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diff --git a/37756-tei/37756-tei.tei b/37756-tei/37756-tei.tei new file mode 100644 index 0000000..eea88cd --- /dev/null +++ b/37756-tei/37756-tei.tei @@ -0,0 +1,14334 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?> + +<!DOCTYPE TEI.2 SYSTEM "http://www.gutenberg.org/tei/marcello/0.4/dtd/pgtei.dtd" [ + +<!ENTITY u5 "http://www.tei-c.org/Lite/"> + +]> + +<TEI.2 lang="en"> +<teiHeader> + <fileDesc> + <titleStmt> + <title>The Byzantine Empire</title> + <author><name reg="Oman, Charles William Chadwick">Charles William Chadwick Oman</name></author> + </titleStmt> + <editionStmt> + <edition n="3">Edition 3</edition> + </editionStmt> + <publicationStmt> + <publisher>Project Gutenberg</publisher> + <date>October 14, 2011</date> + <idno type="etext-no">37756</idno> + <availability> + <p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and + with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it + away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg + License online at www.gutenberg.org/license</p> + </availability> + </publicationStmt> + <sourceDesc> + <bibl> + Created electronically. + </bibl> + </sourceDesc> + </fileDesc> + <encodingDesc> + </encodingDesc> + <profileDesc> + <langUsage> + <language id="en"></language> + <language id="la"></language> + <language id="fr"></language> + <language id="el"></language> + <language id="it"></language> + </langUsage> + </profileDesc> + <revisionDesc> + <change> + <date value="2011-10-14">October 14, 2011</date> + <respStmt> + <name> + Produced by Adrian Mastronardi, David King, and the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. + (This file was produced from images generously made + available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries.) + </name> + </respStmt> + <item>Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1</item> + </change> + </revisionDesc> +</teiHeader> + +<pgExtensions> + <pgStyleSheet> + .boxed { x-class: boxed } + .shaded { x-class: shaded } + .rules { x-class: rules; rules: all } + .indent { margin-left: 2 } + .bold { font-weight: bold } + .italic { font-style: italic } + .smallcaps { font-variant: small-caps } + </pgStyleSheet> + + <pgCharMap formats="txt.iso-8859-1"> + <char id="U0x2014"> + <charName>mdash</charName> + <desc>EM DASH</desc> + <mapping>--</mapping> + </char> + <char id="U0x2003"> + <charName>emsp</charName> + <desc>EM SPACE</desc> + <mapping> </mapping> + </char> + <char id="U0x2026"> + <charName>hellip</charName> + <desc>HORIZONTAL ELLIPSIS</desc> + <mapping>...</mapping> + </char> + </pgCharMap> +</pgExtensions> + +<text lang="en"> + <front> + <div> + <divGen type="pgheader" /> + </div> + <div> + <divGen type="encodingDesc" /> + </div> + + <div rend="page-break-before: always"> + <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center">The Byzantine Empire</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">By</p> + <p rend="font-size: x-large; text-align: center">Charles William Chadwick Oman, M.A., F.S.A.</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Author of</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center"><q>Warwick the Kingmaker,</q> <q>The Art of War in the Middle Ages,</q> Etc.</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">Third Edition</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">T. Fisher Unwin, Ltd.</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">Adelphi Terrace, London</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">1902</p> + </div> + <div rend="page-break-before: always"> + <head>Contents</head> + <divGen type="toc" /> + </div> + + </front> +<body> + +<pb n='iv'/><anchor id='Pgiv'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/frontispiece.png' rend='width: 50%'> + <head>Interior of St. Sophia</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> +</div> + +<pb n='vii'/><anchor id='Pgvii'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Preface.</head> + +<p> +Fifty years ago the word <q>Byzantine</q> was used +as a synonym for all that was corrupt and decadent, +and the tale of the East-Roman Empire was dismissed +by modern historians as depressing and +monotonous. The great Gibbon had branded the +successors of Justinian and Heraclius as a series of +vicious weaklings, and for several generations no one +dared to contradict him. +</p> + +<p> +Two books have served to undeceive the English +reader, the monumental work of Finlay, published in +1856, and the more modern volumes of Mr. Bury, +which appeared in 1889. Since they have written, +the Byzantines no longer need an apologist, and the +great work of the East-Roman Empire in holding +back the Saracen, and in keeping alive throughout +the Dark Ages the lamp of learning, is beginning to +be realized. +</p> + +<p> +The writer of this book has endeavoured to tell +the story of Byzantium in the spirit of Finlay and +Bury, not in that of Gibbon. He wishes to acknowledge +his debts both to the veteran of the war of +<pb n='viii'/><anchor id='Pgviii'/> +Greek Independence, and to the young Dublin professor. +Without their aid his task would have been +very heavy—with it the difficulty was removed. +</p> + +<p> +The author does not claim to have grappled with +all the chroniclers of the Eastern realm, but thinks +that some acquaintance with Ammianus, Procopius, +Maurice's <q>Strategikon,</q> Leo the Deacon, Leo the +Wise, Constantine Porphyrogenitus, Anna Comnena +and Nicetas, may justify his having undertaken the +task he has essayed. +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Oxford</hi>, +</p> + +<p> +<hi rend='italic'>February</hi>, 1892. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='xx'/><anchor id='Pgxx'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/front-map.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> +</div> + +<pb n='001'/><anchor id='Pg001'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>I. Byzantium.</head> + +<p> +Two thousand five hundred and fifty-eight years +ago a little fleet of galleys toiled painfully against the +current up the long strait of the Hellespont, rowed +across the broad Propontis, and came to anchor in +the smooth waters of the first inlet which cuts into the +European shore of the Bosphorus. There a long +crescent-shaped creek, which after-ages were to know +as the Golden Horn, strikes inland for seven miles, +forming a quiet backwater from the rapid stream +which runs outside. On the headland, enclosed +between this inlet and the open sea, a few hundred +colonists disembarked, and hastily secured themselves +from the wild tribes of the inland, by running some +rough sort of a stockade across the ground from beach +to beach. Thus was founded the city of Byzantium. +</p> + +<p> +The settlers were Greeks of the Dorian race, +natives of the thriving seaport-state of Megara, one of +<pb n='002'/><anchor id='Pg002'/> +the most enterprising of all the cities of Hellas in the +time of colonial and commercial expansion which was +then at its height. Wherever a Greek prow had cut +its way into unknown waters, there Megarian seamen +were soon found following in its wake. One band of +these venturesome traders pushed far to the West to +plant colonies in Sicily, but the larger share of the +attention of Megara was turned towards the sunrising, +towards the mist-enshrouded entrance of the Black +Sea and the fabulous lands that lay beyond. There, +as legends told, was to be found the realm of the +Golden Fleece, the Eldorado of the ancient world, +where kings of untold wealth reigned over the tribes +of Colchis: there dwelt, by the banks of the river +Thermodon, the Amazons, the warlike women who +had once vexed far-off Greece by their inroads: there, +too, was to be found, if one could but struggle far +enough up its northern shore, the land of the Hyperboreans, +the blessed folk who dwell behind the North +Wind and know nothing of storm and winter. To +seek these fabled wonders the Greeks sailed ever +North and East till they had come to the extreme +limits of the sea. The riches of the Golden Fleece +they did not find, nor the country of the Hyperboreans, +nor the tribes of the Amazons; but they did +discover many lands well worth the knowing, and +grew rich on the profits which they drew from the +metals of Colchis and the forests of Paphlagonia, from +the rich corn lands by the banks of the Dnieper and +Bug, and the fisheries of the Bosphorus and the +Maeotic Lake. Presently the whole coastland of the +sea, which the Greeks, on their first coming, called +<pb n='003'/><anchor id='Pg003'/> +Axeinos—<q>the Inhospitable</q>—became fringed with +trading settlements, and its name was changed +to Euxeinos—<q>the Hospitable</q>—in recognition of +its friendly ports. It was in a similar spirit that, two +thousand years later, the seamen who led the next +great impulse of exploration that rose in Europe, +turned the name of the <q>Cape of Storms</q> into that +of the <q>Cape of Good Hope.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The Megarians, almost more than any other Greeks, +devoted their attention to the Euxine, and the +foundation of Byzantium was but one of their many +achievements. Already, seventeen years before +Byzantium came into being, another band of +Megarian colonists had established themselves at +Chalcedon, on the opposite Asiatic shore of the +Bosphorus. The settlers who were destined to found +the greater city applied to the oracle of Delphi to +give them advice as to the site of their new home, and +Apollo, we are told, bade them <q>build their town +over against the city of the blind.</q> They therefore +pitched upon the headland by the Golden Horn, +reasoning that the Chalcedonians were truly blind to +have neglected the more eligible site on the Thracian +shore, in order to found a colony on the far less inviting +Bithynian side of the strait. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-01.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Early Coin Of Byzantium.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-02.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Late Coin Of Byzantium Showing Crescent And Star.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +From the first its situation marked out Byzantium +as destined for a great future. Alike from the military +and from the commercial point of view no city +could have been better placed. Looking out from the +easternmost headland of Thrace, with all Europe +behind it and all Asia before, it was equally well +suited to be the frontier fortress to defend the border +<pb n='004'/><anchor id='Pg004'/> +of the one, or the basis of operations for an invasion +from the other. As fortresses went in those early days +it was almost impregnable—two sides protected by +the water, the third by a strong wall not commanded +by any neighbouring heights. In all its early history +Byzantium never fell by storm: famine or treachery +accounted for the few occasions on which it fell into +the hands of an enemy. In its commercial aspect the +place was even more favourably situated. It completely +commanded the whole Black Sea trade: every +vessel that went forth from Greece or Ionia to traffic +with Scythia or Colchis, the lands by the Danube +mouth or the shores of the Maeotic Lake, had to pass +close under its walls, so that the prosperity of a hundred +Hellenic towns on the Euxine was always at the +mercy of the masters of Byzantium. The Greek loved +short stages and frequent stoppages, and as a half-way +house alone Byzantium would have been prosperous: +but it had also a flourishing local trade of its own +with the tribes of the neighbouring Thracian inland, +<pb n='005'/><anchor id='Pg005'/> +and drew much profit from its fisheries: so much so +that the city badge—its coat of arms as we should +call it—comprised a tunny-fish as well as the famous +ox whose form alluded to the legend of the naming +of the Bosphorus.<note place='foot'>See coin on opposite page. The Bosphorus was supposed to +have drawn its name from being the place where Io, when transformed +into a cow, forded the strait from Europe into Asia Βοῦς-πορὸς.</note> +</p> + +<p> +As an independent state Byzantium had a long and +eventful history. For thirty years it was in the hands +of the kings of Persia, but with that short exception +it maintained its freedom during the first three hundred +years that followed its foundation. Many stirring +scenes took place beneath its walls: it was close to +them that the great Darius threw across the +Bosphorus his bridge of boats, which served as a +model for the more famous structure on which his +son Xerxes crossed the Hellespont. Fifteen years +later, when Byzantium in common with all its neighbours +made an ineffectual attempt to throw off the +Persian yoke, in the rising called the <q>Ionic Revolt,</q> +it was held for a time by the arch-rebel Histiaeus, +who—as much to enrich himself as to pay his seamen—invented +strait dues. He forced every ship passing +up or down the Bosphorus to pay a heavy toll, and +won no small unpopularity thereby for the cause of +freedom which he professed to champion. Ere long +Byzantium fell back again into the hands of Persia, +but she was finally freed from the Oriental yoke +seventeen years later, when the victorious Greeks, +fresh from the triumph of Salamis and Mycale, sailed +up to her walls and after a long leaguer starved out +<pb n='006'/><anchor id='Pg006'/> +the obstinate garrison [<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 479]. The fleet wintered +there, and it was at Byzantium that the first foundations +of the naval empire of Athens were laid, when +all the Greek states of Asia placed their ships at +the disposal of the Athenian admirals Cimon and +Aristeides. +</p> + +<p> +During the fifth century Byzantium twice declared +war on Athens, now the mistress of the seas, and on +each occasion fell into the hands of the enemy—once +by voluntary surrender in 439 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>, once by treachery +from within, in 408 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> But the Athenians, except in +one or two disgraceful cases, did not deal hardly with +their conquered enemies, and the Byzantines escaped +anything harder than the payment of a heavy war +indemnity. In a few years their commercial gains +repaired all the losses of war, and the state was itself +again. +</p> + +<p> +We know comparatively little about the internal +history of these early centuries of the life of Byzantium. +Some odd fragments of information survive here and +there: we know, for example, that they used iron +instead of copper for small money, a peculiarity +shared by no other ancient state save Sparta. Their +alphabet rejoiced in an abnormally shaped Β, which +puzzled all other Greeks, for it resembled a Π with an +extra limb.<note place='foot'>See coin on page <ref target='Pg003'>4</ref>.</note> The chief gods of the city were those +that we might have expected—Poseidon the ruler of +the sea, whose blessing gave Byzantium its chief +wealth; and Demeter, the goddess who presided over +the Thracian and Scythian corn lands which formed +its second source of prosperity. +</p> + +<pb n='007'/><anchor id='Pg007'/> + +<p> +The Byzantines were, if ancient chroniclers tell us +the truth, a luxurious as well as a busy race: they +spent too much time in their numerous inns, where +the excellent wines of Maronea and other neighbouring +places offered great temptations. They were +gluttons too as well as tipplers: on one occasion, we +are assured, the whole civic militia struck work in the +height of a siege, till their commander consented to +allow restaurants to be erected at convenient distances +round the ramparts. One comic writer informs us +that the Byzantines were eating young tunny-fish—their +favourite dish—so constantly, that their whole +bodies had become well-nigh gelatinous, and it was +thought they might melt if exposed to too great heat! +Probably these tales are the scandals of neighbours +who envied Byzantine prosperity, for it is at any rate +certain that the city showed all through its history +great energy and love of independence, and never +shrank from war as we should have expected a nation +of epicures to do. +</p> + +<p> +It was not till the rise of Philip of Macedon and +his greater son Alexander that Byzantium fell for the +fifth time into the hands of an enemy. The elder +king was repulsed from the city's walls after a long +siege, culminating in an attempt at an escalade by night, +which was frustrated owing to the sudden appearance +of a light in heaven, which revealed the advancing +enemy and was taken by the Byzantines as a token +of special divine aid [<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 339]. In commemoration +of it they assumed as one of their civic badges the +blazing crescent and star, which has descended to our +own days and is still used as an emblem by the present +<pb n='008'/><anchor id='Pg008'/> +owners of the city—the Ottoman Sultans. But after +repulsing Philip the Byzantines had to submit some +years later to Alexander. They formed under him +part of the enormous Macedonian empire, and passed +on his decease through the hands of his successors—Demetrius +Poliorcetes, and Lysimachus. After the +death of the latter in battle, however, they recovered +a precarious freedom, and were again an independent +community for a hundred years, till the power of +Rome invaded the regions of Thrace and the Hellespont. +</p> + +<p> +Byzantium was one of the cities which took the +wise course of making an early alliance with the +Romans, and obtained good and easy terms in consequence. +During the wars of Rome with Macedon +and Antiochus the Great it proved such a faithful +assistant that the Senate gave it the status of a <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>civitas +libera et foederata</foreign>, <q>a free and confederate city,</q> and +it was not taken under direct Roman government, but +allowed complete liberty in everything save the control +of its foreign relations and the payment of a +tribute to Rome. It was not till the Roman Republic +had long passed away, that the Emperor Vespasian +stripped it of these privileges, and threw it into the +province of Thrace, to exist for the future as an +ordinary provincial town [<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 73]. +</p> + +<p> +Though deprived of a liberty which had for long +years been almost nominal, Byzantium could not be +deprived of its unrivalled position for commerce. It +continued to flourish under the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Pax Romana</foreign>, the +long-continued peace which all the inner countries of +the empire enjoyed during the first two centuries of +<pb n='009'/><anchor id='Pg009'/> +the imperial <foreign rend='italic'>régime</foreign>, and is mentioned again and again +as one of the most important cities of the middle +regions of the Roman world. +</p> + +<p> +But an evil time for Byzantium, as for all the other +parts of the civilized world, began when the golden +age of the Antonines ceased, and the epoch of the military +emperors followed. In 192 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>, Commodus, the +unworthy son of the great and good Marcus Aurelius, +was murdered, and ere long three military usurpers +were wrangling for his blood-stained diadem. Most +unhappily for itself Byzantium lay on the line of +division between the eastern provinces, where Pescennius +Niger had been proclaimed, and the Illyrian +provinces, where Severus had assumed the imperial +style. The city was seized by the army of Syria, and +strengthened in haste. Presently Severus appeared +from the west, after he had made himself master of +Rome and Italy, and fell upon the forces of his rival +Pescennius. Victory followed the arms of the Illyrian +legions, the east was subdued, and the Syrian +emperor put to death. But when all his other +adherents had yielded, the garrison of Byzantium +refused to submit. For more than two years they +maintained the impregnable city against the lieutenants +of Severus, and it was not till <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 196 that +they were forced to yield. The emperor appeared in +person to punish the long-protracted resistance of the +town; not only the garrison, but the civil magistrates +of Byzantium were slain before his eyes. The massive +walls <q>so firmly built with great square stones clamped +together with bolts of iron, that the whole seemed but +one block,</q> were laboriously cast down. The property +<pb n='010'/><anchor id='Pg010'/> +of the citizens was confiscated, and the town itself +deprived of all municipal privileges and handed over +to be governed like a dependent village by its neighbours +of Perinthus. +</p> + +<p> +Caracalla, the son of Severus, gave back to the +Byzantines the right to govern themselves, but the +town had received a hard blow, and would have +required a long spell of peace to recover its prosperity. +Peace however it was not destined to see. All through +the middle years of the third century it was vexed by +the incursions of the Goths, who harried mercilessly +the countries on the Black Sea whose commerce sustained +its trade. Under Gallienus in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 263 it was +again seized by an usurping emperor, and shared the +fate of his adherents. The soldiers of Gallienus +sacked Byzantium from cellar to garret, and made +such a slaughter of its inhabitants that it is said that +the old Megarian race who had so long possessed it +were absolutely exterminated. But the irresistible +attraction of the site was too great to allow its ruins +to remain desolate. Within ten years after its sack +by the army of Gallienus, we find Byzantium again +a populous town, and its inhabitants are specially +praised by the historian Trebellius Pollio for the +courage with which they repelled a Gothic raid in the +reign of Claudius II. +</p> + +<p> +The strong Illyrian emperors, who staved off from +the Roman Empire the ruin which appeared about to +overwhelm it in the third quarter of the third century, +gave Byzantium time and peace to recover its ancient +prosperity. It profited especially from the constant +neighbourhood of the imperial court, after Diocletian +<pb n='011'/><anchor id='Pg011'/> +fixed his residence at Nicomedia, only sixty miles +away, on the Bithynian side of the Propontis. But +the military importance of Byzantium was always +interfering with its commercial greatness. After the +abdication of Diocletian the empire was for twenty +years vexed by constant partitions of territory between +the colleagues whom he left behind him. Byzantium +after a while found itself the border fortress of Licinius, +the emperor who ruled in the Balkan Peninsula, while +Maximinus Daza was governing the Asiatic provinces. +While Licinius was absent in Italy, Maximinus +treacherously attacked his rival's dominions without +declaration of war, and took Byzantium by surprise. But +the Illyrian emperor returned in haste, defeated his +grasping neighbour not far from the walls of the city, +and recovered his great frontier fortress after it had +been only a few months out of his hands [<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 314]. +The town must have suffered severely by changing +masters twice in the same year; it does not, however, +seem to have been sacked or burnt, as was so often +the case with a captured city in those dismal days. +But Licinius when he had recovered the place set to +work to render it impregnable. Though it was not +his capital he made it the chief fortress of his realm, +which, since the defeat of Maximinus, embraced the +whole eastern half of the Roman world. +</p> + +<p> +It was accordingly at Byzantium that Licinius +made his last desperate stand, when in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 323 he +found himself engaged in an unsuccessful war with +his brother-in-law Constantine, the Emperor of the +West. For many months the war stood still beneath +the walls of the city; but Constantine persevered in +<pb n='012'/><anchor id='Pg012'/> +the siege, raising great mounds which overlooked the +walls, and sweeping away the defenders by a constant +stream of missiles, launched from dozens of military +engines which he had erected on these artificial +heights. At last the city surrendered, and the cause +of Licinius was lost. Constantine, the last of his +rivals subdued, became the sole emperor of the +Roman world, and stood a victor on the ramparts +which were ever afterwards to bear his name. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='013'/><anchor id='Pg013'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>II. The Foundation Of Constantinople. (<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 328-330.)</head> + +<p> +When the fall of Byzantium had wrecked the +fortunes of Licinius, the Roman world was again +united beneath the sceptre of a single master. For +thirty-seven years, ever since Diocletian parcelled +out the provinces with his colleagues, unity had been +unknown, and emperors, whose number had sometimes +risen to six and sometimes sunk to two, had +administered their realms on different principles and +with varying success. +</p> + +<p> +Constantine, whose victory over his rivals had been +secured by his talents as an administrator and a +diplomatist no less than by his military skill, was one +of those men whose hard practical ability has stamped +upon the history of the world a much deeper impress +than has been left by many conquerors and legislators +of infinitely greater genius. He was a man of that +self-contained, self-reliant, unsympathetic type of mind +<pb n='014'/><anchor id='Pg014'/> +which we recognize in his great predecessor Augustus, +or in Frederic the Great of Prussia. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-03.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Constantine the Great</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Though the strain of old Roman blood in his veins +must have been but small, Constantine was in many +ways a typical Roman; the hard, cold, steady, unwearying +energy, which in earlier centuries had won +the empire of the world, was once more incarnate in +him. But if Roman in character, he was anything +but Roman in his sympathies. Born by the Danube, +<pb n='015'/><anchor id='Pg015'/> +reared in the courts and camps of Asia and Gaul, he +was absolutely free from any of that superstitious +reverence for the ancient glories of the city on the +Tiber which had inspired so many of his predecessors. +Italy was to him but a secondary province amongst +his wide realms. When he distributed his dominions +among his heirs, it was Gaul that he gave as the +noblest share to his eldest and best-loved son: Italy +was to him a younger child's portion. There had +been emperors before him who had neglected Rome: +the barbarian Maximinus I. had dwelt by the Rhine +and the Danube; the politic Diocletian had chosen +Nicomedia as his favourite residence. But no one +had yet dreamed of raising up a rival to the mistress +of the world, and of turning Rome into a provincial +town. If preceding emperors had dwelt far afield, +it was to meet the exigencies of war on the frontiers +or the government of distant provinces. It was +reserved for Constantine to erect over against Rome +a rival metropolis for the civilized world, an imperial +city which was to be neither a mere camp nor a mere +court, but the administrative and commercial centre +of the Roman world. +</p> + +<p> +For more than a hundred years Rome had been a +most inconvenient residence for the emperors. The +main problem which had been before them was the +repelling of incessant barbarian inroads on the Balkan +Peninsula; the troubles on the Rhine and the Euphrates, +though real enough, had been but minor evils. +Rome, placed half way down the long projection of +Italy, handicapped by its bad harbours and separated +from the rest of the empire by the passes of the Alps, +<pb n='016'/><anchor id='Pg016'/> +was too far away from the points where the emperor +was most wanted—the banks of the Danube and the +walls of Sirmium and Singidunum. For the ever-recurring +wars with Persia it was even more inconvenient; +but these were less pressing dangers; no +Persian army had yet penetrated beyond Antioch—only +200 miles from the frontier—while in the Balkan +Peninsula the Goths had broken so far into the heart +of the empire as to sack Athens and Thessalonica. +</p> + +<p> +Constantine, with all the Roman world at his feet, +and all its responsibilities weighing on his mind, was +far too able a man to overlook the great need of the +day—a more conveniently placed administrative and +military centre for his empire. He required a place +that should be easily accessible by land and sea—which +Rome had never been in spite of its wonderful +roads—that should overlook the Danube lands, without +being too far away from the East; that should be +so strongly situated that it might prove an impregnable +arsenal and citadel against barbarian attacks +from the north; that should at the same time be far +enough away from the turmoil of the actual frontier +to afford a safe and splendid residence for the imperial +court. The names of several towns are given by +historians as having suggested themselves to Constantine. +First was his own birth-place—Naissus +(Nisch) on the Morava, in the heart of the Balkan +Peninsula; but Naissus had little to recommend it: +it was too close to the frontier and too far from the +sea. Sardica—the modern Sofia in Bulgaria—was +liable to the same objections, and had not the sole +advantage of Naissus, that of being connected in +<pb n='017'/><anchor id='Pg017'/> +sentiment with the emperor's early days. Nicomedia +on its long gulf at the east end of the Propontis was +a more eligible situation in every way, and had +already served as an imperial residence. But all +that could be urged in favour of Nicomedia applied +with double force to Byzantium, and, in addition, +Constantine had no wish to choose a city in which +his own memory would be eclipsed by that of his +predecessor Diocletian, and whose name was associated +by the Christians, the class of his subjects whom +he had most favoured of late, with the persecutions of +Diocletian and Galerius. For Ilium, the last place +on which Constantine had cast his mind, nothing +could be alleged except its ancient legendary glories, +and the fact that the mythologists of Rome had +always fabled that their city drew its origin from the +exiled Trojans of Æneas. Though close to the sea +it had no good harbour, and it was just too far from +the mouth of the Hellespont to command effectually +the exit of the Euxine. +</p> + +<p> +Byzantium, on the other hand, was thoroughly well +known to Constantine. For months his camp +had been pitched beneath its walls; he must have +known accurately every inch of its environs, and none +of its military advantages can have missed his eye. +Nothing, then, could have been more natural than his +selection of the old Megarian city for his new capital. +Yet the Roman world was startled at the first news +of his choice; Byzantium had been so long known +merely as a great port of call for the Euxine trade, and +as a first-class provincial fortress, that it was hard to +conceive of it as a destined seat of empire. +</p> + +<pb n='018'/><anchor id='Pg018'/> + +<p> +When once Constantine had determined to make +Byzantium his capital, in preference to any other +place in the Balkan lands, his measures were taken +with his usual energy and thoroughness. The limits +of the new city were at once marked out by solemn +processions in the old Roman style. In later ages a +picturesque legend was told to account for the magnificent +scale on which it was planned. The emperor, +we read, marched out on foot, followed by all his +court, and traced with his spear the line where the +new fortifications were to be drawn. As he paced +on further and further westward along the shore of +the Golden Horn, till he was more than two miles +away from his starting-point, the gate of old Byzantium, +his attendants grew more and more surprised at +the vastness of his scheme. At last they ventured to +observe that he had already exceeded the most ample +limits that an imperial city could require. But Constantine +turned to rebuke them: <q>I shall go on,</q> he +said, <q>until He, the invisible guide who marches +before me, thinks fit to stop.