore Colonia to the
+Portuguese authorities, leaving open for subsequent discussion and
+determination the question as to which nation was entitled to the
+territory on the north bank. With some interruptions, Portugal remained
+in possession of the port of Colonia for a century, and its existence
+was a constant source of annoyance to the Buenos Aireans. It immediately
+became a rival for the trade with the interior, and its merchants had
+the advantage of the open aid of their own government. Their
+competitors at Buenos Aires across the river were confessedly engaged in
+breaking the law of their country. Exportable goods were never safe from
+seizure until they had left Argentine soil. Colonia was a convenient
+storing-place, and the river crafts, once within its port, could
+discharge at their leisure, free from anxiety that active officials
+might threaten to enforce inconvenient laws. Every time a war broke out
+between the two countries in Europe, the exasperated governor of Buenos
+Aires would send over an expedition and capture the Portuguese town.
+Three times was it taken and as often restored on the conclusion of
+peace. Colonia in Portuguese hands interfered with the trade of Buenos
+Aires merchants, and the illicit gains of Spanish officials, and also
+destroyed any remnant of efficiency remaining to the prohibition of
+commerce across the Atlantic. Back of these commercial and temporary
+considerations was the menace to the future occupancy by Spaniards of
+the vast and fertile region extending from the boundaries of São Paulo
+to the mouth of the Uruguay.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+The rapid decadence of Spain itself during the reigns of the last kings
+of the House of Austria was reflected in the colonies. With the
+accession of the Bourbons a forward movement began, and the colonial
+administration was roused into an appearance of activity. Something was
+done in the direction of adopting a more rational commercial policy, but
+it was already too late. The control of trade had irrevocably passed to
+Holland and England, and Spain could not recover the business of her own
+colonies. The efforts to improve administration were largely nullified
+by the conservatism of her aristocracy. It seemed that her mediæval
+governmental machinery could not be adapted to the conditions created by
+her active rivals.
+
+In 1726, Montevideo, the strategic key to Uruguay and the north bank of
+the Plate, was occupied and fortified. Thereafter, though Colonia still
+remained in Portuguese hands, it was isolated and scarcely tenable.
+Immediately the north shore of the Uruguay began to be settled by
+Spaniards. Simultaneously the ranchers of the right bank of the Paraná,
+who had long been tempted by the fine pastures on the opposite shore,
+finally ventured to secure a foothold in Entre Rios. The warlike
+Charruas had kept the white man out of this favoured region for two
+centuries, although it was so near to Buenos Aires. They did not yield
+without a struggle, but they were overcome, and those who refused to
+submit fled to the east bank of the Uruguay River--the present country
+of that name. There they were followed by the proselyting Jesuits, and
+it was only a question of a few years before the Argentines proper had
+crossed the Uruguay and were pasturing their herds in the rolling
+champaign country that extends from that river to the sea. The Spanish
+advance would have continued up the coast, probably as far as the
+northern boundary of the Rio Grande do Sul, if the Portuguese had not in
+the meantime established a town and fort at the mouth of the Duck
+Lagoon, which is the only port that gives access to the interior of that
+most valuable region.
+
+The increase of population, the extension of the occupied
+pasture-ground, and the greater demand from Europe for hides and wool,
+tended to multiply the volume and value of Argentine exportable
+commodities. Northern Europe made marvellous strides in purchasing power
+during the eighteenth century, and prices all over the world felt the
+impetus. The commercial policy of the Spanish government became more lax
+and the trade prohibition fell into contempt and disuse. The system of
+fleets of Spanish ships under convoy was abandoned, and single ships,
+mostly foreign owned, and trusting to their sailing qualities and
+equipment to escape capture, carried all the trade. The trade of Buenos
+Aires grew and the population of the city increased in proportion. The
+exhaustion of the surface deposits and richer lodes of precious metals
+in the mining provinces during the eighteenth century tended to increase
+the relative importance of Buenos Aires and her territory, even in the
+mind of the Spanish government, and to turn a current of immigration
+toward the pastoral and agricultural provinces.
+
+In 1750 the Spanish government made an effort to get rid of the
+Portuguese in Colonia by negotiation. Portugal agreed to exchange that
+port for the Jesuit Missions which covered the fine pastures in the
+western half of the present Brazilian state of Rio Grande. The helpless
+Indians were driven off or massacred in spite of their feeble
+resistance, but as soon as the treaty was made public, Spanish and
+Jesuit protests against the abandonment of the territory were so violent
+that the agreement was formally annulled by mutual consent. The
+Portuguese retained Colonia, and though they gave up their formal claims
+to the Missions the military operations they had so promptly undertaken
+against that region had pretty well rooted out Spanish influence on the
+east bank of the Upper Uruguay. It was never re-established, and the
+dividing line of 1750 is still substantially the boundary between
+Spanish and Portuguese South America.
+
+In 1767 Spain followed the example of Portugal and France and expelled
+the Jesuits from her dominions. For generations they had been the
+largest property holders in the Plate provinces. In the larger towns
+popular education was in their hands. Their great schools, convents, and
+churches were the finest edifices in the country. To endow their
+educational and religious work they had accumulated town houses,
+ranches, plantations, mills, cattle, ships, and even slaves. Along the
+banks of the Upper Paraná and Uruguay they had succeeded in dominating
+and absorbing the whole productive life of the community. Their system
+in the Indian regions smothered everything else; no white man was
+allowed to visit their settlements; the Indians were kept in absolute
+ignorance of the existence of an external world; the Jesuits required
+their subjects to work, gathering matte tea, cutting wood, cultivating
+the soil, and tending cattle. However, the Indians were kindly treated
+and were content with the easy life they enjoyed under the mild Jesuit
+rule. The Fathers exported immense quantities of hides and controlled
+the production of matte, then, as now, the favourite drink of Creoles
+and Indians in the southern half of the continent. The Indians received
+their living and the Jesuits absorbed the surplus. Their misfortunes in
+Brazil had taught them a lesson, and they had tried to erect their
+theocracy in regions where they need not come into close contact and
+constant conflict with the lay settlers. For a century, they had been
+left undisturbed in South-eastern Paraguay and the region between the
+Upper Paraná and Paraguay.
+
+Neither their services to civilisation nor regard for the interests of
+the Indians, nor their wealth and influence, could avail anything
+against the mandate of the Spanish monarch, backed by the Vatican and
+joyfully enforced by the colonial authorities. The Jesuits who had been
+employed in teaching in the towns were incontinently imprisoned and
+summarily shipped off across the seas, while their schools were placed
+under the charge of other ecclesiastics, and their estates sold at
+auction. In the missions resistance was anticipated, but none was made.
+The Indians, accustomed to look to the Fathers for guidance in
+everything, were aghast when they saw the Jesuits leaving, and Spanish
+officials taking their places. The new shepherds had not the skill to
+drive the flocks to the shearing, and could not keep the Indians
+together so as to exploit them for the benefit of the royal treasury.
+From their cruelties and exactions the Indians fled and sought refuge
+among the Creole settlements of Entre Rios and Uruguay, where they
+constituted a valuable addition to the population.
+
+This transplantation had hardly been accomplished when the Spanish
+government took a step which revolutionised the administration of the
+southern half of the continent during the remainder of colonial times,
+and determined the future boundaries of the nations of South America. On
+the 1st of August, 1776, the Viceroyalty of Buenos Aires was created.
+All the territory south of Lake Titicaca was separated from the
+Viceroyalty of Peru, and the province of Cuyo was detached from the
+Captaincy-General of Chile. The new Viceroyalty covered the territory
+that has since become the four countries--Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay,
+and Argentina. In colonial times it was divided into eight
+"intendencias," of which the northern four covered the region that is
+now Bolivia and was then known as Upper Peru. The four southern
+intendencias were: Paraguay; Salta, covering the northwestern provinces;
+Cordoba, covering the central and western provinces; and, finally,
+Buenos Aires, which, besides the present province, included Santa Fé,
+the whole mesopotamian region, Uruguay, and the Jesuit country of the
+Upper Paraná.
+
+The creation of the Viceroyalty was a reluctant and tardy reversal of
+the colonial policy which had steadfastly refused to recognise in Buenos
+Aires the inevitable outlet of the region. Although the four northern
+intendencias contained more than half the population, and Paraguay
+probably half the remainder, Buenos Aires was made the capital. Situated
+at the mouth of the great system of waterways, it was the natural
+commercial centre of the whole Viceroyalty. In fifty years it had
+doubled in population, while the old cities on the Bolivian plateau had
+remained stationary. In 1776 its population did not much exceed twenty
+thousand souls, but was rapidly increasing. Heretofore, it had been
+rather a resort of smuggling merchants than a centre of political and
+social influence. Nevertheless, from this unpromising root was to spring
+the spreading tree of South American independence. Buenos Aires is the
+only capital that never readmitted the Spanish authorities, once they
+had been expelled, and within her walls San Martin drilled the nucleus
+of the armies that drove the Spaniards out of Chile and Peru.
+
+  [Illustration: AN OLD SPANISH CORNER IN BUENOS AIRES.]
+
+The alarming growth of the Portuguese power southward was another potent
+reason for the establishment of a strong and independent military
+jurisdiction at the mouth of the Plate. The Spanish government had at
+last determined on vigorous measures to take Colonia, drive the
+Portuguese from Rio Grande, and push the Spanish boundaries east to the
+original Tordesillas line. Pedro de Zeballos, the first Viceroy, sailed
+in November, 1776, in command of the largest force which up to that time
+had been sent to the Western Continent. Against his twenty-one thousand
+men and great fleet the Portuguese had no force, military or naval,
+strong enough to make a serious resistance.
+
+The flourishing Brazilian settlement of Santa Catharina was easily
+reduced, and, leaving it garrisoned, the fleet and army went on to the
+Plate. Colonia surrendered without resistance, and the army prepared to
+march northward and drive the Portuguese from all the coast as far north
+as Santa Catharina. Hardly was the advance begun, when news was received
+that peace between Spain and Portugal had been signed. The latter
+retained eastern Rio Grande, and Santa Catharina was restored, while
+Spain's title to Uruguay and the Missions was recognised.
+
+Zeballos returned to Buenos Aires and actively engaged in the military
+and civil organisation of the new Viceroyalty. A fresh set of special
+regulations had been prepared in Spain, creating an elaborate hierarchy
+of executives. The chief provincial governors, now called "intendentes,"
+were subject to the orders of the Viceroy in military matters, but as to
+taxation they were directly responsible to the Crown. They were
+entrusted with the paying of governmental employees, which gave them
+great influence with the Cabildos and functionaries.
+
+The intention of the Spanish government was manifestly to enforce close
+relationship and greater subjection to the central authority at Madrid.
+In practice, however, the financial independence of the provincial
+governors stimulated the feeling of local independence, increased the
+influence of the Cabildos, and paved the way for the revolution.
+
+Since 1765 the rest of South America had enjoyed the privilege of free
+commerce from the mother country. Now, the same rule was applied to
+Buenos Aires, and trade with Spain quickly attained respectable
+dimensions. In the five years from 1792 to 1796 more than one hundred
+ships made the voyage to Spain, and exports ran up to five million
+dollars annually. Buenos Aires became the _entrepôt_ of the wine and
+brandy of Cuyo; the poncho and hides of Tucuman; the tobacco, woods, and
+matte tea of Paraguay; the gold and silver of Upper Peru; the copper of
+Chile; and even the sugar, cacao, and rice of Lower Peru. By the end of
+the century the population of the city was forty thousand. Thirty
+thousand more lived in the immediate vicinity; Montevideo had seven
+thousand, and the outlying settlements of Uruguay twenty-five thousand
+inhabitants. The civilised population of the Buenos Aires intendencia
+was about one hundred and seventy thousand, and in population and in
+wealth it had become easily the first among the eight great districts of
+the Viceroyalty.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF THE REVOLUTION
+
+
+The Viceroyalty was a heterogeneous mass. The common subjection of its
+component parts to the Viceroy gave it a mere appearance of cohesion.
+The centring of the commercial currents in Buenos Aires did not furnish
+an organic connection sufficiently strong to unite provinces and cities
+so widely separated and so different in social and industrial
+constitution. Upper Peru had been a mining region, and its white
+population was largely of a shifting character. The bulk of the
+population were Indians, and the inhabitants of Spanish blood were still
+taskmasters. Society was as yet in unstable equilibrium, and the
+different elements had not thoroughly coalesced. Paraguay was an
+isolated and almost self-sufficing commonwealth. It was essentially
+theocratic, and averse to receiving external impressions. In Salta and
+Cordoba the proportion of Indian blood was not so preponderant as in
+Bolivia and Paraguay; agriculture was the economic basis; the Creoles
+and Indians had largely amalgamated politically and socially; and,
+though the people of Spanish descent lived mostly in the towns, they
+were in close and friendly contact with the civilised Indians who
+laboured in the irrigated valleys. On the wide pampas a new race of men
+had sprung into existence--the gauchos, whose business was the herding
+of cattle, whose homes were their saddles, and who were as impatient of
+control and as hard to deprive of personal liberty as Arabs or
+Parthians. The proportion of white blood increased toward the coast.
+Buenos Aires was the boom town of the region and the time. Its
+population was recruited from among the most adventurous and
+enterprising Spaniards and Creoles. Lima and Mexico were centres of
+aristocracy and bureaucracy, while the social organisation of Buenos
+Aires and its surrounding territory was completely democratic. All were
+equal in fact; neither nobles nor serfs existed; the Viceroy was little
+more than a new official imposed by external authority, and having no
+real support in the country itself. It is not a mere coincidence that
+the three centres--Caracas, Buenos Aires, and Pernambuco--whence the
+revolutionary spirit spread over South America should all have been
+democratic in social organisation and far distant from the old colonial
+capitals. In Buenos Aires, the Viceroy himself could not find a white
+coachman. An Argentine Creole would no more serve in a menial capacity
+than a North American pioneer; and a Creole hated a Spaniard very much
+as his contemporary, the Scotch-Irish settler of the Appalachians, hated
+an Englishman.
+
+Not even religion furnished a strong bond of union between the widely
+dispersed cities and provinces of the Viceroyalty. The priests had not
+been organised into a compact hierarchy. They had little class feeling;
+they lived the life of the Creoles and shared the same prejudices. Half
+the members of the first Congress after the revolution were priests, but
+they pursued no distinctive policy of their own and offered no effective
+resistance to the growth of the power of the military chiefs.
+
+Commerce with Spain had been authorised, but with other nations it was
+still unlawful. The Cadiz monopolists still fought hard to preserve
+their privileges and to control the Atlantic trade as they had
+controlled the route by the Isthmus. Great Britain had enjoyed a
+monopoly of the traffic in negroes during most of the colonial period,
+but in 1784 all foreign ships carrying slaves were allowed to enter,
+unload, and take a return cargo of the "products of the country." The
+Cadiz merchants contended that hides--then the principal article of
+export--were not "products" within the meaning of this law, and the
+Spanish courts decided in their favour. This absurd decision created a
+storm of opposition in Buenos Aires, but even more unreasonable
+restrictions continued to be insisted upon. The proposition to allow the
+colonies to trade with one another was vehemently opposed by the people
+of Cadiz and their agents in Buenos Aires.
+
+Meanwhile, England's maritime victories in the wars of the French
+Revolution were sweeping Spanish commerce from the sea, and the people
+of the Plate saw themselves again about to be shut off from the sea
+unless permission were granted to ship in foreign vessels.
+Dissatisfaction grew apace, and the prestige of the Viceregal government
+and the influence of resident Spaniards were seriously compromised. At
+the same time there were fermenting among the intelligent and educated
+youth of the city the new ideas of the North American and French
+revolutions--liberty, the rights of man, representative government, and
+popular sovereignty.
+
+For generations England had cast covetous eyes at South Africa and South
+America. Menaced with exclusion from Europe in her giant conflict with
+Napoleon, her statesmen determined to seize outside markets and
+possessions. The Cape was captured in 1805, and the next year came the
+turn of Argentina. June 25, 1806, Admiral Popham appeared in the
+estuary, and fifteen hundred troops, under the command of General
+Beresford, were disembarked a few miles below Buenos Aires. The Viceroy
+fled without making resistance, and on the 27th the British flag was run
+up on his official residence. At first the population appeared to
+acquiesce, but finally Liniers, a French officer in the Spanish employ,
+gathered together at Montevideo a thousand regulars and a small amount
+of artillery. The militia of Buenos Aires soon proved themselves anxious
+to rise against the heretic strangers. Liniers crossed the estuary and,
+advancing without opposition to the neighbourhood of Buenos Aires,
+established a camp to which the patriotic inhabitants flocked. Within a
+short time he had armed an overwhelming number of the citizens, the
+scanty British garrison was shut up in the fort, and on the 12th of
+August the Argentines advanced. After some hard street fighting, the
+English were forced to surrender, and the flags which were captured that
+day are still exhibited in the city of Buenos Aires with just pride as
+trophies of Argentine valour. The British expedition might have been
+successful had it been more numerous, or had it been promptly
+re-enforced. If the capture of Montevideo had followed that of Buenos
+Aires, the Argentines would have had no base of operations, and their
+militia would have remained without ammunition and artillery stores. It
+is interesting to speculate what would have been the subsequent history
+of the temperate part of South America in such a case. It is possible
+that the Plate would have become part of the British Dominion; British
+immigration would have followed, and the Plate might have become the
+greatest of British colonies.
+
+But the opportunity was quickly gone. The successes of 1806 so strongly
+aroused the spirit of national and race pride that thereafter the
+conquest of Argentina was a task too great for the small armies which in
+those days could be transported overseas. No sooner was Beresford
+expelled than the victors met in open Cabildo, declared the cowardly
+Viceroy suspended from office, and installed the royal Audiencia in his
+place. A few months later the dreaded British re-enforcement came. Four
+thousand men disembarked in eastern Uruguay, and Montevideo was taken by
+assault. In Buenos Aires all was confusion, but the people were
+resolute to resist. Again an open Cabildo assembled, and Liniers, the
+French officer under whose leadership the victory of last year had been
+won, was given supreme authority. Military enthusiasm spread among all
+classes and the people were rapidly enrolled in volunteer regiments.
+When General Whitelocke approached the city with several thousand
+regulars the Argentines confidently marched out to meet him. In the open
+they stood no chance, and they were compelled to fly back to the shelter
+of their narrow streets and stone houses. On the 5th of July, 1807, the
+British troops, disdaining all precautions, marched into the city. Both
+sides of the narrow streets were lined with low, fireproof houses, whose
+flat roofs afforded admirable vantage-ground. The Buenos Aires men were
+well supplied with muskets, and the women and boys rained down stones,
+bricks, and firebrands on the masses crowding the pavements below. The
+British could not retaliate on their enemies, but pushed stubbornly on
+toward the centre of the city, dropping by hundreds on the way. At the
+main square, in front of the fort, barricades had been thrown up, and
+there the English met a reception which flesh and blood could not
+endure. For two days the conflict raged, but finally the English general
+was obliged to give up and ask for terms. He had lost a fourth of his
+force and was allowed to withdraw the remainder only on agreeing to
+evacuate Montevideo within two months.
+
+The political and commercial consequences of the English invasions were
+vastly important. The military power of the Argentine Creoles, hitherto
+unsuspected, stood revealed; local pride had been stimulated; and, at
+the same time, the invasions gave a tremendous impulse to foreign
+commerce. A fleet of English merchantmen had followed the warships.
+Untrammelled commerce with the world at last became a fact. English
+manufactured goods flooded the market. Articles until then beyond the
+reach of all but the wealthiest now became cheap enough for the purses
+of the gauchos. Buenos Aires's trade was boomed by the sales of imported
+goods to the interior provinces. Creole jealousy of Spaniards rapidly
+became accentuated. From this time dates the general use of "Goths,"
+applied to Spaniards as a term of opprobrium, and of "Argentines," as a
+designation for the natives of the Plate. Recognition could no longer be
+withheld from the men who had organised and commanded victorious
+troops, and henceforth the Creoles were in fact, as well as in law,
+eligible to offices of trust and profit. Even in the Buenos Aires
+Cabildo, though all the members were native Spaniards, Creole ideas
+predominated.
+
+Scarcely had the English retired from Montevideo when the course of
+events in Europe precipitated Spanish South America into confusion.
+Charles IV., the pusillanimous King of Spain, allied himself with
+Napoleon and aided the latter's aggressions against Portugal. The
+Portuguese monarch was driven to Brazil, the latter country thereby
+gaining complete commercial freedom and virtual political independence.
+This naturally suggested to the Argentines that they were entitled to
+the same privileges from Spain. Charles IV. and Godoy, the accomplice of
+his wicked wife, who really governed in his name, were bitterly hated at
+home. Napoleon's troops swarmed over the country and the monarchy itself
+was clearly tottering to its fall. Ferdinand, heir of Charles IV.,
+conspired against his father and forced the latter to resign in his
+favour. The Spanish governor of Montevideo at once took the oath of
+allegiance to the new monarch, an act of insubordination to his titular
+superior, the Viceroy. The latter was the Frenchman, Liniers, who
+sympathised with the Creole party in desiring to wait and obtain
+concessions for the colony before recognising any of the various
+claimants. A dispute over the oath of allegiance to Ferdinand arose
+which marked a definite rupture between the Creoles and the old-line
+Spaniards--between those who regarded the special interests of the
+colony as paramount and those who wished at all hazards to maintain
+connection with the mother country.
+
+Charles's abdication was only the beginning of complications. He
+protested that it had been obtained from him by duress, and with
+Ferdinand he appealed to Napoleon as arbiter. The latter forced them
+both to renounce their claims in favour of his brother Joseph. Everyone
+in South America was agreed not to recognise Joseph Bonaparte as King of
+Spain, but there was wide diversity of opinion as to what affirmative
+action ought to be taken. Most regarded Ferdinand as the legitimate
+king, but he was in a French prison. Charles still claimed the throne,
+while provisional governments were formed in many cities of Spain to
+resist the enthroning of Joseph. A central junta at Seville claimed to
+be the depositary of supreme executive power pending Ferdinand's return,
+and to this junta the Spaniards of the Plate gave their earnest and
+unhesitating allegiance. But the Creoles could not see their way clear
+to an unconditional recognition of such a self-constituted revolutionary
+body. Few believed that the Spanish patriots could withstand Napoleon's
+armies. If Spain had submitted to Joseph the various parts of South
+America would have become independent without any serious struggle. The
+"Goths" in the Plate were united in a definite policy--loyalty to the
+only Spanish government that was vindicating the nationality. The
+Creoles could agree on no affirmative programme, but all of them were
+determined that the "Goths" should not get the upper hand. The latter
+rose against Liniers and tried to install a junta on the model of that
+at Seville. In view of the menacing attitude of the Creole militia, the
+attempt was a failure, but the Frenchman did not have the resolution to
+maintain his advantage. The Seville junta finally named a Viceroy, and,
+though some of the resolute spirits among the militia leaders wished to
+resist, the majority shrank from open defiance of the highest existing
+Spanish authority. On the 30th of July, 1809, the new Viceroy took
+possession. He gained popularity by his decree declaring free commerce
+with all the world, but his next act opened the eyes of the Creoles to
+the real effect of the re-establishment of the Spanish system. He sent
+a thousand men to Charcas, in the northern part of the Viceroyalty, to
+aid in the bloody suppression of a revolutionary movement undertaken by
+the Creole inhabitants of that city. The story that shortly came back of
+wholesale confiscations and executions widened the breach between
+Spaniards and Creoles.
+
+Meanwhile, another crisis in Spanish home affairs was approaching.
+Napoleon's armies were sweeping the Peninsula from end to end. In the
+early months of 1810 they overran Andalusia, the centre of resistance.
+It seemed as if the subjection of Spain was about to be completed. On
+the 18th of May, Viceroy Cisneros issued a proclamation frankly
+revealing the critical situation of the Spanish patriot, and of the
+junta under whose commission he was acting. All classes of Buenos Aires
+immediately engaged in feverish discussions as to what should be done.
+The Spaniards wished to retain their privileged position; the Creoles
+were determined to put an end to discrimination against themselves.
+These were the real purposes of the two parties. The Spaniards did not
+especially favour absolutism, nor did the Creoles in general intend to
+renounce the sovereignty of Ferdinand, should he ever escape from
+captivity. Among the Creoles were many liberals, mostly young and ardent
+men, whom study and travel had convinced of the necessity for racial
+reform and colonial autonomy. Among their leaders were Saavedra,
+commander of the most efficient militia regiment; Vieytes, at whose
+house the meetings of the conspirators were held; Manuel Belgrano,
+afterwards the brains and right arm of the movement; and two eloquent
+young lawyers, Castelli and Paso. The active spirits conspired to depose
+the Viceroy, confident that this measure would be popular among all
+classes of Creoles. On the 22nd of May a committee of popular chiefs
+waited on him to demand his resignation. Resistance was futile, for he
+could not rely on the troops. They were Creoles and proud of the fact
+that Argentines had expelled the British. The office-holders tried to
+arrange a compromise by which an open Cabildo should elect the
+ex-Viceroy president of a new governing junta. The populace and the
+militia would not submit, and on the 25th of May--now celebrated as the
+anniversary of the establishment of Argentine liberty--a great armed
+assembly met in the Plaza. The Creole badge was blue and white--then
+adopted as the Argentine colours. The proceedings were frankly
+revolutionary. A junta was named from among the Creole leaders, and the
+Buenos Aires Cabildo obediently proclaimed this body the supreme
+authority of the Viceroyalty. There was no pretence of consulting the
+other provinces. Spanish constitutional law provided no machinery
+through which they could be heard, and the capital assumed, as a matter
+of course, the right of governing the dependencies.
+
+The events of the 25th of May were not intended to sever relations
+between Spain and Buenos Aires. The acts of the new government ran in
+the name of Ferdinand VII., King of Castile and Leon. An able and
+ambitious coterie of young men came to the front, whose achievements in
+war, administration, and diplomacy were to change the face of South
+America. In the neighbouring cities there were no spontaneous uprisings
+against the Spanish governors, but the Buenos Aires patriots lost no
+time in sending out armies to spread their liberal and anti-Spanish
+doctrines. The first movement was towards the old university town of
+Cordoba. Here ex-Viceroy Liniers had managed to get a few troops
+together, but not enough to make effective resistance. At the first
+encounter they were all captured, and the Buenos Aires junta immediately
+ordered the execution of the captured officers and of the anti-Creole
+chiefs. This barbarous act is a fair sample of the horrible
+bloodthirstiness of the war between Creoles and Spanish sympathisers. As
+a rule, both sides slew their prisoners, and the combats were,
+therefore, incredibly bloody for the numbers engaged.
+
+The Buenos Airean army continued its triumphal march through the
+provinces of Cordoba and Salta up to the Bolivian mountains. The Creole
+townspeople reorganised the municipal governments on an anti-Spanish
+basis, and the army increased like a rolling snowball. Not until it had
+reached the high lands of Bolivia was serious resistance encountered. On
+the 7th of November the patriots gained the battle of Suipacha. The
+Creoles of Bolivia rose, and the Buenos Aireans penetrated rapidly as
+far as the boundaries of the Viceroyalty. Meanwhile, Manuel Belgrano had
+led a small expedition to Paraguay. However, the inhabitants of that
+isolated region showed no disposition to join the Buenos Aireans in
+their revolutionary movement. The Spanish governor allowed Belgrano to
+advance nearly to Asuncion, but there his little army was overpowered
+and forced to surrender on honourable terms. Montevideo's capture seemed
+essential to the safety of Buenos Aires itself. Spanish ships under the
+orders of its governor blockaded the river and constantly menaced an
+attack on the patriot capital. Early in 1811, Artigas with a band of
+gauchos from Entre Rios crossed the Uruguay and overran the country up
+to the walls of the fortress, defeating the Spaniards in the battle of
+Piedras. Re-enforcements came from Buenos Aires, and a siege of
+Montevideo was begun.
+
+At this juncture news came of a great disaster in the north. The
+Argentines had at first been joined by Bolivian patriots, but the latter
+were jealous; and the former, bred on the plains, could not well endure
+the high altitude, suffering in health and efficiency. The Viceroy of
+Peru rapidly recruited a considerable army among the sturdy and obedient
+Indians of the high Peruvian plateau. On the 20th of June, 1811, the
+patriot army was attacked at Huaqui, near the southern end of Lake
+Titicaca, and was virtually annihilated. Bolivia was lost to the
+patriots and Spanish authority was re-established as far down as the
+Argentine plains.
+
+This great defeat completely changed the attitude of affairs. The
+Argentines evacuated Uruguay, and the Spanish colonial authorities
+everywhere took the offensive. The heroic resistance which the Spanish
+people were now making to the army of Napoleon's marshals encouraged
+the Viceroy and governor to believe that Ferdinand would soon again be
+seated on the throne of his fathers. Spanish ships dominated the delta
+of the Paraná, and the Spanish troops from Montevideo descended at
+pleasure on the banks of the Plate or its tributaries. The Spanish
+residents at Buenos Aires plotted against the junta, but their
+conspiracy was betrayed, and in the middle of 1812 their chiefs, to the
+number of thirty-eight, mostly wealthy merchants, were arrested and
+garrotted. The situation of the revolutionary government was so
+desperate that it is not hard to understand why the junta ruthlessly
+repressed all signs of disaffection. Victorious Spanish armies
+threatened them from both Bolivia and Montevideo, and fire in the rear
+would have been fatal.
+
+In this crisis of their fate, Manuel Belgrano, the great leader of the
+Buenos Aires Creoles, came to the front. A native of the city, he had
+been educated in Spain, where he had imbibed liberal principles. On his
+return he threw himself with all the prestige of his learning, talents,
+and wealth on the side of the Creoles. His faith in the triumph of
+liberal principles was unalterable, and he was a more radical advocate
+of independence than most of his associates. Though without military
+training, and though his expeditions in Paraguay and Uruguay had not
+been successful, his prestige and his unwavering confidence in the
+patriot cause pointed him out as naturally the fittest leader. Again he
+was entrusted with the command, and went north to Tucuman, where the
+disheartened fragments of the patriot army were fearfully waiting for
+the descent of the victorious Spaniards. The inhabitants of Jujuy and
+Salta had been driven from their homes, and for the first time gaucho
+horsemen appeared as the principal element of an Argentine army. The
+junta ordered Belgrano to retire, so as to protect Buenos Aires, but he
+disobeyed and stuck to Tucuman and let the Spaniards get between him and
+the capital. With the country up in arms, and the exasperated gauchos
+harassing his march, the Spanish general did not dare leave Belgrano's
+army behind him. The Spanish army turned back to Tucuman to finish with
+the mass of militia there before resuming its march on the capital. To
+the surprise of South America, the result was a decisive patriot
+victory. The gaucho cavalry, armed with knives and bolos, mounted on
+fleet little horses, carrying no baggage, and living on the cattle they
+killed at the end of each day's march, followed the fleeing Spaniards up
+into the mountains and inflicted enormous losses. This victory gave the
+Argentines for another year assurance against invasion by land, and
+Buenos Aires remained a focus whence anti-Spanish influences could
+spread over the rest of South America. The patriots again invaded
+Uruguay, shut up the Spaniards within the walls of Montevideo, and
+prepared once more to carry the war into Bolivia.
+
+  [Illustration: MANUEL BELGRANO.
+  [From an oil painting.]]
+
+All this while the government at Buenos Aires was involved in internal
+quarrels. The first junta soon expelled its fiercest, strongest, and
+most active spirit,--Moreno,--who seems to have been the only man of the
+period who foresaw the necessity of establishing a federative form of
+government. With the disaster of Huaqui the necessity for a more compact
+executive became urgent. A triumvirate assumed the direction of affairs.
+Its policy was at once despotic and feeble and satisfied neither
+federalists, advanced liberals, nor the military element. The latter was
+becoming daily more predominant. A radical republican society called the
+"Lautaro," composed largely of young officers, was organised and became
+virtually a ruling oligarchy. San Martin and Alvear arrived from Europe,
+and the prestige which they had acquired on European battle-fields at
+once secured for them prominent positions. When the news of the victory
+of Tucuman reached the city the military classes revolted, deposed the
+old triumvirate, and installed a new one. This revolution marked the
+final triumph of the sentiment of independence. The new government was
+active in every sense of the word. Belgrano was re-enforced; San Martin
+was encouraged in his chosen work of forming the nucleus of a
+disciplined army, fit for offensive warfare; the worn-out pretence of
+employing Ferdinand's name on public documents was dropped; the
+inquisition, the use of torture, and titles of nobility were abolished.
+The Argentine revolution had finally assumed a military and republican
+character; independence was clearly henceforth its end and purpose.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+COMPLETION OF THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+Belgrano followed up his victory at Tucuman by another invasion of the
+Bolivian plateau. Even to a trained general and a regular army such a
+campaign would have been difficult. The defective organisation of his
+hastily gathered militia, his own unfamiliarity with the art of war, and
+the fact that he was opposed by a clever commander whose army was better
+drilled and better adapted to operations in that high altitude, all
+conspired to leave the result in no doubt. October 1, 1813, he was badly
+defeated at Vilapugio, and six weeks later his army was nearly destroyed
+at Ayohuma. With the remnant he fled south to Argentine territory and
+was replaced in his command by San Martin.
+
+The advent of this consummate general and single-minded patriot
+revolutionised the character of the military operations. Unlike his
+predecessors and colleagues, he did not concern himself with political
+ambitions. He had but one purpose--to drive the Spaniards from South
+America; he knew but one way of achieving it--to whip them on the field
+of battle. He had none of the brilliantly attractive qualities, none of
+the eloquence or charm of most South American leaders; he had a horror
+of display, and made but one speech in all his life.
+
+By sheer force of will and attention to detail, he organised an
+efficient regular army. The victories that followed were as much due to
+his painstaking care and foresight as to his brilliant strategical
+combinations and admirable tactical dispositions. Because he thought
+another could finish his work better than himself he voluntarily
+resigned supreme power on the very eve of the campaign which expelled
+the last Spaniard from South America, and, disdaining to offer an
+explanation, went into life-long exile. So modest was he that his name
+and services well-nigh fell into oblivion. That he is now recognised as
+the saviour of South American liberty is due as much to the literary
+labours of the greatest of Argentine historians, Bartolomé Mitre, as to
+the spontaneous opinion of his countrymen during the first decades after
+his retirement.
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL SAN MARTIN.
+  [From a steel engraving.]]
+
+General San Martin was born on the 25th of February, 1778, in a little
+town which had been one of the Jesuit missions far up the Uruguay River.
+His mother was a Creole and his father a Spanish officer, who destined
+his son to his own profession. When a child of only eight, he was taken
+to the mother country and educated in the best military schools of
+Spain. At an early age he entered the army and served in all the many
+wars in which Spain engaged after the outbreak of the French Revolution.
+He saw much active service and became a thorough master of his
+profession. He imbibed liberal ideas and joined a secret society pledged
+to the work of establishing a republic in Spain and independent
+governments in her colonies. When the Spanish people rose against the
+French conquests, San Martin threw himself heart and soul into the
+conflict on the side of the patriots, and distinguished himself in the
+battles that opened the way to the recovery of Madrid. He was promoted
+to a lieutenant-colonelcy, but the next year he resigned his commission
+to return to his native land to aid her in her fight for independence.
+By a curious coincidence the ship that bore the South American who
+achieved the independence of his country was called the _George
+Canning_, after the European who, thirteen years later, did most to
+secure the independence of South America from external attack. He landed
+in Buenos Aires in March, 1812. At that moment the anti-Spanish
+revolution seemed everywhere to be on the point of suffocation. Bolivia
+and Uruguay were lost; the reaction was gaining ground in Venezuela;
+Chile was menaced by an army from Lima and shortly fell back into
+Spanish hands; Peru was steady for the old system. Only in Argentina and
+New Granada were the fires of insurrection still burning, and between
+them intervened Peru, the stronghold of Spanish power in South
+America--a citadel impregnable behind mountains, deserts, and the ocean.
+The War of Independence could only succeed by aggressive campaigns which
+must be conducted through difficult country and over the whole
+continent, and against forces superior in both numbers and equipment.
+
+San Martin's first step was to organise and drill some good regiments in
+Buenos Aires. He selected the finest physical and moral specimens of
+youth that the province afforded and subjected them to a rigid
+discipline. After his ruthless pruning only the born soldiers remained,
+and this select corps furnished generals and officers for the wars that
+followed. On succeeding Belgrano in command of the army of the north,
+San Martin saw at once that all attempts to conquer Peru by an advance
+through Bolivia were foredoomed to failure. A campaign over a
+mountainous plateau, with the Spaniards in possession of the strategic
+points, and the inhabitants divided in their sympathies, would be
+suicidal. On the other hand, to attack and defeat the Spanish forces in
+Peru itself was absolutely necessary. The three hundred thousand
+inhabitants of Argentina, distracted by intestine warfare, could not
+hope indefinitely to resist the Spanish power, backed by secure
+possession of the rest of the continent. Decisive victories were
+necessary to encourage the partisans of independence in Chile, Peru,
+Bolivia, and Ecuador.
+
+San Martin's solution of the problem was to organise an army on the
+eastern slope of the Andes; to invade Chile; to drive the Spaniards
+thence, and make that country the base of further operations; to
+improvise a fleet and with it gain command of the Pacific; and, finally,
+to attack Peru from the coast. The scheme seemed complicated, but San
+Martin was one of those rare geniuses born with a capacity for taking
+infinite pains, and his pertinacity was indefatigable. He foresaw and
+provided against every contingency and carried his plan to a triumphant
+conclusion. The story of the liberation of South America within the
+succeeding eight years might be completely told in the form of two
+biographies--San Martin's and Bolivar's.
+
+Trusting the defence of the Bolivian frontier to a few line soldiers and
+the gauchos of Salta, San Martin solicited and obtained an appointment
+as Governor of Cuyo. This province was directly east of the populous
+central part of Chile, and was the refuge of the patriot Chileans who
+had been compelled to flee into exile after quarrels among themselves
+had delivered their country to the Spaniards. His authority was purely
+military and derived only from the dictum of the revolutionary
+government at Buenos Aires, but San Martin was not a man to hesitate on
+account of scruples over constitutional questions. He laid the province
+under contribution and started to create an army capable of crossing the
+Andes and coping with the Spanish regulars in Chile. The inhabitants of
+Cuyo were determinedly anti-Spanish, brave, enduring, and enthusiastic.
+It was a good recruiting ground in itself; the Chilean exiles were
+numerous and all anxious to join in an effort to redeem their country.
+The government at Buenos Aires sent him a valuable addition in a corps
+of manumitted negro slaves, but his nucleus was the regiments which he
+himself had drilled at Buenos Aires. Though civil wars went on in the
+coast provinces, he was not to be diverted from his purpose. He kept
+aloof from them, and for three years laboured steadily, building his
+great war machine--recruiting, drilling, instructing officers, taxing
+his province, gathering provisions, building portable bridges, making
+powder, casting guns, organising his transport and commissariat.
+
+Meanwhile, Alvear, his old colleague in the Spanish army, had assumed
+the leading position in the oligarchy that ruled at Buenos Aires. He
+suppressed the triumvirate and placed his relative, Posadas, at the head
+of the government. The patriot armies were besieging Montevideo from the
+land side, but it was not until a fighting demon of an Irish merchant
+captain, William Brown, had been placed in command of a few ships which
+the Buenos Aireans had gathered, that there was any hope of reducing the
+place. This remarkable man was nearly as important a factor as San
+Martin himself in the war against Spain. With incredible audacity he
+attacked the Spanish ships wherever he found them. Numbers and odds made
+no difference, and he was never so dangerous as just after an apparent
+reverse. His victory of the 14th of June put the Spanish fleet out of
+commission; the reduction of Montevideo followed, as a matter of course;
+and the destruction of the Spanish sea power on the Atlantic side made
+San Martin's campaign on the Pacific coast possible.
+
+Civil wars broke out between the Buenos Aires oligarchy and local
+military chiefs in the gaucho provinces and soon hurled Posadas from
+power. He was succeeded by Alvear, but the commanders of the armies
+refused to recognise the latter's authority and an insurrection in
+Buenos Aires itself drove him, too, into exile. One military dictator
+succeeded another, while the provinces more and more ignored the Buenos
+Aires pretensions to hegemony. The frail fabric of the confederation
+fast crumbled into fragments. With the end of the Napoleonic wars
+re-enforcements began to arrive from Spain, and the royal arms were
+again victorious and threatened to wipe out the distracted Republic.
+Rondeau, one of the generals who had helped depose Posadas and Alvear,
+had been rewarded with command of the army of the north. Disregarding
+the experience of his predecessors, he made the third great effort to
+conquer Bolivia and strike at the heart of Spanish power in Peru by the
+overland route. His campaign ended with the crushing defeat at
+Sipe-Sipe. Considerable Spanish forces followed him down into the
+Argentine plains, but, as San Martin had predicted, the gaucho cavalry
+under Guëmes were able to keep back their advance.
+
+Belgrano and Rivadavia had been sent to Spain in 1813 to try to arrange
+terms on the basis of autonomy, or the making of Buenos Aires a separate
+kingdom under some member of the Spanish family. They were informed that
+nothing except unconditional submission would be accepted, and they were
+then ordered to leave Madrid. Scheme after scheme was presented in
+Buenos Aires, discussed, and abandoned. Belgrano wanted to make a
+descendant of the Incas emperor of South America. Others wished to offer
+submission to Great Britain in return for a protectorate. The English
+government rejected the overtures. A more popular idea was to elect a
+monarch from the Portuguese Braganza family, then reigning in Brazil.
+The only definite result of all these confused negotiations was a formal
+declaration of independence made on the 9th of July, 1816, by a Congress
+at which most of the provinces were represented, and which met in the
+city of Tucuman. Many of the members had no hope of being able to
+enforce such a declaration. However, it cleared the way for obtaining
+foreign help, and negotiations were continued with a view to inducing
+some European prince to accept the throne.
+
+Artigas, the independent military chieftain of Uruguay and Entre Rios,
+attacked in 1813 the Missions to the left of Upper Uruguay which the Rio
+Grande Brazilians had seized twelve years before. He was defeated by the
+troops of John VI., who followed him into Uruguay proper and in 1816
+captured Montevideo. Though the Buenos Aireans had been compelled to
+concede Uruguay's independence, this movement excited among them an
+intense jealousy of the Portuguese. The scheme for a Braganza monarch at
+once became unpopular and impracticable.
+
+The taciturn general in Cuyo was, however, preparing a thunderbolt that
+would clear the Argentine sky of all these clouds except that most
+portentous of all--civil war. After three years of incessant
+preparation, San Martin believed that his army was ready to undertake
+the great campaign. Though it numbered only four thousand men, it was
+the most efficient body of troops that ever gathered on South American
+soil. Among the Argentine contingent were the picked youth of Buenos
+Aires and the provinces--reckless, enthusiastic youths whose ambition,
+patriotism, or love of adventure made them willing to follow anywhere
+San Martin might dare to lead. Not inferior to their white comrades were
+the manumitted negroes. The cruelest charges and the heaviest losses
+fell to their lot and few of them ever returned over the Andes. The
+Chilean exiles were picked men--those who preferred death to submission,
+or who had offended so deeply that their only hope of seeing their homes
+was to return sword in hand. This force had been drilled and instructed
+in all the art of war as practised during the Napoleonic era by San
+Martin himself, a veteran soldier of the great European campaigns--one
+who had fought with Wellington and against Massena and Soult. He was
+indefatigable in attending to details, and he seems to have foreseen
+everything. The last months were spent in preparing rations of parched
+corn and dried beef; in gathering mules for mountain transportation, and
+in making sledges to be used on the slopes which were too steep for
+cannon on wheels. The most careful calculations were made of the
+distances to be traversed; every route was surveyed; spies were in every
+pass; the Spaniards were kept in uncertainty as to which of the numerous
+passes along hundreds of miles of frontier would be used for the attack.
+San Martin's real intentions were not revealed by him even to the
+members of his staff until the very eve of the advance.
+
+When summer came in 1817, and all the passes were freed from snow, he
+was ready. In the middle of January he broke camp at Mendoza and divided
+his army into two divisions. Directly to the west was the Uspallata
+Pass, then as now the usual route between western Argentina and central
+Chile. Its Chilean outlet opens into the plain of Aconcagua, which is
+north of Santiago and only separated from that capital by one transverse
+spur of the Andes. Off to the north was the more difficult pass of
+Patos, its eastern entrance also easily accessible from Mendoza, though
+by a longer detour, and opening at its other end into the same valley of
+Aconcagua. The smaller of the two divisions was to advance over the
+Uspallata Pass, so timing its movements as to reach the open ground of
+the Aconcagua valley at the same time as the larger division, which,
+under San Martin himself, went to the north around the Patos route. The
+Spaniards had a guard at the summit of the Uspallata Pass, but the
+advance troops of the Argentines charged it. Before re-enforcements
+could come up, the division was over and advancing confidently down the
+cañon on the Chilean side. Had the Spaniards sent up a force sufficient
+to prevent the Uspallata division from debouching on to the Aconcagua
+plain it would have been caught in a trap. The second division could
+have bottled it up from below by leaving a small body at the mouth of
+the cañon. But before the Spanish commander had made up his mind what to
+do, news came that another army was rapidly coming down the valley
+leading into the Aconcagua valley from the north. Disconcerted by this
+attack from an unexpected direction, the Spanish commander hastened off
+with an inadequate force to repel it. He did not reach a defensible
+point in time; his vanguard was defeated and he retreated along the
+highroad to Santiago, leaving San Martin to reunite his two divisions at
+his leisure in the broad Aconcagua plain. Though the army had crossed
+the Andes over two of the loftiest and steepest passes in the world, so
+admirably had all dispositions been made that hardly a stop was
+necessary to refit and recruit. Artillery and cavalry, as well as
+infantry, were ready within four days after reaching the Chilean side to
+take up the pursuit of the Spaniards.
+
+Marco, the Spanish governor, had not had sufficient time to concentrate
+his scattered regiments since the first news had come that San Martin
+was coming in force by the northern passes. Of his five thousand men
+only two thousand were able to get between San Martin's advance and
+Santiago. The Argentine general was sure of having the largest numbers
+at the point of conflict, but the Spanish troops were veterans of the
+Peninsula and were commanded by a skilful and resolute general. He
+concentrated his force in a strong position in a valley on the south
+side of the transverse range that separates Santiago from the Aconcagua
+valley. He had hoped to make his stand at the top of the pass, there
+four thousand feet high, but San Martin had been too quick for him.
+However, the position was admirable for a stubborn defence. The highroad
+to Santiago descended from the pass down a narrow valley, which, just in
+front of the Spanish position, opened into a larger valley running at
+right angles. The artillery of the Spaniards commanded the narrow mouth
+of the upper valley, and on a side hill there was room to deploy the
+infantry and cavalry. The Argentine troops would be enfiladed in the
+close gut before they could form in line of battle. San Martin employed
+the tactics of the Persians at Thermopylæ. There was an abandoned road
+running over the summit a little to the west of the travelled route and
+debouching into the same valley a little below the Spanish position.
+Through this O'Higgins, the chief of San Martin's Chilean allies, at two
+o'clock in the morning of February 12th, started with eighteen hundred
+men. By eleven he had reached the main valley and turned up it to attack
+the Spaniards on their left flank. His first assault, made without
+waiting for the other division to come down in front, was repulsed. San
+Martin, sitting on his war-horse on the heights above, galloped down the
+slope, leaving orders to hasten the descent of the main body. As he
+reached the lower ground and joined the Chileans, he saw the head of his
+main column appear through the mouth of the pass. O'Higgins again
+attacked, and the Spaniards, taken in flank and with their centre
+assailed in _échelon_ by the Argentine squadrons and battalions, were at
+a hopeless disadvantage. The position of their infantry was carried by
+the bayonet, while the patriot cavalry charged the artillery and sabred
+the men at their guns. The infantry were the flower of the Spanish
+regulars; they formed a square and for a time held their stand. Finally,
+surrounded on three sides, their artillery gone, and fighting against
+double their number, they broke and retreated over the broken ground in
+their rear. Less than half escaped and a quarter were killed on the
+field and in the pursuit. The patriots lost only twelve killed and one
+hundred and twenty wounded.
+
+Though the numbers engaged were insignificant, and though the victory
+was easily won, the battle of Chacabuco was decisive in the struggle
+between Spain and her revolted subjects in the southern colonies. Since
+the outbreak of 1810 the revolutionary cause had been losing not alone
+territory but morale, conviction, and self-confidence. Spanish authority
+seemed certain finally to be completely re-established, perhaps by a
+compromise and concession of autonomy, but still on a basis gratifying
+to the pride of the mother country. The day before San Martin started on
+his march over the Andes, Chile was quietly submissive; Uruguay was
+occupied by Portuguese troops; Argentina was a mere loose aggregation of
+discordant and warring provinces, whose most intelligent statesmen had
+nearly given up hope of peace and autonomy, except by foreign aid or
+submission to some alien monarch. But the day after Chacabuco the
+Spanish governor was flying from Santiago to the coast; Chile had
+become, and has remained, independent. In Argentina there was no more
+talk of Portuguese princes, of British protectorates, of compromise with
+Spain. The declaration of Tucuman had become a reality. There was much
+more hard fighting still to be done, and time after time during the next
+seven years the final result seemed to tremble in the balance, but hope
+and national spirit had been so aroused in South America that defeat was
+never irremediable.
+
+The rest of San Martin's military career belongs rather to the history
+of Chile and Peru than to that of Argentina. It is enough to say that
+he established his friend O'Higgins as dictator of Chile, thus assuring
+her co-operation in the prosecution of the war against Peru. Spanish
+successes in Chile and civil war in Argentina delayed for years his
+overmatching the Spanish naval power on the Pacific. Without command of
+the sea he would have had to march his army up a desert coast between
+the Cordillera and the ocean--an undertaking almost impossible. The help
+of the Buenos Aires fleet was essential and so was the aid of the
+Argentine treasury in buying more ships and paying foreign seamen. His
+friends at Buenos Aires were struggling for their lives against their
+rivals for supreme power. To San Martin's demand for assistance they
+responded by begging him first to use his army to crush the rebellion.
+That he refused them in their hour of bitter need has been pointed out
+as a blot upon his fame, but his resolution was Spartan. Not even
+the considerations of gratitude to personal friends diverted him
+from his great purpose. He had that element of supremely great
+achievement--steadfastness to adhere to a purpose once conceived that
+nothing could shake. Puerreyedon might be driven into exile; the warring
+factions might tear Argentina into fragments, and jealous Cochrane might
+unjustly accuse him; the ambitious and selfish Bolívar might regard him
+only as an obstacle to his own supremacy; none of these things could
+change his course or alter his devotion to the one great purpose of his
+life.
+
+In 1820 he finally started up the coast, and in four months, without a
+pitched battle, he had rendered the Spanish position on the coast of
+Peru untenable. He met Bolívar at Guayaquil, and the personal interview
+between the liberators of the northern and southern halves of South
+America was the end of San Martin's public career. He went to it with
+the purpose of arranging a joint campaign to drive the Spanish from
+their last stronghold, the highlands of Peru. But Bolívar did not see
+his own way clear to co-operation. San Martin explained his predicament
+to no one; he uttered no word of complaint or regret; he simply gave up
+the command of the army which he had led for seven years and resigned
+the Dictatorship of Peru. There was no place for him in distracted
+Argentina except as a leader in the civil wars--a rôle he disdained. He
+went into exile without saying a word as to the reasons for his action.
+Rather than precipitate a division between the patriots before the last
+Spaniard had been driven from South America, he submitted in silence to
+the reproach of cowardice. Rather than jeopard independence he
+sacrificed home, money, honours, even reputation itself. The history of
+the world records few examples of finer civic virtue.
+
+The rest of his life he spent poverty-stricken in Paris. Only once he
+tried to return to his native country. At Montevideo he heard that
+Buenos Aires was in the throes of another revolution and that his
+presence might be misconstrued. Without a word, he took the next ship
+back to Europe. For many years his struggles against poverty and
+ill-health were pathetic. It was the generosity of a Spaniard, and not
+a fellow-countryman, that relieved the last days of his life. But
+throughout those weary thirty years he never wavered in his devotion to
+South America. His last utterance about public affairs was a vehement
+laudation of Rosas--tyrant though he thought him--because the latter had
+defied France and England when they disregarded Argentina's rights as a
+sovereign member of the family of nations.
+
+  [Illustration: PLAZADE MAYO AND CATHEDRAL AT BUENOS AIRES.
+  [From a lithograph.]]
+
+Reading was the only resource left to lighten his old age, and his last
+months were embittered by the approach of blindness. His heart began to
+be affected, symptoms of an aneurism appeared, and he went to Boulogne
+to take the sea air. Standing one day on the beach he felt the awful
+shock of pain that announced his approaching end. "Gasping and raising
+his hand to his heart, he turned with a touching smile to that daughter
+who ever followed him like a latter-day Antigone, and said, '_C'est
+l'orage qui mene au port_.' On the 17th of August, 1850, being
+seventy-two years of age, he expired in the arms of his beloved
+daughter. Chile and Argentina have raised him statues; Peru has decreed
+a monument to his memory. The Argentine nation, at last one and united
+as he had ever desired, has brought back his sacred remains and
+celebrated his apotheosis. To-day his tomb may be seen in the
+metropolitan cathedral, bearing witness for Argentina to his just
+distinction as the greatest of all her men of action."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE ERA OF CIVIL WARS
+
+
+For half a century, from 1812 to 1862, the story of Argentina is one of
+almost continual civil wars, of disturbances, and armed revolutions
+affecting every part of the Republic. But through the confused records
+of this half-century there runs the thread of a steady tendency and
+purpose. The nation was instinctively seeking to establish an
+equilibrium between its centripetal and centrifugal forces, between the
+spirit of local autonomy and the necessity for union. At the same time,
+the irrepressible conflict between military and civil principles of
+government was fought out. Argentina emerged strong and united, while
+the provinces retained the right of local self-government, and the
+military classes were relegated to their proper subordinate position as
+servants of the civil and industrial interests of the community. When
+studied in detail the story of the civil wars is confusing and tedious:
+it is my purpose to omit all that does not bear on the final rational
+and beneficent result.
+
+At the outset of the revolution against Spain, the oligarchy of
+liberals who ruled Buenos Aires assumed the sovereignty of the whole
+Viceroyalty. They regarded themselves as successors to the power of the
+Viceroy himself, and attempted to rule the outlying provinces with no
+more regard for the latter's interests than if they had been delegates
+of an absolute monarch. Though the people of the city of Buenos Aires
+often quarrelled as to what individual should exercise the supreme
+power, they were united in insisting that the capital should continue to
+enjoy the privileges and exclusive commercial rights with which the
+Spanish system had endowed it. Hardly had the revolution begun when the
+districts in the neighbourhood of Buenos Aires showed symptoms of revolt
+against the central authorities. The cities of Santa Fé, Concepcion, and
+Corrientes, each with its dependent territory, aspired to the status of
+independent provinces. Military chieftains, called "caudillos,"
+organised the gauchos, who were excellent cavalry ready-made to their
+hands, and defied the Buenos Aires oligarchy. José Artigas, a fierce
+chieftain of the plains on the Lower Uruguay, gathered about him a
+considerable army from among the gauchos east of the Paraná, and did
+more than the Buenos Aireans themselves to shut up the Spaniards in the
+fortress of Montevideo. He refused to accept the concessions offered by
+the Buenos Aires oligarchy, and a desperate civil war broke out. Buenos
+Aires successively lost Uruguay, Entre Rios, Corrientes, and Santa Fé.
+The fighting was bloody and these districts were all terribly
+devastated. Cordoba and the Andean provinces also refused to recognise
+the validity of orders emanating from Buenos Aires. By the year 1818 all
+the provinces were practically independent of Buenos Aires, though the
+latter abated not a jot of her pretensions to hegemony, and continued to
+send troops against the various caudillos. Her armies obeyed their own
+generals rather than the orders of the central government. In
+desperation the oligarchy finally peremptorily ordered San Martin and
+Belgrano to bring down their armies from the western and northern
+frontiers and suppress the independent chiefs. San Martin refused to
+obey, but the imaginative, warm-hearted Belgrano was not made of the
+same sterling stuff. He managed to lead the army of the north as far as
+the province of Cordoba, but at Arequito the troops, at the instigation
+of ambitious officers, revolted and scattered. Many joined the
+caudillos, and on the 1st of February the provincials completely
+overthrew the Buenos Aires militia in the decisive battle of Cepeda.
+
+This ended for a time the capital's pretensions to hegemony.
+Decentralisation went on apace. Cuyo dissolved into the three provinces
+of Mendoza, San Luiz, and San Juan; the old intendencia of Salta became
+four new provinces,--Santiago del Estero, Tucuman, Catamarca, and
+Salta,--to which a fifth was added when the city of Jujuy erected itself
+into a separate jurisdiction in 1834. From the Cordoba of colonial times
+Rioja split off, while the intendencia of Buenos Aires had been divided
+into four great provinces, Santa Fé, Corrientes, Entre Rios, and Buenos
+Aires, besides the independent nation of Uruguay. Each of these
+provinces practically corresponded with the leading city and its
+dependent territory, and the Cabildo of each municipality was the basis
+of new local government.
+
+This process was spontaneous, and the provinces then formed have ever
+since been the units of the Argentine confederation. To many intelligent
+patriots of the time, however, decentralisation seemed to be only a sure
+sign of swiftly approaching anarchy. Power fell more and more into the
+hands of the military leaders, and war became almost the normal
+condition of the country. During the four years from 1820 to 1824, there
+was no material change in the position of the contending forces. The
+provinces much desired to make a confederation of which Buenos Aires
+should be an equal member, but the latter refused and only waited for an
+opportunity in order to renew her pretensions to hegemony.
+
+Two opposing tendencies were, however, at work which soon created two
+parties within the walls of Buenos Aires itself. Commercial interests
+had suffered so severely in the civil wars, and communications were so
+uncertain and so burdened with arbitrary exactions by the provincials,
+that the property-holding classes began to press hard upon the
+office-holders of the oligarchy with demands for an accommodation and
+some sort of a union with the provinces. This was the beginning of the
+federalist party, which naturally found efficient support among the
+cattle-herding inhabitants on the great pampas of the province of Buenos
+Aires.
+
+On the other hand, the unitarians were becoming more compact, more
+determined, and more definite in their purposes. Rivadavia, the greatest
+constructive statesman of the era, undertook the reform of the laws and
+the administration. He created the University of Buenos Aires; founded
+hospitals and asylums; introduced ecclesiastical and military reform;
+bettered the land laws, and infused into the legislation a modern
+spirit. The improved tone of political thought tended to stimulate a
+more general and rational discussion of a _modus vivendi_ with the
+provinces. The federalists favoured the establishment of a system like
+that of the United States, while the unitarians clung to the idea of a
+nation organised more after the model of the French Republic.
+
+In 1825 the provinces were represented at a general constituent congress
+which assembled in Buenos Aires. After much discussion the unitarians,
+with Rivadavia at their head, finally obtained control. In 1826 he was
+elected executive chief of the federation. This election, however, did
+not make him president in fact. Recognition from the Cabildos and the
+caudillos was practically of greater importance than the vote of a
+congress of delegates who were unable to insure the acquiescence of
+their constituencies. Rivadavia's favourite plan of placing the city of
+Buenos Aires directly under the control of the central government
+excited bitter opposition among the federalists of Buenos Aires. Under
+their leader, Manuel Dorrego, they protested vehemently against the
+dismemberment of their home province.
+
+Meanwhile the crazy fabric was subjected to the strain of a serious
+foreign war. In 1825 the country districts of Uruguay rose against their
+Brazilian rulers. The Argentines went wild with joy when they heard of
+the victory which the gauchos won over the imperial forces at Sarandi.
+Congress promptly decreed that Uruguay had reunited herself to the
+confederation. The Emperor's answer was a declaration of war and a
+blockade of Buenos Aires. The fighting Irish sailor, Admiral William
+Brown, again came to the front, and his daring seamanship rendered the
+Brazilian blockade ineffective. He destroyed a large division of their
+fleet at the battle of Juncal, while fast Baltimore clippers, commanded
+by English and Yankee privateer captains, swept Brazilian commerce from
+the seas. Late in 1826 an Argentine army of eight thousand men was
+assembled for the invasion of Rio Grande do Sul. Alvear, now returned
+from exile, was entrusted with its command, and on the 20th of February,
+1827, the Brazilians were overwhelmingly defeated at Ituzaingo, far
+within their own boundary. The Argentines were not able to follow up
+their victory, and shortly returned to Uruguayan territory, but the
+Emperor was never again able to undertake an aggressive campaign.
+Negotiations for peace were begun, and Rivadavia's envoy signed a treaty
+by which Uruguay was to remain a part of the empire of Brazil. A storm
+of indignation broke forth at Buenos Aires, and Rivadavia had to disavow
+his minister and continue the war. The blow to his prestige was,
+however, mortal; the federalists had, indeed, never ceased to make war
+against him; and the unitarian constitution which Congress had adopted
+at his dictation was rejected unanimously by the provinces. He resigned,
+and Dorrego, chief of the unitarians, succeeded him as nominal executive
+chief of the confederation. In reality, however, the Republic was
+divided into five quasi-independent military states. Dorrego ruled in
+Buenos Aires, Lopez in Santa Fé, Ibarra in Santiago, Bustos in Cordoba,
+and Quiroga in Cuyo.
+
+Many of the officers of the army which had been victorious at Ituzaingo
+were dissatisfied with the triumph of Dorrego at Buenos Aires. They
+belonged to the unitarian party, and they were anxious themselves to
+usurp the places of the various caudillos. The first division that
+reached Buenos Aires after the signing of the preliminary peace with
+Brazil raised the standard of rebellion in the city itself. General
+Lavalle declared himself Governor, while Dorrego fled to the interior,
+only to be pursued, captured, and shot, without the form of trial, by
+Lavalle's personal order. This began the fiercest and bloodiest civil
+war which ever desolated the Argentine. The gauchos of the southern
+provinces rose _en masse_ to fight the unitarian regulars, while the
+generals of the latter began a series of campaigns against all the
+federalist provincial governments and caudillos. General Paz advanced on
+Cordoba to give battle to Bustos, while Lavalle's forces invaded Santa
+Fé. Rosas, the chief of southern Buenos Aires, had rallied the
+federalists of that province. He himself joined Lopez, the caudillo of
+Santa Fé, while he left behind a considerable force of his gauchos to
+threaten the city from the south. Lavalle sent some of his best
+regiments against the latter body, but to his surprise his veterans were
+completely cut to pieces by the fierce riders of the plains. He himself
+had to retreat to Buenos Aires, while Rosas and Lopez defeated him under
+the very walls of the city.
+
+These victories made the Buenos Aires federalist leader, Juan Manuel
+Rosas, the chief figure in Argentine affairs. Thenceforth, for more than
+twenty years, he was the absolute dictator and tyrant of Buenos Aires.
+The most bitterly hated man in Argentine history, probably no other
+leader had as profound an influence in preparing the Argentine nation
+for the consolidation which was so shortly to follow his own fall from
+power. His personal characteristics and his public career are equally
+interesting. The scion of a wealthy Buenos Aires family, from his
+childhood he devoted himself to cattle-raising on the vast family
+estates of the southern pampas. He became the model and idol of the
+gauchos. By the time he was twenty-five, he was the acknowledged king of
+the southern pampas, with a thousand hard-riding, half-savage horsemen
+obeying his orders. In 1820 he and his regiment were chief factors in
+the revolution that placed General Rodriguez in power at Buenos Aires.
+Through the more peaceful years that followed, his power grew until he
+was the acknowledged head of the country people of Buenos Aires province
+and their champion against the city. He had been fairly well educated,
+his information was wide, and his intellectual abilities were of a high
+order. But he thoroughly identified his tastes and prejudices with those
+of his rude followers, and in politics he was fiercely unitarian. The
+victories of 1829 over Lavalle placed him in supreme power at Buenos
+Aires and made him the nominal head of the whole Argentine.
+
+His real power was, however, far from extending over the whole
+territory. General Paz with his veterans of the Brazilian war had
+expelled Bustos from Cordoba and firmly established himself as ruler of
+that province. Quiroga, the redoubtable caudillo of the Cuyo province,
+gathered his swarms of fierce gauchos from the western pampas in the
+slopes of the Andes, and descended to the very walls of Cordoba, there
+to be twice defeated with awful slaughter by General Paz. The latter
+followed up his victories by establishing unitarian governments in the
+north-western provinces. In Cuyo he was not so successful, and Quiroga
+managed to sustain himself. Rosas came to the rescue of the despairing
+federalists with the whole force of Buenos Aires. In that province all
+opposition to him had been crushed and he was able to send a strong army
+against Cordoba which surprised and captured General Paz himself. This
+misfortune demoralised the unitarians. The federalists and the terrible
+Quiroga again triumphed in most of the western provinces. It is
+estimated that more than twenty-three thousand unitarians fell in
+battle. Part of Paz's army retired to Tucuman and were there surrounded
+by an overwhelming force under Quiroga. Though their position was
+hopeless they did not offer to surrender, nor would quarter have been
+given them had they asked it. In these internecine conflicts, the beaten
+side usually fought it out to the last man, selling their lives as
+dearly as possible. Five hundred prisoners taken at Tucuman were shot in
+cold blood, and only a few small bands escaped to Bolivia.
+
+Rosas filled the offices in the provinces with his partisans, while the
+obsequious authorities of the capital conferred upon him the
+high-sounding title, "Restorer of the Laws." He made a feint or two of
+resigning the governorship, and in fact left it in other hands while he
+led an army against the Indians of the South. He soon returned with the
+prestige of having extended white domination far beyond its former
+boundaries. After much show of reluctance, in 1835 he accepted the title
+of Governor and Captain-General, and a special statute expressly
+confided to him the whole "sum of the public power."
+
+The thousands of murders, betrayals, and treasons of the long civil wars
+had sapped the foundations of good faith in human kindness. The
+unitarians were mere outlaws, their property was constantly subject to
+confiscation, and their lives were never safe. Rosas himself, least of
+all, could confide in the faithfulness of his partisans. Things had come
+to such a pass that no one could rule except by force. Whoever was in
+power was sure to be hated by the majority and plotted against by many,
+though he might have been raised to command by the acclamation of the
+whole population. Rosas was a product of the conditions that surrounded
+him. Belgrano, Rivadavia, and every one who had tried to establish a
+civil government had failed. The forces of militarism and federalism had
+been too strong for them. From among the ambitious military chieftains
+the strongest and fittest survived. Rosas understood the conditions
+under which he held power and took the measures his experience had
+taught him would be most effective in preserving it. He undertook to
+forestall revolt by creating a reign of terror; he replaced the blue and
+white of Buenos Aires by red--the colour of his own faction; the wearing
+of a scrap of blue was considered proof of treason. A club of
+desperadoes, called the Massorca, was formed of men sworn to do his
+bidding, even though it might be to murder their own relatives. No one
+suspected of disaffection was safe for a day. Sometimes a warning was
+given so that the victim might flee, leaving his property to be
+confiscated; sometimes he was dragged from his bed and stabbed. The
+charge of deliberate bloodthirstiness against Rosas is, however, hardly
+borne out by the facts. For political reasons he did not hesitate to
+kill, and to kill cruelly, but he did not kill for the mere sake of
+killing.
+
+He was passionately jealous of foreign interference. Early in his reign
+he quarrelled with the government of France over questions in regard to
+the domicile and obligations of foreign residents. The French fleet,
+assisted later by that of Great Britain, blockaded Buenos Aires. But
+Rosas defied their combined power; although in this very year (1835) he
+was menaced by a formidable invasion from the banished unitarians. In
+Uruguay the "colorados" occupied Montevideo and had formed a close
+alliance with the Argentine exiles. Montevideo was the centre of
+resistance to Rosas and from its walls went out expeditions to end the
+revolts which continually broke forth. In 1842 the allied unitarians and
+colorados suffered a great defeat from Rosas's right arm in the field,
+General Urquiza, and thenceforth Oribe, chief of the Uruguayan "blancos"
+besieged the colorados in Montevideo and controlled the country
+districts. This apparently ended all hope of expelling Rosas from power.