</q> Guided by his mysterious +presentiment of greatness, the emperor advanced +till he was three miles from the eastern angle of +Byzantium, and only turned his steps when he had +included in his boundary line all the seven hills which +are embraced in the peninsula between the Propontis +and the Golden Horn. +</p> + +<p> +The rising ground just outside the walls of the old +city, where Constantine's tent had been pitched during +the siege of <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 323, was selected out as the market-place +of the new foundation. There he erected the +<foreign rend='italic'>Milion</foreign>, or <q>golden milestone,</q> from which all the +<pb n='019'/><anchor id='Pg019'/> +distances of the eastern world were in future to be +measured. This <q>central point of the world</q> was +not a mere single stone, but a small building like a +temple, its roof supported by seven pillars; within +was placed the statue of the emperor, together with +that of his venerated mother, the Christian Empress +Helena. +</p> + +<p> +The south-eastern part of the old town of Byzantium +was chosen by Constantine for the site of his +imperial palace. The spot was cleared of all private +dwellings for a space of 150 acres, to give space +not only for a magnificent residence for his whole +court, but for spacious gardens and pleasure-grounds. +A wall, commencing at the Lighthouse, where the +Bosphorus joins the Propontis, turned inland and +swept along parallel to the shore for about a mile, +in order to shut off the imperial precinct from the +city. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-04.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>The Heart of Constantinople</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +North-west of the palace lay the central open space +in which the life of Constantinople was to find its centre. +This was the <q>Augustaeum,</q> a splendid oblong forum, +about a thousand feet long by three hundred broad. +It was paved with marble and surrounded on all sides +by stately public buildings. To its east, as we have +already said, lay the imperial palace, but between the +palace and the open space were three detached edifices +connected by a colonnade. Of these, the most +easterly was the Great Baths, known, from their +builder, as the <q>Baths of Zeuxippus.</q> They were +built on the same magnificent scale which the earlier +emperors had used in Old Rome, though they could +not, perhaps, vie in size with the enormous Baths +<pb n='021'/><anchor id='Pg021'/> +of Caracalla. Constantine utilized and enlarged the +old public bath of Byzantium, which had been rebuilt +after the taking of the city by Severus. He +adorned the frontage and courts of the edifice with +statues taken from every prominent town of Greece +and Asia, the old Hellenic masterpieces which had +escaped the rapacious hands of twelve generations +of plundering proconsuls and Cæsars. There were +to be seen the Athene of Lyndus, the Amphithrite +of Rhodes, the Pan which had been consecrated by +the Greeks after the defeat of Xerxes, and the Zeus +of Dodona. +</p> + +<p> +Adjoining the Baths, to the north, lay the second +great building, on the east side of the Augustaeum—the +Senate House. Constantine had determined to +endow his new city with a senate modelled on that +of Old Rome, and had indeed persuaded many old +senatorial families to migrate eastward by judicious +gifts of pensions and houses. We know that the +assembly was worthily housed, but no details survive +about Constantine's building, on account of its having +been twice destroyed within the century. But, like +the Baths of Zeuxippus, it was adorned with ancient +statuary, among which the Nine Muses of Helicon +are specially cited by the historian who describes the +burning of the place in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 404. +</p> + +<p> +Linked to the Senate House by a colonnade, lay on +the north the Palace of the Patriarch, as the Bishop of +Byzantium was ere long to be called, when raised to +the same status as his brethren of Antioch and +Alexandria. A fine building in itself, with a spacious +hall of audience and a garden, the patriarchal dwelling +<pb n='022'/><anchor id='Pg022'/> +was yet completely overshadowed by the imperial +palace which rose behind it. And so it was with +the patriarch himself: he lived too near his royal +master to be able to gain any independent authority. +Physically and morally alike he was too much overlooked +by his august neighbour, and never found the +least opportunity of setting up an independent spiritual +authority over against the civil government, or of +founding an <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>imperium in imperio</foreign> like the Bishop of +Rome. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-05.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>The Atmeidan Hippodrome And St. Sophia.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +All along the western side of the Augustaeum, +facing the three buildings which we have already +described, lay an edifice which played a very prominent +part in the public life of Constantinople. +This was the great Hippodrome, a splendid circus +640 cubits long and 160 broad, in which were renewed +the games that Old Rome had known so well. +The whole system the chariot-races between the +teams that represented the <q>factions</q> of the Circus +was reproduced at Byzantium with an energy that +even surpassed the devotion of the Romans to horse +racing. From the first foundation of the city the +rivalry of the <q>Blues</q> and the <q>Greens</q> was one +of the most striking features of the life of the place. +It was carried far beyond the circus, and spread into +all branches of life. We often hear of the <q>Green</q> +faction identifying itself with Arianism, or of the +<q>Blue</q> supporting a pretender to the throne. Not +merely men of sporting interests, but persons of all +ranks and professions, chose their colour and backed +their faction. The system was a positive danger to +the public peace, and constantly led to riots, culminating +<pb n='024'/><anchor id='Pg024'/> +in the great sedition of <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 523, which we +shall presently have to describe at length. In the +Hippodrome the <q>Greens</q> always entered by the +north-eastern gate, and sat on the east side; the +<q>Blues</q> approached by the north-western gate and +stretched along the western side. The emperor's +box, called the Kathisma, occupied the whole of the +short northern side, and contained many hundreds of +seats for the imperial retinue. The great central +throne of the Kathisma was the place in which the +monarch showed himself most frequently to his subjects, +and around it many strange scenes were enacted. +It was on this throne that the rebel Hypatius was +crowned emperor by the mob, with his own wife's +necklace for an impromptu diadem. Here also, two +centuries later, the Emperor Justinian II. sat in state +after his reconquest of Constantinople, with his rivals, +Leontius and Apsimarus, bound beneath his footstool, +while the populace chanted, in allusion to the +names of the vanquished princes, the verse, <q>Thou +shalt trample on the Lion and the Asp.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Down the centre of the Hippodrome ran the +<q>spina,</q> or division wall, which every circus showed; +it was ornamented with three most curious monuments, +whose strange juxtaposition seemed almost +to typify the heterogeneous materials from which the +new city was built up. The first and oldest was an +obelisk brought from Egypt, and covered with the +usual hieroglyphic inscriptions; the second was the +most notable, though one of the least beautiful, of +the antiquities of Constantinople: it was the three-headed +brazen serpent which Pausanias and the +<pb n='025'/><anchor id='Pg025'/> +victorious Greeks had dedicated at Delphi in 479 +<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>, after they had destroyed the Persian army at +Platæa. The golden tripod, which was supported +by the heads of the serpents, had long been wanting: +the sacrilegious Phocians had stolen it six centuries +before; but the dedicatory inscriptions engraved on +the coils of the pedestal survived then and survive +now to delight the archæologist. The third monument +on the <q>spina</q> was a square bronze column of +more modern work, contrasting strangely with the +venerable antiquity of its neighbours. By some +freak of chance all three monuments have remained +till our own day: the vast walls of the Hippodrome +have crumbled away, but its central decorations still +stand erect in the midst of an open space which the +Turks call the Atmeidan, or place of horses, in dim +memory of its ancient use. +</p> + +<p> +Along the outer eastern wall of the Hippodrome +on the western edge of the Augustaeum, stood a +range of small chapels and statues, the most important +landmark among them being the <foreign rend='italic'>Milion</foreign> +or central milestone of the empire, which we have +already described. The statues, few at first, were +increased by later emperors, till they extended along +the whole length of the forum. Constantine's own +contribution to the collection was a tall porphyry +column surmounted by a bronze image which had +once been the tutelary Apollo of the city of Hierapolis, +but was turned into a representation of the +emperor by the easy method of knocking off its +head and substituting the imperial features. It was +exactly the reverse of a change which can be seen at +<pb n='027'/><anchor id='Pg027'/> +Rome, where the popes have removed the head of +the Emperor Aurelius, and turned him into St. Peter, +on the column in the Corso. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-06.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Building A Palace (from a Byzantine MS.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +North of the Hippodrome stood the great church +which Constantine erected for his Christian subjects, +and dedicated to the Divine Wisdom (<foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>Hagia Sophia</foreign>). +It was not the famous domed edifice which now +bears that name, but an earlier and humbler building, +probably of the Basilica-shape then usual. Burnt +down once in the fifth and once in the sixth centuries, +it has left no trace of its original character. From +the west door of St. Sophia a wooden gallery, +supported on arches, crossed the square, and finally +ended at the <q>Royal Gate</q> of the palace. By this +the emperor would betake himself to divine service +without having to cross the street of the Chalcoprateia +(brass market), which lay opposite to St. Sophia. +The general effect of the gallery must have been +somewhat like that of the curious passage perched +aloft on arches which connects the Pitti and Uffizi +palaces at Florence. +</p> + +<p> +The edifices which we have described formed the +heart of Constantinople. Between the Palace, the +Hippodrome, and the Cathedral most of the important +events in the history of the city took place. But to +north and west the city extended for miles, and everywhere +there were buildings of note, though no other +cluster could vie with that round the Augustaeum. +The Church of the Holy Apostles, which Constantine +destined as the burying-place of his family, was +the second among the ecclesiastical edifices of the +town. Of the outlying civil buildings, the public +<pb n='028'/><anchor id='Pg028'/> +granaries along the quays, the Golden Gate, by which +the great road from the west entered the walls, and +the palace of the praetorian praefect, who acted as +governor of the city, must all have been well worthy +of notice. A statue of Constantine on horseback, +which stood by the last-named edifice, was one of the +chief shows of Constantinople down to the end of the +Middle Ages, and some curious legends gathered +around it. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-07.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Fifteenth-Century Drawing Of The Equestrian +Statue Of Constantine.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +It was in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 328 or 329—the exact date is not +easily to be fixed—that Constantine had definitely +chosen Byzantium for his capital, and drawn out the +plan for its development. As early as May 11, 330, +the buildings were so far advanced that he was able +to hold the festival which celebrated its consecration. +<pb n='029'/><anchor id='Pg029'/> +Christian bishops blessed the partially completed +palace, and held the first service in St. Sophia; for +Constantine, though still unbaptized himself, had +determined that the new city should be Christian +from the first. Of paganism there was no trace in +it, save a few of the old temples of the Byzantines, +spared when the older streets were levelled to clear +the ground for the palace and adjoining buildings. +The statues of the gods which adorned the Baths and +Senate House stood there as works of art, not as +objects of worship. +</p> + +<p> +To fill the vast limits of his city, Constantine +invited many senators of Old Rome and many rich +provincial proprietors of Greece and Asia to take up +their abode in it, granting them places in his new +senate and sites for the dwellings they would require. +The countless officers and functionaries of the imperial +court, with their subordinates and slaves, must +have composed a very considerable element in the +new population. The artizans and handicraftsmen +were enticed in thousands by the offer of special +privileges. Merchants and seamen had always +abounded at Byzantium, and now flocked in numbers +which made the old commercial prosperity of +the city seem insignificant. Most effective—though +most demoralizing—of the gifts which Constantine +bestowed on the new capital to attract immigrants +was the old Roman privilege of free distribution of +corn to the populace. The wheat-tribute of Egypt, +which had previously formed part of the public +provision of Rome, was transferred to the use of +Constantinople, only the African corn from Carthage +<pb n='030'/><anchor id='Pg030'/> +being for the future assigned for the subsistence of +the older city. +</p> + +<p> +On the completion of the dedication festival in 330 +<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> an imperial edict gave the city the title of New +Rome, and the record was placed on a marble tablet +near the equestrian statue of the emperor, opposite +the Strategion. But <q>New Rome</q> was a phrase +destined to subsist in poetry and rhetoric alone: the +world from the first very rightly gave the city the +founder's name only, and persisted in calling it Constantinople. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='031'/><anchor id='Pg031'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>III. The Fight With The Goths.</head> + +<p> +Constantine lived seven years after he had completed +the dedication of his new city, and died in +peace and prosperity on the 22nd of May, <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 337, +received on his death-bed into that Christian Church +on whose verge he had lingered during the last half +of his life. By his will he left his realm to be divided +among his sons and nephews; but a rapid succession +of murders and civil wars thinned out the imperial +house, and ended in the concentration of the whole +empire from the Forth to the Tigris under the sceptre +of Constantius II., the second son of the great emperor. +The Roman world was not yet quite ripe for a permanent +division; it was still possible to manage it from a +single centre, for by some strange chance the barbarian +invasions which had troubled the third century had +ceased for a time, and the Romans were untroubled, +save by some minor bickerings on the Rhine and the +Euphrates. Constantius II., an administrator of some +ability, but gloomy, suspicious, and unsympathetic, +was able to devote his leisure to ecclesiastical controversies, +and to dishonour himself by starting the first +<pb n='032'/><anchor id='Pg032'/> +persecution of Christian by Christian that the world +had seen. The crisis in the history of the empire was +not destined to fall in his day, nor in the short reign +of his cousin and successor, Julian, the amiable and +cultured, but entirely wrongheaded, pagan zealot, +who strove to put back the clock of time and restore +the worship of the ancient gods of Greece. Both +Constantius and Julian, if asked whence danger to the +empire might be expected, would have pointed eastward, +to the Mesopotamian frontier, where their great +enemy, Sapor King of Persia, strove, with no very +great success, to break through the line of Roman +fortresses that protected Syria and Asia Minor. +</p> + +<p> +But it was not in the east that the impending storm +was really brewing. It was from the north that mischief +was to come. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-08.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Gothic Idols. (<hi rend='italic'>From the Column of Arcadius.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +For a hundred and fifty years the Romans had +been well acquainted with the tribes of the Goths, the +most easterly of the Teutonic nations who lay along +the imperial border. All through the third century +they had been molesting the provinces of the Balkan +Peninsula by their incessant raids, as we have already +had occasion to relate. Only after a hard struggle +had they been rolled back across the Danube, and +compelled to limit their settlements to its northern +bank, in what had once been the land of the Dacians. +The last struggle with them had been in the time of +Constantine, who, in a war that lasted from <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 328 +to <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 332, had beaten them in the open field, compelled +their king to give his sons as hostages, and +dictated his own terms of peace. Since then the +appetite of the Goths for war and adventure seemed +<pb n='034'/><anchor id='Pg034'/> +permanently checked: for forty years they had kept +comparatively quiet and seldom indulged in raids across +the Danube. They were rapidly settling down into +steady farmers in the fertile lands on the Theiss and +the Pruth; they traded freely with the Roman towns +of Moesia; many of their young warriors enlisted +among the Roman auxiliary troops, and one considerable +body of Gothic emigrants had been permitted to +settle as subjects of the empire on the northern slope +of the Balkans. By this time many of the Goths +were becoming Christians: priests of their own blood +already ministered to them, and the Bible, translated +into their own language, was already in their hands. +One of the earliest Gothic converts, the good Bishop +Ulfilas—the first bishop of German blood that was +ever consecrated—had rendered into their idiom the +New Testament and most of the Old. A great +portion of his work still survives, incomparably the +most precious relic of the old Teutonic tongues that +we now possess. +</p> + +<p> +The Goths were rapidly losing their ancient ferocity. +Compared to the barbarians who dwelt beyond them, +they might almost be called a civilized race. The +Romans were beginning to look upon them as a +guard set on the frontier to ward off the wilder peoples +that lay to their north and east. The nation was +now divided into two tribes: the Visigoths, whose +tribal name was the Thervings, lay more to the south, +in what are now the countries of Moldavia, Wallachia, +and Southern Hungary; the Ostrogoths, or tribe of +the Gruthungs, lay more to the north and east, in +Bessarabia, Transylvania, and the Dniester valley. +</p> + +<pb n='035'/><anchor id='Pg035'/> + +<p> +But a totally unexpected series of events were now +to show how prescient Constantine had been, in rearing +his great fortress-capital to serve as the central +place of arms of the Balkan Peninsula. +</p> + +<p> +About the year <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 372 the Huns, an enormous +Tartar horde from beyond the Don and Volga, burst +into the lands north of the Euxine, and began to +work their way westward. The first tribe that lay in +their way, the nomadic race of the Alans, they almost +exterminated. Then they fell upon the Goths. The +Ostrogoths made a desperate attempt to defend the +line of the Dniester against the oncoming savages—<q>men +with faces that can hardly be called faces—rather +shapeless black collops of flesh with little points +instead of eyes; little in stature, but lithe and active, +skilful in riding, broad shouldered, good at the bow, +stiff-necked and proud, hiding under a barely human +form the ferocity of the wild beast.</q> But the enemy +whom the Gothic historian describes in these uninviting +terms was too strong for the Teutons of the +East. The Ostrogoths were crushed and compelled +to become vassals of the Huns, save a remnant who +fought their way southward to the Wallachian shore, +near the marshes of the Delta of the Danube. Then +the Huns fell on the Visigoths. The wave of invasion +pressed on; the Bug and the Pruth proved no barrier +to the swarms of nomad bowmen, and the Visigoths, +under their Duke Fritigern, fell back in dismay with +their wives and children, their waggons and flocks +and herds, till they found themselves with their backs +to the Danube. Surrender to the enemy was more +dreadful to the Visigoths than to their eastern +<pb n='036'/><anchor id='Pg036'/> +brethren; they were more civilized, most of them were +Christians, and the prospect of slavery to savages +seems to have appeared intolerable to them. +</p> + +<p> +Pressed against the Danube and the Roman border, +the Visigoths sent in despair to ask permission to +cross from the Emperor. A contemporary writer +describes how they stood. <q>All the multitude that +had escaped from the murderous savagery of the +Huns—no less than 200,000 fighting men, besides +women and old men and children—-were there on the +river bank, stretching out their hands with loud +lamentations, and earnestly supplicating leave to +cross, bewailing their calamity, and promising that +they would ever faithfully adhere to the imperial +alliance if only the boon was granted them.</q> +</p> + +<p> +At this moment (<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 376) the Roman Empire was +again divided. The house of Constantine was gone, +and the East was ruled by Valens, a stupid, cowardly, +and avaricious prince, who had obtained the diadem +and half the Roman world only because he was the +brother of Valentinian, the greatest general of the +day. Valentinian had taken the West for his portion, +and dwelt in his camp on the Rhine and Upper +Danube, while Valens, slothful and timid, shut himself +up with a court of slaves and flatterers in the +imperial palace at Constantinople. +</p> + +<p> +The proposal of the Goths filled Valens with +dismay. It was difficult to say which was more +dangerous—to refuse a passage to 200,000 desperate +men with arms in their hands and a savage foe at +their backs, or to admit them within the line of river +and fortress that protected the border, with an implied +<pb n='037'/><anchor id='Pg037'/> +obligation to find land for them. After much doubting +he chose the latter alternative: if the Goths +would give hostages and surrender their arms, they +should be ferried across the Danube and permitted to +settle as subject-allies within the empire. +</p> + +<p> +The Goths accepted the terms, gave up the sons of +their chiefs as hostages, and streamed across the river +as fast as the Roman Danube-flotilla could transport +them. But no sooner had they reached Moesia than +troubles broke out. The Roman officials at first tried +to disarm the immigrants, but the Goths were unwilling +to surrender their weapons, and offered large +bribes to be allowed to retain them: in strict disobedience +to the Emperor's orders, the bribes were +accepted and the Goths retained their arms. Further +disputes soon broke out. The provisions of Moesia +did not suffice for so many hundred thousand mouths +as had just entered its border, and Valens had +ordered stores of corn from Asia to be collected for +the use of the Goths, till they should have received +and commenced to cultivate land of their own. But +the governor, Lupicinus, to fill his own pockets, held +back the food, and doled out what he chose to give +at exorbitant prices. In sheer hunger the Goths +were driven to barter a slave for a single loaf of bread +and ten pounds of silver for a sheep. This shameless +extortion continued as long as the stores and the +patience of the Goths lasted. At last the poorer +immigrants were actually beginning to sell their own +children for slaves rather than let them starve. This +drove the Goths to desperation, and a chance affray +set the whole nation in a blaze. Fritigern, with many +<pb n='038'/><anchor id='Pg038'/> +of his nobles, was dining with Count Lupicinus at the +town of Marcianopolis, when some starving Goths +tried to pillage the market by force. A party of +Roman soldiers strove to drive them off, and were at +once mishandled or slain. On hearing the tumult +and learning its cause, Lupicinus recklessly bade his +retinue seize and slay Fritigern and the other guests +at his banquet. The Goths drew their swords and +cut their way out of the palace. Then riding to the +nearest camp of his followers, Fritigern told his tale, +and bade them take up arms against Rome. +</p> + +<p> +There followed a year of desperate fighting all +along the Danube, and the northern slope of the +Balkans. The Goths half-starved for many months, and +smarting under the extortion and chicanery to which +they had been subjected, soon showed that the old +barbarian spirit was but thinly covered by the veneer +of Christianity and civilization which they had acquired +in the last half-century. The struggle resolved +itself into a repetition of the great raids of the third +century: towns were sacked and the open country +harried in the old style, nor was the war rendered less +fierce by the fact that many runaway slaves and other +outcasts among the provincial population joined the +invaders. But the Roman armies still retained their +old reputation; the ravages of the Goths were +checked at the Balkans, and though joined by the +remnants of the Ostrogoths from the Danube mouth, +as well as by other tribes flying from the Huns, the +Visigoths were at first held at bay by the imperial +armies. A desperate pitched battle at Ad Salices, +near the modern Kustendje thinned the ranks of both +sides, but led to no decisive result. +</p> + +<pb n='039'/><anchor id='Pg039'/> + +<p> +Next year, however, the unwarlike Emperor, +driven into the field by the clamours of his subjects, +took the field in person, with great reinforcements +brought from Asia Minor. At the same time his +nephew Gratian, a gallant young prince who had succeeded +to the Empire of the West, set forth through +Pannonia to bring aid to the lands of the Lower +Danube. +</p> + +<p> +The personal intervention of Valens in the struggle +was followed by a fearful disaster. In 378 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>, the +main body of the Goths succeeded in forcing the line +of the Balkans; they were not far from Adrianople +when the Emperor started to attack them, with a +splendid army of 60,000 men. Every one expected to +hear of a victory, for the reputation of invincibility +still clung to the legions, and after six hundred years +of war the disciplined infantry of Rome, <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>robur peditum</foreign>, +whose day had lasted since the Punic wars, were still +reckoned superior, when fairly handled, to any amount +of wild barbarians. +</p> + +<p> +But a new chapter of the history of the art of war +was just commencing; during their sojourn in the +plains of South Russia and Roumania the Goths had +taken, first of all German races, to fighting on horseback. +Dwelling in the Ukraine they had felt the +influence of that land, ever the nurse of cavalry from +the day of the Scythian to that of the Tartar and +Cossack. They had come to <q>consider it more +honourable to fight on horse than on foot,</q> and every +chief was followed by his war-band of mounted men. +Driven against their will into conflict with the empire, +they found themselves face to face into the army that +<pb n='040'/><anchor id='Pg040'/> +had so long held the world in fear, and had turned +back their own ancestors in rout three generations +before. +</p> + +<p> +Valens found the main body of the Goths encamped +in a great <q>laager,</q> on the plain north of Adrianople. +After some abortive negotiations he developed an +attack on their front, when suddenly a great body of +horsemen charged in on the Roman flank. It was +the main strength of the Gothic cavalry, which had +been foraging at a distance; receiving news of the +fight it had ridden straight for the battle field. Some +Roman squadrons which covered the left flank of the +Emperor's army were ridden down and trampled +under foot. Then the Goths swept down on the +infantry of the left wing, rolled it up, and drove it in +upon the centre. So tremendous was their impact +that legions and cohorts were pushed together in +hopeless confusion. Every attempt to stand firm +failed, and in a few minutes left, centre, and reserve, +were one undistinguishable mass. Imperial guards, +light troops, lancers, auxiliaries, and infantry of the +line were wedged together in a press that grew closer +every moment. The Roman cavalry saw that the +day was lost, and rode off without another effort. +Then the abandoned infantry realized the horror of +their position: equally unable to deploy or to fly, +they had to stand to be cut down. Men could not +raise their arms to strike a blow, so closely were they +packed; spears snapped right and left, their bearers +being unable to lift them to a vertical position; many +soldiers were stifled in the press. Into this quivering +mass the Goths rode, plying lance and sword against +<pb n='041'/><anchor id='Pg041'/> +the helpless enemy. It was not till forty thousand men +had fallen that the thinning of the ranks enabled the +survivors to break out and follow their cavalry in a +headlong flight. They left behind them, dead on the +field, the Emperor, the Grand Masters of the Infantry +and Cavalry, the Count of the Palace, and thirty-five +commanders of different corps. +</p> + +<p> +The battle of Adrianople was the most fearful +defeat suffered by a Roman army since Cannæ, a +slaughter to which it is aptly compared by the contemporary +historian Ammianus Marcellinus. The +army of the East was almost annihilated, and was +never reorganized again on the old Roman lines. +</p> + +<p> +This awful catastrophe brought down on Constantinople +the first attack which it experienced since it +had changed its name from Byzantium. After a vain +assault on Adrianople, the victorious Goths pressed +rapidly on towards the imperial city. Harrying the +whole country side as they passed by, they presented +themselves before the <q>Golden Gate,</q> its south-western +exit. But the attack was destined to come +to nothing: <q>their courage failed them when they +looked on the vast circuit of walls and the enormous +extent of streets; all that mass of riches within +appeared inaccessible to them. They cast away the +siege machines which they had prepared, and rolled +backward on to Thrace.</q><note place='foot'>Ammianus Marcellinus.</note> Beyond skirmishing under +the walls with a body of Saracen cavalry which had +been brought up to strengthen the garrison, they +made no hostile attempt on the city. So forty years +after his death, Constantine's prescience was for the +<pb n='042'/><anchor id='Pg042'/> +first time justified. He was right in believing that an +impregnable city on the Bosphorus would prove the +salvation of the Balkan Peninsula even if all its open +country were overrun by the invader. +</p> + +<p> +The unlucky Valens was succeeded on the throne +by Theodosius, a wise and virtuous prince, who set +himself to repair, by caution and courage combined, +the disaster that had shaken the Roman power in the +Danube lands. With the remnants of the army of +the East he made head against the barbarians; without +venturing to attack their main body, he destroyed +many marauders and scattered bands, and made the +continuance of the war profitless to them. If they +dispersed to plunder they were cut off; if they held +together in masses they starved. Presently Fritigern +died, and Theodosius made peace with his successor +Athanarich, a king who had lately come over the +Danube at the head of a new swarm of Goths from +the Carpathian country. Theodosius frankly promised +and faithfully observed the terms that Fritigern had +asked of Valens ten years before. He granted the +Goths land for their settlement in the Thracian +province which they had wasted, and enlisted in his +armies all the chiefs and their war-bands. Within +ten years after the fight of Adrianople he had forty +thousand Teutonic horsemen in his service; they +formed the best and most formidable part of his host, +and were granted a higher pay than the native +Roman soldiery. The immediate military results of +the policy of Theodosius were not unsatisfactory; it +was his Gothic auxiliaries who won for him his two +great victories over the legions of the West, when in +<pb n='044'/><anchor id='Pg044'/> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 388 he conquered the rebel Magnus Maximus, +and in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 394 the rebel Eugenius. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-09.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Gothic Captives. (<hi rend='italic'>From the Column of Arcadius.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +But from the political side the experiment of +Theodosius was fraught with the greatest danger that +the Roman Empire had yet known. When barbarian +auxiliaries had been enlisted before, they had been +placed under Roman leaders and mixed with equal +numbers of Roman troops. To leave them under +their own chiefs, and deliberately favour them at the +expense of the native soldiery, was a most unhappy +experiment. It practically put the command of the +empire in their hands; for there was no hold over them +save their personal loyalty to Theodosius, and the +spell which the grandeur of the Roman name and +Roman culture still exercised over their minds. That +spell was still strong, as is shown in the story which +the Gothic historian Jornandes tells about the visit +of the old King Athanarich to Constantinople. +<q>When he entered the royal city, <q>Now,</q> said he, +<q>do I at last behold what I had often heard and +deemed incredible.</q> He passed his eyes hither and +thither admiring first the site of the city, then the +fleets of corn-ships, then the lofty walls, then the +crowds of people of all nations, mingled as the waters +from divers springs mix in a single pool, then the +ranks of disciplined soldiery. And at last he cried +aloud, <q>Doubtless the Emperor is as a god on earth, +and he who raises a hand against him is guilty of his +own blood.</q></q> But this impression was not to continue +for long. In <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 395, the good Emperor +Theodosius, <q>the lover of peace and of the Goths,</q> +as he was called, died, and left the throne to his two +weakly sons Arcadius and Honorius. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='045'/><anchor id='Pg045'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>IV. The Departure Of The Germans.</head> + +<p> +The Roman Empire, at the end of the fourth +century, was in a condition which made the experiment +of Theodosius particularly dangerous. The +government was highly centralized and bureaucratic; +hosts of officials, appointed directly from Constantinople, +administered every provincial post from the +greatest to the least. There was little local self-government +and no local patriotism. The civil +population was looked on by the bureaucratic caste +as a multitude without rights or capacities, existing +solely for the purpose of paying taxes. So strongly +was this view held, that to prevent the revenue from +suffering, the land-holding classes, from the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>curialis</foreign>, +or local magnate, down to the poorest peasant, were +actually forbidden to move from one district to +another without special permission. A landowner +was even prohibited from enlisting in the army, unless +he could show that he left an heir behind him capable +of paying his share in the local rates. An almost +entire separation existed between the civil population +and the military caste; it was hard for a civilian of +any position to enlist; only the lower classes—who +<pb n='046'/><anchor id='Pg046'/> +were of no account in tax-paying—were suffered to +join the army. On the other hand, every pressure +was used to make the sons of soldiers continue in the +service. Thus had arisen a purely professional army, +which had no sympathy or connection with the +unarmed provincials whom it protected. +</p> + +<p> +The army had been a source of unending trouble in +the third century; for a hundred years it had made +and unmade Cæsars at its pleasure. That was while +it was still mainly composed of men born within the +empire, and officered by Romans. +</p> + +<p> +But Theodosius had now swamped the native +element in the army by his wholesale enlistment of +Gothic war-bands. And he had, moreover, handed +many of the chief military posts to Teutons. Some +of them indeed had married Roman wives and taken +kindly to Roman modes of life, while nearly all had +professed Christianity. But at the best they were +military adventurers of alien blood while at the +worst they were liable to relapse into barbarism, cast +all their loyalty and civilization to the winds, and +take to harrying the empire again in the old fearless +fashion of the third century. Clearly nothing could +be more dangerous than to hand over the protection +of the timid and unarmed civil population to such +guardians. The contempt they must have felt for the +unwarlike provincials was so great, and the temptation +to plunder the wealthy cities of the empire so +constant and pressing, that it is no wonder if the +Teutons yielded. Cæsar-making seemed as easy +to the leaders as the sack of provincial churches and +treasuries did to the rank and file. +</p> + +<pb n='047'/><anchor id='Pg047'/> + +<p> +When the personal ascendency of Theodosius was +removed, the empire fell at once into the troubles +which were inevitable. Both at the court of Arcadius, +who reigned at Constantinople, and at that of +Honorius, who had received the West as his share, a +war of factions commenced between the German and +the Roman party. Theodosius had distributed so many +high military posts to Goths and other Teutons, that +this influence was almost unbounded. Stilicho +<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Magister militum</foreign> (commander-in-chief) of the armies +of Italy was predominant at the council board of +Honorius; though he was a pure barbarian by +blood, Theodosius had married him to his own niece +Serena, and left him practically supreme in the West, +for the young emperor was aged only eleven. In the +East Arcadius, the elder brother, had attained his +eighteenth year, and might have ruled his own realm +had he possessed the energy. But he was a witless +young man, <q>short, thin, and sallow, so inactive that +he seldom spoke, and always looked as if he was +about to fall asleep.</q> His prime minister was a +Western Roman named Rufinus, but before the first +year of his reign was over, a Gothic captain named +Gainas slew Rufinus at a review, before the Emperor's +very eyes. The weak Arcadius was then compelled +to make the eunuch Eutropius his minister, and to +appoint Gainas <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Magister militum</foreign> for the East. +</p> + +<p> +Gainas and Stilicho contented themselves with +wire-pulling at Court; but another Teutonic leader +thought that the time had come for bolder work. +Alaric was a chief sprung from the family of the +Balts, whom the Goths reckoned next to the god-descended +<pb n='048'/><anchor id='Pg048'/> +Amals among their princely houses. He +was young, daring, and untameable; several years +spent at Constantinople had failed to civilize him, +but had succeeded in filling him with contempt for +Roman effeminacy. Soon after the death of Theodosius, +he raised the Visigoths in revolt, making it his +pretext that the advisers of Arcadius were refusing +the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>foederati</foreign>, or auxiliaries, certain arrears of pay. The +Teutonic sojourners in Moesia and Thrace joined him +almost to a man, and the Constantinopolitan government +found itself with only a shadow of an army to +oppose the rebels. Alaric wandered far and wide, +from the Danube to the gates of Constantinople, and +from Constantinople to Greece, ransoming or sacking +every town in his way till the Goths were gorged with +plunder. No one withstood him save Stilicho, who was +summoned from the West to aid his master's brother. +By skilful manœuvres Stilicho blockaded Alaric in a +mountain position in Arcadia; but when he had him +at his mercy, it was found that <q>dog does not eat +dog.</q> The Teutonic prime minister let the Teutonic +rebel escape him, and the Visigoths rolled north again +into Illyricum. Sated with plunder, Alaric then consented +to grant Arcadius peace, on condition that he +was made a <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Magister militum</foreign> like Stilicho and Gainas, +and granted as much land for his tribesmen as he +chose to ask. [<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 396.] +</p> + +<p> +For the next five years Alaric, now proclaimed +King of the Goths by his victorious soldiery, reigned +with undisputed sway over the eastern parts of the +Balkan Peninsula, paying only a shadow of homage +to the royal phantom at Constantinople. There +<pb n='049'/><anchor id='Pg049'/> +appeared every reason to believe that a German +kingdom was about to be permanently established in +the lands south and west of the Danube. The fate +which actually befell Gaul, Spain, and Britain, a few +years later seemed destined for Moesia and Macedonia. +How different the history of Europe would have +been if the Germans had settled down in Servia and +Bulgaria we need hardly point out. +</p> + +<p> +But another series of events was impending. In +<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 401, Alaric, instead of resuming his attacks on +Constantinople, suddenly declared war on the +Western Emperor Honorius. He marched round the +head of the Adriatic and invaded Northern Italy. +The half-Romanized Stilicho, who wished to keep +the rule of the West to himself, fought hard to turn +the Goths out of Italy, and beat back Alaric's first +invasion. But then the young emperor, who was as +weak and more worthless than his brother Arcadius, +slew the great minister on a charge of treason. When +Stilicho was gone, Alaric had everything his own +way; he moved with the whole Visigothic race into +Italy, where he ranged about at his will, ransoming +and plundering every town from Rome downwards. +The Visigoths are heard of no more in the Balkan +Peninsula; they now pass into the history of Italy and +then into that of Spain. +</p> + +<p> +While Alaric's eyes were turned on Italy, but +before he had actually come into conflict with Stilicho, +the Court of Constantinople had been the +seat of grave troubles. Gainas the Gothic <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Magister +militum</foreign> of the East, and his creature, the eunuch +Eutropius, had fallen out, and the man of war had no +<pb n='050'/><anchor id='Pg050'/> +difficulty in disposing of the wretched harem-bred +Grand Chamberlain. Instigated by Gainas, the German +mercenaries in the army of Asia started an +insurrection under a certain Tribigild. Gainas was +told to march against them, and collected troops +ostensibly for that purpose. But when he was at the +head of a considerable army, he did not attack the +rebels, but sent a message to Constantinople bidding +Arcadius give up to him the obnoxious Grand +Chamberlain. Eutropius, hearing of his danger, threw +himself on the protection of the Church: he fled into +the Cathedral of St. Sophia and clung to the altar. +John Chrysostom, the intrepid Patriarch of Constantinople, +forbade the soldiers to enter the church, and +protected the fugitive for some days. One of the +most striking incidents in the history of St. Sophia +followed: while the cowering Chamberlain lay before +the altar, John preached to a crowded congregation +a sermon on the text, <q>Vanity of vanities, all is +vanity,</q> emphasizing every period of his harangue +by pointing to the fallen Eutropius—prime minister of +the empire yesterday, and a hunted criminal to-day. +The patriarch extorted a promise that the eunuch's +life should be spared, and Eutropius gave himself up. +Arcadius banished him to Cyprus, but the inexorable +Gainas was not contented with his rival's removal; he +had Eutropius brought back to Constantinople and +beheaded. +</p> + +<p> +The <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Magister militum</foreign> now brought his army over +to Constantinople, and quartered it there to overawe +the emperor. It appeared quite likely that ere long +the Germans would sack the city; but the fate that +<pb n='051'/><anchor id='Pg051'/> +befell Rome ten years later was not destined for Constantinople. +A mere chance brawl put the domination +of Gainas to a sudden end. He himself and +many of his troops were outside the city, when a +sudden quarrel at one of the gates between a band of +Goths and some riotous citizens brought about a +general outbreak against the Germans. The Constantinopolitan +mob showed itself more courageous +and not less unruly than the Roman mob of elder +days. The whole population turned out with extemporized +arms and attacked the German soldiery. +The gates were closed to prevent Gainas and his +troops from outside returning, and a desperate street-fight +ranged over the entire city. Isolated bodies of the +Germans were cut off one by one, and at last their +barracks were surrounded and set on fire. The rioters +had the upper hand; seven thousand soldiers fell, and +the remnant thought themselves lucky to escape. +Gainas at once declared open war on the empire, +but he had not the genius of Alaric, nor the numerical +strength that had followed the younger chief. He +was beaten in the field and forced to fly across the +Danube, where he was caught and beheaded by +Uldes, King of the Huns. Curiously enough the +officer who defeated Gainas was himself not only a +Goth but a heathen: he was named Fravitta and had +been the sworn guest-friend of Theodosius, whose +son he faithfully defended even against the assault of +his own countrymen, [<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 401.] +</p> + +<p> +The departure of Alaric and the death of Gainas +freed the Eastern Romans from the double danger +that has impended over them. They were neither +<pb n='052'/><anchor id='Pg052'/> +to see an independent German kingdom on the +Danube and Morava, nor to remain under the rule of a +semi-civilized German <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Magister militum</foreign>, making and +unmaking ministers, and perhaps Cæsars, at his good +pleasure. The weak Arcadius was enabled to spend +the remaining seven years of his life in comparative +peace and quiet. His court was only troubled by +an open war between his spouse, the Empress Ælia +Eudoxia, and John Chrysostom, the Patriarch of +Constantinople. John was a man of saintly life and +apostolic fervour, but rash and inconsiderate alike in +speech and action. His charity and eloquence made +him the idol of the populace of the imperial city, but +his austere manners and autocratic methods of dealing +with his subordinates had made him many foes among +the clergy. The patriarch's enemies were secretly +supported by the empress, who had taken offence at +the outspoken way in which John habitually denounced +the luxury and insolence of her court. She favoured +the intrigues of Theophilus, Patriarch of Alexandria, +against his brother prelate, backed the Asiatic clergy +in their complaints about John's oppression of them, +and at last induced the Emperor to allow the saintly +patriarch to be deposed by a hastily-summoned +council, the <q>Synod of the Oak</q> held outside the +city. The populace rose at once to defend their +pastor; riots broke out, Theodosius was chased back +to Egypt, and the Emperor, terrified by an earthquake +which seemed to manifest the wrath of heaven, +restored John to his place. +</p> + +<p> +Next year, however, the war between the empress +and the patriarch broke out again. John took the +<pb n='053'/><anchor id='Pg053'/> +occasion of the erection of a statue of Eudoxia in +the Augustaeum to recommence his polemics. Some +obsolete semi-pagan ceremonies at its dedication +roused his wrath, and he delivered a scathing sermon +in which—if his enemies are to be believed—he compared +the empress to Herodias, and himself to John +the Baptist. The Emperor, at his wife's demand, +summoned another council, which condemned +Chrysostom, and on Easter Day, <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 404, seized the +patriarch in his cathedral by armed force, and +banished him to Asia. That night a fire, probably +kindled by the angry adherents of Chrysostom, +broke out in St. Sophia, which was burnt to the +ground. From thence it spread to the neighbouring +buildings, and finally to the Senate-house, which was +consumed with all the treasures of ancient Greek art +of which Constantine had made it the repository. +</p> + +<p> +Meanwhile the exiled John was banished to a +dreary mountain fastness in Cappadocia, and afterwards +condemned to a still more remote prison at +Pityus on the Euxine. He died on his way thither, +leaving a wonderful reputation for patience and cheerfulness +under affliction. This fifth-century Becket +was well-nigh the only patriarch of Constantinople +who ever fell out with the imperial Court on a question +of morals as distinguished from dogma. Chrysostom's +quarrel was with the luxury, insolence, and frivolity of +the Empress and her Court; no real ecclesiastical +question was involved in his deposition, for the +charges against him were mere pretexts to cover the +hatred of his disloyal clergy and the revenge of the +insulted Aelia Eudoxia. [<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 407.] +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='054'/><anchor id='Pg054'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>V. The Reorganization Of The Eastern Empire. +(<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 408-518.)</head> + +<p> +The feeble and inert Arcadius died in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 408, at +the early age of thirty-one; his imperious consort had +preceded him to the grave, and the empire of the +East was left to Theodosius II., a child of seven years, +their only son. There was hardly an instance in +Roman history of a minor succeeding quietly to his +father's throne. An ambitious relative or a disloyal +general had habitually supplanted the helpless heir. +But the ministers of Arcadius were exceptionally +virtuous or exceptionally destitute of ambition. The +little emperor was duly crowned, and the administration +of the East undertaken in his name by the able +Anthemius, who held the office of Praetorian Praefect. +History relates nothing but good of this minister; he +made a wise commercial treaty with the king of Persia; +he repelled with ease a Hunnish invasion of Moesia; +he built a flotilla on the Danube, where Roman warships +had not been seen since the death of Valens, +forty years before; he reorganized the corn supply +<pb n='055'/><anchor id='Pg055'/> +of Constantinople; and did much to get back into +order and cultivation the desolated north-western +lands of the Balkan Peninsula, from which Alaric +and his Visigothic hordes had now taken their final +departure. The empire was still more indebted to +him for bringing up the young Theodosius as an +honest and god-fearing man. The palace under +Anthemius' rule was the school of the virtues: the +lives of the emperor and his three sisters, Pulcheria, +Arcadia, and Marina, were the model and the marvel +of their subjects. Theodosius inherited the piety +and honesty of his grandfather and namesake, but +was a youth of slender capacity, though he took +some interest in literature, and was renowned for his +beautiful penmanship. His eldest sister, Pulcheria, +was the ruling spirit of the family, and possessed +unlimited influence over him, though she was but two +years his senior. When Anthemius died in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> +414, she took the title of Augusta, and assumed the +regency of the East. Pulcheria was an extraordinary +woman: on gathering up the reins of power she took +a vow of chastity, and lived as a crowned nun for +thirty-six years; her fear had been that, if she married, +her husband might cherish ambitious schemes against +her brother's crown; she therefore kept single herself +and persuaded her sisters to make a similar vow. +Austere, indefatigable, and unselfish, she proved equal +to ruling the realms of the East with success, though +no woman had ever made the attempt before. +</p> + +<p> +When Theodosius came of age he refused to remove +his sister from power, and treated her as his +colleague and equal. By her advice he married in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> +<pb n='056'/><anchor id='Pg056'/> +421, the year that he came of age, the beautiful and +accomplished Athenaïs, daughter of the philosopher +Leontius. The emperor's chosen spouse had been +brought up as a pagan, but was converted before her +marriage, and baptized by the name of Eudocia. +She displayed her literary tastes in writing religious +poetry, which had some merit, according to the critics +of the succeeding age. The austere Pulcheria—always +immersed in state business or occupied in religious +observances—found herself ere long ill at ease in the +company of the lively, beautiful, and volatile literary +lady whom she had chosen as sister-in-law. If +Theodosius had been less easy-going and good-hearted +he must have sent away either his sister +or his wife, but he long contrived to dwell affectionately +with both, though their bickerings were unending. +After many years of married life, however, +a final quarrel came, and the empress retired to spend +the last years of her life in seclusion at Jerusalem. +The cause of her exile is not really known: we have +only a wild story concerning it, which finds an exact +parallel in one of the tales of the <q>Arabian Nights.</q> +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<q>The emperor,</q> so runs the tale, <q>was one day met by a peasant +who presented him with a Phrygian apple of enormous size, so that +the whole Court marvelled at it. And he gave the man a hundred and +fifty gold pieces in reward, and sent the apple to the Empress Eudocia. +But she sent it as a present to Paulinus, the <q>Master of the Offices,</q> +because he was a friend of the emperor. But Paulinus, not knowing +the history of the apple, took it and gave it to the emperor as he +reëntered the Palace. And Theodosius having received it, recognized +it and concealed it, and called his wife and questioned her, saying, +<q>Where is the apple that I sent you?</q> She answered, <q>I have eaten +it.</q> Then he bade her swear by his salvation the truth, whether she +had eaten it or sent it to some one. And Eudocia swore that she had +<pb n='057'/><anchor id='Pg057'/> +sent it to no man, but had herself eaten it. Then the emperor showed +her the apple, and was exceedingly wrath, suspecting that she was +enamoured of Paulinus, and had sent it to him as a love-gift; for he +was a very handsome man. And on this account he put Paulinus to +death, but he permitted Eudocia to go to the Holy Places to pray. +And she went down from Constantinople to Jerusalem, and dwelt there +all her days.</q> +</quote> + +<p> +That Paulinus was executed, and that Eudocia +spent her last years of retirement in Palestine, we +know for certain. All the rest of the story is in +reality hidden from us. The chief improbability of +the tale is that Eudocia had reached the age of forty +when the breach between her and her husband took +place, and that Paulinus was also an official of mature +years. +</p> + +<p> +Theodosius' long reign passed by in comparative +quiet. Its only serious troubles were a short war +with the Persians, and a longer one with Attila, the +great king of the Huns, whose empire now stretched +over all the lands north of the Black Sea and Danube, +where the Goths had once dwelt. In this struggle +the Roman armies were almost invariably unfortunate. +The Huns ravaged the country as far as Adrianople +and Philippopolis, and had to be bought off by the +annual payment of 700 lbs. of gold [£31,000]. It is +true that they fell on Theodosius while his main force +was engaged on the Persian frontier, but the constant +ill-success of the imperial generals seems to show that +the armies of the East had never been properly reorganized +since the military system of Theodosius I. +had been broken up by the revolt of Gainas forty +years before. His grandson had neither a trustworthy +body of German auxiliaries nor a sufficiently large +<pb n='059'/><anchor id='Pg059'/> +native levy of born subjects of the empire to protect +his borders. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-10.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Angel Of Victory. (<hi rend='italic'>From a Fifth-century Diptych.</hi>) +<hi rend='italic'>Reproduced from "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. +Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi></head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The reconstruction of the Roman military forces +was reserved for the successors of Theodosius II. +He himself was killed by a fall from his horse in +450 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>, leaving an only daughter, who was married +to her cousin Valentinian III., Emperor of the West. +Theodosius, with great wisdom, had designated as +his successor, not his young-son-in-law, a cruel +and profligate prince, but his sister Pulcheria, who +at the same time ended her vow of celibacy and +married Marcianus, a veteran soldier and a prominent +member of the Senate. The marriage was but formal, +for both were now well advanced in years: as a +political expedient it was all that could be desired. +The empire had peace and prosperity under their +rule, and freed itself from the ignominious tribute to +the Huns. Before Attila died in 452, he had met +and been checked by the succours which Marcianus +sent to the distressed Romans of the West. +</p> + +<p> +When Marcianus and Pulcheria passed away, the +empire came into the hands of a series of three men +of ability. They were all bred as high civil officials, +not as generals; all ascended the throne at a ripe +age; not one of them won his crown by arms, all were +peaceably designated either by their predecessors, or +by the Senate and army. These princes were Leo I. +(457-474), Zeno (474-491), Anastasius (491-518). Their +chief merit was that they guided the Roman Empire +in the East safely through the stormy times which +saw its extinction in the West. While, beyond the +Adriatic, province after province was being lopped +<pb n='060'/><anchor id='Pg060'/> +off and formed into a new Germanic kingdom, the +emperors who reigned at Constantinople kept a tight +grip on the Balkan Peninsula and on Asia, and succeeded +in maintaining their realm absolutely intact. +Both East and West were equally exposed to the +barbarian in the fifth century, and the difference of +their fate came from the character of their rulers, not +from the diversity of their political conditions. In +the West, after the extinction of the house of +Theodosius (455 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>), the emperors were ephemeral +puppets, made and unmade by the generals of their +armies, who were invariably Germans. The two +<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Magistri militum</foreign>, Ricimer and Gundovald—one +Suabian, the other Burgundian by birth—deposed or +slew no less than five of their nominal masters in +seventeen years. In the East, on the other hand, it +was the emperors who destroyed one after another +the ambitious generals, who, by arms or intrigue, +threatened their throne. +</p> + +<p> +While this comparison bears witness to the personal +ability of the three emperors who ruled at Constantinople +between <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 457 and <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 518, it is only fair to +remember they were greatly helped by the fact that +the German element in their armies had never reached +the pitch of power to which it had attained in the +West; the suppression of Gainas forty years before +had saved them from that danger. But unruly and +aspiring generals were not wanting in the East; the +greatest danger of Leo I. was the conspiracy of the +great <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Magister militum</foreign> Aspar, whom he detected and +slew when he was on the eve of rebelling. Zeno was +once chased out of his capital by rebels, and twice +<pb n='061'/><anchor id='Pg061'/> +vexed by dangerous risings in Asia Minor, but on +each occasion he triumphed over his adversaries, and +celebrated his victory by the execution of the leaders +of the revolt. Anastasius was vexed for several years +by the raids of a certain Count Vitalian, who ranged +over the Thracian provinces with armies recruited +from the barbarians beyond the Danube. But, in +spite of all these rebellions, the empire was never in +serious danger of sinking into disorder or breaking +up, as the Western realm had done, into new un-Roman +kingdoms. So far was it from this fate, that +Anastasius left his successor, when he died in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 518, +a loyal army of 150,000 men, a treasure of 320,000 lbs. +of gold, and an unbroken frontier to East and West. +</p> + +<p> +The main secret of the success of the emperors of +the fifth century in holding their own came from the +fact that they had reorganized their armies, and filled +them up with native troops in great numbers. Leo I. +was the first ruler who utilized the military virtues of +the Isaurians, or mountain populations of Southern +Asia Minor. He added several regiments of them +to the army of the East, but it was his son-in-law +and successor, Zeno, himself an Isaurian born, who +developed the scheme. He raised an imperial guard +from his countrymen, and enlisted as many corps +of them as could be raised; moreover, he formed +regiments of Armenians and other inhabitants of the +Roman frontier of the East, and handed over to his +successor, Anastasius, an army in which the barbarian +auxiliaries—now composed of Teutons and Huns in +about equal numbers—were decidedly dominated by +the native elements. +</p> + +<pb n='062'/><anchor id='Pg062'/> + +<p> +The last danger which the Eastern Empire was to +experience from the hands of the Germans fell into +the reign of Zeno. The Ostrogoths had submitted +to the Huns ninety years before, when their brethren +the Visigoths fled into Roman territory, in the +reign of Valens. But when the Hunnish Empire +broke up at the death of Attila [<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 452], the Ostrogoths +freed themselves, and replaced their late masters +as the main danger on the Danube. The bulk +of them streamed south-westward, and settled in +Pannonia, the border-province of the Western Empire, +on the frontier of the East-Roman districts of Dacia +and Moesia. They soon fell out with Zeno, and two +Ostrogothic chiefs, Theodoric, the son of Theodemir, +and Theodoric, the son of Triarius, were the scourges +of the Balkan Peninsula for more than twenty years. +While the bulk of their tribesmen settled down on the +banks of the Save and Mid-Danube, the two Theodorics +harried the whole of Macedonia and Moesia by +never-ending raids. Zeno tried to turn them against +each other, offering first to the one, then to the other, +the title of <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Magister militum</foreign>, and a large pension. +But now—as in the time of Alaric and Stilicho—it +was seen that <q>dog will not eat dog</q>; the two +Theodorics, after quarrelling for a while, banded +themselves together against Zeno. The story of their +reconciliation is curious. +</p> + +<p> +Theodoric, the son of Theodemir, the ally of Rome +for the moment, had surrounded his rival on a rocky +hill in a defile of the Balkans. While they lay +opposite each other, Theodoric, the son of Triarius +[he is usually known as Theodoric the One-Eyed], +<pb n='063'/><anchor id='Pg063'/> +rode down to his enemy's lines and called to him, +<q>Madman, betrayer of your race, do you not see that +the Roman plan is always to destroy Goths by Goths? +Whichever of us fails, they, not we, will be the +stronger. They never give you real help, but send +you out against me to perish here in the Desert.</q> +Then all the Goths cried out, <q>The One-Eyed is +right. These men are Goths like ourselves.</q> So the +two Theodorics made peace, and Zeno had to cope +with them both at once [<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 479]. Two years later +Theodoric the One-Eyed was slain by accident—his +horse flung him, as he mounted, against a spear fixed +by the door of his tent—but his namesake continued +a thorn in the side of the empire till 488 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> +</p> + +<p> +In that year Zeno bethought him of a device for ridding +himself of the Ostrogoth, who, though he made +no permanent settlement in Moesia or Macedonia, +was gradually depopulating the realm by his incursions. +The line of ephemeral emperors who reigned +in Italy over the shrunken Western realm had ended +in 476, when the German general Odoacer deposed +Romulus Augustulus, and did not trouble himself to +nominate another puppet-Cæsar to succeed him. +By his order a deputation from the Roman Senate +visited Zeno at Constantinople, to inform him that +they did not require an emperor of their own to +govern Italy, but would acknowledge him as ruler +alike of East and West; at the same time they besought +Zeno to nominate, as his representative in the +Italian lands, their defender, the great Odoacer. Zeno +replied by advising the Romans to persuade Odoacer +to recognize as his lord Julius Nepos, one of the +<pb n='064'/><anchor id='Pg064'/> +dethroned nominees of Ricimer, who had survived his +loss of the imperial diadem. Odoacer refused, and +proclaimed himself king in Italy, while still affecting—against +Zeno's own will—to recognize the Constantinopolitan +emperor as his suzerain. +</p> + +<p> +In 488 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> it occurred to Zeno to offer Theodoric +the government of Italy, if he would conquer it from +Odoacer. The Ostrogoth, who had harried the inland +of the Balkan Peninsula bare, and had met +several reverses of late from the Roman arms, took +the offer. He was made <q>patrician</q> and consul, and +started off with all the Ostrogothic nation at his back +to win the realm of Italy. After hard fighting with +Odoacer and the mixed multitude of mercenaries +that followed him, the Goths conquered Italy, and +Theodoric—German king and Roman patrician—began +to reign at Ravenna. He always professed to +be the vassal and deputy of the emperor at Constantinople, +and theoretically his conquest of Italy +meant the reunion of the East and the West. But +the Western realm had shrunk down to Italy and +Illyricum, and the power of Zeno therein was purely +nominal. +</p> + +<p> +With the departure of the Ostrogoths we have +seen our last of the Germans in the Balkan Peninsula; +after 488 the Slavs take their place as the molesters +of the Roman frontier on the Danube. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='065'/><anchor id='Pg065'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>VI. Justinian.</head> + +<p> +The Emperor Anastasius died in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 518 at the +ripe age of eighty-eight, and his sceptre passed to +Justinus, the commander of his body-guard, whom +Senate and army alike hailed as most worthy to +succeed the good old man. The late emperor had +nephews, but he had never designated them as his +heirs, and they retired into private life at his death. +Justinus was well advanced in years, as all his three +predecessors had been when they mounted the throne. +But unlike Leo, Zeno, and Anastasius, he had won +his way to the front in the army, not in the civil +service. He had risen from the ranks, was a rough +uncultured soldier, and is said to have been hardly able +to sign his own name. His reign of nine years would +have been of little note in history—for he made no +wars and spent no treasure—if he had not been the +means of placing on the throne of the East the +greatest ruler since the death of Constantine. +</p> + +<p> +Justinus had no children himself, but had adopted +as his heir his nephew Justinian, son of his deceased +brother Sabatius. This young man, born after his +<pb n='066'/><anchor id='Pg066'/> +father and uncle had won their way to high places in +the army, was no uncultured peasant as they had been, +but had been reared, as the heir of a wealthy house, +in all the learning of the day. He showed from the +first a keen intelligence, and applied himself with +zeal to almost every department of civil life. Law, +finance, administrative economy, theology, music, +architecture, fortification, all were dear to him. The +only thing in which he seems to have taken little personal +interest was military matters. His uncle trusted +everything to him, and finally made him his colleague +on the throne. +</p> + +<p> +Justinian was heir designate to the empire, and had +passed the age of thirty-five, giving his contemporaries +the impression that he was a staid, business-like, and +eminently practical personage. <q>No one ever remembered +him young,</q> it was said, and most certainly +no one ever expected him to scandalize the empire +by a sensational marriage. But in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 526 the world +learnt, to the horror of the respectable and the joy of +all scandal-mongers, that he had declared his intention +of taking to wife the dancer Theodora, the star of the +Byzantine comic stage. +</p> + +<p> +So many stories have gathered around Theodora's +name that it is hard to say how far her early life had +been discreditable. A libellous work called the <q>Secret +History,</q> written by an enemy of herself and her +husband,<note place='foot'>Certainly not by Procopius, whose name it bears.</note> gives us many scandalous details of her +career; but the very virulence of the book makes its +tales incredible. It is indisputable, however, that +Theodora was an actress, and that Roman actresses +<pb n='067'/><anchor id='Pg067'/> +enjoyed an unenviable reputation for light morals. +There was actually a law which forbade a member of +the senate to marry an actress, and Justinian had to +repeal it in order to legalize his own marriage. There +had been scores of bad and reckless men on the +throne before, but none of them had ever dared to +commit an action which startled the world half so +much as this freak of the staid Justinian. His own +mother used every effort to turn him from his purpose, +and his uncle the Emperor threatened to disinherit +him: but he was quietly persistent, and ere +the aged Justinus died he had been induced to acknowledge +the marriage of his nephew, and to confer +on Theodora the title of <q>Patrician.</q> +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-11.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>The Empress Theodora And Her Court. +<hi rend='italic'>Reproduced from "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi></head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Theodora, as even her enemies allow, was the most +beautiful woman of her age. Procopius, the best +historian of the day, says <q>that it was impossible for +mere man to describe her comeliness in words, or +imitate it in art.</q> All that her detractors could say +was that she was below the middle height, and that +her complexion was rather pale, though not unhealthy. +It is unfortunate that we have no representation of +her surviving, save the famous mosaic in San Vitale +at Ravenna, and mosaic is of all forms of art that +least suited to reproduce beauty. +</p> + +<p> +Whatever her early life may have been, Theodora +was in spirit and intelligence well suited to be the +mate of the Emperor of the East. After her marriage +no word of scandal was breathed against her +life. She rose to the height of her situation: once +her courage saved her husband's throne, and always she +was the ablest and the most trusted of his councillors. +<pb n='069'/><anchor id='Pg069'/> +The grave, studious, and hard-working Emperor never +regretted his choice of a consort. +</p> + +<p> +It cannot be said, however, that either Justinian or +Theodora are sympathetic characters. The Emperor +was a hard and suspicious master, and not over grateful +to subjects who served him well; he was intolerant +in religious, and unscrupulous in political matters. +When his heart was set on a project he was utterly +unmindful of the slaughter and ruin which it might +bring upon his people. In the extent of his conquests +and the magnificence of his public works, he was incomparably +the greatest of the emperors who reigned +at Constantinople. But the greatness was purely +personal: he left the empire weaker in resources, if +broader in provinces, than he found it. Of all the +great sovereigns of history he may be most fairly +compared with Louis XIV. of France; but it may be +remembered to his credit in the comparison that Louis +has nothing to set against Justinian's great legal work—the +compilation of the <hi rend='italic'>Pandects</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>Institutes</hi>, and that +Justinian's private life, unlike that of the Frenchman, +was strict even to austerity. All night long, we read, +he sat alone over his State papers in his cabinet, or +paced the dark halls in deep thought. His sleepless +vigilance so struck his subjects that the strangest +legends became current even in his life-time: his enemies +whispered that he was no mere man, but an evil +spirit that required no rest. One grotesque tale even +said that the Emperor had been seen long after midnight +traversing the corridors of his palace—without +his head. +</p> + +<p> +If Justinian seemed hardly human to those who +<pb n='070'/><anchor id='Pg070'/> +feared him, Theodora is represented as entirely given +up to pride and ambition, never forgiving an offence, +but hunting to death or exile all who had crossed her +in the smallest thing. She is reproached—but who that +has risen from a low estate is not?—of an inordinate +love for the pomps and vanities of imperial state. +High officials complained that she had as great a +voice in settling political matters as her husband. +Yet, on the whole, her influence would appear not to +have been an evil one—historians acknowledge that +she was liberal in almsgiving, religious after her own +fashion, and that she often interfered to aid the +oppressed. It is particularly recorded that, remembering +the dangers of her own youth, she was zealous +in establishing institutions for the reclaiming of women +who had fallen into sin. +</p> + +<p> +The aged Justinus died in 527 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>, and Justinian +became the sole occupant of the throne, which he was +destined to occupy for thirty-eight years. It was less +than half the century, yet his personality seems to pervade +the whole period, and history hardly remembers +the insignificant predecessors and successors whose +reigns eke out the remainder of the years between 500 +and 600. +</p> + +<p> +The empire when Justinian took it over from the +hands of his uncle was in a more prosperous condition +than it had known since the death of Constantine. +Since the Ostrogoths had moved out of the Balkan +Peninsula in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 487, it had not suffered from any very +long or destructive invasion from without. The Slavonic +tribes, now heard of for the first time, and the +Bulgarians had made raids across the Danube, but +<pb n='071'/><anchor id='Pg071'/> +they had not yet shown any signs of settling down—as +the Goths had done—within the limits of the +empire. Their incursions, though vexatious, were not +dangerous. Still the European provinces of the +empire were in worse condition than the Asiatic, and +were far from having recovered the effects of the +ravages of Fritigern and Alaric, Attila, and Theodoric. +But the more fortunate Asiatic lands had +hardly seen a foreign enemy for centuries.<note place='foot'>There had been only an isolated raids of Huns in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 395, which +penetrated as far as Palestine. No other invasion reached as far as +Antioch.</note> Except +in the immediate neighbourhood of the Persian frontier +there was no danger, and Persian wars had been +infrequent of late. Southern Asia Minor had once or +twice suffered from internal risings—rebellions of the +warlike Isaurians—but civil war left no such permanent +mark on the land as did barbarian invasions. On +the whole, the resources of the provinces beyond the +Bosphorus were intact. +</p> + +<p> +Justinus in his quiet reign had spent little or none +of the great hoard of treasure which Anastasius had +bequeathed to him. There were more than 300,000 lbs. +of gold [£13,400,000] in store when Justinian came to +the throne. The army, as we have had occasion to +relate in the last chapter, was in good order, and composed +in a larger proportion of born subjects of the +empire than it had been at any time since the battle of +Adrianople. There would appear to have been from +150,000 to 200,000 men under arms, but the extent of +the frontiers of the empire were so great that Justinian +never sent out a single army of more than +<pb n='072'/><anchor id='Pg072'/> +30,000 strong, and forces of only a third of that +number are often found entrusted with such mighty +enterprises as the invasion of Africa or the defence +of the Armenian border. The flower of the Roman +army was no longer its infantry, but its mailed horsemen +(<foreign rend='italic'>Cataphracti</foreign>), armed with lance and bow, as the +Parthian cavalry had once been of old. The infantry +comprised more archers and javelin-men than heavy +troops: the Isaurians and other provincials of the +mountainous parts of Asia Minor were reckoned +the best of them. Among both horse and foot large +bodies of foreign auxiliaries were still found: the +Huns and Arabs supplied light cavalry, the German +Herules and Gepidæ from beyond the Danube heavier +troops. +</p> + +<p> +The weakest point in the empire when Justinian +took it over was its financial system. The cardinal +maxim of political economy, that <q>taxes should be +raised in the manner least oppressive to those who +pay them</q> was as yet undreamt of. The exaction +of arbitrary customs dues, and the frequent grant of +monopolies was noxious to trade. The deplorable +system of tax-farming through middlemen was employed +in many branches of the revenue. Landed +proprietors, small and great, were still mercilessly +overtaxed, in consideration of their exemption from +military service. The budget was always handicapped +by the necessity for providing free corn for +the populace of Constantinople. Yet in spite of all +these drawbacks Justinian enjoyed an enormous and +steady revenue. His finance minister, John of Cappadocia, +was such an ingenious extortioner that the +<pb n='073'/><anchor id='Pg073'/> +treasury was never empty in the hardest stress of war +and famine: but it was kept full at the expense of +the future. The grinding taxation of Justinian's +reign bore fruit in the permanent impoverishment +of the provinces: his successors were never able to +raise such a revenue again. Here again Justinian +may well be compared to Louis XIV. +</p> + +<p> +Justinian's policy divides into the departments of +internal and foreign affairs. Of his doings as legislator, +administrator, theologian, and builder, we shall +speak in their proper place. But the history of his +foreign policy forms the main interest of his reign. +He had determined to take up a task which none of +his predecessors since the division of the Empire +under Arcadius and Honorius had dared to contemplate. +It was his dream to re-unite under his sceptre +the German kingdoms in the Western Mediterranean +which had been formed out of the broken fragments +of the realm of Honorius; and to end the solemn +pretence by which he was nominally acknowledged as +Emperor West of the Adriatic, while really all power +was in the hands of the German rulers who posed as +his vicegerents. He aimed at reconquering Italy, +Africa, and Spain—if not the further provinces of the +old empire. We shall see that he went far towards +accomplishing his intention. +</p> + +<p> +But during the first five years of his reign his attention +was distracted by other matters. The first of +them was an obstinate war of four years' duration, +with Kobad, King of Persia. The causes of quarrel +were ultimately the rival pretensions of the Roman +and Persian Empires to the suzerainty of the small +<pb n='074'/><anchor id='Pg074'/> +states on their northern frontiers near the Black Sea, +the kingdoms of Lazica and Iberia, and more proximately +the strengthening of the fortresses on the +Mesopotamian border by Justinian. His fortification +of Dara, close to the Persian frontier town of Nisibis, +was the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>casus belli</foreign> chosen by Kobad, who declared +war in 528, a year after Justinian's accession. +</p> + +<p> +The Persian war was bloody, but absolutely indecisive. +All the attacks of the enemy were repelled, +and one great pitched battle won over him at Dara in +530. But neither party succeeded in taking a single +fortress of importance from the other; and when, on +the death of Kobad, his son Chosroës made peace +with the empire, the terms amounted to the restoration +of the old frontier. The only importance of the +war was that it enabled Justinian to test his army, +and showed him that he possessed an officer of first-rate +merit in Belisarius, the victor of the battle of +Dara. +</p> + +<p> +This famous general was a native of the Thracian +inland; he entered the army very young, and rose +rapidly, till at the age of twenty-three he was already +Governor of Dara, and at twenty-five <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Magister militum</foreign> +of the East.<note place='foot'><q>Born in Germania, a district between Thrace and Illyricum,</q> +says his secretary, Procopius. We do not know where the district—a +German settlement, presumably—was situated.</note> His influence at Court was very great, +as he had married Antonina, the favourite and confidante +of the Empress Theodora. His position, indeed, +was not unlike that which Marlborough, owing to his +wife's ascendency, enjoyed at the Court of Queen +Anne. Like Marlborough, too, Belisarius was ruled +<pb n='075'/><anchor id='Pg075'/> +and bullied by his clever and unscrupulous wife. +Unlike the great Duchess Sarah, Antonina never set +herself to thwart her mistress; but after Theodora's +death she and her husband lost favour, and in +declining years knew much the same misfortune as +did the Marlboroughs. +</p> + +<p> +The year which saw the Persian War end [<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 532], +saw also the rise and fall of another danger, which +while it lasted was much more threatening to the +Emperor's life and power. We have already noticed +the <q>Blues</q> and <q>Greens,</q> the great factions of the +Byzantine Circus.<note place='foot'>See chap. ii. p. <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>.</note> All through the fifth century they +had been growing stronger, and interfered more and +more in politics, and even in religious controversies. +To be a <q>Green</q> in 530 meant to be a partisan of +the house of the late Emperor Anastasius, and a +Monophysite.<note place='foot'>To hold the view which denied the existence both of a truly human +and a truly Divine nature in Our Lord Jesus Christ.</note> The <q>Blues</q> posed as partisans of +the house of Justinus, and as strictly orthodox in +matters ecclesiastical. From mere Circus factions +they had almost grown into political parties; but +they still retained at the bottom many traces of their +low sporting origin. The rougher elements pre-dominated +in them; they were prone to riot and +mischief, and, as the events of 532 were to show, they +were a serious danger to the State. +</p> + +<p> +In January of that year there was serious rioting in +the streets. Justinian, though ordinarily he favoured +the Blue faction, impartially ordered the leaders +of the rioters on both sides to be put to death. +<pb n='076'/><anchor id='Pg076'/> +Seven were selected for execution, and four of them +were duly beheaded in the presence of a great and +angry mob, in front of the monastery of St. Conon. +The last three rioters were to be hung, but the hangman +so bungled his task that two of the criminals, +one a Blue the other a Green, fell to the ground alive. +The guards seized them and they were again suspended; +but once more—owing no doubt to the terror +of the executioners at the menaces of the mob—the +rope slipped. Then the multitude broke loose, +the guards were swept away, and the half-hung +criminals were thrust into sanctuary at the adjacent +monastery. +</p> + +<p> +This exciting incident proved the commencement +of six days of desperate rioting. The Blues and +Greens united, and taking as their watchword, <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>Nika</foreign>, +<q>conquer,</q> swept through the city, crying for the deposition +of John of Cappadocia, the unpopular finance +minister, and of Eudemius, Praefect of the city, who +was immediately responsible for the executions. The +ordinary police of the capital were quite unable to +master them, and Justinian was weak enough to promise +to dismiss the officials. But the mob was now +quite out of hand, and refused to disperse: the +trouble was fomented by the partisans of the house of +the late emperor, who began to shout for the deposition +of Justinian, and wished to make Hypatius, +nephew of Anastasius, Cæsar in his stead. The city +was almost empty of troops, owing to the garrison +having been sent to the Persian War. The Emperor +could only count on 4,000 men of the Imperial +Guard, a few German auxiliaries, and a regiment +<pb n='077'/><anchor id='Pg077'/> +of 500 <q>Cataphracti,</q> mailed horsemen, under Belisarius, +who had just returned from the seat of war. +</p> + +<p> +Belisarius was placed in command of the whole, +and sallied out to clear the streets, but the rioters, +showing the same pluck that the Byzantine mob displayed +against the soldiers of Gainas a hundred and +twenty-five years before, offered a stout resistance. +The main fighting took place around the great +square of the Augustaeum, between the Imperial +palace and the Hippodrome. In the heat of the +fight the rebels set fire to the Brazen Porch by +the Senate House. The Senate House caught fire, +and then the conflagration spread east and north, +till it was wafted across the square to St. Sophia. +On the third day of the riot the great cathedral +was burnt to the ground, and from thence the flames +issued out to burn the hospital of Sampson and the +church of St. Irene.<note place='foot'>See map on p. <ref target='Pg019'>20</ref>.</note> The fire checked the fighting, +and the insurgents were now in possession of most +of the city. But they could not find their chosen +leader, for the unfortunate Hypatius, who had no +desire to risk his neck, had taken refuge with the +Emperor in the palace. It was not till he was +actually driven out by Justinian, who feared to have +him about his person, that this rebel in spite of +himself, fell into the hands of his own adherents. +But on the sixth day of the riots they led him to the +Hippodrome, installed him in the royal seat of the +Kathisma, and crowned him there with a gold chain +of his wife's, for want of a proper diadem. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-12.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Theodora Imperatrix. +<hi rend='italic'>From the Painting by Val. Prinsep. The copyright is in the +Artist's hands.</hi></head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Meanwhile there was dismay and diversity of +<pb n='079'/><anchor id='Pg079'/> +councils in the Palace. John of Cappadocia and +many other ministers strove to persuade the Emperor +to fly by sea, and gather additional troops at Heraclea. +There was nothing left in his power save the +palace, and they insisted that if he remained there +longer he would be surrounded by the rebels and cut +off from escape. It was then that the Empress Theodora +rose to the level of the occasion, refused to fly, +and urged her husband to make one final assault on +the enemy. Her words are preserved by Procopius. +</p> + +<p> +<q>This is no occasion to keep to the old rule that a +woman must not speak in the council. Those who +are most concerned have most right to dictate the +course of action. Now every man must die once, and +for a king death is better than dethronement and +exile. May I never see the day when my purple robe +is stripped from me, and when I am no more called +Lady and Mistress! If you wish, O Emperor, to save +your life, nothing is easier: there are your ships and +the sea. But <emph>I</emph> agree with the old saying that +<q>Empire is the best winding-sheet.</q></q> +</p> + +<p> +Spurred on by his wife's bold words, Justinian +ordered a last assault on the rebels, and Belisarius led +out his full force. The factions were now in the Hippodrome, +saluting their newly-crowned leader with +shouts of <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Hypatie Auguste, tu vincas,</foreign></q> preparatory +to a final attack on the palace. Belisarius attacked +at once all three gates of the Hippodrome: that +directed against the door of the Kathisma failed, but +the soldiery forced both the side entrances, and after a +hard struggle the rebels were entirely routed. Crowded +into the enormous building with only five exits, +<pb n='080'/><anchor id='Pg080'/> +they fell in thousands by the swords of the victorious +Imperialists. It is said that 35,000 men were slain in +the six days of this great <q>Sedition of Nika.</q> +</p> + +<p> +It is curious to learn that not even this awful +slaughter succeeded in crushing the factions. We +hear of the Blues and Greens still rioting on various +occasions during the next fifty years. But they never +came again so near to changing the course of history +as in the famous rising of <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 532. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='081'/><anchor id='Pg081'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>VII. Justinian's Foreign Conquests.</head> + +<p> +After the Persians had drawn back, foiled in their +attempt to conquer Mesopotamia, and after the suppression +of the <q>Nika</q> sedition had cowed the unruly +populace of Constantinople, Justinian found himself +at last free, and was able to take in hand his great +scheme for the reconquest of the lost provinces of +the empire. +</p> + +<p> +The enforced delay of six years between his accession +and his first attempt to execute his great plan, +was, as it happened, extremely favourable to the Emperor. +In each of the two German kingdoms with +which he had first to deal, the power had passed +within those six years into the hands of a weak and +incapable sovereign. In Africa, Hilderic, the king +of the Vandals, had been dethroned by his cousin +Gelimer, a warlike and ambitious, but very incapable, +ruler. In Italy, Theodoric, the great king of the Ostrogoths, +had died in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 526, and his grandson and +successor, Athalaric, in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 533. After the death of the +young Athalaric, the kingdom fell to his mother, +Amalasuntha, and she, compelled by Gothic public +<pb n='082'/><anchor id='Pg082'/> +opinion to take a husband to rule in her behalf, had +unwisely wedded Theodahat, her nearest kinsman. +He was cruel, scheming, and suspicious, and murdered +his wife, within a year of her having brought +him the kingdom of Italy as a dowry.<note place='foot'>The murder of Amalasuntha took place <emph>after</emph> the Roman invasion +of Africa; but Theodahat was already on the throne when the Vandal +war was proceeding.</note> Cowardly +and avaricious as well as ungrateful, Theodahat possessed +exactly those vices which were most suited to +make him the scorn of his warlike subjects; he could +count neither on their loyalty nor their respect in the +event of a war. +</p> + +<p> +Both the Vandals in Africa and the Goths in Italy +were at this time so weak as to invite an attack by +an enterprising neighbour. They had, in fact, conquered +larger realms than their limited numbers were +really able to control. The original tribal hordes +which had subdued Africa and Italy were composed +of fifty or sixty thousand warriors, with their wives +and children. Now such a body concentrated on one +spot was powerful enough to bear down everything +before it. But when the conquerors spread themselves +abroad, they were but a sprinkling among the +millions of provincials whom they had to govern. In +all Italy there were probably but three cities—Ravenna, +Verona, and Pavia—in which the Ostrogoths +formed a large proportion of the population. A great +army makes but a small nation, and the Goths and Vandals +were too few to occupy such wide tracts as Italy +and Africa. They formed merely a small aristocracy, +governing by dint of the ascendency which their +<pb n='083'/><anchor id='Pg083'/> +fathers had won over the minds of the unwarlike +populations which they had subdued. The only +chance for the survival of the Ostrogothic and Vandal +monarchies lay in the possibility of their amalgamating +with the Roman provincial population, as +the Franks, under more favourable circumstances, +did with the conquered inhabitants of Gaul. This +was seen by Theodoric, the great conqueror of Italy; +and he did his best to reconcile Goth and Roman, +held the balance with strict justice between the two, +and employed Romans as well as Goths in the government +of the country. But one generation does little +to assuage old hatreds such as that between the conquerors +and the conquered in Italy. Theodoric was +succeeded by a child, and then by a ruffian, and his +work ended with him. Even he was unable to strike +at the most fatal difference of all between his countrymen +and the Italians. The Goths were Arians, having +been converted to Christianity in the fourth century +by missionaries who held the Arian heresy. Their +subjects, on the other hand, were Orthodox Catholics, +almost without exception. When religious hatred +was added to race hatred, there was hardly any hope +of welding together the two nationalities. +</p> + +<p> +Another source of weakness in the kingdoms of +Africa and Italy must be noted. The Vandals of the +third generation and the Goths of the second, after +their settlement in the south, seem to have degenerated +in courage and stamina. It may be that the climate +was unfavourable to races reared in the Danube lands; +it may be that the temptations of unlimited luxury +offered by Roman civilization sufficed to demoralize +<pb n='084'/><anchor id='Pg084'/> +them. A Gothic sage observed at the time that <q>the +Goth, when rich, tends to become Roman in his +habits; the Roman, when poor, Gothic in his.</q> +There was truth in this saying, and the result of the +change was ominous for the permanence of the kingdom +of Italy. If the masters softened and the subjects +hardened, they would not preserve for ever their +respective positions. +</p> + +<p> +The case of the kingdom of Africa was infinitely +worse than that of the kingdom of Italy. The Vandals +were less numerous than the Goths, in proportion +to their subjects; they were not merely heretics, but +fanatical and persecuting heretics, which the Goths +were not. Moreover, they had never had at their +head a great organizer and administrator like Theodoric, +but only a succession of turbulent princes of +the Viking type, fit for war and nothing else. +</p> + +<p> +Justinian declared war on King Gelimer the moment +that he had made peace with Persia, using as +his <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>casus belli</foreign>, not a definite re-assertion of the claim +of the empire over Africa—for such language would +have provoked the rulers of Italy and Spain to join +the Vandals, but the fact that Gelimer had wrongfully +deposed Hilderic, the Emperor's ally. In July, +533, Belisarius, who was now at the height of his +favour for his successful suppression of the <q>Nika</q> +rioters, sailed from the Bosphorus with an army of +10,000 foot and 5,000 horse. He was accompanied, +luckily for history, by his secretary, Procopius, a very +capable writer, who has left a full account of his +master's campaigns. Belisarius landed at Tripoli, at the +extreme eastern limit of the Vandal power. The town +<pb n='085'/><anchor id='Pg085'/> +was at once betrayed to him by its Roman inhabitants. +From thence he advanced cautiously along the coast, +meeting with no opposition; for the incapable Gelimer +had been caught unprepared, and was still engaged +in calling in his scattered warriors. It was not +till he had approached within ten miles of Carthage +that Belisarius was attacked by the Vandals. After +a hard struggle he defeated them, and the city fell +into his hands next clay. The provincials were delighted +at the rout of their masters, and welcomed +the imperial army with joy; there was neither riot +nor pillage, and Carthage had not the aspect of a +conquered town. +</p> + +<p> +Calling up his last reserves, Gelimer made one more +attempt to try the fortunes of war. He advanced on +Carthage, and was met by Belisarius at Tricameron, +on the road to Bulla. Again the day went against +him; his army broke up, his last fortresses threw +open their gates, and there was an end of the Vandal +kingdom. It had existed just 104 years, since +Genseric entered Africa in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 429. +</p> + +<p> +Gelimer took refuge for a time with the Moorish +tribes who dwelt in the fastnesses of Mount Atlas. +But ere long he resolved to surrender himself to +Belisarius, whose humanity was as well known as his +courage. He sent to Carthage to say that he was +about to give himself up, and—so the story goes—asked +but for three things: a harp, to which to +chant a dirge he had written on the fate of himself +and the Vandal race; a sponge, to wipe away his +tears; and a loaf, a delicacy he had not tasted ever +since he had been forced to partake of the unsavoury +<pb n='086'/><anchor id='Pg086'/> +food of the Moors! Belisarius received Gelimer with +kindness, and took him to Constantinople, along with +the treasures of the palace of Carthage, which included +many of the spoils of Rome captured by the +Vandals eighty-six years before, when they sacked +the imperial city, in 453. It is said that among these +spoils were some of the golden vessels of the Temple +at Jerusalem, which Titus had brought in triumph to +Rome, and which Gaiseric had carried from Rome to +Carthage. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-13.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Cavalry Scouts. (<hi rend='italic'>From a Byzantine MS.</hi>) +<hi rend='italic'>Reproduced from "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. +Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi></head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The triumphal entry of Belisarius into Constantinople +with his captives and his spoils, encouraged +Justinian to order instant preparations for an attack +on the second German kingdom, on his western +frontier. He declared war on the wretched King +Theodahat in the summer of <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 435, using as his +pretext the murder of Queen Amalasuntha, whom, +as we have already said, her ungrateful spouse had +<pb n='087'/><anchor id='Pg087'/> +first imprisoned and then strangled within a year of +their marriage. +</p> + +<p> +The king of the Goths, whether he was conscience-stricken +or merely cowardly, showed the greatest +terror at the declaration of war. He even wrote to +Constantinople offering to resign his crown, if the +Emperor would guarantee his life and his private +property. Meanwhile he consulted soothsayers and +magicians about his prospects, for he was as superstitious +as he was incompetent. Procopius tells us +a strange tale of the doings of a Jewish magician of +note, to whom Theodahat applied. He took thirty +pigs—to represent unclean Gentiles, we must suppose—and +penned them in three styes, ten in each. +The one part he called <q>Goths,</q> the second <q>Italians,</q> +and the third <q>Imperialists.</q> He left the beasts +without food or water for ten days, and bade the king +visit them at the end of that time, and take augury +from their condition. When Theodahat looked in he +found all but two of the <q>Goth</q> pigs dead, and half of +the <q>Italians,</q> but the <q>Imperialists,</q> though gaunt +and wasted, were all, or almost all, alive. This portent +the Jew expounded as meaning that at the end +of the approaching war the Gothic race would be exterminated +and their Italian subjects terribly thinned, +while the Imperial troops would conquer, though with +toil and difficult. +</p> + +<p> +While Theodahat was busying himself with portents, +actual war had broken out on the Illyrian +frontier between the Goths and the governor of Dalmatia. +There was no use in making further offers to +Justinian, and the king of Italy had to face the situation +as best he could. +</p> + +<pb n='088'/><anchor id='Pg088'/> + +<p> +In the summer of 535, Belisarius landed in Sicily, +with an even smaller army than had been given him +to conquer Africa—only 3,000 Roman troops, all +Isaurians, and 4,500 barbarian auxiliaries of different +sorts. Belisarius' first campaign was as fortunate as +had been that which he had waged against Gelimer. +All the Sicilian towns threw open their gates except +Palermo, where there was a considerable Gothic garrison, +and Palermo fell after a short siege. In six +months the whole island was in the hands of +Belisarius. +</p> + +<p> +Theodahat seemed incapable of defending himself; +he fell into a condition of abject helplessness, which +so provoked his warlike subjects, that when the news +came that Belisarius had crossed over into Italy and +taken Rhegium, they rose and slew him. In his stead +the army of the Goths elected as their king Witiges, a +middle-aged warrior, well known for personal courage +and integrity, but quite incompetent to face the impending +storm. +</p> + +<p> +After the fall of Rhegium, Belisarius marched +rapidly on Naples, meeting no opposition; for the +Goths were very thinly scattered through Southern +Italy, and had not even enough men to garrison the +Lucanian and Calabrian fortresses. Naples was +taken by surprise, the Imperialists finding their way +within the walls by crawling up a disused aqueduct. +After this important conquest, Belisarius made for +Rome, though his forces were reduced to a mere +handful by the necessity of leaving garrisons in his +late conquests. King Witiges made no effort to obstruct +his approach. He had received news that the Franks +<pb n='089'/><anchor id='Pg089'/> +were threatening an evasion of Northern Italy, and +went north to oppose an imaginary danger in the +Alps, when he should have been defending the line +of the Tiber. Having staved off the danger of a +Frankish war by ceding Provence to King Theuderic, +Witiges turned back, only to learn that Rome was +now in the hands of the enemy. The troops of Leudaris, +the Gothic general, who had been left with +4,000 men to defend the city, had been struck with +panic at the approach of Belisarius, and were cowardly +and idiotic enough to evacuate it without striking a +blow. Five thousand men had sufficed to seize the +ancient capital of the world! [December, 536.] +</p> + +<p> +Next spring King Witiges came down with the +main army of the Goths—more than 100,000 strong—and +laid siege to Rome. The defence of the town +by Belisarius and his very inadequate garrison forms +the most interesting episode in the Italian war. For +more than a year the Ostrogoths lay before its walls, +essaying every device to force an entry. They tried +open storm; they endeavoured to bribe traitors within +the city; they strove to creep along the bed of a disused +aqueduct, as Belisarius had done a year before +at Naples. All was in vain, though the besiegers +outnumbered the garrison twenty-fold, and exposed +their lives with the same recklessness that their ancestors +had shown in the invasion of the empire a +hundred years back. The scene best remembered in +the siege was the simultaneous assault on five points +in the wall, on the 21st of March, 537. Three of the +attacks were beaten back with ease; but near the +Prænestine Gate, at the south-east of the city, one +<pb n='090'/><anchor id='Pg090'/> +storming party actually forced its way within the walls, +and had to be beaten out by sheer hard fighting; and +at the mausoleum of Hadrian, on the north-west, +another spirited combat took place. Hadrian's tomb—a +great quadrangular structure of white marble, +300 feet square and 85 feet high—was surmounted +by one of the most magnificent collections of statuary +in ancient Rome, including four great equestrian +statues of emperors at its corners. The Goths, with +their ladders, swarmed at the foot of the tomb in such +numbers, that the arrows and darts of the defenders +were insufficient to beat them back. Then, as a last +resource, the Imperialists tore down the scores of +statues which adorned the mausoleum, and crushed +the mass of assailants beneath a rain of marble fragments. +Two famous antiques, that form the pride of +modern galleries—the <q>Dancing Faun</q> at Florence, +and the <q>Barberini Faun</q> at Munich—were found, a +thousand years later, buried in the ditch of the tomb +of Hadrian, and must have been among the missiles +employed against the Goths. The rough usage which +they then received proved the means of preserving +them for the admiration of the modern world. +</p> + +<p> +A year and nine days after he had formed the siege +of Rome, the unlucky Witiges had to abandon it. +His army, reduced by sword and famine, had given +up all hope of success, and news had just arrived that +the Imperialists had launched a new army against +Ravenna, the Gothic capital. Belisarius, indeed, had +just received a reinforcement of 6,000 or 7,000 men, +and had wisely sent a considerable force, under an +officer named John, to fall on the Adriatic coast. +</p> + +<pb n='091'/><anchor id='Pg091'/> + +<p> +The scene of the war was now transported further +to the north; but its character still remained the same. +The Romans gained territory, the Goths lost it. +Firmly fixed at Ancona and Rimini and Osimo, Belisarius +gradually forced his way nearer to Ravenna, +and, in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 540 laid siege to it. Witiges, blockaded +by Belisarius in his capital, made no such skilful +defence as did his rival at Rome three years before. +To add to his troubles, the Franks came down into +Northern Italy, and threatened to conquer the valley +of the Po, the last Gothic stronghold. Witiges then +made proposals for submission; but Belisarius refused +to grant any terms other than unconditional surrender, +though his master Justinian was ready to +acknowledge Witiges as vassal-king in Trans-Padane +Italy. Famine drove Ravenna to open its gates, and +the Goths, enraged at their imbecile king, and struck +with admiration for the courage and generosity of Belisarius, +offered to make their conqueror Emperor of +the West. The loyal general refused; but bade the +Goths disperse each to his home, and dwell peaceably +for the future as subjects of the empire. [May, 540 +<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>] He himself, taking the great Gothic treasure-hoard +from the palace of Theodoric, and the captive +Witiges, sailed for Constantinople, and laid his +trophies at his master's feet. +</p> + +<p> +Italy now seemed even as Africa; only Pavia and +Verona were still held by Gothic garrisons, and when +he sailed home, Belisarius deemed his work so nearly +done, that his lieutenants would suffice to crush out +the last embers of the strife. He himself was required +in the East, for a new Persian war with Chosroësroës, +<pb n='092'/><anchor id='Pg092'/> +son of Kobad, was on the eve of breaking out. +But things were not destined to end so. At the last +moment the Goths found a king and a hero to rescue +them, and the conquest of Italy was destined to be +deferred for twelve years more. Two ephemeral +rulers reigned for a few months at Pavia, and came +to bloody ends; but their successor was Baduila,<note place='foot'>The king's real name was Baduila, as shown on his coins, and +recorded by some historians, but Imperialist writers always call him +Totila, which seems to have been a nickname.</note> the +noblest character of the sixth century—<q>the first +knight of the Middle Ages,</q> as he has been called. +When the generals of Justinian marched against +him, to finish the war by the capture of Verona and +Pavia, he won over them the first victory that the Goths +had obtained since their enemies landed in Italy. This +was followed by two more successes; the scattered +armies of Witiges rallied round the banner of the +new king, and at once the cities of Central and +Southern Italy began to fall back into Gothic hands, +with the same rapidity with which they had yielded +to Belisarius. The fact was, that the war had been +a cruel strain on the Italians, and that the imperial +governors, and still more their fiscal agents, or <q>logothetes,</q> +had become unbearably oppressive. Italy +had lived through the fit of enthusiasm with which it +had received the armies of Justinian, and was now +regretting the days of Theodoric as a long-lost golden +age. Most of its cities were soon in Baduila's hands; +the Imperialists retained only the districts round Rome, +Naples, Otranto, and Ravenna. Of Naples they were +soon deprived. [<hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> 543.] Baduila invested it, and +<pb n='093'/><anchor id='Pg093'/> +ere long constrained it to surrender. He treated the +inhabitants with a kindness and consideration which +no Roman general, except Belisarius, had ever displayed. +A speech which he delivered to his generals +soon after this success deserves a record, as showing +the character of the man. A Gothic warrior had +been convicted of violating the daughter of a Roman. +Baduila condemned him to death. His officers came +round him to plead for the soldier's life. He answered +them that they must choose that day whether +they preferred to save one man's life or the life of the +Gothic race. At the beginning of the war, as they +knew well, the Goths had brave soldiers, famous +generals, countless treasure, horses, weapons, and all +the forts of Italy. And yet under Theodahat—a +man who loved gold better than justice—they had so +angered God by their unrighteous lives, that all the +troubles of the last ten years had come upon them. +Now God seemed to have avenged Himself on them +enough. He had begun a new course with them, and +they must begin a new course with Him, and justice +was the only path. As for the present criminal being +a valiant hero, let them know that the unjust man +and the ravisher was never brave in fight; but that, +according to a man's life, such was his luck in battle. +</p> + +<p> +Such was the justice of Baduila; and it seemed as +if his dream was about to come true, and that the +regenerate Goths would win back all that they had +lost. Ere long he was at the gates of Rome, prepared +to essay, with 15,000 men, what Witiges had failed +to do with 100,000. Lest all his Italian conquests +should be lost, Justinian was obliged to send back +<pb n='094'/><anchor id='Pg094'/> +Belisarius, for no one else could hold back the Goths. +But Belisarius was ill-supplied with men; he had +fallen into disfavour at Court, and the imperial +ministers stinted him of troops and money. Unable +to relieve Rome, he had to wait at Portus, by the +mouth of the Tiber, watching for a chance to enter +the city. That chance he never got. The famine-stricken +Romans, angry with the cruel and avaricious +Bessas, who commanded the garrison, began to long +for the victory of their enemy; and one night some +traitors opened the Asinarian Gate, and let in Baduila +and his Goths. The King thought that his +troubles were over; he assembled his chiefs, and bade +them observe how, in the time of Witiges, 7,000 +Greeks had conquered, and robbed of kingdom and +liberty, 100,000 well-armed Goths. But now that +they were few, poor, and wretched, the Goths had +conquered more than 20,000 of the enemy. And +why? Because of old they looked to anything rather +than justice: they had sinned against each other and +the Romans. Therefore they must choose henceforth, +and be just men and have God with them, or +unjust and have God against them. +</p> + +<p> +Baduila had determined to do that which no general +since Hannibal had contemplated: he would destroy +Rome, and with it all the traditions of the world-empire +of the ancient city—to him they seemed but +snares, tending to corrupt the mind of the Goths. +The people he sent away unharmed—they were but a +few thousand left after the horrors of the famine during +the siege. But he broke down the walls, and dismantled +the palaces and arsenals. For a few weeks +<pb n='095'/><anchor id='Pg095'/> +Rome was a deserted city, given up to the wolf and +the owl [<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 550]. +</p> + +<p> +For eleven unquiet years, Baduila, the brave and +just, ruled Italy, holding his own against Belisarius, till +the great general was called home by some wretched +court intrigue. But presently Justinian gathered +another army, more numerous than any that Belisarius +had led, and sent it to Italy, under the command +of the eunuch Narses. It was a strange choice +that made the chamberlain into a general; but it +succeeded. Narses marched round the head of the +Adriatic, and invaded Italy from the north. Baduila +went forth to meet him at Tagina, in the Apennines. +For a long day the Ostrogothic knights rode +again and again into the Imperialist ranks; but all +their furious charges failed. At evening they reeled +back broken, and their king received a mortal wound +in the flight [<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 553]. +</p> + +<p> +With the death of Baduila, it was all up with the +Goths; their hero's knightly courage and kingly +righteousness had not sufficed to save them from the +same doom which had overtaken the Vandals. The +broken army made one last stand in Campania, under +a chief named Teia; but he was slain in battle at +Nuceria, and then the Goths surrendered. They +told Narses that the hand of God was against them; +they would quit Italy, and go back to dwell in the +north, in the land of their fathers. So the poor +remnant of the conquering Ostrogoths marched off, +crossed the Po and the Alps, and passed away into +oblivion in the northern darkness. The scheme of +Justinian was complete. Italy was his; but an Italy +<pb n='096'/><anchor id='Pg096'/> +so wasted and depopulated, that the traces of the +ancient Roman rule had almost vanished. <q>The +land,</q> says a contemporary chronicler, <q>was reduced +to primeval solitude</q>—war and famine had swept it +bare. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-14.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Details Of St. Sophia.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +It is strange to find that the Emperor was not tired +out by waging this desperate war with the Goths; +the moment it ended he began to essay another +western conquest. There was civil war in Spain, +and, taking advantage of it, Liberius, governor of +Africa, landed in Andalusia, and rapidly took the +great towns of the south of the peninsula—Cordova, +<pb n='097'/><anchor id='Pg097'/> +Cartagena, Malaga, and Cadiz. The factious Visigoths +then dropped their strife, united in arms under +King Athangild, and checked the further progress of +the imperial arms. But a long slip of the lost territory +was not recovered by them. Justinian and his +successors, down to <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 623, reigned over the greater +part of the sea-coast of Southern Spain. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='098'/><anchor id='Pg098'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>VIII. The End Of Justinian's Reign.</head> + +<p> +The slackness with which the generals of Justinian +prosecuted the Gothic war in the period between the +triumph of Belisarius at Ravenna in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 540, and +the final conquest of Italy in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 553, is mainly to +be explained by the fact that, just at the moment of +the fall of Ravenna, the empire became involved in +a new struggle with its great Eastern neighbour. +Chosroës of Persia was seriously alarmed at the +African and Italian conquests of Justinian, and +remembered that he too, as well as the Vandals and +Goths, was in possession of provinces that had +formerly been Roman, and might one day be reclaimed +by the Emperor. He determined to strike +before Justinian had got free from his Italian war, +and while the flower of the Roman army was still in +the West. Using as his pretext for war some petty +quarrels between two tribes of Arabs, subject respectively +to Persia and the empire, he declared war +in the spring of <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 540. Justinian, as the king +had hoped, was caught unprepared: the army of the +Euphrates was so weak that it never dared face the +<pb n='099'/><anchor id='Pg099'/> +Persians in the field, and the opening of the war was +fraught with such a disaster to the empire as had +not been known since the battle of Adrianople, more +than a hundred and sixty years before. Avoiding +the fortresses of Mesopotamia, Chosroës, who led his +army in person, burst into Northern Syria. His +main object was to strike a blow at Antioch, the +metropolis of the East, a rich city that had not seen +an enemy for nearly three centuries, and was +reckoned safe from all attacks owing to its distance +from the frontier. Antioch had a strong garrison of +6,000 men and the <q>Blues</q> and <q>Greens</q> of its +circus factions had taken arms to support the regular +troops. But the commander was incompetent, and +the fortifications had been somewhat neglected of +late. After a sharp struggle, Chosroës took the town +by assault; the garrison cut its way out, and many of +the inhabitants escaped with it, but the city was +sacked from cellar to garret and thousands of +captives were dragged away by the Persians. +Chosroës planted them by the Euphrates—as +Nebuchadnezzar had done of old with the Jews—and +built for them a city which he called Chosroantiocheia, +blending his own name with that of their +ancient abode. +</p> + +<p> +This horrible disaster to the second city of the +Roman East roused all Justinian's energy; neglecting +the Italian war, he sent all his disposable troops +to the Euphrates frontier, and named Belisarius +himself as the chief commander. After this, Chosroës +won no such successes as had distinguished his first +campaign. Having commenced an attack on the +<pb n='100'/><anchor id='Pg100'/> +Roman border fortresses in Colchis, far to the north, +he was drawn home by the news that Belisarius had +invaded Assyria and was besieging Nisibis. On the +approach of the king the imperial general retired, +but his manœuvre had cost the Persian the fruits of +a whole summer's preparation, and the year <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 541 +ended without serious fighting. In the next spring +very similar operations followed: Belisarius defended +the line of the Euphrates with success, and the +invaders retired after having reduced one single +Mesopotamian fortress. The war lingered for two +years more, till Chosroës, disgusted at the ill-success +of all his efforts since his first success at Antioch, +and more especially humiliated by a bloody repulse +from the walls of Edessa, consented to treat for +peace [<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 545]. He gave up his conquests—which +were of small importance—but regarded the honours +of the war as being his own, because Justinian +consented to pay him 2,000 lbs. of gold [£108,000] +on the ratification of the treaty. One curious clause +was inserted in the document—though hostilities +ceased everywhere else, the rights of the two +monarchs to the suzerainty of the kingdom of +Lazica, on the Colchian frontier, hard by the Black +Sea, were left undefined. For no less than seven +years a sort of by-war was maintained in this small +district, while peace prevailed on all other points of +the Perso-Roman frontier. It was not till <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 556, +after both parties had wasted much treasure and +many men on the unprofitable contest, that Chosroës +resigned the attempt to hold the small and rugged +mountain kingdom of the Lazi, and resigned it to +<pb n='101'/><anchor id='Pg101'/> +Justinian on the promise of an annual grant of +£18,000 as compensation money. +</p> + +<p> +But although Justinian had brought his second +Persian war to a not unsuccessful end, the empire +had come badly out of the struggle, and was by +556 falling into a condition of incipient disorder and +decay. This was partly caused by the reckless +financial expedients of the Emperor, who taxed the +provinces with unexampled rigour while forced to +maintain at once a Persian and an Italian war. +</p> + +<p> +The main part of the damage, however, was +wrought by other than human means. In <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 542 +there broke out in the empire a plague such as had +not been known for three hundred years—the last +similar visitation had fallen in the reign of Trebonianus +Gallus, far back in the third century. This +pestilence was one of the epoch-making events in +the history of the empire, as great a landmark as the +Black Death in the history of England. The details +which Procopius gives us concerning its progress and +results leave no doubt that it operated more powerfully +than any other factor in that weakening of the +empire which is noticeable in the second half of the +sixth century. When it reached Constantinople, +5,000 persons a day are said to have fallen victims +to it. All customary occupations ceased in the city, +and the market-place was empty save for corpse-bearers. +In many houses not a single soul remained +alive, and the government had to take special +measures for the burial of neglected corpses. <q>The +disease,</q> says the chronicler, <q>did not attack any +particular race or class of men, nor prevail in any +<pb n='102'/><anchor id='Pg102'/> +particular region, nor confine itself to any period of +the year. Summer or winter, North or South, Greek +or Arabian, washed or unwashed—of such distinctions +the plague took no account. A man might climb to +the hill-top, and it was there; he might retire to the +depths of a cavern, and it was there also.</q> The +only marked characteristic of its ravages that the +chronicler could find was that, <q>whether by chance +or providential design, it strictly spared the most +wicked.</q><note place='foot'>Bury's <q>Later Roman Empire,</q> i. 402.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Justinian himself fell ill of the plague: he recovered, +but was never his old self again. Though +he persevered inflexibly to his last day in his scheme +for the reconquest of the empire, yet he seems to +have declined in energy, and more especially to have +lost that power of organization, which had been his +most marked characteristic. The chroniclers complain +that he had grown less hopeful and less +masterful. <q>After achieving so much in the days +of his vigour, when he entered into the last stage +of his life he seemed to weary of his labours, and +preferred to create discord among his foes or to +mollify them with gifts, instead of trusting to his +arms and facing the dangers of war. So he allowed +his troops to decline in numbers, because he did not +expect to require their services. And his ministers, +who collected his taxes and maintained his armies +were affected with the same indifference.</q><note place='foot'>Agathias.</note> +</p> + +<p> +One feature of the Emperor's later years was that +he took more and more interest in theological +<pb n='103'/><anchor id='Pg103'/> +disputes, even to the neglect of State business. The +Church question of the day was the dispute on +Monophysitism, the heresy which denied the existence +both of a human and a divine nature in Our Lord. +Justinian was not a monophysite himself, but wished +to unify the sect with the main body of the Church +by edicts of comprehension, which forbade the +discussion of the subject, and spent much trouble +in coercing prelates orthodox and heretical into a +reconciliation which had no chance of permanent +success. His chief difficulty was with the bishops +of Rome. He forced Pope Vigilius to come to +Constantinople, and kept him under constraint for +many months, till he signed all that was required of +him [<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 554]. The only result was to win Vigilius +the reputation of a heretic, and to cause a growing +estrangement between East and West. +</p> + +<p> +The gloom of Justinian's later years was even more +marked after the death of his wife; Theodora died +in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 548, six years after the great plague, and it +may be that her loss was no less a cause of the +diminished energy of his later years than was his +enfeebled health. Her bold and adventurous spirit +must have buoyed him up in many of the more +difficult enterprises of the first half of his reign. +After her death, Justinian seems to have trusted no +one: his destined successor, Justinus, son of his +sister, was kept in the background, and no great +minister seems to have possessed his confidence. +Even Belisarius, the first and most loyal soldier of +the empire, does not appear to have been trusted: in +the second Gothic war the Emperor stinted him of +<pb n='104'/><anchor id='Pg104'/> +troops and hampered him with colleagues. At last +he was recalled [<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 549] and sent into private life, +from which he was only recalled on the occurrence +of a sudden military crisis in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 558. +</p> + +<p> +This crisis was a striking example of the mismanagement +of Justinian's later years. A nomad +horde from the South Russian steppes, the Cotrigur +Huns, had crossed the frozen Danube at mid-winter, +when hostilities were least expected, and thrown +themselves on the Thracian provinces. The empire +had 150,000 men under arms at the moment, but +they were all dispersed abroad, many in Italy, others +in Africa, others in Spain, others in Colchis, some in +the Thebaid, and a few on the Mesopotamian frontier. +There was such a dearth of men to defend the home +provinces that the barbarians rode unhindered over +the whole country side from the Danube to the +Propontis plundering and burning. One body, only +7,000 strong, came up to within a few miles of the +city gates, and inspired such fear that the Constantinopolitans +began to send their money and +church-plate over to Asia. Justinian then summoned +Belisarius from his retirement, and placed him in +command of what troops there were available—a +single regiment of 300 veterans from Italy, and +the <q>Scholarian guards,</q> a body of local troops +3,500 strong, raised in the city and entrusted with +the charge of its gates, which inspired little confidence +as its members were allowed to practice their +trades and avocations and only called out in rotation +for occasional service. With this undisciplined force, +which had never seen war, at his back, Belisarius +<pb n='105'/><anchor id='Pg105'/> +contrived to beat off the Huns. He led them to +pursue him back to a carefully prepared position, +where the only point that could be attacked was +covered with woods and hedges on either side. The +untrustworthy <q>Scholarians</q> were placed on the +flanks, where they could not be seriously molested, +while the 300 Italian veterans covered the one +vulnerable point. The Huns attacked, were shot +down from the woods and beaten off in front, and +fled leaving 400 men on the field, while the Romans +only lost a few wounded and not a single soldier +slain. Thus the last military exploit of Belisarius +preserved the suburbs of the imperial city itself from +molestation; after defending Old Rome in his prime, +he saved New Rome in his old age. +</p> + +<p> +Even this last service did not prevent Justinian +from viewing his great servant with suspicion. Four +years later an obscure conspiracy against his life was +discovered, and one of the conspirators named Belisarius +as being privy to the plot. The old emperor +affected to believe the accusation, sequestrated the +general's property, and kept him under surveillance +for eight months. Belisarius was then acquitted and +restored to favour: he lived two years longer, and +died in March, 565.<note place='foot'>It is comforting to know that the popular legend which tells how +the great general lived in poverty and disgrace, begging the passer-by +<q>dare obolum Belisario,</q> and dying in the streets, is untrue. But +the suspicious emperor's conduct was quite unpardonable.