+The emigration of the intelligent and high-spirited youth of Buenos
+Aires to Montevideo and Chile increased. Among these exiles and martyrs
+to their devotion to constitutional government were many Argentines who
+shortly rose to the top in politics and whose abilities gave a great
+impulse to the intellectual movement. Among them were Mitre, Vicente
+Lopez, Sarmiento, Valera, and Echeverria, who share the honour of
+establishing civil government in Buenos Aires, and who aided Urquiza in
+preventing South America from becoming a military empire, and in uniting
+the Argentine province into a stable nation.
+
+  [Illustration: BUENOS AIRES IN 1845.
+  [From a steel engraving.]]
+
+The longer the tyrant reigned, the less men remembered their own
+factional divisions. Practically the whole civil population of the
+capital was ready to support a rebellion. Rosas, however, was to fall,
+not by a revolution in Buenos Aires, but because his system was
+inconsistent with the local autonomy of the provinces. He put his
+partisans into power as military governors, but no bond was strong
+enough to keep them faithful to his interests. As soon as they were well
+established in their satrapies, they became jealous of their own
+prerogatives and of the rights of their people. Rosas ceased to be a
+real federalist when he made Buenos Aires the centre of his power. He
+lived there, he raised most of his revenue there, and the city's
+interests became in a sense synonymous with his own. He excluded
+foreigners from the provinces, he forbade direct communication between
+the banks of the Paraná and Uruguay and the outside world. Everything
+was required to be trans-shipped at Buenos Aires so that it might be
+subject to duty.
+
+The chief lieutenant of Rosas was General Urquiza, whom he had appointed
+governor of Entre Rios. The latter's generalship overcame the unitarian
+rebellions in that province and repelled the invasions from Uruguay.
+Under his wise and moderate rule the province flourished and recovered
+from the devastations of the previous civil wars. Its fertile plains
+were covered with magnificent herds of cattle and horses, which fed and
+mounted an admirable cavalry. Urquiza himself was the greatest rancher
+in the province and could raise an army from his own estates. Entrenched
+between the vast-moving floods of the Uruguay and Paraguay, he was
+practically safe from attack, and his relations with his neighbours in
+Corrientes, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Brazil were those of warm friendship
+and alliance, as soon as he had declared against the tyrant, who, seated
+at the mouth of the Plate, cut off the countries above from free access
+to the sea. Though Urquiza was a caudillo he had no such ambition for
+supreme power as plagued Rosas. He was even-tempered, of simple tastes,
+and careless of military glory.
+
+In 1846 the rupture between him and Rosas came, and thenceforth he
+devoted himself to the overthrow of the tyrant. Three times his attacks
+failed; but, in 1851, he arranged an alliance with Brazil and with the
+colorado faction in Uruguay. The war was opened by Urquiza's crossing
+the Uruguay and, in conjunction with a Brazilian army, suddenly falling
+upon the blancos, who, in alliance with Rosas, were besieging
+Montevideo. Most of the defeated forces joined his army, and accompanied
+by his Brazilian and Uruguayan allies he recrossed the Uruguay and moved
+over the Entre Rios plains to a point on the Paraná just at the head of
+the delta. The Brazilian fleet penetrated up the river to protect his
+crossing, and on the 24th of December the entire force of twenty-four
+thousand men, the largest which up to that time had ever assembled in
+South America, was safely over and encamped on the dry pampas of Santa
+Fé. The road to Buenos Aires was open. Rosas could do nothing but wait
+there and trust all to the result of a single battle. On the 3rd of
+February he was crushingly defeated in the battle of Caseros, fought
+within a few miles of the city. Of the twenty thousand men he led into
+action half proved treacherous, and many of his principal officers
+betrayed him. He took refuge at the British Legation, and thence was
+sent on board a man-of-war which carried him into exile.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+CONSOLIDATION
+
+
+After forty years of struggle no formula had been found which would
+satisfy the aspirations for local self-government and at the same time
+secure the external union so essential to the welfare of the whole
+country. The questions between the provinces and Buenos Aires, and
+between the different cities which were rivals in the race for national
+leadership, seemed to a superficial glance to be as far as ever from
+solution. There had, however, been a shifting of the material balance of
+power which was soon to change the situation. The provinces had suffered
+most severely from the long civil wars. Corrientes was well-nigh a
+desert, in Santa Fé the Indians roamed up to the gates of the capital
+town, and the Andean provinces were isolated and poor. The long peace
+under Rosas's rule had increased the wealth and population of Buenos
+Aires. The city lost hundreds of enthusiastic young liberals, but it
+gained thousands who fled from the disorders of the interior. Its
+population had doubled since his accession. Thirty thousand English,
+Irish, and Scotch had crowded in to engage in sheep-raising, and the
+rural population of Buenos Aires province was nearly two hundred
+thousand. City and country together had doubled, while the rest of the
+confederation had only increased one-half. The capital province now
+contained twenty-seven per cent. of the total population, and the
+disproportion in wealth and percentage of foreigners was far greater.
+The number of sheep increased from two and a half million in 1830 to
+five times that number, and by 1850 there were eight million cattle and
+three million horses in the single province.
+
+All over the country rational ideas about government had made progress.
+The people were thoroughly sickened of military rule. Civilisation,
+education, and general intelligence were spreading their beneficent
+influences; industry, commerce, and the pursuit of wealth were absorbing
+more of the national energies.
+
+Urquiza, greatest of the caudillos, saw that without peace and union
+Entre Rios could not be insured prosperity. He had no sooner entered
+Buenos Aires than he took measures looking to the framing and adoption
+of a federal constitution. After his victory he was named provisional
+director of the confederation, but he showed no wish to play the rôle of
+a Rosas. All the governors met and agreed to the calling of a
+Constituent Congress, in which each province was to have an equal vote.
+As a further precaution against the predominance of Buenos Aires the
+session was to be held in Santa Fé. The provinces were anxious to form a
+strong federation and the only opposition came from Buenos Aires. Her
+statesmen did not realise that she was bound to be the centre of the
+system and that the pull of her superior mass would, before many years,
+be sufficient to control the aberrations of the satellites. Though the
+governor of Buenos Aires had agreed on behalf of his province, and
+though Urquiza's military power was overwhelming, the legislature of
+that province refused its assent. It was clear that Buenos Aires and the
+other provinces would not be able to agree upon a basis of union. The
+ambitious cities of the interior each aspired to take the place of
+Buenos Aires as the capital, and to this humiliation the latter city
+would never submit unless after another civil war.
+
+Urquiza determined not to use force, and retired to his ranch. As soon
+as he was out of sight, the city rose in arms against his nominees. The
+broad-minded Entre Rios chieftain sent back word that he had won the
+battle of Caseros for the sole purpose of giving Buenos Aires her
+liberty and that he would not now intervene to prevent her making the
+use of it she chose. He even disbanded his troops. However, when the
+Buenos Aireans marched an army to the attack of Santa Fé where the
+Constituent Congress, attended by delegates from all the other
+provinces, was holding its sessions, he again took the field. A
+counter-revolution broke out in the rural districts of the Buenos Aires
+province against the faction dominant in the city. Urquiza joined his
+forces to theirs and besieged the town. A land siege was useless without
+a blockade on the water side, and Urquiza tried to establish one. He
+was unsuccessful because the commanders of his ships treacherously
+betrayed him, surrendering to the city party for a heavy bribe. He
+raised the siege and retired to the northern provinces.
+
+Buenos Aires virtually declared her independence of the other provinces
+by this action, but the latter took no further steps to force her into
+their union. Urquiza and his followers had, however, accomplished more
+toward uniting the Argentine into a firmly knit nation than had been
+done in the previous forty years. The opposition of Buenos Aires helped
+convince the other provinces of the necessity of a union. With the mouth
+of the river in the hands of a hostile state more powerful than any one
+of them separately, the position of Entre Rios, Santa Fé, or any one of
+the others, would have been critical. Only by uniting could they hope to
+maintain themselves and avoid absorption in detail. Intelligent
+Argentines had long been convinced of the desirability of a firm and
+enduring union, and the present danger crystallised that conviction in
+men's minds. Back of all this was Urquiza's influence. At last a
+military chief had come to the possession of supreme power who was
+willing to aid his country in establishing a stable and free government,
+and whose purpose was not merely the gratification of his own love of
+power. Argentine writers are divided in their opinion of Urquiza's real
+abilities, and many think that ignorance and irresolution, rather than a
+lofty patriotism, caused his moderation after his victory over Rosas.
+Intelligent foreigners, however, who saw the Plate for themselves
+during this period are unanimous in praising his character, his
+dignified bearing, his liberality, and his capacities. Argentina had
+passed the stage when a military dictator was her natural chief. The day
+for constitutional government had arrived; Urquiza was a product of his
+time, and consciously or unconsciously embodied the changed political
+sentiments of his countrymen.
+
+On the 1st of May, 1853, the Constituent Congress adopted a constitution
+substantially copied from that of the United States of North
+America--and that constitution, with a few amendments, has continued to
+be the fundamental law of the Argentine Republic. The navigation of the
+Paraná and the Uruguay was declared free to all the world, largely as a
+reward to Brazil for her assistance against Rosas, although she
+protested against the extension of that liberty to any nations except
+those who had territory on the banks. The city of Paraná, in the
+province of Entre Rios and on the eastern shore of the Paraná River, was
+made temporary capital of the Republic. The various provincial capitals
+had been unable to agree that any one of them should have the honour and
+profit of being the political metropolis, and the city of Buenos Aires
+was selected as the permanent capital, to become such as soon as the
+province of that name should enter the confederation. The delegates had
+a double purpose in making this selection. Buenos Aires was the natural
+commercial and political centre, and, all things considered, the most
+convenient location in the provinces. In the second place, they desired
+to weaken the great province of Buenos Aires by cutting it in two, and
+to curb the city's political influence by placing it directly under the
+control of the federal government.
+
+Urquiza was naturally selected as the first President, and was
+recognised by foreign nations. Buenos Aires protested, claiming still to
+be, for international purposes, the Argentine nation. She did not,
+however, formally declare her independence and seek for recognition as a
+new power. Buenos Aires, as well as the confederation, looked forward to
+the time when she would join the latter. Throughout Urquiza's six-year
+term, the provinces prospered amazingly. His administration of his
+province had guaranteed the security of property, and now as President
+he extended the blessings of peace to much of the rest of the
+confederation. The new bonds sat lightly on the outlying provinces of
+the Andean regions, but Urquiza did not stretch his constitutional
+authority to interfere with them, satisfied to let them learn by degrees
+that the right of local self-government guaranteed by the paper
+constitution would be respected in practice. The freedom of navigation
+caused unprecedented prosperity in the river provinces. The towns on the
+Paraná and Uruguay doubled in population during his six-years' service.
+Corrientes had been continually ravaged by the civil wars as lately as
+the last few years of Rosas's reign, but the assurance of peace was all
+that was needed to start the rebuilding of the houses and the restocking
+of the ranches. The impulse in population, wealth, and commerce then
+given to the river provinces has never since lost its force. Foreign
+capital and immigration were invited and the rivers and harbours
+carefully surveyed. Rosario, in Santa Fé, was made a port of entry and
+began a growth that has made it second only to Buenos Aires itself.
+
+In Buenos Aires events were gradually shaping themselves toward
+reuniting that province with the confederation. A liberal provincial
+constitution was adopted, and though the ruling bureaucracy preferred
+the _statu quo_, fearing that their own fall from power would follow any
+triumph of the provincials, they were unable to hold the city in check.
+It was too evident that the real interests of the city, and even her
+future commercial supremacy, were menaced by a continuance of the
+separation. In 1859 the situation became so strained that Buenos Aires
+marched an army to attack the federal government. Urquiza met it near
+the borders of Santa Fé and Buenos Aires, and administered a defeat. He
+advanced to the city and required his vanquished opponents to agree to
+accept the constitution of 1853, and to consent that Buenos Aires should
+become a member of the confederation. He yielded, however, to the wishes
+of many Buenos Aireans and consented in the interests of harmony, that
+the question of the dismembering of the city from the province and
+capitalising the former should remain open for future determination. The
+essential justice in all other respects of the constitution of 1853 had
+long been admitted even in Buenos Aires and there remained no reason
+why the latter should not enter the confederation once and for all. On
+the 21st of October, 1860, General Bartolomé Mitre, Governor of Buenos
+Aires, swore to the constitution, saying: "This is the permanent organic
+law, the real expression of the perpetual union of the members of the
+Argentine family, so long separated by civil war and bloodshed."
+
+Meanwhile, Urquiza's term had expired. Dr. Derqui, his successor, was
+suspected of designs against the autonomy of the provincial governments.
+The assassination of the Governor of San Juan and the succession of a
+member of an opposite faction, was made the occasion for Federal
+intervention in the affairs of that province. The government of Buenos
+Aires protested and it became evident that this untoward event was soon
+to disturb the peace of the newly formed confederation. The Federal
+Congress, under Derqui influence, refused to admit the members from
+Buenos Aires. Mitre marched out at the head of her forces and at the
+battle of Pavon, September 17, 1861, he overthrew the provincial forces.
+Buenos Aires remained mistress of the situation. The governments of
+certain provinces had been imposed on their people by the Derqui
+administration, or they were obnoxious to the triumphant Buenos Aires
+party. They were overthrown and Derqui was deposed. Happily for the
+Argentine, Mitre was a sincere patriot and, though young, was moderate
+and conciliatory. Made president of the republic as the representative
+of the victorious Buenos Aireans, he set about the final reorganisation
+of constitutional government in a spirit of unselfishness and with a
+foresight and skill that greatly aided to save his country from the
+sterilising anarchy of civil war.
+
+The accession of Mitre in 1862 marked the end of the period of
+uncertainty. The government of the Argentine Republic was now finally
+and definitely established and fixed, after fifty-two years of conflict.
+The constitution of 1853 was left unamended, except that Buenos Aires
+became the seat of federal government without being separated from its
+province or ceasing to be the provincial capital. The free international
+navigation of the rivers was not interfered with, and Buenos Aires
+abandoned her pretensions to special commercial privileges. She was
+thenceforward more and more the centre of gravitation and power for the
+whole republic, but her influence came from legitimate natural causes
+and was exercised within constitutional limits. The autonomy of the
+provinces was not interfered with, and it was no longer possible, even
+in the remotest districts, for a caudillo to rally at his call the
+gauchos, always ready for a raid, a campaign, or an invasion.
+
+  [Illustration: BARTOLOMÉ MITRE.
+  [From a steel engraving.]]
+
+Though the form of the federal government was fixed and its theoretical
+supremacy has never since been questioned, its real power at first was
+feeble. Urquiza was master in the mesopotamian provinces, and in case of
+need Mitre could count on little military help except from his own
+province. The only result of the battle of Pavon which was immediately
+apparent was the shifting of the centre of power from Urquiza's capital
+to Buenos Aires. Nevertheless, henceforth the tendency was constantly
+toward strengthening the bonds of union. Urquiza and the other
+provincial governors showed no disposition to attack the central
+authority, and in turn the latter was careful to avoid useless
+aggressions against them. The problem of reconciling provincial rights
+with the existence of an adequate federal government had at last been
+solved. The nation passed on to a still more difficult question,--the
+smooth and satisfactory working of democratic representative
+institutions in the absence of an effective participation in public
+affairs on the part of the bulk of the population. Elections have not
+carried the prestige of being the expression of the majority will. The
+ruling classes have been anxious enough to obey the popular voice and to
+govern wisely, but people can only gradually be trained into the habit
+of expressing their will clearly and indisputably at regular elections.
+The insignificant disturbances to public order which have occurred since
+1862 have been indications of dissatisfaction with the imperfect detail
+workings of the complicated system of ascertaining the popular wishes,
+or hasty protests against mistakes on the part of those in power. Never
+have they endangered the Federal constitution nor diverted the steady
+course of the nation's progress in the art of self-government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE MODERN ARGENTINE
+
+
+General Mitre's administration is memorable for the beginning of that
+tremendous industrial development which in thirty years made Argentina,
+in proportion to population, the greatest exporting country in the
+world. Foreign capital and immigration were chief factors in the
+transformation that within a few decades changed an isolated and
+industrially backward community into a nation possessing all the
+appliances and luxuries of the most advanced material civilisation.
+
+In 1865 circumstances forced Mitre into the Paraguayan war. Lopez, the
+Paraguayan dictator, hated the Buenos Aireans quite as much as he did
+the Brazilians with whom he was constantly quarrelling, and he was only
+awaiting a favourable opportunity to vent his dislike on either or both.
+He counted on the coolness that naturally existed between Urquiza and
+Mitre to insure him the former's aid. In 1864 Brazil intervened in the
+affairs of Uruguay by assisting one of the parties in the civil war then
+raging. Lopez regarded the action of Brazil as endangering the balance
+of power in the Plate regions. In retaliation he seized the Brazilian
+province of Matto Grosso, which lay along the Paraguay north of his own
+territory. Mitre wished to remain neutral, although he had no sympathy
+with the brutal despot, and had an understanding about Brazil's action
+in Uruguay which safeguarded the interests of Argentina. Lopez, however,
+insolently demanded free passage across Argentine territory for the
+troops which he wished to send against Brazil and Uruguay. Mitre's
+refusal was followed by a Paraguayan invasion, and national honour
+required that this violation of territory be resented. Brazil and the
+Flores faction in Uruguay welcomed the alliance of Argentina. The
+Paraguayan invasion was repulsed by their combined forces, and the
+allies advanced up the Paraná against Lopez in his own dominions. It was
+natural that Mitre should be commander-in-chief of the allied armies,
+although Brazil furnished the bulk of the troops and bore the brunt of
+the expense. Urquiza disappointed Lopez in refusing to revolt against
+Buenos Aires, and although he took no great personal interest in the war
+he co-operated in many ways with Mitre.
+
+The enormous expenditures of the Brazilian government furnished a
+splendid cash market for Argentine stock and produce, and the resulting
+profits compensated for the pecuniary sacrifices involved. In two years'
+fighting both the Argentine and the Brazilian armies suffered tremendous
+losses on the field and in the cholera hospitals. After the great
+repulse at Curupayty in 1867 the number of Argentine troops was largely
+reduced. When the Brazilian fleet finally forced the passage of the
+river, opening the way to Asuncion, Mitre resigned the command into the
+hands of the Brazilian general Caxias, and the last two years of the war
+were carried on principally by Brazilian troops. By the peace of 1870
+Argentina's title to certain valuable territory was quieted, and she
+gained an important commercial advantage by the opening of Paraguay to
+her trade. Her commercial and industrial leadership in the Plate valley
+has never since been endangered. Politically also the indirect results
+were gratifying. The tremendous sacrifices in men and money had sickened
+the Brazilian government and people of foreign complications.
+Thereafter, the emperor pursued a policy of non-interference, which has
+left to his Spanish neighbours a free hand among themselves. With the
+withdrawal of the Brazilian troops from Paraguay, the balance of
+political power began slowly to pass from Rio to Buenos Aires.
+
+Sarmiento, the "schoolmaster president," succeeded Mitre in 1868. His
+election is said to have been the freest and most peaceful ever held in
+the republic and to have represented as nearly as any the will of the
+electors. The development of population, wealth, and industry continued
+in increasing geometrical proportion. During forty-five years before
+1857 the population had only a little more than doubled; during the
+forty-five years since that date, the increase has been four hundred and
+fifty per cent. The yearly increment holds fairly steady at four per
+cent., which is as large as that of any country in the world. In 1869
+the city of Buenos Aires had one hundred and eighty thousand people, and
+in 1902 it contained eight hundred and fifty thousand. Immigration had
+begun to pour in at the rate of twenty thousand per annum, and had
+rapidly increased to over a hundred thousand, when the great crisis of
+1890 temporarily interrupted the flow. The years from 1868 to 1872 were
+prosperous over much of the civilised world, but nowhere more so than in
+Argentina. Sarmiento's administration was, however, characterised by the
+beginning of that policy of governmental and commercial extravagance
+which has so deeply mortgaged the future of Argentina, and has
+repeatedly hampered the legitimate development of this marvellously
+fertile region. In the ten years prior to 1872 foreign commerce doubled,
+but the foreign debt increased fivefold.
+
+The last of the caudillos, Lopez Jordan of Entre Rios, revolted in 1870
+against Urquiza, who was still governor of that province. The
+redoubtable old patriot was captured by the rebels and assassinated. In
+1901 a monument was erected to his memory in the city of Paraná, his old
+capital, and the day of the unveiling was a national festival in all the
+republic. The Federal government avenged his death and suppressed the
+insurrection after an obstinate, expensive, and bloody little war.
+Sarmiento's administration was, however, not popular, and the news that
+he had virtually determined to name his successor created much
+dissatisfaction. Mitre headed the opposition in the city, while in the
+provinces some of the discontented went so far as to take up arms. Julio
+Roca, then a young colonel, defeated them at Santa Rosa, and Sarmiento
+was able to hand over the reins of government to Dr. Avellaneda without
+any further serious opposition.
+
+  [Illustration: JULIO ROCA.]
+
+A commercial crisis was beginning when the new President took office in
+1874. He initiated a policy of retrenchment, under which the government
+managed to pay its obligations and weather the storm. General Roca was
+made Minister of War and came into further prominence as the conqueror
+of the Indians, who had hitherto prevented white men from settling on
+the vast and valuable southern pampas. In 1854, after the fall of Rosas,
+the Indians recovered most of the territory from which he had driven
+them twenty years before. Later, the frontier was advanced very slowly,
+but in 1877 Alsina, one of the most successful governors Buenos Aires
+ever had, undertook a vigorous campaign. In the following year General
+Roca threw the power of the Federal government into this vastly
+important enterprise. He carried the frontier south to the Rio Negro and
+west to the Andes, attacking the Indians in their fortresses--a policy
+which insured permanent white domination. The ultimate consequences of
+opening up to civilised settlement the immense territories comprised in
+Roca's conquests cannot yet properly be estimated. The vast region of
+Patagonia, that was marked on the maps in our boyhood as an unclaimed
+and uninhabitable arctic waste, has since been added to Argentina as an
+indirect result of Roca's campaign of 1878. Buenos Aires put in a claim
+for the whole of the territory conquered from the Indians, but the
+Federal statesmen refused to allow one province to become well-nigh as
+large as all the rest together. By a compromise her area was increased
+to sixty-three thousand square miles, while most of the new acquisition
+was divided into territories under the direct administration of the
+Federal government.
+
+As the time for the presidential election of 1880 approached, political
+matters began to look ugly. It was evident that Avellaneda intended to
+choose his successor. Through the provincial governors, the police, the
+army, the employees on the public works, and the officials of all kinds
+he had easy control of the election machinery. Even the most scrupulous
+President often cannot prevent the exercise of coercion in his name and
+without his knowledge. The opposition in South America usually refrain
+from voting: indeed, it is considered almost indelicate for outsiders to
+interfere in a matter so strictly official as an election. The privilege
+of voting is not so highly prized and so jealously guarded as in the
+United States and the northern countries of Europe.
+
+Avellaneda and his adherents had fixed upon General Roca as the next
+President. The principal opposing candidate was Dr. Tejedor, governor of
+Buenos Aires, who was supported by Mitre's party and also by many of the
+other Buenos Aires party, the "autonomists." The contest was really
+between Buenos Aires and the provinces. General Roca was strong with the
+army and with the country, but so tremendously had Buenos Aires grown
+that the result appeared doubtful. Her population, city and province,
+had in 1880 reached six hundred and fifty thousand,--more than a quarter
+of the total in the whole Confederation. The next three provinces put
+together did not equal her numbers and lagged still farther behind in
+wealth and ability to concentrate their forces.
+
+Radical counsels prevailed in Buenos Aires. Roca's opponents, seeing
+that they were at a hopeless disadvantage with the election machinery in
+Avellaneda's hands, determined to use violence. In June, 1880, the
+partisans of Tejedor rose against the Federal government. The police and
+militia of the city joined them and paraded the streets, while the alarm
+flew to the country, and the troops of the line began to concentrate
+outside the city. Presently the President and his Cabinet fled for
+safety to the Federal camp. For a few weeks there was some skirmishing
+and much negotiating, and in one encounter near the south end of the
+city a thousand Buenos Aireans were killed. Finally, the two sides came
+to an agreement by which the Roca party retained substantially all that
+they had been contending for. The General succeeded to the Presidency
+without further opposition, and the city of Buenos Aires was detached
+from the province. The federalisation of the great city was the last
+step in the process of adaptation that had been going on ever since the
+expulsion of the Spaniards. Political equilibrium between the provinces
+and Buenos Aires had been reached. Thenceforth the latter's direct
+predominance was to be purely intellectual, commercial, and social. For
+the privilege of being capital of the republic, the city exchanged her
+provincial autonomy. Buenos Aires province, as formerly constituted, was
+the greatest menace to a peaceful federal union. In an assembly where
+the rights and influence of all the provinces were supposed to be equal,
+the magnitude of Buenos Aires was a constant occasion for the jealousy
+of her smaller sisters and for aggressions on her own part. Deprived of
+the city, the remainder of the province was not powerful enough to be
+dangerous. Now that it is federalised, the city itself proves to be the
+strongest tie binding together the different parts of the Confederation.
+
+The greatest of all the waves of material prosperity reached its
+culmination during Roca's first administration. Business fairly boomed;
+foreign commerce increased seventy-five per cent. from 1875 to 1885; the
+exports of hides, cattle, wool, and wheat swelled from year to year; the
+railroad mileage tripled in ten years; the revenues mounted sixty per
+cent. in five years; the use of the post-office, that excellent measure
+of education, wealth, and higher national energies, tripled. All danger
+of disturbances serious enough to affect property rights had long since
+passed; the provincial governors worked harmoniously with the Federal
+authorities. A part of Roca's system was to rest his power as chief
+executive on the co-operation of the governors; the members of Congress
+also bore somewhat the same relation to the President. As a rule, a
+majority in Congress supported his measures.
+
+In spite of present prosperity, dangers had been inherited from past
+administrations. There were weak spots in the political and financial
+structure that had grown too rapidly to be altogether well built. The
+people still lacked the hard and continued training in business that
+older nations have had, and the national temperament tended toward a
+reckless optimism. European money lenders stood ready to stimulate this
+tendency by offering easy credit facilities in return for careless
+promises of exaggerated interest rates. The medium of exchange was a
+vastly inflated and fluctuating paper currency. From the beginning
+Argentine rulers had resorted to note issues to tide over their
+pecuniary difficulties. When Rosas assumed power in 1829 the paper
+dollar was worth fifteen cents, and by 1846 he had driven it down to
+four cents. In 1866, Mitre's administration had established a new
+arbitrary par at twenty-five paper dollars for one gold dollar.
+Sarmiento's extravagances made suspension necessary and sent gold to a
+premium. In 1883 President Roca remodelled the currency, issuing new
+notes convertible into gold, and exchanging them for the old paper at
+the rate of twenty-five for one. But his effort to contract and steady
+the circulating medium excited protests from a community that was
+growing rich in the rapid inflation of values. Foreign money was being
+loaned to all sorts of Argentine enterprises on a scale that,
+considering the small population of the country, has never been
+precedented anywhere. Railroads, ranches, commercial houses, banks, land
+schemes, building enterprises, were capitalised for the asking. The
+provincial governments borrowed money recklessly, while interest was
+guaranteed on new railroads, and charters granted to all sorts of
+speculative enterprises. The nation undertook to supply itself in a
+single decade with the drainage works, the docks, the public buildings,
+the parks, the railroads, that older countries have needed a generation
+to provide. So much capital was being fixed that the attempt at specie
+resumption cramped the speculative world. Within two years it was given
+up, and issues of paper money resumed.
+
+General Roca retired from office in 1886, and was succeeded by his
+brother-in-law, Juarez Celman. The four years during which the latter
+remained in office are memorable for reckless private and public
+borrowing. The healthy activity of General Roca's administration gave
+place to a mad fever of speculation. Congress passed a national banking
+act, and under its provisions banks of issue were established in nearly
+every province. The paper circulation almost quadrupled and the premium
+on gold doubled. The Federal government followed the example set by the
+provinces and municipalities, and burdened the country with an
+indebtedness which has mortgaged the future of the country for years to
+come. Between 1885 and 1891 the foreign debt was increased nearly
+threefold.
+
+  [Illustration: GATEWAY OF THE CEMETERY AT BUENOS AIRES.
+  [From a lithograph.]]
+
+During 1887 and 1888 few apprehensions of the inevitable result of the
+inflation seem to have been entertained. Up to the very day of the crash
+of 1889 the government cheerfully continued to borrow, to plan
+magnificent public improvements, and to build expensive railways. The
+public speculated confidently in the mortgage scrip issued through the
+provincial mortgage banks. Early in 1889 the government began to have
+difficulty in meeting some of the enormous obligations which it had
+undertaken. Conservative people became apprehensive; the independent
+press raised a warning voice. A ministerial crisis was followed by a
+panic in the Exchange. The new Secretary of the Treasury, in an effort
+to prevent further depreciation of the currency, diverted the redemption
+fund held by the government for bank issues. The currency dropped with
+sickening rapidity; the bubble companies collapsed; the public realised
+that many of the banks were unable to meet their obligations.
+
+At this crisis public alarm and indignation found a vent in the
+formation of a revolutionary society, called the Civic Union, which was
+pledged to overthrow President Celman. On July 26, 1890, disturbances
+began and there was a little fighting in the streets. Police and troops,
+however, put no spirit into their efforts to suppress the rioters. The
+President's best friends urged him to resign, and Congress passed a
+formal memorial to that effect. There was nothing for him to do but to
+obey the manifest wish of the people; he handed in his resignation and
+the Vice-President, Dr. Carlos Pellegrini, peacefully succeeded him.
+
+The situation went from bad to worse; in 1891 the currency dropped to
+twenty-three cents on the dollar, the banks failed, and the laws for
+collection of debts were suspended for two months. The most which Dr.
+Pellegrini could hope to do was to hold things together until the
+general election should be held fifteen months later. No human wisdom
+could devise measures that would give immediate prosperity, and the
+public would be satisfied with nothing less. Dr. Pellegrini had to wait
+until later years for a proper appreciation of his labours. The other
+two great national figures were General Roca and General Mitre. The
+first had the prestige of his strong and successful administration; he
+enjoyed the confidence of the army, and he was the head of the great
+Nationalist party which was especially powerful in the provinces.
+General Mitre, the most eminent citizen of Buenos Aires, and in a way
+the living embodiment of the previous forty years of national history,
+had inevitably been selected as chief of the Civic Union. He had
+therefore led the movement through which the public opinion of the
+capital had overthrown Celman.
+
+Mitre and Roca had co-operated in securing a peaceful transfer of the
+government from Celman to Pellegrini. Roca was inclined to favour Mitre
+for the presidency, but it soon became evident that the latter could
+not control the more radical members of the Civic Union, and that his
+candidacy would not reconcile all parties. February 19, 1891, an attempt
+to assassinate Roca was perpetrated in the streets of Buenos Aires. The
+spirit of mutiny grew alarmingly, and a state of siege was proclaimed;
+the Civic Union split into warring camps; trouble broke out in Cordoba,
+and successful revolutions overthrew the legal state governments in
+Catamarca and Santiago del Estero. Mitre and Roca formally withdrew from
+active political life in the hope that this might placate the dissident
+politicians.
+
+The candidate fixed upon by the wing of Nationals who adhered to Roca,
+and the moderates of the Civic Union led by Mitre, was Doctor Luiz Saenz
+Peña, ex-Justice of the Supreme Court. The Pellegrini government gave
+him its earnest support, and charges were made by the Radicals that
+their votes would be forcibly suppressed in the election of October,
+1891. They determined to anticipate violence with violence, but, on the
+eve of the election in October, 1891, their leaders were imprisoned and
+a state of siege declared. Saenz Peña was elected, but the Radicals
+began to intrigue to obtain control of the provincial governments, which
+would enable them to force his resignation or his compliance with their
+wishes. Serious trouble broke out early in 1892 in the province of
+Corrientes, with which the Buenos Aires radicals openly sympathised. The
+new President quickly cut loose from the Roca wing of the Nationalist
+party and allied himself closely with the moderate Civic Unionists, now
+usually called "Mitristas." The President's own son, who had been a
+candidate against him, headed the faction of the Nationalist party that
+had renounced Roca's leadership. Revolutionary movements against the
+governors who belonged to the Roca faction began in several provinces.
+In February there were armed protests in Santa Fé against a new wheat
+tax; a revolt broke out in Catamarca in April; by July the Saenz Peña
+administration was in the gravest difficulties. San Luiz and Santa Fé
+rebelled, and in August Salta and Tucuman followed. It was manifest that
+the President was not strong enough to hold down the selfish factions
+who saw in the general dissatisfaction and financial distress only an
+opportunity to get into office by force of arms.
+
+Congress remained neutral until it became evident that no accommodation
+could be reached between the President and his opponents, and that the
+latter would press on to overthrowing the government and probably
+precipitate a serious civil war. In this crisis, however, the majority
+agreed to laws which authorised armed Federal intervention in the
+troubles in San Luiz and Santa Fé. But in September the national troops
+themselves showed symptoms of mutiny and by this time most of the
+provinces were convulsed by revolutionary movements which the central
+government was manifestly not strong enough to suppress or control.
+
+On September 25th, General Roca took command of the army; the most
+dangerous radical leaders in Buenos Aires were thrown into prison; and
+on October 1st he captured Rosario, the second city of the Republic,
+and the chief place in Santa Fé, which for months had been in the hands
+of revolutionists. This was a beginning of the end of the troubles that
+menaced public order. Six million dollars had been expended by the
+government in fruitless marchings to and fro of troops, but no serious
+harm had been done. The scene of the contest between the ambitious
+factions was transferred to Congress, the Cabinet, and the Press.
+Throughout 1893 and 1894 the President struggled with his factional and
+financial difficulties, and gradually lost control of Congress and
+prestige in the country.
+
+Meanwhile, commercial liquidation was proceeding normally and, as
+always, painfully. The great Provincial Mortgage Bank, through the
+agency of which a vast amount of the land scrip had been issued in the
+Celman days, was granted a moratorium for five years. Other actual
+bankruptcies were legally admitted and enforced. The mortgage scrip
+payable in gold was replaced by currency obligations. The government had
+proved unequal to the task of balancing its own receipts and expenses.
+Taxes were increased until rebellion seemed imminent, but expenditures
+still outran them. The deficits mounted in spite of the efforts toward
+economy and the returning prosperity of the business world. The boundary
+dispute with Chile had assumed a threatening aspect; war seemed
+imminent, and the military and naval estimates were largely increased.
+In January, 1895, President Saenz Peña called an extra session of
+Congress to vote supplies for the expected war with Chile and to
+consider the financial proposals of the government. Congress demanded
+that political grievances should be redressed. The President had been
+persecuting the army officers who had been implicated in the
+revolutionary disturbances, and a vast majority of Congress insisted
+that a complete amnesty be granted to all political offenders. When the
+President refused, the Cabinet resigned in a body and Congress and the
+opposition brought every pressure to bear. It was soon evident that
+Congress must win, and on January 22, 1895, the President resigned.
+
+The Vice-President, Doctor Uriburu, succeeded for the unexpired period
+of three years, during which little progress was made toward a
+settlement of the nation's financial difficulties. Symptoms of renewed
+extravagance appeared. In 1897, the issuance of $10,000,000 of mortgage
+scrip was authorised, and the city of Buenos Aires received permission
+to borrow $5,000,000. Work on the great docks of Buenos Aires, costing
+$35,000,000, was pushed to completion, and in February the paper dollars
+dropped back to 33 cents, while the deficit for the year was over
+$20,000,000.
+
+In July, 1897, General Roca was nominated for the Presidency by the
+Convention of the National party, with Dr. Pellegrini in the chair.
+There was no real opposition to his election. Again and again during a
+quarter of a century he had proved himself able to cope with the most
+difficult situations which had arisen in Argentine affairs. In 1890, his
+firmness and adroitness had saved the country from the agony of a
+useless political upheaval after the failure of the Celman
+administration. During the anxious months that followed the panic, his
+generosity had secured a co-operation of the moderates of Buenos Aires
+with his own immediate followers in holding back the Radicals and
+revolutionists in check. During the critical year of 1892, the outbreaks
+against the Saenz Peña administration increased in violence until it
+seemed as if the country would be convulsed with a serious civil war,
+but when Roca stepped in the tide of disorganisation turned, and his
+firm hand re-established the authority of the Federal government. His
+prestige and his personality enabled him to count upon an obedience from
+the chiefs of the provincial factions which was of inestimable value. He
+possessed those rare and indispensable qualities which make a man a
+centre around which other men can rally. He had built up the one really
+national party in the country and was faithful to his friends and his
+adherents, but sufficiently broad-minded to combine with other parties
+when the interests of the whole country demanded it.
+
+General Roca entered upon his second presidential term in the beginning
+of 1898. One of his first acts was to intervene in Buenos Aires province
+and put an end to a deadlock between the governor and the Provincial
+Assembly. The boundary dispute with Chile, a question which, in spite of
+the earnest desire of both governments for peace, might at any time
+precipitate a ruinous war, was submitted for settlement by arbitration.
+W. J. Buchanan, the United States Minister at Buenos Aires, named as
+arbitrator for the northern frontier, quickly announced a decision
+which was promptly accepted by both parties. The more complicated
+southern frontier could not so easily be prepared for submission; a
+serious misunderstanding arose, and both countries felt compelled to
+spend large sums for armaments which they knew they could ill afford.
+Happily, a decision was at last rendered in 1902. No question now
+remains open which is likely to involve the external peace of Argentina.
+
+  [Illustration: A RIVER ROAD IN ARGENTINA.
+  [From a lithograph.]]
+
+Internal peace has not been menaced during General Roca's term. The
+commercial situation of the country has vastly improved. Immigration,
+which had largely ceased after 1890, has again risen to over a hundred
+thousand a year. Wheat exports rose from 4,000,000 bushels in 1897 to
+61,000,000 in 1900. The total exports in 1899 were $185,000,000, twice
+as great per capita as the record export of the United States. There
+have been no issues of paper money, and the value of the currency has
+risen to forty cents. The government has established a new artificial
+par at a little more than this sum, and has begun accumulating a gold
+reserve. A resumption of specie payments is soon expected.
+
+Nevertheless the chief difficulties and preoccupations of the Roca
+administration have been with financial questions. A deficit of
+$70,000,000 had accumulated in the few years before 1898, and the
+interest on the immense public debt makes an equilibrium in the budget
+almost impossible. Many of the provincial governments have defaulted,
+and the national government has had to carry their burdens in addition
+to its own, to satisfy clamorous foreign creditors. In 1901 it was
+proposed to unify the debt, refunding the whole at a lower rate of
+interest, and specifically pledging certain sources of public income.
+This plan had the approval of the government, but the national pride was
+touched by the latter feature. The populace could not bear the idea of
+giving a sort of mortgage on the country. The passage of the bill by
+Congress was met with so many demonstrations of popular disapproval that
+it was abandoned. This change of front was accompanied by the formation
+of an alliance between the followers of General Mitre and those of
+General Roca.
+
+The industrial impetus already acquired by the Argentine Republic is
+sufficient to carry it over all obstacles, and it seems assured that
+there will be a rapid settlement of the whole of this immense and
+fertile plain. Here nature has done everything to make communication
+easy, and a temperate climate insures crops suited to modern European
+civilisation. Two grave perils have so far been encountered--namely, a
+tendency toward political disintegration and an abuse of the taxing
+power. The former is now remote, for since the railways began to
+concentrate wealth and influence at Buenos Aires, and to destroy the
+prestige and political power of the provincial capitals, the national
+structure built by the patriots of 1853 has stood firmer each year.
+
+The Argentine has had a bitter lesson of the evils of governmental
+extravagance, and still groans under the burden of a debt which seems
+disproportionately heavy, but the growth of population and wealth will
+soon overtake it, and the very difficulties of meeting interest are the
+cause of an economy in administration, of which the good effects will be
+felt long after the debt itself has been reduced to a reasonable per
+capita. A nation is in the process of formation in the Plate valley
+whose material greatness is certain, and whose moral and intellectual
+characteristics will have the widest influence on the rest of South
+America.
+
+
+
+
+PARAGUAY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+PARAGUAY UNTIL 1632
+
+
+The beginnings of the settlements in Paraguay have been sketched in the
+introductory chapter on the discoveries and conquest. In 1526, Cabot,
+searching to find a route to the gold and silver mines of the centre of
+the continent, penetrated as far as the site of the present city of
+Asuncion. He had already, in the exploration of the Upper Paraná,
+skirted the southern and eastern boundary of what has since become the
+country of Paraguay. Ten years later the exhausted and discouraged
+remnants of Mendoza's great expedition sought rest and refuge among the
+peaceful agricultural tribes of this region. Under Domingos Irala, these
+six hundred surviving Spanish adventurers founded Asuncion in 1536, the
+first settlement of the valley of the Plate. They reduced the Indians to
+a mild slavery, compelling them to build houses, perform menial
+services, and cultivate the soil. The country was divided into great
+tracts called "encomiendas," which, with the Indians that inhabited
+them, were distributed among the settlers. Few women had been able to
+follow Mendoza's expedition, so the Spaniards of Asuncion took wives
+from among the Indians. Subsequent immigration was small, and the
+proportion of Spanish blood has always been inconsiderable, compared
+with the number of aborigines. The children of the marriages between the
+Spanish conquerors and Indian women were proud of their white descent.
+The superior strain of blood easily dominated, and the mixed Paraguayan
+Creoles became Spaniards to all intents and purposes. Spaniards and
+Creoles, however, learned the Indian language; Guarany rather than
+Spanish became, and has remained, the most usual method of
+communication.
+
+The Spaniards of Asuncion were turbulent and disinclined to submit to
+authority. They paid scant respect to the adelantados, whom the
+Castilian king sent out one after another as feudal proprietors. Until
+his death Irala was the most influential man in the colony, but his
+power rested on his own energy and capacity, and on the fear and respect
+in which he was held by his companions, more than on the royal
+commission that finally could not be withheld from him.
+
+  [Illustration: ASUNCION.]
+
+Across the river from Asuncion stretched away to the west the vast and
+swampy plains of the great Chaco. It was inhabited by wandering tribes
+of Indians whom the Spaniards could not subdue. They fled before the
+expeditions like scared wild beasts, only to turn and mercilessly
+massacre every man when a chance was offered for ambush or surprise. To
+the east of the Paraguay River the country was dry, rolling, and
+extremely fertile. Though covered with magnificent forests it was easily
+penetrable all the way across to the Paraná. Its inhabitants were the
+docile Guaranies, who knew something of agriculture and in whose
+villages considerable stores of food were to be found. The population
+was dense for savages, but they had no political or military
+organisation. Divided into small tribes which did not co-operate, they
+rendered little respect or obedience to their chiefs. Under these
+conditions Spanish authority rapidly spread over central and southern
+Paraguay. Before Irala died, in 1557, the settlers had reached the
+Paraná on the western boundary and founded settlements nearly as far
+north as the Grand Cataract.
+
+Shortly afterwards, the Creoles of Asuncion began their expeditions to
+the South. By 1580 they controlled the Paraná River from its confluence
+with the Paraguay to the ocean, had established Santa Fé and Buenos
+Aires on its right bank, and opened up the southern pampa. The pastoral
+provinces on the Lower Paraná were slowly peopled. A large proportion of
+the energetic Paraguayan Creoles preferred the semi-nomadic life of the
+plains to indolence among their Indian slaves in the tropical forests of
+Paraguay. The two regions were distinct in climate, habits of life,
+social and industrial organisation. They became separated in interests
+and soon were to be divided politically. Though, until 1619, the whole
+province continued to bear the name of Paraguay, the usual residence of
+the governor was Buenos Aires. Asuncion was often forced to be content
+with a lieutenant-governor, and was fast relegated to the position of a
+neglected and isolated district.
+
+In the days of the Spanish conquest, Franciscan monks were the priests
+who most often accompanied the expeditions, and they took the most
+prominent part in the earliest establishment of religion. The members of
+this Order, however, with a few notable exceptions, took no special
+interest in the evangelisation of the aborigines. On the contrary, they
+were as fierce as the soldiers themselves in their cruelties to the poor
+Indians. The shouts of a Franciscan monk set on Pizarro's ruffians to
+the slaughter of the Incas that surrounded Atahualpa. Those that came to
+Paraguay preferred to live in the towns, and their conduct toward the
+Indians differed little from that of the lay Spaniards. It was the
+genius of Ignatius Loyola that conceived and perfected a machine able to
+carry Christianity and civilisation to these remote and inaccessible
+peoples and regions. Within a few years after its foundation, the
+Society of Jesus turned its attention to the evangelisation of South
+America; in 1550 the Jesuit Fathers began their work in Brazil. Their
+successes and failures in that country had little relation with their
+work in Spanish South America. It is curious, however, that their most
+successful early work in Brazil should have been done in São Paulo, on
+the extreme eastern border of the wide plateau which drains to the west
+into the Paraná. For a decade or two after 1550, they laboured hard to
+gather the Indians of that region into villages, to teach them
+Christianity, and protect them against the tyrannies and exactions of
+the Portuguese settlers. The contest was unequal; the Jesuits were not
+long able to prevent the enslavement of their proselytes. The Paulistas
+destroyed the Jesuit missions in their neighbourhood and became the most
+expert in Indian warfare and the most terrible foes of the Jesuit system
+of all the colonists of South America. Their determined opposition was
+the most potent cause in preventing the subjection of South America to a
+theocratic system of government.
+
+About 1586 the Jesuit Fathers entered Paraguay for the purpose of
+beginning the evangelisation of the Indians of the Plate valley. They
+established a school in Asuncion and pushed out on foot into the remoter
+districts. Their success was phenomenal. They spared no pains to learn
+the language of the savages so that they might teach them in their own
+tongue. They approached them with kindness and benevolence showing in
+every gesture. They availed themselves of the Indians' love of bright
+colours and showy processions. They went unarmed and alone, offering
+useful and attractive presents, conforming to savage customs and
+prejudices, and imposing on the vivid savage imagination with the pomp
+of Catholic worship. They taught their savage pupils how to cultivate
+the ground to get greater results, how to save themselves unnecessary
+labour, and how to live comfortably. They persuaded them to gather into
+towns, where they built comfortable houses and tight warehouses, while
+the men cultivated the soil and the women spun and wove cotton.
+
+The Jesuits came almost immediately into conflict with the interests of
+the Spanish colonists. They were welcomed at first, because they were
+expected to lend themselves to the enslavement of the Indians. When
+their real purposes were discovered feeling against them rose high. The
+Creoles clearly saw that it was going to be far more difficult to extend
+their power over the Indians gathered together in villages under Jesuit
+protection than over unorganised and friendless bands of unconverted
+savages.
+
+Before 1610 the number of Jesuits that had come to Paraguay was very
+small. Among the first was the Father named Thomas Fields, a Scotchman.
+As a matter of fact, the Jesuits were recruited from all the nations of
+Europe and under their military system had to go wherever they might be
+sent. English, Irish, and German names, as well as Spanish, are to be
+found in the lists of Jesuits who laboured in Paraguay.
+
+In 1608 Philip III. of Spain attended to the complaints that came to him
+through the powerful chiefs of the Order of the indifference and
+opposition shown by the settlers and colonial authorities, and gave his
+royal and official sanction to the Jesuit conversion of the Indians
+along the Upper Paraná. By this time the Fathers had penetrated across
+to the Paraná and had followed up that stream far north of the Grand
+Cataract in latitude 24°, which marks the northern boundary of Paraguay
+proper. It is hard to understand how they overcame the difficulties of
+travelling. To this day it is well-nigh impossible to reach the Grand
+Cataract, and years pass without that wonder of nature's being seen by
+the eyes of civilised man. No part of the world, outside the Arctic
+regions, is less accessible than the Paraná above the Grand Cataract.
+Yet these heroic priests made that region the principal theatre of their
+operations in the early years of the seventeenth century. The territory
+is now all Brazilian,--the boundaries of that republic extend on the
+east bank of the Paraná south nearly to the twenty-sixth degree and on
+the west bank to the twenty-fourth. The rivers Paranapanema and Ivahy
+are great tributaries coming down from the east between the
+twenty-second and twenty-third degrees, and draining a vast extent of
+the plateau that extends to the Brazilian coast mountains between
+Curitiba and São Paulo, and on their banks the Jesuits established their
+principal missions.
+
+In those days there were no clearly defined boundaries between the
+Portuguese and Spanish dominions. From 1580 to 1640 the king of Spain
+was also monarch of Portugal. The Jesuits held his royal letters patent
+for the conversion of the Indians of the province of Guayrá--the name
+which this remote region bore. They had no reason to anticipate that
+they would be accused of being invaders of Portuguese territory, or that
+they would be interfered with by any Portuguese subjects of the Spanish
+Crown. The nearest Portuguese settlement was at São Paulo, from which
+Guayrá could be reached only by the long and tedious descent of the
+Tieté River to its confluence with the Paraná, and thence down that
+river to the Ivahy. Months would be necessary to make such a journey,
+great difficulties encountered with waterfalls and rapids, and great
+privations from want of food in the vast uninhabited regions on the
+route.
+
+The first Jesuits to arrive after the granting of formal authorisation
+by the Spanish king were two Italians. They left Asuncion October 10,
+1609, and it took them five months of incessant travelling to reach the
+Paranapanema. The work already done there by the earlier Fathers had
+borne some fruit. The Indians were prepared for the coming of the new
+missionaries and readily gathered into the towns which they founded in
+rapid succession. For the first few years all went well, and within a
+very short time they claimed to have at least forty thousand souls under
+their guidance. In 1614 there were 119 Jesuits in Paraguay and Guayrá,
+and the work of evangelising and reducing to obedience the whole Guarany
+population of the Paraná valley went on apace. For twenty years these
+Guayrá missions spread and prospered, while to the east and south the
+Jesuits acquired more and more influence with the Indians in Paraguay
+proper, and more and more hemmed in the Creoles of Asuncion.
+
+In 1629 a thunderbolt burst upon Guayrá out of a clear sky. The
+Portuguese from São Paulo appeared before the Mission of San Antonio and
+destroyed it utterly, burning the church and houses and driving off the
+Indians as slaves. Other missions shortly suffered the same fate, and
+within the short space of three years the towns had been sacked, most
+of the inhabitants of the region carried off or killed, and the remnants
+had fled down the river under the leadership of the Fathers. The
+Paulistas were animated by motives, some good, some bad. Primarily they
+wished to capture slaves. They hated the Jesuits and had themselves
+suffered from the latter's system of segregating the aborigines. Only a
+few decades before, their fathers had destroyed the Jesuit missions near
+São Paulo, and they were determined not to permit themselves to be
+hemmed in and crowded out by Indians ruled and protected by Jesuits.
+They believed in the doctrine of "Brazil for the White Brazilians," and
+they regarded the Jesuits and their neophytes as natural enemies and
+fair prey. The sentiment of nationality also animated them. As
+descendants of Portuguese they hated the Spaniards and their rule. Their
+allegiance to the Spanish dynasty that had usurped the crown of Portugal
+sat lightly. The Jesuits came by way of Asuncion, their communications
+were with the Spanish authorities, and most of them were Spaniards. The
+Paulistas, as Portuguese, viewed with alarm a rapid spread of Spanish
+ecclesiastics up the Paraná valley, which threatened soon to reach their
+own neighbourhood. Avarice, love of adventure, race pride, patriotism,
+hatred of priestly domination, all co-operated to push them on to
+undertaking these memorable expeditions.
+
+The great extension of the Jesuits over the northern and eastern regions
+of the Paraná valley occurred during the period when Hernandarias was
+the dominant figure of the Plate. Creole though he was, this remarkable
+man was a friend to the Indian and to the missionary work of the
+Jesuits. His aid and encouragement in 1609 were essential to the
+latter's success, for he might easily have nullified the effect of the
+royal permission to evangelise Guayrá, a formal document that would have
+been of little value against the delays and excuses of an unwilling
+governor aided by the jealous people. After his first term as governor
+at Buenos Aires, the Spanish government determined to put a stop to the
+more flagrant of the abuses practised against the savages and created
+the office of "Protector of the Indians." Hernandarias was named to fill
+it, and carried out his instructions in a moderate spirit. He understood
+the country and the situation of the colony well, and did not undertake
+to abolish Indian slavery. In that tropical climate the whites will not
+labour in the fields so long as there are Indians who can be forced to
+work, and the Spaniards still regarded the Indian as little better than
+an animal.
+
+On the other hand, Hernandarias was too intelligent not to see that
+there must be restraints on the cruelties and exactions of the Creoles
+if the Indians of Paraguay were to be saved from the extermination that
+had been the fate of the Haytians a century before. The outcome was,
+that though a new code of laws was promulgated by the impracticable
+Spanish king, which forbade any further enslavement of the aborigines,
+its provisions were largely disregarded. At the same time, however, the
+Indians acquired a legal status, and their condition was gradually
+improved until it became not much worse than that of the
+contemporaneous European peasantry. The Jesuits were guaranteed against
+interference and allowed to go out into the remoter wilderness and give
+to the yet unslaved inhabitants the invaluable protection of membership
+in their missions.
+
+In 1619 the natural and commercial division between Paraguay proper and
+the rest of the province was officially recognised. The region between
+the Paraguay and the Paraná rivers was made a separate province,
+directly dependent upon the Viceroy at Lima and the Audiencia at Charcas
+in Bolivia. It included officially the Jesuit missions south-east of the
+Paraná as well as the present territory of Paraguay.
+
+When the Paulistas began their terrible attacks on the Guayrá missions
+in 1629, the governor of Paraguay refused to send any assistance to the
+Jesuits. The latter charged him with a corrupt understanding with the
+invaders, by which he was to share in the profits of the slaves sold.
+The Order had agreed with the Spanish government not to put any arms
+into the hands of the Indians, so the latter were defenceless against
+the Paulistas, who attacked musket in hand. The Creoles and Spaniards in
+Asuncion resented more and more the presence and power of the Jesuits,
+and viewed with ill-concealed satisfaction the misfortunes that now
+overwhelmed the priests. The governor, in declining to send help, was
+only carrying out the wishes of the people around him. Had the number of
+whites in Paraguay not been so very small the Jesuits might have been
+expelled as they were in São Paulo.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE JESUIT REPUBLIC AND COLONIAL PARAGUAY
+
+
+We have no accounts of the Jesuit missions in Guayrá, or of the tragedy
+of their destruction, except those that were written by the Fathers
+themselves. These are filled with manifest exaggerations and marred by
+omissions which we have few means of correcting. Nevertheless, the bold
+outlines of a story that for bravery, pathos, and devotion rivals any
+ever told are clear and indisputable. Within such a short period as
+twenty years the Jesuits had not succeeded in training the Guayrá
+Indians to any very high degree of civilisation. They complain that the
+Indians were still prone to return to the worship of their devils.
+Nevertheless, the massive walls of churches which have survived the
+devastation wrought by three centuries of tropical rains bear witness
+that the Jesuits had gathered together a multitude of people and had
+taught them a measure of skilled labour.
+
+Of the completeness of the victory of the Paulistas there is no doubt.
+Within three years, tens of thousands of Indians were carried off to São
+Paulo, and hardly a town was left standing in the province of Guayrá.
+Father Montoya, chief Jesuit, has left an account of the Hegira which he
+led down the river. Though he is silent as to the part he took himself,
+it is hard to read his pages and not give him a place among the world's
+great heroes. Twelve thousand Indians of every sex and age assembled on
+the Paranapanema with the few belongings which they had been able to
+bring from the homes that they were forced to abandon. The Paulistas
+were daily expected to return, and the only hope of escape was to float
+down the river and get beyond the Grand Cataract of the Paraná. The
+journey to the beginning of the falls was made without any great losses;
+there the difficulties began. Ninety miles of falls and rapids intervene
+between navigable water above and below the Grand Cataract. Across the
+river valley extends a mountain chain with slopes rugged and covered
+with dense vegetation. The river divides into various channels, and the
+sides of the gorges are clothed in cane-brakes and tangled forests
+through which a path had to be cut with machetes. These poor Jesuits and
+their thousands of scared, patient Indians had no boats awaiting them at
+the foot of the falls, so they had to continue their dreary passage
+through the gorges and cane-brakes, where wild Indians lay in ambush
+with poisoned arrows, until at last a place was reached where canoes
+could be built. Still they struggled on, the indomitable Jesuits taking
+every precaution. Though out of immediate danger from the Paulistas when
+they had passed the cataract, the Spaniards on the right bank below
+were hardly less to be feared. They were waiting on the shore of the
+Paraná for news of the fugitives in order to pounce on them and make a
+rich haul of slaves. The provisions were exhausted, but the Jesuits
+dared not apply for help to the Creoles. Fever broke out and, sick and
+starving, the devoted Jesuits and their uncomplaining followers worked
+away on their boats and rafts. At last they got them ready, and,
+slipping past the Spanish settlements in the night, they finally reached
+some small Jesuit missions near the mouth of the Iguassú, five hundred
+miles from their starting-point.
+
+  [Illustration: GUAYRÁ FALLS.]
+
+The Jesuits resolved to evacuate Guayrá completely and to build up their
+power anew in the country between the Paraná and the Uruguay. Within the
+next few years they had occupied the country that is now the Argentine
+Territory of the missions. This tract lay directly across the Paraná,
+from that part of Paraguay proper in which the Jesuits were most
+powerful, to the other side of the Uruguay, where was a fertile
+territory which proved an excellent field for the extension of the
+settlement. Before many years these missions stretched in a broad band
+from the centre of Paraguay three hundred miles to the south-east; they
+dominated southern Paraguay and half the present Brazilian state of Rio
+Grande do Sul with the country that lies between, while their towns
+lined both banks of the Upper Uruguay and the Middle Paraná, cutting off
+the Creoles from extending their settlements up either of these great
+rivers.
+
+Now that the priests had concentrated their forces so near, the alarm
+of the Creoles became acute. The Jesuits managed to obtain the dismissal
+of the governor who had refused to send them aid when they were attacked
+by the Paulistas and were driven from Guayrá, but his successor also
+became a partisan of the Creoles as soon as he reached Asuncion. He
+visited the missions near the river Paraná and ordered that they be
+secularised on the ground that these regions had already been subjected
+by Spanish arms before its occupation by the priests. But the Jesuits
+were good lawyers and had powerful friends at every Court, so the
+governor was forced to reverse his action.
+
+The next governor helped to make the Jesuits secure from Paulista
+interference below the Grand Cataract, by defeating an important
+expedition which had reached the new missions. The Paulistas did not
+confine their aggressions to the missions, but alarmed the Spanish
+Creoles themselves by penetrating west of the Paraná into Paraguay
+proper. Even Asuncion did not feel safe for a time. The Jesuits had now
+begun to arm and drill the Indians. Though the Paulistas made
+expeditions from time to time, and the Spanish and Jesuit frontier
+settlements were frequently aroused by the news of a bloody raid and of
+the rapid depredations of a band of these dreaded marauders, there was
+never again such wholesale destruction as had taken place in Guayrá. The
+frontiers of the Spanish and Portuguese peoples on the Paraná remain to
+this day substantially as they were fixed by the Paulista expeditions of
+1630 to 1640.
+
+In their conflict with the Jesuits, the Creoles shortly received a
+valuable reinforcement in Bishop Cardenas, a very able and energetic
+prelate, and a man gifted as a ruler and statesman. Born in the city of
+Charcas, on the Bolivian plateau, he was a Creole of the Creoles. He
+became a great missionary and evangelist throughout Upper Peru and
+Tucuman, acquiring wonderful fame and popularity by his eloquence. In
+spite of the fact that he was a Creole, he was immensely popular among
+the Indians, and seems to have been a natural leader of both branches of
+the native population. He bitterly hated the Jesuits. As a member of the
+rival Franciscan Order, his professional jealousy was aroused by their
+success, and his Creole prejudices were outraged by their efforts to
+prevent the extension of white power among the aborigines.
+
+By sheer force of ability and eloquence, he rose into great prominence
+in southern Spanish America, and was rewarded for his successful labours
+in Tucuman by being appointed Bishop of Paraguay. There the Creoles
+accepted him as their leader, and he soon became the dominant figure in
+the community. He quarrelled repeatedly with the governor, but such was
+his force of character, and the skill with which he took advantage of
+the superstitious reverence for his apostolic office, that he invariably
+achieved his ends. Once the governor, at the head of a file of soldiers,
+presented himself at the bishop's door to arrest a fugitive whom the
+bishop had undertaken to protect. When the door was opened there stood
+the dauntless priest in full canonicals, defying the governor to cross
+his threshold. He excommunicated the governor and every soldier who had
+dared take part in this affront to his dignity, and, like Hildebrand,
+was only appeased when the governor had begged for pardon on his knees.
+
+When the governor died, Bishop Cardenas succeeded _ad interim_. His
+popularity and prestige were unbounded, and his audacity and courage
+unprecedented. Uniting in himself the religious, civil, and popular
+power, he controlled the forces of the community more completely than
+any one who had preceded him. His great work was the humiliation and
+destruction of the Jesuits. He hampered their insidious spread on the
+hither side of the Paraná, and attempted the secularisation of many of
+their missions. In 1649 he took the audacious step of issuing a decree
+expelling all the members of the Society of Jesus, and he actually drove
+the Fathers from their churches and schools in Asuncion itself. The
+Jesuits appealed to the Viceroy, and a governor was sent out to depose
+him.
+
+Twenty years had now elapsed since the Jesuits had armed the Mission
+Indians and organised them into an efficient militia. An army was,
+therefore, ready to the new governor's hand. The Creoles of western
+Paraguay were riotous and tumultuous, but in that tropical climate they
+had lost much of the military capacity of their Spanish ancestors. The
+number of people of Spanish descent was small and while the secular
+Indians made admirable soldiers when disciplined and well led, they had
+never been organised by the Creoles for serious warfare. The military
+system of the Jesuits immediately proved its superiority. Aided by the
+prestige of his Viceregal commission, the new governor at the head of
+the Jesuit army quickly overcame the hastily gathered levies of the
+Bishop.
+
+For the next one hundred and twenty years the Jesuits maintained their
+system in south-eastern Paraguay and the regions on both banks of the
+Paraná and the Upper Uruguay. Until 1728 their territory was nominally
+under the jurisdiction of the governor of Asuncion. Really, however, it
+was an independent republic ruled by a superior whose capital was at
+Candelaria, and who was actually responsible to no one except his
+General at Rome and the authorities at Madrid. In the secular part of
+Paraguay, the formerly turbulent and secular Creoles sank more and more
+into the indifference characteristic of the Indians who surrounded them.
+Early in the eighteenth century a governor named Antequera, whom the
+Viceregal authorities attempted to depose, was forcibly maintained for a
+time by the Paraguayan Creoles--probably the earliest instance of an
+important movement toward independence which occurred in South America.
+The Paraguayans only yielded when a compromise was offered. The old
+ferocity which the original conquerors had felt against the Indians gave
+place gradually to kindlier sentiments. From slaves the Indians rose
+into serfs and then into peasants, living on good terms with the
+proprietors of their lands, and not more oppressed by Spanish officials
+than the whites themselves. Secular Paraguay, shut in on the west by
+the impenetrable Chaco with its hordes of dreaded wild Indians, and on
+the east by the Jesuit territory, could not expand. Indeed the impulse
+toward conquest and exploration which so distinguished the Paraguayan
+Creoles in the latter part of the sixteenth century, had completely died
+out as early as the middle of the seventeenth century.
+
+In 1728, the Jesuit republic was formally detached from the jurisdiction
+of Paraguay and placed under that of the government of Buenos Aires. The
+missions were all situated on or near the banks of the Upper Paraná and
+Uruguay, and their line of communication with the outside world ran
+directly to Buenos Aires. They had few commercial relations with
+Asuncion and it was inconvenient to maintain even a shadow of political
+relation with that capital. The Jesuit missions prospered, although,
+curiously enough, their population remained stationary. South and east
+of the Paraná, the country which they occupied was mostly an open,
+rolling plain admirably suited for pasturage. Herding cattle was the
+chief employment of the Indians and the chief source of the exports.
+However, in the forests north-west of the Paraná, agriculture was more
+practised, and the principal exports thence were the matte tea and
+timber. In the pastoral country the Jesuits did not expand farther. They
+had already gathered most of the Indians who inhabited that region into
+their missions, and the natural increase of population did not justify
+any new settlements. But in the wooded country across the Paraná a few
+tribes of Guaranies had hitherto escaped subjection to either Creoles or
+Jesuits, and farther to the west, in the great Chaco, there were many
+tribes of savage and intractable Indians. In both these directions the
+Jesuits kept up their missionary efforts. In Paraguay, they were
+successful and converted many tribes of the northern part of that
+country, but in the Chaco they could make little progress.
+
+In 1769 the king of Spain issued his famous decree banishing the Jesuits
+from all his dominions. It was feared that in the centre of their power
+on the Upper Paraná they might offer resistance. They commanded a
+population of more than two hundred thousand Indians, fairly well armed
+and disciplined and absolutely devoted to them; nevertheless, they
+submitted quietly. Spanish officials replaced the Jesuits in control of
+the civil and commercial interests of the mission towns, and priests of
+other Orders were sent up to continue spiritual instruction. The Spanish
+officials were, however, not successful in holding the Indians together.
+Their exactions and cruelties drove the Indians to despair, and within a
+very few years emigration began. The seven missions to the east of the
+Uruguay had been traded by Spain to Portugal in 1750, and most of their
+inhabitants had then been killed or driven across the Uruguay. The most
+populous missions lay between the Uruguay and the Paraná, in the
+territory that to-day forms the upper part of Corrientes, and the
+Missions Territory. A large proportion of their inhabitants fled down
+the Uruguay into Entre Rios and Uruguay proper. Those on the west side
+of the Paraná largely remained or removed only far enough to coalesce
+with the secular Indians of Paraguay; some of the outlying and more
+remote missions were abandoned altogether, and Paraguay then assumed its
+present extent.
+
+The population was fairly homogeneous, and its vast majority was
+composed of descendants of the aborigines, with comparatively few
+Spaniards and Creoles of mixed blood forming the upper strata of
+society. The country felt few of the quickening and disturbing
+influences which were already animating the regions at the mouth of the
+river toward the end of the eighteenth century. Little effort was
+necessary to get a subsistence from the teeming soil, and, content with
+their luscious oranges, their matte, and their unlimited tobacco, the
+Paraguayans led an idyllic existence. They had little sympathy with the
+turbulent, active-minded population which was crowding into Buenos Aires
+and making it a commercial, political, and intellectual focus.
+Agricultural in their habits, they disliked the hard-riding gauchos of
+the southern plains hardly less than the turbulent Indians of the Chaco.
+In the movements that preceded the revolution of 1810 they took no part.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+FRANCIA'S REIGN
+
+
+On the 25th of May, 1810, a revolutionary movement in Buenos Aires
+overthrew the Spanish Viceroy. Its leaders were young Creole liberals,
+natives of Buenos Aires, and a junta was formed from their number which
+undertook the supreme direction of affairs. Prompt measures were taken
+to overthrow the Spanish provincial authorities and to secure the
+co-operation and obedience of all the subdivisions of the Viceroyalty.
+Manuel Belgrano, one of the enthusiastic leaders of the movement, was
+sent up the river to take possession of Entre Rios and Corrientes for
+the junta, and to attack the Spanish governor of Paraguay. He was
+accompanied by only a few hundred troops, but he counted on the sympathy
+and help of the people among whom he was going.
+
+In Entre Rios and Corrientes, which were mere administrative divisions
+of the province of Buenos Aires, he encountered no difficulty. The
+gauchos, who formed almost the whole population, hated outside control
+and cared little who claimed to be supreme at Buenos Aires. Belgrano
+marched through the centre of these districts and reached the Paraná at
+the old Jesuit capital of Candelaria. Once across the river he found a
+different atmosphere. The home-loving Indian population regarded
+Belgrano's band as invaders and responded promptly to the call of the
+Spanish governor, old Velasco, to take up arms and repel the aggression.
+The Paraguayans hated the Buenos Aireans with an intensity born of
+ignorance and isolation, and a considerable force of militia assembled
+for the defence of Asuncion. Among its most popular leaders was a native
+Paraguayan named Yegros. Belgrano was not opposed until he approached
+within sixty miles of Asuncion, but on the 19th of January, 1811, the
+Paraguayans turned and crushed his little army. He retreated to the
+south and on March 9th was captured with his whole force.
+
+This repulse ended, once for all, the hope cherished by the Buenos Aires
+liberals of persuading or compelling the submission of Paraguay. The
+battle of the 19th of January, and the hostile attitude of the whole
+Paraguayan people, definitely assured Paraguay's independence from
+Buenos Aires. It soon became evident that independence from Spain had
+been secured as well. In contact with their Argentine prisoners, the
+more intelligent Paraguayan leaders were quickly convinced of the
+advantages which home rule would bring to Paraguay, and that they
+themselves ought to control the government until affairs in Spain should
+be settled. The governor had no Spanish troops nor any hope of
+receiving help, either from the distracted mother-country or from the
+governors of other parts of South America. Each of them had enough to do
+in taking care of himself. Velasco's secretary was an educated Buenos
+Airean, a liberal, and an autonomist. He plotted the overthrow of his
+chief in connection with a Paraguayan officer who was popular with the
+troops in Asuncion.
+
+Two months after Belgrano's surrender, a bloodless revolution occurred.
+The governor offered no resistance; he simply stepped to one side and
+became a private citizen, while the patriots took possession of the
+barracks and began casting about blindly for a solid basis for a new
+government. After a good deal of confusion the prominent citizens of the
+province were called together in a sort of rude Constituent Congress,
+and a junta was formed. General Yegros and Dr. Francia were the two most
+prominent and popular men in the country, and they were naturally and
+inevitably selected as chief members. Yegros had been the principal
+leader of the militia, and Francia was considered the most learned and
+able man in the community. He was a lawyer who had become a sort of
+demigod to the lower classes by his fearless advocacy of their rights,
+and inspired almost superstitious reverence by his reputation for
+learning and disinterestedness. He was selected as secretary, while
+Yegros, an ignorant soldier, became president of the junta. Francia's
+abilities and courage immediately made him the dominating figure.
+Jealousies arose and he stepped out for a while, but the weaker men who
+succeeded him could not control the situation. Two years later a
+popular assembly met which was ready to submit to his advice in
+everything. The junta was dismissed and he and Yegros were invested with
+supreme power under the title of Consuls. A year later he forced Yegros
+out and with general consent assumed the position of sole executive, and
+in 1816 he was formally declared supreme and perpetual dictator.
+
+For the next twenty-five years he was the Government of Paraguay.
+History does not record another instance in which a single man so
+dominated and controlled a people. A solitary, mysterious figure, of
+whose thoughts, purposes, and real character little is known, the worst
+acts of his life were the most picturesque and alone have been recorded.
+Although the great Carlyle includes him among the heroes whose memory
+mankind should worship, the opinion of his detractors is likely to
+triumph. Francia will go down to history as a bloody-minded, implacable
+despot, whose influence and purposes were wholly evil. After reading all
+that has been written about this singular character, my mind inclines
+more to the judgment of Carlyle. I feel that the vivid imagination of
+the great Scotchman has pierced the clouds which enshrouded the spirit
+of a great and lonely man and has seen the soul of Francia as he was.
+Cruel, suspicious, ruthless, and heartless as he undeniably became, his
+acts will not bear the interpretation that his purposes were selfish or
+that he was animated by mere vulgar ambition.
+
+The population over which he ruled had for centuries been trained to
+obedience by the Jesuits and the Creole landowners. The Creoles were
+few and the Spaniards still fewer. Francia based his power upon the
+Indian population and not on the little aristocracy whose members
+boasted of white blood. Convinced that the Indians were not fit for
+self-government, he also believed that it would be disastrous to permit
+the white oligarchy to rule. He proposed to save Paraguay from the civil
+disturbances that distracted the rest of South America. He therefore
+absorbed all power in his own hands and ruthlessly repressed any
+indications of insubordination among those of Spanish blood. The Indians
+blindly obeyed him, and he relentlessly pursued the Creoles and the
+priests, seeming to regard them only as dangerous firebrands who might
+at any time start up a conflagration in the peaceful body politic, and
+not as citizens entitled to the protection of the State.
+
+He absorbed in his own person all the functions of government; he had no
+confidants and no assistants; he allowed no Paraguayan to approach him
+on terms of equality. When he died, a careful search failed to reveal
+any records of the immense amount of governmental business which he had
+transacted during thirty years. The orders for executions were simply
+messages signed by him and returned, to be destroyed as soon as they had
+been carried out. The longer he lived the more completely did he apply
+his system of absolutism, and the more confident he became that he alone
+could govern his people for his people's good. He adopted a policy of
+commercial isolation, and intercourse with the outside world was
+absolutely forbidden. Foreigners were not permitted to enter the country
+without a special permit, and once there were rarely allowed to leave.
+
+  [Illustration: JOSÉ RODRIGUEZ GASPAR FRANCIA.
+  [From an old wood-cut.]]
+
+He neither sent nor received consuls nor ministers to foreign nations.
+Foreign vessels were excluded from the Paraguay River and allowed to
+visit only one port in the south-eastern corner of the country. He was
+the sole foreign merchant. The communistic system inherited from the
+Jesuits was developed and extended to the secular parts of the country.
+The government owned two-thirds of the land and conducted great farms
+and ranches in various parts of the territory. If labour was needed in
+gathering crops, Francia had recourse to forced enlistment. Those Indian
+missions which remained free he brought gradually under his own control
+and followed the old Jesuit policy of compelling the wild Indians to
+work like other citizens. Dreading interference by Spain, Brazil, or
+Buenos Aires, he improved the military forces and began the organisation
+of the whole population into a militia. His policy, however, was
+peaceful, and the difficulty of getting arms up the river, past the
+forces of the Argentine warring factions, prevented his organising an
+army fit for offensive operations even if he had desired to have one.
+
+As he grew older he became more solitary and ferocious. Always a gloomy
+and peculiar man, absorbed in his studies and making no account of the
+ordinary pleasures and interests of mankind, he had reached the age of
+fifty-five and assumed supreme power, without marrying. His public
+labours still further cut him off from thoughts of family and friends;
+and, although it has been asserted that he married a young Frenchwoman
+when he was past seventy, nothing is known about her. It is certain that
+he left no children and died attended only by servants. His severities
+against the educated classes increased; he suffered from frequent fits
+of hypochondria; he ordered wholesale executions, and seven hundred
+political prisoners filled the jails when he died. His moroseness
+increased year by year. He feared assassination and occupied several
+houses, letting no one know where he was going to sleep from one night
+to another, and when walking the streets kept his guards at a distance
+before and behind him. Woe to the enemy or suspect who attracted his
+attention! Such was the terror inspired by this dreadful old man that
+the news that he was out would clear the streets. A white Paraguayan
+literally dared not utter his name; during his lifetime he was "El
+Supremo," and after he was dead for generations he was referred to
+simply as "El Defunto." For years when men spoke of him they looked
+behind them and crossed themselves, as if dreading that the mighty old
+man could send devils to spy upon them,--at least this is the story of
+Francia's enemies who have made it their business to hand his name down
+to execration. The real reason may have been that Francia's successors
+regarded defamation of "El Defunto" as an indication of unfriendliness
+to themselves.
+
+Devil or saint, hypochondriac or hero, actuated by morbid vanity or by
+the purest altruism, there is no difficulty in estimating the results of
+Francia's work and the extent of his abilities. That he had a will of
+iron and a capacity beyond the ordinary is proven by his life before he
+became dictator, as well as his successes afterwards. All authorities
+agree that he had acquired as a lawyer a remarkable ascendancy over the
+common people by his fearlessness in maintaining their causes before the
+courts and corrupt officials. He did not rise by any sycophant arts;
+indeed, he never veiled the contempt he felt for the party schemers and
+officials around him. When he had supreme power in his hands he used it
+for no selfish indulgences. His life was austere and abstemious;
+parsimonious for himself, he was lavish for the public. He would accept
+no present, and either returned those sent him, or sent back their value
+in money. Though he had been educated for the priesthood and had never
+been out of South America he had absorbed liberal religious principles
+from his reading. Nothing could have been more likely to offend the
+Catholic Indians, upon whose good will his power rested, than his
+refusal to attend mass, but he was honest enough with himself and with
+them not to simulate a sentiment which he did not feel. In his manners
+and life he was absolutely modest; he received any who chose to see him;
+if he was terrible it was to the wealthy and the powerful; the humblest
+Indian received a hearing and justice. During his reign Paraguay
+remained undisturbed, wrapped in a profound peace; the population
+rapidly increased, and though commerce and manufactures did not
+flourish, nor the new ideas which were transforming the face of the
+civilised world penetrate within his barriers, food and clothing were
+plenty and cheap, and the Paraguayans prospered in their own humble
+fashion. Though they might not sell their delicious matte, there was no
+limitation on its domestic use, and although money was not plentiful and
+foreign goods were a rarity, a fat steer could be bought for a dollar,
+and want was unknown.
+
+The old man lived until 1840 in the full possession of unquestioned
+supreme power, dying at the age of eighty-three years. His final illness
+lasted only a few days, and he went on attending to business to the very
+end. When asked to appoint a successor he refused, bitterly saying that
+there would be no lack of heirs. His legitimate and natural successor
+could only be that man who could raise himself through the mass by his
+force of character and prove himself capable of dominating the
+disorganising elements of Creole society.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE REIGN OF THE ELDER LOPEZ
+
+
+Once the breath was out of the old man's body, his secretary attempted
+to seize the government. He concealed Francia's death for several hours
+and issued orders in the dead man's name. But as soon as the news came
+out, the army officers, whose assistance was essential, refused to obey
+him. The poor secretary escaped a worse fate by hanging himself in
+prison, and the troops amused themselves setting up and pulling down
+would-be dictators. After several months of anarchy, it was determined
+to assemble a Congress in imitation of the first Congress which had
+named Francia consul. A real representative government was, of course,
+impossible in Paraguay, but the Creoles, who naturally formed the bulk
+of the Congress, were desirous of insuring themselves against another
+dictatorship. They wanted a government where the offices would be passed
+around. However, an executive was necessary and the only executive they
+knew was an irresponsible one. The title borne by Yegros and Francia in
+the early days seemed a good one, and so it was agreed that two consuls
+should be elected for a limited period, during which, however, they were
+to exercise very limited power.
+
+Among the ambitious and turbulent deputies a directing spirit arose in
+the person of Carlos Antonio Lopez, a well-to-do rancher who had
+received a lawyer's education and had been careful to keep out of public
+view during Francia's reign. At this juncture he inevitably came to the
+front, because he was the most learned and far-sighted among his fellow
+Creoles. He was a man of great natural ability and shrewdness, highly
+intelligent, well read, agreeable and affable in his manners. Selected
+as one of the two Consuls by the Congress of 1841, he soon pushed his
+colleague to one side, and became dominant. In 1844 an obsequious
+Congress which had been summoned by him and whose members he virtually
+named, conferred upon him the title of President for the nominal term of
+ten years, which really was intended to be for life. It is, however,
+significant of the milder character of Lopez and the increased power of
+the office-holding class that he preferred the more republican title of
+President, held for a nominally limited period, to the semi-monarchical
+one of "El Supremo," borne by his terrible predecessor. As a matter of
+fact, Lopez succeeded to all the absolute power and prerogatives of
+Francia.
+
+The new ruler was no such determined _doctrinaire_ as Francia. He was
+rather a clever opportunist than a gloomy idealist. He adopted many
+liberal measures, such as the law providing that all negroes thereafter
+born should be free, and he even attempted to frame a regular
+constitution. He abandoned the policy of isolation, so dear to Francia,
+and opened the country in 1845. He loved appreciation and especially
+wished the approbation of foreigners. Though cautious and reluctant to
+engage in outside complications, he was by nature and taste a diplomat,
+and he welcomed the opportunity to try his wits in wider competition
+than Paraguay afforded. In 1844, Rosas, the tyrant of Buenos Aires, was
+engaged in a contest with revolutionists in Corrientes. His ultimate
+purpose was manifestly to unite the whole Plate valley under his
+authority. Lopez shared the uneasiness of other neighbouring rulers at
+the growth of Rosas's power. The latter promulgated a decree forbidding
+the navigation of the Paraná to any but Argentine vessels. This decree
+was an attack on Paraguay's very plain and natural right to reach the
+ocean, and absolutely shut her off from the outside world. Lopez
+resented the aggression, and after many protests declared war against
+Buenos Aires in 1849. Nothing came of it, however, except to give his
+oldest son a chance to see actual service and to emphasise Lopez's
+enmity to Rosas and his policy. The way was prepared for his friendship
+with Urquiza, the great leader of the Argentine provincials, and for the
+opening of Paraguay to foreign commerce.
+
+Permission was granted in 1845 for foreign ships to ascend the Paraguay
+as far as Asuncion, and foreigners were no longer forbidden to enter the
+country. On the contrary, Lopez evinced a marked desire for their
+society and encouraged them to come and engage in trade. His manners
+were engaging and his courtesies untiring, unless his will was crossed
+or his suspicions aroused, when he could be very unreasonable and
+arbitrary.
+
+The spirit of the Paraguayan Creoles had been so broken by the terrible
+proscriptions of Francia's reign that Lopez did not experience much
+difficulty in ruling them. His milder methods and the terror of a
+renewal of the cruelties of Francia's time succeeded in holding all
+demonstrations of lawlessness or rebellion in check. He was averse to
+shedding blood, and his subjects enjoyed substantial liberty in their
+goings and comings. Justice was well and regularly administered, and
+life and property were almost absolutely safe. Over every kind of
+affairs, however, he exercised a patriarchal supervision. One
+trustworthy traveller tells of being waited on at table in a remote part
+of Paraguay by a fine-appearing man whose face was very sad and who
+seemed very awkward in handling the dishes. On inquiry, it turned out
+that the waiter was the richest man in eastern Paraguay and had been
+condemned by the President to serve in a menial capacity as a punishment
+for insulting a woman. Lopez's ideas of freedom did not contemplate that
+his people might engage in politics or the discussion of any public
+affairs. During the civil war in Corrientes, Paraguayans were forbidden
+to speak of what was going on across the river. Sometimes farmers were
+required to cultivate a certain area in a certain crop. He maintained
+the government monopoly of yerba and completed Francia's work of
+incorporating the free Indians.
+
+An instance of his ready interest in foreigners was his connection with
+a young American, named Hopkins, who had been sent out in 1845 by the
+United States Government to investigate the advisability of recognising
+Paraguay, then accessible for the first time. This enterprising young
+man fired Lopez's imagination with his accounts of the material progress
+of the United States, and Lopez even lent him money to return and form a
+company for the purpose of introducing American goods and cigar
+manufacture into Paraguay. Hopkins, after several years, succeeded in
+interesting some American capitalists and came back and established his
+factory. At first Lopez was delighted, but he soon quarrelled with the
+Americans. The etiquette in Paraguay was that the President should
+remain seated with his hat on when he granted an audience, and the
+manners of the visitor were expected to be correspondingly humble. The
+Americans mortally offended him by forgetting themselves in his
+presence. The situation soon became intolerable and the company retired.
+
+After the overthrow of Rosas in 1851 the Paraná was declared free for
+navigation to vessels of all nations by Argentine law and by treaties to
+which Brazil and Uruguay were parties, although Paraguay was not.
+Nevertheless, Lopez permitted ships to ascend freely to Asuncion. Lopez
+wished to concentrate all trade at Asuncion and opened no ports north of
+his capital. The upper course of the river belonged to Brazil, but the
+boundary between Brazil and Paraguay had remained unsettled from
+colonial times. In his control of the Lower Paraguay, Lopez had a lever
+to force Brazil to terms. He steadfastly refused to permit ships to
+ascend into Brazil in spite of the latter's persistent efforts to
+procure the natural and necessary right of egress to the ocean by an
+international river. While this matter still remained unsettled,
+Lieutenant Page of the United States Navy appeared in the _Water Witch_
+at Asuncion on his survey of the Paraguay. Lopez was delighted, and
+extended every facility to the officer as far as the northern boundary
+of Paraguay. Page went on up to Brazil. Lopez was offended, for he
+feared that he would be at a disadvantage in his further negotiations
+with Brazil by having apparently granted to an American ship the
+permission which he had steadily refused to Brazilians. Unfortunately,
+just at this time occurred the quarrel with the American promoter,
+Hopkins. The American officer took his countryman's side, giving him
+refuge on board the _Water Witch_. This so enraged Lopez that he issued
+a decree prohibiting foreign war-vessels from entering Paraguayan
+waters, and one of his forts fired at the Lieutenant's vessel, killing a
+man. This outrage brought about Lopez's ears a naval expedition which
+compelled him to apologise and to agree to reimburse the Hopkins
+Company.
+
+Brazil also sent a fleet up the Paraná to coerce Lopez into granting
+free transit along the Paraguay, but he cleverly held the Brazilians in
+parley until he had an opportunity to fortify the river. England's
+gunboats at Buenos Aires virtually held the Paraguayan flagship, with
+Lopez's eldest son on board as hostage for a young British subject named
+Canstatt, who had been imprisoned and condemned to death for complicity
+in a conspiracy at Asuncion. Lopez was forced to release him and pay
+damages.
+
+These humiliations changed his love for foreigners into a bitter hatred,
+and he began to prepare his country to resist their aggressions more
+effectively. From his youth he had trained his sons to succeed him.
+Francisco, the eldest, early evinced a taste for military affairs. When
+only eighteen years of age, he commanded the expedition of 1849 into the
+Argentine, and thenceforward continued to be his father's
+general-in-chief and minister-of-war and the active agent in improving
+Paraguay's military resources. The second son, Venancio, was commander
+of the garrison at Asuncion, and the third, Benigno, was Admiral. Though
+so rigid with his other subjects, he gave both his sons and daughters
+unlimited license and they grew up to regard themselves as members of a
+royal family. They enriched themselves at the public expense. The sons
+took as many mistresses as they pleased and gave free rein to all their
+cruel and bad instincts. The selfishness, obstinacy, unspeakable
+cruelty, and hard-heartedness of Francisco were soon to bring the
+guiltless Paraguayan people to the verge of extinction.
+
+In 1854 Lopez had sent Francisco to Europe as ambassador. The young man
+spent eighteen months in the different Courts of Europe, and returned
+an expert in the vices of great capitals and enamoured of military
+glory. After seeing the reviews of European armies, he became convinced
+that Paraguay could be made an efficient military power and that he
+himself might play a Napoleonic rôle in South America. His father,
+exasperated by the repeated humiliations put upon him by other
+countries, gave hearty support to his plans for the improvement of the
+Paraguayan army. In 1862, after a long and painful illness, the elder
+Lopez died. Francisco took possession of his effects and papers and
+produced a will naming himself Vice-President. Word sent to the military
+chiefs of the different towns insured the assembling of an obedient
+Congress at Asuncion, by which he was formally elected and proclaimed
+President and invested with all the absolute power wielded by his father
+and Francia.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE WAR
+
+
+The new President was thirty-five years old, good-looking, careful of
+his appearance, fond of military finery, and strutted as he walked. He
+spoke French and Spanish fluently, but with his officers and men used
+only Guarany. He was an eloquent speaker and had the gift of inspiring
+his troops with confidence in himself and contempt for the enemy. He had
+a will of iron; his pride was intense; he was absolutely unscrupulous,
+and had no regard for the truth. He never showed any feeling of kindness
+to his most devoted subjects. He ordered his best friends to execution;
+he tortured his mother and sisters and murdered his brothers. The only
+natural affection he ever evinced was a fondness for Madame Lynch, a
+woman whom he had picked up in Paris, and for her children. He seems to
+have treated her well to the last, but his numerous other mistresses and
+their children he heartlessly abandoned. Though physically an arrant
+coward, no defeats could discourage him. He fought to the last against
+overwhelming odds and was able to retain his personal ascendancy over
+his followers, even after he had been driven into the woods and all
+reasonable hope was lost.
+
+He began his reign like a Mahometan sultan by ridding himself of his
+father's most trusted counsellors, imprisoning and executing the most
+intelligent and powerful citizens, and banishing his brothers. The
+military preparations which he had begun as his father's Minister of War
+were continued with increased vigour. The warlike Argentines and
+Uruguayans and the powerful empire of Brazil laughed at his pretensions
+to become a real factor in South American international affairs, but
+their laughter soon cost them dear. He was a monarch of a compact little
+state whose position behind rivers in the centre of the continent made
+it admirably defensible. Its eight hundred thousand inhabitants were
+obedient, brave, and physically vigorous. Accustomed for generations to
+regard their dictator as the greatest ruler in the world, knowing no
+duty except absolute compliance with his will, they never doubted that
+under his leadership they would be invincible. He knew that he could
+raise an army out of all proportion to the size of his country. The
+problem was how to arm it. With Buenos Aires commanding the only route
+of ingress from abroad it had been difficult for his father and himself
+to obtain war material from Europe. For years, however, they had been
+buying all that they could and had accumulated several hundred cannon,
+most of them antiquated cast-iron smooth-bores. They had fortified the
+point of Humaitá which admirably protected the Paraguay River from
+naval attacks, and had established an arsenal at Asuncion.
+
+Against Brazil Lopez had serious cause of complaint. The boundary
+question was still unsettled and his possession of the Lower Paraguay
+placed the great province of Matto Grosso at his mercy, while the
+existence of that province, geographically a mere northern extension of
+Paraguay, was a menace to his own safety. Against the Argentines his
+hatred was not so well founded, but none the less bitter.
+
+The usual civil war was going on in Uruguay in 1863. The party which
+held the capital was out of favour at Rio and at Buenos Aires, and
+Brazil and Argentine were both inclined to support the pretensions of
+Florés, who led the revolutionists. Lopez thought that his own interests
+were concerned and asserted his right to be consulted as to Uruguayan
+affairs. A mighty shout of laughter went up from the Buenos Aires press
+at the pretensions of the cacique of an Indian tribe to the position of
+guardian of the equilibrium of South America. Brazil ignored his
+protests and calmly went on with her preparations to establish her
+protégé in Montevideo. In the beginning of 1864 Lopez began active
+preparations for war. His army already numbered twenty-eight thousand
+men, and by the end of August sixty-four thousand more had been enrolled
+and drilled. Although ill provided with artillery and horses, and
+although the infantry were mostly armed with old-fashioned flintlocks,
+no such formidable force had ever assembled in South America. The news
+of Lopez's preparations exasperated and somewhat alarmed the people of
+Buenos Aires, though no one knew his exact intentions. Lopez had, in
+fact, determined to compel the Brazilian and Argentine governments to
+accept his wishes as to Uruguay or to risk all in the hazard of war.
+Perhaps hazy dreams of himself as emperor of a domain extending from the
+southern sources of the Amazon far down the Plate valley and over to the
+Atlantic coast passed through his brain. Possibly he foresaw clearly
+that Paraguay had come to the parting of the ways, and that she must
+either fight her way to the sea or reconcile herself to slow suffocation
+between the immense masses of Brazil and Argentina. In such a contest
+the only allies he could hope for would be revolutionary factions in
+Uruguay and Corrientes, and possibly the virtually independent ruler of
+Entre Rios. In case of a war with Brazil alone, the neutrality of
+Argentina might have been secured by careful management, but in the
+freer countries the feeling against him as a despot was strong, and the
+extension of his system would have been regarded as a menace to
+civilisation.
+
+Late in 1864 the Brazilian forces marched into Uruguay and joined
+Florés. Lopez promptly retaliated by seizing a Brazilian steamer which
+was passing Asuncion on its way to Matto Grosso and followed up this
+aggression by an invasion of the latter province. His forces quickly
+reduced the towns on the banks of the Paraguay as far as steamers could
+penetrate. It was impossible to send reinforcements overland from Rio;
+Brazil's counter-attack must be delivered from the south. The empire was
+unprepared, but its troops poured into Uruguay and Rio Grande as fast as
+they could be mobilised. The anti-Florés party were crushed by the siege
+and capture of Paysandu late in 1864. The Argentine government under
+Mitre proclaimed its neutrality. Lopez was flushed with his easy success
+in Matto Grosso. The forces he had on foot overwhelmingly outnumbered
+those of the Brazilians in Uruguay and Rio Grande. He wished to strike
+the latter before they could be re-enforced, overrun Rio Grande, and, as
+master of one of Brazil's most valuable provinces, dictate terms. To
+reach the Brazilians it was necessary to cross the Argentine province of
+Corrientes. He asked for permission to do so and Mitre refused.
+Notwithstanding the risk involved, he promptly decided to finish up both
+Argentine and Brazil at the same time. Sending his troops across the
+Paraná he virtually annexed Corrientes and declared war on Buenos Aires.
+Lopez destined twenty-five thousand men for the invasion of Corrientes
+and the conquest of the Lower Uruguay valley, but the difficulties of
+getting so large an army across the river and ready for an advance into
+a hostile country were unexpectedly great. The gauchos of Corrientes,
+trained for generations in civil wars, quickly assembled to oppose the
+Paraguayans. Meanwhile, a Brazilian fleet came up; and, on June 2, 1865,
+at Riachuelo, decisively defeated the Paraguayan naval forces. Lopez
+thereby lost all hope of commanding the river. The communications of his
+army in Corrientes might be cut off at any time and an advance became
+impossible. The battle of Riachuelo threw Paraguay on the defensive and
+made Lopez's great plan of carrying the war to the Uruguay
+impracticable.
+
+  [Illustration: FRANCISCO SOLANO LOPEZ.
+  [From a photograph taken in 1849.]]
+
+Nevertheless, Lopez did not recall the twelve thousand men he had sent
+across the missions to invade the valley of the Upper Uruguay and the
+state of Rio Grande. The Brazilians were taken unprepared, and early in
+August the Paraguayans had captured the chief Brazilian town in that
+region--Uruguayana. The failure of the Corrientes army to reach the
+Lower Uruguay left the route up that river free. The Brazilian and
+Uruguayan army, which had been victorious at Paysandú, marched up the
+west bank and defeated and destroyed the rear-guard which the
+Paraguayans had left on the Argentine side opposite Uruguayana. Lopez's
+army was therefore cut off from retreat. It was promptly surrounded, and
+on the 17th of September, 1865, had to surrender.
+
+This put an end to Lopez's plan of an offensive campaign. Indignant at
+the invasion of her soil, Argentina had allied herself with Brazil
+against him. A secret treaty was signed between Brazil, Argentina, and
+Florés, now recognised as ruler of Uruguay, to prosecute the war to a
+finish, to depose Lopez from his throne, and to disarm the Paraguayan
+fortifications. Lopez withdrew his army from Corrientes and concentrated
+all his forces in the south-west angle of his own territory.
+
+The position was admirable for defence. North of the Paraná and east of
+the Paraguay stretched a low, wooded country subject to overflow, and
+intersected by shallow, mud-bottomed lagoons, which were old abandoned
+beds of the rivers. The Paraguay protected his right flank and afforded
+him a direct and easy communication with Asuncion. Batteries on the
+point of Humaitá, which the Brazilian fleet did not dare to try to pass,
+insured this line of communication. West of the Paraguay the great
+Chaco, there impenetrable, prevented a movement to get north of Humaitá
+on that side. To the east the swamps along the Paraná extended
+indefinitely, and an advance of the enemy in that direction would have
+had its communications cut by an army encamped near Humaitá. Humaitá
+was, therefore, the key to the situation, and the allies could not
+advance until they captured it or, by running the batteries with their
+fleet, destroyed Lopez's control of the Paraguay.
+
+By March, 1866, the allies had concentrated a force of forty thousand
+men just south of the fork of the rivers. About twenty-five thousand
+were Brazilians, twelve thousand Argentines and three thousand
+Uruguayans. The Brazilian fleet, numbering eighteen steam gunboats
+carrying one hundred and twenty-five guns, lay near at hand ready to
+co-operate. Protected by the fire of the gunboats, the whole allied army
+had little difficulty in crossing the Paraná and establishing itself on
+Paraguayan soil. Lopez lost heavily in vain attempts to prevent this
+landing. On May 2nd, a force of Paraguayans surprised the allies a few
+miles north of the river and badly cut up the vanguard. The allies,
+however, continued advancing and took a strong position just south of a
+great lagoon. Here, on the 24th of May, they were attacked by the whole
+Paraguayan army of twenty-five thousand men, who fought with desperate
+valour, but at a hopeless disadvantage. A quarter of the Paraguayan
+soldiers were left dead on the field, and another quarter were badly
+wounded, while the loss of the allies was half as great. The Paraguayan
+army was apparently destroyed, but the allies had suffered so severely,
+and the difficulties of transportation through the swamps were so great,
+that they did not make the sudden dash upon the trenches at Humaitá
+which might have ended the war. Lopez did his utmost to reorganise his
+army. Practically the whole male population was impressed into service.
+The river line of communication to Asuncion, and the strategic railroad
+thence up into the most fertile and populous interior of the country,
+enabled him comfortably to command all the resources of the country,
+both in men and provisions.
+
+Humaitá had already been well fortified on the land side, and Lopez now
+threw up the trenches at the top of the bluff at Curupayty, the first
+high land on the Paraguay River north of the allied army and south of
+Humaitá, and connected it with the latter fortress. Lopez had the
+advantage of the services of a clever English civil engineer; and the
+fortifications, though rude, were soon made practically impregnable to
+assault. In spite of their defeats, the Paraguayans were as ready as
+ever to attack when Lopez commanded, or to stand up and be shot down to
+the last man. They were the most obedient soldiers imaginable; they
+never complained of an injustice and never questioned an order when
+given. Even if a soldier were flogged, he consoled himself by saying,
+"If my father did not flog me, who would?" Every one called his superior
+officer his "father," and Lopez was the "Great Father." Each officer was
+responsible with his life for the faithfulness and conduct of his men
+and had orders to shoot any that wavered. Each soldier knew that the men
+who touched shoulders with him right and left were instructed to shoot
+him if he tried to desert or fly, and those two knew that the men beyond
+them would shoot them if they failed to kill the poor fellow in the
+centre of the five. This cruel system answered perfectly with the
+Paraguayans, and to the very end of the war they never refused to fight
+steadily against the most hopeless odds.
+
+Meanwhile, the allies awaited reinforcements and supplies in the noisome
+swamps, dying meantime by thousands of fever. By the end of June, when
+the allies finally determined to assault the fortifications around
+Humaitá, Lopez had twenty thousand men on the ground. After some bloody
+and indecisive fighting in the swamps, General Mitre, the
+Commander-in-Chief, ordered a grand attack upon the entrenchments at
+Curupayty. On the 22nd of September, 1866, it began with the bombardment
+by the Brazilian ironclads. Eighteen thousand men in four columns
+advanced from the south, and threw themselves blindly against the
+fortifications. When they came to close quarters they were thrown into
+disorder by the terrible artillery fire from the Paraguayan trenches,
+which cross-enfiladed them in different directions. The enormous
+canisters discharged from the eight-inch guns point-blank, at a distance
+of two or three hundred yards, wrought fearful execution. The rifle fire
+of the allies was useless, and the Paraguayans simply waited behind
+their trenches until the Brazilians and Argentines were close at hand
+and then fired. The allies retired in good order, after suffering a loss
+of one-third their number. The soldiers obediently kept rushing on to
+certain death until their officers, seeing that success was hopeless,
+told them that they might retreat. The courage of the Paraguayans had
+been proved in their unsuccessful assaults on the allies the year
+before, and now the Argentines and Brazilians showed even in this awful
+defeat what a stomach they, too, had for hand-to-hand fighting.
+
+After the battle of Curupayty, nothing was attempted on either side for
+fourteen months. Both sides had had enough of attacking fortified
+positions. The Paraguayans lay in Humaitá and the allies occupied
+themselves with fortifying their camps. The imperial government made
+tremendous exertions to reinforce the army. The Argentines also did
+their best, but the efforts of both were hardly sufficient to make good
+the terrible ravages of the cholera, which by the beginning of May,
+1867, had put thirteen thousand Brazilians in hospitals. It was not
+until July that the allies felt themselves again ready to take the
+offensive. A division marched up the Paraná with the purpose of
+outflanking Humaitá on the east, while cavalry raids were sent out to
+the north and rendered the outlying positions of the Paraguayans unsafe.
+Finally, in November, 1867, the Brazilian troops succeeded in getting
+over to the Paraguay River, north and in the rear of Lopez, and General
+Barreto captured and fortified a strong position on the bank fifteen
+miles north of Humaitá. This was fatal to the security and
+communications of Lopez. He made one more desperate and unsuccessful
+assault on the main position of the allies, and then began to plan to
+retire toward Asuncion. At the same time the Brazilian ironclads passed
+the batteries at Curupayty, compelling Lopez to withdraw his troops up
+the river to Humaitá. The war became virtually a siege of the latter
+place, which was constantly bombarded by the fleet from the front and by
+the army from the rear. The Brazilian position on the river to the north
+cut Lopez off from direct river communication with Asuncion, and he had
+to transport his supplies on a new road built in the Chaco swamps. He
+began preparations to evacuate Humaitá and retreat to the north. In
+January, 1868, Mitre definitely retired from the command of the allies
+and was succeeded by the Brazilian Marshal Caxias. A month later
+(February 18th) the Brazilian fleet of ironclads finally succeeded in
+running the batteries at Humaitá, and after throwing a few bombs at
+Asuncion, devoted themselves to the more useful task of cutting off the
+transports to Lopez's army.
+
+  [Illustration: PALM GROVES IN EL CHACO.]
+
+Lopez's line of river communication was now completely at the enemies'
+mercy, and a large force could not be maintained at Humaitá. He
+transported his army to the right bank of the Paraguay, recrossing when
+he got beyond the Brazilian positions. The garrison of three thousand
+men which he left at Humaitá defended itself for six months. In the
+meantime, he had fortified a new position less than fifty miles from
+Asuncion and accessible across the country from his base of supplies in
+central Paraguay. On his right flank a river battery was erected which
+again prevented the Brazilians from reaching the upper river. Opposite
+this point, however, the Chaco is penetrable, and Caxias landed a force
+on the west bank and, marching up, crossed the river in the rear of
+Lopez's position. The Brazilians closed in from the north and south on
+the few thousand Paraguayans, who were all that survived, and after
+several days of desperate fighting, December 27, 1868, the Brazilians
+carried Lopez's position and he fled for his life to the interior,
+followed by a thousand men.
+
+Even after such a defeat he was indomitable and succeeded in gathering
+another small army which was pursued and destroyed in August, 1869.
+Lopez again escaped and took refuge in the wild and mountainous
+regions in the north of Paraguay. The Brazilian cavalry pursued him
+relentlessly, but it was not until March 1, 1870, that he was caught.
+In an attempt to escape he was speared by a common soldier.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+PARAGUAY SINCE 1870
+
+
+No modern nation has ever come so near to complete annihilation as
+Paraguay during her five years' war against the Triple Alliance. Out of
+two hundred and fifty thousand able-bodied men who were living in 1864,
+less than twenty-five thousand survived in 1870. Not less than two
+hundred and twenty-five thousand Paraguayan men--the fathers and
+bread-winners, the farmers and labourers--had perished in battle, by
+disease or exposure or starvation. One hundred thousand adult women had
+died of hardship and hunger, and there were less than ninety thousand
+children under fifteen in the country. The surviving women outnumbered
+the men five to one; the practice of polygamy naturally increased, and
+women were forced to become the labourers and bread-winners for the
+community.
+
+The slaughter was greatest in proportion among the people of white
+blood. When Lopez was waiting in 1868 for the final attack of the
+Brazilians, he made use of the last months of his power to arrest,
+torture, and murder nearly every white man left in Paraguay, including
+his own brother, his brother-in-law, and the generals who had served him
+best, and the friends who had enjoyed his most intimate confidence. Even
+women and foreigners did not escape the cold, deliberate
+bloodthirstiness of this demon. He had his own sister beaten with clubs
+and exposed her naked in the forest; had the wife of the brave general
+who was forced to surrender at Humaitá speared, and subjected two
+members of the American Legation to the most sickening tortures. The
+Minister himself barely escaped with his life.
+
+When the Brazilians captured Asuncion in 1868 they installed a
+provisional triumvirate of Paraguayans, but the country was really under
+their military government until after the death of Lopez. A new
+constitution was proclaimed on November 25, 1870, but it was not until a
+year later that the provisional government was superseded by Salvador
+Jovellanos, the first President. The new President had no elements with
+which to establish a government,--neither money nor men. The country
+Paraguayans refused to recognise his authority and he was shut up in
+Asuncion. There were three so-called revolutions in 1872, which were
+suppressed by the Brazilian troops. The country really remained under a
+Brazilian protectorate for the first few years after the war, and the
+government was largely a convenience to make treaties and to try to
+place loans abroad. Toward the end of 1874 Jovellanos was succeeded by
+Gill, and by 1876 the country was finally enjoying peace and freedom
+from foreign control. The integrity of Paraguay and her continuance as
+an independent power had been mutually guaranteed by Brazil and
+Argentina when they began the war against Lopez, and neither of them
+could afford to let the other take possession of her territory. So
+Paraguay was left substantially intact, although she was compelled to
+give up the territorial claims the Lopezes had so long made against
+Brazil and the Argentine. The latter even submitted to arbitration her
+right to a portion of the Chaco north of the Pilocomayo. President Hayes
+was the arbitrator and he decided in favour of Paraguay in 1878. In the
+treaty of peace Paraguay had agreed to bear the war expenses of the
+allies and these immense sums are still nominally due from her. As a
+matter of fact, she has not been able to pay anything thereon, and the
+matter of forgiving the debt is one frequently discussed in Brazil.
+
+Population rapidly increased after peace was thoroughly established, and
+has more than doubled in the last thirty years. In the late eighties the
+influence of the Buenos Aires boom extended to Paraguay, and the
+government offered great inducements to attract immigration. The
+movement was not very successful, but it had the indirect effect of
+transferring great tracts of land from government to private ownership.
+Previously, two-thirds of the land belonged to the State. One of the
+colonies was composed of socialists from Australia who promptly split on
+their arrival over the question of total abstinence. Those who insisted
+on being allowed to drink were obliged to leave. Subsequently,
+disagreements about doctrine and the application of the principles of
+socialism drove out others. The soil of Paraguay is marvellously
+fertile, but its isolation and the want of markets for the national
+products make it unattractive to European immigrants.
+
+Happily Paraguay has not suffered from civil disorders during the slow
+process of national regeneration which has been going on since 1870.
+Most of the Presidents have served out their full four-years term, and
+the one or two changes which have occurred have not been accompanied by
+any bloodshed or interruption in administration. The chief difficulties
+of the government have been financial. Revenue is small and paper
+currency has been issued until it is at a discount of several hundred
+per cent. compared with its nominal value in gold; but since foreign
+commerce is inconsiderable and the population lives off the products of
+its own farms the results of inflation have not been so disastrous as
+they might have been in a commercial country.
+
+The wave of twentieth-century progress and immigration may strike this
+Arcadian region at any moment, but up to the present time the body of
+the Paraguayans live much as their ancestors. Existence can be
+maintained with hardly an effort; the people can always get oranges in
+default of more nourishing food; the climate is lovely; the forests
+surrounding the peasant's cabin beautiful. Why should a Paraguayan work
+when he can live happily and comfortably without labour, merely to
+procure things which to him are superfluities? It must be remembered
+that the bulk of the Paraguayan people are descended from the Indians
+which were found crowded into this garden spot three centuries ago by
+the Spaniards and the Jesuits. They have never lost their simple,
+submissive, stoical character, and the rule of the three dictators did
+not tend to change them. The modern improvements of which they saw most
+during the reign of Lopez were muskets and cannon, and they can hardly
+be blamed for preferring old-fashioned ways after their experience
+during the war. Though the nation was almost destroyed, the surviving
+remnants show the same characteristics which distinguished their
+ancestors. The new Paraguay, however, is not ruled by any bloody-minded
+despot, and the military possibilities of the people will never again be
+a menace to the liberties of the surrounding nations. Rather is the
+present ruling class disposed to welcome foreign influences and
+immigration, and this beautiful, fertile, and easily accessible country
+stands open to the world.
+
+
+
+
+URUGUAY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The most fertile parts of the globe have always been fought for the
+most. Uruguay has been the Flanders of South America. Her admirable
+commercial position at the mouth of the river Plate has made her capital
+one of the great emporiums of the continent. On the track of the world's
+commerce, open to the currents of intellectual and industrial life which
+sweep from Europe into the luxuriant country of the southern half of
+South America or around to the Pacific, her people have always been in
+the vanguard of Spanish-American civilisation. Her productive,
+well-watered, and gently rolling plains are well adapted for agriculture
+and unsurpassed for pasturage. Here the Indians struggled hardest to
+maintain themselves and longest resisted the Spanish conquest. From
+colonial times, Argentines have crowded in from the west, Brazilians
+from the north, and Buenos Aireans and Europeans from the coast, until
+this favoured spot has become the most thickly populated country of
+South America.
+
+The very strategic and industrial desirability of this region, and the
+ease with which it can be invaded, have made it the scene of constant
+armed conflict. Uruguay has been the cockpit of the southern half of the
+continent, and its people have been fighting continually through the one
+hundred and fifty years during which the country has been inhabited.
+They fought for their independence against the Spaniards, then against
+the Buenos Aireans, then against the Brazilians, then against the Buenos
+Aireans again, and in the intervals they have fought pretty constantly
+among themselves. In colonial times Montevideo was Spain's chief
+fortress on this coast, and that city has always been the favourite
+refuge for the unsuccessful revolutionists and exiles from the
+neighbouring states. The blood of the bravest and most turbulent
+Argentines and Rio Grandenses has constantly mixed with its population.
+By habit, tradition, and inheritance the older generation of Uruguayans
+in both city and country are warlike.
+
+Though the military spirit had been vastly stimulated by peculiar
+political and racial circumstances, in later times commercialism has
+been nourished by geographical situation and the fertility of the soil
+and by European immigration. The interplay of these contending forces
+has been producing a marked people--a vigorous, turbulent race whose
+energies have apparently been chiefly employed in war, but who have
+found time in the intervals of foreign and civil conflict to make their
+country one of the wealthiest and most industrially progressive
+countries in South America. They are like the Dutch in their turbulence
+and in their eagerness to make money; and they are also like the Dutch
+in their determination to maintain at all hazards their separate
+national existence. Nevertheless, the origin of Uruguay was artificial.
+The reason for the country's separation from Buenos Aires was that
+Brazil regarded it as unsafe to permit Argentina to spread north of the
+Plate.
+
+The territory of Uruguay is that irregular polygon which is bounded on
+the south by the Plate estuary; on the west by the Uruguay River; on the
+south-east by the Atlantic; and on the north-east by the artificial line
+which separates it from Brazil. Though the most favoured in soil,
+climate, and geographical position, it is the smallest country in South
+America, the area being only seventy-three thousand square miles. In
+prehistoric days, when a vast inland sea occupied what is now the
+Argentine pampa, Uruguay was the northern shore of the great strait
+which opened into the pampean sea. It is the southern extremity of the
+eastern continental uplift of South America. The last outlying ramparts
+of the Brazilian mountain system, greatly eroded and planed down into
+low-swelling masses little elevated above the sea, run south-west from
+Rio Grande into Uruguay, dipping into the Plate at the southern border.
+The north shore of the Plate estuary is bold, and not flat as is the
+opposite shore of Buenos Aires. There are, however, no mountains,
+properly so-called, in Uruguay, and nearly the whole surface is a
+succession of gently undulating plains and broad ridges intersected by
+countless streams, and covered, for the most part, with luxuriant
+pasture. The abundance of wood and water is an immense advantage to
+settlers, whether pastoral or agricultural. The extreme south-western
+corner, near the mouth of the Uruguay River, is alluvial. On the
+Atlantic coast there are level, marshy plains, due to the slow secular
+rising of the land and consequent baring of the ocean's bed.
+
+The country is easily penetrable in every part. There are no mountain
+ridges or dense forests to interrupt travel, and most of the rivers are
+easily fordable. On the west, the broad flood of the Uruguay River gives
+easy communication to the ocean, while it affords protection against
+sudden invasions from the Argentine province of Entre Rios. The low and
+sandy foreshore of the Atlantic has no harbours, but after rounding Cape
+Santa Maria and entering the estuary of the Plate, there are several
+bays which afford some shelter for shipping. Maldonado, Montevideo, and
+Colonia are the principal ports, but the extreme shallowness of the
+Plate prevents them from being classed as first-rate harbours for modern
+vessels. At Montevideo itself, large modern steamers must anchor several
+miles out.
+
+  [Illustration: HARBOUR AT MONTEVIDEO.]
+
+Possibly the present territory of Uruguay was reached by the Portuguese
+navigators who reconnoitred the coast of Brazil in the first few years
+of the sixteenth century, but they certainly made no settlements and
+left no clear record of their voyagings. In 1515, Juan Diaz de Solis,
+Grand Pilot of Spain, was sent out by Charles V. to reconnoitre the
+Brazilian coast in Spanish interests. He did not land on the shore of
+Brazil proper, but kept on to the south until he reached Cape Santa
+Maria, which marks the northern side of the entrance to the river Plate.
+To his left hand stretched beyond the horizon a flood of yellow fresh
+water flowing gently over a shifting, sandy bottom nowhere more than a
+few fathoms below the surface. It was evident that he was out of the
+ocean and sailing up a river of such magnitude as had never been dreamed
+of before. He followed along the coast, skirting the whole southern
+boundary of what is now the republic of Uruguay and finally reached the
+head of the estuary. Directly from the north the Uruguay, a river five
+miles wide, clear and deep, seemed a continuation of the Plate, but from
+the west the numerous channels of the Paraná delta poured in an immense
+muddy discharge double the volume of the wider river. At the junction
+was an island which Solis named _Martin Garcia_ after his pilot. He
+resolved to take possession of the country in the name of the Crown of
+Castile, and to explore the coast. He disembarked with nine companions
+on the Uruguayan shore: here the little party was unexpectedly attacked
+by Indians; Solis and all his men but one were killed, and the ships
+sailed back to Spain without their commander.
+
+Three years later Ferdinand Magellan, on his epoch-making voyage around
+the world, visited the coast of Uruguay. On the 15th of January, 1520,
+he came in sight of a high hill overlooking a commodious bay. This he
+called Montevideo--a name which has been extended to the city which
+long after grew up on the other side of the harbour. Magellan ascended
+the estuary, hoping that he might find a passage through to the Pacific
+Ocean, but after he had entered the Uruguay its clear water, rapid
+current, and want of tides convinced him that it was only an ordinary
+river and not a strait.
+
+Spain determined to take possession of the Plate, and in 1526 sent out
+an expedition for that purpose under Diego Garcia. At the same time
+Sebastian Cabot was preparing another expedition, which was ordered to
+follow in Magellan's track and to make observations of longitude on the
+Atlantic coast of South America and in the East Indies. Spain and
+Portugal had already begun to dispute about the correct location of the
+line which they had agreed should divide the world into a Spanish and a
+Portuguese hemisphere, and which was believed to pass near the Plate.
+Garcia was delayed on the coast of Brazil, so Cabot reached the mouth of
+the estuary first. The latter had encountered bad weather and lost his
+best ship, and when he sighted the coast of Uruguay his men were
+discouraged. They remained in the mouth of the river for some time, and
+to their surprise a solitary Spaniard was encountered on the shore, who
+proved to be the only survivor of the party that had gone ashore with
+Solis ten years before.
+
+Soon Cabot and his men heard tales of silver mines far up the river, and
+of the existence of a great civilised empire on its remote headwaters.
+Silver ornaments were shown which had come down hand to hand from Peru
+or Bolivia. Cabot determined to abandon his commission to the Moluccas,
+and to find the country whence the silver came. Naturally, his first
+effort was directed up the broad channel of the Uruguay, but on
+ascending this river it was soon evident that the mines and civilised
+country he was seeking did not lie on its banks. Fifty miles up the
+river at San Salvador the Spaniards attempted to establish a little post
+which is sometimes referred to as the earliest settlement in Uruguay or
+Argentina. It was probably intended as a mere supply depot and point of
+refuge, conveniently near the sea to aid the up-river expedition.
+However, the warlike Indians of Uruguay soon left no trace of it. Cabot
+entered the Paraná, where he spent three years in an unsuccessful effort
+to reach Bolivia. He and Garcia sailed back to Spain without leaving
+even a settlement behind them, but they were thoroughly convinced that
+an adequate expedition could find the silver country.
+
+The tribes who inhabited Uruguay were the fiercest Indians encountered
+by the conquerors of South America. For two centuries they succeeded in
+preventing the establishment of settlements in their territory and kept
+out Spanish intruders at the point of the sword. The Spaniards greatly
+coveted the north bank of the Plate and made effort after effort to get
+a foothold there, but these savages managed to maintain themselves for a
+hundred and fifty years in the very face of Buenos Aires. The river
+shore itself was the last accessible and fertile region to be subjected
+to the whites. A century elapsed after the foundation of Buenos Aires
+before Colonia was occupied by the Portuguese, and another fifty years
+went by before Montevideo had been settled and fortified. Uruguay in
+pre-Spanish times, as well as since, was a meeting-ground for different
+peoples. One after another the Guarany tribes crowded into this favoured
+region from the north and west, and the old inhabitants had to fight and
+conquer, or be thrust into the sea. The bravest, best armed, and best
+organised tribes survived in the harsh struggle. Of the Indians
+inhabiting Uruguay when the Spaniards discovered the Plate, the
+principal ones were the Charruas. They occupied a zone extending around
+from the Atlantic, along the Plate, and a short distance up the Uruguay.
+This strong and valiant race never submitted to the Spaniards, and when
+at last they were defeated and crowded back from the coast well on in
+the eighteenth century, they retired to the north and maintained their
+freedom for many years. They belonged to the great family of
+Tupi-Guaranies, who occupied most of eastern South America at the white
+man's advent, but they were more nomadic in their habits and had
+developed the art of war to greater perfection than the mother tribes of
+the more tropical parts of South America.
+
+In their fights against the Spaniards, they sometimes gathered armies of
+several hundreds which fought with a rude sort of discipline, forming in
+column and attacking in mass with clubs after discharging their arrows
+and stones. Possibly they learned some of their tactics from the white
+men, but it is certain that before the invasion they had developed a
+tribal organisation which enabled them to bring far larger bodies into
+the field than the tribes to the north, and that soon after the arrival
+of the whites they learned the military uses of the horse. Personal
+bravery and fortitude were the virtues most admired among the Charruas,
+and they chose their chiefs from those who had most distinguished
+themselves in battle. They did not practise cannibalism like their
+brother Guaranies on the Brazilian coast; they killed defective children
+at birth; they were moderate in their eating, lived in huts, and in
+winter covered themselves with the skins of animals. Altogether, they
+seem to have much resembled the more warlike tribes among the North
+American Indians and to have made the same effective resistance to the
+whites as did the Iroquois or Creeks. Such a fierce and indomitable
+people terrorised the Creoles, and settlement proceeded on lines of less
+resistance. The coast of Uruguay was long known as the abode of red
+demons who showed little mercy to the adventurous white who dared build
+a cabin on the shore, or ride the plains in chase of cattle. The forts
+established from time to time by the Spanish authorities in the early
+days were invariably starved out and abandoned, and the white man
+obtained a foothold only after the Portuguese and Spanish governments
+had fortified towns with walls, ditches, and artillery, which could be
+supplied with provisions from the water side, and after Entre Rios had
+been overrun by the gauchos.
+
+Warned by the experiences of Solis and Cabot on the north shore,
+Mendoza, the first adelantado of the Plate, on his arrival in 1535,
+selected the south bank of the river as the site of the fortified port
+which he proposed to establish at the mouth of the Paraná as a base for
+his projected expedition up the river. His effort failed completely; he
+abandoned Buenos Aires, and the remnants of his expedition fled to
+Paraguay and founded Asuncion. In 1573 Zarate, the third adelantado,
+made a serious effort to establish a post in Uruguay. He had three
+hundred and fifty well-armed Spanish soldiers, more than the number with
+which Pizarro had conquered the empire of Peru, but they were not enough
+to make any impression on the Charruas. A company of forty men hunting
+wood was set upon and massacred, and when the main body tried to avenge
+this defeat, it, too, was driven back and only escaped to the island of
+Martin Garcia after losing a hundred men. The survivors were rescued by
+Garay, the most expert and successful Indian fighter of the time.
+
+This experienced and far-sighted officer wisely left the Charruas alone
+and devoted his efforts to the other side of the river, where, in 1580,
+he founded the city of Buenos Aires. Hernandarias, the Creole governor
+of Buenos Aires, who shares with Garay the honour of establishing the
+Spanish power in Argentina, and who had already defeated the Pampa
+Indians from the Great Chaco in the north to the Tandil Range in Buenos
+Aires province, attempted, in the early years of the seventeenth
+century, to subdue the Charruas. He disembarked at the head of five
+hundred men in the western part of Uruguay. Few details of the campaign
+which followed have been preserved, but it is certain that the Spanish
+force was destroyed and that Hernandarias himself barely escaped with
+his life. Thenceforth, for more than a century, the Spaniards made no
+serious attempts to interfere with the Charruas; the coast of Uruguay
+was shunned by European ships, and the interior remained absolutely
+unknown.
+
+It is probable, although not certain, that the Jesuits on the Upper
+Uruguay established some villages of peaceable Indians in the
+north-western corner of Uruguay proper, in the middle of the seventeenth
+century. A few Indians, it is certain, gathered under Jesuit control on
+an island in the Lower Uruguay, some fifty miles above Martin Garcia,
+about 1650. This was known as the Pueblo of Soriano, and is often
+referred to by Uruguayan historians as the first permanent settlement in
+their country. However, no real progress was made toward getting
+possession of Uruguay. The Charruas proved refractory to Jesuit
+influence, and only the milder Yaros and the tribes on the Brazilian
+border could be converted.
+
+The horses and cattle which the Spaniards had introduced multiplied into
+hundreds of thousands and roamed undisturbed over the rolling, grassy
+plains of Uruguay, and occasionally parties of Creoles would land on the
+shore of the Plate and at the risk of their lives kill some steers and
+strip them of their hides. As time went on, the Indians became used to
+the white men and some trading sprang up, but for a full century after
+Buenos Aires had been in existence Uruguay remained unsettled by
+civilised man.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PORTUGUESE AGGRESSIONS AND THE SETTLEMENT OF THE COUNTRY
+
+
+In 1680 the governor of Rio de Janeiro sent some ships and a force of
+soldiers to the Plate, with orders to occupy a point on the north bank
+in the name of the king of Portugal. Spain claimed that her dominions
+extended as far up the coast as the southern border of the present state
+of São Paulo, and Portugal was equally stubborn in insisting that her
+rightful territory extended west and south as far as the mouth of the
+Uruguay. Neither country had made any settlements in the disputed
+region, and Portugal had determined to take advantage of the negligence
+of the Spanish government and be first in the field. To establish a post
+only twenty miles from the capital of the Spanish possessions and more
+than a thousand miles south of the last Portuguese town seemed an
+audacious step, but its success would secure for Portugal the whole
+intermediate territory, as well as give her a port which would insure
+her merchants the command of the trade of the Plate valley.
+
+The Portuguese commander landed unopposed on the shore of the estuary
+directly opposite Buenos Aires, and immediately began to throw up walls,
+dig a ditch, and lay out a town called Colonia. When the news reached
+Buenos Aires, the indignant governor raised a force of two hundred and
+sixty Spaniards and three thousand Indians, crossed the river, and fell
+upon the little body of Portuguese in the midst of their delving and
+shovelling. The attack was at first repulsed, but superior numbers were
+soon effective. The enemy surrendered, and the Spaniards threw down the
+walls and destroyed the beginnings of the town. The Portuguese
+government protested, claiming that the governor's action was a wilful
+and inexcusable aggression against the forces of a friendly power
+operating in territory which had never been occupied by Spain. The
+Madrid government disavowed the act, and the Portuguese resumed
+possession of Colonia in 1683. They rebuilt its walls and made the place
+safe against the attacks of Indians. At once it became a centre for
+contraband traffic. The Spanish laws and colonial policy forbade vessels
+to land at Buenos Aires. In defiance of the prohibition, illegal trade
+had been carried on, but the lading of vessels lying in the Buenos Aires
+roads was conducted at great risk. Officials might order the seizure of
+the goods, and enormous bribes had to be paid to functionaries; often
+the governor was the smuggler's partner, but he was a partner who
+demanded an exorbitant share of the profit. In Colonia, however,
+merchandise could be safely stored and embarked at leisure, so the
+latter place rapidly absorbed the export trade and became an _entrepôt_
+for imported goods destined for sale in the valley of the Plate and in
+Bolivia.
+
+Spain had restored Colonia under protest and without prejudice,
+explicitly reiterating her own claim to exclusive proprietorship of the
+north bank of the Plate. The diplomatists agreed that the question of
+right should remain open for determination at some future day, but all
+Spanish subjects considered the existence of Colonia as a violation of
+Spanish soil, and whenever a war broke out in Europe between the mother
+countries, the Buenos Aireans were in the habit of promptly sending an
+expedition across the river to capture the Portuguese town. Three times
+was it wrenched from the Portuguese, and three times was it restored on
+the conclusion of peace.
+
+In 1705, Spain and Portugal being engaged in war, the governor of Buenos
+Aires dislodged the Portuguese garrison from Colonia and the place
+remained in Spanish possession until after the conclusion of the Peace
+of Utrecht. Their eleven years' possession at last convinced the
+Spaniards that the settlement of the north bank was feasible. By 1708
+the Charrua raids had so far lost their terrors that the Jesuit mission
+at Soriano was safely removed from the island in the Uruguay River to
+the mainland opposite. The trade in Uruguayan hides and horsehair
+increased, and private expeditions henceforth frequently crossed the
+estuary.
+
+It had long been known that the best harbours on the Uruguayan coast
+were at Montevideo and Maldonado, where partially sheltered bays, with
+water deep enough for the vessels of the eighteenth century, were
+overlooked by beautiful and defensible town sites. Montevideo is a
+hundred miles east of Colonia, and Maldonado another hundred miles
+farther on toward the Atlantic. The advisability of seizing and
+fortifying one or both of these places was frequently mooted in Buenos
+Aires, after the restoration of Colonia in 1716. Nothing, however, was
+done until 1723, when word came that the Portuguese had again
+anticipated the Spanish authorities and had occupied and begun to
+fortify Montevideo for themselves. The governor of Buenos Aires
+immediately sent an overwhelming force which compelled the Portuguese to
+retire. This time neither dilatory diplomacy nor official ineptitude
+prevented his doing the right thing to save Uruguay to the Spanish
+Crown, and the following year he finished the Portuguese walls at
+Montevideo, and in 1726 the ground plan of a town was laid out and a few
+families were brought from Buenos Aires and the Canary Islands. Within a
+few years there were a thousand people in the place, and it had been
+surrounded with walls and defended by artillery. Four years later,
+Maldonado was established. No serious trouble was experienced with the
+Indians at either place, and the Spaniards began to spread their ranches
+over the neighbouring south-eastern part of Uruguay.
+
+  [Illustration: MONTEVIDEO.
+  [From an old print.]]
+
+Almost simultaneously with this important event, the Creoles from Santa
+Fé province crossed over into the wide plains which lie between the
+Paraná and the Uruguay, and defeated the Charrua tribes who had kept
+the Spanish out of that region for one hundred and fifty years. Soon the
+gauchos were in possession of Entre Rios as far as the Uruguay. The
+Charruas east of the Uruguay could not prevent the gauchos from making
+their way across the river to build their cabins and ride the plains
+after cattle. The settlement of western Uruguay began, but, except
+Colonia and Soriano, no towns were founded. The half-Indian gauchos
+lived a semi-nomadic life and needed and received little help from the
+authorities in their constant fights against the Indians.
+
+Shortly after the foundation of Montevideo, a Portuguese expedition
+tried to recover the place, but it was found to be too strong to attack,
+and the party resolved to establish a town farther up the coast. Three
+hundred miles to the north-west is found the only opening into the great
+system of lagoons which stretches along the seaward side of Rio Grande
+do Sul, and at that strategic point the Portuguese, in 1735, built a
+fort and town.
+
+By the middle of the eighteenth century, the situation between Spain and
+Portugal in the whole region between the Plate, the Uruguay, and the sea
+had become very strained. Colonia was completely isolated and the
+Spaniards controlled all the rest of Uruguay's western and southern
+water-front. The Portuguese settlements in the seaward half of Rio
+Grande were prospering and multiplying, soon to furnish thousands of
+gauchos, as ready as any who rode the Argentine pampas to sally forth
+for war or plunder. The territory which the Jesuits had held for more
+than a century on the east bank of the Upper Uruguay lay directly back
+of these Portuguese settlements and was more easily accessible therefrom
+than from Montevideo. In 1750 Spain agreed to exchange the Seven
+Missions for Colonia. The Portuguese promptly took measures to secure
+the ceded territory, attacked the Indian villages, and massacred or
+drove off most of the inhabitants. The Jesuits vigorously protested, and
+outraged Spanish public opinion demanded the abrogation of the treaty,
+so a few years later the desolated territory was restored to Spanish
+possession and Colonia remained Portuguese.
+
+In 1762 Spain and Portugal were again engaged in war, and the governor
+of Buenos Aires attacked Colonia with a force of twenty-seven hundred
+men and thirty-two ships. The fortifications were strong and the
+Portuguese offered a tenacious resistance. After a well-contested siege
+the place surrendered, only to be given back to Portugal the ensuing
+year. Meanwhile, troops had been sent up from Montevideo against Rio
+Grande and the Portuguese settlers driven back to the north-east corner
+of the state, only to rise again when the Spanish troops were gone and
+to begin a guerrilla warfare which never ceased until they had regained
+their towns.
+
+The eighteenth century had entered on its last quarter before the
+Spanish home government took any real steps to drive the Portuguese out
+of Colonia and to reclaim the disputed territory as far north as São
+Paulo. The Atlantic slope of Spanish South America was erected into a
+Viceroyalty, and in 1777 the greatest fleet and army ever sent by Spain
+to America reached Buenos Aires under command of the new Viceroy. The
+Portuguese had no forces able to cope with his army and fleet, and he
+carried all before him. The island of Santa Catharina in the north of
+the disputed territory was captured, Colonia was taken, and an army of
+four thousand men started on a triumphal march north-westward to sweep
+the Portuguese from the coast. The Spaniards were at the gates of Rio
+Grande when news came that peace had been declared. Orders from home
+compelled the Viceroy to stop his northward progress while the diplomats
+agreed on a division. The treaty of San Ildefonso in the main gave each
+country the territory its citizens actually occupied. The Seven Missions
+remained Spanish, and the Portuguese were deprived of the southern half
+of the great lagoon and of Colonia. Santa Catharina was restored, and
+the right of Portugal to the vast interior and to the regions of the
+Upper Paraná and Paraguay were confirmed. Rio Grande remained Portuguese
+and Uruguay was assured of being thenceforth and for ever Spanish in
+blood and speech.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE REVOLUTION
+
+
+With the treaty of San Ildefonso, Uruguay began her real existence.
+Montevideo was made the greatest fortress on the Atlantic coast,
+commanded by its own military governor, strongly garrisoned and
+provisioned, and with over one hundred cannon mounted on its walls. The
+Charruas had long been driven back from the coast, and as soon as the
+danger of Portuguese interference was over settlements spread rapidly
+along the whole southern border. Prior to 1777 there were only five
+towns in Uruguay, but within the next five years the number tripled. By
+the year 1810 there were seventy-five hundred people living in the city
+of Montevideo, seventy-five hundred in its immediate district, and
+sixteen thousand in the outlying settlements. Outside of Montevideo,
+cattle-herding was the sole business, and the people were a hard-riding,
+meat-eating, bellicose race. Immediately to the north-east lived fifty
+thousand Rio Grandenses of Portuguese blood and speech, who, in like
+surroundings, had acquired the same pastoral and semi-nomadic habits as
+their Argentine and Uruguayan neighbours, and who constantly made
+incursions over the Spanish border. The Uruguayan gauchos retaliated,
+and for nearly a century continuous partisan warfare went on, for these
+half-savage cattle-herders recked little of treaties or boundary lines.
+The Spanish guerrillas bore the name of _blandenques_, and in this
+school of arms the future generals of Uruguay's war of independence were
+trained. Most of the forays were only for the purpose of stealing cattle
+or burning cabins built in coveted regions; nevertheless, one of these
+expeditions changed the nationality of a territory larger than England.
+In 1801 the Rio Grandenses conquered the Seven Missions, thus doubling
+at a single stroke the area of their own state and reducing Uruguay to
+substantially its present dimensions.
+
+As the seat of the largest Spanish garrison, Montevideo naturally became
+the centre of pro-Spanish feeling and influence in the Plate and the
+home of families who boasted distinguished Castilian descent and
+conservative principles. In the interior settlements Creole influences
+predominated, and the population was substantially homogeneous with that
+of the Argentine provinces on the other side of the Uruguay River.
+Between the aristocratic Montevideans and the gauchos of the country
+districts there was little sympathy.
+
+  [Illustration: BRIDGE AT MALDONADO.]
+
+In 1806, the English captured Buenos Aires, and many Spanish officials
+and officers fled to Montevideo for refuge. The garrison of Montevideo
+furnished troops and arms for the expedition which soon went across
+the Plate and triumphantly recaptured Buenos Aires. Late that same year,
+British troops from the Cape of Good Hope seized Maldonado harbour in
+eastern Uruguay. As soon as re-enforcements arrived a movement was made
+against Montevideo. On the 14th of January, 1807, the city was besieged
+by sea and land. The attacking and defending forces were about equal in
+number, although the British regulars were far superior in discipline
+and effectiveness to their opponents, half of whom were militia. A
+sortie in force was completely defeated, with a loss of one thousand
+men, and after eight days of bombardment the British effected a breach
+in the wall and took the town by assault, the Spaniards losing half
+their force and the remainder scattering. A great fleet of merchant
+vessels had accompanied the British expedition, and as soon as the town
+surrendered their goods were landed, and the English traders took
+possession of the shops almost as completely as the British soldiers did
+of the fortifications. Uruguay was opened up to free trade, the gauchos
+were soon selling their hides and horsehair for higher prices than they
+had ever received, and buying clothes, tools, and the comforts and
+luxuries of civilised life at rates they had never dreamed possible.
+
+A few months later the English attacked Buenos Aires, but were
+overwhelmingly defeated, and the British general found himself in such
+an awkward situation that, in order to obtain permission to withdraw his
+army, he had to agree to evacuate Montevideo. The convention was carried
+out and the British soldiers left the Plate forever, but the British
+merchants remained behind. Although the English occupation of the city
+had lasted so short a time, it created an unwonted animation in
+Montevideo by the establishment of a great number of mercantile and
+industrial houses. From this time, Montevideo's commerce assumed greater
+proportions and it became a place of real commercial importance, as well
+as a military post. Both city and country had tasted the delights of
+commercial freedom, and material civilisation had received its first
+great impulse.
+
+Elio, the Spanish military governor of Montevideo, suspected the loyalty
+of Liniers, the Frenchman, who, because he had led in the fighting
+against the English, had been created viceroy at Buenos Aires. Spanish
+affairs at home were in confusion and fast becoming worse confounded.
+The old king had abdicated in favour of his son; civil war had broken
+out on the Peninsula; the new king had been compelled by Napoleon to
+resign, and Joseph Bonaparte was proclaimed monarch of Spain. The
+Spanish nation refused to accept Joseph and a revolutionary government
+was set up in Seville. Elio, as a patriotic Spaniard, promptly swore
+allegiance to this junta, but the Viceroy and the Buenos Aires Creoles
+hesitated as to their course of action. The Montevidean governor and the
+Buenos Aires Viceroy quarrelled; the former accused the latter of
+unfaithfulness to Spain and disavowed his authority, and the latter
+retaliated by issuing a decree deposing Elio. On receiving news of this
+act, which was strictly legal under Spanish law, the Montevideo Cabildo
+met in extraordinary session and appointed a junta, which was to be
+dependent solely and directly upon the authority of the banished
+legitimate king and in no way upon Buenos Aires so long as Liniers
+remained Viceroy. Thus early did Montevideo act independently of Buenos
+Aires.