</note> The ungrateful master whom +he had served so well followed him to the grave nine +months later. +</p> + +<milestone unit='tb' rend='rule: 50%'/> + +<p> +Of Justinian as conqueror and governor we have +<pb n='106'/><anchor id='Pg106'/> +said much. But there remain two more aspects of +his life which deserve notice—his work as a builder +and his codification of the laws. From the days of +Diocletian the style of architecture which we call +Byzantine, for want of a better name, had been +slowly developing from the old classic forms, and +many of the emperors of the fourth and fifth centuries +had been given to building. But no previous +monarch had combined in such a degree as did +Justinian the will and the power to launch out into +architectural experiments. He had at his disposal +the hoarded treasures of Anastasius, and his tastes +were as magnificent as those of the great builders of +the early empire, Augustus and Nero and Hadrian. +All over the empire the monuments of his wealth and +taste were seen in dozens of churches, halls of justice, +monasteries, forts, hospitals, and colonnades. The +historian Procopius was able to compose a considerable +volume entirely on the subject of Justinian's buildings, +and numbers of them survive, some perfect and more +in ruins, to witness to the accuracy of the work. Even +in the more secluded or outlying portions of the +empire, any fine building that is found is, in two cases +out of three, one of the works of Justinian. Not merely +great centres like Constantinople or Jerusalem, but +out-of-the-way tracts in Cappadocia and Isauria, are +full of his buildings. Even in the newly-conquered +Ravenna his great churches of San Vitale, containing +the celebrated mosaic portraits of himself and his +wife, and of St. Apollinare in the suburb of Classis, +outshine the older works of the fifth-century emperors +and of the Goth Theodoric. +</p> + +<pb n='107'/><anchor id='Pg107'/> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-15.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Columns In St. Sophia.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-16.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Galleries Of St. Sophia.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Justinian's churches, indeed, are the best known of +his buildings. In Oriental church-architecture his +reign forms a landmark: up to his time Christian +architects had still been using two patterns copied +straight from Old Roman models. The first was the +round domed church, whose origin can be traced back to +such Roman originals as the celebrated Temple of +Vesta—of such the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at +Rome may serve as a type. The second was the +rectangular church with apses, which was nothing +more than an adaptation for ecclesiastical purposes +of the Old Roman law-courts, and which had borrowed +from them its name of <foreign rend='italic'>Basilica</foreign>. St. Paul's +Outside the Walls, at Rome is a fair specimen. Justinian +brought into use for the first time on a large +scale the combination of a cruciform ground-plan and +a very large dome. The famous Church of St. Sophia +may serve as the type of this style. The great +cathedral of Constantinople had already been burnt +down twice, as we have had occasion to relate: the +first time on the eve of the banishment of John +Chrysostom, the second in the great <q>Nika</q> riot of +532. Within forty days of its destruction Justinian +had commenced preparations for rebuilding it as a +monument of his triumph in the civil strife. He +chose as his architect Anthemius of Tralles, the +greatest of Byzantine builders, and one of the few +whose names have survived. The third church was +different in plan from either of its predecessors, showing +the new combination which we have already +specified. It is a Greek cross, 241 feet long and 224 +broad, having in its midst a vast dome, pierced by no +<pb n='109'/><anchor id='Pg109'/> +less than forty windows, light and airy and soaring +180 feet above the floor. In the nave the aisles and +side apses are parted from the main central spaces by +magnificent colonnades of marble pillars, the majority +of <foreign rend='italic'>verde antique</foreign>. These are not for the most part the +work of Justinian's day, but were plundered from the +chief pagan temples of Asia, which served as an +inexhaustible quarry for the Christian builder. The +whole of the interior, both roof and dome, was +covered with gilding or mosaics, which the Vandalism +of the Turks has covered with a coat of +whitewash, to hide the representations of human +forms which are offensive to the Moslems' creed. +Procopius describes the church with enthusiasm, and +his praises are well justified— +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<q>It presents a most glorious spectacle, extraordinary +to those who behold it, and altogether incredible +to those who know it by report only. In height it +rises to the very heavens, and overtops the neighbouring +buildings like a ship anchored among them. It +towers above the city which it adorns, and from it +the whole of Constantinople can be beheld, as from a +watch-tower. Its breadth and length are so judiciously +chosen, that it appears both broad and long +without disproportion. For it excels both in size +and harmony, being more magnificent than ordinary +buildings, and much more elegant than the few which +approach it in size. Within it is singularly full of +light and sunshine; you would declare that the place +is not lighted from without, but that the rays are +produced within itself, such an abundance of light is +<pb n='111'/><anchor id='Pg111'/> +poured into it. The gilded ceiling adds glory to its +interior, though the light reflected upon the gold from +the marble surpasses it in beauty. Who can tell of +the splendour of the columns and marbles with which +the church is adorned? One would think that one +had come upon a meadow full of flowers in bloom—one +wonders at the purple tints of some, the green of +others, the glowing red and glittering white, and +those, too, which nature, like a painter, has marked +with the strongest contrasts of colour. Moreover, it +is impossible accurately to describe the treasures of +gold and silver plate and gems which the Emperor +has presented to the church: the Sanctuary alone +contains forty thousand pounds weight of silver.</q> +</quote> + +<p> +Justinian was almost as great a builder of forts as +of churches, but his military works have for the most +part disappeared. It may give some idea of his +energy in fortifying the frontiers when we state that +the Illyrian provinces alone were protected by 294 +forts, of which Procopius gives a list, disposed in four +successive lines from the Danube back to the Thessalian +hills. Some were single towers, but many were +elaborate fortresses with outworks, and all had to be +protected by garrisons. +</p> + +<p> +Thus much of Justinian as builder: space fails to +enumerate a tithe of his works. Of his great legal +achievement we must speak at even shorter length. +The Roman law, as he received it from his predecessors +was an enormous mass of precedents and +decisions, in which the original basis was overlaid +with the various and sometimes contradictory rescripts +<pb n='112'/><anchor id='Pg112'/> +of five centuries of emperors. Several of his +predecessors, and most especially Theodosius II., had +endeavoured to codify the chaotic mass and reduce it +to order. But no one of them had produced a code +which sufficed to bring the law of the day into full +accord with the spirit of the times. It was no mean +work to bring the ancient legislation of Rome, from +the days of the Twelve Tables down to the days of +Justinian, into strict and logical connection with the +new Christian ideas which had worked their way into +predominance since the days of Constantine. Much +of the old law was hopelessly obsolete, owing to the +change in moral ideas which Christianity had introduced, +but it is still astonishing to see how much of +the old forms of the times of the early empire +survived into the sixth century. Justinian employed +a commission, headed by the clever but unpopular +lawyer Tribonian, to draw up his new code. The +work was done for ever and a day, and his <q>Institutes</q> +and <q>Pandects</q> were the last revision of the +Old Roman laws, and the starting-point of all +systematic legal study in Europe, when, six hundred +years later, the need for something more than customary +folk-right began to make itself felt, as mediæval +civilization evolved itself out of the chaos of the +dark ages. If the Roman Empire had flourished in +the century after Justinian as in that which preceded +him, other revisers of the laws might have produced +compilations that would have made the <q>Institutes</q> +seem out of date. But, as a matter of fact, decay +and chaos followed after Justinian, and succeeding +emperors had neither the need nor the inclination +<pb n='113'/><anchor id='Pg113'/> +to do his work over again. Hence it came to pass +that his name is for ever associated with the last +great revision of Roman law, and that he himself +went down to posterity as the greatest of legislators, +destined to be enthroned by Dante in one +of the starry thrones of his <q>Paradise,</q> and to be +worshipped as the father of law by all the legists of +the Renaissance. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='114'/><anchor id='Pg114'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>IX. The Coming Of The Slavs.</head> + +<p> +The thirty years which followed the death of +Justinian are covered by three reigns, those of +Justinus II. [565-578], Tiberius Constantinus [578-582], +and Maurice [582-602]. These three emperors +were men of much the same character as the predecessors +of Justinian; each of them was an experienced +official of mature age, who was selected by the reigning +emperor as his most worthy successor. Justinus +was the favourite nephew of Justinian, and had served +him for many years as Curopalates, or Master of the +Palace. Tiberius Constantinus was <q>Count of the +Excubiti,</q> a high Court officer in the suite of Justinus: +Maurice again served Tiberius as <q>Count of the +Fœderati,</q> or chief of the Barbarian auxiliaries. They +were all men of capacity, and strove to do their best +for the empire: historians concur in praising the +justice of Justinus, the liberality and humanity of +Tiberius, the piety of Maurice. Yet under them the +empire was steadily going down hill: the exhausting +effects of the reign of Justinian were making themselves +felt more and more, and at the end of the reign +<pb n='115'/><anchor id='Pg115'/> +of Maurice a time of chaos and disaster was impending, +which came to a head under his successor. +</p> + +<p> +The internal causes of the disaster of this time were +the weakening of the empire by the great plague of +544 and still more by the grinding exactions of +Justinian's financial system. Its external phenomena +were invasions by new hordes from the north, combined +with long and exhausting wars with Persia. +The virtues of the emperors seem to have helped +them little: Justin's justice made him feared rather +than loved; Tiberius's liberality rendered him popular, +but drained the treasury; Maurice, on the other hand, +who was economical and endeavoured to fill the +coffers which his predecessors had emptied, was therefore +universally condemned as avaricious. +</p> + +<p> +The troubles on the frontier which vexed the last +thirty years of the sixth century were due to three +separate sets of enemies—the Lombards in Italy, the +Slavs and Avars in the Balkan Peninsula, and the +Persians in the East. +</p> + +<p> +The empire held undisputed possession of Italy for +no more than fifteen years after the expulsion of the +Ostrogoths in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 553. Then a new enemy came in +from the north, following the same path that had +already served for the Visigoths of Alaric and the +Ostrogoths of Theodoric. The new-comers were the +race of the Lombards, who had hitherto dwelt in +Hungary, on the Middle Danube, and had more frequently +been found as friends than as foes of the +Romans. But their warlike and ambitious King +Alboin, having subdued all his nearer neighbours, +began to covet the fertile plains of Italy, where +<pb n='116'/><anchor id='Pg116'/> +he saw the emperors keeping a very inadequate +garrison, now that the Ostrogoths were finally +driven away. In <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 568 Alboin and his hordes +crossed the Alps, bringing with them wife and child, +and flocks and herds, while their old land on +the Danube was abandoned to the Avars. The +Lombards took possession of the flat country in +the north of Italy, as far as the line of the Po, with +very little difficulty. The region, we are told, was almost +uninhabited owing to the combined effects of the great +plague and the Ostrogothic war. In this once fertile +and populous, but now deserted, lowland, the Lombards +settled down in great numbers. There they have +left their name as the permanent denomination of the +plain of Lombardy. Only one city, the strong fortress +of Pavia, held out against them for long; when it fell +in 571, after a gallant defence of three years, Alboin +made it his capital, instead of choosing one of the +larger and more famous towns of Milan and Verona, +the older centres of life in the land he had conquered. +After subduing Lombardy the king pushed forward +into Etruria, and overran the valley of the Arno. +But in the midst of his wars he was cut off, if the +legend tells us the truth, by the vengeance of his +wife Queen Rosamund. She was the daughter of +Cunimund, King of the Gepidæ, whom Alboin had +slain in battle. The fallen monarch's skull was, by +the victor's orders, mounted in gold and fashioned into +a cup. Long years after, amid the revelry of a drinking +bout, Alboin had the ghastly cup filled with wine, +and bade his wife bear it around to his chosen +warriors. The queen obeyed, but vowed to revenge +<pb n='117'/><anchor id='Pg117'/> +herself by her husband's death. By the sacrifice of her +honour she bribed Alboin's armour-bearer to slay his +master in his bed, and then fled with him to Constantinople +[<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 573]. +</p> + +<p> +But the death of Alboin did not put an end to the +Lombard conquests in Italy. The kingdom, indeed, +broke up for a time into several independent duchies, +but the Lombard chiefs continued to win territory from +the empire. Two of them founded the considerable +duchies of Spoleto and Benevento, the one in Central, +and the other in Southern Italy. These states survived +as independent powers, but the rest of the +Lombard territories were reunited by King Autharis, +in 584, and he and his immediate successors completed +the conquest of Northern Italy. +</p> + +<p> +Thus, during the reigns of Justin, Tiberius II., and +Maurice, the greater part of Justinian's Italian conquests +were lost, and formed once more into Teutonic +states. The emperor retained only two large stretches +of territory, the one in Central Italy, where he held a +broad belt of land, extending right across the peninsula, +from Ravenna and Ancona on the Adriatic, to +Rome on the Tyrrhenian Sea; the other comprehending +the extreme south of the land—the <q>toe</q> and +<q>heel</q> of the Italian boot—and comprising the +territory of Bruttium and the Calabrian<note place='foot'>Calabria is here used in its old sense, meaning South Apulia, and +not the extreme point of Italy down by Reggio and Squillace.</note> towns of +Taranto, Brindisi, and Otranto. Sardinia and Sicily +were also left untouched by the Lombards, who never +succeeded in building a fleet. The Roman territory +which stretched across Central Italy cut the Lombards +<pb n='118'/><anchor id='Pg118'/> +in two, the king ruling the main body of them in +Tuscany and the valley of the Po; while the dukes +of Spoleto and Benevento maintained an isolated +existence in the south. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-17.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Cross Of Justinus II. (<hi rend='italic'>From the Vatican.</hi>) +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin," Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<pb n='119'/><anchor id='Pg119'/> + +<p> +This partition of Italy between the Lombards and +the empire is worth remembering, from the fact +that never again, till our own day, was the whole +peninsula gathered into a single state. Not till 1870, +when the kingdom of United Italy was completed by +the conquest of Rome, did a time come when all the +lands between the Alps and the Straits of Messina +were governed by one ruler. Justinian had no successor +till Victor Emmanuel. +</p> + +<p> +After the Lombard conquest the imperial dominions +in Italy were administered by a governor, called the +Exarch, who dwelt at Ravenna, the northernmost and +strongest of the imperial fortresses. All the Italian +provinces were nominally beneath his control, but, as +a matter of fact, he was only treated with implicit +obedience by those of his subordinates who dwelt in +his own neighbourhood. He found it harder to +enforce his orders at Naples and Reggio, or in the +distant islands of Sicily and Sardinia. But it was the +bishops of Rome who profited most by his absence: +although a <q>duke,</q> a military officer of some importance, +dwelt at Rome, he was from the first overshadowed +by his spiritual neighbour. Even during the +days of the Ostrogoths the Roman bishops had acquired +considerable importance, as being the chief official +representatives of the Italians in dealings with their +Teutonic masters. But they spoke with much more +freedom and weight when they had to do, not with a +King of Italy dwelling quite near them, but with a mere +governor fettered by orders from distant Constantinople. +Gregory the Great [590-604] was the first of +the popes who began to assume an independent attitude +<pb n='120'/><anchor id='Pg120'/> +and to treat the Exarch at Ravenna with scant +ceremony. He was an able and energetic man, who +could not bear to see Rome suffering for want of a +ruler on the spot, and readily took upon himself civil +functions, in spite of the protests of his nominal +superior the Exarch. In 592, for example, he made +a private truce for Rome with the Lombard Duke of +Spoleto, though the latter was at war with the empire. +The Emperor Maurice stormed at him as foolish and +disobedient, but did not venture to depose him, being +too much troubled with Persian and Avaric wars to +send troops against Rome. On another occasion +Gregory nominated a governor for Naples, instead of +leaving the appointment to the Exarch. In 599 he +acted as mediator between the Lombard king and the +government at Ravenna, as if he had been a neutral +and independent sovereign. Although he showed no +wish to sever his connection with the Roman Empire, +Gregory behaved as if he considered the emperor his +suzerain rather than his immediate ruler. He would +never give in on disputed points, issued orders which +contradicted imperial rescripts, and maintained a +bitter quarrel with successive patriarchs of Constantinople, +who possessed the favour of Maurice. When +the patriarch John the Faster took the title of <q>œcumenical +bishop,</q> Gregory wrote to Maurice to tell him +that the presumption of John was a sure sign that the +days of Antichrist were at hand, and to urge him to +repress such pretensions by the force of the civil arm. +This is one of the first signs of the approach of that +mediæval view of the papacy which imagined that +it was the pontiff's duty to censure and advise kings +<pb n='121'/><anchor id='Pg121'/> +and emperors on all possible topics and occasions. +Gregory's immediate successors were not men of +mark, or a breach with the empire might have been +precipitated. The final disavowal of the supremacy +of the Constantinopolitan monarch was to be still +delayed for nearly two hundred years. +</p> + +<p> +The wars between the Exarchs of Ravenna and the +Lombard kings were little influenced by interference +from the East. The emperors during the last thirty +years of the sixth century were far more engrossed +with their Persian and Slavonic wars. Contests with +the Great king of the East occupied no less than +twenty years in the reigns of Justin II., Tiberius, and +Maurice. War was declared in 572, and did not cease +till 592. Like the struggle between Justinian and +Chosroës I., thirty years before, it was wholly +indecisive. There were more plundering raids than +battles, and the frontier provinces of each empire +were reduced to a dreadful state of desolation and +depopulation: if the Persians pushed their ravages as +far as the gates of Antioch, Roman generals penetrated +deep into Media and Corduene, where the +imperial banner had not been seen for two hundred +years. The net result of the whole twenty years of +strife was that each combatant had seriously weakened +and distressed his rival, without obtaining any definite +superiority over him. Forced to make peace by the +pressure of a civil war, Chosroës II. gave back to +Maurice the two frontier cities of Dara and Martyropolis, +the sole trophies of twenty campaigns, and +ceded him a slice of Armenian territory. But these +trivial gains were far from compensating the empire +<pb n='122'/><anchor id='Pg122'/> +for the fearful losses caused by dozens of Persian +invasions. +</p> + +<p> +The Persian war was exhausting, but successful: on +the northern frontier, however, the Roman army had +been faring far worse, and serious losses of territory +were beginning to take place. The enemies in this +quarter were two new tribes, who appeared on the +Danube after the Lombards had departed from it to +commence their invasion of Italy. There were now +no Teutons left on the northern frontier of the empire: +of the incoming tribes, one was Tartar and the other +Slavonic. The Avars were a nomadic race from Asia, +wild horsemen of the Steppes, much like their predecessors +the Huns. They had fled west to escape +the Turks, who were at this time building up an +empire in Central Asia, and betook themselves to the +South Russian plains, not far from the mouth of the +Danube. To cross the river and ravage Moesia was +too tempting a prospect to be neglected, and ere long +the Avaric cavalry were seen only too frequently along +the Balkans and on the coast of the Black Sea. Their +first raid into Roman territory fell into the year 562, +just before the death of Justinian, and from that time +forward they were always causing trouble. They were +ready enough to make peace when money was paid +them, but as they invariably broke the agreement +when the money was spent, it was never long before +they reappeared south of the Danube. +</p> + +<p> +But the Slavs were a far more serious danger to +the empire than the Avars. The latter came only to +plunder, the former—like the Germans two centuries +before—came pressing into the provinces to win themselves +<pb n='123'/><anchor id='Pg123'/> +a new home. The Romans knew at first of +only two tribes of them, the Slovenes and Antae, but +behind these there were others who were gradually to +push their way to the south and make their presence +known—Croats, Servians, and many more. The Slavs +were the easternmost of the Aryan peoples of Europe, +and by far the most backward. They had always lain +behind the Germans, and it was only when the +German barrier was removed by the migration of the +Goths and Lombards that they came into touch +with the empire. They were rude races, far behind +the Teutons in civilization; they had hardly learnt +as yet the simplest arts, knew nothing of defensive +armour, and could only use for boats tree-trunks +hollowed out by fire—like the Australian savages of +to-day. They had not learnt to live under kings or +chiefs, but dwelt in village communities, governed by +the patriarchs of the several families. Their abodes +were mud huts, and they cultivated no grain but +millet. When they went to war they could send out +thousands of spearmen and bowmen, but their wild +bands were not very formidable in the open field. +They could resist neither cavalry nor disciplined +infantry, and were only formidable in woods and defiles, +where they formed ambuscades and endeavoured +to take their enemy by surprise, and overwhelm him +by a sudden rush. We are assured that one of their +favourite devices was to conceal themselves in ponds +or rivers by lying down in the water for hours together, +breathing through reeds, whose points were the only +things visible above the surface. Thus a thousand +men might be concealed, and nothing appear except +<pb n='124'/><anchor id='Pg124'/> +a bed of rushes. This strange stratagem would seem +incredible, if we had not on record one or two occasions +on which it was actually practised. +</p> + +<p> +The Slavs had begun to make themselves felt early +in the sixth century, but it was not till the death of +Justinian that we hear of them as a pressing danger. +But when the Lombards had passed away westward, +they came down to the Danube and began to cross it +in great numbers, in the endeavour to make permanent +settlements on the Roman bank. The raids of the +Slavs and the Avars were curiously complicated, for +the king, or Chagan, of the Tartar tribe had made +vassals of many of his Slavonic neighbours. They, on +the other hand, sometimes acted in obedience to him, +but more frequently tried to escape from his power by +pushing forward into Roman territory. Hence it +comes that we often find Slav and Avar leagued +together, but at other times find them acting +separately, or even in opposition to each other. A +more chaotic series of campaigns it is hard to conceive. +</p> + +<p> +Down to this time the inland of the Balkan peninsula +had been inhabited by Thracian and Illyrian +provincials, of whom the majority spoke the Latin +tongue, though a few still preserved their ancient +barbaric idiom.<note place='foot'>From them the Albanians descend: the Albanian tongue is the only +relic of ancient Illyria.</note> They formed the only large body of +subjects of the empire outside Italy, who still spoke +the old ruling language, and as they were about a +quarter of its population, they did much to preserve its +Roman character, and to prevent it from becoming +<pb n='125'/><anchor id='Pg125'/> +Greek or Asiatic. Their pride in their Latin tongue +was very marked: Justinian, born in the heart of the +district, was fond of laying special stress on the fact +that Latin was his native language. +</p> + +<p> +On this Latinized Thraco-Illyrian population the +invasion of the Slavs and Avars fell with unexampled +severity. The Goths had afflicted them +before, but they, at least, had been Christian +and semi-civilized, while the new-comers were in +the lowest grade of savagery. It is not too much +to say that between 570 and 600 the old population +was almost exterminated over the greater part +of the country north of the Balkans—the modern +Servia and Bulgaria—and very sadly cut down even +in the more sheltered Macedonian and Thracian provinces. +The Latin-speaking provincials almost disappeared: +the only remnants of them were the +Dalmatian islanders and the <q>Vlachs</q> or Wallachians +who are found in later times scattered in +small bodies among the Slavs who had swept over +the whole country-side. The effect of the invasion +is well described by the contemporary chronicler, +John of Ephesus— +</p> + +<p> +<q>The year 581 was famous for the invasion of the +accursed people called Slavonians, who overran Greece +and the country by Thessalonica, and all Thrace, and +captured the cities and took many forts, and devastated +and burnt, and reduced the people to slavery, +and made themselves masters of the whole country, +and settled in it, by main force, and dwelt in it as +though it had been their own. Four years have now +elapsed, and still they live at their ease in the land, +<pb n='126'/><anchor id='Pg126'/> +and spread themselves far and wide, as far as God +permits them, and ravage and burn and take captive, +and still they encamp and dwell there.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The open country was swept bare by the Slavs: the +towns resisted better, for neither Slav nor Avar was +skilled in siege operations. Relying upon the fortified +towns as his base the great general Priscus, whom +Maurice placed in command, was able to keep his +ground along the Danube, and to perform many +gallant exploits. He even crossed the river and +attacked the Slavs and Avars in their own homes +beyond it; but it was to no effect that he burnt their +villages and slew off their warriors. He could not +protect the unarmed population in the open country +within the Roman boundary, and the girdle of +fortresses along the Danube soon covered nothing +but a wasted region, sparsely inhabited by Slavs. +The limit of Roman population had fallen back to +the line of the Balkans, and even to the south of it, +and the Slavs were ever slipping across the Danube +in larger and larger numbers, despite the garrisons +along the river which were still kept up from Singidunum +[Belgrade] to Dorostolum [Silistria]. +</p> + +<p> +The misfortunes of the Avaric and Slavonic war were +the cause of the fall of the Emperor Maurice. He had +won some unpopularity by his manifest inability to +stem the tide of the barbarian invasion, and more by +an act of callousness, of which he was guilty in 599. +The Chagan of the Avars had captured 15,000 +prisoners, and offered to release them for a large +ransom. Maurice—whose treasury was empty—refused +to comply, and the Chagan massacred the +<pb n='127'/><anchor id='Pg127'/> +wretched captives. But the immediate cause of the +emperor's fall was his way of dealing with the army. +He was unpopular with the soldiery, though an old +soldier himself, and did not possess their respect or +confidence. Yet he was an officer of some merit +and had written a long military treatise called the +<q>Strategicon,</q> which was the official handbook of the +imperial armies for three hundred years. +</p> + +<p> +Maurice sealed his fate when, in 602, he issued +orders for the discontented army of the Danube to +winter north of the river, in the waste marshes of the +Slavs. The troops refused to obey the order, and +chased away their generals. Then electing as their +captain an obscure centurion, named Phocas, they +marched on Constantinople. +</p> + +<p> +Maurice armed the city factions, the <q>Blues</q> and +<q>Greens,</q> and strove to defend himself. But when he +saw that no one would fight for him, he fled across the +Bosphorus with his wife and children, to seek refuge +in the Asiatic provinces, where he was less unpopular +than in Europe. Soon he was pursued by orders of +Phocas, whom the army had now saluted as emperor, +and caught at Chalcedon. The cruel usurper had him +executed along with all his five sons, the youngest a +child of only three years of age. Maurice died with +a courage and piety that moved even his enemies, +exclaiming with his last breath, <q>Thou art just, O +Lord, and just are thy judgments!</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='128'/><anchor id='Pg128'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>X. The Darkest Hour.</head> + +<p> +For the first time since Constantinople had become +the seat of empire the throne had been won by armed +rebellion and the murder of the legitimate ruler. +The break in the peaceful and orderly succession +which had hitherto prevailed was not only an evil +precedent, but an immediate disaster. The new +emperor proved a far worse governor than the unfortunate +Maurice, who, in spite of his faults and his +ill luck, had always been hard-working, moderate, +pious, and economical. Phocas was a mere brutal +soldier—cruel, ignorant, suspicious, and reckless, and +in his incapable hands the empire began to fall to +pieces with alarming rapidity. He opened his reign +with a series of cruel executions of his predecessor's +friends, and from that moment his deeds of bloodshed +never ceased: probably the worst of them was the +execution of Constantina, widow of Maurice and +daughter of Tiberius II., whom he slew together with +her three young daughters, lest their names might be +used as the excuse for a conspiracy against him. But +even greater horror seems to have been caused when +<pb n='129'/><anchor id='Pg129'/> +he burnt alive the able general Narses,<note place='foot'>To be carefully distinguished from his homonym in Justinian's time.