+
+Although the sentiment of loyalty was much stronger in Montevideo than
+in Buenos Aires, the English invasion was no sooner over than there
+became manifest something of the same profound division between Creoles
+and Spaniards. Three years, however, passed without disturbances; and
+even when the news of the overthrow of the new Spanish Viceroy by the
+populace of Buenos Aires on the 25th of May, 1810, reached Montevideo,
+the governor was able to prevent any revolutionary manifestations of
+sympathy. On the 12th of July a small part of the garrison rose in a
+mutiny, which was easily suppressed. In January, 1811, Elio returned to
+Montevideo with a commission as Viceroy and bringing considerable
+re-enforcements. He declared war on Creole revolutionists at Buenos
+Aires and imprisoned the Montevideans suspected of Creole sympathies and
+revolutionary ideas.
+
+Among those who escaped to Buenos Aires was one destined to be the
+founder of Uruguayan nationality. This was José Artigas, then captain of
+guerrilla cavalry. Although born in Montevideo he had lived the life of
+a gaucho from boyhood, and since 1797 had been a leader of the gaucho
+bands who were continually fighting the Rio Grandenses. He happened to
+be in Colonia on the occasion of Elio's declaration of war against the
+Creoles and at once fled to Buenos Aires. The junta there gave him a
+lieutenant-colonel's commission and some substantial help. The gauchos
+of the south-eastern part of Uruguay had meanwhile risen against the
+Spanish governor, and within a few weeks Artigas was back on Uruguayan
+soil at the head of a considerable force, while all around him bands of
+gauchos under other chiefs were preparing to resist the Spaniards. His
+bravery, energy, and good luck in the field, and his ruthless
+maintenance of discipline, gave him an ascendancy over all the others.
+
+In April, 1811, Belgrano, the chief general of Buenos Aires, arrived
+with re-enforcements. Shortly after, a Spanish detachment, which had
+reached the western part of Uruguay, was captured, and the gaucho
+leaders advanced almost to the walls of Montevideo. A force of one
+thousand Spaniards started out to meet them and, on the 18th of May, met
+with complete defeat at the battle of Las Piedras. For this victory
+Artigas was promoted by the Buenos Aires Junta, and became the greatest
+military figure on the patriot side. With a considerable army of gauchos
+from both banks of the Uruguay and of patriots from Buenos Aires he
+began a siege of Montevideo.
+
+The siege, however, did not last long. The great expedition sent by the
+patriots to Bolivia was overwhelmingly defeated in the battle of Huaqui,
+and the Buenos Aires Junta, horribly alarmed for their own safety,
+ordered all the troops under their control to return and help defend
+that city. At the same time a Portuguese army advanced from Brazil with
+the avowed purpose of saving Montevideo from being lost to Spain, but
+really to take possession of Uruguay for King John's own benefit.
+Artigas was compelled to retire to the Argentine, and Uruguayan
+historians say that on his long retreat to the Uruguay River he was
+accompanied by practically the whole rural population of the country.
+The semi-nomadic habits of the gauchos made such a migration easy, and
+they quickly found new homes on the opposite shore in Entre Rios, whence
+it would be easy to return as soon as the Portuguese troops retired.
+
+Considerations of international politics and English pressure compelled
+King John to withdraw his troops from Uruguay in the middle of the year
+1812, and the Buenos Aires government immediately began to assemble an
+army on the right bank of the Uruguay. Artigas was still encamped with
+his Uruguayan forces in the same neighbourhood, and although he held an
+Argentine commission he was virtually independent. The Argentine army,
+under the command of José Rondeau, who in colonial days had been captain
+of guerrillas alongside Artigas, advanced against Montevideo, and on the
+last day of 1812 won the bloody battle of Cerrito, in sight of the city,
+and shut the Spaniards up within its walls. Artigas followed and
+assisted in the siege, but he refused to unite his forces with those of
+Rondeau until his own claims should be recognised and his demands
+complied with. He assumed a dictatorship and sent delegates to Buenos
+Aires to advocate the formation of a federal republic, of which Buenos
+Aires was to be simply one member. Buenos Aires refused to receive his
+delegates, and civil war broke out. Rondeau adhered to the Buenos Aires
+interest; and after a year of disputes, in the beginning of January,
+1814, Artigas withdrew his own followers from Montevideo, leaving the
+partisans of Buenos Aires to continue the siege alone. In May the
+celebrated Irish admiral, William Brown, destroyed the Spanish fleet,
+which had hitherto dominated the Plate. Montevideo's communications with
+both land and sea were shut off, and the fortress shortly afterwards
+surrendered to General Carlos Alvear, the Argentine general who was then
+commanding the besieging forces.
+
+Meanwhile, Artigas had retired to the west, and the gauchos, not only of
+western Uruguay, but also of Entre Rios, Corrientes, the Missions, and
+Santa Fé, rallied around his standard. Independent chiefs in these
+various provinces had been resisting the efforts of Buenos Aires to
+reduce them to obedience. Artigas was, in a way, recognised as their
+leader, but only as the greatest among equals. The conflict with the
+Buenos Aires party went on throughout the year 1814, and the federalists
+continually gained ground. In January, 1815, Fructuoso Rivera, one of
+the lieutenants of Artigas, defeated an Argentine force at the battle of
+Guayabos, and the Buenos Aires Junta was compelled to withdraw its
+troops from Montevideo.
+
+This, however, did not amount to a separation of Uruguay from the
+Confederation. It only marked a triumph of the provinces in their
+efforts to prevent Buenos Aires from establishing a centralised
+government. Artigas had his friends in Entre Rios, Corrientes, the
+Missions, and Santa Fé, and even as far as Cordoba; and Francia,
+dictator of Paraguay, was another of his allies in this struggle against
+Buenos Aires. However, he was nothing more than a military chief,
+without the capacity or even the desire of uniting these vast
+territories under a rational and stable government.
+
+At the very height of his power he made the fatal mistake of embroiling
+himself with Brazil. In 1815 he invaded the territory of the Seven
+Missions, which the Rio Grandenses had conquered fourteen years before.
+The Portuguese king retaliated by sending a well-equipped army of
+several thousand men, and in October, 1816, the forces of Artigas were
+overwhelmed and driven with great slaughter from the disputed territory.
+Artigas made stupendous efforts to retrieve this loss, but the four
+thousand men which he assembled to resist the Portuguese army, which was
+now advancing upon Montevideo itself, were defeated and scattered in
+January, 1817. The Portuguese occupied Montevideo, and Artigas and his
+lieutenants, Rivera, Lavelleja, and Oribe, each of whom later became a
+great figure in the civil wars, retreated to the interior, where they
+maintained themselves for two years. After many defeats, Artigas himself
+lost the support of the chiefs of Entre Rios and Santa Fé. He was
+finally driven out of Uruguay and attempted to establish himself in the
+Argentine provinces, only to be completely overwhelmed by his rivals.
+On the 23rd of September, 1820, he presented himself with forty men, all
+who remained faithful to him, at the Paraguayan town of Candelaria on
+the Paraná, begging hospitality of Francia. Francia granted him asylum,
+and this indomitable guerrilla chief, who for twenty-five years had kept
+the soil of Uruguay and of the Argentine mesopotamia soaked in blood,
+spent the rest of his life peacefully cultivating his garden in the
+depths of the Paraguayan forests. He died in 1850 at the age of
+eighty-six years; six years later his remains were brought from Paraguay
+to Montevideo and interred in the national pantheon. On the sarcophagus
+are engraved these words: "Artigas, Founder of the Uruguayan Nation."
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL DON JOSÉ GERVASIO ARTIGAS.
+  [From an old wood-cut.]]
+
+Rivera was the last Uruguayan chief to lay down his arms before the
+Portuguese. When he surrendered, early in 1820, most of the other
+leaders had already given up and accepted service in the Portuguese army
+of occupation. In 1821, a Uruguayan Congress, selected for this purpose,
+declared the country incorporated with the Portuguese dominions under
+the name of the Cisplatine Province. For five years Montevideo and the
+country remained quiet under the Portuguese dominion, and Uruguay
+peacefully became a province of Brazil when that country declared her
+independence. The most celebrated chiefs of the civil war were officers
+in the Brazilian army, and few external signs of dissatisfaction were
+apparent. Underneath the surface, however, fermented a hatred of the
+foreign rule, and the proud Creoles only awaited an opportunity to
+revolt.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+INDEPENDENCE AND CIVIL WAR
+
+
+In the beginning of 1825 a group of patriots met in Buenos Aires and
+planned an invasion of Uruguayan territory. Word was sent to different
+chiefs in the country districts, and on the night of the 19th of April
+thirty-three adventurers, with Lavalleja at their head, landed on the
+shore of the river in the extreme south-western corner of the country.
+No sooner had they landed than the country rose; the troops sent from
+Montevideo to meet the band of revolutionists refused to fight, and,
+deserting the Brazilian banner, joined their compatriots. The
+revolutionists advanced east along the Negro and the Yi to Durazno, one
+hundred and thirty miles north of Montevideo, where they found Rivera,
+then general in the Brazilian service. He promptly deserted and was at
+once associated with Lavalleja in the command.
+
+Lavalleja advanced to the south, calling the population to arms, while
+the northern detachments rose in response to Rivera. Only fifteen days
+after the thirty-three had crossed the Uruguay, the flag of the
+revolution was floating over the Cerrito Hill in front of Montevideo,
+and Brazilian power was virtually confined to the walls of that city and
+Colonia. The military chiefs formally declared Uruguay separated from
+Brazil, and proclaimed its reincorporation with the Argentine. The
+number of Brazilians then in Uruguay was small, and infantry could not
+be expected to do much fighting on the plains against gaucho cavalry led
+by such experienced guerrilla fighters as Rivera and Lavalleja. A
+division of Rio Grandense cavalry, under their own chiefs, Bento Manoel
+and Bento Goncalvez, met the Uruguayans at Sarandi. The two armies used
+substantially the same methods, charging into each other, sword in hand
+and carbine at shoulder. The Brazilians were caught in a disadvantageous
+position and suffered a complete and bloody overthrow.
+
+The result of this battle was to insure to the revolutionists the
+continuation of their complete dominance in the country. Their cavalry
+bands roamed at will up to the very walls of Montevideo. Buenos Aires
+received the news with extravagant demonstrations of joy, and formal
+notice was given to Brazil that Uruguay would henceforth be recognised
+as an integral part of the Argentine Confederation. The emperor promptly
+responded with a declaration of war. His fleet blockaded Buenos Aires,
+while he poured re-enforcements into Montevideo and sent an army to
+invade northern Uruguay. Argentine troops likewise swarmed across the
+Uruguay River into the country, and the Brazilians could make little
+progress. On sea they were not more successful, and by the beginning of
+1826 Admiral Brown was blockading Colonia and menacing the
+communications of Montevideo.
+
+In August, 1826, the famous Argentine general, Carlos Alvear, took
+command of the patriot forces. Jealousies and quarrels had meantime
+broken out between Lavalleja and Rivera. Alvear took the former's side
+and Rivera's partisans revolted. But the arrival of more re-enforcements
+for the Brazilians hushed up for the moment the intestine quarrels of
+the Spanish-Americans. Alvear determined to carry the war into Brazil,
+and early in January, 1827, succeeded in passing between the northern
+and southern Brazilian armies, and penetrated across the frontier to the
+north-east. He had sacked Bagé, the principal town of that region,
+before the Brazilian general, the Marquis of Barbacena, was able to
+concentrate his forces and start in pursuit. Alvear turned north toward
+the Missions, but he was in a hostile country where defeat meant total
+destruction. Though his army numbered eight thousand men he had cut
+himself off from his base, and an enemy in equal force was close at his
+heels. He resolved to turn and give battle, and on the 20th of February,
+1827, his army met that of Barbacena in the decisive battle of
+Ituzaingo, which ended in the defeat of the Brazilians. Although
+Barbacena was able to withdraw his army without material loss, and
+Alvear retired at once to Uruguayan soil, the Brazilians were never
+afterwards able to undertake a vigorous offensive. The result of that
+battle insured that the north bank of the Plate should remain Spanish
+in blood, language, and government.
+
+A few days before Ituzaingo, Admiral Brown had won the great naval fight
+of Juncal at the mouth of the river Uruguay, and thenceforth the
+Brazilian blockade of Buenos Aires was entirely ineffective. If it had
+not been for the civil disturbances in Argentina that paralysed the
+Buenos Aires government, the Brazilians might have been swept out of
+Montevideo at the point of the sword, and the Argentines might have
+undertaken the conquest of Rio Grande itself. Though considerable
+Argentine forces remained in Uruguay during 1827 and 1828, they put no
+vigour into their operations, and on their part the Brazilians were able
+to do little more than hold Montevideo. So hampered was Rivadavia, the
+president of Buenos Aires, by revolts, uprisings, and disorders
+throughout Argentina that he thought himself obliged to agree to abandon
+Uruguay. Public opinion in Argentina would not accept the treaty which
+he made; he was deposed, and a leader of the opposite party installed in
+power.
+
+Rivera, operating on his own account, had undertaken a campaign against
+the western Rio Grande, but so bitter was factional feeling that his
+rival, Lavalleja, sent a force to pursue and fight him, while the new
+Buenos Aires government was induced to sign a treaty of peace largely
+because Rivera's success against the Brazilians might make him strong
+enough to be dangerous. Both Brazil and Argentina were tired of the
+tedious, expensive war, and both governments had preoccupations within
+their own territories. Through the intervention of the British Minister
+the terms were agreed upon. Brazil and Argentina both gave up their
+claims to Uruguay, the region was erected into an independent republic,
+and Brazil and Argentina pledged themselves to guarantee its
+independence during five years.
+
+At that time Argentina was convulsed by the struggle between the
+federalists and the unitarians, and the Uruguayans were also divided
+into two camps--the followers of Lavalleja and those of Rivera. Neither
+in Argentina nor in Uruguay were these divisions parties in any proper
+sense of that term. They were military factions, whose ambitious leaders
+seem to have been always willing to sacrifice the interests of the
+country at large to secure a partisan advantage. The Argentine troops
+who returned home from the war against Brazil promptly plunged their
+country into the bloodiest civil war known in her history, and Uruguay
+did not delay in following the example.
+
+The first chief magistrate of independent Uruguay was José Rondeau, an
+Uruguayan who had become one of the greatest Argentine generals.
+However, Lavalleja and Rivera were the real factors in the situation,
+and Rondeau's efforts to conciliate both at the same time failed. The
+Constituent Assembly, which soon met and framed a paper constitution,
+was controlled by Lavalleja's partisans. Rondeau was deposed and
+Lavalleja assumed the reins of power. Rivera prepared to march on
+Montevideo and dispute the matter by arms, but the representatives of
+Argentina and Brazil intervened and a compromise was effected. Rivera
+got the best of the bargain, being given command of the army, and after
+the constitution had been declared (July 18, 1830), he became, as a
+matter of course, the first president of Uruguay.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CIVIL WAR AND ARGENTINE INTERVENTION
+
+
+Except for an expedition against the remnants of the once formidable
+Charrua Indians, the first two years of independence passed in peace.
+Since the expulsion of Artigas, the country had prospered and its
+population had risen nearly threefold within twenty-five years, in spite
+of the bloody fighting which occurred from 1811 to 1817 and from 1825 to
+1828. The settlements had spread far back from the coast, and many of
+the principal interior towns date from this period.
+
+In 1832 the civil wars began again. Lavalleja's partisans organised a
+conspiracy, and a certain Colonel Garzon took advantage of Rivera's
+absence from Montevideo to raise a mutiny in the garrison and to issue a
+pronunciamento deposing the president. The latter soon recovered the
+city, and after two years of intermittent fighting the Lavalleja party
+was overthrown for the moment and Rivera finished his term in peace.
+
+Manuel Oribe, a chief of the anti-Rivera faction, succeeded to the
+presidency by a compromise agreement, but the breach between the two
+factions had really grown wider and their mutual hatred became
+irrepressibly bitter. Oribe soon began to persecute his opponents.
+Meanwhile, the five years had expired during which Uruguayan
+independence had been guaranteed by the treaty between Argentina and
+Brazil. Argentina was free to solicit the reincorporation of Uruguay
+into the Confederation. Rosas, the head of the federalist party, had
+made himself master of Buenos Aires, and his authority was recognised in
+most of the Argentine provinces, although the unitarians continued their
+ineffectual revolts. The new Uruguayan president sympathised with the
+federalists, while his rival, Rivera, could count on the unitarians. The
+plan of Rosas was to establish Oribe firmly in Uruguay and through his
+aid to incorporate that country with Argentina, while the unitarians
+were desperately anxious that Rivera should triumph, knowing that
+Montevideo would be a base for the organisation of their own forces for
+invasions of Buenos Aires and central Argentina.
+
+Thenceforward for many years Uruguay's history is inexplicably entwined
+with the story of the struggle between the two great Argentine factions.
+The little country became the storm-centre of South American politics
+and the chief battlefield of the contending forces. Now for the first
+time we encounter references to "blancos" and "colorados," which remain
+to this day the names of Uruguayan political parties. All the forces of
+the community lined up on either side and never have political parties
+fought more determinedly and relentlessly. The divisions between them
+entered into all social and business relations, and even friendly
+intercourse between the members of the two factions was almost
+impossible. Men have often been more blanco or colorado than Uruguayan.
+The old conservative resident Spanish families were the basis of the
+blanco, or Oribe party, while the colorados, or partisans of Rivera,
+were the progressive faction. The latter attracted the Argentine
+refugees fleeing from the tyranny of Rosas, and could count upon the
+support of resident Europeans and upon the sympathy of foreign
+governments. Rosas in Argentina and the blancos in Uruguay represented
+the spirit of exclusivism and opposition to foreign influences.
+
+After Oribe's accession to power Rivera hastened to raise a revolt in
+the western districts. He obtained help from the unitarians, and his
+invasion was accompanied by many Argentine generals who had
+distinguished themselves in the wars against Rosas. The Argentine
+dictator sent help to Oribe, but for two years the tide of battle set in
+favour of the colorados and unitarians. Rivera had obtained so decided
+an advantage by 1838 that Oribe abandoned Montevideo and embarked for
+Buenos Aires, followed by the chiefs of his party. The colorado chief,
+now in control of all Uruguay, celebrated a formal alliance with the
+province of Corrientes, then in revolt against Rosas, and war was
+declared against the latter. A large Argentine army, accompanied by many
+blancos, invaded Uruguay, but was decisively defeated at the battle of
+Cagancha, December 10, 1839.
+
+The interval of unquestioned colorado supremacy which followed was one
+of the most flourishing periods in the history of Uruguay. Large numbers
+of the intellectual élite of Buenos Aires swarmed across the river;
+Montevideo became the centre of arts and letters of Spanish America; the
+civil wars of the last few years had not been severe, and even during
+their continuance property had suffered little. Immigration from
+England, France, and Italy began on a large scale, and the population
+increased at the rate of four per cent. per annum. In the year 1840 nine
+hundred ocean-going ships entered the port of Montevideo, more than
+three thousand houses were erected, and twenty-seven great meat-curing
+establishments were in active operation. However, Rosas and the blancos
+were only awaiting a good opportunity to attack.
+
+In 1841 Oribe, in command of one of Rosas's armies, defeated the
+Argentine unitarians under General Lavalle, and marched into Entre Rios
+to suppress the insurrection in that province. In January, 1842, Rivera
+took an army of three thousand men to the rescue of his unitarian
+allies. He crossed the river Uruguay and united his forces to those of
+General Paz, but after a year's desperate fighting on Argentine soil he
+and the unitarian general were overthrown and their armies completely
+destroyed in the battle of Arroya Grande. The way was open to
+Montevideo; the colorados and Argentine exiles shut themselves up in
+that city, and the so-called nine-years' siege began. Rosas's power
+seemed overwhelming, and although Rivera and other colorado chiefs at
+the head of scattered bands managed to make some headway in the outlying
+departments, they were finally driven into Brazil, while the unhappy
+country was given up to pillage and slaughter. This _guerra grande_ was
+the bloodiest, longest, and most stubborn war ever fought on Uruguayan
+soil.
+
+Montevideo seemed doomed to an early surrender when an opportune
+intervention by France and England upset the plans of Rosas. He had
+embroiled himself with the ministers of those powers by refusing to give
+satisfaction for certain alleged injuries to foreign merchants and naval
+officers, and the dispute became so acrimonious that the European powers
+finally resorted to the most drastic coercive measures. A French, and
+later a British, fleet blockaded Buenos Aires and drove Rosas's vessels
+from the Plate. Under these circumstances it was impossible for him to
+land re-enforcements on the Uruguayan shore. In 1845 the European navies
+forced a passage at the head of the estuary into the Paraná and Uruguay,
+destroying the batteries which Rosas had erected there and opening up
+those rivers to foreign navigation. Thereafter, troops could be sent
+from Argentina into Uruguay only by a long détour to the north.
+
+In spite of this hampering of his military operations, and the injury
+which the blockade caused to the commerce of Buenos Aires, the Argentine
+dictator stubbornly refused to yield an inch to foreign pressure.
+France and England were finally tired out; they raised the blockade;
+Rosas regained his control of the Plate and the early capture of
+Montevideo seemed certain. Just at this time, however, General Urquiza,
+governor of Entre Rios, and Rosas's best lieutenant and most successful
+general, broke with his chief. Entre Rios became a virtually independent
+state, and Rosas's efforts to reduce it were unavailing. Urquiza's
+defection again rendered it impossible properly to reinforce Oribe's
+army. The colorados of the interior plucked up courage and during four
+years no material progress was made on either side. A tedious and
+exhausting partisan warfare went on in the interior; guerrilla bands
+scoured the country in every direction; inhabitants of the same town
+were arrayed against each other, and surprises, treasons, and massacres
+were almost daily occurrences. One of the most successful leaders on the
+colorado side was the famous Giuseppe Garibaldi. The future liberator of
+Italy had made his début as a revolutionist in the insurrection which
+broke out in 1835 in the Brazilian province of Rio Grande. Later he
+crossed the Uruguayan border and fought against Rosas for several years.
+
+Early in 1851 a grand combination to overthrow Rosas was made between
+Entre Rios, Corrientes, the unitarians, the colorados, and Brazil. The
+constant policy of the latter power had been to secure and maintain the
+independence of Uruguay, and she welcomed the opportunity to open up the
+Paraná and Uruguay, on whose headwaters she had great territories,
+inaccessible except along those rivers. Urquiza naturally became the
+general-in-chief of the alliance. On the 18th of July he crossed the
+Uruguay, followed by a large army from his own provinces. A Brazilian
+army soon joined him and the colorados flocked to his standard. The
+Brazilian fleet came down the coast and controlled the estuary. An
+overwhelming force advanced on Montevideo and the blanco army found
+itself with a hostile city and fleet in front, a superior army behind,
+and deprived of the hope of receiving help from Buenos Aires. The
+officers hastened to make terms with Urquiza. Whole divisions deserted,
+and Oribe himself was obliged to surrender. Many of the soldiers who had
+been fighting in the blanco ranks joined Urquiza, and the latter, after
+a vain attempt to reconcile the Uruguayan factions among themselves,
+marched his army back through Uruguay and Entre Rios, crossed the
+Paraná, and, descending to Buenos Aires, defeated Rosas in the great
+battle of Monte Caseros.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+COLORADOS AND BLANCOS
+
+
+The overthrow of Rosas and Oribe marked the end of the effort to
+re-incorporate Uruguay with the Argentine Confederation. Uruguay was no
+longer in peril from foreign aggression, but she was far from being
+united. The blancos had apparently been completely crushed, but their
+wealth, prestige, and numbers still made them formidable. The seeds of
+division lay thickly in the soil of the national society and character,
+sure to spring up and bear many crops of wars and pronunciamentos.
+
+For the moment, however, the fierce Uruguayan partisans had had enough
+of fighting. The colorados were dominant and the blancos disorganised
+and discouraged. It seemed likely that Uruguay would enjoy a prolonged
+peace. The wars which lasted almost continuously from 1843 to 1851 had
+interrupted immigration from Europe; unitarians had, however, crossed in
+multitudes from Buenos Aires and many of their families remained after
+the proclamation of peace. To this day Montevideo is full of families
+descended from Buenos Aires refugees; the same names constantly recur
+on both banks of the Plate, and the social ties uniting the two cities
+are intimate. Uruguay's herds of cattle and sheep had suffered from the
+depredations of the armed marauding bands which had scoured the country
+districts for nine years, but man's cruel destructiveness could not
+injure the magnificent pasturage with which nature had endowed the
+nation, and animals quickly multiplied again by hundreds of thousands.
+In 1860 the cattle in Uruguay numbered more than five millions, the
+sheep two millions, and the horses nearly one million. The population
+increased at the almost incredible ratio of nine per cent. per annum
+after the overthrow of Oribe in 1851 until civil war again broke out in
+1863.
+
+During these years colorado chiefs occupied the presidency, sometimes
+succeeding one another, sometimes by pronunciamento, and sometimes by a
+form of election. General Venancio Flores, an able and ruthless officer,
+became the principal figure among the colorados. In 1853 he was a member
+of a triumvirate which forced the legal president to withdraw, and in
+1854 he was himself raised to the presidency, only to be obliged to
+resign the following year. As is usual in South America, the dominant
+party split into factions, led by ambitious chiefs, and lost popularity.
+The blancos, as soon as they got into power, obtained control of the
+senate, and their prestige and wealth soon balanced the military force
+of their opponents. In 1860 they finally prevailed, and their leader,
+Berro, became constitutional president of the republic.
+
+The colorados, however, did not propose to submit. Massed upon the
+Argentine frontier, they held themselves ready to fall upon their
+successful opponents at the first opportunity. Flores had been exiled
+and joined the Argentine army, but in 1863 he obtained aid in Buenos
+Aires and disembarked upon the Uruguayan coast with a considerable
+force. His partisans rose and he obtained possession of a large portion
+of the country and set up a government of his own. For a year the
+contest went on with varying fortunes, and then this fight between
+blancos and colorados involved all the neighbouring nations and brought
+on the greatest war which has ever devastated South America and which
+resulted in the nearly complete destruction of the Paraguayan people.
+
+  [Illustration: THE SOLIS THEATRE.]
+
+The unitarians, then in power at Buenos Aires, naturally sympathised
+with the leader of their old colorado allies, and were inclined to aid
+Flores's attempt to regain control of Montevideo. Brazil favoured his
+pretensions even more actively. The Brazilians of Rio Grande owned most
+of the land and cattle just over the Uruguayan border, a third of all
+the rural properties in the republic being taxed to them, and complaints
+of extortion often came to the Rio government. The blanco president
+refused the satisfaction demanded, and Brazil determined to enforce the
+claims of her citizens. Flores was formally recognised as the legitimate
+ruler of the country, and a fleet and army were sent to his assistance.
+Lopez, dictator of Paraguay, thought Brazil's intervention in Uruguay
+dangerous to the international equilibrium of South America. He
+protested, and when the Brazilian government persisted and sent its army
+over the border he began war. The Brazilians advanced to Montevideo and
+their fleet came down the coast. The city was blockaded by sea and
+besieged by land, while the main body of the allies advanced against the
+town of Paysandù on the Uruguay River, where the blancos had assembled
+in force. The place was taken by assault and given up to a horrible
+pillage, the recollection of which is still graven in the memory of
+Uruguayans. The blanco party never recovered from the slaughter. Those
+in Montevideo saved themselves by surrendering the town without
+resistance. Flores entered in triumph and the blanco leaders fled into
+exile.
+
+Flores was under obligations to lead a division in the war against
+Paraguay, and he absented himself for that purpose for nearly two years,
+during which the country districts were somewhat disturbed. In 1867 he
+returned and restored order with a strong hand. This short lease of
+undisturbed power was employed in making many important improvements.
+Great public edifices were completed, the telegraph cable was laid to
+Buenos Aires, the building of railroads was begun, and a new civil code
+adopted. Immigration was resumed on a large scale and the country felt
+the economic impulse that was already transforming the whole Plate
+valley. Although the country rapidly prospered under the military
+administration of Flores, the feeling of the blancos remained intensely
+bitter, and on the 15th of February, 1868, the colorado president was
+assassinated in the streets of Montevideo.
+
+Flores's death was the signal for wholesale executions and for the
+outbreak of another long blanco insurrection. Although the growth of
+wealth and population had never been more rapid than at this very time,
+the country was not free from civil disturbance until 1872, when an
+armistice was signed. A year later troubles broke out again and the
+troops refused to march against the insurgents. To the bitterness of
+party feeling and the official corruption which diminished the revenue
+and hampered commerce was added the embarrassment of the financial
+difficulties which followed the great panic of 1873. The public debt had
+doubled in the ten years between 1860 and 1870 and now reached the
+enormous figure of over forty million dollars, nearly $150 for each
+inhabitant in the country. One president after another was unable to
+maintain himself in the face of the financial and political difficulties
+of the situation, but in 1876 General Lorenzo Latorre, an intelligent
+and determined colorado chief, became dictator. For economy's sake, he
+reduced the number of army officers, of whom there were over twelve
+hundred for two thousand privates. He rooted out the worst frauds in the
+customs service, and refunded the public debt, compelling the foreign
+creditors to accept six instead of twelve per cent. interest. At the
+same time he rigidly suppressed the disorders which had harassed the
+country since the murder of Flores. The bands of marauders, assassins,
+and bandits, who had exercised their nefarious occupations under cover
+of belonging to the insurrectionists, were relentlessly pursued and
+brought to justice. For the first time in years a traveller could
+traverse the country from end to end without arms. Like Flores, Latorre
+often used brute force to secure peace and order, and the Uruguayans
+were too turbulent to submit long to such dictation. Countless
+conspiracies were formed which were bloodily suppressed, but public fear
+and dislike of Latorre grew continually more menacing. In 1880, tired
+out with constant anxieties and grieved over what he considered the
+ingratitude of his countrymen, Latorre resigned his office and went into
+exile.
+
+His successor, Dr. Vidal, held the presidency for only two years, when
+he, too, was forced to resign. The next president, Maximo Santos, served
+his complete term of four full years, ending in 1886. Then Vidal managed
+to get back into power for a few months and was again replaced by
+Santos, who, in turn, was succeeded by Tajes, who governed the country
+until 1890. The ten years succeeding the resignation of Latorre were
+materially very prosperous. The sheep industry developed tremendously;
+the production of wheat was more than doubled; immigration ran up to
+nearly 20,000 a year; the population of the country reached 700,000,
+having increased from 400,000 in twelve years. Immigration had been so
+great that the number of the foreign-born almost equalled the natives,
+even when including in the latter those of foreign parentage. In the
+mixture of nationalities the foundations have been laid for a race of
+unusual vigour and of pure Caucasian descent.
+
+The bitterness of the old factional feeling largely died out during the
+disturbances which succeeded the murder of Flores. The blancos had
+suffered terrible losses in 1864, and the colorados had become far the
+more numerous party. During Latorre's dictatorship the distinctions
+between the two were almost lost, and the blanco party, by that name at
+least, ceased to be an active factor in politics. New factions, however,
+took their place, but the struggles for place and power lacked the
+conviction and ferocity of the old civil wars. The gaucho and Creole
+element, although still politically dominant, was diluted by the
+infiltration of a more industrially minded population. The people were
+not so exclusively pastoral and had ceased to be so military in their
+tastes. The foreign immigrants wanted peace,--a chance to sow their
+wheat and tend their sheep undisturbed,--and the gaucho, living on his
+horse, feeding on beef alone, and always ready to ride off to fight by
+the side of his favourite chief, ceased in many of the departments to be
+the dominant factor. Politics became largely a game played by the ruling
+Spanish-American caste and did not directly interfere with the material
+interests of the country, and rarely affected the maintenance of law and
+order.
+
+The prosperity of the eighties had been accompanied by an enormous
+increase in governmental expenditures and debt. The economies so
+painfully enforced in Latorre's administration were abandoned. Nearly
+as much money was spent in ten years as had been in the previous fifty
+years of the republic's existence. The debt more than doubled, and the
+deficit each year equalled fifty per cent. of the receipts. The Buenos
+Aires panic of 1890 brought on grave commercial difficulties; real
+estate dropped one-half; prices fell, and, as usual, the people blamed
+the government. Political disturbances began with an attempt at a blanco
+uprising in Montevideo in 1891. The clergy were active in fomenting
+dissatisfaction, but the trouble was suppressed for the time. Herrera y
+Obes, elected in 1890, served his term out, but the government was
+getting deeper and deeper into the financial mire, in spite of having
+cut down the rate of interest on the public debt fifty per cent. The
+murmurs of the public grew constantly more menacing against a taxation
+which had become so excessive that it almost threatened the destruction
+of industries.
+
+When the election came on in 1894 the outgoing president found that he
+had not control of Congress, the body which elects the president. A
+deadlock ensued and the ballots were taken amid confusion and fears of
+intimidation. Ellaure, the president's candidate, dared not accept
+because of the threatening attitude of the opposition. Finally, Juan
+Idiarte Borda was declared elected, amid outcries and protests against
+dictation and terrorism. The new president pledged himself to reform the
+finances and pursue a conciliatory policy toward the different factions,
+but he was soon accused of extravagance and favouritism. The blancos had
+again become a formidable party after twenty years of eclipse, and they
+believed that they were being deprived of their political rights by the
+colorado president. In 1896 he procured the election of a Congress
+completely under his control, and early in 1897, seeing no hope of a
+constitutional change, a blanco colonel named Lamas raised the standard
+of revolt, assembled a force in the western provinces, and gained a
+victory over the president's soldiers. He marched east and joined
+Aparicio Saraiva, a chief belonging to a family celebrated in the
+military annals of Brazil, who had brought a considerable force over the
+border. The rebels soon had possession of the eastern departments and
+menaced Montevideo, while Borda borrowed money right and left and armed
+and drilled regiment after regiment to prosecute the war against them.
+Nevertheless, the rebels maintained themselves and roamed the country at
+will. They would listen to no terms that did not include Borda's
+resignation, and it seemed as if the country was doomed to pass through
+another long and bloody civil war.
+
+On August 25, 1897, President Borda was assassinated in the streets of
+Montevideo by a respectable grocer's clerk. The vice-president, Juan L.
+Cuestas, succeeded peacefully to the control of the government in
+Montevideo, and at once entered into negotiations with the leaders of
+the insurrectionists in the departments. Terms were quickly agreed upon.
+Cuestas conceded minority representation and electoral reform, and in a
+very short time the rebels had laid down their arms. The few months of
+war had cost Uruguay dear. Thirteen million dollars had been spent by
+the government, the collection of the revenue had been interrupted, and
+internal transportation had been demoralised. Now, however, industry and
+commerce resumed their usual course, and, since President Cuestas's
+accession to power, the peace of the country has been undisturbed.
+Political manifestations have been confined to disputes in Congress and
+the press. They became so violent that in 1898 the president dissolved
+the chambers and declared himself dictator. He reorganised the army on a
+basis which insured that there would be no mutinies, and at the same
+time pursued a policy of administrative reform which has done much to
+bring order out of the financial confusion. The obligations of the
+government have been religiously performed, and Uruguay's currency is on
+a gold basis. In 1899 Cuestas was elected president according to the
+forms of the Constitution. He carried out the pledge he had given the
+blancos not to interfere with the elections, and in 1900 they made great
+gains and elected enough members to control the Senate. The political
+situation has, therefore, been somewhat strained, but there seems to be
+no danger that the congressional opposition will try to interfere with
+the executive functions of the president.
+
+  [Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL, MONTEVIDEO.]
+
+This gallant and pugnacious little people will continue to play a rôle
+in South American affairs out of all proportion to the size of their
+country. Uruguay seems certain to continue to be the political
+storm-centre of the Atlantic coast. Climate, soil, and geographical
+position insure a rapid increase in population and wealth, while its
+political independence must continue to be an object of constant
+solicitude on the part of its gigantic neighbours, Argentina and Brazil.
+Montevideo is a formidable trade rival to Buenos Aires, and must always
+be, as it has so often been in the past, the base for any attach at the
+heart of the Argentine Republic. To the north nothing but an artificial
+boundary separates Uruguay from Rio Grande do Sul, and the two regions
+are alike in everything except language. Should the Portuguese-Americans
+again evince those tendencies toward expansion which distinguished them
+in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Uruguay would be the
+natural point of attack, and if Brazil should ever divide into its
+component parts, as it came so near doing in 1822 and again in 1837, Rio
+Grande and Uruguay might find it necessary to coalesce, or possibly wars
+might ensue between them which would change the face of South America. A
+not improbable alternative would be the establishment of a power on the
+north bank of the Plate strong enough to hold its own, and which might
+play the same rôle in the interaction of Spanish and Portuguese
+Americans as did Flanders between the Teutons and Latins in Europe.
+
+
+
+
+BRAZIL
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+PORTUGAL
+
+
+The motherland of Brazil is Portugal. Profound as were the changes
+incident to transplanting a people to a virgin continent;
+notwithstanding Spanish dominion and Dutch conquests; large as were the
+admixtures of negro, Indian, and alien blood; in spite of independence
+and Republicanism; the language, customs, religion, and laws of Brazil
+are to-day substantially like those of Portugal.
+
+The parallel between the United States and Britain is not closer. Brazil
+has diverged even less than her model. Her population may have a larger
+admixture of non-Portuguese blood than the North Americans have of
+non-British, but politically there was less opportunity for divergence,
+for Brazil was kept under much closer subordination. The discovery of
+Brazil coincided with the destruction of popular liberties in the
+mother-country. Thereafter, the Portuguese government was a centralised
+despotism, and its hand lay heavy on the Brazilian provinces. They were
+forbidden intercourse with the rest of the world; functionaries of every
+kind were continually imported; the provinces never dreamed of
+asserting any right to self-government; from the beginning the system
+was centralising and stifling. The North American colonies of England
+were left to grow up by themselves; they were never under a colonial
+government properly so called; a revolt followed the first serious
+attempt to subject them to a real colonial régime. But the independence
+of Brazil came because liberties were finally granted, not because they
+were threatened to be taken away. The country remained under a tutelage,
+growing continually more rigorous, and which ceased only after the
+Portuguese monarch had fled from Lisbon and the colony had become
+greater than the mother-country.
+
+ [Illustration: OUTLINE MAP OF BRAZIL]
+
+It is, therefore, in the little peninsular kingdom, during the centuries
+before Cabral caught sight of the South American coast, that we must
+look for the beginnings of Brazil. Rome gave to Portugal laws, language,
+religion, and architecture; the forests of Germany modified her
+political institutions; the Saracens gave her the arts, navigation, and
+material civilisation. Her happy geographical position near the Straits
+of Gibraltar made her the meeting-place for the Mohammedan and Christian
+religions--of Levantine civilisation with Teutonic barbarism and
+liberty. That position also enabled the qualities of daring and
+enterprise and the scientific knowledge acquired in centuries of long
+conflicts and intercourse with the Moors to be turned to immediate
+advantage when the Renaissance came. Portugal was the pioneer of Europe
+in discovery and colonisation, though Spain followed close after.
+Together they led in making Western European civilisation dominant
+beyond seas. The nations who followed in their track have long since
+passed them, but Portugal had once the opportunity of spreading her
+influence and institutions over half the planet. In Brazil she mixed
+success with the failure that was her fate elsewhere. Brazil is to-day
+the nation which has inherited Roman civilisation in the least modified
+form, and is the country where the genuine Latin spirit has the best
+opportunity for growth and survival.
+
+The study of Portugal takes on a new dignity and importance when we
+reflect that she has given language, institutions, and laws to half of
+South America and to a population that already outnumbers her own four
+to one. She is entitled to the interest of the world if only because she
+has placed her indelible imprint on a region which is as large as Europe
+and as fertile as Java, and which is destined within the next two
+centuries to support the largest population of any of the great
+political divisions of the globe.
+
+In the twelfth century, the coalescence of a fragment of the kingdom of
+Leon with the Moorish territory near the mouth of the Tagus originated
+Portugal as a separate country. The race was very mixed. Its principal
+elements were the Leonese and the Mosarabes--the latter being the
+Christians of Moorish Portugal left undisturbed from Visigothic times by
+their tolerant Mohammedan conquerors. Each of these elements was, in its
+turn, of mixed origin. To the original Iberian population, which had
+occupied the Peninsula two thousand years before the Christian era, had
+been successively added Phenicians, Greeks, Celts, Ligurians,
+Carthaginians, Latins,--and in Roman times,--officials, soldiers, and
+slaves from all over the empire, including many Jews. The long Roman
+dominion welded all these together into a homogeneous mass. Later, the
+Visigothic conquest added a large Teutonic contingent, which is
+especially evident in northern and Leonese Portugal. Still later, the
+Saracens intermarried in considerable numbers with the Mosarabes of
+southern Portugal. After the formation of the modern kingdom, another
+element was added in the French, Provençals, Flemings, and English who
+came in large numbers to aid in the final expulsion of the Moors. By the
+end of the fourteenth century, the Portuguese had become a distinct
+nation. Racial and religious tolerance were more advanced than in the
+rest of Europe; self-governing municipalities covered the greatest part
+of the country, each privileged within a definite territory. The nobles,
+prelates, and monastic and military orders were still privileged, and
+their property was not subject to tribute, but their power was not
+predominant. The king was chief of the army and the proprietor of a very
+considerable proportion of the land, but he was under constant pressure
+to grant it to the religious orders and to the nobles. The people were
+everywhere heavily taxed--in the municipalities and Crown lands by the
+king, and on the estates of the privileged orders for the benefit of
+their great proprietors. The nobles were under no enforceable
+obligation to perform military service. A great general deliberative and
+representative assembly--the Cortes--had come into being when the
+monarchy was founded. It included representatives of the municipalities
+as well as nobles and clergy, and its importance and vitality are shown
+by the fact that from 1250 to 1376 it met twenty-five times. By the
+latter date, jurisprudence had become generalised and its administration
+had fallen into the hands of the Crown. The nation had developed out of
+local and class privilege a reasonably consistent and uniform
+administration. The municipalities were the basis of the governmental
+structure, and a rude but effective local self-government existed
+through their instrumentality. The norm for the centralisation and
+organisation had not been, as in nearly all the rest of Europe, the
+feudal system, but the surviving fragments of the Roman structure. To
+the municipalities was largely due the astonishing vigour shown by the
+Portuguese people in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The norm
+even survived the destruction of liberty, and its influence can be seen
+in every step of the subsequent development of Portugal and also of
+Brazil.
+
+Portugal's heroic era began near the close of the fourteenth century.
+The great King John I., founder of the dynasty of Aviz, secured Portugal
+for ever from absorption by Spain when he won the battle of Aljubarrota
+in 1385. This was the signal for a rapid transformation of the character
+and policies of the Portuguese people. The thirst for war and adventure
+grew. The old Portugal--laborious, agricultural, home-loving,
+conservative--was replaced by a new Portugal--adventurous, seafaring,
+eager, romantic, longing for conquest, glory, and wealth, its eyes
+straining over the sea, the embodiment of the spirit of the Renaissance
+on its material side. The meeting of the Levant and the Baltic, the East
+and the West, Mohammedans and Christianity, the arts and knowledge of
+the old races with the energy of the new, had at last produced its
+perfect work. In 1415 an army was sent into Africa, and Ceuta was
+conquered; and there began that marvellous series of voyages which not
+only transformed Portugal into an empire, but gave a new world to Europe
+and revolutionised the planet. Modern scientific navigation began with
+the sailors instructed in the school which was set up at Sagres by
+Prince Henry, King John's son. Until then, European nautical knowledge
+had been very meagre. The compass served only to indicate direction, not
+distance or position, and did not suffice for the systematic navigation
+of the open Atlantic. The Portuguese first made that possible by using
+astronomical observations and inventing the quadrant and the astrolabe.
+
+This knowledge, once acquired, was promptly applied to the work of
+navigation. Madeira was discovered in 1418; the Canaries in 1427; the
+Azores in 1432. The first and last were colonised and rapidly became
+populous. To the West the explorers pushed no farther for the present,
+but to the south they reached Cape Blanco in 1441, Senegambia and Cape
+Verde in 1445, and the Cape Verde Islands in 1460. In 1469, they turned
+into the Gulf of Guinea, and in 1471 were the first Europeans to cross
+the Equator. Their search, at first random, now became definite. They
+believed it was only necessary to keep on and they would round the
+southern extremity of Africa and reach Abyssinia and India by sea, a
+hope which became a certainty in 1487, when Bartholomew Diaz finally
+reached the Cape of Good Hope.
+
+Meanwhile, a political revolution had been going on. The strong kings of
+the line of Aviz had won for the Crown a moral preponderance over the
+nobility and clergy. The latter resisted the royal encroachments, but
+the municipalities joined the monarchs in the struggle against them. The
+king who established centralised despotism--the Richelieu of
+Portugal--was John II., the third of the Aviz dynasty, and who reigned
+from 1481 to 1495. Under his rule, the whole military power was
+concentrated in the Crown; the nobility became a class living at Court;
+the king was the fountain of all honour and advancement; local officers
+were replaced by officials appointed by and responsible to the central
+government; piece by piece the independent functions of the
+municipalities were taken away.
+
+Concentration of power in the hands of monarch and bureaucracy produced
+its inevitable effect. A short period of marvellous brilliancy in arms,
+statecraft, literature, and the arts was followed by sudden decay. The
+self-governing municipalities had nurtured a multitude of men whom small
+power and responsibility fitted for great things. The nation turned
+eagerly to the work of exploration and conquest and prosecuted it
+efficiently.
+
+Such a people would undertake conquest for their king, rather than
+colonisation on their own account; they would emigrate under military
+leadership and forms; their colonies would tolerate a close control by
+the mother country; they would seek to convert the aborigines and reduce
+them to slavery; private initiative would be stifled and overshadowed by
+that of the government; large proprietorship would be the rule; the
+colonies would be burdened with functionaries sent in successive swarms
+from home; taxation would be excessive; the best talent would go into
+the bureau and not concern itself with industrial matters; invention and
+originality would be discouraged; agriculture would not be diversified,
+nor manufactures thrive. To this day a few staple crops predominate in
+Brazil; small landownership is the exception, and the people show little
+aptitude for change when unfavourable circumstances make their crops
+unprofitable. Brazilian Creoles have little taste for manual pursuits,
+and not much more for commerce. Non-Portuguese immigration has supplied
+most of the labour; foreigners have always conducted most of the trade.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+DISCOVERY
+
+
+On the 9th of March, 1500, Pedro Alvarez Cabral, a Portuguese nobleman
+of illustrious birth, but not yet distinguished by any notable feats in
+war or seamanship, sailed from Lisbon for the East Indies. This
+expedition was sent out to continue the work begun by Vasco da Gama in
+the first all-sea voyage to India. It was an advance-guard for the
+larger armament that two years later founded the Portuguese empire on
+the coasts of India. Vasco da Gama himself wrote Cabral's sailing
+orders. The latter was instructed, after passing the Cape Verde Islands
+in 14° North, to sail directly south, as long as the wind was
+favourable. If forced to change his course, he was ordered to keep on
+the starboard tack, even though it led him south-west. When he reached
+the latitude of the Cape of Good Hope--34° South--he was to bear away to
+the east.
+
+These sailing instructions have been the subject of much discussion.
+Many believe their sole purpose was to enable Cabral to avoid the Guinea
+calms, so annoying to sailing ships near the African coast. Others
+contend that Da Gama had seen signs of land to the west on his own
+voyage, and that its discovery was a real, though secondary, object of
+the expedition. In any event the Brazilian coast is too near the natural
+route around Africa to have escaped encounter, and would infallibly have
+shortly been seen by some one else.
+
+  [Illustration: OLD TOWER AT LISBON WHENCE THE FLEET SAILED.]
+
+Forty-two days after leaving Lisbon, Cabral's fleet saw unmistakable
+signs of land, being then in latitude 17 degrees south and longitude 36
+degrees west. From the Cape Verde Islands, just off the western point of
+Africa, he had made 2300 miles, and had come 500 miles to the west. The
+next day a mountain was sighted, which he called Paschoal, because it
+was Easter week. This mountain is in the southern part of the state of
+Bahia, about four hundred miles north-east of Rio, and on a coast that
+to this day is sparsely inhabited and rarely visited. The following day
+the whole fleet came to an anchor a mile and a half from the shore, and
+just north of the dangerous Abrolhos reefs. This was the 23rd of April,
+Old Style, which corresponds with the 3rd of May in the Gregorian
+calendar. The date is a national holiday in Brazil, and the anniversary
+for the annual convening of Congress.
+
+Because no quadrupeds or large rivers were seen, Cabral thought he had
+discovered an island and named it the "Island of the True Cross." The
+name has not survived except in poetry. He stopped ten days on the
+coast, took formal possession, and sent expeditions on shore which
+entered into communication with the Indians, who were seen in
+considerable numbers. It is characteristic that the first question asked
+of the Indians was if they knew what gold and silver were. They were
+peaceable and friendly, and the old chronicle describes them as of a
+dark reddish complexion with good features, and muscular, well-shaped
+bodies. They wore no clothes, their lower lips and cheeks were
+perforated to carry great ornaments of white bone, and their hair was
+elaborately dressed and adorned with feathers.
+
+These were fair specimens of the Tupi-Guaranies, the largest of the four
+great families into which the Brazilian aborigines have been classified.
+The others are the Caribs, the Arawaks, and the Botacudos. There are
+also traces of tribes who inhabited the country remote centuries ago. In
+caves in Minas Geraes skeletons have been found remarkably like those of
+the earliest Europeans. The theory is that these Indians came from
+Europe by land in that remote geological epoch when Scandinavia was
+joined to Greenland. Later came Mongoloids, probably by way of the
+Behring Strait, who appear largely to have exterminated their European
+predecessors, and to have been the ancestors of the modern Indians.
+
+When America was discovered, the four great families were spread in
+scattering and widely differing tribes over the whole of Brazil and the
+adjacent countries. Their state of culture varied from that of the most
+squalid tribes of Botacudos, who had not even reached the Stone Age,
+lived in brush shelters, slept in the ashes of their fires, practised
+promiscuous marriage, and had no idea of religion except a fear of
+malignant spirits; up to Arawaks, who were cleanly, had a well-defined
+tribal organisation, and built marvellous canoes, or Tupis, who
+cultivated the soil, built fair houses, used rude machinery for making
+mandioc flour, spun cotton, wove cloth, and were good potters. But the
+civilisation of the best of them was stationary. No Brazilian tribe ever
+got beyond the condition where the struggle to obtain food was its sole
+preoccupation. No civilisation like that of Mexico, Peru, or Yucatan
+ever existed. Disaggregation, failure, and obliteration were the rule.
+Organically unfitted to cope with their surroundings they never devised
+a method of getting a good and permanent food-supply. Defective
+nutrition sapped their powers to resist strains. Their muscular
+appearance was not accompanied by corresponding endurance. Their
+European taskmasters could never understand why they died from the
+effects of exertion to which a white man would easily have been equal.
+The vast majority had no regular agriculture and lived on the
+spontaneous products of the forests and the streams. Land game is not
+abundant in the tropics, and they had developed only few good food
+plants. What they did procure was spoiled by bad preparation. Such a
+people had no chance of successfully resisting the Portuguese invaders,
+and their only hope of survival was in contact and admixture with the
+more vigorous white and black races.
+
+  [Illustration: A TUPI VILLAGE.]
+
+The Tupi-Guaranies occupied one-fourth of Brazil, all of Paraguay and
+Uruguay, and much of Bolivia and the Argentine, and it is probable that
+the original seats of this family were in the central table-lands or in
+Paraguay. All Tupi Indians spoke dialects of one language, which the
+Jesuit missionaries soon reduced to grammatical and literary form, and
+which became a _lingua franca_ that was understood from the Plate to the
+Amazon. Back of the coast Tupis were the Botacudos, the most degraded
+and intractable of Brazilian savages, remnants of whom still survive in
+their original seats in Espirito Santo, Minas, and São Paulo. The
+Caribs, with whom students of the history of the Caribbean Sea are
+familiar, originated in the plains of Goyaz and Matto Grosso and
+emigrated as far north as the Antilles. The Arawaks were most numerous
+in Guiana and on the Lower Amazon, but were also spread over central
+Brazil.
+
+The Brazilian Indians did not survive the white man's coming to as large
+an extent as in Spanish-America. The pure Indian is found in Brazil only
+in regions where the white man has not thought it worth while to take
+possession, and the proportion of Indian blood is much smaller than in
+surrounding countries. In many localities, evidences of Indian descent
+are so rare as to be remarkable.
+
+Cabral's voyage was the real discovery of Brazil, if we consider
+historical and political consequences. It was the first reported to
+Europe; and the Portuguese Crown immediately made formal claim to the
+territory. But, as a matter of fact, land which to-day is a part of
+Brazilian territory had been seen by Europeans before Cabral landed. In
+January, 1500, Vincente Yanez Pinzon, who had commanded the _Niña_ on
+the first voyage of Columbus, saw land in the neigbourhood of Cape St.
+Roque. Bound westward, he bore away to the west and north, following the
+prevailing winds and currents as far as the Orange Cape, the present
+extreme northern limits of Brazil. He was, therefore, the discoverer of
+the great estuary which forms the mouth of the Amazon. He named it the
+"Fresh-Water Sea," because the great river freshens the open ocean far
+out of sight of land, but he did not ascend, nor even see, the river
+proper. It is also claimed on good evidence that, six months before
+Pinzon, another Spanish navigator, Alonso de Ojeda, accompanied by
+Amerigo Vespucci, had made the South American coast not far from Cape
+St. Roque; and that a month later still another, Diego de Lepe, did the
+same.
+
+None of these Spanish voyages produced any results. They were not
+reported until after the news of Cabral's discovery had been solemnly
+promulgated to the Courts of Europe, and were soon forgotten. The honour
+of making Brazil known to Europe belongs to Cabral just as certainly as
+that of discovering America does to Columbus. The Spanish voyages are
+interesting to antiquarians, but neither they nor the Norwegian voyages
+of the eleventh century were followed up, or produced any permanent
+results.
+
+The news reached Portugal in the fall of 1500, and no time was lost in
+sending out a small fleet to ascertain definitely the extent, value, and
+resources of the region. The Portuguese hoped to find a wealthy and
+civilised population like that of India--rich and unwarlike nations,
+such as the Spaniards did encounter a few years later in Peru and
+Mexico. The exploring expedition was under the command of Amerigo
+Vespucci, the greatest technical navigator of the age. He shaped his
+course so as to keep to the windward and south of the redoubtable
+promontory of St. Roque, which the clumsy ships of that day could not
+weather in the teeth of the trade-winds and the equatorial current, and,
+turning to the south, made a systematic examination of the coast nearly
+as far as the river Plate, employing five months in the task. In naming
+the rivers, capes and harbours, he saved his inventive faculty and
+gratified the popular religious sentiment by calling each one by the
+name of the saint on whose anniversary it was reached. Most of these
+names have survived. For example, the São Francisco, the largest river
+between the Amazon and the Plate, is so called because Vespucci reached
+it on October 1, 1501, which date is sacred to St. Francis in the Roman
+calendar. Rio de Janeiro is so named because he saw the great bay, whose
+entrance is narrower than many rivers, on New Year's Day, 1501. He
+coasted along for two thousand miles, looking eagerly for gold, silver,
+spices, and civilised inhabitants. He was disappointed. The only thing
+found which seemed to have an immediate market value was brazil-wood--a
+dye-wood that had been used in Europe for centuries and was in great
+demand. Its colour was a bright red--hence its name, which means "wood
+the colour of fire." It was found in such abundance that the world's
+supply has since been drawn from this coast, and among sailors and
+merchants the country soon became known as "the Country of Brazil-wood."
+The name almost immediately supplanted "Santa Cruz." Vespucci saw that
+the country was fertile and the climate pleasant. This was not enough to
+satisfy his greedy employers. A government whose coffers were beginning
+to overflow with the profits of the Indian spice-trade and the African
+mines was not inclined to pay much attention to a region without the
+precious metals, and inhabited only by naked savages. The reports of the
+abundance of brazil-wood, however, induced private adventurers to go and
+cut that valuable commodity. The government declared it a Portuguese
+monopoly, but the high price of the article made the trade so enormously
+profitable, that ships of other nationalities, especially French, could
+not be excluded.
+
+The coast soon became well known, but the Portuguese government did not
+extend its explorations to the south. It was left to the Spaniards to
+find the passage into the Pacific Ocean and to explore the tributaries
+of the Plate. The southern extension of the continent became and remains
+Spanish. No exact records exist of the earliest Portuguese explorations
+of the northern coast from Cape St. Roque to the mouth of the Amazon. We
+only know that some Portuguese ships navigated those waters and that
+Spain never seriously disputed Portugal's title to that region.
+
+For thirty years Brazil remained unsettled, though the fleets going to
+the East Indies often stopped in its admirable harbours to refit and
+take water. Private adventurers came for brazil-wood and the French
+poached more and more frequently. Soon the latter began to establish
+little factories to which they returned year after year, and got on good
+terms with the aborigines. It became evident that Portugal must
+establish fortified, self-sustaining posts if she expected to retain the
+territory.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+DESCRIPTION
+
+
+Cabral's discovery bequeathed to the Portuguese race one of the largest,
+most productive, and valuable political divisions of the globe. The area
+is 3,150,000 square miles--larger than the United States without Alaska,
+and surpassed only by the British, Russian, Chinese, and American
+empires. From north to south it extends 2600 miles, and east and west
+2700. Lying across the equator and traversed by no very high mountain
+ranges, its climate is more uniform than any other equally large
+inhabited region, but its extent is so immense that there are very
+considerable variations.
+
+Compact in form, with a continuous seacoast, unsurpassable harbours, and
+a great extension of navigable rivers, water communication between the
+different parts is easy and the danger of dismemberment by external
+attack a minimum. Occupying the central portion of South America it
+touches all the other countries of the continent except Chile, uniting
+them geographically, and to a large extent controlling land
+communication among them. It is nearer Europe and Africa than any other
+South American country, and is also on the direct route between the
+North Atlantic and both coasts of South America. Situated in latitudes
+where evaporation and precipitation are largest, where the trade-winds
+unfailingly bring moisture from the Atlantic, and on the eastern and
+windward slope of the narrowest of the continents, Brazil has the
+steadiest and most uniformly distributed rainfall of any large part of
+the globe.
+
+The exuberance of life in Brazil must be seen to be realised. The early
+voyagers related the wonder and admiration which they felt. Amerigo
+Vespucci said that if Paradise did exist on this planet it could not be
+far from the Brazilian coast. Agassiz believed that the future centre of
+the civilisation of the world would be in the Amazon valley. The plants
+useful for food, and in industry, commerce, and medicine, are
+innumerable. Nowhere except in Ceylon does the palm flourish so. There
+are more plants indigenous to Brazil than to any other country, and many
+species, like coffee, transplanted there have doubled in productiveness.
+Indian corn and mandioc were already cultivated by the Indians when
+Cabral landed, and both upland and lowland rice grew wild. The soil
+lends itself kindly to any kind of culture, and in most cases two crops
+may be reaped annually. In a word the subsoil, the soil, the atmosphere,
+the forests, and the waters of Brazil are teeming with life and full of
+potential wealth--too much so, perhaps, for the most wholesome
+development of the human race.
+
+  [Illustration: A GARDEN IN PETROPOLIS.]
+
+The most extensive and the least-developed part of Brazil is the Amazon
+valley. The Brazilian portion of the Amazon basin comprises forty-five
+per cent. of the whole territory of the republic. The northern and
+south-eastern borders slope up to the surrounding mountains, but the
+rest is an early level plain, little elevated above the sea. The plains
+are covered with dense forests, much of the country is frequently
+flooded, and communication is only possible by the streams. In their
+neighbourhood the climate is in many localities unhealthful, and is
+everywhere tropical and rainy. Back from the rivers is an unexplored and
+unknown wilderness. The Amazon with its tributaries forms the greatest
+of all navigable fluvial systems. Ten thousand seven hundred miles are
+already known to be suitable for navigation by steamboats, and four
+thousand eight hundred more for smaller boats.
+
+It is in the narrow coast-plain on the Atlantic, and in the high regions
+lying to the east and south of the great central depression, that the
+Brazilian people live.
+
+The main orographical feature of non-Amazonian Brazil is the great
+mountain system which extends uninterruptedly from the northern coast
+through the whole country. This continental uplift corresponds to the
+Andes on the west coast, just as the Apalachians do to the Rockies in
+North America. Its relative importance is many times greater on account
+of its great width, and because a broad plateau nearly connects it with
+the Andes between the headwaters of the Amazon and Plate river systems.
+The joint result is that two-thirds of Brazil is high enough to have a
+moderate and healthful climate, but the cataracts in the rivers and the
+steep escarpments of the mountains make it difficult of access.
+
+The promontory of South America which reaches out to the north-east,
+looking in a direct line to the western extremity of Africa, is a region
+of gentle slopes, of wide, sparsely wooded plateaux, and of
+brush-covered hills. At long intervals, the interior is subject to
+severe drouths. The soil is fertile as a rule and the rainfall generally
+sufficient for cereal crops. Nearing the sea precipitation increases,
+and cotton and sugar thrive. The mountain ranges rarely exceed three
+thousand feet in height, and lie far back from the coast, from which the
+country slopes up gradually. This region was the first in Brazil to
+contain a large population, and the Dutch fought hard for it during the
+seventeenth century. In its area of 430,000 square miles seven of the
+Brazilian states are included--Maranhão, Piauhy, Ceará, Rio Grande do
+Norte, Parahyba, Pernambuco, and Alagoas. The promontory of St. Roque,
+where the coast turns from an east-and-west direction to a
+north-and-south, marks a commercial division. Sailing vessels found it
+difficult to round this cape from the north, and consequently the
+commercial relations of Maranhão, Piauhy, and Ceará have been rather
+with the Amazon than southern Brazil. South of St. Roque the region is
+most easily accessible from Europe and is on the direct line of
+communication between both sides of the North Atlantic and the coasts to
+the south.
+
+The region drained by the Tocantins and Araguaya very nearly corresponds
+with the state of Goyaz. It is the western slope of the Brazilian
+Cordillera, and differs radically from the Amazonian plain, which it
+adjoins. As one ascends the Tocantins and Araguaya from their mouths in
+the Amazon estuary the altitude rapidly rises and navigation is quickly
+interrupted by cataracts. In the south the level rises to over four
+thousand feet, and the climate shows a considerable range of
+temperature, with the thermometer sometimes falling below freezing in
+the higher mountains. Though the area is 350,000 square miles, the
+population hardly reaches a quarter of a million, and has not been
+increasing rapidly since the exhaustion of the alluvial gold deposits.
+Roughly speaking, it may be described as a region well adapted to cattle
+and agriculture, and composed of high, open, rolling plateaux traversed
+by low mountain ranges and well-wooded river valleys.
+
+The next natural division comprises the oval depression lying between
+the great central watershed and the high range which runs straight north
+from Rio within a few hundred miles of the coast. This is the São
+Francisco valley. Politically and commercially connected is the adjacent
+coast-plain. Valley and plain are divided into the four states of Minas,
+Bahia, Sergipe, and Espirito Santo, with 430,000 square miles and
+6,000,000 inhabitants. In the coast-plain the rainfall is greater than
+farther north, and the soil is very fertile, producing not only cotton,
+sugar, and tobacco, but coffee, maize, and mandioc. The slopes are more
+abrupt and the mountains begin closer to the sea. The interior is a
+great plateau traversed by high mountain ranges and the tributaries of
+the São Francisco River. Most of this plateau is included in the great
+state of Minas, the most populous member of the Brazilian union, which
+is agriculturally self-sufficing, and one of the great mineral regions
+of the world. The rainfall is abundant, the climate is healthful and
+bracing, the birth-rate is large, and the region is admirably adapted to
+the white races. Its general character is a rolling plateau, three to
+four thousand feet above the ocean, forming extensive, treeless plains,
+which are interspersed with wooded mountain chains, river valleys, and
+extensive tracts of brush-land. The European who visits the São
+Francisco valley is astonished to find a country where the climate is
+temperate and the soil fitted to the production of all sorts of food
+crops including the cereals, and where, nevertheless, proximity to the
+equator makes practicable a multiplicity of crops in a single year. The
+coast-plain, which forms the greatest part of Bahia, Sergipe, and
+Espirito Santo, is fertile, but the climate is enervating to Europeans,
+and the proportion of black blood there is the largest in Brazil.
+
+About the twentieth degree the mountains approach close to the coast,
+and from Victoria south to the thirtieth degree the Atlantic border of
+Brazil is steep and mountainous, often rising directly from the sea to a
+height of two thousand to six thousand feet. It is a coast of splendid
+harbours and magnificent scenery. The drainage is mostly inland into the
+Plate system, and water falling within a dozen miles of the ocean flows
+2500 miles before reaching the sea.
+
+To this rule there is but one important exception--the Parahyba River,
+the basin of which is practically coterminous with the state of Rio de
+Janeiro and the federal district. This state is commercially and
+politically very important, although its area is small. The surface is
+very mountainous and the soil mostly inferior to that of the divisions
+to the north and south. However, it is still an immense producer of
+coffee and sugar. Its geographical situation and great harbour have made
+it the most thickly settled part of the country. The rainfall is very
+large, especially on the mountains nearest the sea, which are covered
+with magnificent forests. The coast-plain is warm though not
+unhealthful, save in the vicinity of the infected city of Rio, and in
+the higher regions the climate is delightful and in temperature almost
+European. The northern boundary is the Mantiqueira range which divides
+the Parahyba basin from the valleys of the Paraná and São Francisco.
+This range is the highest in Brazil, and its culminating
+peak--Itatiaya--is ten thousand feet high, though it is only seventy
+miles from the sea. Slightly lower ranges lie between the Mantiqueira
+and the ocean, and of these the highest is Pedro d'Assu--7365
+feet--which overlooks Rio harbour, only twenty miles away.
+
+The Brazilian portion of the great Paraná valley presents a remarkable
+uniformity of general characteristics. Bordering the sea is a range of
+mountains, or rather the abrupt escarpment of the plateau, some three
+thousand feet high. From its summit the surface slopes gently to the
+west, draining into the Paraná by a hundred streams, many of which are
+navigable in their middle courses. This great plateau--with its area of
+about 250,000 square miles--is mostly treeless toward the north, but in
+the south is covered with pine forests. It lies in the temperate zone
+and snow sometimes falls on the higher peaks and _chapadas_ of São
+Paulo. The soil is remarkably fertile, and this is the coffee region
+_par excellence_ of the world. A coffee tree in São Paulo produces two
+to four times as much as in other parts of the globe. Food crops grow
+well, and the country might be economically independent of the rest of
+the world. The contour of the country is favourable to railroad-building
+and the region is easily penetrable. From their settlements on the
+seaward border of this plateau the Paulistas of the seventeenth century
+roamed over the whole interior of South America, enslaving the Indians
+and driving out the Spanish Jesuits. The rainfall diminishes toward the
+interior, and there is an ill-defined limit where it ceases to be
+sufficient for coffee. The coffee district is also limited by the
+lowering of average temperature with increasing latitude. The three
+states of São Paulo, Paraná, and Santa Catharina contain most of the
+region under description, but south-western Minas and extreme southern
+Goyaz also belong to it.
+
+The great plateau gradually dies away to the south ending with a low
+escarpment across the state of Rio Grand do Sul. Physically and
+geographically, this State is different from the rest of Brazil. Most
+of its area is drained by the Uruguay River, and its natural relations
+and affinities are with the republic of that name. Rio Grande's
+ninety-five thousand square miles contain over a million inhabitants,
+and the open, rolling plains, nowhere much elevated above the sea, are
+excellently adapted to cattle. The northern portion is higher, more
+broken, and more wooded than the southern, and agriculture has made
+greater progress. The climate is distinctly that of the temperate
+zone--hot in summer, cold in winter, and subject to sudden variations on
+account of the winds which sweep up from the vast Argentine pampas. The
+inhabitants are big, vigorous, and hardy, and great riders. All the
+products of the temperate zone, including the cereals, flourish, and
+this part of Brazil seems destined to great things in the near future.
+
+From Bolivia around to Uruguay sweeps in a great semicircle, convex to
+the north, a plateau that nearly unites the Andes with the Eastern
+Cordillera, and forms the watershed between the Amazon and the Plate.
+Its eastern horn has already been described as forming the states of São
+Paulo, Paraná, and Santa Catharina; its western and central portions
+form the great interior state of Matto Grosso. Here the headwaters of
+the Madeira, Tapajos, and Xingu, tributaries of the Amazon, intertwine
+with those of the Paraguay and Paraná. The narrow depression which the
+Upper Paraguay forms across it is the only portion that has yet been
+described. The rest of the 410,000 square miles of Matto Grosso is
+abandoned to Indians and wild beasts. Only enough is known of these
+solitudes to prove that in the centre of the continent exists a
+well-watered, fertile, and healthful region, capable of sustaining an
+immense population, but which is shut off from development by lack of
+means of communication. The northwestern part could be reached from the
+Amazon if the Falls of the Madeira could be overcome, a route which
+would also open up a great and now inaccessible portion of Bolivia.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+EARLY COLONISATION
+
+
+The permanent settlement of Brazil was begun by deserters and mutineers
+set on shore from ships on their way to India or to cut brazil-wood. In
+1509 a certain Diego Alvarez, nicknamed by the Indians "Caramuru," or
+"man of lightning," landed at Bahia and escaped being eaten by
+frightening the Indians with his musket. He married a chief's daughter,
+and when a real colony was established years later he and his numerous
+half-breed descendants proved of great use to his compatriots. Two years
+later John Ramalho did much the same near Santos, hundreds of miles to
+the south. The story of the last of the three authentic _degradados_ is
+even more romantic. His name was Aleixo Garcia, and with three
+companions he landed about 1526 in the present state of Santa Catharina.
+Collecting an army of Indians he led them on a conquering and
+gold-hunting expedition over the coast-range, across the great plateau,
+into the valley of the Paraguay, and even penetrated ten years before
+Pizarro into territory tributary to the Incas of Peru. He finally
+perished in the centre of the continent, but when, years afterwards, the
+Spaniards penetrated the valley of the Paraná they found that the
+Indians already knew of white men and firearms.
+
+As early as 1516 the Portuguese government offered to give farming
+utensils free to settlers in Brazil, and it is probable that shortly
+afterwards some sugar was planted. The first serious and official effort
+to cultivate sugar was made in 1526. Christovão Jaques founded a factory
+on the island of Itamarica, a few miles north of Pernambuco. It was
+shortly destroyed by the French brazil-wood hunters, and the settlers
+fled to the site of Pernambuco and renewed the effort pending the
+arrival of re-enforcements. Seekers of brazil-wood hailing from Honfleur
+and Dieppe were swarming along the coast. The value of the region for
+sugar raising began to be appreciated. When the news came of the failure
+of the Spanish expedition which Cabot had led to the Plate, the
+Portuguese government determined to fit out a considerable expedition,
+composed of colonists and families as well as soldiers and adventurers.
+Seduced by the cry, "We are going to the Silver River," four hundred
+persons enlisted. The five vessels were commanded by Martim Affonso da
+Souza, a great general and navigator, who had already proved his
+capacity and who later went to the very top in the East Indian wars. He
+was instructed to expel all intruders and establish a permanent
+fortified colony. Early in 1531 he reached the coast near Pernambuco,
+captured three French ships laden with brazil-wood, and sent two
+caravels north to explore the coast beyond Cape St. Roque, while he
+himself sailed south with the idea of founding a colony on the Plate.
+But after passing Santa Catharina he was unfortunate in losing his
+largest ship with most of his provisions, and deemed it safer to return
+toward the north. At São Vicente, now a little town near the great
+coffee port of Santos, he dropped anchor, and there, January, 1532,
+founded the first Portuguese colony in Brazil. Near this point lived the
+solitary Portuguese, John Ramalho, surrounded by his half-breed
+descendants, and he gave his countrymen a glad reception. He soon showed
+them the way up the mountains to the high plateau which begins only a
+few miles from the sea. Another settlement was founded on these fertile
+plains near the site of the present city of São Paulo.
+
+In the west of Brazil the settlements were established at a striking
+distance from the coast, but in São Paulo the colonists could more
+easily spread over the open plains of the interior than along the
+mountainous coast. On top of their plateau they were cut off from ready
+communication with the mother country; they struck out for themselves,
+and their development was something like that of the British in North
+America. They were the pioneers of Brazil, corresponding closely in
+character and habits, in the virtues of daring, hospitality, and
+self-confidence, and in the vices of cruelty, rudeness, and ignorance,
+with the pioneers of the Mississippi valley.
+
+The Paulistas were all profoundly influenced by their intimate
+association with the Indian tribes. In the early days intermarriages
+were frequent, but the continual re-enforcement of the European
+element, and the inferiority in capacity of reproduction which the
+Indian has shown in Brazil, make the traces of that intermixture hard to
+discover at the present time. The Paulistas and their descendants in the
+interior states are taller, slenderer, darker, and more active and
+graceful than the modern Portuguese. Their hands and feet are smaller,
+their movements more nervous, their manners more self-confident.
+
+The successful founding of a considerable colony in Brazil aroused
+interest at home, and many courtiers solicited the Crown for grants. It
+was decided to partition the whole coast into feudal fiefs, each
+proprietor undertaking the expenses of colonisation and being given
+virtually sovereign powers in return for a tax on the expected
+production. Each of these "captaincies" measured fifty leagues along the
+coast, and extended indefinitely into the interior. In 1534 twelve such
+fiefs were created, covering the whole coast from the mouth of the
+Amazon to the island of Santa Catharina--these being the points where
+the Tordesillas line met the seaboard.
+
+Six of these proprietors succeeded in establishing permanent colonies.
+Martim Affonso's settlement has already been described. In 1536 his
+brother, Pero Lopes, established Santo Amaro within a few miles of São
+Vicente. Naturally its history soon became confounded with that of the
+larger settlement. Duarte Coelho founded Pernambuco in 1535, and in it
+was soon absorbed Itamarica, the second of the two colonies founded by
+Pero Lopes in 1536. The other three permanent settlements were
+Victoria, the nucleus of the present state of Espirito Santo, Porto
+Seguro, and Ilheos. No one of them prospered, and their territories are
+still among the most backward parts of the Brazilian coast. The donatory
+of the territory which included the bay of Bahia, started a town, but it
+was destroyed by Indians. The other five captaincies were not taken hold
+of seriously by their proprietors. The four nuclei for the settlement of
+Brazil were São Paulo, Pernambuco, and the later colonies of Bahia and
+Rio de Janeiro.
+
+Martim Affonso recked little of his fief or its revenues and left his
+Paulistas to work out their own destiny. Pernambuco was on the track of
+every ship which came to South America, the neighbouring interior was
+level and easily accessible from the coast, the soil and climate were
+suitable for sugar, and from the beginning relations with the mother
+country were intimate and continuous. Its proprietor, Duarte Coelho,
+determined to devote himself to his colony, and he personally headed a
+numerous and carefully selected colonising expedition. He spent the rest
+of his life there, and died twenty years later, surrounded by a large
+and prosperous colony, which was already a self-supporting state with
+all the elements of permanence. A good business man and liberal for that
+age, he granted land on easy terms; its possession was secure;
+contributions were moderate; and he resolutely defended himself and his
+grantees from the exactions of the Crown.
+
+The Portuguese occupation of Brazil was induced solely by commercial
+considerations. Explorers and emigrants went out to make their fortunes,
+not to escape religious or political tyranny. When the first voyagers
+were disappointed in not finding gold mines, they turned their attention
+to brazil-wood. Soon the suitability of the territory for sugar was
+discovered. The European demand for this luxury was increasing, and the
+Portuguese had become familiar with its culture in Africa. Cane was
+taken from Madeira and the Cape Verdes to Brazil before 1525, and there
+is a record of exportation at least as early as 1526. Here was found the
+basis for the real colonisation. From the very start the industry
+prospered in Pernambuco, and Brazil became the main source of the
+world's supply.
+
+Near Pernambuco little trouble was experienced with the Indians. Many of
+the tribes were allies of the Portuguese, though the fierce Aymorés
+fought the settlers and once reduced the infant colony to the verge of
+destruction. Although the law of Portugal forbade the enslavement of
+Indians except as a punishment for crime, they were reduced to bondage
+on a large scale in Pernambuco, and the Paulistas never paid any
+attention to this prohibition.
+
+By the middle of the sixteenth century Brazil contained one rapidly
+expanding colony of sugar-planters, Pernambuco, which gave sure promise
+of wealth if not attacked from without,--a half dozen moribund
+settlements on the thousand miles of coast to the south, and an isolated
+but vigorous and self-sufficing group in São Paulo, whose inhabitants
+produced little for export, but who were reducing the aborigines to
+slavery in an expanding circle. In the last there was a considerable
+proportion of Indian blood and in the first a large number of negroes.
+The smaller captaincies were little more than resorts for pirates and
+contraband traders in brazil-wood. The settlers were powerless to
+prevent the French expeditions which yearly became more numerous.
+Serious apprehensions were felt that the French would occupy the coast
+and make Brazil a basis for attacks on Portugal's African and Indian
+empires.
+
+The best blood of the Portuguese nation was being drained away in
+exhausting wars and expeditions to India and Africa; absolute government
+was sapping civic vitality; the extravagances of Court and nobles were
+impoverishing the country. However, enough vitality remained, before the
+terrific destruction of Portuguese power and pride at Alcacer-Kibir in
+1580, to secure such a firm establishment of the Portuguese race on the
+whole coast of Brazil that it never has been dislodged, and only once
+seriously threatened. This result was largely due to the founding of a
+strong military and naval post at Bahia, around which grew up a
+prosperous colony, and under whose protection Pernambuco spread out over
+the north-east coast, São Paulo developed uninterruptedly, and Rio Bay
+was saved from the French.
+
+The first proprietary settlement in Bahia Bay had been destroyed by the
+Indians, but this magnificent and central harbour was manifestly the
+most convenient point whence to send assistance to the other
+settlements and guard the whole coast. In 1549 the king determined to
+build a fortress and city there. Thomas de Souza, the illegitimate scion
+of a great house, was chosen the first governor-general. He sailed in
+April, 1549, with six vessels, and accompanied by three hundred and
+twenty officials and a number of colonists. The new capital commanded
+the entrance to a magnificent inland sea which offered splendid
+facilities for the establishment of a flourishing state. Bahia Bay is
+nearly a hundred miles in circumference; its shores are fertile and
+penetrated by rivers; each plantation has its own wharves. Within a few
+months a town of a hundred houses had been built, surrounded by a wall
+and defended by batteries; a cathedral, a custom house, a Jesuit
+college, and a governor's residence were under way.
+
+Thomas de Souza was instructed to strike at the root of the difficulties
+that were supposed to have prevented the success of the proprietary
+captaincies. He was the direct representative of the king and had
+supreme supervisory power. Other officers, however, were associated with
+him who were independently responsible in judicial, financial, and naval
+matters. He was closely bound by instructions covering every detail that
+could be foreseen, and these instructions clearly show the centralising
+and jealous spirit of Portuguese institutions and ideas.
+
+Few Portuguese of that age were capable of rising to an appreciation of
+the economical advantages of freedom. The liberal concessions to the
+original proprietors--free trade with the mother country, the right of
+communication with foreign countries, and judicial and administrative
+independence--availed nothing. Neither colonists, proprietors, nor the
+central government could understand or apply them. Brazil was subjected
+to a systematic and continually more rigorous exploitation by the home
+government, and to the irresponsible and uncontrolled military despotism
+of little satraps.
+
+  [Illustration: BAHIA.]
+
+In Bahia, as in Pernambuco, the sugar industry prospered from the
+beginning. Bahia is close to Africa and navigation across is safe and
+easy. The importation of blacks began immediately, and the port
+continued to be the greatest _entrepôt_ and distributing point for the
+trade during three centuries. Bahia's population is more largely black
+than that of any other city in Brazil, and the pure African type is
+frequently seen on its streets. The local cuisine includes many dishes
+of African origin, and the local dialect many African words. Certain
+African dialects are spoken to this day, and a few Mohammedan negroes
+there still perform the rites of the Koran in the most absolute secrecy.
+
+The municipal government of the town, though under the overshadowing
+power of the governor, showed some vitality and independence. The
+fertile island of Itaparica, just opposite the city, had been granted to
+the mother of a minister. Though the donation was repeatedly confirmed
+by the king himself, she and her heirs were never able to put their
+agents in possession. The municipal council successfully insisted that
+the original royal instructions to the governor required all grantees to
+occupy their estates in person.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE JESUITS
+
+
+One of John III.'s strongest reasons for undertaking a more extensive
+colonisation of Brazil was the pious conviction that it was his
+Christian duty to promote the dissemination of the true religion in
+dominions which he owed to the gift of the Holy Father. He was the first
+and most steadfast friend of the Jesuits, then just organised and San
+Francisco Xavier, the Apostle of the East Indies, was sent out to one
+hemisphere, while the conversion of the Brazilian aborigines was
+determined upon in the other. With Thomas de Souza sailed an able
+Jesuit, Manuel Nobrega, accompanied by several other Fathers. They began
+a carefully planned campaign to convert the Indians and, incidentally,
+to exploit them in the interests of the Order.
+
+It is impossible not to admire the courage, shrewdness, and devotion of
+the Jesuits. They went out alone among the savage tribes, living with
+them, learning their languages, preaching to them, captivating their
+imaginations by the pomp of religious paraphernalia and processions,
+baptising them, and exhorting them to abandon cannibalism and polygamy.
+Tireless and fearless, they plunged into an interior hitherto
+unpenetrated by white men. The reports they made to their superiors
+frequently afford the best information that is yet extant as to the
+customs of the Indians and the resources of the regions they explored.
+
+The Indians were easily induced to conform to the externals of the
+Christian cult. Wherever the Jesuits penetrated, the aborigines soon
+adopted Christianity, but to hold the Indians to Christianity the
+Fathers were obliged to fix them to the soil. As soon as a tribe was
+converted, a rude church building was erected, and a Jesuit installed,
+who remained to teach agriculture and the arts as well as ritual and
+morals. His moral and intellectual superiority made him perforce an
+absolute ruler in miniature. Thus that strange theocracy came into
+being, which, starting on the Brazilian coast, spread over most of
+central South America. In the early part of the seventeenth century the
+theocratic seemed likely to become the dominant form of government south
+of the Amazon and east of the Andes.
+
+The Jesuit wanted the Indian to himself, and fought against the
+interference or enslavement by the lay Portuguese. The colonists wanted
+the Indians to work on their plantations, to incorporate them as slaves,
+or in some analogous capacity, with the white man's industrial and civil
+organisation. The home government stood by the Jesuits, but the
+colonists constantly evaded restrictions and steadily fought the
+priests. The encouragement of the negro slave trade was an attempt at a
+compromise--intended to induce the colonists to leave the Indians alone
+by furnishing another supply of labour.
+
+Primarily, at least, the Jesuit purpose was altruistic, though the
+material advantages and the fascination of exercising authority were
+soon potent motives. The Jesuits gave the South American Indian the
+greatest measure of peace and justice he ever enjoyed, but they reduced
+him to blind obedience and made him a tenant and a servant. Though
+virtually a slave, he was, however, little exposed to infection from the
+vices and diseases of civilisation; he was not put at tasks too hard for
+him; and under Jesuit rule he prospered. On the other hand, if this
+system had prevailed there would have been little white immigration, the
+Indian race would have remained in possession of the country, and real
+civilisation would never have gained a foothold.
+
+Immediately after the founding of Bahia, Nobrega sent members of the
+Order to the other colonies. He himself visited Pernambuco, where the
+stout old proprietor met him with effective opposition. Duarte did not
+welcome a clergy responsible solely to a foreign corporation, and over
+which he could have no control. In Bahia and the south the Jesuits,
+however, prospered amazingly. In São Paulo they laboured hard, spread
+widely, converted a large number of Indians, and perfected their system,
+but it was there they came most sharply in conflict with the spirit of
+individualism, and there they suffered their first and most crushing
+overthrow.
+
+  [Illustration: PADRE JOSE DE ANCHIETA.
+  [From an old wood-cut.]]
+
+Thomas de Souza laboured diligently during the four years of his
+administration, fortifying posts, driving away contraband traders,
+dismissing incompetent officials, and even building jails and
+straightening streets where the local authorities had neglected them. He
+visited all the captaincies south of Bahia and entered Rio Bay, then the
+principal rendezvous for the French privateers and traders. He
+appreciated its strategic and commercial importance, and was only
+prevented by lack of means from establishing a strong post there. In São
+Paulo he prohibited the flourishing trade which had grown with the
+Spaniards in Paraguay and Buenos Aires. Duarte da Costa, his successor,
+was accompanied by a large re-enforcement of Jesuits. Among them was
+Anchieta, one of the most notable men in the history of the Order, whose
+genius, devotion, and pertinacious courage laid the foundations of
+Jesuit power so deeply in South America that its effects remain to this
+day. This remarkable man was born in Teneriffe, the son of a banished
+nobleman, who had married a native of the island. Educated at home, from
+his infancy he showed marvellous talents. At fourteen, his father, not
+daring to risk his son's life in Spain, sent him to the Portuguese
+University at Coimbra. His career was so brilliant, the reputation he
+acquired for profound and ready intelligence, his eloquence, and his
+pure and elevated ideals so remarkable, that he attracted the attention
+of Simon Rodrigues, John III.'s great Jesuit minister, who, like all the
+leaders of the Order, was on the watch for talented young men. The
+ardent youth was easily convinced that no career was so glorious as
+that of a missionary, and when only twenty years old he solicited and
+obtained permission to go to Brazil. Nobrega, the Provincial, selected
+him to go to São Paulo and establish a school to train neophytes and
+proselytes into evangelists. His own letter to Nobrega best tells what a
+life he found and what sort of man he was:
+
+    "Here we are, sometimes more than twenty of us together in a little
+    hut of mud and wicker, roofed with straw, fourteen paces long and
+    ten wide. This is at once the school, the infirmary, dormitory,
+    refectory, kitchen, and store-room. Yet we covet not the more
+    spacious dwellings which our brethren have in other parts. Our Lord
+    Jesus Christ was in a far straiter place when it was His pleasure
+    to be born among beasts in a manger, and in a still straiter when
+    He deigned to die upon the cross."
+
+They herded together to keep warm, for in winter it is cold on the São
+Paulo plateau. They had no food except the mandioc flour, fish, and game
+which the Indians gave them. To the little college came Creoles and
+half-breeds and learned Latin, Portuguese, Spanish, and Tupi. Anchieta
+was indefatigable. Within a year he had acquired a complete mastery of
+the Indian tongue, and had devised a grammar for it. He wrote his own
+text-books, and employed his great poetical talents in composing hymns
+and verses to be chanted to the pupils, recounting the stories of Holy
+Scripture. He visited the most savage tribes in person, and acquired a
+marvellous moral supremacy over them. When the Tamoyos attacked the
+Portuguese, and the destruction of all the southern settlements seemed
+inevitable, he fearlessly went to the Indian camps and persuaded the
+chiefs to consent to a truce while he remained among them three years as
+a hostage to guarantee its faithful performance by his countrymen. The
+savages regarded him as more than human, and tradition tells of the
+miracles he performed. It is related that during these three years of
+solitary captivity he composed, without the aid of pen or paper, his
+Latin "Hymn to the Virgin," celebrated as one of the masterpieces of
+ecclesiastical poetry.
+
+He and his companions did not disdain to labour with their hands. They
+used the spade and trowel, made their own shoes, taught the Indians
+agriculture, introduced new plants from Europe, practised medicine, and
+studied the botany, topography, and geology of the country. The villages
+of converted Indians under their government and protection rapidly
+spread over the São Paulo plains, and they were refuges for Indians
+flying from slavery on the plantations. The colonists pursued their
+fugitive slaves, and soon were at open war with the Jesuits. In the
+course of this conflict the original half-breed settlement on the
+plateau was destroyed and the lay Portuguese came near being wiped out.
+Peace was temporarily patched up, but the Paulistas soon turned the
+tables and compelled the Jesuits to devote themselves to their
+educational institutions in the towns, or to withdraw farther and
+farther into the wilderness.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+FRENCH OCCUPATION OF RIO
+
+
+During Duarte's administration troubles with the Indians broke out along
+the whole coast. In Bahia itself the new governor had disobeyed the
+orders of the home government to protect the Indians. He joined with the
+colonists in exploiting them. A formidable Indian conspiracy was formed
+and the settlements on both sides of the city were simultaneously
+attacked. Many farms and villages were sacked, but soon the Indians were
+finally and crushingly defeated. The coast towns of São Paulo were
+menaced by a great confederation of tribes who used war canoes and had
+learned to overcome their terror of firearms. At Espirito Santo the
+Indian slaves rose _en masse_, killed most of the Portuguese, and
+destroyed the sugar plantations.
+
+A more serious danger was the settlement of the French at Rio de
+Janeiro. They had formed friendly relations with the Indians, and the
+name of Frenchman was sufficient to insure good treatment from most of
+the tribes, while that of Portuguese was a signal for its bearer to be
+killed and devoured. This was the epoch of the religious wars in
+France, and the traders to Brazil came mostly from Huguenot ports.
+Admiral Coligny conceived the idea of establishing a Huguenot settlement
+in South America, and Rio was chosen as the most available site. In 1555
+a considerable expedition was sent under the command of Nicolas
+Villegagnon, a celebrated adventurer, who had distinguished himself in
+escorting Mary Queen of Scots from France to Scotland. He fortified the
+island in Rio harbour that still bears his name--a barren rock which
+commanded the entrance and was safe from attacks by land. The French
+kept on good terms with the neighbouring Indians, and remained
+unmolested by the Portuguese for four years. But Villegagnon was not
+faithful to his employers, though most of his party were Protestants,
+and Huguenot leaders had furnished the money for the expedition. He
+quarrelled with the Huguenots and finally gave up the command and
+returned to France in the Guise interest. Coligny's project of
+establishing a new and Protestant France in South America lost its very
+good chance of success. It is interesting to conjecture what would have
+been the history of Brazil if Villegagnon had stuck to the Huguenot
+side. In all probability re-enforcements would have been sent, and St.
+Bartholomew's Day--fourteen years later--might have been followed by a
+great emigration like that which went to New England during the Laud
+persecution. Rio and perhaps the whole of South Brazil would have become
+a French possession or a French-speaking state.
+
+Not until 1558 was a strong and able Portuguese governor selected, and
+vigorous measures taken to expel the French. The new governor was Mem da
+Sa, a nobleman of the highest birth, a soldier, a scholar, and an
+experienced administrator. His name will always be associated with the
+establishment of the Portuguese power in Brazil on a footing firm and
+broad enough to enable it to withstand the Dutch attacks and the lean
+years of Spanish domination.
+
+Upon his arrival he took measures to quiet the Indian slavery question
+by reducing the import duties on black slaves and by aiding each planter
+to acquire as many negroes as he needed to work his plantation. When his
+ships and armament arrived he proceeded to the south. He found that the
+French, though weak in numbers, could count on Indian allies. As he
+himself writes to the Court: "The French do not treat the natives as we
+do. They are very liberal to them, observing strict justice, so that the
+commander is feared by his countrymen and beloved by the Indians.
+Measures have been taken to instruct the latter in the use of arms, and
+as the aborigines are very numerous the French may soon make themselves
+very strong." He harassed the French and destroyed their fortifications
+but could not completely dislodge them, and returned to Bahia with his
+work only half accomplished. Porto Seguro and Ilheos were attacked by
+the ferocious Aymorés and with difficulty saved from total destruction.
+In the South another great Tamoyo confederation had been formed with
+the deliberate purpose of rooting the Paulistas out of the country and
+putting a stop once for all to their slave-hunting. When all seemed
+lost, Anchieta intervened, and succeeded in fixing up a peace. The
+Tamoyos were cajoled into becoming allies of the Portuguese in a final
+attempt to expel the French from Rio. Mem da Sa's nephew appeared with a
+considerable fleet, and after a desultory campaign of a year the French
+were obliged to retire. France did nothing to prevent or recover this
+inestimable loss, and Mem da Sa immediately laid out and fortified a
+city on a site which to-day is the business centre of the capital of
+Brazil. From the time of its founding Rio was the most important place
+in southern Brazil and the key to the whole region, but its great
+prosperity dates from a hundred and fifty years later, when gold was
+discovered in Minas Geraes.
+
+Mem da Sa continued to rule Brazil until his death in 1572. The work of
+centralisation went on apace, fiscal and administrative officers were
+multiplied, and taxes and restrictions imposed at will. The Lisbon
+government laid the foundations of that restrictive system which finally
+confined Brazil to communication with the mother country. Nevertheless
+most of the settlements grew rapidly. Sugar-planting, cattle-raising,
+and general agriculture flourished. The Indians were expelled or reduced
+to impotence within striking distance of the centres of population.
+
+  [Illustration: PLANTERS GOING TO CHURCH.
+  [From an old print.]]
+
+At Mem da Sa's death the civilised population numbered about sixty
+thousand, of whom twenty thousand were white. The provinces of
+Pernambuco and Bahia had each twenty-five thousand inhabitants. Rio had
+some two thousand and São Paulo perhaps five, the remainder being
+divided between the smaller settlements--Parahyba, Rio Real, Ilheos,
+Porto Seguro, and Espirito Santo. Except in São Paulo most of the
+inhabitants were engaged in sugar-raising. The hundred and twenty
+plantations produced annually forty-five thousand tons of sugar, while
+Portuguese goods to the value of a million dollars a year were imported.
+
+A sugar _fazenda_, or plantation, constituted a little independent
+village, where the owner lived surrounded by his slaves in their cabins,
+his shops and stables, mills and mandioc fields. The grantees had paid
+no purchase price for the land, and held it on condition of paying a
+tenth of the product and a tenth of that tenth, a tax which survives to
+the present time, only it is now called an export duty of eleven per
+cent. Land was not otherwise taxed, and to this day direct taxes on farm
+property are almost unknown, though imposts of every other conceivable
+kind have been multiplied. The tracts granted were large; the owner
+could hold them unused without expense; the most powerful incentive to
+sale and division of land did not, therefore, exist. Brazil became and
+remains a country of large rural proprietorship. Landowners are
+reluctant to sell or divide their estates, taxes on transfers are
+excessive, and land is not freely bought and sold. Consequently the
+rural population is widely scattered, grants extend far beyond the
+limits of actual settlement, there are few small farmers and very
+little careful culture. Brazil is a country of staple crops and
+non-diversified agriculture. A fall in sugar or coffee produces a
+disproportionate disturbance in financial conditions, and land not
+suitable to the staple crop of a region is left to lie idle. Immigration
+has been retarded because land has been hard to obtain except by special
+government concession, and because private owners do not care to sell
+their land to settlers. Except in restricted cases, the rural
+immigration--negro and South European--has been for the purpose of
+furnishing labour for the large proprietors, and not to form a
+landowning and permanently established population.
+
+The Jesuit travellers describe the Brazilian people in 1584 as
+pleasure-loving and extravagant. In the sugar provinces fortunes were
+very unequal. In Pernambuco alone more than a hundred planters had
+incomes of ten thousand dollars a year. Their capital, Olinda--now the
+northern suburb of the city of Pernambuco--was the largest town in
+Brazil and the one where there was most luxurious living and the most
+polite society. In general the people were spendthrifts, and
+notwithstanding large incomes were heavily in debt. Great sums were
+spent on fêtes, religious processions, fairs, and dinners. The simple
+Jesuit Fathers were shocked to see such velvets and silks, such
+luxurious beds of crimson damask, such extravagance in the trappings of
+the saddle-horses. Carriages were unknown, and instead litters and sedan
+chairs were used, and these remained in common use in Bahia until very
+recent times.
+
+  [Illustration: A CADEIRA.]
+
+From Pernambuco and Bahia communication with the mother country was
+constant and easy. São Paulo, however, differed radically from the sugar
+districts. Wheat, barley, and European fruits grew on the São Paulo
+plateau, but there was little export to Portugal, and imported clothes
+were scarce and dear. The Paulistas were constantly on horseback and
+wore the old Portuguese costume of cloak and close-fitting doublet long
+after it had been disused at home.
+
+Bahia and Pernambuco were fairly well built towns, though unfortunately
+in the Portuguese style of architecture, whose solid walls, few
+windows, and contiguous houses make it ill adapted to a tropical
+climate. In spite of its unsuitability it was universally adopted, and
+even yet largely prevails in Brazil.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+EXPANSION
+
+
+In 1581 Philip II. of Spain succeeded in establishing himself on the
+throne of Portugal as the successor of the rash Sebastian, dead fighting
+the Moors at Alcacer-Kebir. The decadent and demoralised Portuguese
+nation made hardly the semblance of a struggle for its independence. The
+very ease with which Philip obtained the kingdom left him no pretext for
+depriving it of administrative independence. Native Portuguese continued
+to hold office in the colonies and to enjoy a monopoly of Brazilian
+commerce. Internally, therefore, the change did not much affect Brazil.
+But in foreign relations the effect was profound. Brazil became a part
+of a well-nigh universal monarchy, and one of the battle-fields of the
+struggle which had begun between Spain and the Protestant powers.
+
+All South America was now under the same monarch; boundary questions
+between Portuguese and Spanish America apparently ceased to have any
+importance. The enormous extension of Brazil toward the interior over
+territory formerly conceded to be Spanish occurred during the sixty
+years of Spanish domination. The Spanish monarch did not have time to
+spend on Brazilian matters, and the colonists were less interfered with
+from Lisbon and Madrid than might have been expected. Portuguese
+historians have much exaggerated the evil effects of the English, Dutch,
+and French half filibustering, half-trading descents on the coast, which
+occurred during this period. The pillage of a few towns was more than
+compensated by the commerce that sprang up; much Brazilian sugar escaped
+paying the heavy export duties; settlement extended rapidly over new
+territory, and the importation of negroes continued.
+
+As early as 1575 a settlement had been made in Sergipe, but the great
+expansion over northern Brazil began under the rule of Philip's first
+governor-general. In 1583 he sent troops to take possession of the
+important port of Parahyba, where some French traders had obtained a
+foothold that prevented the inhabitants of Pernambuco from spreading
+north beyond Itamarica. The Spanish mercenaries were at first
+successful, but they could not stifle the serious Indian war which broke
+out. The Pernambucanos had better success, because they knew how to take
+advantage of the dissensions among the savages. Fortifying a town at
+Parahyba, they permanently established their sugar plantations in its
+neighbourhood, and then these indefatigable and land-hungry Creoles
+pushed on farther to the north. In 1597 Jeronymo de Albuquerque, the
+greatest of Brazilian colonial generals, attacked and defeated the
+powerful Pitagoares Indians, and established the colony of Natal, the
+nucleus of the present state of Rio Grande do Norte. This brought the
+Pernambucanos to Cape St. Roque. To the south they had spread as far as
+the San Francisco River, there meeting the Bahianos who, by 1589, had
+taken possession of the present state of Sergipe.
+
+North of St. Roque the Portuguese so far had done nothing except make
+some desultory voyages of observation, though they claimed the coast to
+and beyond the mouth of the Amazon. The donatories of the captaincies in
+that region had not succeeded in establishing any settlements. In 1541,
+Orellana, one of those recklessly heroic Spaniards who had helped
+Pizarro conquer the empire of the Incas, was a member of an expedition
+which crossed the Andes near Quito and descended into the forested
+plains, looking for another Peru--the fabled El Dorado. They finally
+found themselves on a great river flowing to the east, and, since their
+provisions were exhausted, boats were built and Orellana was sent on
+ahead to try to find supplies. He could not find enough to feed the main
+body and decided to float on down the river, well knowing it must
+finally bring him to the ocean. After a voyage of more than three
+thousand miles he came to the great estuary of the Amazon and thence
+made his way to Spain. No important results followed this wonderful
+discovery. Orellana himself shortly returned to the mouth of the river,
+but he could not find his way up the labyrinth of waters.
+
+To reach the plains from the Pacific or Caribbean settlements is nearly
+impracticable, and the Amazon valley remained unsettled. Meanwhile the
+seed planted by old Duarte Coelho germinated and grew into a vigorous
+tree whose branches were spreading out over all North Brazil. The
+seventeenth century had hardly begun when the hardy Pernambucanos
+invaded the country lying north and west of St. Roque, hunting Indian
+slaves, and good places for cattle- and sugar-raising. In 1603 Pero
+Coelho, an adventurous Brazilian then living at Parahyba, made a
+settlement far to the north-west of Natal, on the coast of Ceará, and
+penetrated eight hundred miles from Pernambuco. Unreasonable aggressions
+against the Indians brought on temporary reverses, but the Pernambucanos
+persevered, and the Jesuits also established missions. By 1610 the
+region was pretty well under white control, the Indians being
+incorporated to a greater extent than was usual in the settlements
+farther south.
+
+The next forward movement was precipitated by a formidable French
+attempt to colonise Maranhão. Daniel de la Rivardière, a Huguenot
+nobleman, conceived the idea of carrying out on the north coast
+Coligny's plan of a French Protestant colony. In 1612 he landed on the
+island of Maranhão with a large and well-appointed expedition.
+
+Jeronymo de Albuquerque fortunately happened to be on the north coast
+when news came of this alarming intrusion. Sending his ships on to
+ascertain the truth of the report, he hastened overland to Pernambuco to
+get a force together. With three hundred whites and two hundred Indians
+he started to expel the French. An assault on a fort defended with
+artillery was out of the question, so in his turn he fortified himself,
+cut off the French from access to the sea, and ambushed their foraging
+expeditions. In such a game, his men, inured to the climate, had an
+immense advantage. Forced to assault Albuquerque's position, the French
+were repulsed. They begged for a truce, and went home at the end of a
+year. Albuquerque took possession of the French town, and in 1616
+secured all the rest of the northern coast to Portugal by founding Pará,
+just to the south of the mouth of the Amazon. Several settlements were
+made along the coast east of Pará and also west in the estuary itself.
+The Indians proved docile and were easily incorporated to so great an
+extent that the Indian element is more predominant in Pará than in any
+other state on the Brazilian littoral.
+
+On the island and around the bay of Maranhão a prosperous colony grew
+up. Certain enterprising business men made a contract with the
+government and started a regular propaganda for immigrants, and induced
+a large number to come from the Azores. The state thus founded was one
+of the most prosperous in Brazil, and was especially celebrated for the
+politeness and cultivation of its inhabitants. Some of the greatest
+names in Portuguese literature are those of Maranhenses. It is commonly
+said that the best Portuguese is spoken in Maranhão, and not in Lisbon,
+Rio, or Porto--just as the English of Dublin, Aberdeen, or Boston is
+considered better than that of London or New York, and the Spanish of
+Lima and Bogotá better than that of Madrid, Barcelona, or Buenos Aires.
+
+Meanwhile population and wealth had been increasing satisfactorily in
+the older provinces south of Cape St. Roque. By 1626 Pernambuco and
+Bahia had grown to be towns of something like ten thousand inhabitants,
+and the people of the respective provinces numbered about a hundred
+thousand. Ilheos, Porto Seguro, and Espirito Santo had made no progress,
+but Rio had become a city of six thousand, while the shores of her bay
+and the adjacent coast were now fairly settled. Rio and Santos really
+performed the function of ports for the foreign commerce of Paraguay and
+the Argentine because the Spanish laws did not permit these colonies to
+have ports of their own. Campos was now settled and its sugar industry
+was prospering. On the São Paulo plains the Paulistas had spread to the
+north-east to the headwaters of the Parahyba and borders of the present
+state of Rio, and north-west down the navigable Tieté, along which they
+found an easy track for their expeditions in search of slaves. The
+Jesuits had long since been unable to control or check the Paulistas,
+and had abandoned the missions near the coast. In the remote interior,
+along the Paraná and its great tributaries, the defeated priests thought
+that they would be safe, and about the end of the sixteenth century they
+entered that region by way of Paraguay. The Paulistas recked little of
+the government, especially now that the king was Spanish, and, advancing
+the claim that Spanish Jesuits had established missions on Portuguese
+territory, they proceeded to wipe out the new missions.
+
+It seems incredible that their little bands could have penetrated such
+distances and accomplished such results, but it is on record that they
+tracked nearly to the Andes, and practically exterminated, the
+aboriginal population of half Brazil. The Jesuits tell us that between
+1614 and 1639 four hundred Paulistas with two thousand Indian allies
+captured and killed three hundred thousand natives. In 1632 they utterly
+destroyed the great Jesuit settlements on the Upper Paraná, though this
+involved an expedition of fifteen hundred miles, much of which is to
+this day rarely penetrable. One of their expeditions was like an
+ambulating village--women, children, and domestic animals accompanying
+it. They sometimes were obliged to stop, sow a crop, and wait for it to
+mature before they could proceed. For the time being, these predatory
+Paulistas almost reverted to the nomadic stage.
+
+Naturally, no complete record of these expeditions survives. Their
+members were not literate men, and it is only when they fought the
+Jesuits, or when they discovered minerals, that a record of their routes
+has been preserved. We know that before 1632 they had traversed all of
+southern Brazil, and Paraguay, and even eastern Argentina and Uruguay.
+Incursions to the north and west followed shortly. There is an authentic
+record of an expedition reaching Goyaz as early as 1647, and it is
+probable that by that time they had penetrated the central plateau which
+stretches across to the Andes, had seen the headwaters of the southern
+tributaries of the Amazon, and had followed the eastern mountain chain
+almost to the northern ocean. The Paulistas secured to their country and
+their race more than a million square miles of fertile and salubrious
+territory.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE DUTCH CONQUEST
+
+
+By the end of the sixteenth century Holland was practically independent,
+and the "Beggars of the Sea" were carrying her arms and trade all over
+the world. Numerous private companies of Dutch merchants made war
+against Spain on their own account, and great fortunes were made in the
+capture of Spanish fleets and in trade with Spanish and Portuguese
+colonies. The Dutch East India Company within a few years possessed
+itself of the better part of the Portuguese empire in the Indian Ocean,
+and the West India Company was organised to do the same in South
+America. Incorporated in 1621, it included various smaller companies
+already engaged in trade and privateering, and was an immense
+corporation which finally owned more than eight hundred ships, and sent
+to Brazil alone more than seventy thousand troops. Although protected,
+subsidised, and conceded a monopoly by the Dutch government, it always
+remained essentially a company for private profit.
+
+The Company's primary object was to capture the Spanish treasure
+fleets; its secondary object was to conquer the possessions of Spain and
+Portugal in South America. Brazil furnished the best base for the
+operations that were intended to make the South Atlantic a Dutch lake;
+Bahia and Pernambuco were near Europe, had good harbours, lay on the
+direct route to the Plate and the Pacific, and from them Africa could be
+conveniently attacked. The sugar trade was a large thing in itself and
+the daring Dutch traders believed that the Portuguese colonists might
+welcome a deliverance from Spanish domination. Spain's power was a
+rotten shell, and impulses lying deep in the national spirit pushed the
+Dutch on to aggression. The peoples of Western Europe had finally felt
+all the stimulating influences of the Renaissance, of the Lutheran and
+Jesuit Reformations, and of the Era of Discovery. It was the epoch of
+the Thirty Years' War, of the League of Avignon, and of that confused
+fighting caused by the more vigorous peoples grasping for a share of the
+spoils of the New World.
+
+In 1623 news came of the equipping by the West India Company of an
+expedition whose destination was manifestly to be Bahia. The Spanish
+government took no measures for defence. The local authorities
+half-heartedly began to fortify the city, but there were no troops
+except militia to man the works, and when the Dutch fleet hove in sight
+a panic ensued. The governor was captured, but many of the inhabitants
+fled into the back country, and a guerrilla warfare was kept up which
+shut up the Dutch inside the fortifications. They made use of their
+time in improving the defences, and soon made Bahia the best fortress in
+South America.
+
+The news of the capture created consternation in Lisbon. Great exertions
+were made by the Portuguese merchants, as well as by the Spanish
+government, and the most formidable armament which up to that time had
+crossed the equator was prepared. It was composed of fifty-two ships and
+of twelve thousand men--the latter being mercenaries gathered from every
+country in Europe. The Dutch commander had not yet been re-enforced and
+made little resistance when such an overwhelming force arrived in Bahia
+harbour. He surrendered with the honours of war and the Spanish fleet
+retired. In a few weeks another Dutch fleet appeared, bringing
+provisions and re-enforcements. It was too late, however, and the Dutch
+did not venture to attack an enemy whom they themselves had furnished
+with such excellent re-enforcements. The Dutch, driven from the land,
+remained undisputed masters of the sea, and the Spanish and Portuguese
+could no longer trade except in convoys. In 1627 the celebrated Piet
+Heyn--the Dutch Sir Francis Drake--sailed boldly into Bahia harbour, and
+despising the fire of the forty guns of the forts, captured twenty-six
+ships within pistol-shot of the shore cannon. He ran his own ship right
+in between the two best Portuguese men-of-war, the forts did not dare
+fire for fear of wounding their own men, the Portuguese flagship was
+sunk, and the rest surrendered in terror. Among the spoils were three
+thousand hogsheads of sugar, which Piet Heyn sent home at his leisure,
+while he ravaged the shores of the bay. The following year he fell in
+with the Mexican treasure fleet and captured it bodily. This was the
+greatest capture ever made at sea. The West India Company declared a
+dividend of fifty per cent. after paying the expenses of the
+unsuccessful Bahia expedition, and resumed its plans of conquest with
+more vigour than ever.
+
+  [Illustration: OLD FORT AT BAHIA.]
+
+After careful consideration Pernambuco was selected as a more vulnerable
+point of attack than Bahia. The fortifications were feeble, and there
+were numerous Jewish merchants in the city whose friendship could be
+counted on. Once more the Spanish government did nothing to avert the
+threatened blow, and in February, 1630, a Dutch fleet of fifty sail with
+seven thousand men arrived in front of Pernambuco. Three thousand men
+were landed to the north of the town and easily defeated the militia
+which tried to prevent their taking the place from the rear. The
+inhabitants fled to the interior, and after a creditable resistance the
+forts fell. The property captured was estimated at near ten million
+dollars. In the meantime, Albuquerque, the Brazilian commander, had
+retired to a defensible ranch commanding the road between Recife and
+Olinda, and whence communication could be kept up with the sea by way of
+Cape St. Augustine. This ranch is celebrated in Brazilian tradition as
+the "Arraial de Bom Jesus." The Brazilians rallied and from this
+vantage-ground began to harass the Dutch. The promises of commercial,
+religious, and political tolerance had produced little effect on the
+more ardent spirits. The Indians remained faithful to the Portuguese,
+and with the negroes did good service in the guerrilla warfare. For the
+first two years the Dutch could accomplish little except to improve the
+fortifications around the town, and the Brazilians acquired a confidence
+in their own ability to make head against regular troops which later
+stood them in good stead.
+
+In 1631 a fleet of twenty ships appeared from Spain, but the Dutch
+Admiral sailed boldly out and gave them battle. The net results to the
+Spaniards were the landing of only a thousand men, who, after some
+difficulty, joined the militia at Bom Jesus. But the seeds of discontent
+were germinating among the Brazilians. On closer contact the heretics
+proved to be human. The planters wanted peace and an opportunity to sell
+their sugar. The Indians, negroes, and other adventurous spirits
+composing the guerrilla bands robbed both friend and foe. The soldiers
+were tired of serving without pay. A half-breed named Calabar, a man of
+remarkable bravery, cunning, and skill in woodcraft, deserted to the
+Dutch and gave them valuable assistance. Re-enforcements came from
+Holland, and under Calabar's guidance the Dutch learned the value of
+ambuscading and made sudden expeditions which took the important
+settlements by surprise.
+
+In 1633 two special representatives of the Company came with
+instructions to prosecute the war vigorously and to endeavour to
+conciliate the Brazilians. The latters' resistance weakened; many of
+Albuquerque's volunteers deserted; the Dutch expeditions up and down the
+coast were successful. The island of Itamarica, Rio Grande do Norte,
+Parahyba, and the settlements in Alagoas were successively reduced.
+Resistance was soon confined to the country just back of Pernambuco
+itself, and in 1635 the last posts which held out--Bom Jesus and St.
+Augustine--surrendered. The whole coast from the San Francisco River
+north to Cape St. Roque was in the hands of the Dutch. There was nothing
+for it but submission or emigration. Many laid down their arms, but
+Albuquerque and his faithful lieutenants, the negro Dias and the Indian
+Camarrão, reluctantly took their way toward Bahia, the only place of
+refuge. The Brazilian historians claim that ten thousand Pernambucanos,
+men, women, and children, accompanied Albuquerque, preferring to leave
+their homes, property, and friends rather than accept the foreign and
+heretic yoke. A sweet bit of revenge awaited them on their journey.
+Encountering and overpowering a small Dutch garrison at Porto Calvo,
+they took its members prisoners, and among them found the traitor,
+Calabar. Him they hanged, while the Dutchmen were let go unharmed.
+
+When Albuquerque reached the San Francisco he was replaced by a
+Spaniard, Rojas, who had brought re-enforcements of seventeen hundred
+Spanish troops. The new commander gave battle to the Hollanders, but in
+the first action was utterly defeated and lost his own life. For the
+next two years Pernambuco was ravaged by the most frightful burnings and
+massacres. The Spanish mercenaries and the bands of negroes and Indians
+scoured the interior, and the Dutch retaliated with the same methods.
+The prosperous colony was fast being depopulated and its industries
+ruined. It became manifest that a policy at once vigorous and
+conciliatory was necessary, and the Company determined to send out a
+governor-general with vice-regal powers.
+
+The merchants of the Directory chose Count John Maurice, of
+Nassau-Siegen, a scion of the reigning house, and a descendant of
+William the Silent. A more fortunate selection could not have been made.
+Though only thirty-two years old, Count Maurice had already proved
+himself a brave and skilful soldier; he was a man of culture, a thorough
+son of the Renaissance, a lover of the arts, and, like most of his
+house, religiously tolerant and liberal to an extent extraordinary for
+that bitter age. He was one of those few spirits, in advance of their
+time, to whom Catholic and Protestant, Jew and Gentile were the same--to
+whose instincts religious and commercial intolerance was repugnant.
+
+He arrived in 1637, and his keen eye at once saw that the two obstacles
+to pacification were the military raids which the new Spanish commander,
+Bagnuoli, was directing from his position near the San Francisco; and
+the fear of the Pernambuco sugar planters that Dutch dominion meant
+their forcible conversion to Calvinism. The Dutch troops were now well
+equipped and seasoned for warfare in the tropical woods, and their
+officers had learned how to exercise their trade under these difficult
+circumstances with all the coolness, shrewdness, and steadiness of their
+race. Commanded by Maurice they easily inflicted a crushing defeat upon
+the motley crew Bagnuoli had been able to gather. The whole country
+north of the San Francisco fell into Maurice's hands, and he crossed
+that river and destroyed the Brazilian base of supplies in Sergipe. The
+next year he was ordered by the Directory to attack Bahia with
+insufficient forces, and was compelled to retire after a forty-days
+siege. Two years later, however, his fleet defeated and nearly destroyed
+the largest naval force Spain had sent out since the Invincible Armada.
+Of the six thousand soldiers on board who had been expected to drive him
+from Brazil, only one thousand were landed, away north of Cape St.
+Roque, whence they barely managed to reach Bahia after a march of over a
+thousand miles through the wilderness, suffering the most frightful
+hardships. Maurice followed up this victory by occupying Sergipe (1640)
+and Maranhão (1641). Ceará had fallen into his hands in 1637. The whole
+of Brazil from the 3rd to the 12th degree of latitude, a solid body of
+territory containing more than two-thirds of the population and
+developed resources, was apparently irretrievably lost to the
+Portuguese. They only retained Bahia and the isolated settlements in
+Pará and the southern provinces.
+
+In internal administration Maurice was equally vigorous. He suppressed
+the exactions of Dutch soldiers and functionaries, and established law,
+order, and justice. Agriculture, industry, and commerce flourished as
+never before. He found Recife a miserable port village and left it a
+city of two thousand houses. He does not seem to have made any especial
+exertions to secure Dutch immigration. The Brazilians were not displaced
+as landed proprietors, and most of the plantations confiscated from the
+persistently rebellious were resold to Brazilians who accepted the Dutch
+rule. He permitted to Romanists and Jews the free and public exercise of
+their faith. Many Jews came to Pernambuco, and with their characteristic
+capacity soon became prominent and useful in the commercial life of the
+colony. The courts were so organised as to secure representation for
+Brazilians. He summoned a sort of legislature of the principal
+colonists--the first representative assembly on South American soil--and
+put into effect the measures it proposed. Local administration was
+entrusted to Brazilians, and his aim was evidently to make the colony
+self-governing.
+
+But this positivist of the seventeenth century, this genial pagan who
+had caught the essential spirit of the Renaissance and had the courage
+to put it into practice centuries before it became dominant even in the
+realm of thought, was too far in advance of his time. His countrymen
+could not understand him or his ideas, and the Portuguese colonists were
+equally incapable of appreciating what he was trying to do for them. His
+edifice scattered like a card house the moment he left. To all
+appearances every vestige of his work was swept away; it is only a
+memory and an example; a wave that dashed far up the beach at the
+beginning of the flood-tide, leaving a mark that long served only to
+show how far the water had once come. It remained for the nineteenth
+century and another nation of shopmen to put into practice, on a scale
+large enough to convince the world, the great principle of
+non-interference by the central government with the religious beliefs
+and the local self-government of colonies.
+
+The moneyed aristocrats of the West India Company distrusted Maurice as
+a member of a reigning family which was maintained in power by its
+popularity with the masses. The Directory wanted immediate profits, not
+an empire established on a broad and sure foundation. In their hearts
+they preferred a steward and bookkeeper to a prince and a statesman. The
+Calvinist clergy bitterly complained of the liberties conceded their
+Catholic competitors for tithes, and succeeded in imposing on Maurice
+the execution of the prohibition against religious processions--then as
+now so dear to the Brazilian heart. Spies were sent out to report on him
+and he was continually hampered.
+
+Among the Brazilians he was equally misunderstood. While personally so
+popular that not one of their chroniclers has a word of dispraise for
+him, they could not forget that he was of a different race and religion,
+and he did not succeed in converting them to his ideas. His best
+personal friends were among those most influential, after his departure,
+in stirring up the exclusive Brazilian feeling.
+
+Maurice was not a man to be easily daunted. For seven years he remained
+in office, fighting the Directory, the Calvinist ministers, the corrupt
+officials, trying to reconcile the jealousies between Dutchmen and
+Brazilians, and to create a homogeneous community. But after the power
+of the Nassau family began to decline with the rise of the Witt
+oligarchy, the Directory determined to be rid of him. In 1644 he made a
+vigorous demand for more troops, and when it was refused sent in a
+Bismarckian resignation, which, to his surprise, was immediately
+accepted with many polite protestations of thanks for his services.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+EXPULSION OF THE DUTCH
+
+
+Four years before Maurice's retirement Portugal broke loose from Spain,
+and that part of Brazil which had escaped conquest by the Dutch promptly
+threw off the Spanish yoke. In Europe Holland and the new Portugal were
+naturally in alliance, but the former was not magnanimous enough to stop
+her aggressions in Brazil, and the latter was too weak to resent them.
+Among the Brazilians dissatisfaction began to brew as soon as Maurice
+left. The prohibition of religious processions, the severe financial
+crisis among planters who were unable to pay off the heavy mortgages
+which they had given when they purchased confiscated plantations, the
+low price of sugar, and the impulse to national feeling given by the
+news of the success of the mother country in achieving independence all
+co-operated.
+
+The opportunity brought forth the man. The head of the rebellion was
+John Fernandes Vieira, who is the great creator of the Brazilian
+nationality. A native of Madeira, he ran away as a boy to seek his
+fortune in Brazil. Engaged at first in menial employments, his honesty
+and capacity soon enabled him to strike out for himself as a sugar
+planter. When the Dutch attacked Pernambuco in 1630 he took up arms, and
+only surrendered when Bom Jesus fell. Convinced that further resistance
+was useless he returned to his business and within ten years was the
+richest man in the colony. Though a devoted Catholic and a patriotic
+Portuguese, he was one of Maurice's most trusted advisers. When the
+Prince departed John Fernandes thenceforward devoted his life to the
+expulsion of the Dutch.
+
+The first revolt occurred in Maranhão, where the small Dutch garrison
+had to abandon that captaincy as early as 1644. In Pernambuco John
+Fernandes organised a formidable conspiracy, and letters were despatched
+to the new Portuguese king asking his aid. John IV. did not dare to
+comply openly, for such action might have involved him in a war with the
+States-General, but the governor-general at Bahia was as unscrupulous as
+he was patriotic, and secretly afforded the conspirators every facility
+in his power. The celebrated chiefs of the guerrilla fighting of 1630 to
+1635, Vidal, Camarrão, and Dias, were only too anxious to have another
+chance, and gathered their bands in the wilderness. Arms were obtained
+from Bahia, and in 1645 the insurrection broke out. The first move was
+to have been the massacre of the principal Hollanders, but the plot was
+discovered and the conspirators fled for their lives to the interior. At
+a place called Tabocas John Fernandes gathered a motley crew of a few
+hundred together. Only three hundred of his followers had muskets, but
+they were protected by marshy ground in front, and the hill was
+surrounded by almost impenetrable cane-brakes. There on the 3rd of
+August the Dutch troops to the number of a thousand found and attacked
+the Brazilians. The bulk of the population was standing aloof, his camp
+was full of mutiny, nevertheless John Fernandes stood firm. The Dutch
+charged confidently, but they could not use their firearms to advantage,
+and the Brazilians showed the traditional valour of their race in the
+use of pike and sword. The Dutch were not able to dislodge the rebels,
+and after losing three hundred and seventy men they retreated to
+Pernambuco, leaving the insurgents with all the moral prestige of
+victory.
+
+The whole province rose; the troops, which had come from Bahia
+ostensibly to aid the Dutch in pacifying the province, went over _en
+masse_ to the patriots; the Dutch garrisons in the outlying towns were
+everywhere attacked and everywhere retreated. A few grudgingly paid
+mercenaries were not the material with which to defend such an empire.
+Within a few months the Dutch were expelled from the interior and shut
+themselves up in the fortified seaports waiting for re-enforcements. The
+Indians and guerrillas spread fire and destruction through Itamarica,
+Parahyba, Rio Grande do Norte, and Ceará. In spite of this sudden
+success the position of the patriots was very critical. Without the aid
+of regular troops they could hardly hope to make head against the Dutch
+so soon as the latter received adequate re-enforcements. The news of
+the insurrection aroused great indignation in Holland. The house of the
+Portuguese ambassador was surrounded by an infuriated mob, and his
+government had to disavow the rebellion. Willing as John IV. might be to
+help the Brazilians, he dare not. By the middle of 1646 an able
+commander, von Schoppke, arrived from Holland with a fine army. At first
+John Fernandes and the militia did not dare meet him in the field. The
+provincials hovered about the Dutch columns, cutting off detachments,
+and burning sugar plantations in the line of march. John Fernandes set
+the example by ordering the destruction of his own property.
+
+In 1647 Barreto de Menezes, an able professional soldier, arrived in
+Brazil bearing a secret commission from the Portuguese king. The
+bickering and despairing provincials made no difficulty about
+recognising it, and Barreto at once began uniting the scattered militia
+bands and the few regulars who had clandestinely come up from Bahia.
+
+A few miles south of Pernambuco the low hills encroach on the
+coast-plain, leaving only a narrow pass between themselves and the
+marshes. Schoppke made a sortie along the coast road with the largest
+part of his force,--about four thousand men,--and there at the hills of
+Guararapes found the patriot army, numbering two thousand two hundred.
+Encamped across the level ground they barred his way, with the evident
+intention of giving him battle, and there on the 18th of August, 1648,
+was fought out the question whether Brazil should be Dutch or
+Portuguese. The defeat of the patriots would have meant the hopeless
+collapse of the rebellion and the giving up by poor little Portugal of
+the last vestige of her claim to Brazil. Success meant that they might
+prolong the war for years and finally tire out Holland, or give the
+Portuguese government a chance to do something by negotiation.
+
+The battle began with the Dutch taking possession of the higher ground
+whence their artillery inflicted some damage, but when they charged down
+the hill, attempting to outflank and surround the Brazilians, there
+ensued a confused and desperate struggle with cold steel. The regulars
+proved no match for these farmers, who were fighting for their homes and
+religion. The Dutch battalions broke and fled up the hill, followed by
+the Brazilians. Then the Dutch reserve came into action and the battle
+rolled back to the low ground, where the result was decided face to face
+and man to man. Some of the braver of the Dutch imprudently went through
+the Brazilian lines into the marshes, where they suffered terrible
+slaughter at the hands of the reserve. More than a thousand Hollanders
+perished, with seventy-four officers. Thirty-three standards remained in
+the hands of the Brazilians, and the remnants of the Dutch army fled to
+the shelter of the walls of Pernambuco. The cowardice shown by many of
+his troops is the only excuse offered by the Dutch general for this
+shameful defeat suffered at the hands of a militia inferior not only in
+equipment and artillery, but in numbers and advantage of position.
+
+The descendants of the victors at Guararapes have never forgotten that
+it was a Brazilian and not a Portuguese triumph. The Brazilians proved
+to their own satisfaction that their resources were sufficient to defend
+their institutions, and it has been well said that on that day the
+Brazilian nation was born.
+
+The parsimonious merchants whose money was invested in the Company made
+a half-hearted effort to retrieve this unexpected reverse, but
+re-enforcements were sent out so grudgingly that a similar sortie next
+year was even more overwhelmingly defeated at the very same place. Even
+then the Brazilian hopes of ultimate success would have been small if at
+this very juncture the world-power of Holland had not received its first
+great check by the breaking out of the war with Oliver Cromwell. With
+English fleets sweeping the North Sea and Blake's cannon thundering at
+the Texel, the States-General had no forces to spare on far-away Brazil.
+The patriots kept the Dutch shut up in Pernambuco and were undisputed
+masters of the rest of the province. So long as communication by sea
+remained open the Dutch, however, could maintain themselves
+indefinitely. Re-enforcements might come at any time from Holland and
+the negotiations by Portugal were uncertain, and might, indeed, lead to
+Brazil's being exchanged for an advantage elsewhere.
+
+John Fernandes steadfastly maintained the siege, urging his followers
+not to lay down their arms so long as a Dutchman remained in Brazil. The
+pusillanimous Portuguese king did not dare help the Pernambucanos, and
+neither was he honest enough to abide by the treaties he had made with
+Holland, giving up all claim to North Brazil. Matters remained in this
+anomalous position until 1654, when John Fernandes by a single audacious
+stroke cut through the tangle made by complicated and timid European
+diplomacy.
+
+In the fall of 1653 the annual Bahia fleet sailed from the Tagus,
+convoyed by powerful men-of-war. The Dutch had no naval force on the
+South American coast able to cope with it. When the Portuguese fleet
+hove in sight of Pernambuco, the Brazilian commanders from their
+fortified besieging camp just to the south of the city entered into
+communication with the Admiral. John Fernandes begged the latter to lend
+him some cannon for a few days and meanwhile to blockade the port. The
+patriot leader saw that the isolated garrison of mercenaries would have
+no heart to hold out for long. The Portuguese Admiral refused, saying,
+truly enough, that he had no instructions to aid the insurgent
+Brazilians, and that he did not care to risk his head by precipitating a
+war between Portugal and Holland. Fernandes answered that with or
+without his aid the assault would be made, and the Admiral yielded to
+his natural feelings and lent the Brazilians some big guns. John
+Fernandes planted them where they commanded an outlying fort he knew to
+be vital to the city's defences. Schoppke was compelled to retire within
+the central city; the Brazilians made successful night assaults on
+several positions, and drew their lines closer and closer until the
+place was untenable. On the 26th of January, 1655, the Dutch general
+signed a capitulation, surrendering not only Pernambuco, but all the
+other places held by the Dutch in Brazil. His twelve hundred troops were
+given safe passage home, and all resident Hollanders were allowed three
+months to settle their affairs before leaving.
+
+Thus ended the Dutch dominion in Brazil. Four provinces, three cities,
+eight towns, fourteen fortified places, and three hundred leagues of
+coast were definitely restored to the Portuguese Crown. A gigantic
+commercial speculation had failed before the obstinate resistance of a
+few farmers animated by a love of country and religion. Twenty-five
+years of bloody warfare or sulky acquiescence in alien rule had welded
+the Portuguese colonists along the Brazilian coast into a nation.
+Directly from the Dutch they had learned little or nothing. Rather were
+the traits which have ever since been the cause of Brazil's industrial
+backwardness intensified.
+
+The characteristics of the leaders in the Pernambuco war of independence
+epitomise the races of Brazil. Vidal is the type of a high-class
+Brazilian--generous, jealous, spendthrift, proud, intelligent, quick at
+expedients, and not too scrupulous in his use of them. Camarrão, the
+Indian, perished before the final victory as if to show symbolically
+that his race had not the stamina to hold out in competition with white
+or black. Dias represents the negro--unsurpassable in fidelity and
+personal courage, and needing only leadership to show transcendent
+military qualities.
+
+John Fernandes was a curious mixture of the mediæval and modern. His
+wealth did not make him cautious where his country was concerned; he
+had been honoured with the intimate confidence of those whom he fought;
+he was grave, silent, reserved, strongest when others were most
+discouraged; no feeling of vanity ever interfered with his purposes; if
+another man could do a piece of work better than he, he stepped aside;
+when success was in sight he imperturbably let showier men have the
+glory. Religious faith and feudal loyalty were the mainsprings of his
+nature; nevertheless in war he was cautious, indefatigable, and
+calculating. In crises he struck like a sledge-hammer, though he could
+wait patiently and uncomplainingly for an opportunity. His was not a
+pride that disdains artifices. He conspired secretly and subtly, and
+with all his apparent moderation of character he blindly and
+unreasoningly hated everything Protestant and non-Portuguese. On the
+hill at Tabocas his battle-cry was: "Portuguese! At the heretics! God is
+with us!" When the Dutch made their last desperate charge, and it seemed
+as if all was up with his band of insurgents, he refused to flee, but
+stood beside the crucifix, calling on the Virgin and the saints, and
+exhorting his companions to die rather than yield to the unbelievers.
+When the Dutch gave back he fell on his knees and intoned a hymn. With
+each new victory gained he vowed a church to the Virgin. When desperate
+over the hesitation of the Admiral in the last scene of the war, his
+final argument, made in all sincerity, was that failure to expel the
+Dutch meant exposing thousands of Catholics to the temptation of denying
+their faith by a renewal of the heretic rule, and that for himself,
+rather than share the responsibility for the murder of thousands of
+souls, he would lead his Brazilians to certain death.
+
+Relentless to his enemies, to his friends and dependents he was kindness
+itself. It is related that a Portuguese, landed with hardly clothes
+enough to cover him, and seeking a protector, was directed to Fernandes.
+The latter was mounting his horse to go on a journey. To the man's offer
+of allegiance and appeal for help, he answered: "I am going to my house
+ten miles away and have no leisure now to relieve you, but follow me
+thither on foot. If you are too weak to walk, take this horse I am on.
+If you are faithful you shall have support as long as my means hold out;
+if they fail, and there should be nothing else to eat, I will cut off a
+leg and we will eat it together." This was said with so grave a face and
+severe a manner that the poor Portuguese thought he meant to repulse
+him. But on inquiry he found that Fernandes rarely smiled and that
+literally all that he had was at the service of his adherents.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+In 1621 the northern provinces, Ceará, Maranhão, and Pará, had been
+separated from the rest of Brazil and erected into an independent
+government called the State of Maranhão. In Ceará the cattle-industry
+flourished; around the beautiful bay of Maranhão the Azoreans multiplied
+their colonies. Cotton, mandioc, and sugar were grown in large
+quantities; the cotton manufacture soon became an important industry.
+But the mysterious Amazon, whose entrance was guarded by the town of
+Pará, seemed most attractive of all. No civilised man had penetrated its
+length since Orellana's adventurous voyage of a century before. In 1638
+Jacomé Raymundo, an able Brazilian, temporarily acting as governor of
+Pará, determined to explore the great river. The expedition which he
+sent out found its way up the windings of the multitudinous channels,
+and after eight months reached the first Spanish settlement in the east
+of Ecuador. The Spanish authorities at Lima and Quito saw no particular
+value in a route through a territory in which no gold or silver had
+been discovered, and which by the Spanish policy could not be used for
+commerce. But when, two years, later Portugal regained her independence
+the expedition turned out to have been of vast importance. The
+Portuguese had found the practicable route into the great river valley;
+they controlled the mouth of the stream; and though the whole territory
+lay west of the Tordesillas line Spain never asserted any effective
+claim to it.
+
+Meanwhile the conquest of the great interior plateaux to the south was
+rapidly proceeding. The wars with the Dutch rather stimulated than
+retarded it, for, so long as the Dutch commanded the sea, the widely
+separated provinces were obliged to communicate by land, and the Indian
+routes became better known to the Brazilians. Settlers driven from the
+sugar plantations on the coast took up cattle-raising in the interior of
+the northern provinces. In the extreme South, as early as 1635 the
+Paulistas had rooted out the Jesuit settlements from the whole region of
+the Paraná. To the North they traversed the São Francisco valley and the
+plateau of Goyaz. Manoel Correa explored the latter region in 1647, and
+in 1671 another Paulista, Domingos Jorge, penetrated with a force of
+subject Indians into the great treeless plains which extend beyond the
+mountain ranges bounding the São Francisco valley on the north. These
+plains are now the state of Piauhy. At about the same time the
+cattle-raisers who had established themselves on the lower São Francisco
+in Bahia, crossed over into the same territory of Piauhy. Within a short
+time the Indians were reduced to submission, and the cattle ranges were
+extended over the plains of Piauhy, southern Ceará, and the adjacent
+provinces. This great conquest completed the junction of southern and
+central Brazil with Maranhão and Pará. Long lines of land communication
+were established, and over them travel was more frequent than would seem
+likely. Piauhy and Ceará soon produced an enormous surplus of cattle
+whose export into other provinces brought about a revolution in the
+alimentation of the coast Brazilians. The Indians along the north-east
+coast were gradually incorporated, destroyed, or pushed back, though it
+was not until 1699 that they were finally subdued in Rio Grande do
+Norte. From this time dates the astonishing development of the
+population of Ceará, who during this century have furnished nearly all
+the labour for the gathering of rubber.
+
+In the South, settlements multiplied up and down the coast from Rio
+until nearly the whole of the present state was occupied. Rio and São
+Paulo flourished with the profits of the clandestine trade with the
+Spanish colonies. The Paulistas continued to spread in every direction.
+By 1654 they had occupied the headwaters of the Parahyba and west as far
+as Soracaba.
+
+During the period just following the expulsion of the Dutch the
+Portuguese government was not able to enforce its policy of commercial
+exclusivism. Treaties with Holland and England gave the citizens of
+those countries a right to trade with Brazil, and the colonists kept up
+their commerce with the Spanish possessions. Municipal charters were
+freely granted to Brazilian towns, and the existing franchises reformed
+according to the most liberal model in Portugal--that of Porto.
+Brazilians were relieved of the absurd feudal distinctions which
+exempted nobles alone from liability to torture, and regulated the
+clothes a man might wear. The extraordinary rapidity of Brazil's
+increase in population and territory during the middle of the
+seventeenth century was largely due to comparative freedom from
+vexatious restrictions and exactions--commercial and governmental. By
+the end of the century there were three-quarters of a million people in
+Brazil--a fivefold increase in seventy years, in spite of the fact that
+the most populous provinces had been the scene of war for twenty-four
+years of that time.
+
+But the Portuguese government lost little time in returning to the old
+restrictive conditions. Since the loss of the Indies, Brazil was
+Portugal's principal source of wealth, and aristocracy and Court made
+the most of the unhappy colony.