</note> who had won +many laurels in the last Persian war. Narses had +come up to the capital under safe conduct to clear +himself from accusations of treason: so the Emperor +not only devised a punishment which had never yet +been heard of since the empire became Christian, but +broke his own plighted oath. +</p> + +<p> +The moment that Phocas had mounted the throne, +Chosroës of Persia declared war on him, using the +hypocritical pretext that he wished to revenge +Maurice, for whom he professed a warm personal +friendship. This war was far different from the +indecisive contests in the reigns of Justinian and +Justin II. In two successive years the Persians burst +into North Syria and ravaged it as far as the sea; +but in the third they turned north and swept over the +hitherto untouched provinces of Asia Minor. In 608 +their main army penetrated across Cappadocia and +Galatia right up to the gates of Chalcedon. The +inhabitants of Constantinople could see the blazing +villages across the water on the Asiatic shore—a sight +as new as it was terrifying; for although Thrace had +several times been harried to within sight of the +city, no enemy had ever been seen in Bithynia. +</p> + +<p> +Plot after plot was formed in the capital against +Phocas, but he succeeded in putting them all down, +and slew the conspirators with fearful tortures. For +eight years his reign continued: Constantinople was +full of executions; Asia was ravaged from sea to +sea; the Thracian and Illyrian provinces were overrun +more and more by the Slavs, now that the army +<pb n='130'/><anchor id='Pg130'/> +of Europe had been transferred across the Bosphorus +to make head against the Persians. Yet Phocas still +held on to Constantinople: the creature of a military +revolt himself, it was by a military revolt alone that +he was destined to be overthrown. +</p> + +<p> +Africa was the only portion of the Roman Empire +which in the reign of Phocas was suffering neither +from civil strife nor foreign invasion. It was well +governed by the aged exarch Heraclius, who was so +well liked in the province that the emperor had not +dared to depose him. Urged by desperate entreaties +from all parties in Constantinople to strike a blow +against the tyrant, and deliver the empire from the +yoke of a monster, Heraclius at last consented. He +quietly got ready a fleet, which he placed under the +orders of his son, who bore the same name as himself. +This he despatched against Constantinople, while at +the same time his nephew Nicetas led a large body of +horse along the African shore to invade Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +When Heraclius the younger arrived with his fleet +at the Dardanelles, all the prominent citizens of Constantinople +fled secretly to take refuge with him. As +he neared the capital the troops of Phocas burst into +mutiny: the tyrant's fleet was scattered after a slight +engagement, and the city threw open its gates. +Phocas was seized in the palace by an official whom +he had cruelly wronged, and brought aboard the +galley of the conqueror. <q>Is it thus,</q> said Heraclius, +<q>that you have governed the empire?</q> <q>Will you +govern it any better?</q> sneered the desperate usurper. +Heraclius spurned him away with his foot, and the +sailors hewed him to pieces on the deck. +</p> + +<pb n='131'/><anchor id='Pg131'/> + +<p> +Next day the patriarch and the senate hailed +Heraclius as emperor, and he was duly crowned in +St. Sophia on October 5, <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 610. +</p> + +<p> +Heraclius took over the empire in such a state of +disorder and confusion that he must soon have felt +that there was some truth in the dying sneer of +Phocas. It seemed almost impossible to get things +into better order, for resources were wanting. Save +Africa and Egypt and the district immediately around +the capital, all the provinces were overrun by the +Persian, the Avar, and the Slav. The treasury +was empty, and the army had almost disappeared +owing to repeated and bloody defeats in Asia Minor. +</p> + +<p> +Heraclius seems at first to have almost despaired +of the possibility of evolving order out of this chaos, +though he was in the prime of life and strength—<q>a +man of middle stature, strongly built, and broad-chested, +with grey eyes and yellow hair, and of a very +fair complexion; he wore a bushy beard when he +came to the throne, but afterwards cut it short.</q> +For the first twelve years of his reign he remained +at Constantinople, endeavouring to reorganize the +empire, and to defend at any rate the frontiers of +Thrace and Asia Minor. The more distant provinces +he hardly seems to have hoped to save, and the +chronicle of his early years is filled with the catalogue +of the losses of the empire. Mesopotamia and North +Syria had already been lost by Phocas, but in 613, +while the imperial armies were endeavouring to defend +Cappadocia, the Persian general Shahrbarz turned +southwards and attacked Central Syria. The great +town of Damascus fell into his hands; but worse +<pb n='132'/><anchor id='Pg132'/> +was to come. In 614 the Persian army appeared +before the holy city of Jerusalem, took it after a short +resistance, and occupied it with a garrison. But the +populace rose and slaughtered the Persian troops +when Shahrbarz had departed with his main army. +This brought him back in wrath: he stormed the +city and put 90,000 Christians to the sword, only +sparing the Jewish inhabitants. Zacharias, Patriarch +of Jerusalem, was carried into captivity, and with +him went what all Christians then regarded as the +most precious thing in the world—the wood of the +<q>True Cross.</q> Helena, the mother of Constantine, +had dug the relic up, according to the well-known +legend, on Mount Moriah, and built for it a splendid +shrine. Now Shahrbarz desecrated the church and +took off the <q>True Cross</q> to Persia. +</p> + +<p> +This loss brought the inhabitants of the East +almost to despair; they thought that the luck of the +empire had departed with the Holy Wood, which had +served as its Palladium, and even imagined that the +Last Day was at hand and that Chosroës of Persia +was Antichrist. The mad language of pride and +insult which the Persian in the day of his triumph +used to Heraclius might also explain their belief. His +blasphemous phrases seem like an echo of the letter +of Sennacherib in the Second Book of Kings. The +epistle ran:— +</p> + +<p> +<q>Chosroës, greatest of gods, and master of the +whole earth, to Heraclius, his vile and insensate +slave. Have I not destroyed the Greeks? You say +you trust in your God: why, then, has he not +delivered out of my hand Caesarea, Jerusalem, and +<pb n='133'/><anchor id='Pg133'/> +Alexandria? Shall I not also destroy Constantinople? +But I will pardon all your sins if you will +come to me with your wife and children; I will give +you lands, vines, and olive groves, and will look upon +you with a kindly aspect. Do not deceive yourself +with the vain hope in that Christ, who was not even +able to save himself from the Jews, who slew him +by nailing him to a cross.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The horror and rage roused by the loss of the +<q>True Cross</q> and the blasphemies of King Chosroës +brought about the first real outburst of national +feeling that we meet in the history of the Eastern +Empire. It was felt that the fate of Christendom +hung in the balance, and that all, from highest +to lowest, were bound to make one great effort to +beat back the fire-worshipping Persians from Palestine, +and recover the Holy Places. The Emperor +vowed that he would take the field at the head of the +army—a thing most unprecedented, for since the +death of Theodosius I., in 395, no Caesar had ever +gone out in person to war. The Church came +forward in the most noble way—at the instance of +the Patriarch Sergius all the churches of Constantinople +sent their treasures and ornaments to the +mint to be coined down, and serve as a great loan to +the state, which was to be repaid when the Persians +should have been conquered. The free dole of corn +which the inhabitants of the capital had been receiving +ever since the days of Constantine was abolished, +and the populace bore the privation without demur. +It was indeed observed that this measure not only +saved the treasury, but drove into the army—where +<pb n='134'/><anchor id='Pg134'/> +they were useful—thousands of the able-bodied +loiterers who were the strength of the circus factions +and the pest of the city. If the dole had been continued +Heraclius could not have found a penny for +the war. Egypt, the granary of the empire, had been +lost in 616, and the supply of government corn +entirely cut off, so that the dole would have had to +be provided by the treasury buying corn, a ruinously +expensive task. +</p> + +<p> +By the aid of the Church loan Heraclius equipped +a new army and strengthened his fleet. He also provided +for the garrisoning of Constantinople by an adequate +force, a most necessary precaution, for in 617 the +Persians had again forced their way to the Bosphorus, +and this time captured Chalcedon. Heraclius would +probably have taken the field next year but for +troubles with the Avars. That wild race had long +been working their wicked will on the almost undefended +Thracian provinces, but now they promised +peace. Heraclius went out, at the Chagan's pressing +invitation, to meet him near Heraclea. But the conference +was a snare, for the treacherous savage had +planted ambushes on the way to secure the person +of the Emperor, and Heraclius only escaped by the +speed of his horse. He cast off his imperial mantle +to ride the faster, and galloped into the capital just +in time to close its gates as the vanguard of the +Chagan's army came in sight. The Avars kept the +Emperor engaged for some time, and it was not till +622 that he was able to take the field against the +Persians. +</p> + +<p> +This expedition of Heraclius was in spirit the first +<pb n='135'/><anchor id='Pg135'/> +of the Crusades. It was the first war that the Roman +Empire had ever undertaken in a spirit of religious +enthusiasm, for it was to no mere political end that +the Emperor and his people looked forward. The +army marched out to save Christendom, to conquer the +Holy Places, and to recover the <q>True Cross.</q> The +men were wrought up to a high pitch of enthusiasm +by warlike sermons, and the Emperor carried with +him, to stimulate his zeal, a holy picture—one of those +<foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>eikons</foreign> in which the Greek Church has always delighted—which +was believed to be the work of no mortal +hands. +</p> + +<p> +Heraclius made no less than six campaigns (<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> +622-27) in his gallant and successful attempt to +save the half-ruined empire. He won great and well-deserved +fame, and his name would be reckoned +among the foremost of the world's warrior-kings if it +had not been for the misfortunes which afterwards +fell on him in his old age. +</p> + +<p> +His first campaign cleared Asia Minor of the +Persian hosts, not by a direct attack, but by skilful +strategy. Instead of attacking the army at Chalcedon, +he took ship and landed in Cilicia, in the rear of the +enemy, threatening in this position both Syria and +Cappadocia. As he expected, the Persians broke up +from their camp opposite Constantinople, and came +back to fall upon him. But after much manœuvring +he completely beat the general Shahrbarz, and cleared +Asia Minor of the enemy. +</p> + +<p> +In his next campaigns Heraclius endeavoured to +liberate the rest of the Roman Empire by a similar +plan: he resolved to assail Chosroës at home, and +<pb n='136'/><anchor id='Pg136'/> +force him to recall the armies he kept in Syria and +Egypt to defend his own Persian provinces. In +623-4 the Emperor advanced across the Armenian +mountains and threw himself into Media, where his +army revenged the woes of Antioch and Jerusalem +by burning the fire-temples of Ganzaca—the Median +capital—and Thebarmes, the birthplace of the Persian +prophet Zoroaster. Chosroës, as might have been +expected, recalled his troops from the west, and +fought two desperate battles to cover Ctesiphon. His +generals were defeated in both, but the Roman army +suffered severely. Winter was at hand, and Heraclius +fell back on Armenia. In his next campaign he +recovered Roman Mesopotamia, with its fortresses of +Amida, Dara, and Martyropolis, and again defeated +the general Shahrbarz. +</p> + +<p> +But 626 was the decisive year of the war. The +obstinate Chosroës determined on one final effort to +crush Heraclius, by concerting a joint plan of operations +with the Chagan of the Avars. While the main +Persian army watched the emperor in Armenia, a +great body under Shahrbarz slipped south of him +into Asia Minor and marched on the Bosphorus. At +the same moment the Chagan of the Avars, with +the whole force of his tribe and of his Slavonic +dependants, burst over the Balkans and beset Constantinople +on the European side. The two barbarian +hosts could see each other across the water, and even +contrived to exchange messages, but the Roman fleet +sailing incessantly up and down the strait kept them +from joining forces. +</p> + +<p> +In the June, July, and August of 626 the capital +<pb n='137'/><anchor id='Pg137'/> +was thus beset: the danger appeared imminent, and +the Emperor was far away on the Euphrates. But +the garrison was strong, the patrician Bonus, its commander, +was an able officer, the fleet was efficient, +and the same crusading fervour which had inspired +the Constantinopolitans in 622 still buoyed up their +spirits. In the end of July 80,000 Avars and Slavs, +with all sorts of siege implements, delivered simultaneous +assaults along the land front of the city, but +they were beaten back with great slaughter. Next the +Chagan built himself rafts and tried to bring the +Persians across, but the Roman galleys sunk the +clumsy structures, and slew thousands of the Slavs +who had come off in small boats to attack the fleet. +Then the Chagan gave up the siege in disgust and +retired across the Danube. +</p> + +<p> +Heraclius had shown great confidence in the strength +of Constantinople and the courage of its defenders. +He sent a few veteran troops to aid the garrison, but +did not slacken from his attack on Persia. While +Shahrbarz and the Chagan were besieging his capital, +he himself was wasting Media and Mesopotamia. +He imitated King Chosroës in calling in Tartar allies +from the north, and revenged the ravages of the +Avars in Thrace by turning 40,000 Khazar horsemen +loose on Northern Persia. The enemy gave way +before him everywhere, and the Persians began to +grow desperate. +</p> + +<p> +Next year King Chosroës put into the field the +last levy of Persia, under a general named Rhazates, +whom he bid to go out and <q>conquer or die.</q> At +the same time he wrote to command Shahrbarz to +<pb n='138'/><anchor id='Pg138'/> +evacuate Chalcedon and return home in haste. But +Heraclius intercepted the despatch of recall, and +Shahrbarz came not. +</p> + +<p> +Near Nineveh Heraclius fell in with the Persian +home army and inflicted on it a decisive defeat. He +himself, charging at the head of his cavalry, rode +down the general of the enemy and slew him with his +lance. Chosroës could put no new army in the field, +and by Christmas Heraclius had seized his palace of +Dastagerd, and divided among his troops such a +plunder as had never been seen since Alexander the +Great captured Susa. +</p> + +<p> +The Nemesis of Chosroës' insane vanity had now +arrived. Ten years after he had written his vaunting +letter to Heraclius he found himself in far worse +plight than his adversary had ever been. After +Dastagerd had fallen he retired to Ctesiphon, the +capital of his empire, but even from thence he had to +flee on the approach of the enemy. Then the end +came: his own son Siroes and his chief nobles seized +him and threw him in chains, and a few days after he +died—of rage and despair according to one story, +of starvation if the darker tale is true. +</p> + +<p> +The new king sent the humblest messages to the +victorious Roman, hailing him as his <q>father,</q> and +apologizing for all the woes that the ambition of +Chosroës had brought upon the world. Heraclius +received his ambassadors with kindness, and granted +peace, on the condition that every inch of Roman territory +should be evacuated, all Roman captives freed, +a war indemnity paid, and the spoils of Jerusalem, +including the <q>True Cross,</q> faithfully restored. +<pb n='139'/><anchor id='Pg139'/> +Siroes consented with alacrity, and in March, 628, +a glorious peace ended the twenty-six years of the +Persian war. +</p> + +<p> +Heraclius returned to Constantinople in the summer +of the same year with his spoils, his victorious army, +and his great trophy, the <q>Holy Wood.</q> His entry +was celebrated in the style of an old Roman triumph, +and the Senate conferred on him the title of the +<q>New Scipio.</q> The whole of the citizens, bearing +myrtle boughs, came out to meet the army, and the +ceremony concluded with the exhibition of the <q>True +Cross</q> before the high altar of St. Sophia. Heraclius +afterwards took it back in great pomp to Jerusalem. +</p> + +<p> +This was, perhaps, the greatest triumph that any +emperor ever won. Heraclius had surpassed the +eastern achievements of Trajan and Severus, and led +his troops further east than any Roman general had +ever penetrated. His task, too, had been the hardest +ever imposed on an emperor; none of his predecessors +had ever started to war with his very capital beleaguered +and with three-fourths of his provinces in the +hands of the enemy. Since Julius Caesar no one had +fought so incessantly—for six years the emperor had +not been out of the saddle—nor met with such +uniform success. +</p> + +<p> +Heraclius returned to Constantinople to spend, as +he hoped, the rest of his years in peace. He had now +reached the age of fifty-four, and was much worn by +his incessant campaigning. But the quiet for which +he yearned was to be denied him, and the end of his +reign was to be almost as disastrous as the commencement. +</p> + +<pb n='140'/><anchor id='Pg140'/> + +<p> +The great Saracen invasion was at hand, and it +was at the very moment of Heraclius' triumph that +Mahomet sent out his famous circular letter to +the kings of the earth, inviting them to embrace +Islam. If the Emperor could but have known that +his desolated realm, spoiled for ten long years by the +Persian and the Avar, and drained of men and money, +was to be invaded by a new enemy far more terrible +than the old, he would have prayed that the day +of his triumph might also be the day of his death. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='141'/><anchor id='Pg141'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XI. Social And Religious Life. +(<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 320-620.)</head> + +<p> +The reign of Heraclius forms the best dividing +point in the history of the empire between what may +roughly be called Ancient History and the Middle +Ages. There is no break at all between Constantine +and Heraclius, though the area, character, social life, +and religion of the empire had been greatly modified +in the three hundred years that separated them. The +new order of things, which commenced when Constantine +established his capital on the Bosphorus, had +a peaceable and orderly development. The first +prominent fact that strikes the eye in the history of +the three centuries is that the sceptre passed from +sovereign to sovereign in quiet and undisturbed +devolution. From the death of Valens onward there +is no instance of a military usurper breaking the line +of succession till the crowning of Phocas in 602. The +emperors were either designated by their predecessors +or—less frequently—chosen by the high officials and +the senate. The regularity of their sequence is all +<pb n='142'/><anchor id='Pg142'/> +the more astonishing when we realize that only +in three cases in the whole period was father +succeeded by son. Saving Constantine himself, +Theodosius I., and Arcadius, not a single emperor +left male issue; yet the hereditary instinct had +grown so strong in the empire that nephews, sons-in-law, +and brothers-in-law of sovereigns were gladly +received as their legitimate heirs. Considering this +tendency, it is extraordinary to note that the whole +three hundred years did not produce a single unmitigated +tyrant. Constantius II. was gloomy and +sometimes cruel, Valens was stupid and avaricious, +Arcadius utterly weak and inept, Justinian hard and +thankless; but the general average of the emperors +were men of respectable ability, and in moral +character they will compare favourably with any list +of sovereigns of similar length that any country can +produce. +</p> + +<p> +The chief modifications which must be marked in +the character of the empire between 320 and 620 +depend on two processes of gradual change which +were going on throughout the three centuries. The +first was the gradual de-Romanization (if we may +coin the uncouth word) alike of the governing classes +and the masses of population. In the fourth century +the Roman impress was still strong in the East; the +Latin language was habitually spoken by every +educated man, and nearly all the machinery of the +administration was worked in Latin phraseology. +All law terms are habitually Latin, all titles of +officers, all names of taxes and institutions. Writers +born and bred in Greece or Asia still wrote in Latin +<pb n='143'/><anchor id='Pg143'/> +as often as in the Greek which must have been more +familiar to them. Ammianus Marcellinus may serve +as a fair example: born in Greece, he wrote in the +tongue of the ruling race rather than in his own +idiom. Moreover there was still in the lands east of +the Adriatic a very large body of Latin-speaking +population—comprising all the inhabitants of the inland +of the Balkan peninsula, for, except Greece +proper, Macedonia, and a scattered line of cities along +the Thracian coast, the whole land had learnt to +speak the tongue of its conquerors. +</p> + +<p> +By the seventh century this Roman element was +rapidly vanishing. It is true that the Emperor was still +hailed as the <q>Pius, Felix, Perpetuus, Augustus</q>: +it was not till about <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 800 that he dropped the +old style and called himself <q>Ἐν Χριστῷ πιστὸς +βασιλεὺς τῶν Ῥωμαίων.</q> Nor were the old Roman +official titles yet disused: men were still tribunes and +patricians, counts and praetors, but little more than +the names survived. Already in the sixth century +a knowledge of Latin was growing unusual even +among educated men. The author Johannes Lydus +tells us that he owed his rise in the civil service +mainly to this rare accomplishment. Procopius, the +best writer of the day and a man of real merit and +discernment, was absolutely ignorant of the rudiments +of Latin, and blunders when he tries to translate the +simplest phrase. Justinian was the last emperor who +spoke Latin as his mother tongue, all his successors +were better skilled in Greek. +</p> + +<p> +The gradual disuse of Latin has its origin in the +practical—though not formal—solution of the continuity +<pb n='144'/><anchor id='Pg144'/> +between Rome and the East, which began +with the division of the empire between the sons +of Constantine and became more complete after +Odoacer made himself King of Italy in 476. In the +course of a century and a half the Latin element in +the East, cut off from the Latin-speaking West, was +bound to yield before the predominant Greek. But +the process would have been slower if the Eastern +provinces which spoke Latin had not been those +which suffered most from the barbarians. The Visigoths +and Ostrogoths harassed and decimated the +Thracians, Illyrians, and Moesians, but the Slavs a +century later almost exterminated them. In <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 400 +probably a quarter of the provincials east of the +Adriatic spoke Latin; in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 620 not a tenth. The +Romanized lands of the Balkan peninsula had now +become Slavonic principalities: only the Dalmatian +seaports and a few scattered survivors in the Balkans +still used the old tongue. The only districts where +a considerable Latin-speaking population obeyed the +Emperor were Africa and the Italian Exarchate, now +reunited to Constantinople by the conquests of +Justinian. But they seem to have been too remote +from the centre of life and government to have +exercised any influence or delayed the de-Romanizing +of the East. The last notable author, who being a +subject of the empire wrote in Latin as his native +tongue, was the poet Flavius Corippus who addressed +a long panegyric to Justinus II.: as might have been +expected, he was an African. +</p> + +<p> +While the empire was losing its Roman characteristics, +it was at the same time growing more and more +<pb n='145'/><anchor id='Pg145'/> +Christian at heart. Under Constantine and his immediate +successors the machinery of government was +only just beginning to be effected by the change of the +emperor's religion. Though the sovereign personally +was Christian, the system remained what it had been +before. Many of the high officials were still pagans, +and the form and spirit of all administrative and legal +business was unaltered from what it had been in the +third century. It is not till forty years after Constantine's +death that we find the Christian spirit fully penetrating +out of the spiritual into the material sphere of +life. Attempts by the State to suppress moral sin no +less than legal crime begin with Theodosius I., whose +crusade against sexual immorality would have been +incomprehensible to even the best of the pagan +emperors. The old gladiatorial shows, one of the +most characteristic and repulsive features of Roman +life, were abolished not long after. They survived +for sixty years at Rome, though Christian Constantinople +never knew them. But this was not the +work of the State, but of a single individual. One +day in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 404 the games had begun, and the gladiators +were about to engage, when the monk Telemachus +leapt down into the arena and threw himself +between the combatants, adjuring them not to slay +their brethren. There was an angry scuffle, and the +good monk was slain. But his death had the effect +that his protests might have failed to bring about, +and no gladiatorial show was ever given again. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-18.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>General View Of St. Sophia. +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +In other provinces of social life the work of +Christianity was no less marked. It put an end to +the detestable practice of infanticide which pervaded +<pb n='147'/><anchor id='Pg147'/> +the ancient world, resting on the assumption that the +father had the right to decide whether or not he would +rear the child he had begotten. Constantine made +the State assume the charge of feeding and rearing +the children of the destitute, lest their parents should +be tempted to cast them forth to perish in the old +fashion, and Valentinian I. in 374 assimilated infanticide +to other forms of murder, and made it a capital +offence. +</p> + +<p> +Slavery was also profoundly affected by the +teaching of the Church. The ancient world, save a +few philosophers, had regarded the slave with such +contempt that he was hardly reckoned a moral being +or conceived to have rights or virtues. Christianity +taught that he was a man with an immortal soul, no +less than his own master, and bade slaves and +freemen meet on terms of perfect equality around +the baptismal font and before the sacred table. It +was from the first taught that the man who manumitted +his slaves earned the approval of heaven, and +all occasions of rejoicing, public and private, were fitly +commemorated by the liberation of deserving individuals. +Though slavery was not extinguished for +centuries, its evils were immensely modified; +Justinian's legislation shows that by his time public +opinion had condemned the characteristic evils of +ancient slavery: he permitted the intermarriage of +slaves and free persons, stipulating only for the +consent of the owner of the servile partner in the +wedlock. He declared the children of such mixed +marriages free, and he made the prostitution of a +slave by a master a criminal offence. Hereditary +<pb n='148'/><anchor id='Pg148'/> +slavery became almost unknown, and the institution +was only kept up by the introduction of barbarian +captives, heathens and enemies, whose position did +not appeal so keenly to the mind of their captors. +</p> + +<p> +The improvement of the condition of all the +unhappy classes of which we have been speaking—women, +infants, slaves, gladiators—can be directly +traced back to a single fundamental Christian truth. +It was the belief in the importance of the individual +human soul in the eyes of God that led the converted +Roman to realize his responsibility, and change his +attitude towards the helpless beings whom he had +before despised and neglected. It is only fair to add +that the realization of this central truth did not +always operate for good in the Roman world of the +fifth and sixth centuries. Some of the developments +of the new idea were harmful and even dangerous to +the State. They took the form of laying such +exclusive stress on the relations between the individual +soul and heaven, that the duties of man to +the State were half forgotten. Chief among these +developments was the ascetic monasticism which, +starting from Egypt, spread rapidly all over the +empire, more especially over its eastern provinces. +When men retire from their duties as citizens, intent +on nothing but on saving their own souls, take up a +position outside the State, and cease to be of the +slightest use to society, the result may be harmless so +long as their numbers are small. But at this time the +monastic impulse was working on such a large scale +that its development was positively dangerous. It +was by thousands and ten thousands that the men +<pb n='149'/><anchor id='Pg149'/> +who ought to have been bearing the burdens of the +State, stepped aside into the monastery or the +hermit's cave. The ascetics of the fifth century had +neither of the justifications which made monasticism +precious in a later age, they were neither missionaries +nor men of learning. The monastery did not devote +itself either to sending out preachers and teachers, or +to storing up and cherishing the literary treasures +of the ancient world. The first abbot to whom it +occurred to turn the vast leisure of his monks to +good account by setting them systematically to work +at copying manuscripts was Cassiodorus, the ex-secretary +to King Theodoric the Goth [<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 530-40]. +Before his time monks and books had no special +connection with each other. +</p> + +<p> +When a State contains masses of men who devote +their whole energies to a repulsively selfish attempt +to save their own individual souls, while letting the +world around them slide on as best it may, then the +body politic is diseased. The Roman Empire in its +fight with the barbarians was in no small degree +hampered by this attitude of so many of its subjects. +The ascetic took the barbarian invasions as judgments +from heaven rightly inflicted upon a wicked world, +and not as national calamities which called on every +citizen to join in the attempt to repel them. Many +men complacently interpreted the troubles of the fifth +century as the tribulations predicted in the Apocalypse, +and watched them develop with something like +joy, since they must portend the close approach of +the Second Advent of our Lord. +</p> + +<p> +This apathetic attitude of many Christians during +<pb n='150'/><anchor id='Pg150'/> +the afflictions of the empire was maddening to the +heathen minority which still survived among the +educated classes. They roundly accused Christianity +of being the ruin of the State by its anti-social +teaching which led men to neglect every duty of the +citizen. The Christian author Orosius felt himself +compelled to write a lengthy history to confute this +view, aiming his work at the pagan Symmachus +whose book had been devoted to tracing all the +calamities of the world to the conversion of +Constantine. +</p> + +<p> +It was fortunate for the empire that its governing +classes continued to preserve the old traditions of +Roman state-craft, and fought on doggedly against +all the ills of their time—barbarian invasion, famine, +and pestilence, instead of bowing to the yoke and +recognizing in every calamity the righteous judgment +of heaven and the indication of the approaching end +of the world. +</p> + +<p> +Paganism had practically disappeared by the end +of the fifth century as an active force; none save a +few philosophers made an open profession of it, and +in 529 Justinian put a formal end to their teaching, by +closing the schools of Athens, the last refuge of the +professors of the expiring religion. But if open +heathenism was dead, a large measure of indifferentism +prevailed among the educated classes: many men +who in the fifth century would have been pagans were +Christians in name in the sixth, but little affected by +Christianity in their lives. This type was extremely +common among the literary and official classes. There +are plenty of sixth-century authors—Procopius may +<pb n='151'/><anchor id='Pg151'/> +serve as an example—whose works show no trace of +Christian thought, though the writer was undoubtedly +a professing member of the Church. Similar examples +could be quoted by the dozen from among +the administrators, lawyers, and statesmen of the day, +but all were now nominally Christian. As time went on, +such men grew rarer, and the old stern, non-religious +Roman character passed away into the emotional +and superstitious mediæval type of mind. The +survival of pre-Christian feeling, which appeared as +indifferentism among the educated classes, took a very +different shape among the lower strata of society. It +revealed itself in a crowd of gross superstitions +connected with magic, witchcraft, fortune-telling, +charms, and trivial or obscene ceremonies practised +in secret. The State highly disapproved of such +practices, treated them as impious or heretical, and +imposed punishment on those who employed them: +but nevertheless these contemptible survivals of +heathenism persisted down to the latest days of the +empire. +</p> + +<p> +It has been usual to include all the Eastern Romans +of all the centuries between Constantine I. and Constantine +XIV. in one sweeping condemnation, as +cowardly, corrupt, and effete. The ordinary view of +Byzantine life may be summed up in Mr. Lecky's +irritating statement<note place='foot'><q>History of European Morals,</q> ii. p. 13.