+
+Navigation companies were chartered and given a monopoly of all
+commerce--export and import. The Jesuits renewed their efforts to gain
+control of the Indians. In São Paulo they had no chance of success, but
+in the North the celebrated Padre Antonio Vieira, one of the greatest
+geniuses that Portugal has ever produced, was given a free hand. He
+nearly smothered the whites of Maranhão and Pará with a ring of
+missions, and his successors established settlements on the Amazon which
+finally spread so as to communicate with the Spanish missions in Peru,
+Bolivia, and Paraguay. The Brazilians of Maranhão and Pará did not
+object to the occupation of the valley of the Amazon, but they bitterly
+resented the Jesuit encroachments in their own neighbourhood. In 1684 a
+rebellion finally broke out in Maranhão under the leadership of Manoel
+Beckman. He paid the forfeit with his life, but his work had warned the
+Portuguese authorities that they must not push their favours to the
+Jesuits too far.
+
+During the long Dutch war many Pernambucan negroes had fled into the
+interior, where they had established themselves in independent
+communities and refused to recognise white supremacy. They fortified
+their villages with palisades, obtained wives by raids on the
+plantations, elected chiefs, devised rude forms of administering
+justice, and adopted a religion which was a mixture of the nature
+worship of their African ancestors with the outward forms of
+Christianity. In spite of numerous efforts to destroy them, these
+strange republics lasted fifty years. It was not until 1697 that a
+Paulista chief, Domingos Jorge, who was employed after the regulars had
+failed, succeeded in shutting the negroes up in their great palisade at
+Palmares. Seven thousand men took part in the assault, and of the ten
+thousand negroes who defended it none were spared.
+
+This was the only serious attempt at revolt on the part of the blacks
+which ever occurred in Brazil. Except for a few easily suppressed
+insurrections which mostly occurred in Bahia among the recent arrivals,
+the negroes remained in abject submission until nearly the end of the
+nineteenth century. The comparative mildness of the Brazilian treatment
+of negroes, the practice of voluntary manumission, and the fact that no
+impenetrable race barrier existed all contributed to make slavery a less
+fearful thing in Brazil than in North America.
+
+Both Spain and Portugal claimed the coast between Santos and the river
+Plate under the treaty of Tordesillas, but neither nation had made any
+serious attempt to take possession up to the end of the seventeenth
+century. As a matter of fact, the Tordesillas line passed near the
+southern boundary of the Brazilian state of São Paulo, but the
+Portuguese maps pushed all Brazil eight degrees to the east, and
+Portugal claimed that the line passed near the point where the Paraná
+and Uruguay unite to form the Plate. The Paulistas had made this claim
+effective over much of the disputed territory.
+
+For a century after the foundation of Buenos Aires the Spaniards failed
+to occupy the north margin of the Plate, and in 1680 the Portuguese
+fore-stalled them by founding a colony and fort, called Colonia,
+directly opposite Buenos Aires. The Spanish governor promptly resented
+this piece of audacity and captured the place, but was compelled to
+restore it immediately by orders from Madrid. Louis XIV., who was then
+arbiter of Europe, had no mind to allow a war to be precipitated over so
+insignificant a matter as a post in an uninhabited part of South
+America. However, the question of right to the territory was left open
+for future determination. Colonia at that time was chiefly valued as an
+_entrepôt_ for clandestine trade with the Spanish provinces, but to its
+existence can be traced Brazilian possession of the great states of
+Paraná, Santa Catharina, and Rio Grande do Sul, and even Brazil's
+dominance in the Upper Paraná valley, a dominance which would have been
+lost had Spain insisted upon the true Tordesillas line.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+GOLD DISCOVERIES--REVOLTS--FRENCH ATTACKS
+
+
+The early attempts to find gold and silver had not been successful. A
+little gold was found in São Paulo in the sixteenth century, but no
+great discoveries were made until nearly the end of the seventeenth. The
+Paulistas, who scoured the interior in their slave-hunts, occasionally
+came across indications of gold, and rumours constantly reached the
+coast. But for a long time the Paulistas failed, either through
+ignorance or design, to give sufficiently exact information. After 1670
+the rumours became so circumstantial that no doubt was felt that the
+mountain ranges around the headwaters of the São Francisco River were
+gold-bearing. Stimulated by government promises of liberal treatment,
+the Paulistas undertook the hunt in earnest. About 1690 they found the
+rich gold washings of Sabará, where to-day is one of the great mines of
+the world--the Morro Velho. This is three hundred miles directly north
+of Rio. In 1693, Antonio Arzão, a Paulista, penetrated west from this
+region to the seacoast at Victoria, bringing with him native gold in
+large nuggets. These were sent to Portugal and created intense
+excitement. The Paulistas followed up these first discoveries by soon
+finding half a dozen other fields--all of them yielding gold in
+abundance to the crudest processes. A rush started that threatened to
+depopulate the seacoast and even Portugal itself. The find was the
+greatest gold discovery which had been made in the history of the world
+up to that time. The one province of Minas Geraes produced seven million
+five hundred thousand ounces within the first fifty years, and its total
+product to the present time has been twenty-five million ounces.
+
+The Paulista discoverers of the mines soon became involved in quarrels
+with the swarms of adventurers who poured in from Portugal. The
+government at first did not establish any regular control over the
+mining region, and disputes arose between the old and new comers as to
+proprietorship of claims. Anarchy and civil war ensued, but the foreign
+element, nicknamed the "emboabas," came out on top with a strong man,
+Nunes Vianna, at the head of affairs. He became the virtual ruler of the
+region, and the Portuguese authorities at Rio, seeing their perquisites
+endangered, tried to get rid of him by force. They were unsuccessful,
+but finally managed to seduce his followers and secure a recognition of
+their own paramount authority by solemn promises to concede the
+reasonable demands of the miners. These promises were not kept. Vianna,
+though he had been induced to surrender on assurances that his life
+would be spared, was assassinated.
+
+The mining laws, at first liberal, were narrowed until exploration was
+discouraged and production oppressed. For years the authorities tried to
+collect a fixed amount for each slave employed--a provision which
+discouraged searches for new deposits. Then the system of requiring all
+gold to be taken to government melting-houses was enforced. Export in
+dust or nuggets was forbidden, and no gold was allowed in circulation
+except that which bore the government stamp showing it had paid the
+king's fifth. This involved the searching of every traveller's pockets
+and the posting of detachments of soldiers at every crossroads. So
+oppressive and inconvenient was this that finally the chief miners and
+municipal authorities agreed to be responsible for a lump sum yearly.
+
+The war of the emboabas ended in 1709, but troubles broke out in the
+mining regions from time to time down to the end of the colonial period.
+These struggles for local self-government--for the right to exist--were
+not confined to Minas. In various forms and at various times they were
+repeated in most of the provinces, and a strong belief in local autonomy
+never died out, though for long periods it was apparently crushed out of
+existence.
+
+Simultaneously with the overthrow of the semi-independent government of
+Minas, which had been set up by the emboabas, a civil war broke out in
+the old province of Pernambuco. This was a struggle of the oligarchy of
+native Brazilian sugar-planters against the rigorous and corrupt rule of
+the royal governors and against the encroachments of the newly arrived
+Portuguese. Then, as now, foreigners conducted the trade of Brazil; the
+Brazilian aristocrats remained on their plantations, disdaining the
+small economies and anxieties of commerce. The Portuguese were the
+peddlers, shopkeepers, and money-lenders for the community, as well as
+the officials of the government. In both capacities they pressed hard on
+the extravagant Brazilians. Olinda, the old capital, was the
+headquarters of the latter. Recife, three miles south, was the port and
+chiefly inhabited by native Portuguese. It had outrun Olinda during the
+Dutch occupation, but was legally only an administrative dependency of
+the older and smaller town. In 1709 the Portuguese government made
+Recife a separate city--a step which was bitterly resented by the
+Brazilians and especially by the close corporation of native families
+who controlled the Olinda municipal government. Hostilities broke out
+between them and the governor. Two thousand Pernambucanos invaded
+Recife; the troops deserted and the governor fled for his life, while
+the royal charter to Recife was torn to bits by the mob. The heads of
+the insurrection met to determine what form of government should be
+adopted. Bernardo Vieira, the best soldier in the colony, proposed that
+a republic should be founded on the plan of Venice, probably the first
+time a republic was ever advocated on American soil. The proposition met
+with much favour, but the conservatives shrank from so radical a
+departure. The bishop was made acting-governor, but his hand proved not
+firm enough to control the divergent interests and ambitions. The
+Portuguese--"mascates" they were called--revolted in their turn and
+drove him from Recife. The Pernambucanos besieged the place, but the
+loss of the seaport was a heavy blow. The Olinda oligarchy was not able
+to secure the co-operation of the smaller municipalities, and civil war
+spread throughout the province. When a new governor appeared with a
+commission from the king, he had little difficulty, by promises of fair
+treatment, in inducing all parties to lay down their arms. No sooner,
+however, was he safely in power than he imprisoned and banished the
+chiefs of the revolt, especially selecting those who had favoured an
+independent republic.
+
+All three great revolts--Beckman's in Maranhão, that of the emboabas in
+Minas, and the Olinda rebellion of 1710--followed substantially the same
+course. Local feeling was strong enough to sweep all before it for a
+time, but lack of capacity for organisation, intestine quarrels, want of
+persistency, soon enabled the Portuguese officials to re-establish
+themselves more firmly than ever.
+
+Meanwhile Portugal had become involved in the War of the Spanish
+Succession. Colonia was again captured by the Spanish of Buenos Aires,
+and though it was restored at the end of the war its trade was never so
+prosperous afterwards. In the Upper Amazon Spanish Jesuits had come down
+from Quito, but the Portuguese expelled them, thereby confirming
+Portugal's title as far as the foothills of the Andes. The Spaniards of
+the eighteenth century no more than the Peruvians and Bolivians of the
+nineteenth were able to cope with the difficulties of transit from the
+Pacific side of the mountains. Portugal's effective possession reached
+to the 70th meridian from Greenwich--sixteen hundred miles west of the
+Tordesillas line.
+
+Rio was the only important Brazilian port which had escaped attack by
+hostile fleets during the preceding century, and the discovery of the
+gold mines gave a tremendous impetus to its prosperity and wealth. The
+only gateway to the mining territory, its population of over twelve
+thousand was soon one of the richest and busiest in all America. The
+opportunity was too tempting to be neglected by the French
+prize-hunters. A daring Frenchman, named Duclerc, appeared before the
+city in 1710, but, seeing that he had not ships strong enough to force
+the entrance, landed with a thousand marines forty miles down the coast.
+They met with no resistance in their march through the woods and arrived
+back of the city without loss. Thence they proceeded coolly to charge
+into the narrow streets in the face of the artillery fire from the
+hilltop forts that surround the city. The audacious enterprise was very
+nearly successful. The Portuguese regulars offered no effective
+resistance, and the main body of the French penetrated to the very
+centre of the city. There they were checked by a little party of
+students who had climbed into the governor's palace and were firing out
+of the windows. The French finally took the palace by assault, but
+meanwhile the city had risen behind them, their scattered detachments
+were massacred in detail, and the main body in the palace had to
+surrender at discretion. The Portuguese sullied their victory by acts of
+mediæval cruelty--killing most of the prisoners.
+
+The victims did not long remain unavenged. As soon as the news reached
+France, Admiral Duguay-Trouin, one of the ablest seamen his nation has
+produced, volunteered to lead an expedition to Rio. Wealthy merchants of
+St. Malo supplied the money, and in June, 1711, he sailed with seven
+line-of-battle ships, six frigates, and four smaller vessels, manned by
+five thousand picked men. Secretly as the expedition had been
+despatched, the Portuguese had received warning. The garrison had been
+re-enforced and the narrow-mouthed harbour and hill-commanded city were
+defended by three forts and eleven batteries, besides four ships of the
+line and four frigates. Favoured by a foggy morning he ran boldly in,
+suffering little loss. Of the Portuguese men-of-war not one escaped.
+Fort Villegagnon was blown up by the mismanagement of its garrison, the
+Portuguese became demoralised, Trouin put a battery on an unoccupied
+island within cannon-shot of the city, and disembarked troops to the
+left of the town where a range of hills made it easy to dominate the low
+ground. The poor governor knew no better tactics than to let the French
+enter the streets and then overpower them in fighting from the houses.
+But Trouin was too old a soldier to be caught like his fellow-countrymen
+the year before. He coolly advanced his batteries and soon had the town
+commanded on three sides; it was only a question of getting his cannon
+into position when he could batter the place at his leisure. Panic
+extended from the citizens to the soldiers, and a week after the French
+had entered the harbour the governor fled ignominiously to the interior,
+and the French took possession unopposed.
+
+Revenge and plunder had been the objects of the expedition. It would
+have been very difficult for the French to have remained in permanent
+possession of the city, and a conquest of the interior, with its large
+population and mountainous character, was not to be thought of. The city
+was admitted to ransom on giving up the surviving prisoners of the
+Duclerc expedition. Duguay-Trouin sailed triumphantly back to France
+with a treasure which netted the Norman merchants who had fitted him out
+ninety-two per cent. on their investment, in spite of the wrecking of
+the biggest ship on the homeward voyage.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+Montevideo was founded in 1726 and became the nucleus of the Spanish
+settlements which have grown into the modern country of Uruguay. Except
+Colonia, the only Portuguese settlements south of the 25th degree were
+the town of Santa Catharina Island, the unimportant village of Laguna on
+the coast-plain, and the scattered ranches of a few adventurous
+Paulistas on the plateau.
+
+The founding of Montevideo drew the serious attention of the Rio
+government to the valuable country between the Plate and Santa
+Catharina. The Paulistas had thoroughly explored the plains and found
+them swarming with cattle. The chief obstacle to the foundation of a
+military post as a nucleus for the settlement of Rio Grande and eastern
+Uruguay was the lack of a harbour on that sandy coast. When the next
+European war broke out, in 1735, the Spaniards again besieged Colonia,
+and established forts and settlements along the Uruguayan coast, from
+Montevideo to the present Brazilian border. In 1737, the Portuguese
+authorities sent an expedition to take Montevideo, which failed. On the
+way back the Portuguese built a little fort at the only entrance which
+gives access to the great series of lagoons which run parallel to the
+coast for two hundred and fifty miles north of the southern Brazilian
+frontier. This is the site of the present city of Rio Grande do Sul. A
+few years later, a considerable number of settlers from the Azores
+Islands were introduced, who engaged in agriculture along the fertile
+borders of the great Duck Lagoon.
+
+  [Illustration: RIO GRANDE DO SUL.]
+
+In 1750, Spain and Portugal made an attempt to reach an amicable and
+rational agreement about their South American boundaries. Up to that
+time, Spain had stubbornly claimed the territory as far north and east
+as Santos, and Portugal was even more unreasonable in asserting her
+exclusive right to the coast as far south and west as the mouth of the
+Uruguay. The treaty of 1750 virtually recognised the _uti possidetis_.
+Portugal agreed to give up Colonia, and the boundary to her possessions
+and those of Spain was drawn between the Spanish settlements in Uruguay
+and the Portuguese settlements in Rio Grande. The seven Jesuit missions
+in the interior, two hundred miles to the north, were abandoned by the
+Spanish government. Spain deliberately ceded these tens of thousands of
+peaceful and prosperous civilised Indians, and even agreed that her
+troops should assist the Portuguese in the cruel dispossession. The
+Indians fought desperately and unavailingly. But this iniquitous
+provision of the treaty was the only part of it which was ever carried
+into effect. Spanish public opinion protested, the boundary commissions
+could not agree, Portugal put off the surrender of Colonia on one
+pretext or another, and in 1761 the treaty fell to the ground and all
+the questions were left open.
+
+That year Spain and Portugal became embroiled on opposite sides in the
+Seven Years' War, and the Spaniards from Buenos Aires invaded the
+disputed territory in overwhelming force. Colonia was taken and in 1763
+the Spanish governor led his army against the Portuguese settlements in
+Rio Grande. The fortified town of Rio Grande fell, the superior
+Argentine cavalry drove the Rio Grandenses back to the coast, and the
+Portuguese territory was reduced to the north-east quarter of the state.
+The flourishing farms of the Azorean settlers were laid waste, and from
+this invasion dates the adoption by the Rio Grandenses of pastoral
+habits. The Treaty of Paris put an end to the war in Europe. The
+Spaniards ceased their advance, they restored Colonia once more, but
+retained their conquests in southern Rio Grande.
+
+The Rio Grandenses made good use of the breathing-spell. They cared
+little whether there was peace or war in Europe, and four years later
+made a desperate effort to recapture their old capital and regain their
+farms in the south. Disavowed by their government, they still kept on
+fighting; soon they made a regular business of raiding the territory
+occupied by the Spaniards; the beef they found on the plains was their
+food; they were always in the saddle and soon became the finest of
+irregular cavalry and partisan fighters.
+
+The Spaniards retaliated by invading northern Rio Grande, but never
+succeeded in routing the Rio Grandenses from their last strongholds. In
+1775 the Brazilians were re-enforced from São Paulo and Rio and took the
+aggressive, and the following year recaptured the city of Rio Grande.
+The Spanish government took prompt steps to avenge this loss. A great
+fleet was sent out, Santa Catharina was captured, an army of four
+thousand men was on the march up from Montevideo to sweep the Portuguese
+out of all southern Brazil once and for all. But in this crisis European
+politics again saved Brazil from dismemberment. France and Spain were
+forming a coalition against England in the War of American Independence.
+Spain wished to have her hands free and to isolate England. The Spanish
+fleet and army were at the gates of Rio Grande when the Treaty of San
+Ildefonso was signed in 1777. The Portuguese definitely relinquished
+Colonia; Uruguay and the Seven Missions remained Spanish, but most of
+southern Rio Grande which the Portuguese had lost in 1763, as well as
+Santa Catharina, was restored to them.
+
+  [Illustration: OLD RANCH IN RIO GRANDE.]
+
+The thirty-four years of peace which followed in Rio Grande were
+employed in steady growth. A craze for cattle-raising set in, and the
+plains were divided up into great _estancias_ which were distributed
+among the governor's favourites or those who had distinguished
+themselves during the war. Substantially the entire population engaged
+in the cattle business. The Rio Grandenses and their cattle multiplied
+so rapidly that they spread out over the western part of the state,
+which was still Spanish, and to the south. In 1780 the curing of beef by
+drying and salting was introduced, which permitted its shipment, and
+afforded a stable market.
+
+  [Illustration: WASHING DIAMONDS.]
+
+After the great gold discoveries in Minas during the late years of the
+seventeenth and early years of the eighteenth centuries, the prospectors
+ranged north from Sabará along the great Backbone Mountains, finding
+washings at many places in North Minas and Bahia. By 1740 the fields in
+Bahia were producing fifty to a hundred thousand ounces a year. As early
+as 1718 an expedition had penetrated fifteen hundred miles to the west
+and discovered good placers on the plateau where the headwaters of the
+Madeira and the Paraguay intertwine. This was the beginning of Cuyabá
+and the state of Matto Grosso. In ten years a million five hundred
+thousand ounces were taken out from these diggings. A little later
+still other fields were discovered farther west on the Madeira
+watershed.
+
+The miners at the gold camp of Tijuca in North Minas had noticed some
+curious little shining stones in the bottom of their pans and thought
+them so pretty that they used them for counters in games. Soon a
+wandering friar who had been in India recognised them as diamonds. This
+occurred in 1729, and the field thus opened up supplied the world with
+diamonds until the discovery of Kimberley. In the years from 1730 to
+1770 five million carats were taken from the original Diamantina
+district, and the deposits are still second in productiveness only to
+those of South Africa. The diamond region was at once declared Crown
+property and a deadline drawn around it which none except officials were
+allowed to cross.
+
+In 1716 an exploring expedition ascended the Madeira, and in the years
+following the Tocantins, the Araguaya, the Rio Negro, and the principal
+tributaries of the Upper Amazon were navigated. The Jesuit settlements
+in the Amazon valley continued to flourish. While the interior and the
+South were expanding rapidly, the coast provinces were relatively
+declining. The growing competition of the West Indies reduced the price
+of sugar. During the seventeenth century Brazil had furnished the bulk
+of European sugar consumption, selling her product at non-competitive
+prices. But the growth of the English and Dutch colonial empires brought
+into the field competitors who possessed as good a climate and soil and
+enjoyed the inestimable advantage of better government. Portugal's
+vicious and narrow-minded colonial system was not changed until Brazil's
+competitors had so far passed her that she has never since been able to
+make up lost ground.
+
+The wealth from mines and taxes that Brazil poured into the Portuguese
+treasury was squandered by the dissipated bigot, John V. When he died in
+1750 he left Portugal in a bad way, and though Brazil had managed to
+grow in spite of mismanagement, the outlook was discouraging. The
+Spaniards were threatening the new settlements in the South; São Paulo
+had been depopulated by the migration to the mines; Bahia's and
+Pernambuco's sugar and tobacco industries were decadent; in Ceará and
+Piauhy the golden days of the cattle business had passed; Maranhão and
+Pará had stopped short in their development, and their spread into the
+interior had been cut off by the Jesuits.
+
+Contemporary documents prove the horrible corruption. From ministers of
+State down to the humblest subordinate every official had his share in
+the pickings. The farmers of the revenues openly paid bribes and might
+exact what they pleased from the taxpayers. All trade except that with
+Portugal was forbidden, and this was hampered in a hundred ways. Salt,
+wine, soap, rum, tobacco, olive oil, and hides were monopolies. All
+legal transactions were burdened with heavy fees; slaves paid so much a
+head; every river on a road was the occasion for a new toll; the
+exercise of professions and trades was forbidden except on the payment
+of heavy fees; anything that could compete with Portugal was prohibited
+altogether. Taxation shut off industrial enterprise at its very sources,
+and many of the worst features of the system then put in vogue have
+never been discontinued.
+
+The governors and military commanders interfered constantly with the
+administration of justice in favour of their friends and favourites;
+they accepted bribes for allowing contraband trade and permitting the
+immigration of foreigners; they misappropriated the funds of widows and
+orphans; they ignored the franchises of the municipalities; they imposed
+unauthorised taxes; they forced loans from suitors having claims before
+them; they obliged free men to work without pay; they forcibly took
+wives away from their husbands; they impressed the young men for the
+wars on the Spanish border, required every able bodied man to serve in
+the militia, and commonly practised arbitrary imprisonment. How even one
+of the best of them interfered to regulate private affairs can best be
+shown by his own words:
+
+    "I promoted the good of the people by forcibly compelling them to
+    plant maize and pulse, and threatening to take away their lands
+    altogether if they did not cultivate them diligently; I required
+    the militia colonels to make exact reports about this matter and
+    thus brought about a great increase in the production of food crops
+    and sugar. I called the militia together for exercise on Sundays
+    and holidays, days which otherwise the people would have spent in
+    idleness and pleasure. Many have complained, but I have never
+    given their complaints the slightest attention, having always
+    followed the system of taking no notice whatever of the people's
+    murmurs."
+
+He describes the Brazilians as vain, but indolent and easily subdued;
+robust and supporting labour well, but inclined to an inaction from
+which only extreme poverty or the command of their superiors could rouse
+them. They had no education, for the only schools were a few Jesuit
+seminaries, and no printing-press existed. They were licentious, had no
+aristocracy, were unaccustomed to social subordination, and would obey
+no authority except the military.
+
+  [Illustration: BOATS ON THE RIO GRANDE.
+  [From a steel print.]]
+
+Underneath the surface fermented a deep disgust. Even in the seaports
+the very name of government was hated, and in the interior the people
+withdrew themselves as much as possible from contact or participation
+with it. A dull hatred of Portugal and Portuguese spread among all
+classes of natives. In much of the country the only law was the
+patriarchal influence of the heads of the landed families, who often
+exercised powers of life and death. Instances are on record where
+fathers ordered their sons to kill their own sisters when the latter had
+dishonoured the family name.
+
+With the death of John V. in 1750 the great Marquis of Pombal became
+prime minister. The enormous energy and activity of this remarkable man
+revolutionised the administration of Portugal and Brazil. Official
+corruption was severely punished; order replaced confusion; agriculture,
+industry, and commerce were protected and encouraged. In spite of the
+threatened exhaustion of the placers mining flourished. Maranhão and
+Pará took a new start; the worst monopolies were abolished; the price of
+sugar rose with the great colonial wars and the adoption of reasonable
+regulations. Wealth and revenues increased apace and peace and security
+were self-guarded. When Pombal fell, after twenty-seven years in power,
+Brazil's population had risen to two millions; Rio was a city of fifty
+thousand and the capital had been transferred there; Bahia had forty
+thousand; Minas contained four hundred thousand people; the yield of
+gold was four hundred thousand carats yearly, and the diamond production
+one hundred and fifty thousand carats, and, finally, Santa Catharina and
+Rio Grande had been saved from the Spaniards and settled. Pombal had
+made short work of the Jesuits. In 1755 he took away their rights over
+their Indians, and four years later issued an order for their immediate
+and unconditional expulsion and the confiscation of their property.
+
+Pombal had no favourites; he spared no individuals and no classes in his
+work of ruthlessly concentrating all power in the Crown. But he built a
+Frankenstein of which he himself was the helpless victim the moment his
+old master died. Unwittingly he prepared the way for the triumph of the
+ideas of the French Revolution both in Portugal and Brazil, and his most
+beneficent measures were the most fatal to the permanence of his
+despotic system. Commercial prosperity gave the Brazilian people
+resources; the impartial administration of law gave them some
+conceptions of civic pride and independence; the encouragement of
+education, small as it was, helped start an intellectual movement which
+spread over the wilds of Brazil the liberal principle then fermenting in
+Europe.
+
+Immediately upon his fall in 1777 the Portuguese government reverted to
+most of the old abuses, but the economic impulse did not at once die
+out.
+
+Pombal had not only expelled the Jesuits, but had taken effective
+measures against enslaving the Indians. The latter separated themselves
+from the whites, and miscegenation largely decreased. On the other hand,
+the importation of negro slaves had been continued on a large scale
+throughout the eighteenth century and the proportion of blacks in the
+mining and sugar districts had increased. Intermixture with negroes was
+stimulated by the seclusion of the white women. The young men often took
+mistresses from among the slaves, and these unions sometimes subsisted
+after legitimate marriage. The system of double _ménages_, however,
+decreased as manners became more liberal, and opportunities for social
+intercourse between the sexes increased.
+
+The more energetic Brazilians acquired the rudiments of learning in the
+Jesuit schools, and a few fortunate youths were sent to the University
+at Coimbra in Portugal. In the early decades of the eighteenth century
+societies for the discussion of literary and scientific questions were
+established in Rio and Bahia. In the centres of population little groups
+of scholars began to gather who surreptitiously obtained the writings
+of French and English political philosophers. Suddenly, in the latter
+half of the century, a dazzling literary outburst occurred. Its seat was
+not in Rio, the political, nor Bahia, the ecclesiastical capital, nor
+yet in Pernambuco, the cradle of the nationality, but in Ouro Preto, the
+chief place of the mining province of Minas, twenty days' journey on
+muleback from the coast, and among a rude and unlettered population.
+Within a few years appeared six of the foremost poets of the Portuguese
+language: the lyrics, Gonzaga, Claudio, Silva Alvarengo, and Alvarengo
+Peixoto, and the epics, Basilio da Gama and Santa Rita Durão. He who
+writes the songs of a people rather records their history than
+influences it. The writings of the Minas lyric poets are the best
+documents extant on the character of the Brazilians of the colonial
+period. They clearly reveal that culture was only at its beginnings;
+that patriotism and national pride were indefinite and shadowy; that
+religion was neither dogmatic nor absorbing; that polite society had not
+come into being, and that the intellectual element entered little into
+the relations of the sexes.
+
+The independence of the United States suggested to a few Brazilians the
+possibility of freeing their country from Portugal. In 1785 a dozen
+Brazilian students at Coimbra formed a club for this purpose, and one of
+them wrote to Thomas Jefferson, then Minister to France, asking American
+aid. Jefferson was interested, but answered that nothing could be done
+until the Brazilians themselves had risen in arms. A like impulse was
+working in the minds of the poets and their friends at Ouro Preto. A
+child-like conspiracy was formed whose object was to found a republic
+with San John d'El Rei as capital and Ouro Preto as the seat of a
+university. A few practical men listened to the plans of the
+conspirators probably with a view of turning a disturbance to account in
+preventing the government from putting into effect an obnoxious gold tax
+then being threatened. Among those let into the inner circle was a young
+sergeant nicknamed "Tiradentes." He undertook the task of fomenting an
+uprising among the troops, but before anything practical had been done
+the whole thing had been given away to the authorities. The conspirators
+were arrested and taken to Rio, where the frightened governor instituted
+a formal and elaborate trial and took a fearful vengeance upon the
+helpless boys and poets. Poor Tiradentes, being without powerful
+connections, was hanged and quartered. His memory is now revered in
+Brazil as that of the first martyr to independence and the precursor of
+the republic. The gentle Claudio hanged himself in prison after having
+been tortured into a confession implicating his friends. Gonzaga and
+Alvarengo, with several others, were banished to Africa.
+
+Republican and separatist ideas had, however, made no headway among the
+Brazilian masses. Brazil's independence was to come by the force of
+circumstances and not by any deliberate national effort, and for a
+republic she was destined to wait a century more.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE PORTUGUESE COURT IN RIO
+
+
+The political development of colonial Brazil may be divided into three
+epochs. First, there was the confusion of early colonisation, the
+unsuccessful attempt to establish a system of feudal captaincies, the
+struggles against the Indians, French, and Jesuits, and the search for a
+solid economic foundation for the new commonwealth. On the whole, this
+era contained the promise of the ultimate development of a freer
+governmental system than that of Portugal.
+
+Next followed the Spanish dynasty and the wars against the Dutch.
+Control of Brazil by the home government was weakened, and the colonists
+learned their own military power. The years following the expulsion of
+the Dutch--1655 to 1700--were the brightest politically in Brazil's
+colonial history. The municipalities, governed by local oligarchies of
+landowners, exercised functions not contemplated by the Portuguese code.
+Though the military governors were continually encroaching, and the
+system was imperfect, it was in essence thoroughly local. Its
+fundamental defect was the want of co-operation between the towns.
+
+The third period began with the consolidation of Portugal's
+international position in the closing years of the seventeenth century.
+Once secure from foreign attacks, she renewed the exploitation of Brazil
+with redoubled eagerness. The discovery of the mines made the plunder
+enormous. At first there were resistance and even formidable rebellions
+like Beckman's in Maranhão, of the mascates in Pernambuco, or of the
+emboabas in Minas. But the civic vitality of the people was not great
+enough to sustain any continuous and effective opposition. Early in the
+eighteenth century the municipalities were already at the mercy of the
+military governors, and Brazil was governed partly by petty despots and
+partly by numerous feeble local bodies who were without cohesion or
+power to resist interference. Brazil would have remained a dependency of
+Portugal during an indefinite period had it not been for a series of
+events which arose in Europe out of the French Revolution.
+
+  [Illustration: DOM JOHN VI.
+  [From an old woodcut.]]
+
+By 1807 England was the only power which still defied Napoleon. Portugal
+had been Great Britain's ally for a century, but Napoleon found it
+necessary to have command of Lisbon and Porto in order to enforce his
+Berlin and Milan decrees. He peremptorily commanded Portugal to give up
+her English alliance. The pusillanimous John, who had been prince regent
+since the insanity of his mother in 1792, hesitated and shuffled,
+seeking to put off the emperor with negotiations and evasions and a show
+of hostility to England. A single despatch indicating his double
+dealing was enough for Napoleon, who promptly made an agreement with
+Spain for the division of Portugal and ordered Junot to march on Lisbon.
+The people were ready to make a desperate resistance, but their king was
+in two minds each day, and the army had been withdrawn from the frontier
+to bid the British fleet a hypocritical defiance. John shed tears over
+his unhappy country, but prepared to save his own person by a flight to
+Rio. Junot had passed the frontier and was advancing on Lisbon by forced
+marches. The Prince Regent and his Court huddled their movable property
+on board the men-of-war lying in the Tagus. Fifteen thousand persons,
+including most of the nobility, and fifty millions of property and
+treasure were embarked. Junot's advance guard arrived at the mouth of
+the river on the 27th of November, 1807, in time to see the fleet just
+outside and bearing south under British convoy.
+
+Six weeks later the exiles caught sight of the coast of Brazil, destined
+thereafter to be the principal seat of the Portuguese race. The Prince
+Regent disembarked at Bahia, where the people received him with
+enthusiastic demonstrations of loyalty and tried desperately hard to
+induce him to make their city his capital. He adhered to the original
+plan, and on the 7th of March, 1808, arrived at Rio, where he was
+received with equal cordiality. No conditions were imposed on the
+helpless fugitives. The first acts of the prince regent proved that the
+removal would be of inestimable advantage to Brazil. He promulgated a
+decree opening the five great ports to the commerce of all friendly
+nations. The system of seclusion and monopolies fell to the ground at a
+single blow. Other decrees removed the prohibitions on manufacturing and
+on trades. Foreigners were allowed to come to Brazil either for travel
+or residence, and were guaranteed personal and property rights; a
+national bank was established; commercial corporations were given
+franchises; a printing-press was set up; military and naval schools and
+a medical college were founded. Foreigners were encouraged to immigrate
+and that improvement in art, industries, civilisation, and manners began
+which can only result from the daily contact of different types of
+humanity. For the first time Brazil was opened to scientific
+investigation, and scholars, engineers, and artists were imported to aid
+in making its resources known. The commercial nations lost no time in
+trying to get a foothold in this virgin market; they sent their consuls
+and salesmen, and within a few months importations, principally from
+Great Britain, far exceeded any possible demand.
+
+The prince regent found his South American empire divided into eighteen
+provinces. These constitute the present states of the Brazilian
+union--the only changes having been the separation of Alagoas from
+Pernambuco and of Paraná from São Paulo, besides the erection of the
+city of Rio into a neutral district. Of the three millions of people
+one-third were negro slaves, and the free negroes and mulattos numbered
+as many more. The proportion of whites in the whole country was not more
+than a fourth, and in the larger coast cities, in the sugar districts,
+and the mining regions, it descended to a seventh and even a tenth.
+Civilised Indians were most numerous in Pará and Amazonas, and whites
+predominated most in the extreme South and in the stock-raising
+interior. In the century since, the whites have increased to forty per
+cent. and the negroes have fallen to less than twenty-five, in spite of
+the large slave importation in the first half of the nineteenth century.
+Sugar was still the great staple. Exports of gold and precious stones
+had fallen with the exhaustion of the best placers late in the preceding
+century. Tobacco was largely produced, especially in Bahia, and Maranhão
+and Pará were centres of a flourishing cotton trade. Rice, indigo, and
+pepper were exported on a considerable scale, and the production of
+coffee had been carried from Pará to Rio, and was rapidly increasing.
+
+The people of the interior were mostly clothed in coarse cottons
+manufactured at home; probably nine-tenths went barefoot and lived in
+rude houses without ornamentation and conveniences. The slave system,
+the large landed estates, the want of diversification of industry, the
+general apathy, the ease of maintaining one's self in the mild
+climate--all these causes co-operated to lessen consuming power and to
+diminish Brazil's value as a market for imported merchandise.
+
+Great estates, many of them owned by religious corporations, were the
+rule. Only the best parts of these estates were cultivated. Enclosures
+were almost unknown, and the farm buildings were dilapidated. Though
+next to sugar the chief wealth, cattle were neglected, breeds were not
+kept up, and the making of butter was so little understood that it was
+worth a dollar a pound. The proprietors of the sugar ranches left
+everything to their slaves. Ploughs were unknown; lumber was sawed by
+hand; water power was rarely used for any purpose, though so abundant.
+The only schools were a few in the towns; artificial light was
+practically unused; the cities were dilapidated, and their filthy
+streets were full of stagnant water. Horsemen rode on the sidewalks in
+the centre of Rio itself.
+
+Freight was brought from the interior on muleback over narrow trails,
+and hardly any roads for wheeled vehicles existed. The mountains and
+heavily forested coast regions were extremely difficult to penetrate,
+but in the sparsely forested interior the old Indian trails furnished
+facilities for constant communication, which was astonishingly rapid
+considering the circumstances.
+
+The people were very hospitable; to receive a guest was an honour; each
+ranch had special quarters for travellers, and the only pay the stranger
+could offer was to tell the news. Outside the ports no foreigner had
+ever been seen, and the first Englishman who visited São Paulo in 1809
+was as much of a curiosity as an Esquimau would be to-day.
+
+During John's stay in Rio, Brazil was little involved in foreign
+difficulties. In 1808 an expedition was sent from Pará, which took
+possession of Cayenne, but the place was restored to the French in 1815.
+In the south the breaking out of the Argentine revolution in 1810 was a
+temptation for the Prince Regent to increase Brazil's territory. After
+the expulsion of the Spaniards by the populace of Buenos Aires, the
+Spanish forces in Montevideo held that place against the patriots for
+four years. John sent an army into Uruguay in 1811 nominally to help the
+Spaniards, but he had to withdraw it because of British pressure. After
+the surrender of Montevideo by the Spaniards a civil war broke out
+amongst the patriots of Uruguay and the adjacent Argentine provinces.
+The warring factions trespassed on the territory of their Brazilian
+neighbours. John determined to seize the coveted north bank of the Plate
+for himself. In 1815 the celebrated guerrilla chief, Artigas, invaded
+the Seven Missions, which had been seized in 1801, and throughout that
+year and the next the Rio Grandenses fought desperately to expel him.
+Finally Artigas was decisively defeated, and the Portuguese army marched
+down the coast and entered Montevideo without opposition. They were
+welcomed by the factions opposed to Artigas, but the Buenos Aires
+government protested and Artigas kept up a resistance in the interior
+until he was overthrown by rival Argentine chieftains. From 1817 to 1821
+Uruguay remained in the military occupation of Brazilian troops, and in
+the latter year it was formally annexed under the title of the
+Cisplatine Province.
+
+Brazil had had to assume the burdens as well as reap the advantages of
+being an independent nation. The whole extravagant government with its
+swarm of hangers-on, who had bankrupted both nations together, was now
+saddled on Brazil alone. John's advisers regarded liberal principles as
+dangerous to civil order, and considered all French and North Americans
+as firebrands whose presence in Brazil might start the flame of
+revolution. The United States minister was treated as if he were a
+Jacobin agent, and American ships were searched for Napoleon's spies.
+However, the removal of the Court to Rio had set forces in motion which
+ultimately transformed Brazil. Free ports were open doors for ideas and
+education as well as merchandise. Free manufacturing and immigration
+diversified industry and spread energetic habits. The influx of so many
+educated Portuguese and the introduction of the printing-press
+stimulated a desire for instruction among the Brazilians. Ambition for
+employment in the public service, the road to which, under the
+Portuguese system, has always lain through the gates of a university,
+co-operated. A considerable educated class began to be formed, though
+the intellectual movement never extended into the body of the people.
+Through the former class the nation found a means of expression. A
+spirit of inquiry and unrest was roused, but the movement was
+intellectual rather than instinctive; theoretical rather than practical;
+from the top down, and directed more toward revolutionising the central
+government than developing local administration.
+
+The first outbreak on Brazilian soil against absolutism was the
+Pernambuco revolution of 1817. Five lodges of Free Masons existed in the
+city; the priests themselves were most earnest preachers of political
+freedom; merchants and sugar-planters wanted lower taxes; the prosperity
+of the sugar trade had made the people self-confident. A conspiracy was
+formed which had the sympathy of many of the clergy and influential
+citizens. An attempt to arrest the principal agitators resulted in a
+riot; the troops were mostly Brazilian, and rose in favour of their
+compatriots, and the populace joined them. The governor fled, leaving
+the public departments, and the treasury containing a million dollars in
+the hands of the revolutionists. The movement became at once frankly
+separatist and republican. A Committee of Public Safety was named; the
+Portuguese flags were torn down; a temporary constitution proclaimed; a
+printing-press set up to publish a liberal newspaper. Messengers were
+despatched to the interior and to the neighbouring provinces to announce
+the overthrow of despotism and to invite co-operation, but they met with
+no enthusiastic reception. Fear of the aggressive Jacobinism of the city
+of Pernambuco cooled the slave-owners and conservatives, and the
+dignitaries on the revolutionary committee were shocked by the
+impetuosity of their radical colleagues. The insurgents had not had time
+to provide themselves with arms, and a Portuguese fleet from Bahia
+quickly blockaded the port. When the royal troops came up they found the
+interior of the province in civil war, and the radicals were soon backed
+into the city, where a short siege compelled them to capitulate. The
+more aggressive leaders were shot by court-martial and a military
+government was set up. Hundreds of prisoners were carried off to Bahia,
+where they remained until the great reaction of 1821.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+INDEPENDENCE
+
+
+In 1820 the standard of revolt was raised in Cadiz against the Spanish
+Bourbons, who, with the aid of the Holy Alliance, had re-established
+absolutism after the fall of Napoleon. The feeble Ferdinand was
+compelled to accept a liberal constitution. When the news reached Lisbon
+the Regency, acting there for King John, was panic-stricken.
+Communication with Spain was forbidden and word sent off post-haste to
+John to urge his immediate return to Portugal, or at least the sending
+of his eldest son, as the only means of pacifying the deep
+dissatisfaction felt because of the absence of the Court and government.
+In Porto--always the centre of liberal movements--a formidable
+conspiracy was formed which included the leading citizens and the
+officers of the garrison, and in August, 1820, the royal authority was
+overthrown after scarcely a show of resistance, and a provisional junta
+installed. The movement spread over the northern provinces and thence to
+Lisbon, where a junta assumed power in December. After some confusion it
+was agreed temporarily to adopt the Spanish Constitution, to summon the
+Cortes, and to retain the Braganza dynasty as constitutional monarchs.
+
+The news of the rising in Porto spread like wildfire through the
+Portuguese possessions beyond sea. Madeira and the Azores immediately
+installed revolutionary juntas, and some of the Brazilian provinces
+could not wait until the assembling of the Cortes before establishing
+free governments. Among native Brazilians and immigrated Portuguese,
+among soldiers and citizens alike, the enthusiasm for a constitution was
+well-nigh universal. In Pará, Pernambuco, and Rio Grande do Sul, the
+royal governors were dispossessed by the united soldiers and people, and
+the Spanish Constitution proclaimed as the law of the land. Rio,
+however, lay quiet, and it was not until February, 1821, that the Bahia
+garrison deposed the governor, and installed a provisional junta, which,
+protesting allegiance to the House of Braganza, proclaimed the Spanish
+Constitution, nominated deputies to the Cortes, and promised to adopt
+whatever definite constitution might be framed by that body.
+
+The action of Bahia was decisive. Throughout the interior it met with
+approval. That John could hope for no support from Brazil in case he
+decided to make a struggle against the Portuguese revolutionists, was
+evident. Reluctantly he issued a proclamation announcing his intention
+to send Dom Pedro, his eldest son, to treat with the Cortes, and he
+promised to adopt such parts of the new constitution as might be found
+expedient for Brazil. To such delay native Brazilians and the
+Portuguese-born were alike opposed. In Rio the troops and people arose,
+demanding an unconditional promise to ratify any constitution the Cortes
+might adopt. On the 26th of February a great crowd assembled in the
+streets, and while the cowardly King skulked in his suburban palace, the
+Prince Pedro addressed the people, swearing in his father's name and his
+own to accept unreservedly the expected constitution. The multitude
+insisted on marching out to the King's palace to show their enthusiastic
+gratitude. Trembling with fear John was forced to get into his carriage,
+and the miserable man was frightened out of his wits when the crowd took
+the horses out to drag him with their own hands. He fainted away and,
+when he recovered his senses, sat snivelling, protesting between his
+sobs his willingness to agree to anything, and sure that he was going to
+suffer the fate of Louis XVI.
+
+  [Illustration: DOM PEDRO I.
+  [From an old woodcut.]]
+
+Thereafter Dom Pedro, though only twenty-two years old, was the
+principal figure in Brazil. He resembled his passionate, unrestrained,
+and unscrupulous mother rather than his vacillating, pusillanimous
+father. He had grown up neglected and uncontrolled in the midst of his
+parents' quarrelling and the confusion of the removal to Brazil,
+receiving no education except that of a soldier, and hardly able to
+write his native tongue correctly. He was handsome, brave, wilful,
+arrogant, loved riding and driving, was eager and shameless in the
+pursuit of pleasure. His manners were frank and attractive and he was
+active-minded, quick to absorb new impressions, enterprising,
+strong-willed, loved popularity, and intensely enjoyed being the
+principal dramatic figure in any crisis. His personal courage was
+unquestionable, and he was prompt of decision in the face of dangers and
+difficulties. While capable of warm friendships and with strong impulses
+of devotion and gratitude, he lacked real faithfulness. Between him and
+his father little love and no sympathy existed. Prior to the events of
+1821 he had not been admitted to the councils in state affairs, and his
+closest friends were among the young Portuguese officers, who, like most
+of their class, sympathised with the constitutional movement. Pedro was
+a Free Mason, and the Liberal opinions advocated in the lodges greatly
+influenced him. To Pedro, therefore,--young, ardent, popular, holding
+progressive notions,--both Brazilian and Portuguese Liberals naturally
+turned.
+
+Seeing the rôle of leader and ruler of Brazil ready to his hand, Pedro
+favoured the departure of his father for Portugal. A meeting of the Rio
+electors, held on the 21st of April, to elect members to the Cortes
+suddenly changed into a tumult, and demanded that the King assent to the
+Spanish Constitution before his departure. He had no choice but to
+yield, though probably neither he nor the popular leaders had ever read
+the document. The demonstrations continuing, Pedro became uneasy lest
+his father's journey should be delayed, and marched his troops into the
+square and cleared the people out at the point of the bayonet. This
+audacious move was followed by general stupefaction, and the King
+quietly escaped, leaving Pedro as regent. As his vessel weighed anchor
+he said to his son: "I fear Brazil before long will separate herself
+from Portugal; if so, rather than allow the crown to fall to some
+adventurer, place it on thy own head."
+
+The grasping policy of the Portuguese members of the Cortes furnished
+the impulse that drove the Brazilians into union and independence. The
+Cortes met in Lisbon, and, although most of the Brazilian delegates had
+not arrived, immediately undertook to pass measures touching the most
+important interests of the younger kingdom. In December, 1821, news
+reached Brazil that decrees had been enacted requiring the prince to
+leave Brazil, abolishing the appeal courts at Rio, creating governors
+who were to supersede the juntas and be independent of local control,
+and sending garrisons to the principal cities. Tremendous popular
+excitement followed. The coupling of the order for Pedro's retirement
+with the provisions for the enslavement and disintegration of Brazil,
+made the provinces realise that he was the only centre around which they
+could rally for effective resistance. A cry rose up from the whole
+country, praying Pedro not to abandon them. The address sent by the
+provincial junta of São Paulo was penned by the hand of José Bonifacio
+de Andrada, and may well be called the Brazilian declaration of
+independence.
+
+    "How dare these Portuguese deputies, without waiting for the
+    Brazilian members, promulgate laws which affect the dearest
+    interests of this realm? How dare they dismember Brazil into
+    isolated parts possessing no common centre of strength and union?
+    How dare they deprive your Royal Highness of the Regency with which
+    your august father, our Monarch, had invested you? How dare they
+    deprive Brazil of the tribunals instituted for the interpretation
+    and modification of laws; for the general administration of
+    ecclesiastical affairs, of finance, commerce, and so many
+    institutions of public utility? To whom are the unhappy people
+    hereafter to address themselves for redress touching their business
+    and judicial interests?"
+
+José Bonifacio, whose voice and example, more than any other man's, gave
+expression and direction to the aspiration for independence, belonged to
+the English parliamentary school which was dominant then in liberal
+thought. The elevation of the young and progressive prince to an
+independent throne seemed an easy method of establishing constitutional
+government, as well as of securing Brazil's autonomy. Pedro did not
+hesitate long in acceding to the wish of the Brazilians. On January 9,
+1822, he formally announced that he would remain in Brazil--thus defying
+the Portuguese Cortes. The word "independence" had not yet been
+employed, and there was a very general hope that the Portuguese would
+listen to reason when the Brazilian deputies arrived in Lisbon. The only
+active resistance to Pedro in Brazil came from the Portuguese soldiers,
+some of whom revolted and went so far as to march under arms to a point
+commanding the city of Rio, but their nerve failed them in face of the
+immense concourse of citizens who were preparing to fight.
+
+  [Illustration: DOM JOSÉ BONIFACIO DE ANDRADA.
+  [From a steel print.]]
+
+Pedro threw himself unreservedly into the hands of the patriots. José
+Bonifacio was made Prime Minister, and measures taken to re-establish
+the control of the central over the provincial governments. But the
+ruling groups in the various capitals were not very ready to surrender
+their authority. Pedro called a council, but representatives from only
+four provinces responded. Bahia and Pernambuco were held in check by
+Portuguese garrisons, and other provinces hesitated before committing
+themselves. Meanwhile the Portuguese majority in the Cortes paid no
+attention to the warnings of the Brazilian members, but ruthlessly
+pushed forward the measures for the commercial and political subjection
+of Brazil. Most of the Brazilian members withdrew, while a squadron was
+sent to Rio to escort the prince back to Portugal. On May 13 1822, he
+assumed the title of "Perpetual Defender and Protector of Brazil," and
+from this to a formal declaration of independence was only a step. In
+June he notified the Cortes that Brazil must have her own legislative
+body, and, on his own responsibility, issued writs for a constituent
+assembly. The Cortes responded by re-enforcing the Bahia garrison, and
+the Bahianos retaliated by attacking the Portuguese troops. The
+Pernambucanos expelled their garrison and sent promises of adhesion to
+the prince. On the 7th of September Pedro was in São Paulo, and there
+received despatches telling of still more violent measures taken by the
+Cortes, accompanied by letters from José Bonifacio urging that the
+opportunity they had so often planned for together had at last arrived.
+Pedro reflected but a moment, and then, dramatically drawing his sword,
+cried, "Independence or Death!" Everything had been carefully timed, and
+his entrance into Rio a few days later, wearing a cockade with the new
+device, was greeted with enthusiasm. On the 12th of October he was
+solemnly crowned "Constitutional Emperor of Brazil," announcing that he
+would accept the constitution to be drawn up by the approaching
+constituent assembly.
+
+Prompt and efficient measures for the expulsion of the Portuguese
+garrisons from Bahia, Maranhão, Pará, and Montevideo were taken. The
+militia came forward enthusiastically; the regular forces were rapidly
+increased; Lord Cochrane, the celebrated free-lance English admiral, was
+placed in command of a fair-sized fleet which sailed at once for Bahia,
+and, defeating the ships which remained faithful to the Portuguese
+cause, established a blockade that soon enabled the land forces
+besieging the city to reduce the place. At Maranhão Cochrane's success
+was still easier; Pará also fell without resistance at the summons of
+one of his captains; and the news of these successes was followed by
+that of the surrender of the garrison at Montevideo. Within less than a
+year from the declaration of independence not a hostile Portuguese
+soldier remained on Brazilian soil.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+REIGN OF PEDRO I.
+
+
+Independence was the result of a plan carefully arranged by José
+Bonifacio and his Brazilian associates. Pedro had declared himself
+emperor in an access of dramatic enthusiasm. He wanted the glory of
+founding a great empire and he loved to think of his name as that of the
+first legitimate monarch who was really self-abnegating enough to
+establish constitutional government of his own free will. The rôle of a
+Washington, with the added glory of unselfishly resigning absolute
+power, appealed to his boyish vanity. But the cold fit came on when he
+undertook to perform his promises. His loud protestations of
+constitutionalism turned out to be mere windy mouthings. Though his
+reign largely assisted in maintaining Brazil's territorial unity, it cut
+off the promise of local self-government and helped bring on twenty
+years of bloody revolts. He was not exactly a hypocrite; he loved to
+hear sonorous periods about liberty rolling out of his mouth, but he had
+no idea of what they really meant.
+
+José Bonifacio and his brothers remained at the head of affairs when
+independence was declared, but, ardent and successful as the older
+Andrada had been in that movement, he proved no statesman, and had not
+the strength to oppose his wilful young master. Almost immediately the
+Andradas engaged in bitter quarrels with the other leaders of the
+independence party, and summarily banished the five ablest advocates of
+a liberal constitution. They used their power to revenge themselves on
+their personal enemies, their secret police was worse than anything John
+had maintained, and they forcibly suppressed the newspapers which dared
+criticise their acts. Pedro's authority was accepted slowly outside of
+Rio. The ties binding the northern provinces to him were especially
+feeble. A constituent assembly had been summoned, but great difficulty
+was experienced in securing a full representation. Pernambuco and the
+neighbouring provinces hesitated long before consenting to have anything
+to do with it, and Pará, Maranhão, and Piauhy were never represented. It
+finally met in May, 1823, with only fifty out of the one hundred members
+in their seats. The Emperor opened the session with an arrogant and
+dictatorial speech. "I promise to adopt and defend the constitution
+which you may frame if it should be worthy of Brazil and myself. We need
+a constitution that will be an insurmountable barrier against any
+invasion of the imperial prerogatives." Such language excited an
+unexpected protest even among the members of this humble and
+inexperienced assembly. Though a majority were magistrates, they were
+not without a sense of the dignity of their functions as legislators,
+and were eager for liberty--a liberty interpreted according to their own
+undigested theories.
+
+The Andradas bitterly attacked those who dared protest against the
+Emperor's language, and a majority was only obtained for the government
+programme by the lavish distribution of decorations. Pedro soon tired of
+the Andradas and their fiercely anti-Portuguese policy, and summarily
+dismissed them. The disgraced ministers passed at once into the most
+virulent opposition, and they inflamed popular prejudice against the
+resident Portuguese and aroused fears that the Emperor was plotting a
+reunion of Brazil with Portugal. As the session went on, the assembly
+showed a more independent spirit, and Pedro became more and more
+irritated. The Brazilian newspapers insulted his Portuguese officers and
+the assembly took the part of the former. In November matters reached a
+crisis. Pedro drew up his troops in front of the assembly's
+meeting-house and demanded immediate satisfaction to the insulted
+officers and the expulsion of the Andradas. The answer was a brave
+refusal, but against his cannon nothing availed. He sent up an order for
+an instant and unconditional dissolution, and, arresting the Andradas
+and other Liberals as they came out of the building, deported them on
+board ship without the formality of charge or trial.
+
+Pedro ordered a paper constitution to be drawn up by his ministers. In
+form it was liberal, but he had no serious intention of putting it in
+force.
+
+Even in Rio, the people ignored the invitation to give their formal
+adhesion to this delusive document. A show of acceptance was sought to
+be obtained from the provinces by going through the form of submitting
+it to the municipal councils. These councils were then close
+corporations, largely self-elective, and dominated by the bureaucratic
+caste, but even so, north of Bahia they paid no attention to the
+Emperor's communication, and in the South some members had to be
+imprisoned before their consent could be extorted. The Emperor swore to
+the constitution, and it was gravely promulgated as the nation's
+fundamental law, but no congress was summoned, as a matter of fact the
+government continued a pure despotism wherever the Emperor's power
+extended. The press, which had sprung into existence during the
+agitation for independence, and which, after having been throttled by
+the Andradas, had partly revived during the session of the constituent
+assembly was now definitely suppressed. Taxes were levied on the sole
+authority of the monarch; laws were put into force without other
+sanction than his will; citizens were arbitrarily banished, and military
+tribunals condemned civilians to death in time of peace.
+
+We can never know the extent of the shock felt by the Liberals on
+hearing of the forcible dissolution of the constituent assembly. In
+Pernambuco it was one of the stimulating causes of a rebellion. In that
+city the press had not been suppressed and the spirit of 1817 was still
+alive. A strong separatist feeling existed, and when the junta resigned,
+the popular choice made Carvalho Paes, who had been engaged in the
+former rebellion, governor. The Emperor sent up his own man, but
+authorities and people refused to recognise him. An open breach
+followed, and Pedro, with his usual vigour, undertook to establish his
+dominion over the hitherto aloof North.
+
+In July, 1824, the Pernambucanos threw down the gauntlet by proclaiming
+the "Confederation of the Equator." This was intended to be a federal
+republic after the model of the union between the provinces of
+Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. The adhesion of Pernambuco, Parahyba,
+Rio Grande do Norte, and Ceará could be counted upon, and that of
+Maranhão, Pará, and Bahia was hoped for. Bahia, however, remained
+apathetic, and that city furnished Pedro a convenient base for his
+operations. He sent Admiral Cochrane to blockade and bombard Pernambuco,
+while an army marched up the coast. Factional civil war had broken out
+in the interior of the revolted provinces, and the imperial forces were
+joined by Carvalho's local enemies. The patriots fought desperately, but
+were overwhelmed before they could provide themselves with arms or
+organise their resistance. The city had to surrender on the 17th of
+September, though fighting was kept up for a long time in the interior.
+Cochrane sailed north, reducing the ports one by one, and by the end of
+the year the serious resistance was at an end.
+
+The victorious Emperor punished the patriots with ruthless severity,
+sending many of the leaders to the scaffold, and establishing military
+tribunals which inaugurated a reign of terror. An Englishman named
+Ratcliff was brought to Rio and hanged, not so much for his part in the
+insurrection as because he had once offended Pedro's mother in Portugal.
+"She offered a reward for his head," said the Emperor as he signed the
+death-warrant, "but now she shall have it for nothing." In the spring of
+1825 it seemed as if Pedro was certain to establish himself at the head
+of a military despotism extending from the Amazon to the Plate. Before
+the Pernambuco insurrection his revenue and recruits had been drawn
+solely from Rio and the adjacent provinces. Now his fleet and
+disciplined army, recruited by impressment and concentrated under his
+eye, enabled him to get revenue from all the ports and to hold the
+provinces in check. His sea-power and his possession of the
+purse-strings gave him a tremendous advantage. He imported Germans,
+Swiss, and Irish with a view to forming a corps of janizaries. All
+Brazil seemed submissive, and the enthusiasm which had flamed out among
+the Brazilians in 1821 and 1822 had died down, leaving as its only
+permanent effect a strong sentiment against reunion with Portugal.
+
+Externally his position seemed secure. He was assured of Canning's
+active support in securing formal recognition as an independent monarch;
+Portugal was helpless; though his application for a defensive and
+offensive alliance had been refused by Henry Clay, the United States was
+the first to recognise Brazil's independence; even the Holy Alliance had
+little objection to an independent American state ruled by a legitimate
+monarch. In the summer of 1825 a treaty of peace was framed between
+Portugal and Brazil through the intermediation of England. Independence
+was formally recognised, but Pedro made the error of consenting that his
+father should take the honorary title of Emperor of Brazil, and by a
+secret article he pledged Brazil to assume ten millions of the
+Portuguese debt, though it had been incurred in war against herself.
+
+In March, 1825, a rebellion against Pedro broke out in Uruguay, and the
+Argentine gauchos swarmed over the border. The Brazilians easily held
+the fortified city of Montevideo, but the Spanish-Americans were
+successful in the open field, and after six months of harassing fighting
+caught the imperial army in a disadvantageous position and cut it to
+pieces in the decisive battle of Sarandy. The Buenos Aires government at
+once gave notice that it must recognise that Uruguay had reunited itself
+to the Argentine, and Pedro responded with a declaration of war and a
+blockade.
+
+The preparations for war involved him in unprecedented expenditures,
+which piled up the debt already accumulated in his father's time and
+added to by the war of independence and the suppression of the
+"Confederation of the Equator." He decided to call together the
+representatives of the people and insist that they bear a share of the
+responsibility. So little interest was taken that it was hard to hold
+the elections, and the members had to be urged to present themselves. On
+the 3rd of May, 1826, the first Brazilian Congress met. Intended as a
+mere instrument to furnish supplies for the war, and meeting with the
+fear of the fate of the constituent assembly before its eyes, it
+hesitatingly began the work of parliamentary government. Except for the
+revolution of 1889, the sessions have never since been interrupted.
+
+A week before the assembling of Congress the news reached Brazil that
+King John was dead. Pedro was the eldest son, but his brother Miguel was
+a candidate for the vacant throne. Pedro had to make an immediate choice
+between the two crowns. He decided to keep that of Brazil and to
+transfer that of Portugal to his daughter, Maria Gloria, then a child
+seven years old. He tried to head off Miguel by making the latter regent
+and promising that Maria should marry him as soon as she was old enough,
+while he tied his brother's hands by promulgating a constitution for
+Portugal. The scheme failed to preserve the peace, and the Portuguese
+absolutists, supporting Miguel, and the constitutionalists, Maria
+Gloria, almost immediately became involved in a civil war. During the
+latter part of Pedro's reign he was continually preoccupied with
+Portuguese affairs and trying to promote his daughter's fortunes in
+Europe.
+
+The war on the Plate turned out difficult and disastrous.
+Notwithstanding that great land forces were sent, no progress was made
+toward reducing Uruguay to obedience, and the overwhelming naval force
+blockading Buenos Aires was harassed by a small fleet improvised by an
+able Irishman--Admiral Brown--in the Argentine service. Fast-sailing
+Baltimore clippers fitted out as privateers infested the whole Brazilian
+coast, often venturing in sight of Rio and soon sweeping the coasting
+trade out of existence. Fruitless attempts to enforce the blockade
+involved Pedro in difficulties with neutral powers; Brazilian merchants
+were disgusted with the war, and communication between the provinces
+became nearly impossible.
+
+The Brazilian land forces in Uruguay were increased to twenty thousand,
+but the Argentines under General Carlos Alvear audaciously averted the
+danger of an invasion of their territory by planning and effecting an
+inroad into Rio Grande itself. The Brazilian general allowed Alvear to
+slip between his main body and Montevideo, and the latter penetrated to
+the East, sacked the important town of Bagé, and was off to the North
+with the whole Brazilian army in hot pursuit. On the 20th of February,
+1827, the Argentines turned and attacked the Brazilians at a
+disadvantage, defeating them with great loss. In this battle of
+Ituzaingo sixteen thousand men took part, and the armies were nearly
+equal in numbers. The Brazilians escaped without serious pursuit, while
+the Argentines retired at their leisure, assured that no aggressive
+operations would soon be undertaken against them. Pedro's hope of
+dominance on the south shore of the Plate was ended. Naval disasters
+suffered at the hands of the indefatigable Brown made him still more
+anxious for peace. Negotiations were begun with the Argentine government
+which was only prevented by lack of money and internal factional
+quarrels from undertaking an aggressive war against Brazilian territory.
+Operations were kept up languidly on both sides for a year, and finally
+Pedro in 1828 consented to a preliminary treaty by which he relinquished
+his sovereignty over Uruguay, obtaining in return Argentine consent that
+it be erected into an independent country.
+
+The first session of the Brazilian Congress had been very timid and
+voted as the Emperor desired. The session of 1827 was not so respectful;
+the news of Ituzaingo had made him seem less formidable. For the first
+time the chamber became a forum for the discussion of governmental
+theories, and the voice of Vasconcellos, the great champion of
+parliamentary government, was heard. In the fall of 1827 independent
+newspapers began to make their appearance and Pedro dared not interfere
+with them. The tone of most of them was exaggerated, but in December the
+_Aurora Fluminense_, with Evaristo da Veiga as editor, issued its first
+number. By universal consent he is recognised as the most influential
+journalist who ever wielded a pen in Brazil. His profound and temperate
+discussions of public affairs gave him an ascendency over opinion which
+can hardly be understood in countries where party conventions and set
+speeches give opportunities for authoritatively outlining policies.
+
+  [Illustration: EVARISTO FERREIRA DA VEIGA.
+  [From a steel engraving.]]
+
+When Congress met in May, 1828, the Emperor and his government had
+completely lost prestige. The public's and Chamber's consciousness of
+their rights and their power had made a distinct advance. Vasconcellos
+infused into the debates an independent and statesmanlike spirit not
+unworthy the great popular assemblies of the most advanced countries.
+The youth of this remarkable man had been passed in pleasure-seeking,
+but his election to Congress gave him an object in life commensurate
+with his great abilities, and he applied himself with unquenchable
+ardour to the study of political science. Corrupt in morals, inordinate
+in ambition, his venality notorious, his constitution ruined by disease,
+his skin withered, his hair grey, and his appearance that of a man of
+sixty, though he was but thirty, the spirit within rose superior to all
+physical and moral defects. His rôle was peculiarly that of champion of
+the prerogatives of Congress. By his side was Padre Feijó, afterwards
+regent--incorruptible in morals and unyielding in will--the champion of
+federation and democracy, and the earliest Brazilian positivist.
+
+This Chamber of 1828 made a real beginning toward making ministries
+responsible to Congress, and started legal and administrative reforms,
+but the Emperor insisted that its sole attention be given to increasing
+taxes. When the Chamber definitely refused in 1829 he dissolved it in
+the hope that the next might prove more tractable. This act destroyed
+the last remnants of Pedro's popularity. From that moment his abdication
+or expulsion was inevitable. His friends tried to create a reaction by
+organising societies in favour of absolutism, and governors of
+retrograde principles were appointed, but the popular irritation against
+him because he was a Portuguese by birth and sympathy constantly grew.
+Brazil divided into two parties--all the Brazilians belonged to one and
+only the resident Portuguese to the other. The new Chamber was harder to
+manage than the old one. The Andradas had returned from exile, and most
+of the new members were bitterly prejudiced against Pedro. In the midst
+of the discontent came the news of the July revolution in Paris, giving
+the liberal propaganda a tremendous impetus. The assassination of a
+newspaper man named Badaro in November, 1830, aroused popular
+indignation to a fearful pitch. Pedro made a last effort to regain his
+popularity by making a journey through the province of Minas. His cold
+reception convinced him that the disaffection was not merely local, and
+he returned to Rio sick at heart. In March, 1831, disturbances broke out
+in the Rio streets between the radicals and the Portuguese. Vasconcellos
+and Feijó were absent, but Evaristo drew up a manifesto demanding
+immediate reparation for the outrages committed by the rioting
+Portuguese. The Emperor tried to still the rising storm by dismissing
+his ministry, but the rioting continued and he suddenly again changed
+front and appointed a ministry of known reactionary principles. The
+announcement was followed on the 7th of April by the assembling of a
+mob, among whose members were professional men, public employees, and
+even soldiers and deputies. Pedro's proclamation was torn from the
+messengers' hands and trampled under foot beneath the windows of his
+palace. The troops were all on the popular side. A committee crowded its
+way into the Emperor's presence, but he would yield nothing to
+compulsion, saying with dignity: "I will do everything for the people,
+but nothing by the people." The news of the desertion of the very troops
+guarding his person he received with equanimity, but the populace showed
+equal stubbornness. Throughout the night the crowd stuck to their posts,
+and about two o'clock in the morning he suddenly drew up to a table and,
+without consulting any one, wrote out an unconditional abdication in
+favour of his infant son. The ministers of France and Great Britain had
+remained with him during this night of anxiety, and when the morning
+came they were reluctant to accept his abdication as final. All the
+foreign diplomats except the representatives of the United States and
+Colombia followed him on board the British warship, where he took
+refuge. They wished to give him their moral support in case a
+counter-revolution were attempted.
+
+The most potent cause for Pedro's loss of popularity was that he was a
+Portuguese. He offended the self-love of a jealous people in a hundred
+ways by favouring his Portuguese friends. Almost as fatal was his
+treatment of his blameless wife. One mistress after another succeeded to
+his favours, and he acknowledged and ennobled his illegitimate children.
+Most of his concubines did not hold him long, but the last, who was said
+to be of English descent, acquired a complete ascendancy over him. He
+publicly installed her as his mistress; created her a marchioness;
+forced the Empress to accept her as a lady-in-waiting and submit to ride
+in the same carriage with her. The court attended in a body the baptism
+of her child, and some of his love letters to her are indescribable.
+They could have been written only by a degenerate. In the fall of 1826
+the poor Empress was _enceinte_ with her seventh child in nine years,
+and while in this condition Pedro brutally abused her. She never
+recovered and died in the most fearful agony. Pedro was absent looking
+after the war in the Plate, but the marchioness had the heartless
+effrontery to demand admittance to the sick-room, and Pedro on his
+return dismissed the ministers who had dared to approve the action of
+the official who refused to let his mistress gloat over the tortured
+deathbed of his wife.
+
+Pedro was too boyish, talkative, and familiar to maintain an ascendancy
+over such a people as the Brazilians. At all hours of the day and night
+he was to be seen driving furiously about the streets, and he constantly
+showed himself in the theatres. He liked to drill his troops himself,
+and frequently beat the soldiers with his own imperial hand. Once he
+nearly maimed himself striking at a stupid recruit with his sword, and,
+missing the blow, catching his own foot. On another occasion he almost
+killed himself and two members of his family by overturning his
+carriage. He was always ready to explain to any mob at hand his reasons
+for his official policy, and was too fond of excitement and applause to
+refrain from making a speech whenever he had a chance. The inmost
+emotions of his heart were too cheaply exhibited on the Rio streets for
+the populace to have much respect for them. He was a belated
+knight-errant with a decided touch of the demagogue.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE REGENCY
+
+
+After Pedro's expulsion the country was left in a very insecure
+situation. In Rio the Portuguese were as numerous as the native
+Brazilians. A great part of the population was under arms and radicalism
+and revolution were in the air; but, for the moment, fear of the
+Portuguese and of Pedro's restoration enabled cool-headed, conservative
+leaders to maintain peace. The members of Congress in the city selected
+a provisional regency. The ministry, whose dismissal had been the
+occasion of the outbreak against Pedro, returned to power and, so far as
+Rio was concerned, government proceeded without interruption. Within a
+few weeks Congress met in regular session, and a permanent regency was
+elected. Bahia had revolted and expelled the pro-Portuguese military
+commander even before Pedro's deposition by Rio. When the news of the
+events of the 7th of April reached Pernambuco and Pará the troops
+promptly renounced their commanders.
+
+In Congress grave differences of opinion appeared. The Brazilian party
+quickly divided into two factions--the conservatives, who were faithful
+to the dynasty and wanted the fewest possible changes, and the radicals.
+The former had stepped into control ahead of the latter, but they had
+not the real force of the country behind them. There was a growing
+demand for a larger measure of self-government by the provinces and for
+sweeping democratic reforms.
+
+The regency had no real prestige, the military soon became jealous and
+dissatisfied, and the party in favour of the Emperor's restoration began
+to assume a formidably menacing attitude. In July Rio seemed on the
+point of plunging into a bloody and desperate civil war. The Regency
+called upon Padre Feijó, the great patriot priest and leader of
+democratic opinion, and gave him absolute power as minister of justice.
+His firm measures soon suppressed the disorders in Rio, and the national
+guard which he organised among the better classes of the people held the
+revolting regiments in check. In the provinces, however, the local
+authorities often ignored the commands of the governors appointed by the
+regency; ambitious local leaders plotted to turn the situation to their
+personal advantage; and the soldiers and disorderly elements were
+inflammable material ready to their hands.
+
+In nearly every province civil wars broke out. The typical process was
+for a military officer, a national-guard colonel, or any other person
+who had acquired local prestige, to issue a pronunciamento and announce
+the establishment of a liberal government whose scope was only limited
+by the imagination and knowledge of constitutional law possessed by the
+writer of the pronunciamento. If the municipal authorities resisted they
+were expelled, and creatures of the head of the insurrection put in
+their places. This overturning of legally existing authority would
+usually be resented by some neighbouring official or some rival of the
+petty dictator, and a confused conflict would ensue in which the rank
+and file of neither side would have a very clear conception of what they
+were fighting about, although the words of "liberty" and "local rights,"
+"constitutionalism" and "union," were overworked in speeches and
+proclamations. It is not worth while to give the detailed story of these
+monotonous and tedious uprisings, massacres, encounters, and
+usurpations, though the operations often rose to the dignity of
+campaigns and pitched battles. Hardly a province escaped. In Pernambuco
+in 1831 the soldiery sacked the city and the people avenged themselves
+by killing three hundred and banishing the rest. Next year another
+military revolt broke out in the same city, which soon became an
+insurrection whose nominal purpose was to restore the Emperor, and which
+lasted four years. Two hundred persons were killed in Pará in 1831
+during a single night of street fighting. A bitter little civil war in
+Maranhão lasted all through the winter of 1831-32, and was only put down
+by a general sent from Rio. In Ceará the partisans of the Emperor kept
+the province in a state of anarchy for several months. In Minas Geraes
+the friends of Pedro obtained possession of the capital, and the
+patriots had to fight hard to get the better of them. Though most of
+these insurrections were suppressed by the people of the state
+concerned, disrespect for the central government was increasing, and a
+blind and jealous hatred of the Portuguese and everything foreign grew
+continuously.
+
+During the four stormy years which succeeded Pedro's expulsion, Congress
+discussed violently the terms of the constitutional revision which all
+saw to be inevitable. Though the radical elements predominated, the
+conservatives and the senate succeeded in bringing about a compromise. A
+single regent was substituted for the triple system; he was to be
+elected by universal though indirect suffrage; and, most important of
+all, each province was given its own assembly with power to levy taxes
+and conduct most of the affairs of local government. The conservatives
+managed to preserve the life senate and the nomination of the provincial
+governors by the central government.
+
+The party in favour of Pedro's restoration had been gaining ground. The
+Andradas, always in the most extreme opposition when out of power, went
+over to it, and the conservatives were gravitating in the same direction
+when Pedro's own death in 1834 put an end to the movement. He died at a
+happy moment for his fame,--covered with the laurels he had just won by
+driving out his usurping and absolutist brother, Miguel, and by using
+that opportunity to endow Portugal with a constitution. By a curious
+irony of fate, this reckless soldier and descendant of a hundred
+absolute kings was the instrument through which constitutional
+government was given to both branches of the Portuguese race.
+
+The statesman who had proved himself most nearly master of the situation
+during these stormy years was Padre Feijó. He represented the average
+Brazilian--the disinterested and honest public. He had energy and
+intrepidity; his eloquence was peculiar and commanding; his advocacy of
+his beliefs was uncompromising; he had been a leader in sustaining
+liberal ideas; and he had proven his practical courage and capacity in
+putting down the counter-revolution in Rio. He naturally became a
+candidate for sole regent after the passage of the _Acto Addicional_, or
+amendment to the constitution. It seemed appropriate that to him should
+be entrusted the putting into force of the law which was expected to
+change Brazil into a federation of democracies united under a
+constitutional monarchy. Elected after a close contest, he took office
+in the latter part of 1835, sincerely anxious to rule well and sustained
+by a popular love and confidence such as few Brazilian statesmen have
+enjoyed. However, from the beginning he was unable to count on the
+support of a majority of the Chamber. He was not the man to manage by
+adroit manipulation and skilful distribution of patronage, but his own
+work and that of Vasconcellos had borne fruit, and the popular branch of
+the legislature had become the dominating political force in the
+Brazilian system. The tide was now setting toward conservatism; the
+heroic impulses that had brought about the revolution of 1831 had lost
+their force; the nation's temper was cooled; the politicians had
+forgotten their fine enthusiasm and were busily engaged in personal
+intrigues.
+
+Feijó inherited from the former regency the two most formidable
+revolutions which so far had broken out--that of Vinagre and Malcher in
+Pará, and the great rebellion in Rio Grande do Sul. He was hardly fitted
+to deal with such a complicated situation as that of Brazil in 1836. He
+himself said: "I am a man to break, never to bend." Though he gave the
+officeholders of Brazil an object-lesson in unblemished integrity, his
+actions were often harsh and arbitrary. When on the floor of the Chamber
+he had been the chief exponent of democracy, but as chief executive he
+rode roughshod over his inferiors, refused to be guided by others, even
+in matters where no principle was involved, and proved that he had the
+true Latin tendency to centralise administration.
+
+Vasconcellos soon outgeneralled Feijó. A dread of innovation was
+spreading among the landholding classes. The merchants and Portuguese of
+the cities naturally gravitated away from the radical regent. The
+opposition majority in the Chamber, compactly organised by
+Vasconcellos's skilful management, was encouraged, feeling that it was
+backed by the mercantile and office-holding classes, and by the persons
+of highest intelligence and best social position. It clung together with
+a cohesion unusual in South America, and was the foundation upon which
+the historical parties were built whose names are constantly
+encountered in Brazilian political history for the next fifty years.
+
+For two years Feijó struggled against the adverse conditions. For the
+Pará revolution he found a clever and faithful general in Andrea, and
+managed to keep him well supplied with money and troops, so that a
+vigorous pursuit of the guerrilla chiefs resulted in their capture and
+the pacification of the province. But in Rio Grande the people were too
+strong and too independent to be reduced by troops sent from without,
+and Congress hampered him by refusing votes of credit. The revolution
+which had broken out there three months before he assumed the regency
+had been occasioned by anti-Portuguese feeling and the unpopularity of
+the governor. The latter was obliged to flee from Porto Alegre with
+hardly a semblance of resistance. At first Feijó wisely limited his
+interference to the nomination of a new governor. It was not safe to
+irritate the half-feudal chiefs, backed by their bands of gauchos
+trained in constant raids over the Uruguayan border and who were too
+accustomed to seeing revolutions on the Spanish side to hesitate much
+about undertaking one on their own account. But the new governor was
+ambitious and tried to take advantage of the jealousies among the gaucho
+leaders to make himself supreme. He got some of the ablest of them on
+his side, but the others were stimulated into more determined fighting.
+The rebels kept the field in formidable numbers, and among their able
+partisan chiefs was Giuseppe Garibaldi, who here took part in his first
+war for freedom. At first evil fortune followed the patriots, and they
+were badly defeated in the battle of Fanfa, where their greatest leader,
+Bento Gonçalves, was captured and carried to Rio. His lieutenants
+rallied again and declared Rio Grande an independent republic.
+
+Feijó despatched a new governor, whose oppressive measures soon brought
+about a wholesale desertion by the Rio Grandenses, who had hitherto
+supported the union side. By the middle of 1837 Rio Grande seemed
+hopelessly lost to Brazil, and the government only held the coast towns.
+
+His bad management of affairs in Rio Grande was the immediate occasion
+of Feijó's resignation (September, 1837). The victorious conservative
+majority immediately stepped into power. Bernardo de Vasconcellos reaped
+at length a personal reward for his years of labour and intrigue, and
+became the ruling force in the Chamber, and Prime Minister, though a
+wealthy senator, Araujo Lima by name, had been elected regent. But
+Vasconcellos was merely the first among equals and held his power only
+so long as he could command the support of the conservative majority. A
+sort of oligarchy grew up which directed the work of reaction without
+much more regard for outside opinion than Pedro himself had shown.
+However, Brazil had finally entered upon a stage of government which in
+form was parliamentary and in substance was partly so. It was rather the
+parliamentarism of Walpole than of Gladstone; the members owed their
+seats to the administration; they were a sort of self-nominating and
+self-renewing body; and departmental and judicial administration
+continued in much the same old way.
+
+The great task before the conservative regency was to undo most of the
+work which had been wrought by the federalist and democratic movement of
+the early 30's. The amendments to the constitution, known as the _Acto
+Addicional_, had apparently established the autonomy of the provinces in
+their local affairs. If these amendments had been put into effect,
+Brazil would have become a federated state like Switzerland or the
+United States. The conservatives were alarmed at the length to which the
+provincial assemblies were already going in managing their own affairs,
+and succeeded in turning the country back on the road toward
+centralisation and unification. A law was passed which interpreted the
+_Acto Addicional_ so as nearly to destroy provincial autonomy. The
+provincial assemblies were forbidden to interfere with the magistracy;
+their resolutions could be vetoed by the governors or the national
+Congress; their power of controlling the administration of justice was
+taken away. They became little more than advisory bodies completely
+under the dominance of governors appointed from Rio, and who rarely were
+citizens of the states they ruled. At first there was little opposition,
+and the regency easily suppressed a separatist movement in Bahia which
+proposed to establish a republic until the boy emperor should come of
+age.
+
+  [Illustration: DONNA JANUARIA.
+  [From a steel engraving.]]
+
+The reorganised regency was, however, weak. The attitude of the nation
+was merely tolerant and expectant. The war in Rio Grande, continued and
+the attacks of the Liberals in the Chamber increased in force and
+effectiveness. Ministers began to change and shift; the conviction grew
+that the conservative oligarchy would not long rule the country.
+Liberals and conservatives alike inclined to the idea that the best
+thing was to return to a ruler selected from the legitimate royal
+family. According to the constitution the boy emperor would not become
+of age until he reached eighteen, in 1843. If the constitution were
+strictly followed the country would have to be governed for years by a
+hybrid executive--a regent who was neither a ruler by popular choice nor
+yet a monarch by blood and succession. Many advocated declaring the
+Emperor's eldest sister, Januaria, regent, though the young lady
+protested tearfully against being turned into such a thing as she
+imagined a regent to be. More insisted that the Emperor, in spite of his
+tender years, immediately assume the functions of supreme ruler.
+
+The politicians in opposition, with the two surviving Andradas at their
+head, took advantage of this feeling. Bills were introduced in Congress
+authorising the Emperor to take the reins at once. The regent's
+ministers did not dare directly oppose these measures; they only tried
+to compromise as long as possible. But difficulties and dissatisfaction
+increased; a formidable revolution broke out in Maranhão; the Rio
+Grandenses invaded Santa Catharina. It was evident that the regency
+could not continue to hold the clashing provinces together. While the
+intellectual conviction had never been stronger that union between the
+provinces was an advantage, circumstances were increasing
+dissatisfaction and insubordination in every part of the empire.
+
+  [Illustration: DOM PEDRO II.
+  [From a steel engraving.]]
+
+The contest in Congress over the Emperor's majority assumed an acute
+phase as soon as the session of 1840 began. The ministry in desperation
+sought to prevent immediate action by calling Vasconcellos back to power
+and proroguing the session. The announcement of this step was followed
+by an outburst that left no recourse but a submission of the matter in
+dispute to the boy emperor himself. The opposition deputies went out in
+a body to see him, and begged him to consent to assume his imperial
+functions at once. Though entirely unauthorised by the constitution, no
+one made serious objection to such a revolutionary way of proceeding.
+The young Pedro accepted with dignity and confidence; the city and
+country went wild with delight, and on the 23rd of July, 1840, Congress
+assembled in a sort of extraordinary constituent assembly and without a
+dissenting voice proclaimed him of age.
+
+Although the ten years of the regency were the stormiest in Brazilian
+history, they were in many respects the most fruitful. The nation was
+serving an apprenticeship in governing itself; its public men were being
+trained; the value of self-restraint and of peace were being learned.
+The freedom of the press and of parliament was definitely established.
+The production of literature began; professional schools were put on a
+footing not unworthy of any civilised country; learned societies were
+organised; the study of the resources of the country was continued;
+social intercourse developed; communication between the provinces
+increased; the study of foreign languages became general among the
+polite classes.
+
+Industrially, too, the period was one of germination of those seeds from
+which subsequently grew the prosperity of the country. Though foreign
+commerce increased little during the civil wars, the cultivation of
+coffee assumed large proportions, and while sugar and cotton, food crops
+and tobacco, suffered much from foreign competition and civil
+disturbances, nevertheless they held up pretty well. The confusion of
+the times and the weakness of the central government prevented any great
+improvement in the public finances, but neither taxes nor debt were
+piled up as they had been under Pedro I. Though the efficiency and
+honesty of the administration left much to be desired, the small
+resources of which the central government disposed brought about an era
+of comparative economy in the departments.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+PEDRO II.
+
+
+The so-called Liberals went into power on the declaration of the
+Emperor's majority, and proved to be more tyrannical and centralising
+than the Conservatives whom they had replaced. Provincial governors were
+dismissed wholesale solely for factional advantage. The Chamber of
+Deputies was dissolved and a new one elected in the fall of 1840, and in
+the choice of deputies the Andradas interfered, securing an overwhelming
+Liberal majority.
+
+In reality, however, the Andradas had not won the confidence of the
+ruling _coteries_, nor of the boy emperor. When they quarrelled with
+Aureliano, one of their colleagues, the matter was submitted to Pedro,
+who was then only fifteen and a half years old. His decision was against
+the Andradas. They resigned, and from that moment until his mental
+powers began to fail Pedro II. was the supreme authority in the State.
+He governed parliamentarily as far as he deemed it possible, left most
+matters to his Cabinets, kept out of view, and was careful to ascertain
+public opinion. None the less he was the final arbiter in matters of
+the first importance. In the politics of the next fifty years he was
+incomparably the most potent Brazilian.
+
+Happily for his country he resembled his mother rather than his father.
+Studious and laborious, books were his great occupation. He was an
+indefatigable and omnivorous reader, and, though especially fond of
+history and sociology, few subjects and few literatures escaped him. No
+fact ever failed to interest him, but his mind was too discursive and
+his studies too widespread and too superficial to give him a store of
+sound and well-digested knowledge. Morally he was a complete contrast to
+his dissipated father. He was a monarch of the conscientious
+nineteenth-century type. He as a little boy had been obedient to the
+priests and ladies to whom his rearing had been entrusted, but they
+retained no great influence over him. Though thoroughly respectful
+toward religion he was not especially devout, and his political ideas
+were gathered rather from his own reading than from direct teaching. As
+a father and husband he was good and kind, and conscientiously devoted
+all his energies to the performance of his duties, public and private.
+His first act on assuming power was to forbid the people of his
+household to ask any favours of him in regard to public affairs.
+
+His manners were democratic. Though tall and handsome he cared little
+for his personal appearance; his clothing was ill-fitting and ill cared
+for; he drove about in rickety old carriages with absurd-looking horses;
+he kept no Court properly so called; he would gobble through his state
+dinners in a hurry to get back to his books; he would call Cabinet
+meetings at inconvenient hours of the night if an idea struck him.
+Though his subjects loved and trusted him, the general tendency was
+rather to laugh at his peculiarities. It could hardly be said that
+people personally stood much in awe of him. At the same time, when
+action was to be taken in a crisis, he could be as arbitrary as any
+czar. He took no pride in imposing his will over that of others, and his
+manners and methods were always mild and gentle. Some believe that he
+deliberately assumed careless, democratic ways, thinking them best
+adapted to maintaining himself in power, and it is certain that he
+showed little anxiety about his position and seemed to value it
+slightly. Intellectually restless though he was, his judgment was sound
+enough to enable him soon to foresee that the inevitable tendency was
+toward a republic, and in the latter part of his life he often said that
+he was the best republican in the empire, and that his main function was
+to prepare the way for it. At bottom he was not a man of strong passions
+or intense will, but was rather a mild-mannered and philosophic
+opportunist whose greatest merit was that he loved peace, and whose
+greatest achievement was that Brazil remained internally quiet during
+his long reign.
+
+With the fall of the Andradas the Conservative party returned to power,
+and a reactionary parliamentary government, with the Emperor as a sort
+of regulating and controlling _deus ex machina_, was definitely
+installed. Great things were hoped for from the new régime, and loyalty
+to the young Emperor was enthusiastic, sincere, and universal. However,
+the internal disturbances were too serious to be calmed in a day. The
+revolution in Maranhão, which had been bequeathed by the Regency, was
+formidable. In pacifying it a general named Luiz Lima e Silva first came
+to the front, and was named Baron of Caxias for his services. This
+officer was less than forty years of age, and came of a family of
+soldiers, one of whom had been the military member of the first Regency.
+He had served in all the wars and most of the insurrections since 1822,
+and had always shown solid though not especially brilliant qualities. He
+was a good manager of men, and a steady, pertinacious, and shrewd
+negotiator. His detractors accuse him of unscrupulous bribery, and it is
+certain that he was extraordinarily successful in sowing discord among
+his opponents. He obeyed the orders of his superiors and was faithful to
+the Emperor. Probably the limitations of his character were as important
+as his affirmative abilities in enabling him to grow into the great
+military consolidator of the distracted empire. His work in the first
+years of the forties was hardly inferior in importance to that of the
+Emperor himself.
+
+  [Illustration: BARON OF CAXIAS.
+  [From an old woodcut.]]
+
+The return to power of the Conservatives in 1841 caused great
+dissatisfaction among the displaced Liberals and the advocates of
+provincial autonomy. The Conservatives seemed to have captured the young
+emperor, and the Liberals began to insist on the application to Brazil
+of the English maxim, "The king reigns but does not govern." In 1842 a
+revolution broke out in Sorocaba, the home of Padre Feijó, in the state
+of São Paulo. The trouble was aggravated by the harsh measures taken by
+the Conservative governor to suppress it, and soon spread to various
+points in the province and thence to Minas Geraes. The revolutionists
+announced that their objects were to free the Emperor from the coercion
+of the Conservative oligarchy; to maintain the autonomy of the
+provinces; and to preserve the constitution, whose guarantees were being
+rendered nugatory. Fighting only lasted two months, but there were
+fifteen important fights in Minas and five in São Paulo. The government
+forces under Caxias were completely victorious, and in the final and
+decisive battle of Santa Luzia he overwhelmed and dispersed three
+thousand men and captured all the principal leaders. The Emperor and
+Caxias adopted a magnanimous and conciliatory policy toward the defeated
+rebels, though the Conservative ministers persisted in advocating harsh
+measures.
+
+Only Rio Grande do Sul remained under arms, and even there the rebels
+were not averse to accepting the Emperor's authority. As soon as Caxias
+had finished the pacification of Minas, he was ordered south. The
+campaign began by his winning two important victories, and he followed
+them up by promises of amnesty which detached some of the most
+formidable rebel chiefs. Finally, in the spring of 1845, Rio Grande
+returned to the Brazilian union on the concession of a full and complete
+amnesty. That province has ever since enjoyed a larger measure of
+autonomy than any other part of Brazil.
+
+By the beginning of 1844 the disintegrating effects of a long
+continuance in power showed itself among the Conservatives. The Cabinet
+came to an issue with the Emperor over a question of an appointment, and
+he called the Liberals to power. The new government was ready to carry
+out the Emperor's policy of full and free amnesty and pacification by
+concession. With the collapse of the revolution in Rio Grande the
+central government seemed at length to have passed all danger. The
+demands for a juster interpretation of the _Acto Addicional_ and for a
+larger measure of autonomy to the provinces and municipalities died out
+altogether, or took a peaceful form. The Liberals in power turned out to
+be as conservative as the Conservatives themselves, and the work of
+consolidation and centralisation proceeded uninterruptedly.
+
+The Liberal ministry, was, however, in a false situation. The very name
+they bore was an implied promise to effect reforms. Their majority soon
+split up into warring factions. Congress spent the session of 1848 in
+quarrelsome debates; the fall of Louis Philippe had diffused a spirit of
+revolution in the air; the municipal elections were accompanied by
+riots, and the ministry itself deliberately encouraged a renewal of the
+anti-Portuguese agitation. The Emperor thought himself obliged to
+intervene, and appointed a Conservative Cabinet. In Pernambuco the new
+Conservative governor displaced the Liberal officials who had been
+holding office for the last three years. The latter were anti-Rio and
+anti-Portuguese, and they and their partisans started an insurrection
+known as that of the _praieiros_. It quickly assumed a formidable
+character and as many as two thousand revolutionists took part in a
+single battle, but after three months of fighting they were completely
+defeated. Little difficulty was experienced in restoring public order.
+The movement had been rather a partisan uprising than a general popular
+revolution.
+
+This was the last attempt for more than forty years to establish a
+federal system. The necessities of the stormy period from 1827 to 1848
+had led, step by step, to a form of government which was centralised and
+yet not absolute. The imperial system had been the result of a natural
+growth. When the fabric reached stability the professional ruling
+classes feared to disturb it, and the people were too inert and
+indifferent to afford support to agitators and reformers.
+
+  [Illustration: PRINCESS ISABEL IN 1889.]
+
+Agriculture, commerce, and industry advanced only slowly during the
+first eight years of Pedro's rule. The country was getting ready for the
+activity which followed. Great Britain's efforts to induce the Brazilian
+government to carry out its treaty obligations for the suppression of
+the slave-trade had been futile. In 1845 the British Parliament passed
+the Aberdeen Bill, which authorised British men-of-war to capture
+slavers even in territorial waters. This measure was especially directed
+at Brazil, whose coast had become practically the sole market for the
+horrible traffic. The bill did not immediately effect its purpose, and
+the slavers made the most of the opportunity. In 1848 over sixty
+thousand negroes were imported into Brazil. Immigration from Europe had
+practically ceased with the expulsion of Pedro I. and the anti-foreign
+demonstrations of the Regency, but it now slowly began again. In 1843
+Dom Pedro, being then not quite eighteen years old, was married by proxy
+to Theresina Christina, daughter of Francis, King of Naples. There is a
+tradition that the Emperor turned his back when he saw his bride's face.
+Nevertheless, he made her a good husband. Their two boys died in
+infancy, but in 1846 Isabel was born, who still survives and lives in
+Paris with her husband, a grandson of Louis Philippe, and with her three
+sons, the eldest of whom is named for his grandfather and was
+twenty-seven years old in 1902.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+EVENTS OF 1849 TO 1864
+
+
+After the final pacification of the country prosperity came with a rush.
+In the six years from 1849 to 1856 foreign commerce more than doubled.
+The circulating medium was brought to a sound basis. Coffee had doubled
+in value by 1850, and its culture was rapidly extended. The profits of
+sugar-raising had not risen in the same proportion, and Rio, São Paulo,
+and Minas drew slaves from the northern provinces. The decline of mining
+in the late years of the eighteenth century and the profitableness of
+sugar and tobacco during the great wars had made Maranhão, Pernambuco,
+and Bahia overshadow the South for a time, but now the tide turned the
+other way. Brazil's drift has ever since been to the South.
+
+The Emperor and government followed an enlightened and vigorous
+progressive commercial policy. The subjects of internal communication,
+of colonisation, of better steamship facilities, of the opening of
+public lands to settlement, of public instruction, of liberal treatment
+to foreigners, and of administrative and financial reforms were taken
+up intelligently. So far as the government was concerned the suspicious
+and jealous exclusive policy was abandoned, and large amounts of foreign
+capital began to be invested in commercial houses, preparing the way for
+the great government loans and railroad building soon to come. The
+British had the lion's share of the importing and the Americans of the
+carrying trade.
+
+The history of Brazil for the next few decades contains examples of
+devotion, of high-mindedness, and of great capacities worthily employed,
+of which any country might well be proud. The higher officials as a rule
+left office poorer than they had entered it. However, in the lower ranks
+of the magistracy and the government departments there was much to be
+desired. The public service became more and more the one career sought
+by young men of ability. The mercantile and property-owning classes in
+general kept out of politics. Only the landowning and slaveholding
+aristocracy owed a nominal allegiance to the two parties whose active
+members were the officeholders or those who hoped to become
+officeholders. The most promising and prominent young men were selected
+from the graduates of the universities, placed in the magistracy, thence
+to be promoted to the Chamber of Deputies, and to be governors of
+provinces. The final goal was a nomination to the senate, where, from
+the dignified security of a life position, the successful Brazilian
+politician watched the struggles of those below him.
+
+  [Illustration: PAMPAS OF THE RIO GRANDE.]
+
+The bright young magistrates were preoccupied with their own ambitions
+and were not responsible to the people of the localities they happened
+to be governing for the moment. Real local interests were not studied.
+Those who reached the highest positions applied their well-trained minds
+to larger problems, but their work was too much from above down--they
+produced admirable reports and framed admirable laws, but among the lazy
+magistracy and indifferent people the energy to put them into effect was
+too often wanting. But the level of political well-being rose
+noticeably, though fitfully. The Brazil of 1850 had progressed far
+beyond the Brazil of colonial times. Liberty of speech was unquestioned
+and unquestionable; arbitrary imprisonment had died out; the grosser
+forms of tyranny had vanished; property rights and the administration of
+civil justice had much improved. Judges no longer openly received
+presents from litigants, though the nation had not risen to the
+conception of a judiciary independent of the executive.
+
+In 1850 the Emperor chose a new Conservative Cabinet, which proved the
+most efficient the country had known. Its first great act was to abolish
+the slave trade.
+
+The year 1850 is also memorable as that in which the yellow fever began
+those terrible ravages on the Brazilian coast which have never since
+entirely ceased. The first epidemic is said to have been the worst which
+ever visited Rio. Two hundred persons fell sick daily, and the wealthier
+classes were especially attacked. Among the victims was the great
+statesman, Bernardo de Vasconcellos, and many deputies, senators, and
+diplomatic representatives. Congress adjourned in terror. In the earlier
+epidemics the citizens of Rio were just as susceptible as foreigners.
+Later, however, they acquired a relative immunity--an immunity which is
+not shared by Brazilians who have lived in non-infected districts.
+
+Brazil and Argentina had agreed in 1828 that Uruguay should be an
+independent and neutral buffer state between them. But the Buenos
+Aireans never forgot that for geographical and historical reasons
+Uruguay naturally belonged to them. Rosas, the Argentine dictator,
+assisted the Oribe faction, which openly advocated entering the
+confederation, while the Rio Grande Brazilians who owned much property
+on the Uruguayan side of the border aided the Rivera faction.
+
+To protect the property interests of its citizens and prevent Rosas from
+conquering Uruguay the Brazilian government quietly made military
+preparations and formed an alliance with the Rivera party and with
+Urquiza, the ruler of the province of Entre Rios, to which the dictator
+of Paraguay and the president of Bolivia gave a passive adhesion. It
+amounted to a coalition to forestall Rosas's plan of uniting the whole
+of the old Viceroyalty and the Plate valley under his rule. Brazil was
+virtually the instigator of a combination of the weaker Spanish-American
+states against the strongest one.
+
+Urquiza crossed the Uruguay, and with the aid of the Brazilian troops
+made short work of Oribe's army, which was besieging Rivera in
+Montevideo. Rosas responded with a declaration of war and began
+collecting a formidable army. Urquiza resolved to carry the war to the
+gates of Buenos Aires. The allies gathered in camp on the left bank of
+the Paraná, a hundred miles above Rosario, a great army which numbered
+four thousand Brazilians, eighteen thousand Argentines, mostly from the
+half-Indian provinces of Entre Rios and Corrientes, and a contingent of
+Uruguayans. A Brazilian fleet under Admiral Grenfell had penetrated up
+the Paraná and protected their crossing of the great river. On the 17th
+of December they got safely over the Paraná, and out of the low country
+of Entre Rios on to the dry pampas of the right bank. Thence they
+marched down on Buenos Aires, where Rosas was awaiting them. On the 3rd
+of February, 1852, he gave them battle in the suburbs of that city. He
+was completely defeated and fled to England.
+
+Brazil found herself in a peculiarly advantageous situation. The war had
+cost her little in money or men. Buenos Aires might no longer hope to
+dominate the other Argentine provinces, and seemed likely to offer small
+resistance to the unified and centralised empire. Uruguay's independence
+of Buenos Aires, and Brazil's preponderance in Montevideo were assured.
+The Rio Grandenses flocked over the border, bought large amounts of
+property, and enjoyed peculiar privileges, while the Uruguayan
+government accepted subsidies from that of Brazil.
+
+The country's commercial development continued even more rapidly after
+the war. In 1853 the Bank of Brazil was authorised to issue circulating
+notes, and the expansion of credit stimulated business. The same year
+the Conservative ministry, which had so brilliantly governed the nation
+since 1848, was forced to resign on account of the constant interference
+by the Emperor. It was replaced by the "Conciliation Cabinet"--whose
+chief, the Marquis of Paraná, adopted the policy of admitting Liberals
+to administrative positions. He remained in power until 1858, and his
+name will always be associated with one of the most prosperous epochs in
+Brazilian history. The first railway systems were inaugurated; the
+receipts of the treasury grew fifty per cent.; European immigration
+amounted to twenty thousand a year; private wealth and luxury
+increased; and numerous theatres, balls, and social reunions furnished
+an indication of the rise of the level of culture.
+
+One of Brazil's reasons for entering on the war against Rosas was to
+open up the navigation of the Paraguay, Paraná, and Uruguay, upon which
+she depended for access to a large part of her territory. The treaties
+made at the conclusion of the war assured, against her protest, free
+navigation to all nations. Brazil has intermittently attempted to
+confine the navigation of the international rivers of South America to
+the nations having territory on their banks.
+
+Paraná's "conciliation" policy seems to have suited the Emperor very
+well, although it tended to hamper the development of two great parties
+in clearly defined opposition to each other. The elections came more and
+more under the control of the bureaucracy and were mere ratifications of
+selections made by the ministers. Congress lost rather than gained in
+influence, and the whole system became steadily more centripetal.
+
+  [Illustration: OLD MARKET IN SÃO PAULO.]
+
+From 1849 the country had been having prosperous times, but in 1856 the
+inevitable commercial crisis came. Prosperity had brought about
+extravagances in governmental administration; the budgets showed
+deficits; foreign loans were resorted to; the currency fluctuated
+violently. Brazil entered upon seven lean years, during which foreign
+trade remained stationary, the revenues increased only at the cost of
+heavy impositions, and the public debt grew. With the death of the
+Marquis of Paraná in 1858 the regular Conservatives returned to power.
+He had been the dominant figure in politics since the Regency, and his
+personal prestige and the confidence the Emperor reposed in him had had
+much to do with holding the government together during the panic. But
+the new ministry could not make headway against the difficulties. A new
+currency law was necessary, but the mercantile and speculating classes
+bitterly opposed the rigid measures proposed by successive Cabinets.
+Paraná's neutral policy had given the opposition a hold in some of the
+most important provinces, and the following elections showed a vast
+increase in the number of Liberals and of dissident Conservatives.
+Conservative Cabinets succeeded each other rapidly from 1858 to 1862.
+The opposition to a contraction of the currency grew in force, and the
+dissidents and Liberals finally obtained a majority. The Emperor at last
+called upon the leader of the dissident Conservatives--Zacarias--to form
+a government. But he was as powerless as his predecessors, and as a last
+resort the Emperor temporarily gave up the effort to govern after the
+English system, and selected a Cabinet outside of the Chamber of
+Deputies.
+
+The elections of 1863 resulted in a complete defeat of the
+Conservatives, but the victorious Liberals did not need to pass any
+radical currency legislation. Hard times had disappeared by the
+operation of natural law. The bank-notes approached par and the budgets
+nearly balanced. With 1864 the country entered upon a new era of
+prosperity. The production of coffee had doubled from 1840 to 1851, and
+then had remained stationary. But with the cessation of the Civil War in
+the United States an era of high prices was inaugurated which coincided
+with Brazil's financial rehabilitation, and stimulated planting.
+Although real activity in the building of railroads did not begin until
+after the Paraguayan war, four short lines had been started before 1862.
+The years of peace and order had disaccustomed the people to the thought
+of violence, and a steady advance had been made toward government by
+law. The highly educated statesmen placed by the Emperor at the head of
+affairs understood the most important principles of good government and
+tried conscientiously to put them in practice. In transportation,
+banking, posts, and telegraphs, commercial methods, etc., the
+improvements of modern civilisation were easily introduced, though in
+agriculture the indolence of proprietors and the apathetic ignorance of
+the slaves prevented any rapid advance.
+
+On the whole, Brazil had made greater political and industrial progress
+when the Paraguayan war broke out than any other South American country,
+though grave vices remained to hamper her further development. The mass
+of the people were apathetic and ignorant; slavery tended to discredit
+industrious habits, at best so difficult to maintain in the tropics; the
+upper classes showed little interest in or aptitude for commercial
+matters: commerce, banking, railroads, mining, and engineering prospered
+only where foreigners personally engaged in them. The people themselves,
+in spite of the enlightenment of the educated classes, showed little
+initiative or energy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+THE PARAGUAYAN WAR
+
+
+Brazilian statesmen might well have been pardoned if, in 1865, they had
+claimed for their country the hegemony of South America. The result of
+the war against Rosas had been brilliant; the Argentine had only just
+emerged from half a century of civil war; Uruguay was almost a Brazilian
+protectorate; Brazil's internal condition was settled; in concentration
+of power, as well as in wealth, population, and extent, she was at the
+head of the continent. With the republics on the west she maintained
+good relations, while all the time she was firmly pressing her
+territorial claims on toward the foot of the Andes. She even attempted
+to control the navigation of the great waterways of South America.
+
+  [Illustration: GOVERNOR'S PALACE IN SÃO PAULO.]
+
+In 1863, Florés, a defeated chief, returned from Buenos Aires and set up
+the standard of revolt in Uruguay. Penetrating as far as the Brazilian
+border he received assistance, and Aguirre, the Montevidean president,
+protested. At the same time the latter ruler refused to settle certain
+claims on behalf of Brazilian citizens which the Rio government had
+been pressing. The Emperor decided to intervene and help Florés, and
+thereupon sent a man-of-war up the Uruguay River, which blockaded a port
+and destroyed Uruguayan public property. Aguirre declared war, and
+Brazil and Florés in alliance besieged and took the principal towns in
+western Uruguay. The Argentine received satisfactory assurances and
+remained neutral.
+
+This high-handed adjustment of Uruguayan affairs furnished a pretext to
+the Paraguayan dictator, Francisco Lopez, to intervene in his turn.
+Under a line of vigorous dictators who concentrated all the forces of
+the nation into their own hands, that country had become menacing to the
+loosely organised Argentine Republic. Lopez even thought he was strong
+enough to bid defiance to Brazil. The tyrant was, in fact, an impossible
+neighbour for the two more progressive and civilised powers. For years
+he had been preparing for war and at the moment was stronger in a
+military way than either of his bulky neighbours. He hated both
+Argentines and Brazilians, and his people had been taught to despise the
+courage of the latter. Though Brazil's intervention in Uruguay was a
+matter in which he had an interest, a dignified protest would have
+obtained ample assurances that the latter's independence would be
+respected, for there is no evidence that the imperial government
+intended to do anything more than to replace its enemy Aguirre by the
+friendly Florés. But the arrogant tyrant wanted to draw the world's
+attention to himself. He appreciated how difficult it would be for
+Brazil to send an army against him and how much more difficult it would
+be to maintain one, and he also knew that she was unprepared to
+undertake a serious war on foreign soil.
+
+Without any declaration of war, in the fall of 1864 he seized a
+Brazilian steamer which was making its regular trip up the Paraguay
+River to Matto Grosso. The crew were imprisoned, and only the
+intervention of the American minister saved the lives of the Brazilian
+minister and his family. This outrage left Brazil no alternative. Lopez
+followed up the seizure of the boat by an expedition up the Paraguay
+River against Matto Grosso, and easily conquered the principal southern
+settlements in that province.
+
+The geographical position of the Argentine made her attitude of decisive
+importance to both belligerents. Uruguay and the southern provinces of
+Brazil were separated from Paraguay by the Argentine provinces of
+Corrientes and the Missions. Argentina had favoured Florés's
+pretensions, and Lopez was so obnoxious that the secret sympathies of
+Buenos Aires were with Brazil. Further than neutrality, Mitre, then
+president of Argentina, would not go. He declared that no permission
+would be given either belligerent to cross Argentine territory with
+troops. Lopez was made desperately angry at this refusal; he thought he
+could count on the alliance and support of Urquiza, the virtually
+independent ruler of the province of Entre Rios and Mitre's enemy, and
+seems to have believed that he might as well finish up with both
+Argentina and Brazil at one sitting. In March, 1865, he deliberately
+declared war on the Argentine, and eighteen thousand Paraguayan troops
+crossed the Paraná and began offensive operations against Corrientes,
+Uruguay, and Brazil.
+
+Instead of rising against Mitre, Urquiza declared himself against the
+Paraguayan dictator, and as his province of Entre Rios controlled access
+to Paraguay by water, Lopez found that the only result of his rash act
+was to open up the way by which his enemies could most conveniently
+reach him. On the first of May, 1865, a formal alliance was made between
+Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay. Mitre was agreed upon as
+commander-in-chief; the allies promised not to lay down their arms until
+Lopez should be overthrown and expelled from Paraguay; and pledges were
+given to respect Paraguay's independence. Of the three allies Brazil was
+the only one which could be expected to give its whole force. Florés
+could only answer for the colorado faction of Uruguay. Argentina did not
+represent much more than Buenos Aires. Entre Rios was Urquiza's, and the
+other outside provinces had no great interest in the result.
+Nevertheless, the alliance was very advantageous to Brazil. It would
+have been well-nigh impossible to wage a successful war against an enemy
+shut up in the middle of the continent, and accessible only by a
+three-months' march across nearly impassable country, or by tedious
+navigation up a single river running through a third country, and where
+an army would have to be disembarked direct from ships on the enemy's
+soil. The adhesion of Argentina made an aggressive war possible, and the
+event proved how hopeless would have been a campaign by Brazil alone.
+
+The story of the military operations belongs to the history of Paraguay,
+and only those events which bore a direct relation to internal affairs
+in Brazil will be mentioned here. The successful naval battle of
+Riachuelo, on the Paraná, just below the southern end of Paraguayan
+territory, in June, 1865, aroused great enthusiasm in Brazil. National
+feeling was hardly cooled by the news which soon followed of a
+Paraguayan invasion of Rio Grande, and rose again with the defeat of
+that invasion. Brazil's regular army numbered less than fifteen thousand
+men before the war, but at the Emperor's call fifty-seven battalions of
+volunteers were organised in the fall of 1865. A loan of five million
+pounds was arranged in London, and no expense was spared in fitting out
+the army and in strengthening the fleet. By the end of the war Brazil
+had eighty-five ships, not counting transports, of which thirteen were
+ironclads. The voyage from Rio de Janeiro to Paraguay takes a month, and
+the transportation of men and material was tedious and extremely
+expensive. The government resorted to the issue of paper money, and
+outraged the feelings of the financial world by compelling the Bank of
+Brazil to give up the reserve it was maintaining for the redemption of
+its note issues. The premium on gold rose and the currency fluctuated
+wildly, although general trade continued to boom.
+
+In September, 1865, the Paraguayan army which had invaded Rio Grande was
+captured in a body, and peace was confidently expected. Lopez, however,
+decided to fight it out to the bitter end, and it was April, 1866,
+before the allies could gain a foothold on Paraguayan soil. For the next
+six months Brazil was sickened with accounts of desperately bloody and
+indecisive battles, of which the last was an awful repulse before
+Curupayty. For more than a year thereafter the allies lay motionless in
+their camps in the south-western corner of Paraguay, while the cholera
+carried off thousands.
+
+Though his favourite general, Marshal Caxias, was a Conservative, and
+not on good terms with the Liberal Cabinet, the Emperor insisted that he
+be sent to take command. Re-enforcements were vigorously recruited from
+all over the empire, and in July, 1867, the cautious Caxias began a slow
+advance. The expenses were mounting up to sixty millions a year; the
+country chafed at the delays, Caxias quarrelled with the ministers. In
+July, 1868, the Emperor dismissed them on his own responsibility, and,
+though the Liberals had still a large majority in the Chamber, called in
+a Conservative Cabinet. On this occasion the Emperor's pressure was not
+influential enough to change a minority into a majority, and the Chamber
+preferred dissolution to submission. Meanwhile Caxias had at last begun
+to win victories. The very month of the fall of the Liberals he took the
+great fortress of Humaitá, which guarded the passage up the Paraguay,
+and Lopez retreated to the neighbourhood of his capital accompanied by
+almost all the surviving Paraguayans. In November Caxias cleverly
+outflanked him and taking him in the rear compelled him to fight outside
+of his trenches until hardly any Paraguayans were left. By the beginning
+of 1869 Lopez was a fugitive, the Brazilians were in possession of
+Asuncion, and the war was over except for pursuing Lopez and the few
+starving soldiers who followed him through the woods.
+
+  [Illustration: HOSPITAL AND OLD CHURCH AT PORTO ALEGRE.]
+
+Elections were held in March, but it was not worth while for the
+Liberals to make even the show of a contest. The Liberal leaders issued
+a manifesto declining to take any part, and, censuring the Emperor for
+calling the Conservatives to power against the known wishes of the
+majority of a legally elected Chamber, announced that they would respect
+the laws and would confine themselves to a non-parliamentary propagation
+of the doctrines of anti-absolutism, liberalism, and emancipation. From
+this time dates the systematic propaganda for the republic. The war
+ended with the Emperor's son-in-law hunting down the Paraguayan bands.
+In March, 1870, Lopez was caught with the last few hundred men who
+remained faithful and speared by a common soldier as he tried to escape
+through the woods.
+
+The war had cost Brazil three hundred million dollars and over fifty
+thousand lives. She had gained no substantial result except assuring the
+safety of Matto Grosso and securing the free navigation of the Paraguay.
+The Emperor did not attempt to use his victory by establishing a
+hegemony over South America. Rather did the end of the Paraguayan war
+mark the beginning of a policy of systematic abstention from
+intermeddling with outside matters. Paraguay and Uruguay were left in
+full enjoyment of their independence, and the Argentine then began her
+marvellous industrial progress and political consolidation. The Plate
+republics reaped the benefits of the war, while Brazil bore its heaviest
+burdens. Most of the Argentine provinces had taken little part except to
+furnish provisions and horses at high prices, and the opening up of
+Paraguay redounded to the benefit of Buenos Aires and Montevideo--not to
+that of Rio. No spirit of imperialism spread among the Brazilian
+people, though they are still proud of the record their soldiers and
+sailors then made. Their bravery in field fighting and the assault of
+fortified places was proved beyond question, no matter how poorly they
+may have been commanded, and how deficient their organisation. The
+history of no war contains more examples of heroic and hopeless charges,
+or stories of more desperate hand-to-hand fighting. But a successful
+battle was followed by torpor; Brazilian tenacity was shown in the
+patience with which defeats were sustained, and in holding on month
+after month in camp, rotting in the miasmatic swamps, rather than in
+pursuing advantages obtained in the field.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+REPUBLICANISM AND EMANCIPATION
+
+
+From 1808 to 1837 the tendency had been in the direction of democracy
+and decentralisation. Then the tide turned and from 1837 to the
+Paraguayan war the central government grew stronger and federalism
+weaker. The power of the Emperor reached its apogee in 1870. The
+senators had been personally selected by him and he could count on their
+gratitude and friendship. Deputies were elected indirectly by electors
+chosen by a suffrage nominally universal, but the elections--primary and
+secondary--were mere farces, absolutely controlled by the ministry which
+happened to be in power. The local governors and magistrates, the
+officers of the national guard, and the police, all dependent on the
+central government for their positions, formed a machine against which
+opposition was useless. If intimidation was not sufficient, the baldest
+frauds were shamelessly resorted to--false polling lists, manufactured
+returns, and the seating of contestants by the majority in the Chamber
+or the returning boards. Of this system the Emperor was the real
+beneficiary, for the Cabinets held at his pleasure, and if the majority
+of a Chamber did not sustain a ministry which he desired to keep in
+power, all he had to do was to order a dissolution. But this hybrid
+system contained in itself the elements of sure decay. The Emperor was
+no arbitrary despot and neither wished nor would he have been able to
+govern in complete defiance of public opinion. On the other hand, the
+system afforded no sure method of ascertaining public opinion nor of
+throwing a proper responsibility upon well-organised political parties.
+
+With the close of the Paraguayan war a series of movements began which
+ended twenty years later with the overthrow of the empire. Brazil's
+history during those twenty years is an account of the republican
+propaganda, the abolition movement, the attempt to reform the elections,
+the religious agitation, the growth of positivist doctrines, the demand
+for economic independence by the great provinces, and finally the
+infiltration of liberalism and insubordination into the army. This
+evolution, however, affected principally the educated classes. The
+masses of the people were and still remain largely indifferent to the
+march of public events.
+
+Commerce and industry continued to expand throughout the Paraguayan war.
+From 1865 to 1872 the annual revenues doubled, and though in 1868 the
+emissions of paper money had reduced its value one-half, it steadily
+rose thereafter until in 1873 it again reached par. Just after the war
+the budget balanced, and the production of coffee rose one-half. But
+with relief from financial pressure the Conservative ministers became
+extravagant, and when the great world panic of 1873 came both government
+and country were badly caught. A foreign loan of five millions sterling
+made in 1875 was not enough to meet the mounting deficits. In 1878 new
+issues of paper money were resorted to, and exchange dropped, remaining
+below par for ten years in spite of a subsequent doubling of coffee
+production and a great increase in the value of exports. Population,
+however, which had increased from five to ten millions from 1840 to
+1870, in the next twenty years mounted to fifteen millions.
+
+  [Illustration: BRIDGE AT MENDANHA.]
+
+The suppression of the slave trade by the Aberdeen Act and the Queiroz
+law made it probable that the institution itself would ultimately
+disappear. Brazilian character and customs had always stimulated
+voluntary emancipation, and in Brazil the negro does not reproduce as
+rapidly as the white. In 1856 the slaves numbered two millions and a
+half, being nearly forty per cent. of the population, but in 1873 their
+number had fallen to 1,584,000, or only sixteen per cent. The
+institution was, however, socially and politically very strong. Slaves
+furnished nearly all the labour employed in the production of staple
+exports, and it was believed that emancipation would be followed by
+agricultural collapse. But the Emperor was too enlightened a Christian
+and too susceptible to the good opinion of the civilised world not be at
+heart an abolitionist. However, it was only at the height of his
+influence that he deemed it wise to force the consideration of abolition
+on the reluctant nation. Agitation had begun modestly in 1864; in 1866
+gradual emancipation was seriously proposed, but the breaking out of the
+war caused the matter to be adjourned. In 1869 Joaquim Nabuco, father of
+the present Brazilian minister to Great Britain, succeeded in virtually
+committing the Liberal party to emancipation. With the return of peace
+the question was taken up vigorously. The reactionary Conservative
+Cabinet resigned rather than be an instrument of the Emperor's wishes as
+to emancipation, and Pimenta Bueno was appointed Prime Minister for the
+especial purpose of getting a law through Congress declaring all
+children born thereafter free. This statesman failed, but Rio Branco,
+father of the present Minister for Foreign Affairs, was more successful.
+After a bitter and prolonged parliamentary struggle, in which Rio Branco
+used every weapon that his position gave him in gaining and holding
+doubtful Congressional votes, the law was passed in 1871. Thereafter all
+children born of slave mothers were free, though they remained bound to
+service until twenty-one. The proprietors were also required to register
+all their slaves. Under the influence of these measures the number of
+slaves decreased with astonishing rapidity--falling from 1,584,000 in
+1873 to 743,000 in 1887.
+
+Rio Branco's victory disrupted the Conservative party, and after
+achieving it he was unable to hold his majority together. The Chamber
+was dissolved, and though the new one supported him half-heartedly the
+old line Conservatives had become deeply dissatisfied with the radical
+tendencies of the government and the Emperor. Public men of all parties
+awoke to realisation of the inconsistency between the constitution and
+the Emperor's personal power. Not much was said in the Chamber, but
+outside the republican propaganda assumed an active form, and the
+conviction fast crystallised that the empire could not last for many
+years. A republican press came into existence and a republican party was
+organised under the leadership of Saldanha Marinho, an able lawyer of
+Rio. Republican societies were formed in all the centres of population,
+but there was no thought of armed revolution. There is, indeed, no
+evidence that the Emperor ever opposed the republican propaganda,
+though occasionally he detached some of its able members by promotions
+to office.
+
+  [Illustration: CITY OF OURO PRETO.]
+
+In 1873, 1874, and 1875 the question which most absorbed public
+attention was the imprisonment of the bishops of Pará and Pernambuco by
+the civil authorities. The lower ranks of the priesthood were
+uneducated, and real interest in religion had largely been confined to
+women and the lower classes. With the growth of liberal ideas among the
+laity the Church awoke to the necessity of a reformation. These two
+bishops were leaders in this counter-movement, and they selected the
+Masonic Lodges as a point of attack. In spite of the nominal prohibition
+of the Church, Free-Masonry had been permitted in Brazil since 1821, and
+the lodges had become mere social clubs and philanthropic societies.
+Free-Masons were members of those semi-religious brotherhoods which take
+charge of local church feasts and constitute the most important link
+between the lay and spiritual worlds in Brazilian communities. The two
+militant bishops ordered that the brotherhoods should expel their
+Masonic members or suffer the penalty of losing their right to use the
+church edifices. Where these orders were not obeyed interdicts were
+laid. The progressive element and the magistracy took the side of the
+Masons, but the bishops were not without their supporters. The
+government insisted that the obnoxious interdicts be withdrawn: the
+bishops refused to yield, and were prosecuted in the civil courts and
+sent to prison. The Princess Isabel was believed to be on the priests'
+side, and while the excitement gradually died out and things went on as
+before, a wider breach than ever had been created between the
+progressive and conservative classes. Like the slave-owners devout
+Catholics now felt that they could no longer depend on the imperial
+system to protect them against the rising tide of radicalism.
+
+The financial difficulties growing out of the great panic drove Rio
+Branco from power in 1875, and a succession of Conservative Cabinets
+struggled along until 1878. The question of electoral reform came to the
+front, for every one was sick of the absurd system in vogue, and the
+leaders of both the historical parties hoped for great things from a
+radical change. The Emperor was opposed to giving up the indirect method
+of voting, but was anxious to try some lesser reforms. On his return
+from the United States and Europe in 1877 he virtually instructed the
+Cabinet to put through a bill drawn after his suggestions, but the Prime
+Minister resigned because the Emperor insisted that the change could not
+be made by an ordinary statute, but must go through the tedious process
+of an amendment to the constitution. The Emperor called in a Liberal
+Cabinet and a new Chamber was elected.
+
+The Liberal ministry continued in power until 1880, and then fell,
+partly because it had lost its hold with the Liberal majority, and
+partly because of the riots in Rio over the street-car tax. A law had
+been passed compelling each passenger to pay a cent in addition to the
+regular fare. The people refused, burned the cars, cut the harness in
+pieces, threw the conductors off, and fought the police until the
+business of the city was brought to a standstill. The Emperor called
+upon a cool and experienced politician, José Antonio Saraiva. But the
+latter refused to take office unless he should be allowed to push
+through the election bill in the form of an ordinary law. Right here the
+Emperor suffered a great defeat. He thought himself obliged to yield,
+and the vigorous minister at once secured the passage of a radical law
+which completely transformed the electoral system. Suffrage was confined
+to the educated and property-holding classes, but the electors voted
+directly for deputies, and the country was divided into districts each
+of which chose a single deputy. The electoral body was now permanent,
+and each deputy was responsible to a definite constituency. Saraiva
+resigned the moment his bill was enacted into law, and every precaution
+was taken to ensure that the election of 1881 should be free from any
+suspicion of official pressure. The result was a revelation to the
+small-bore politicians of the old régime. One hundred and fifty thousand
+voters registered out of an adult male population of about three
+millions, and ninety-six thousand voted. The new members were divided
+nearly equally between the two historical parties--the Liberals getting
+sixty-eight and the Conservatives fifty-four. Two ministers were
+defeated for re-election and many of the contests were decided by small
+majorities. In subsequent elections the Saraiva law proved not to be so
+effective, and since it is not in the Latin nature to be satisfied with
+gradual improvement, the liberal movement, of which the electoral law
+was a symptom, swept on with increasing violence until the beneficent
+law was uprooted along with the mistaken system on which it had been
+painfully grafted.
+
+As soon as electoral reform was out of the way abolition became once
+more the dominant question in Brazilian politics. Though the majority of
+Liberals were abolitionists and the doctrine was one of the official
+principles of the party, the various Liberal Cabinets which succeeded
+each other from 1881 to 1884 managed to dodge the dangerous issue.
+Finally the Dantas ministry faced it squarely. A bill was introduced
+prohibiting the sale of slaves, establishing an emancipation fund, and
+freeing slaves as fast as they reached the age of sixty. A terrific
+parliamentary battle followed and the project was defeated by only seven
+votes--forty-eight Liberals and four Conservatives voting for it, and
+seventeen Liberals and forty-two Conservatives against. The Emperor
+dissolved the Chamber and the excitement over abolition became national.
+The abolitionists subsidised newspapers, held public meetings, and
+marched through the streets in procession carrying pictures representing
+the torturing of slaves. No means were spared which might aid to rouse
+the national conscience. The negroes were advised to revolt, and
+assistance was openly promised to them. The elections of 1884 were
+violently contested, instead of being free from fraud and protest like
+those of 1881. Nor did the government so conscientiously abstain from
+interference. Nevertheless the Chamber elected did not differ materially
+in its composition from that which had preceded it. Sixty-five of the
+one hundred and twenty members of the new House were Liberals, but of
+these fifteen were opposed to abolition. For the first time avowed
+republican members were elected--three being returned, and two of them
+came from São Paulo--Prudente Moraes and Campos Salles, the first two
+Brazilians to hold office avowedly as republicans and who reaped their
+reward by becoming two decades later the first two civil presidents of
+the republic. No election was ever held in Brazil which was so earnestly
+contested and which constituted so genuine an expression of the wishes
+of the people. Nevertheless, on the main question--that of
+abolition--the result was apparently a drawn battle.
+
+With the meeting of the Chamber in 1885 the agitation broke out afresh.
+The crowds on the Rio streets hissed anti-emancipation deputies, and
+there was a bitter fight for the control of the organisation of the
+Chamber. It was soon evident that the Dantas ministry could not force
+abolition through, and it resigned. Saraiva was called in and he
+skilfully arranged a compromise. With the aid of Conservative votes he
+passed a bill for gradual and compensated emancipation. This done, he
+resigned. The Liberal party was disorganised and dissatisfied with him,
+and he did not deem it worth his while to try and hold it together. The
+quarrelling Liberal majority was aghast when it was announced that a
+Conservative Cabinet would take the reins of government. The Emperor had
+begun to show decided symptoms of a failure of his mental powers and
+was ceasing to be a controlling factor in parliamentary affairs.
+Saraiva's resignation further exacerbated the Liberal leaders against
+the imperial system, and at the same time continued to lose ground with
+the slaveholders.
+
+In the election the Liberals had no chance and largely refrained from
+voting. The governing classes shrank from the probable consequences of
+abolition; the temper of the country seemed to have cooled; the election
+reform of 1881 had not proven in practice to be of much value. Though
+not so absolute as before, the provincial governors resumed their
+control of the result, and returns were made according to the wishes of
+the ministry in power. One hundred and three Conservatives received
+certificates and only twenty-two Liberals, and most of the latter came
+from the interior where official pressure could least easily be applied.
+Not a republican was returned, and the declared abolitionists had almost
+disappeared, although every one knew that the final blow to slavery
+could not long be deferred.
+
+The new administration devoted itself to the finances. Since 1871 the
+deficits had been continuous; one sarcastic statesman said amid applause
+that "the empire is the deficit." The issue of paper money had been
+excessive. Better times began in 1886. A loan of six millions sterling
+was contracted for on favourable terms; from forty per cent. below par
+the currency rose to par in the succeeding three years; imports and
+exports increased by leaps and bounds; and the revenue grew seventy-five
+per cent. in a single year. The production of coffee in São Paulo, and
+of rubber in Pará and Amazonas reached unprecedented figures; foreign
+immigration was subsidised and a systematic propaganda to secure it
+undertaken. From thirty thousand it ran up to one hundred thousand a
+year, and the apprehensions that emancipation would cause a dearth of
+labour were largely quieted. Government subsidies had kept up the
+building of railroads during the years when the treasury was most
+embarrassed, and naturally went on more rapidly when prosperity came.
+When the Paraguayan war ended there were only 450 miles of railroad in
+the country. In the decade that followed 1450 were built, while from
+1880 to 1889 five hundred miles a year were constructed.
+
+The Conservative Prime Minister, Baron Cotegipe, struggled hard through
+1886 and 1887 to save the remnants of slavery, but intelligent and
+unprejudiced opinion was nearly unanimous for the entire abolition of
+the disgraceful and barbarous institution. Project after project was
+presented, each one more radical than the last. The slaves began to flee
+from the plantations. The army refused to aid the police in capturing
+them. The poor old Emperor had gone abroad, sick and failing, leaving
+Isabel as regent. Her advisers, mostly priests and foreigners, told her
+that the delay was endangering the dynasty. Cotegipe resigned and John
+Alfredo was made Prime Minister for the especial purpose of passing an
+emancipation act. When Congress met in May, 1888, the speech from the
+throne announced that the imperial programme was absolute, immediate,
+and uncompensated emancipation. The prestige of the Crown was sufficient
+to hush nearly all opposition. Within eight days the law had passed both
+Houses and been signed by the princess. The votes against it were hardly
+numerous enough to be worth counting. Only Cotegipe and a few devoted
+monarchists stood in their places and read aloud the handwriting on the
+wall, prophesying the sure and speedy overthrow of a monarchy which had
+thus cast off its surest and most natural supporters.
+
+  [Illustration: EMPEROR DOM PEDRO IN 1889.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+THE REVOLUTION--THE DICTATORSHIP--THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC
+
+
+Every intelligent man in Brazil had long recognised the force of the
+permanently working causes which were undermining the empire. Affonso
+Celso, in 1902 considered the ablest advocate of restoration, and the
+son of the last Prime Minister of the empire, said, in 1886, from his
+place as national deputy, that the empire maintained itself only through
+the tolerance of its enemies. Neither one of the two great parties of
+office-holders was really monarchical, although the members of both
+co-operated with the Emperor for the sake of the patronage. But the
+Brazilian masses were too apathetic to take any violent measures for the
+overthrow of the worn-out institution without some definite stimulus.
+This was furnished by the "military question" in 1889.
+
+  [Illustration: MILITARY SCHOOL AT RIO JANEIRO.]
+
+The teachings of Benjamin Constant, a professor of the military school
+at Rio, had thoroughly impregnated the younger officers of the army with
+republican doctrine. The officers were extremely sensitive about their
+professional rights, and a spirit of disaffection and insubordination
+was rife among them. In 1886 there was great indignation in the army
+because an officer, who had engaged in an undignified newspaper
+controversy with a deputy, was reprimanded by the secretary of war. A
+little later another officer insisted on attacking through the press a
+pension law advocated by the war department, and his cause was taken up
+by the highest generals with the Marshal Deodoro de Fonseca at their
+head. This general was transferred from his post to a less desirable
+one, and a new outburst of indignation among the officers agitated army
+circles. The ministry thought it best not to push the matter. In 1888
+the bad feeling was further exacerbated by the police arresting some
+officers for disorderly conduct in the streets. Again the army demanded
+satisfaction, and again it was given. The favourite champion of military
+dignity, Deodoro, was sent off to Matto Grosso in the spring of 1889,
+and this was taken as equivalent to a punishment for his activity in
+maintaining the privileges of his profession. Again the government
+thought it prudent to yield, and he was allowed to return.
+
+In the meantime, the Emperor's health had grown more feeble and the
+Princess Isabel was in power. Herself unpopular, her parsimonious
+husband, the Comte d'Eu, was bitterly disliked by most Brazilians. The
+rumour gained credence that there was a plan to have the sick Emperor
+resign in her favour. Though the general feeling was that so long as the
+old man lived and reigned he ought not to be disturbed, the hot-headed
+republican officers were in no humour to allow the princess to succeed
+to the throne. The Conservative Cabinet had been met with a flat refusal
+from the army when they ordered it to assist in capturing fugitive
+slaves. The government's hand was thus forced on the slavery question.
+John Alfredo's Cabinet succeeded to Cotegipe's, but was no happier in
+its dealings with the "military question." The princess determined to
+call in the Liberals, and their hard-headed leader, Ouro Preto, was made
+Prime Minister. By many this was believed to be a part of the plot for
+an abdication--that the princess's friends wanted a strong man at the
+head of affairs when the _coup d'état_ came.
+
+Ouro Preto took charge of the government in June, 1889, and shortly
+dissolved the Chamber after some bitter debates in which, for the first
+time in Brazil, the cry of "Viva a Republica!" was heard on the floor of
+Parliament. The new ministry had no trouble in controlling the
+elections, and the new Chamber that met in August was Liberal. Ouro
+Preto felt strong enough to undertake to reduce the malcontents to
+submission. He began by strengthening the police force and the national
+guard, and removing certain regiments from the capital. But in September
+Deodoro returned from the remote wilds of Matto Grosso and was received
+with great demonstrations by his comrades. Secret meetings of officers
+were held, and they pledged themselves to sustain at all hazards the
+prestige of the military class. Professor Constant, whose influence with
+the younger officers was predominant, openly threatened the ministry.
+
+Early in November still another battalion was ordered off from the
+capital to the north of Brazil, and this was the immediate occasion for
+the formation of a military conspiracy in which Professor Constant and
+Deodoro were the original chiefs. They determined to make an alliance
+with the republicans and invited the co-operation of Quintino Bocayuva,
+the chief of the militant republicans; of Aristides Lobo, a republican
+editor of Rio; of Glycerio, one of the republican chiefs in São Paulo;
+of Ruy Barbosa, a great lawyer and editor, whose attacks on the
+government had been very effective, though he had not yet declared
+himself a republican; and of Admiral Wandenkolk, who was expected to
+secure the help of the navy.
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL BENJAMIN CONSTANT.
+  [From a woodcut.]]
+
+Deodoro and Constant could absolutely count upon one brigade--the
+second--and were well assured of the sympathy of all the regular forces
+in Rio. Of course the plan could not be kept secret from the government
+police, though the public seems to have known nothing of the gravity of
+what was going on. On the 14th of November, the rumour spread that
+Deodoro and Constant would be arrested. Orders had, in fact, been given
+for the transfer of the disaffected brigade, and the ministers were
+warned that it was preparing to resist. That night the members of the
+Cabinet did not sleep, and the morning found them still in anxious
+council at the War Department, which faces the great square of Rio.
+Constant had ridden out to the quarters of the Second Brigade, and
+early in the morning led it to the square and drew up in front of the
+War Department. Deodoro took command of the insurgent troops, sending an
+officer to demand the surrender of the ministers. Ouro Preto called upon
+the adjutant-general, Floriano Peixoto, to lead against the revolters
+the troops which were in the general barracks. Floriano, after a little
+hesitation, refused, and it is doubtful whether the troops would have
+followed him had he consented. There was no one to raise a hand for the
+ministers. They surrendered and sent their resignations by telegraph to
+the Emperor at Petropolis, twenty-five miles away in the mountains.
+Their impression seems to have been that the insurrection was simply a
+military mutiny and that its object was solely to secure their own
+downfall. But the fact that Constant, Bocayuva, and others had been let
+into the inside enabled these republicans to direct the movement so that
+a permanent change in the form of government was possible.
+
+The troops in the barracks joined the Second Brigade and all together
+marched through the centre of the city cheering for the army, for
+Deodoro, and the republic, amid the astonishment of the people, most of
+whom knew nothing of any trouble until they saw the parade. No
+resistance was offered, and when the Emperor reached the city at three
+o'clock in the afternoon the revolution was an accomplished fact. The
+chiefs of the revolt had met and organised a provisional government,
+naming themselves ministers. They at once took possession of their
+different departments and the public buildings. A decree was issued
+announcing that henceforth Brazil was to be a federal republic. The
+feeble old Emperor was visited by a few friends, but there was no one to
+raise a hand or strike a blow for him or the dynasty. He himself would
+have shrunk from being the occasion for the shedding of the blood of any
+of his people.
+
+  [Illustration: THE EMPRESS IN 1889.]
+
+When night fell, the provisional government formally announced to the
+Emperor his deposition, and that he and his family would be compelled to
+leave the country, though their lives would be guaranteed and ample
+pecuniary provision be made for them. The palace was guarded and no one
+allowed to enter, though there were no indications of any
+counter-revolution. The municipal council of the city promptly gave its
+adherence to the new order of things, and telegrams were coming in
+hourly from the provinces to the effect that the latter were universally
+satisfied and that republican sympathisers were taking possession of the
+local governments without opposition. During the night of the 16th, the
+Emperor and his family were placed on board ship and sent off to Lisbon.
+
+The new government was, in fact, a centralised military dictatorship,
+but the names of most of its members were guarantees that the promises
+of the establishment of a republic would be carried out. In all the
+provinces the new situation was accepted peacefully. The Rio government
+named new governors by telegraph, and the imperial authorities turned
+things over to them without resistance. Persons known to have been
+advocates of republican principles were preferred, and a rapid
+displacement of the old governing classes ensued.
+
+The provisional government continued in power for fourteen months, and
+in that time promulgated a series of laws touching almost every subject
+of social or political interest. The provinces were organised into
+states after the model of the members of the North American Union;
+universal suffrage was established; Church and State were entirely
+separated; civil marriage was introduced; a new and humane criminal
+code was adopted; the judicial system was reorganised after the American
+fashion; and, in general, monarchical characteristics were removed from
+the statutes, and the most modern reforms enacted. A project for a
+constitution was carefully framed, and this was submitted to a congress,
+which had been summoned to meet early in 1891. This congress was
+composed of 205 deputies, elected by states and not by districts, and of
+three senators from each state. Acting as a constituent assembly, it
+adopted with few modifications the constitution proposed. The members of
+the constituent congress had been almost universally selected from among
+those who had been prominent in connection with the new government, or
+had given it an enthusiastic adhesion. With few exceptions, the new
+constitution is a copy of that of the United States. The only important
+difference is that in Brazil the enactment of general civil and criminal
+law is a federal and not a state attribute. The revenues of the newly
+created states were made much larger than those of the imperial
+provinces, principally by transferring to them the duties on exports.
+
+Though the constitution of February 24, 1891, nominally went into effect
+at once, as a matter of fact the government continued military. Deodoro
+was elected president, and Marshal Floriano Peixoto vice-president, and
+the dictatorship was effective, except so far as it was managed and
+controlled by a few leaders who had power in the army, navy, or
+financial world. The provisional government had conceded to banks in
+every important centre of the country the right to issue circulating
+notes. The markets were flooded with money; credit was easy; an
+extraordinary speculative boom set in; values rose tremendously. The
+last years of the empire had been prosperous and exchange had gone to
+par. Within three years after the empire was overthrown, the amount of
+paper money in circulation was more than tripled, but though exchange
+had fallen tremendously, no ill effects were yet apparent. The nation
+was drunk with suddenly acquired wealth. Companies of all sorts were
+granted government concessions--railroad companies, mining companies,
+harbour improvement companies, banks, factories, and even sugar and
+coffee plantation companies. The price of coffee and rubber was rising
+in gold, while the cost of production was falling with the depreciation
+of the currency. The flood of Italian immigration which had been going
+to the Argentine was largely diverted to Brazil. Rio, Pará, and São
+Paulo were the centres of the prosperity. Business men from the
+provinces swarmed into these cities, and the fortunate owners of
+plantations emigrated to Paris to spend their easily acquired wealth.
+
+During 1891 and 1892 Deodoro became involved in disputes with republican
+leaders. To these political difficulties were added quarrels over the
+government concessions which were expected to make every one rich.
+Deodoro offended the moneyed powers by not granting such concessions as
+freely as was desired by many influential persons. Finally Deodoro found
+that he could no longer count on a majority in Congress, so he
+arbitrarily dissolved it. But revolutions broke out in the different
+states against the governors who stood by the dictator, and he also
+found that he could not rely upon the unquestioning support of the army.
+The navy was decidedly disaffected. After some hesitation he yielded to
+the signed demand of a powerful junta and resigned in favour of the
+vice-president, whom the speculators and promoters thought they could
+easily control. They were grievously disappointed in Floriano. The
+radical republicans found him more to their liking than did the
+wealthier classes and the bureaucrats. The navy has always been
+recruited among the aristocrats and looked down upon the army and soon
+developed a dislike for the plebeian and illiterate president. An effort
+was made to pass and put into effect a law expelling Floriano from
+office before the expiration of the four-years' term for which Deodoro
+and he had been elected, but he flatly announced that he would serve out
+the term to which he believed himself constitutionally entitled.
+
+In the meantime a rebellion had broken out in Rio Grande do Sul against
+Julio de Castilhos, the radical republican governor. Gaspar Silveira
+Martims, the local leader of the old Liberal party, had been banished,
+but from Montevideo he organised the insurrection. The adherents of the
+two historical imperial parties and the gauchos of the southern part of
+the state joined the movement enthusiastically. Presently the pampas
+were swept from one end to the other by bands of federalists, under
+dreaded leaders like Gomercindo Saraiva, a ranchman from near the
+Uruguayan border. The republicans stood firm, and Pinheiro Machado and
+other gaucho chiefs showed that they, too, possessed the fighting
+qualities which have always distinguished the hard-riding, meat-eating
+Rio Grandenses. With the aid of federal troops the republicans had
+decidedly the upper hand, but the federalists kept the field for three
+years, while the country was harried and the most frightful destruction
+of life and property took place.
+
+Meanwhile the intriguers against Floriano at Rio took advantage of this
+formidable complication. The mercantile classes, the Conservatives, the
+moderate republicans, and those who regretted the empire were opposed to
+him. The navy was ready to revolt at any time. A number of powerful men
+had bluffed Deodoro into resigning, and they thought that they could
+easily do the same with Floriano. A majority in Congress was against him
+and he seemed to be almost isolated. But he had no thought of yielding
+or withdrawing. His subsequent actions show that he certainly was not
+actuated by any vaulting personal ambition. His was rather the instinct
+of a soldier who stands where he is and fights to the last without
+reasoning why. The real crisis in the establishment of the Republic had,
+in fact, arrived. Floriano's overthrow would have meant anarchy and
+disintegration, government by pronunciamento, short-lived
+administrations established and overthrown by military force.
+
+Early in September, 1893, the entire navy, under the lead of Admiral
+Mello, revolted. The guns of the fleet commanded the harbour and seemed
+to make the city untenable. Floriano acted with great energy. The army
+stood by him and he recruited vigorously. The fleet would not seriously
+bombard the city, full of sympathisers with the revolt, and Floriano
+held the fortifications around the bay so that it was difficult for
+Mello to obtain supplies. Though the European naval forces, which
+quickly assembled, sympathised with the insurgents, they could hardly
+give any efficient help so long as Floriano held the capital. Mello
+hesitated about attempting to establish a blockade. At first the
+insurgents disclaimed any intention of re-establishing the empire, but
+soon the revolt began to take on a frankly monarchical character. The
+friends of the old régime, however, nowhere showed the same energy and
+conviction as the republicans who stood by Floriano.
+
+  [Illustration: AMERICAN LEGATION NEAR RIO.]
+
+In Rio harbour matters came to a stand. Neither side could deal a
+decisive blow to the other, but in the end Floriano and the land forces
+were sure to win, because without a base of supplies the fleet could not
+maintain itself indefinitely. It was necessary for Mello to start a fire
+in the rear and to open communication with the Rio Grande federalists.
+He escaped through the harbour entrance with one of his ironclads, and
+went to Santa Catharina, where he established the seat of the
+revolutionary government. Gomercindo Saraiva, the able federalist chief,
+eluded the superior republican forces in the north of Rio Grande and
+attempted an invasion of Santa Catharina, Paraná, and São Paulo, where
+it was hoped that the monarchical plantation owners would rise. But he
+was vigorously pursued and his forces defeated and scattered. The
+failure of this daring expedition was the death-knell of the revolt.
+Mello returned to Rio and there his position fast became untenable. The
+final crisis came with the refusal of the American admiral to permit him
+to establish a commercial blockade. This took away his last hope of
+being able to coerce Floriano to terms. The naval revolt collapsed in
+March, 1894: some of the ironclads escaped from Rio harbour and fled to
+Santa Catharina, where they were captured by the republicans. The Rio
+Grande federalists kept up a partisan warfare for a few months longer,
+but by 1895 they were completely stamped out.
+
+Floriano was supreme, but instead of establishing a permanent military
+dictatorship he declined to be a candidate for re-election, and selected
+Prudente Moraes as his successor for the term beginning in 1894.
+Prudente had been one of the two republican deputies elected from São
+Paulo in 1886, and had acted as president of the Constitutional Assembly
+which framed the new constitution. Moderate and conservative in his
+opinions and methods, his selection was a recognition of the
+advisability of civil government and an abandonment of the system of
+military dictatorship. With his assumption of office the Republic may be
+said to have been at last definitely established.
+
+The state governments were now functioning regularly, and their
+governors soon began to assume a great importance in the political
+system. These executives are selected by local cliques instead of by the
+central government, as in imperial times; their command of the police
+and state patronage enables them to control elections, name their own
+successors, and exercise a predominant influence in the choice of
+deputies and senators to the national Congress. They are the chief
+instruments through which the president's control of politics is
+exercised.
+
+The majority in Congress, composed of the leaders of the republican
+movement, and known as the Federal Republican party, supported Prudente
+in the early part of his administration, but he was too liberal to suit
+the Radicals in drawing into participation in public affairs capable
+Brazilians of other antecedents. This policy and the jealousies that
+always arise in a dominant party brought about a rupture between him and
+the leader of the House majority. In the trial of strength which
+followed, the Federal Republican party was split, and though the
+president was victorious by a small margin, his position became very
+precarious.
+
+The Republic had started out on a scale of unprecedented extravagance.
+The old provincial governments had been given only the fragments from
+the imperial table, but the republican constitution multiplied the
+revenues of the new states many fold. The issues of paper money, the
+high prices of coffee and rubber, and the speculative boom gave both
+state and federal government for a while plenty of money to spend. The
+Union and the states vied with each other in multiplying employees, in
+making loans, in spending money on public edifices, and in building and
+guaranteeing railroads. The larger the deficits grew the more paper
+money was issued, and exchange fell with sickening rapidity. A larger
+and larger proportion of the paper revenue had to be devoted to the
+purchase of gold bills for the payment of the interest on the foreign
+debt. The deficits increased in geometrical progression. By 1895 signs
+of the coming trouble were apparent, though the business of the country
+was still prosperous. In 1896 came an outbreak of religious fanaticism
+in the interior of Bahia, which grew into an armed revolt--small, it is
+true, but which cost much money to suppress. The necessity for
+retrenchment was evident; railroad building was interrupted; schemes to
+rehabilitate the currency were brought forward and discussed.
+
+The governments of the poorer states looked for help to the impoverished
+federal treasury, and some of the stronger states showed impatience at
+being hampered by an unprofitable connection with their weak sisters.
+The president was not on sympathetic terms with the victorious Radicals
+in Rio Grande, and the uncompromising republicans all over the Union
+felt that they were not sufficiently favoured. In the fall of 1897 an
+attempt was made in broad daylight to assassinate Prudente, and
+prominent opposition politicians were strongly suspected of complicity
+in the plot. A state of siege was declared, but the country remained
+quiet, and no serious opposition was apparent when Prudente announced
+that his support would be given to Campos Salles as his successor in
+office and presumably the continuer of his policies.
+
+A great drop in the price of coffee began, and the financial situation
+of the government grew worse and worse. Brazil grows about two-thirds of
+the world's coffee and her crop was enormously increasing. Consequently
+the production of coffee was outrunning the world's consuming capacity.
+The enormous profits of preceding years and the abundant supply of good
+Italian labour had stimulated planting beyond all reason. New and
+fertile districts were opened up in the interior of São Paulo, with
+which the older plantations of Rio and the coast regions could not
+compete. The poorer districts were reduced to poverty, while even the
+more fertile could not hold their own.
+
+In government finances the lowest point was reached in 1898. The paper
+money had fallen to seventy-nine per cent. below par and it had become
+clearly impossible to continue payments on the foreign debt. The last
+act of Prudente's administration was to make an agreement by which the
+foreign creditors consented to waive the receipt of their interest for
+three years and the government pledged itself to reduce the volume of
+paper currency and to accumulate a fund for the resumption of interest
+payments.
+
+No contest was made against Campos Salles's election in the spring of
+1898. He took office finding an empty treasury, a government without
+financial credit, and the country in the midst of a severe commercial
+crisis. He showed great shrewdness in maintaining an ascendancy over
+the politicians and controlling a majority in both branches of Congress,
+and, through his minister of finance, relentlessly followed the policy
+of contracting the currency and increasing taxes. In 1901 the payment of
+interest on the foreign debt was resumed, and though that debt had been
+increased fifty million dollars the currency had doubled in value and
+become relatively stable. The state governments are more dependent on
+the Union than in the days of their wealth; there is little present
+danger of disintegration; no real sentiment for the re-establishment of
+the empire exists. The same habits of political subordination which have
+kept Brazil together so long are increasing rather than diminishing in
+force.
+
+  [Illustration: CAMPOS SALLES.
+  [From a wood-cut.]]
+
+The commercial crisis and the high taxes have created great discontent
+among merchants. Coffee-planters and rubber-gatherers have still further
+suffered by the rise of the currency. Immigration has practically
+ceased, and there is little water left in speculative enterprises. The
+great Bank of the Republic failed in 1900, dragging down many industrial
+concerns and ruining thousands of small investors, and the government's
+connection with the bank caused much scandal. Other banks, which had too
+much extended their agricultural and industrial credits, have also
+failed, and there is great want of confidence among investors. However,
+capital is slowly accumulating, and a healthful tendency toward
+industrious habits and the employment of reasonable and moderate methods
+in exploiting the great untouched natural resources of the country is
+evident.
+
+Rodrigues Alves, the third civil president of the Republic, was
+peaceably elected in the spring of 1902, and took his seat on November
+15th, the thirteenth anniversary of the Republic. Like both his
+predecessors he is from São Paulo, and was virtually named by his
+immediate predecessor. His policy is expected to be the same as Campos
+Salles's--that is, to keep expenses within revenue and to maintain the
+political _status quo_.
+
+Leaving out immigration, the Brazilian people have shown a steady
+natural increase of nearly two per cent. per annum during this century.
+The total population has multiplied from less than three to more than
+eighteen millions. Not a fiftieth part of the territory is cultivated;
+its resources have never been studied, much less developed; the positive
+checks hardly exist; the preventive checks are yet indefinitely remote.
+Modern altruism makes wars of extermination unthinkable; the colonial
+experiences of the last century have demonstrated that races possessing
+a reasonably efficient industrial organisation do not tend to disappear,
+even though nations whose physical force is greater may reduce them to
+political subordination. The Brazilians have the additional advantage of
+inheriting directly a European civilisation. They are too firmly
+established, too numerous and prolific, and possess a too highly
+organised and deeply rooted civilisation to be in danger of expulsion or
+political absorption. Immense immigration into South America is
+inevitable, as soon as the pressure of population is strongly felt in
+Western Europe and North America. This may transform Brazil
+economically, but the new conditions will have to fit themselves into
+the political and social framework already in existence.
+
+  [Illustration: MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA
+  _SHOWING THE PROGRESS OF SETTLEMENT AND PRESENT POPULATED AREA_]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  A
+
+  Absolutism, of King of Castile in America, 53;
+    of Francia, 192;
+    of Lopez, 199, 201;
+    of John II., 293;
+    of Pombal, 397;
+    of Pedro I., 421, 424;
+    revolt against, 411, 412
+
+  "Adelantados," 23, 34, 166
+
+  Affonso Celso, 492
+
+  Agassiz, Louis, 306
+
+  Agricultural methods, 338, 394, 406, 467
+
+  Alagoas, 309, 355, 405
+
+  Albuquerque, Jeronymo de, 343, 345, 354, 355
+
+  Alcacer-Kibir, battle of, 322, 342
+
+  Alvarengo Peixoto, poet, 399
+
+  Alvarengo, Silva, poet, 399
+
+  Alvear, General Carlos, leader in Buenos Aires, 96, 102;
+    exiled, 103;
+    in battle of Ituzaingo, 120, 261, 429;
+    Montevideo surrenders to, 255
+
+  Amazon, the, estuary discovered, 301;
+    extent navigable, 308;
+    explored, 344, 371;
+    settlements along, 374;
+    Upper, 382, 392
+
+  Amazonas, state of, 405, 490
+
+  Anchieta, Padre, 329, 336
+
+  Anti-foreign sentiment among Creoles, in Argentina, 34, 86, 267;
+    in Uruguay, 267;
+    in Brazil, 396, 417, 423, 426, 432, 433, 439, 442, 455
+
+  Araguaya River, 310, 392
+
+  Arawak Indians, 300
+
+  Architecture, 341
+
+  Argentina, 37-161;
+    settlement of, 14, 15, 17, 18, 22, 24, 29, 32, 43;
+    rainfall in, 40;
+    agriculture and grazing in, 40, 43;
+    climate in, 41;
+    area of, 43;
+    prosperity of, 45, 144, 148;
+    exports of, 49, 148, 159;
+    population of, 79, 131, 143, 147, 185;
+    national colours of, 90,
+    independence of, 90, 96, 100, 104;
+    revolt of May 25, 1810, 90, 188, 252, 407;
+    federalism in, 94, 115, 130, 132, 136, 138, 148, 255;
+    proposals to make it a monarchy, 104;
+    civil wars in, 115 _et seq._;
+    war with Brazil, 120, 129, 260, 427, 428, 462;
+    constitution of, 134, 137, 138;
+    industrial development in, 141, 160;
+    war with Paraguay, 141, 142, 189, 200, 206-219, 276, 471;
+    finances of, 149-153, 156, 157, 160;
+    war with Chile threatened, 156;
+    war with Uruguay, 255, 267
+
+  Arroyo Grande, battle of, 268
+
+  Artigas, José, 92, 105, 252-258, 407, 408
+
+  Assassinations, 277, 281, 379, 508
+
+  Asuncion, 22, 33;
+    founded, 25, 165;
+    way opened to, 143;
+    in possession of Brazil, 475
+
+  Audiencia, of Charcas, 16, 53, 61, 176;
+    of Buenos Aires, 84
+
+  Ayohuma, battle of, 97
+
+  Azores, 8, 292, 346, 387, 412
+
+
+  B
+
+  Bahia (city), early settlement of Brazil, 320;
+    military and naval post, 322;
+    population, 324;
+    industries, 324, 393;
+    growth, 347;
+    captured by the Dutch, 351;
+    captured by the Portuguese, 352;
+    place of refuge, 355;
+    siege of, 357;
+    held by Portuguese, 358, 418;
+    guerrillas obtain arms in, 362;
+    ecclesiastical capital, 399;
+    reception of the Prince Regent, 404;
+    deposes governor, 412, 436;
+    garrison re-enforced, 419;
+    expulsion of Portuguese garrison from, 420
+
+  Bahia (province), position, 310;
+    Jesuits in, 328;
+    population, 338;
+    cattle-raisers of, 372;
+    insurrections in, 375;
+    gold-fields in, 391;
+    attitude toward "Confederation of the Equator," 425;
+    separatist movement in, 444
+
+  Balboa, Nuñez de, 12
+
+  Basques, 4, 5, 26, 30
+
+  Beckman's rebellion, 375
+
+  Belgrano, Manuel, Creole leader, 89, 93;
+    expeditions to Paraguay, 91, 92, 188-190;
+    expedition to Tucuman, 93, 94, 96;
+    invasion of Bolivia, 97;
+    commission to Spain, 104;
+    in Uruguay, 253
+
+  Beresford, General, 83
+
+  Blancos, 126, 129, 266, 272 _et seq._
+
+  _Blandenques_, 248
+
+  Bohorquez. _See_ Huallpa Inca.
+
+  Bolivar, Simon, 101, 111, 112
+
+  Bolivia (Upper Peru), irrigation in, 14;
+    silver in, 16, 22, 78, 233;
+    division of, 75;
+    gold in, 78;
+    inhabitants of, 80;
+    resists revolutionary movement, 91;
+    Spanish power in, 100;
+    Rondeau's effort to conquer, 104;
+    route to, 315
+
+  Bom Jesus stockade, 354, 355
+
+  Bonaparte, Joseph, 87, 251
+
+  Bonaparte, Napoleon, 86, 89, 402
+
+  Bonifacio de Andrada, José, and independence of Brazil, 416, 421;
+    made prime minister, 418;
+    letters to Pedro, 419;
+    and brothers, 423, 432, 439, 446, 449
+
+  Borda, Juan Idiarte, 280, 281
+
+  Botacudo (Aymoré) Indians, 300, 321
+
+  Boundary questions, between Spain and Portugal, 66-68, 72, 77, 172,
+        181, 233, 239, 244, 245, 342, 372, 376, 387;
+    between Argentina and Chile, 156, 158;
+    between Brazil and Paraguay, 203, 208;
+    between Paraguay and Brazil and Argentina, 222;
+    of Brazil, 407, 468
+
+  Brazil, 287-512;
+    settlement of, 23, 316, 318, 319, 321, 323, 336, 342, 372-374, 387,
+         397;
+    war with Argentina, 120, 129, 260, 427, 428, 462;
+    war with Uruguay, 120, 209, 256, 260, 470;
+    war with Paraguay, 141, 142, 206-219, 276, 471;
+    area of, 305, 309, 310, 313, 314;
+    climate, 305, 308-313;
+    rainfall in, 306, 309-313;
+    population, 310, 314, 336, 347, 374, 397, 405, 480, 511;
+    Spanish possession of, 342;
+    efforts to establish republic in, 381, 399, 409, 476, 479, 482, 488,
+        492, 495;
+    independence of, 416, 417, 419, 426, 427;
+    Constituent Assembly of, 419, 422, 423;
+    constitution of, 422-424, 439, 444, 500;
+    Congress of, 427, 430, 432, 440, 443, 447, 449, 451, 464, 466, 475,
+        486, 500, 507;
+    regency in, 436 _et seq._;
+    hegemony of, 463, 468, 476;
+    republic established in, 497, 503, 506
+
+  Brazil-wood, 302-304, 317, 321, 322
+
+  Brazilian Creoles, at war with Spanish Creoles, 66, 68, 105, 240, 242,
+        245, 248, 254, 256, 382, 388, 389, 408
+
+  Brazilian states, power of governors of, 507
+
+  Brazilians, character and habits, 294, 318, 319, 323, 339, 359, 368,
+        376, 396, 399, 406, 407, 459, 460, 464, 467, 479, 492, 512
+
+  Brown, William, Admiral, 103, 120, 255, 261, 428
+
+  Buenos Aires (city), founded, 24, 25, 30-32, 168;
+    foreign commerce forbidden to, 50;
+    smuggling, 60;
+    prosperity, 72;
+    commercial centre, 75, 78;
+    captured by the British, 83;
+    captured by the Argentine Creoles, 84;
+    battle of, 85;
+    hegemony of, 90, 103;
+    blockades of, 120, 125, 132, 262, 269, 270;
+    detached from province, 148
+
+  Buenos Aires (province), division of Argentina, 34;
+    independent, 61;
+    Indians exiled to, 63;
+    intendencia, 75, 79
+
+
+  C
+
+  Cabeza de Vaca, 26
+
+  Cabildos, in Buenos Aires, 32, 90;
+    organisation and functions, 53-56;
+    nationality of members, 57;
+    influence of, 78, 119;
+    in Montevideo, 252
+
+  Cabot, Sebastian, 22, 165, 233, 317
+
+  Cabral, Pedro Alvares, 295
+
+  Cacao, 78
+
+  Cagancha, battle of, 268
+
+  Calabar (guerrilla chief), 355, 356
+
+  Calchaquie Indians, 63
+
+  Callao, 49
+
+  Camarrão (guerrilla chief), 355, 362
+
+  Campos (city), 347
+
+  Campos Salles, Manoel Ferraz de, 488, 508-510
+
+  Canary Islands, 7, 8, 242, 292, 329
+
+  Cape Horn, 48
+
+  Cape Verde Islands, 8, 292
+
+  Captaincies, 53, 319
+
+  Cardenas, Bishop of Paraguay, 182
+
+  Carib Indians, 300
+
+  Caseros, battle of, 129, 271, 463
+
+  Castilhos, Julio de, 502
+
+  Catamarca, 15, 63, 154
+
+  Cattle industry, in Argentina, 17, 29, 40, 71, 131, 148;
+    in Uruguay, 238, 268, 273;
+    in Brazil, 310, 371-373, 390, 393, 406
+
+  Caudillos, 116, 119, 138, 144, 255
+
+  Caxias, Marshal, 143, 218, 452, 453, 475
+
+  Cayenne, 407
+
+  Ceará, location, 309;
+    settlement in, 345;
+    Dutch control of, 357;
+    devastated, 363;
+    separated from Brazil, 371;
+    surplus of cattle in, 373;
+    decline of cattle business in, 393;
+    adhesion to "Confederation of the Equator," 425;
+    anarchy in, 438
+
+  Cerrito, battle of, 254
+
+  Chacabuco, battle of, 108
+
+  Chaco, the, 37, 58, 213, 237;
+    plains of, 166, 186;
+    matter of arbitration, 222
+
+  Charles IV. of Spain, 86
+
+  Charrua Indians, 71, 235, 244, 247, 265
+
+  Chile, 15, 42, 78, 100, 110
+
+  Cholera in Brazilian army, 216
+
+  Cisplatine Province, 258, 408
+
+  City life, taste for, 56
+
+  Claudio (poet), 399
+
+  Cochrane, Thomas, Admiral, 111, 420, 425
+
+  Coelho, Duarte, 319, 328
+
+  Coffee, productiveness, 306, 313;
+    districts of cultivation of, 310, 312, 313, 406;
+    increased production of, 448, 458, 466, 479, 489, 509;
+    plantation companies, 501;
+    trade affected by rise of currency, 511
+
+  Colombia, 434
+
+  Colonia de Sacramento, founded, 68, 240, 376;
+    held by Portuguese, 70, 72, 234, 240;
+    taken by Spaniards, 77, 246, 388, 389;
+    port, 230;
+    attacked, 245
+
+  Colonial governors, corruption of, 56, 64, 65, 393
+
+  Colonial trade, restrictions on, imposed, 48, 49, 63;
+    evil effects of, 49, 52;
+    how enforced, 50, 65, 71;
+    removed, 78, 88, 404;
+    among colonies, 82;
+    of Brazil with Portugal, 287, 336, 342, 373, 393
+
+  Colorados, 126, 129, 266, 272 _et seq._
+
+  Columbus, Christopher, 8
+
+  Commercial routes to Pacific, 21, 47, 48
+
+  Concepcion (Argentina), 116
+
+  "Confederation of the Equator," 425
+
+  Constant, Benjamin, General, 492, 495-497
+
+  Contraband trade, in Argentina, 51, 52, 63-66, 69, 75;
+    at Colonia, 240, 377;
+    and Thomas de Souza, 329;
+    in Brazil, 347, 373, 394
+
+  Copper, 78
+
+  Copper-pan amalgamation process, 16
+
+  Cordoba (city), founded, 30;
+    rainfall in, 40;
+    on trade route, 50, 51;
+    prosperity of, 62, 63
+
+  Cordoba (province), Spaniards pass through, 14;
+    settled, 15;
+    intendencia, 75;
+    Indian stock in, 80;
+    revolution in, 91, 154;
+    military state, 121;
+    governor expelled, 123
+
+  Corrientes (city), founded, 33;
+    defence of, 58;
+    desire for independence, 116
+
+  Corrientes (province), flourishing, 34;
+    ravaged by war, 130, 135;
+    troubles in, 154;
+    missions in, 186;
+    Belgrano in, 188;
+    invasion of, 210;
+    relations with Artigas, 255;
+    alliance with Rivera, 267
+
+  Cortes, Hernando, 12, 20
+
+  Cortes (Portuguese Parliament), 291, 412, 415, 416, 418
+
+  Cotegipe, Baron of, 490, 491
+
+  Cotton, cultivation of, 14, 41, 309, 310, 371, 448;
+    manufacture, 170, 371, 406;
+    trade, 405
+
+  Council of the Indies, 53
+
+  Cromwell, Oliver, 366
+
+  Cruelties in war, 91, 93, 276, 384
+
+  Cuestas, Juan L., 281
+
+  Curitiba, 172
+
+  Curupayty, battle of, 142, 215, 475
+
+  Cuyabá, 391
+
+  Cuyo, province of Argentina, 15, 64;
+    industries in, 17;
+    political dependency, 17, 33;
+    detached from Chile, 74;
+    products of, 78;
+    inhabitants of, 102;
+    ruler of, 121, 123
+
+  Cuzco, 41
+
+
+  D
+
+  December 27, 1868, battle of, 219
+
+  Democracy, 56, 81, 83, 432, 437
+
+  Diamond mining, 392, 397
+
+  Dias, Henrique, 355, 362
+
+  Diaz, Bartholomew, 293
+
+  Discoveries, 8, 12, 19, 296
+
+  Drake, Sir Francis, 47
+
+  Drugs, 49
+
+  Duarte Coelho. _See_ Coelho, Duarte.
+
+  Duguay-Trouin, Admiral, 384
+
+  Durão, Santa Rita. _See_ Santa Rita Durão.
+
+
+  E
+
+  Education, popular, 73;
+    lack of, among Brazilians, 396;
+    encouraged in Brazil, 398;
+    schools, 404, 406, 448;
+    desire for, 409
+
+  Elections, in Argentina, 140, 143, 146, 154;
+    in Uruguay, 280;
+    in Brazil, 464, 475, 478, 485-487, 489, 495, 507
+
+  Emancipation of slaves, in Paraguay, 199;
+    in Brazil, 456, 461, 476, 479, 481, 482, 490, 491
+
+  Emboaba rebellion, 379
+
+  Encomiendas, 165
+
+  Entre Rios, province of Argentina, 34;
+    Indians in, 62, 71, 74, 186;
+    gauchos in, 92, 236, 244, 254, 255;
+    governor of, 128;
+    revolutionary movement in, 188;
+    independent, 270;
+    ruler of, 471, 472
+
+  Espirito Santo, 310, 333, 338, 347
+
+
+  F
+
+  Federalist party, 119, 121, 123, 126, 263
+
+  Feijó, Padre, Regent of Brazil, 432, 433, 437, 440, 443
+
+  Ferdinand VII. of Spain, 87, 90, 93, 96, 411
+
+  Fernandes Vieira, 361 _et seq._
+
+  Florés, Venancio, leader of revolutionists in Uruguay, 208, 468;
+    ruler of Uruguay, 212, 273;
+    government of his own, 274;
+    in war against Paraguay, 276;
+    death, 277
+
+  Fonseca, Deodoro da, 493-497, 500, 501
+
+  Foreign debts, of Argentina, increased, 144, 160,
+      how met, 149, 152, 157, 160, 161;
+    of Uruguay, doubled, 277, 280;
+    of Brazil, increased, 464, 474, 509,
+      how met, 480, 489, 510
+
+  France, intervenes in Uruguayan civil war, 269;
+    poaches, 304, 317;
+    French traders in Brazil, 322, 329, 343;
+    settlement at Rio, 333;
+    measures to expel, from Rio, 335;
+    attempts to colonise Maranhâo, 345;
+    takes Rio, 383;
+    ministers of, with Pedro I., 434
+
+  Francia, José Gaspar, 190-197, 256, 258
+
+  Franciscans, 58, 169, 182
+
+  Free Masonry, 409, 415, 484
+
+  French Revolution, 82
+
+
+  G
+
+  Gama, Basilio da, poet, 399
+
+  Gama, Vasco da, 295
+
+  Garay, Juan de, founder of Buenos Aires, 30-33, 58, 237
+
+  Garcia, Aleixo, 316
+
+  Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 270, 442
+
+  Gauchos, origin of, 81;
+    element in Argentine army, 94, 116;
+    defend Bolivian frontier, 101, 104;
+    in Entre Rios, 236, 244;
+    Uruguayan, 248, 279, 442;
+    in Rio Grande do Sul, 502
+
+  Glycerio, Francisco, 495
+
+  Goes, Zacarias de, 466
+
+  Gold, in Africa, 8;
+    in Hayti, 10, 12;
+    Spain's desire for, 49;
+    value of, 50;
+    in Peru, 78;
+    in Brazil, 310, 378-380, 391-393, 397, 405
+
+  Gonzaga, poet, 399
+
+  Goyaz, 310, 313, 348, 372
+
+  Great Britain, fleet of, before Montevideo, 83-86;
+    gunboats of, hold Paraguayan flagship, 204;
+    captured Buenos Aires, 248;
+    besiege Montevideo, 250, 251;
+    blockade Buenos Aires, 269;
+    filibustering of, along Brazilian coast, 343;
+    importations of, into Brazil, 405, 459;
+    ministers of, 434;
+    relations with Brazil, 456
+
+  Guarany (Tupi), Indians, 42, 297
+
+  Guararapes, battle of, 364
+
+  Guayabos, battle of, 255
+
+  Guayaquil, 112
+
+  Guayrá cataract, 171, 178, 179
+
+  Guayrá province, 173, 177, 180
+
+
+  H
+
+  Hayes, Rutherford B., 222
+
+  Hayti, 10, 12
+
+  Henry the Navigator, 292
+
+  Hernandarias Saavedra, 58, 174, 237
+
+  Heyn, Piet, Admiral, 352
+
+  Hides, 49, 60, 78, 148, 241
+
+  Holland, 309, 343, 350 _et seq._
+
+  Horses, 32, 33, 43, 131, 238
+
+  Huallpa Inca (Bohorquez), 63
+
+  Huaqui, battle of, 92, 253
+
+  Huguenots, 334, 345
+
+  Humaitá, 207, 212-218, 475
+
+
+  I
+
+  Iguassu River, 67, 180
+
+  Ilheos, 320, 344
+
+  Immigration, into Argentina, 45, 130, 136, 141, 144, 159;
+    into Paraguay, 222;
+    into Uruguay, 268, 276, 278;
+    into Brazil, 339, 346, 404, 408, 463, 490, 501, 512
+
+  Incas, 13, 14, 41, 42
+
+  Indian corn, 41, 306, 310
+
+  Indian language, 18, 166, 300, 331
+
+  Indian wars, with Guaranies, 29;
+    with inferior tribes, 43;
+    with Andean, 58, 59;
+    in Argentine, 62, 124, 145;
+    in Uruguay, 62, 232, 234, 237;
+    with Calchaquies, 63;
+    Paulistas' raids, 67, 72, 170, 173, 348;
+    with Charruas, 71, 244;
+    in the plains of the Chaco, 166;
+    with Aymorés, 321, 335;
+    with Tamoyos, 331;
+    in Brazil, 333, 343, 373
+
+  Indians, flourishing communities, 18;
+    Irala's dealing with, 27;
+    Andean and inferior tribes 42;
+    Jesuits and, 73, 74, 173, 331;
+    civilised, 168, 405;
+    evangelisation of, 170, 173, 327;
+    social status of, 184;
+    employment, 185;
+    Cabral and, 297;
+    relations with the French, 333, 335;
+    Brazilian, 298-300
+
+  Indigo, 405
+
+  Intendencias, 75
+
+  Intermixture with Indians, in coast provinces, 18;
+    in Argentina, 45, 80;
+    in Paraguay, 166, 192;
+    in Jesuit Republic, 187;
+    in Brazil, 318, 346, 398
+
+  Irrigation, 14, 42
+
+  Isabel, Princess of Brazil, 456, 457, 484, 490, 494
+
+  Itamarica, 317, 319, 355, 363
+
+  Ituzaingo, battle of, 120, 261, 429
+
+
+  J
+
+  Januaria, Princess of Brazil, 445, 446
+
+  January 19, 1811, battle of, 189
+
+  Jesuits, their work in Paraguay, 34, 170-176;
+    republic, 60, 73, 74, 177;
+    and Bohorquez, 64;
+    and Paulistas, 66-68, 72, 347, 348;
+    their work in Uruguay, 71, 238, 245;
+    their work in Brazil, 169, 326 _et seq._;
+    missions in northern Brazil, 374;
+    missions on Amazon, 374, 382, 392;
+    Pombal and, 397
+
+  Jews, 353, 358
+
+  John VI. of Portugal and Brazil, his troops defeat Artigas, 105;
+    withdraws troops from Uruguay, 254;
+    relations with Napoleon, 402;
+    flight to Rio, 403, 404;
+    Brazil's foreign relations under, 407;
+    called back to Portugal, 411;
+    unsupported by Brazil, 412;
+    in fear of the people, 413;
+    news of his death, 428
+
+  Jujuy, 15, 94
+
+  Juncal, battle of, 120, 262
+
+
+  L
+
+  Labour, enforced, 194, 201
+
+  Laguna, 386
+
+  Land grants, 56, 338, 390, 406
+
+  Las Piedras, battle of, 92, 253
+
+  Latorre, Lorenzo, 277
+
+  Lautaro society, 96
+
+  Lavalle, General, 268
+
+  Lavalleja, General, 256, 259, 261, 262
+
+  Lima, 16, 51
+
+  Liniers, General, 83, 85, 87, 91, 251
+
+  Local self-government, strong sentiment in favour of, 34;
+    right of, 115;
+    struggles for, 380;
+    effected, 401, 402, 439, 454;
+    impaired, 444
+
+  Lopez II., unnatural cruelties of, 221
+
+  Lopez, Carlos Antonio, President of Paraguay, 199-205
+
+  Lopez, Francisco Solano, 141, 204-221, 274, 470
+
+  Lynch, Madame, 206
+
+
+  M
+
+  Madeira Islands, 8, 37, 292, 361, 412
+
+  Madeira River, 314, 391, 392
+
+  Magellan, Fernando, 20, 21, 232
+
+  Magellan, Strait of, 21, 47
+
+  Maldonado, 230, 242, 250
+
+  Mandioc, 41, 306, 310, 371
+
+  Maranhão, location of, 309;
+    French attempt to colonise, 345;
+    captured by the Brazilian Creoles, 346;
+    occupied by Maurice, 357;
+    revolt in, 362, 375;
+    new state, 371;
+    Jesuits in, 374;
+    development hindered, 393;
+    takes a new start, 397;
+    Portuguese expelled from, 420;
+    not represented in Constituent Assembly, 422;
+    adhesion to "Confederation of the Equator," 425;
+    civil war in, 438;
+    revolution in, 446, 452
+
+  Maria Gloria of Portugal, 428
+
+  Mascate rebellion, 381
+
+  Matte (Paraguayan) tea, 78
+
+  Matto Grosso, seized by Lopez, 142, 210;
+    at the mercy of Lopez, 208;
+    location of, 314;
+    beginning of the state, 391;
+    expedition against, 471;
+    safety of, assured, 476
+
+  Maurice of Nassau, 356
+
+  Mello, Admiral, 504, 505
+
+  Mem da Sa, 335, 337
+
+  Mendoza, Pedro de, 23, 165, 236
+
+  Mendoza (city), 15, 41, 64, 106
+
+  Miguel, pretender to Portuguese crown, 428, 439
+
+  Military operations among uncivilised Indians, 18, 26
+
+  Minas Geraes, location of, 310,
+    description of, 311, 313;
+    gold in, 379, 391, 392, 397;
+    population of, 397;
+    literature in, 399;
+    attitude of, toward Pedro I., 433, 438;
+    revolution in, 453
+
+  Missions, negotiations concerning, 72, 77, 186, 245, 246, 388, 390;
+    attacked, 105;
+    established in Paraguay, 180;
+    conquered by Rio Grandenses, 248;
+    loyal to Artigas, 255;
+    invaded, 407
+
+  Mitre, Bartolomé, resistance of Rioja to, 64;
+    historian, 98;
+    established civil government in Buenos Aires, 126;
+    on Argentine constitution, 137;
+    in Paraguayan war, 141, 142, 153, 160, 471;
+    party leader, 154
+
+  Mohammedanism, 325
+
+  Monopolies, of Cadiz merchants, 48, 50, 51, 82;
+    Portuguese, 374, 393;
+    abolished, 397, 404
+
+  Montevideo, harbours, 31, 241;
+    taken by the Spanish, 70;
+    population of, 78;
+    sieges of, 92, 250, 253, 254, 269;
+    captured by the patriots, 103, 255;
+    captured by the Portuguese, 105, 408;
+    named, 232;
+    fortified, 242;
+    captured by the British, 250;
+    blockaded, 276;
+    founded, 386;
+    Portuguese garrison expelled from, 420
+
+  Montoya, Father, 178
+
+  Moors, 3-5, 288, 290
+
+  Moraes, Prudente, President, 488, 506, 507, 508
+
+  Mules, trade in, 63
+
+  Municipal government, characteristic of Spain, 3, 53;
+    adaptation of, 44;
+    Spanish form of, 54;
+    in Portugal, 290, 291;
+    of Bahia, 325;
+    granted to Brazilian towns, 374;
+    character of, 424
+
+
+  N
+
+  Nabuco, Joaquim, 481
+
+  Napoleon Bonaparte. _See_ Bonaparte, Napoleon.
+
+  Natal, 344
+
+  Negroes, 102, 105, 311, 375, 405
+
+  New Granada, 100
+
+  Nobrega, Padre Manuel, 326, 328, 330
+
+
+  O
+
+  Office-holding, 52, 409, 459
+
+  O'Higgins, Bernard, 109, 111
+
+  Ojeda, Alonso de, 301
+
+  Orellana, discoverer of the Amazon, 344
+
+  Oribe, Manuel, retreat of, 256;
+    president of Uruguay, 265;
+    leader of party, 265, 267, 461;
+    defeated Argentine unitarians, 268;
+    surrendered, 271
+
+  Oruro, 16
+
+  Ouro Preto, Viscount of, 494, 495, 497
+
+  Ouro Preto (city), 399
+
+
+  P
+
+  Pacific, Spanish control of, 21
+
+  Pampas, explored, 32;
+    character of, 38;
+    description, 40, 41;
+    expedition over, 58
+
+  Pampean sea, prehistoric, 229
+
+  Panama, Isthmus of, 12, 21, 48, 49
+
+  Paper currency, in Argentine, 149, 150, 157, 160;
+    in Paraguay, 223;
+    in Uruguay, 282;
+    in Brazil, 458, 463, 464, 466, 473, 479, 480, 501, 507, 509, 510
+
+  Pará, Indians in, 346, 405;
+    Portuguese possession of, 358;
+    part of Maranhão, 371;
+    Jesuits in, 374;
+    development hindered, 393;
+    takes a new start, 397;
+    cotton trade in, 405;
+    coffee in, 406;
+    expedition from, to Cayenne, 407;
+    Spanish constitution in, 412;
+    Portuguese garrison expelled from, 420;
+    and Constituent Assembly, 422;
+    attitude toward "Confederation of the Equator," 425;
+    action of troops in, 436, 441;
+    production of rubber in, 490;
+    prosperity of, 501
+
+  Paraguay (country), 165-224;
+    settlement of, 25, 27;
+    Jesuit missions in, 34;
+    Indians in, 42, 80;
+    separate province, 61;
+    intendencia, 75;
+    population, 75, 220;
+    products of, 78;
+    attitude toward revolutionary movement, 91;
+    war against Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay, 141, 142, 206-219, 276,
+        471;
+    independence of, 184, 189, 190, 222, 476;
+    commercial isolation of, 192, 197;
+    Brazilian protectorate of, 221;
+    Paulistas in, 348
+
+  Paraguay River, the, explorations along, 22, 26;
+    settlement on, 33;
+    watershed of, 37;
+    description of, 38;
+    free navigation on, 200, 464, 471, 476
+
+  Paraguayan army, discipline in, 214
+
+  Parahyba do Norte, location, 309;
+    population, 338;
+    Spaniards take possession of, 343;
+    reduced by the Dutch, 355;
+    devastated, 363;
+    adhesion to the "Confederation of the Equator," 425
+
+  Parahyba do Sul, 312, 347, 373
+
+  Paraná, Marquis of, 463, 464, 465
+
+  Paraná (Brazilian state), 313, 377, 405
+
+  Paraná (city), 134
+
+  Paraná River, the, explorations of, 14, 22, 26, 30, 31, 165;
+    settlements on, 27, 33, 34, 62, 134, 168;
+    description of, 38;
+    Jesuit missions on, 60, 171;
+    Paulistas on, 67;
+    open only to Argentine vessels, 200;
+    free navigation on, 202, 270, 464;
+    European navies enter, 269;
+    valley of, 312, 313, 377
+
+  Patagonia, 40, 41, 43, 146
+
+  Paulista pioneers, 318, 348
+
+  Pavon, battle of, 64, 137
+
+  Paysandu, capture of, 210
+
+  Pedro I. of Brazil, 412-416, 421-435, 439
+
+  Pedro II. of Brazil, infancy, 433, 444, 446;
+    assumes imperial functions, 447;
+    emperor, 449-457;
+    power of, 478;
+    declining health, 488, 494;
+    speech of, 490;
+    deposition, 498, 499
+
+  Peixoto, Floriano, 497, 500, 502-505
+
+  Pepper, 406
+
+  Pernambuco (city), founded, 319;
+    nucleus of settlement of Brazil, 320;
+    Nobrega visits, 328;
+    architecture of, 340;
+    population of, 347;
+    advantageous position of, 351;
+    taken by the Dutch, 353, 354;
+    taken by the Brazilian Creoles, 367;
+    military revolts in, 438
+
+  Pernambuco (province), location of, 309;
+    population of, 338, 347;
+    rich planters of, 339;
+    Jews in, 358;
+    civil war in, 380;
+    sugar industry in, 393;
+    revolution in, 409;
+    Spanish constitution in, 412;
+    Portuguese garrison in, 418;
+    garrison expelled from, 419;
+    and Constituent Assembly, 422, 424;
+    action of troops in, 436;
+    conservative governor of, 455
+
+  Peru, Pizarro in, 12, 13, 23;
+    irrigation in, 14;
+    silver in, 16, 22, 78, 233;
+    gold in, 78;
+    Spanish power in, 100;
+    war against, 111
+
+  Philip II. of Spain, 342
+
+  Piauhy, 309, 372, 393, 422
+
+  Pilocomayo River, 222
+
+  Pinheiro Machado, General, 503
+
+  Pinzon, Vincente Yanez, 301
+
+  Pitagoares Indians, 344
+
+  Pizarro, 13, 23, 316
+
+  Polygamy, 220
+
+  Pombal, Marquis of, 396
+
+  Pope's division of the world, 12, 19, 21, 319
+
+  Porto Seguro, 320, 338, 347
+
+  Portugal, separated from Leon, 4;
+    and Granada united, 6;
+    joined to Spanish crown, 47;
+    general survey of the history of, 288-292;
+    Philip II., of Spain on the throne of, 342;
+    separated from Spain, 361;
+    war with Spain, 382;
+    revolt of 1820 in, 411
+
+  Portuguese Court, flight of, to Rio, 403
+
+  Portuguese discoveries and conquests, 7, 8, 292;
+    in South America, 19, 67, 68, 77, 302
+
+  Potatoes, 41
+
+  Potosí, 16, 51
+
+  Press, freedom of, in Brazil, 410, 430, 448, 460, 482;
+    restricted, 422, 424
+
+  Printing-press in Brazil, 404, 408, 409
+
+  Provincial organisation, 54, 61, 74, 77, 405
+
+
+  Q
+
+  Quicksilver mines, 16
+
+  Quintino Bocayuva, 495, 497
+
+
+  R
+
+  Race elements in population, 405
+
+  Railways, mileage in Argentina, 148;
+    source of wealth, 161;
+    building of, in Brazil, 463, 466, 490;
+    building of, interrupted, 508
+
+  Ramalho, John, pioneer, 316, 318
+
+  Religious lay brotherhoods, 484
+
+  Religious sentiment, in Spain, 5;
+    in Argentina, 81;
+    in Portugal, 290;
+    of Count John Maurice, 356, 358;
+    in Brazil, 359, 361;
+    of Fernandez Vieira, 369
+
+  Riachuelo, battle of, 210, 474
+
+  Rice, 78, 306, 405
+
+  Rio Branco, Baron of, 482, 485
+
+  Rio de Janeiro (city), commercial port, 51;
+    population of, 347, 397;
+    prosperity of, 373, 501;
+    attacked and taken by the French, 383;
+    its reception of the Prince Regent, 404
+
+  Rio de Janeiro (province), why so named, 302;
+    description of, 312;
+    nucleus of the settlement of Brazil, 320;
+    French occupation of, 333 _et seq._;
+    captured by the Portuguese, 336;
+    population of, 338;
+    uprising in, 413
+
+  Rio Grande city, captured by the Spaniards, 388;
+    by the Brazilian Creoles, 389
+
+  Rio Grande do Norte, location, 309;
+    nucleus of, 344;
+    reduced by the Dutch, 355;
+    devastated, 363;
+    Indians subdued in, 373;
+    adhesion to the "Confederation of the Equator," 425
+
+  Rio Grande do Sul (city), 387
+
+  Rio Grande do Sul (province), Jesuit missions in, 72, 180;
+    held by the Portuguese, 77, 244;
+    people of, 247;
+    Brazilian province, 270;
+    and Uruguay, 284;
+    description of, 313, 314;
+    Brazilian possession of, 377;
+    settled, 397;
+    Spanish Constitution in, 412;
+    Argentine invasion of, 429;
+    rebellions in, 441, 442, 454, 502, 504;
+    Paraguayan invasion of, 473, 474
+
+  Rioja, 15, 63, 64
+
+  Rio Negro, 392
+
+  Rio Real, 338
+
+  Rivadavia, Bernardino, 104, 119, 120, 262
+
+  Rivera, Fructuoso, 255, 259, 261-269, 461
+
+  Roca, Julio, General, successes of, 145;
+    candidate for president, 147, 157;
+    his first administration, 150;
+    party leader, 153;
+    took command of army, 155;
+    his second administration, 158, 160;
+    his followers, 160
+
+  Rodrigues, Alves, President, 511
+
+  Rojas, Diego de, 14
+
+  Rondeau, José, General, 254, 263
+
+  Rosario, 40, 63, 136, 155
+
+  Rosas, Juan Manuel, laudation of, 114;
+    federalist leader in Buenos Aires, 122 _et seq._, 266;
+    growth of his power, 200;
+    and Montevideo, 268;
+    relations with Entre Rios, 270;
+    and Oribe faction, 461
+
+  Rubber, 490, 501, 511
+
+
+  S
+
+  Sabará, 378, 391
+
+  Saldanha Marinho, 482
+
+  Salta, province of Argentina, 15;
+    intendencia, 75;
+    social conditions in, 80;
+    Buenos Airean army passes through, 91;
+    warfare in, 94;
+    rebellion in, 155
+
+  San Ildefonso, treaty of, 246, 389
+
+  San John d'El Rei, 400
+
+  San Juan, 15, 40, 64, 137
+
+  San Luiz, 64, 155
+
+  San Martin, José, General, 77, 96-114
+
+  Santa Catharina, 19, 26;
+    captured by Spain, 77, 246;
+    description of, 313;
+    exploration of, 316;
+    Brazilian possession of, 377;
+    settlement of, 386, 397;
+    captured by the Spaniards, 389;
+    restored to Portugal, 390;
+    invasion of, 446, 504, 506;
+    seat of revolutionary government, 504
+
+  Santa Fé, Argentina (city), Spanish settlement of, 29;
+    desire of, for independence, 116;
+    founded, 168
+
+  Santa Fé, Argentina (province),
+    governor of, sent Indians and supplies to Buenos Aires, 31;
+    Indians in, 63, 130;
+    a part of intendencia of Buenos Aires, 75;
+    invasion of, 121;
+    Brazilian army in, 129;
+    Congress held in, 131;
+    revolution in, 155;
+    Creoles of, defeat Charruas, 242;
+    loyal to Artigas, 255
+
+  Santa Luzia, battle of, 453
+
+  Santa Rita Durão (poet), 399
+
+  Santiago de Chile, 42, 51, 107
+
+  Santiago del Estero (Argentina), 14, 15, 63, 121, 154
+
+  Santo Amaro, 319
+
+  Santos, 51, 316, 318
+
+  São Francisco River, the, why so named, 302;
+    valley of, 310, 311;
+    Pernambucos on, 344;
+    military raids near, 357;
+    cattle-raisers established on, 372;
+    gold around headwaters of, 378
+
+  São Paulo (city), menaced by Indians, 333;
+    prosperity of, 501,
+    the home of Rodrigues Alvez, 511
+
+  São Paulo (province),
+    opposition to the extension of Spanish dominions, 66;
+    Jesuits in, 169, 328, 330, 347, 374;
+    description of, 313;
+    conditions of, for settlement, 318;
+    nucleus of settlement of Brazil, 320;
+    inhabitants of, 322;
+    spread of Indians in, 332;
+    not a sugar-raising province, 338;
+    profits by secret trade, 373;
+    gold in, 378;
+    depopulated, 393;
+    an Englishman in, 407;
+    revolution in, 453;
+    representation of, in Chamber of Brazil, 488;
+    coffee in, 489
+
+  São Vicente, 23, 318
+
+  Saraiva, Aparcicio, 280
+
+  Saraiva, Gomercindo, 503, 504
+
+  Saraiva, José Antonio, 486, 488
+
+  Sarandi, battle of, 120, 260, 427
+
+  Schouten, 48
+
+  Sea-power, of England, 82, 269, 366;
+    of Spain, 93, 103, 111, 255;
+    of France, 269;
+    of Brazil, 426, 462;
+    of Argentina, 428
+
+  Sergipe, 310, 343, 344, 357
+
+  Seville Junta, 88, 251
+
+  Sheep-raising, 131, 148, 278
+
+  Silver mining, in Bolivia and Peru, 16, 22, 78, 233;
+    Spain's desire for, 49;
+    value of, 50
+
+  Sipe-Sipe, battle of, 104
+
+  Slavery, Indian, in Argentine provinces, 17, 33;
+    tendency of, 56;
+    Hernandarias opposed to, 59;
+    forbidden by Spanish Government, 60, 175;
+    under Spaniards, 165;
+    Paulistas and, 174, 322, 347;
+    forbidden by Portuguese Government, 321;
+    Jesuits fought against, 327;
+    Mem da Sa and, 335;
+    Pombal and, 398
+
+  Slavery, negro, 82, 324, 458;
+    encouraged, 328, 335;
+    increased, 398;
+    proportion of slaves in population of Brazil, 405.
+    _See_ Emancipation of slaves.
+
+  Solis, Juan Diaz de, 19, 230
+
+  Soracaba, 373, 453
+
+  Soriano, first settlement in Uruguay, 238, 241
+
+  Souza, Thomas de, 323, 329
+
+  Spain, war with Portugal, 382;
+    revolt of 1820 in, 411
+
+  Spanish authority unquestioned, 52
+
+  Spanish Creoles at war with Brazilian Creoles, 66, 68, 105, 240, 242,
+        245, 248, 254, 256, 382, 388, 389, 409
+
+  Spanish discoveries and conquests, 7, 8, 12-15, 301
+
+  Spanish monarchy, structure of, 4, 7, 20
+
+  Spanish possession of Portugal and Brazil, 342
+
+  Spanish treasure fleet, capture of, by the Dutch, 353
+
+  Street-car tax riots, 485
+
+  Sucré (Charcas), 16, 33, 89, 182
+
+  Sugar, districts of cultivation of, 78, 309, 310, 312, 321, 343, 371;
+    first cultivation of, 317, 321;
+    industry prosperous, 321, 324, 336, 448:
+    annual production of, 338;
+    trade, 351;
+    price, 361, 392, 397;
+    industry decadent, 393;
+    staple production, 405;
+    comparative cultivation, 458;
+    plantation companies, 501
+
+  Suipacha, battle of, 91
+
+
+  T
+
+  Tabocas, battle of, 362
+
+  Tamoyo Indians, 331, 335
+
+  Tandil Mountains, 237
+
+  Tapajos River, 314
+
+  Taxation, 338, 393
+
+  Theresina Christina, Empress of Brazil, 457, 498
+
+  "Thirty-three," the, 259
+
+  Tierra del Fuego, 41
+
+  Tieté River, 347
+
+  Tiradentes, 400
+
+  Tobacco, 78, 310, 393, 405, 448
+
+  Tocantins River, 310, 392
+
+  Tucuman, battle of, 94
+
+  Tucuman (city), founded, 15;
+    Congress at, 105;
+    Paz's army in, 123, 124
+
+  Tucuman (province), Spanish rule in, 15, 17;
+    political dependency, 17, 33, 61;
+    thriving towns in, 62, 63;
+    revolt in, 155;
+    missionary work in, 182
+
+
+  U
+
+  Unitarian party, 119, 121, 123, 126, 263
+
+  United States of America, and Lopez, 202, 203;
+    arbitrator, 222;
+    influence of, on Brazil, 399, 500;
+    recognises Brazil's independence, 426;
+    does not support Pedro, 434;
+    prevents commercial blockade, 506
+
+  Urquiza, Justo José, General,
+    defeats allied unitarians and colorados, 126;
+    governor of Entre Rios, 128;
+    forms alliance with Brazil and colorado faction in Uruguay, 129,
+        462, 472;
+    favours federal constitution, 131-134;
+    first president of Argentine Republic, 135;
+    his term expires, 137;
+    refuses to revolt against Buenos Aires, 142;
+    revolt against, 144;
+    his friendship with Lopez, 200;
+    general-in-chief, 271;
+    successes in Uruguay, 271, 462;
+    Lopez angry with, 471
+
+  Uruguay, 34, 75, 227-284;
+    Indians in, 62, 71, 74;
+    first settlement, 68;
+    Spanish territory, 77, 100;
+    Portuguese troops in, 110;
+    war with Brazil, 120, 209, 256, 260, 470;
+    war with Paraguay, 141, 142, 206-219, 276, 471;
+    area of, 229;
+    settlement of, 238, 239, 242, 386;
+    population of, 247, 265, 273, 278;
+    war with Argentina, 255, 267;
+    independence of, 255, 259, 260, 263, 430, 461, 463, 476;
+    Brazilian occupation of, 258, 408;
+    constitution of, 264;
+    Brazilian intervention in, 270, 274, 407, 462;
+    Paulistas in, 348;
+    rebellion against Pedro, 427;
+    Brazilian protectorate of, 468
+
+  Uruguay River, the, explored, 22;
+    harbours, 31;
+    course of, 38;
+    Jesuit missions along, 60, 68;
+    navigation of, 134, 464
+
+  Uruguayana, capture of, 212
+
+  Uspallata Pass, 106
+
+
+  V
+
+  Vasco da Gama. _See_ Gama, Vasco da.
+
+  Vasconcellos, Bernardo, in Congress of Brazil, 430, 446;
+    absent from Rio, 433;
+    result of work, 440, 441, 443;
+    death, 461
+
+  Veiga, Evaristo da, 430, 433
+
+  Venezuela, 100
+
+  Vespucci, Amerigo, 302, 306
+
+  Viceroyalties, divided into provinces, 53;
+    Peru, 61, 74, 176;
+    Buenos Aires, 74, 75, 80;
+    Atlantic slope of Spanish South America, 246
+
+  Victoria, 311, 320, 378
+
+  Vidal, guerrilla chief, 362
+
+  Vieira, Antonio, 374
+
+  Vieira, Fernandes. _See_ Fernandes Vieira.
+
+  Vilapugio, battle of, 97
+
+  Villegagnon, French adventurer, 334
+
+  Visigoths, 3, 290
+
+
+  W
+
+  _Water Witch_, incident, 203
+
+  Wheat, 148, 159, 278, 340
+
+  Whitelocke, General, 85
+
+
+  X
+
+  Xingú River, 314
+
+
+  Y
+
+  Yellow fever, 461
+
+
+  Z
+
+  Zeballos, Pedro de, 77
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+  _A Selection from the Catalogue of_
+  G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS
+  Complete Catalogues sent on application
+
+
+  The Story of the Nations
+
+  In the story form the current of each National life is distinctly
+  indicated, and its picturesque and noteworthy periods and episodes are
+  presented for the reader in their philosophical relation to each other
+  as well as to universal history.
+
+  It is the plan of the writers of the different volumes to enter into
+  the real life of the peoples, and to bring them before the reader as
+  they actually lived, labored, and struggled--as they studied and
+  wrote, and as they amused themselves. In carrying out this plan, the
+  myths, with which the history of all lands begins, are not overlooked,
+  though they are carefully distinguished from the actual history, so
+  far as the labors of the accepted historical authorities have resulted
+  in definite conclusions.
+
+  The subjects of the different volumes have been planned to cover
+  connecting and, as far as possible, consecutive epochs or periods, so
+  that the set when completed will present in a comprehensive narrative
+  the chief events in the great STORY OF THE NATIONS; but it is, of
+  course, not always practicable to issue the several volumes in their
+  chronological order.
+
+  _For list of volumes see next page._
+
+    GREECE. Prof. Jas. A. Harrison.
+    ROME. Arthur Gilman.
+    THE JEWS. Prof. James K. Hosmer.
+    CHALDEA. Z. A. Ragozin.
+    GERMANY. S. Baring-Gould.
+    NORWAY. Hjalmar H. Boyesen.
+    SPAIN. Rev. E. E. and Susan Hale.
+    HUNGARY. Prof. A. Vámbéry.
+    CARTHAGE. Prof. Alfred J. Church.
+    THE SARACENS. Arthur Gilman.
+    THE MOORS IN SPAIN. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+    THE NORMANS. Sarah Orne Jewett.
+    PERSIA. S. G. W. Benjamin.
+    ANCIENT EGYPT. Prof. Geo. Rawlinson.
+    ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. Prof. J. P. Mahaffy.
+    ASSYRIA. Z. A. Ragozin.
+    THE GOTHS. Henry Bradley.
+    IRELAND. Hon. Emily Lawless.
+    TURKEY. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+    MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA Z. A. Ragozin.
+    MEDIÆVAL FRANCE. Prof. Gustave Masson.
+    HOLLAND. Prof. J. Thorold Rogers.
+    MEXICO. Susan Hale.
+    PHOENICIA. George Rawlinson.
+    THE HANSA TOWNS. Helen Zimmern.
+    EARLY BRITAIN. Prof. Alfred J. Church.
+    THE BARBARY CORSAIRS. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+    RUSSIA. W. R. Morfill.
+    THE JEWS UNDER ROME. W. D. Morrison.
+    SCOTLAND. John Mackintosh.
+    SWITZERLAND. R. Stead and Mrs. A. Hug.
+    PORTUGAL. H. Morse-Stephens.
+    THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. C. W. C. Oman.
+    SICILY. E. A. Freeman.
+    THE TUSCAN REPUBLICS. Bella Duffy.
+    POLAND. W. R. Morfill.
+    PARTHIA. Geo. Rawlinson.
+    JAPAN. David Murray.
+    THE CHRISTIAN RECOVERY OF SPAIN. H. E. Watts.
+    AUSTRALASIA. Greville Tregarthen.
+    SOUTHERN AFRICA. Geo. M. Theal.
+    VENICE. Alethea Wiel.
+    THE CRUSADES. T. S. Archer and C. L. Kingsford.
+    VEDIC INDIA. Z. A. Ragozin.
+    BOHEMIA. C. E. Maurice.
+    CANADA. J. G. Bourinot.
+    THE BALKAN STATES. William Miller.
+    BRITISH RULE IN INDIA. R. W. Frazer.
+    MODERN FRANCE. André LeBon.
+    THE BRITISH EMPIRE. Alfred T. Story. Two vols.
+    THE FRANKS. Lewis Sergeant.
+    THE WEST INDIES. Amos K. Fiske.
+    THE PEOPLE OF ENGLAND. Justin McCarthy, M.P. Two vols.
+    AUSTRIA. Sidney Whitman.
+    CHINA. Robt. K. Douglass.
+    MODERN SPAIN. Major Martin A. S. Hume.
+    MODERN ITALY. Pietro Orsi.
+    THE THIRTEEN COLONIES. Helen A. Smith. Two vols.
+    WALES AND CORNWALL. Owne M. Edwards.
+    MEDIÆVAL ROME. Wm. Miller.
+    THE PAPAL MONARCHY. Wm. Barry.
+    MEDIÆVAL INDIA. Stanley Lane-Poole.
+    BUDDHIST INDIA. T. W. Rhys-Davids.
+    THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. Thomas C. Dawson. Two vols.
+    PARLIAMENTARY ENGLAND. Edward Jenks.
+    MEDIÆVAL ENGLAND. Mary Bateson.
+    THE UNITED STATES. Edward Earle Sparks. Two vols.
+    ENGLAND: THE COMING OF PARLIAMENT. L. Cecil Jane.
+    GREECE TO A. D. 14. E. S. Shuckburgh.
+    ROMAN EMPIRE. Stuart Jones.
+    SWEDEN AND DENMARK, with FINLAND AND ICELAND. Jon Stefansson.
+
+
+  Heroes of the Nations
+
+  A series of biographical studies of the lives and work of a number
+  of representative historical characters about whom have gathered the
+  great traditions of the Nations to which they belonged, and who have
+  been accepted, in many instances, as types of the several National
+  ideals. With the life of each typical character is presented a picture
+  of the National conditions surrounding him during his career.
+
+  The narratives are the work of writers who are recognized authorities
+  on their several subjects, and while thoroughly trustworthy as
+  history, present picturesque and dramatic "stories" of the Men and
+  of the events connected with them.
+
+  To the Life of each "Hero" is given one duodecimo volume, handsomely
+  printed in large type, provided with maps and adequately illustrated
+  according to the special requirements of the several subjects.
+
+  _For full list of volumes see next page._
+
+    NELSON. By W. Clark Russell.
+    GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. By C. R. L. Fletcher.
+    PERICLES. By Evelyn Abbott.
+    THEODORIC THE GOTH. By Thomas Hodgkin.
+    SIR PHILIP SIDNEY. By H. R. Fox-Bourne.
+    JULIUS CÆSAR. By W. Ward Fowler.
+    WYCLIF By Lewis Sargeant.
+    NAPOLEON. By W. O'Connor Morris.
+    HENRY OF NAVARRE. By P. F. Willert.
+    CICERO. By J. L. Strachan-Davidson.
+    ABRAHAM LINCOLN. By Noah Brooks.
+    PRINCE HENRY (OF PORTUGAL) THE NAVIGATOR. By C. R. Beazley.
+    JULIAN THE PHILOSOPHER. By Alice Gardner.
+    LOUIS XIV. By Arthur Hassall.
+    CHARLES XII. By R. Nisbet Bain.
+    LORENZO DE' MEDICI. By Edward Armstrong.
+    JEANNE D'ARC. By Mrs. Oliphant.
+    CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. By Washington Irving.
+    ROBERT THE BRUCE. By Sir Herbert Maxwell.
+    HANNIBAL. By. W. O'Connor Morris.
+    ULYSSES S. GRANT. By William Conant Church.
+    ROBERT E. LEE. By Henry Alexander White.
+    THE CID CAMPEADOR. By H. Butler Clarke.
+    SALADIN. By Stanley Lane-Poole.
+    BISMARCK. By J. W. Headlam.
+    ALEXANDER THE GREAT. By Benjamin I. Wheeler.
+    CHARLEMAGNE. By H. W. C. Davis.
+    OLIVER CROMWELL. By Charles Firth.
+    RICHELIEU. By James B. Perkins.
+    DANIEL O'CONNELL. By Robert Dunlap.
+    SAINT LOUIS (Louis IX. of France). By Frederick Perry.
+    LORD CHATHAM. By Walford David Green.
+    OWEN GLYNDWR. By Arthur G. Bradley.
+    HENRY V. By Charles L. Kingsford.
+    EDWARD I. By Edward Jenks.
+    AUGUSTUS CÆSAR. By J. B. Firth.
+    FREDERICK THE GREAT. By W. F. Reddaway.
+    WELLINGTON. By W. O'Connor Morris.
+    CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. By J. B. Firth.
+    MOHAMMED. D. S. Margoliouth.
+    GEORGE WASHINGTON. By J. A. Harrison.
+    CHARLES THE BOLD. By Ruth Putnam.
+    WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. By F. B. Stanton.
+    FERNANDO CORTES. By F. A. MacNutt.
+    WILLIAM THE SILENT. By R. Putnam.
+    BLÜCHER. By E. F. Henderson.
+    ROGER THE GREAT. By E. Curtis.
+    CANUTE THE GREAT. By L. M. Larson.
+    CAVOUR. By Pietro Orsi.
+    DEMOSTHENES. By A. W. Pickard-Cambridge.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
+
+
+1. Passages in italics are surrounded by _underscores_.
+
+2. Images have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the closest
+paragraph break.
+
+3. The word PHOENICIA uses an OE ligature in the original.
+
+4. The punctuation has been normalized within index.
+
+5. The following misprints have been corrected:
+    "completly" corrected to "completely" (page 81)
+    "int rests" corrected to "interests" (page 87)
+    "equilibriumin" corrected to "equilibrium in" (page 160)
+    "it ecame" corrected to "it became" (page 251)
+    "county" corrected to "country" (page 294)
+    "though" corrected to "thought" (page 297)
+    "commerical" corrected to "commercial" (page 374)
+    "municpalities" corrected to "municipalities" (page 454)
+    "in creased" corrected to "increased" (page 508)
+
+6. Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies
+in spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, and ligature usage have been
+retained.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The South American Republics Part I of
+II, by Thomas C. Dawson
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