</note> that <q>the universal verdict of +history is that it constitutes the most base and despicable +form that civilization ever assumed, and that +there has been no other enduring civilization so absolutely +destitute of all the forms and elements of +<pb n='153'/><anchor id='Pg153'/> +greatness, none to which the epithet <emph>mean</emph> may be so +emphatically applied. It is a monstrous story of the +intrigues of priests, eunuchs, and women; of poisoning, +conspiracies, uniform ingratitude, perpetual +fratricide.</q> How Mr. Lecky obtained his universal +verdict of history, it is hard to see: certainly that +verdict can not have been arrived at after a study of +the evidence bearing on the life of the persons accused. +It sounds like a cheap echo of the second-hand historians +of fifty years ago, whose staple commodity was +Gibbon-and-water. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-19.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Illuminated Initials. (<hi rend='italic'>From Byzantine MSS.</hi>) +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +If we must sum up the characteristics of the East +Romans and their civilization, the conclusion at which +we arrive will be very different. It is only fair to +acknowledge that they had their faults: what else could +be expected when we know that the foundations of the +Eastern Empire were laid upon the Oriental provinces +of the old Roman world, among races that had long +been stigmatized by their masters as hopelessly effete +and corrupt—Syrians, Egyptians, and Hellenized +Asiatics, whom even the degenerate Romans of the +third century had been wont to despise. The Byzantine +Empire displayed from its very cradle a taint of +weakness derived from this Oriental origin. It showed +features particularly obnoxious to the modern mind of +the nineteenth century—such as the practice of a +degrading and grovelling court etiquette, full of prostrations +and genuflexions, the introduction of eunuchs +and slaves into high offices of State, the wholesale +and deliberate use of treachery and lying in matters +of diplomacy. +</p> + +<p> +But remembering its origins we shall, on the +<pb n='154'/><anchor id='Pg154'/> +whole, wonder at the good points in Byzantine civilization +rather than at its faults. It may fairly be +said that Christianity raised the Roman East to a +better moral position than it had known for a thousand +years. With all their faults the monks and +hermits of the fifth century are a good substitute for +the priests of Cybele and Mithras of the second. It +was something that the Government and the public +opinion of the day had concurred to sweep away the +orgies of Daphne and Canopus. Church and State +united in the reign of Justinian to punish with spiritual +and bodily death the unnatural crimes which had been +the open practice of emperors themselves in the first +centuries of the empire. +</p> + +<p> +The vices of which the East Romans have most +commonly been accused are cowardice, frivolity, and +treachery. On each of these points they have been +grossly wronged. Cowardice was certainly not the +chief characteristic of the centuries that produced +emperors like Theodosius I. and Heraclius, prelates +like Athanasius and Chrysostom, public servants like +Belisarius and Priscus. It is not for cowardice that +we note the Byzantine populace which routed Gainas +and his mercenaries, and raised the <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>Nika</foreign> sedition, but +for turbulence. If military virtue was wanting to the +East-Roman armies, how came the Ostrogoth and +Vandal to be conquered, the Persian and the Hun to +be driven off, how, above all, was the desperate struggle +against the fanatical Saracen protracted for four +hundred years, till at last the Caliphate broke up? +</p> + +<p> +Frivolity and luxury are an accusation easy to bring +against any age. Every moralist, from Jeremiah to +<pb n='155'/><anchor id='Pg155'/> +Juvenal, and from Juvenal to Mr. Ruskin, has believed +his own generation to be the most obnoxious and +contemptible in the world's history. We have numerous +tirades against the manners of Constantinople preserved +in Byzantine literature, and may judge from +them something of the faults of the time. It would +seem that there was much of the sort of luxury to +which ascetic preachers take exception—much splendour +of raiment, much ostentatious display of plate +and furniture, of horses and chariots. Luxury and +evil living often go together, but when we examine all +the enormities laid to the charge of the Byzantines, +there is less alleged than we might expect. When +Chrysostom raged against the contemporaries of +Arcadius, his anathemas fell on such crimes as the use +of cosmetics and dyes by fashionable dames, on the +gambling propensities of their husbands, on the immoral +tendencies of the theatre, on the drunken orgies +at popular festivals—accusations to which any age—our +own included—might plead guilty. The races of +the Circus played a disproportionate part in social life, +and attracted the enthusiastic attention of thousands +of votaries; but it is surely hard that our own age, +with all its sporting and athletic interests, should cast +a stone at the sixth century. We have not to look far +around us to discover classes for whom horse-racing +still presents an inexplicable attraction. When we +remember that the Constantinopolitans were excitable +Orientals, and had no other form of sport to distract +their attention from the Circus, we can easily realize the +genesis of the famous riots of the Blues and Greens. +</p> + +<p> +From the darker forms of vice great cities have +<pb n='156'/><anchor id='Pg156'/> +never been free, and there is no reason to think that +Constantinople in the sixth century differed from +London in the nineteenth. It is fair to point out that +Christian public opinion and the Government strove +their best to put down sexual immorality. Theodosius +and Justinian are recorded to have entered upon +the herculean task of endeavouring to suppress all +disorderly houses: the latter made exile the penalty +for panders and procuresses, and inflicted death on +those guilty of the worst extremes of immorality. +We must remember, too, that if Constantinople showed +much vice, it also displayed shining examples of the +social virtues. The Empress Flaccilla was wont to +frequent the hospitals, and tend the beds of the sick. +Of the monastic severity which the Empress Pulcheria +displayed in the palace we have spoken already. +</p> + +<p> +After cowardice and light morals, it is treachery +that is popularly cited as the most prominent vice of +the Eastern Empire. There have been other states +and epochs more given to plots and revolts, but it is +still true that there was too much intrigue at Constantinople. +The reason is not far to seek: the +<q><foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>carrière ouverte aux talents</foreign></q> practically existed +there, and the army and the civil service were full of +poor, able, and ambitious men of all races and classes +mixed together. The converted Goth or the renegade +Persian, the half-civilized mountaineer from Isauria, +the Copt and Syrian and Armenian were all welcomed +in the army or civil service, if only they had +ability. Both the bureaucracy and the army therefore +had elements which lacked patriotism, conscience, and +stability, and were prone to seek advancement either +<pb n='157'/><anchor id='Pg157'/> +by intrigue or military revolt. This being granted, it +is perhaps astonishing to have to record that between +350 and 600 the empire never once saw its legitimate +ruler dethroned, either by palace intrigue or military +revolt. The fact that all the plots—and there were +many in the period—failed hopelessly, is, on the whole, +a proof that if there was much treachery there was +much loyalty among the East Romans. There have +certainly been periods in more recent times which show +a much worse record.<note place='foot'>Mr. Lecky speaks of the <q>perpetual fratricide</q> of the Byzantine +emperors. It may be interesting to point out that from 340 to 1453 +there was not a single emperor murdered by a brother, and only one +dethroned by a brother. Two were dethroned by sons, but not murdered.</note> A single instance may suffice—Mediæval +Italy from the thirteenth to the fifteenth +century could produce far more shocking examples +of conscienceless and unjustifiable plotting than the +Byzantine Empire in the whole thousand years of its +existence. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='158'/><anchor id='Pg158'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XII. The Coming Of The Saracens.</head> + +<p> +After the peace of 628 the Roman and the Persian +Empires, drained of men and money, and ravaged +from end to end by each other's marauding armies, +sank down in exhaustion to heal them of their deadly +wounds. Never before had either power dealt its +neighbour such fearful blows as in this last struggle: +in previous wars the contest had been waged around +border fortresses, and the prize had been the conquest +of some small slice of marchland. But Chosroës and +Heraclius had struck deadly blows at the heart of +each other's empire, and harried the inmost provinces +up to the gates of each other's capitals. The Persian +had turned the wild hordes of the Avars loose on +Thrace, and the Roman had guided the yet wilder +Chazars up to the walls of Ctesiphon. Hence it came +to pass that at the end of the war the two powers +were each weaker than they had ever been before. +They were bleeding at every pore, utterly wearied and +exhausted, and desirous of nothing but a long interval +of peace to recover their lost strength. +</p> + +<p> +Precisely at this moment a new and terrible enemy +<pb n='159'/><anchor id='Pg159'/> +fell upon the two war-worn combatants, and delivered +an attack so vehement that it was destined to destroy +the ancient kingdom of Persia and to shear away half +the provinces of the Roman Empire. +</p> + +<p> +The politics of Arabia had up to this time been of +little moment either to Roman or Persian. Each of +them had allies among the Arab tribes, and had +sometimes sent an expedition or an embassy southward, +into the land beyond the Syrian desert. But +neither of them dreamed that the scattered and disunited +tribes of Arabia would ever combine or become +a serious danger. +</p> + +<p> +But while Heraclius and Chosroës were harrying +each other's realms events of world-wide importance +had been taking place in the Arabian peninsula. For +the first and last time in history there had arisen +among the Arabs one of those world-compelling +minds that are destined to turn aside the current of +events into new channels, and change the face of +whole continents. +</p> + +<p> +Mahomet, that strangest of moral enigmas, prophet +and seer, fanatic and impostor, was developing his +career all through the years of the Persian war. By +an extraordinary mixture of genuine enthusiasm and +vulgar cunning, of self-deception and deliberate imposture, +of benevolence and cruelty, of austerity and +licence, he had worked himself and his creed to the +front. The turbulent polytheists of Arabia had by +him been converted into a compact band of fanatics, +burning to carry all over the world by the force of +their swords their new war-cry, that <q>God was God, +and Mahomet His prophet.</q> +</p> + +<pb n='160'/><anchor id='Pg160'/> + +<p> +In 628, the last year of the great war, the Arab +sent his summons to Heraclius and Chosroës, bidding +them embrace Islam. The Persian replied with the +threat that he would put the Prophet in chains when +he had leisure. The Roman made no direct reply, +but sent Mahomet some small presents, neglecting the +theological bent of his message, and only thinking of +enlisting a possible political ally. Both answers were +regarded as equally unsatisfactory by the Prophet, and +he doomed the two empires to a similar destruction. +Next year [629] the first collision between the East-Romans +and the Arabs took place, a band of Moslems +having pushed a raid up to Muta, near the Dead Sea. +But it was not till three years later, when Mahomet +himself was already dead, that the storm fell on the +Roman Empire. In obedience to the injunctions of +his deceased master, the Caliph Abu Bekr prepared +two armies, and launched the one against Palestine +and the other against Persia. +</p> + +<p> +Till the last seven or eight years English writers +have been inclined to underrate the force and fury of +an army of Mahometan fanatics in the first flush of +their enthusiasm. Now that we have witnessed in +our own day the scenes of Tamaai and Abu Klea we +do so no longer. The rush that can break into a +British square bristling with Martini-Henry rifles is +not a thing to be despised. For the future we shall +not treat lightly the armies of the early Caliphs, nor +scoff with Gibbon at the feebleness of the troops who +were routed by them. If the soldiers of Queen +Victoria, armed with modern rifles and artillery, found +the fanatical Arab a formidable foe, let us not blame +<pb n='161'/><anchor id='Pg161'/> +the soldiers of Heraclius who faced the same enemy +with pike and sword alone. In the early engagements +between the East-Romans and the Saracens the +superior discipline and more regular arms of the one +were not a sufficient counterpoise to put against the +mad recklessness of the other. The Moslem wanted +to get killed, that he might reap the fruits of martyrdom +in the other world, and cared not how he died, +if he had first slain an enemy. The Roman fought +well enough; but he did not, like his adversary, yearn +to become a martyr, and the odds were on the man +who held his life the cheapest. +</p> + +<p> +The moment of the Saracen invasion was chosen +most unhappily for Heraclius. He had just paid off +the enormous debt that he had contracted to the +Church, and to do so had not only drained the treasury +but imposed some new and unwise taxes on the +harassed provincials, and disbanded many of his +veterans for the sake of economy. Syria and Egypt, +after spending twelve and ten years respectively under +the Persian yoke, had not yet got back into their old +organization. Both countries were much distracted +with religious troubles; the heretical sects of the +Monophysites and Jacobites who swarmed within +their boundaries had lifted up their heads under the +Persian rule, being relieved from the governmental +repression that had hitherto been their lot. They +seem to have constituted an actual majority of the +population, and bitterly resented the endeavours of +Heraclius to enforce orthodoxy in the reconquered +provinces. Their discontent was so bitter that during +the Saracen invasion they stood aside and refused to +<pb n='162'/><anchor id='Pg162'/> +help the imperial armies, or even on occasion aided the +alien enemy. +</p> + +<p> +The details of the Arab conquest of Syria have +not been preserved by the East-Roman historians, +who seem to have hated the idea of recording the +disasters of Christendom. The Moslems, on the other +hand, had not yet commenced to write, and ere +historians arose among them, the tale of the invasion +had been intertwined with a whole cycle of romantic +legends, fitter for the <q>Arabian Nights</q> than the +sober pages of a chronicle. +</p> + +<p> +But the main lines of the war can be reconstructed +with accuracy. The Saracen horde under Abu Obeida +emerged from the desert in the spring of 634 and +captured Bostra, the frontier city of Syria to the east, +by the aid of treachery from within. The Romans +collected an army to drive them off, but in July it +was defeated at Aijnadin [Gabatha] in Ituraea. +Thoroughly roused by this disaster Heraclius set all +the legions of the East marching, and sixty thousand +men crossed the Jordan and advanced to recover +Bostra. The Arabs met them at the fords of the +Hieromax, an Eastern tributary of the Jordan, and a +fierce battle raged all day. The Romans drove the +enemy back to the very gates of their camp, but a +last charge, headed by the fierce warrior Khaled, broke +their firm array when a victory seemed almost assured. +All the mailed horsemen of Heraclius, his Armenian +and Isaurian archers, his solid phalanx of infantry, +were insufficient to resist the wild rush of the Arabs. +Urged on by the cry of their general, <q>Paradise is +before you, the devil and hell-fire behind,</q> the fanatical +<pb n='163'/><anchor id='Pg163'/> +Orientals threw themselves on regiment after regiment +and drove it off the field. +</p> + +<p> +All Syria east of Jordan was lost in this fatal battle. +Damascus, its great stronghold, resisted desperately +but fell early in 635. Most of its population were +massacred. This disaster drew Heraclius into the +field, though he was now over sixty, and was beginning +to fail in health. He could do nothing; Emesa and +Heliopolis were sacked before his eyes, and after an +inglorious campaign he hurried to Jerusalem, took the +<q>True Cross</q> from its sanctuary, where he had +replaced it in triumph five years before, and retired to +Constantinople. Hardly had he reached it when the +news arrived that his discontented and demoralized +troops had proclaimed a rebel emperor, though the +enemy was before them. The rebel—his name was +Baanes—was put down, but meanwhile Antioch, +Chalcis, and all Northern Syria fell into the hands of +the Arabs. +</p> + +<p> +Worse yet was to follow. In the next year, 637, +Jerusalem fell, after a desperate resistance, protracted +for more than twelve months. The inhabitants +refused to surrender except to the Caliph in person, +and the aged Omar came over the desert, proud to take +possession of the city which Mahomet had reckoned +the holiest site on earth save Mecca alone. The +Patriarch Sophronius was commanded to guide the +conqueror around the city, and when he saw the rude +Arab standing by the altar of the Church of the Holy +Sepulchre, cried aloud, <q>Now is the Abomination of +Desolation, which was spoken of by Daniel the +prophet, truly in the Holy Place.</q> The Caliph did +<pb n='164'/><anchor id='Pg164'/> +not confiscate any of the great Christian sanctuaries, +but he took the site of Solomon's Temple, and erected +on it a magnificent Mosque, known ever since as the +Mosque of Omar. +</p> + +<p> +The tale of the last years of Heraclius is most +melancholy. The Emperor lay at Constantinople +slowly dying of dropsy, and his eldest son Constantine +had to take the field in his stead. But the young +prince received a crushing defeat in 638, when he +attempted to recover North Syria, and next year the +Arabs, under Amrou, pressed eastward across the +Isthmus of Suez, and threw themselves upon Egypt. +Two years more of fighting sufficed to conquer the +granary of the Roman Empire; and in February, +641, when Heraclius died, the single port of Alexandria +was the sole remaining possession of the +Romans in Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +The ten years' war which had torn Syria and Egypt +from the hands of the unfortunate Heraclius had +been even more fatal to his Eastern neighbour. The +Arabs had attacked the Persian kingdom at the same +moment that they fell on Syria: two great battles at +Kadesia [636] and Yalulah [637] sufficed to place all +Western Persia in the hands of the Moslems. King +Isdigerd, the last of the Sassanian line, raised his last +army in 641, and saw it cut to pieces at the decisive +field of Nehauend. He fled away to dwell as an +exile among the Turks, and all his kingdom as far as +the borders of India became the prey of the conquerors. +</p> + +<p> +Heraclius had married twice; by his first wife, +Eudocia, he left a single son, Constantine, who should +<pb n='165'/><anchor id='Pg165'/> +have been his sole heir. But he had taken a second +wife, and this wife was his own niece Martina. The +incestuous choice had provoked much scandal, and +was the one grave offence which could be brought +against Heraclius, whose life was in other respects +blameless. Martina, an ambitious and intriguing +woman, prevailed on her aged husband to make her +eldest son, Heracleonas, joint-heir with his half brother +Constantine. +</p> + +<p> +This arrangement, as might have been expected, +worked very badly. The court and army was at once +split up between the adherents of the two young +Emperors, and while the defence of the empire against +the Saracens should have been the sole care of the +East-Romans, they found themselves distracted by +fierce Court intrigues. Armed strife between the +Emperors seemed destined to break out, but after +reigning only a few months Constantine III. died. +It was rumoured far and wide that his step-mother +had poisoned him, to make the way clear for her own +son Heracleonas, who immediately proclaimed himself +sole emperor. The senate and the Byzantine populace +were both highly indignant at this usurpation, +for the deceased Constantine left a young son named +Constans, who was thus excluded from the throne +to which he was the natural heir. Heracleonas had +reigned alone no more than a few weeks when the +army of the East and the mob of Constantinople +were heard demanding in angry tones that Constans +should be crowned as his uncle's colleague. Heracleonas +was frightened into compliance, but his +submission only saved him for a year. In the summer +<pb n='166'/><anchor id='Pg166'/> +of 642 the senate decreed his deposition, and he was +seized by the adherents of Constans and sent into +exile, along with his mother Martina. The victorious +faction very cruelly ordered the tongue of the mother +and the nose of the son to be slit—the first instance +of that hateful Oriental practice being applied to +members of the royal house, but not the last. +</p> + +<p> +Constans II. was sole emperor from 642 to 668, +and his son and successor, Constantine IV., reigned +from 668 to 685. They were both strong, hard-headed +warrior princes, fit descendants of the gallant +Heraclius. Their main credit lies in the fact that +they fought unceasingly against the Saracen, and +preserved as a permanent possession of the empire +nearly every province that they had still remained +Roman at the death of Heraclius. During the +minority indeed of Constans II., Alexandria<note place='foot'>To the credit of Amrou and his Saracens it must be recorded that the +great Alexandrian Library was not burnt by them in sheer fanatical +wantonness as the legends tell. It had perished long before.</note> and +Aradus, the two last ports preserved by the Romans +in Egypt and Syria were lost. But the Saracens +advanced no further by land; the sands of the +African desert and the passes of Taurus were destined +to hold them back for many years. The times, however, +were still dangerous till the murder of the +Caliph Othman in 656, after which the outbreak of +the first civil war among the Moslems—the contest +of Ali and Moawiah for the Caliphate—gave the +empire a respite. Moawiah, who held the lands on +the Roman frontier—his rival's power lying further to +the east—secured a free hand against Ali, by making +<pb n='167'/><anchor id='Pg167'/> +peace with Constans. He even consented to pay +him a small annual subsidy so long as the truce +should last. This agreement was invaluable to the +empire. After twenty-seven years of incessant war +the mangled realm at last obtained an interval of +repose. It was something, too, that the Saracens +were induced to pause, and saw that the extension of +their conquests was not destined to spread at once +over the whole world. When they realized that their +victories were not to go on for ever, they lost the first +keenness of the fanatical courage which had made +them so terrible. +</p> + +<p> +Freed from the Saracen war, which had threatened +not merely to curtail, but to extinguish the empire, +Constans was at liberty to turn his attention to other +matters. It seems probable that it was at this +moment that the reorganization of the provinces of +the empire took place, which we find in existence in +the second half of the seventh century. The old +Roman names and boundaries, which had endured +since Diocletian's time, now disappear, and the +empire is found divided into new provinces with +strange denominations. They were military in their +origin, and each consisted of the district covered by +a large unit of soldiery—what we should call an army +corps. <q>Theme</q> meant both the corps and the +district which it defended, and the corps-commander +was also the provincial governor. There were six +corps in Asia, called the Armeniac, Anatolic, Thracesian, +Bucellarian, Cibyrrhæot, and Obsequian themes. +Of these the first two explain themselves, they were +the <q>army of Armenia</q> and the <q>army of the East</q>; +<pb n='168'/><anchor id='Pg168'/> +the Obsequian theme, quartered along the Propontis, +was so called because it was a kind of personal guard +for the Emperor and the home districts. The Thracesians +were the <q>Army of Thrace,</q> who in the stress +of the war had been drafted across to Asia to reinforce +the Eastern troops. The Bucellarii seem to have +been corps composed of natives and barbarian auxiliaries +mixed; they are heard of long before Constans, +and he probably did no more than unite them +and localize them in a single district. The Cibyrrhæot +theme alone gets its name from a town, the +port of Cibyra in Pamphylia, which must have been +the original headquarters of the South-Western Army +Corps. Its commander had a fleet always in his +charge, and his troops were often employed as +marines.<note place='foot'>Mr. Bury's excellent chapter on <q>Themes,</q> in vol. ii. of his <q>Later +Roman Empire,</q> is most convincing as to these very puzzling provinces +and their origin.</note> +</p> + +<p> +The western half of the empire seems to have +had six <q>Themes</q> also; they bear however old +and familiar names—Thrace, Hellas, Thessalonica, +Ravenna, Sicily, and Africa, and their names explain +their boundaries. In both halves of the empire there +were, beside the great themes, smaller districts under +the command of military governors, who had charge +of outlying posts, such as the passes of Taurus, or the +islands of Cyprus and Sardinia. Some of these afterwards +grew into independent themes. +</p> + +<p> +Thus came to an end the old imperial system of +dividing military authority and civil jurisdiction, +which Augustus had invented and Diocletian perpetuated. +<pb n='169'/><anchor id='Pg169'/> +Under stress of the fearful Saracenic +invasion the civil governors disappear, and for the +future a commander chosen for his military capacity +has also to discharge civil functions. +</p> + +<p> +Constans II., when once he had made peace with +Moawiah, would have done well to turn to the Balkan +Peninsula, and evict the Slavs from the districts south +of Haemus into which they had penetrated during +the reign of Heraclius. But he chose instead to do +no more than compel the Slavs to pay homage to +him and give tribute, and set out to turn westward, +and endeavour to drive the Lombards out of Italy. +Falling on the Duchy of Benevento, he took many +towns, and even laid siege to the capital. But he +failed to take it, and passed on to Rome, which had +not seen the face of an emperor for two hundred +years. When an emperor did appear he brought no +luck, for Constans signalized his visit by taking down +the bronze tiles of the Pantheon and sending them +off to Constantinople [664]. +</p> + +<p> +The Emperor lingered no less than five years in +the West, busied with the affairs of Italy and Africa, +till the Constantinopolitans began to fear that he +would make Rome or Syracuse his capital. But in 668 +he was assassinated in a most strange manner. <q>As +he bathed in the baths called Daphne, Andreas his +bathing attendant smote him on the head with his soap-box, +and fled away.</q> The blow was fatal, Constans +died, and Constantine his son reigned in his stead. +</p> + +<p> +Constantine IV., known as Pogonatus, <q>the +Bearded,</q> reigned for seventeen years, of which more +than half were spent in one long struggle with the +<pb n='170'/><anchor id='Pg170'/> +Saracens. Moawiah, the first of the Ommeyades, had +now made himself sole Caliph; the civil wars of the +Arabs were now over, and once more they fell on the +empire. Constantine's reign opened disastrously, with +simultaneous attacks by the armies and fleets of +Moawiah on Africa, Sicily, and Asia Minor. But +this was only the prelude; in 673 the Caliph made +ready an expedition, the like of which had never yet +been undertaken by the Saracens. A great fleet and +land army started from Syria to undertake the siege +of Constantinople itself, an enterprise which the +Moslems had not yet attempted. It was headed by +the general Abderrahman, and accompanied by Yezid, +the Caliph's son and heir. The fleet beat the imperial +navy off the sea, forced the passage of the +Dardanelles, and took Cyzicus. Using that city as +its base, it proceeded to blockade the Bosphorus. +</p> + +<p> +The great glory of Constantine IV. is that he withstood, +defeated, and drove away the mighty armament +of Moawiah. For four years the investment of +Constantinople lingered on, and the stubborn resistance +of the garrison seemed unable to do more than +stave off the evil day. But the happy invention of +fire-tubes for squirting inflammable liquids (probably +the famous <q>Greek-fire</q> of which we first hear at +this time), gave the Emperor's fleet the superiority in +a decisive naval battle. At the same time a great +victory was won on land and thirty thousand Arabs +slain. Abderrahman had fallen during the siege, +and his successors had to lead back the mere wrecks +of a fleet and army to the disheartened Caliph. +</p> + +<p> +It is a thousand pities that the details of this, the +<pb n='171'/><anchor id='Pg171'/> +second great siege of Constantinople, are not better +known. But there is no good contemporary historian +to give us the desired information. If he had but +met with his <q>sacred bard,</q> Constantine IV. might +have gone down to posterity in company with Heraclius +and Leo the Isaurian, as the third great hero of +the East-Roman Empire. +</p> + +<p> +The year after the raising of the great siege, Moawiah +sued for peace, restored all his conquests, and +offered a huge war indemnity, promising to pay +3000 lbs. of gold per annum for thirty years. The +report of the triumph of Constantine went all over +the world, and ambassadors came even from the +distant Franks and Khazars to congratulate him on +the victory which had saved Eastern Christendom +from the Arab. +</p> + +<p> +While Constantine was defending his capital from +the Eastern enemy, the wild tribes of his northern +border took the opportunity of swooping down on +the European provinces, whose troops had been drawn +off to resist the Arabs. The Slavs came down from +the inland, and laid siege for two years to Thessalonica, +which was only relieved from their attacks +when Constantine had finished his war with Moawiah. +But a far more dangerous attack was made by +another enemy in the eastern part of the Balkan +Peninsula. The Bulgarians, a nomad tribe of Finnish +blood, who dwelt in the region of the Pruth and +Dniester, came over the Danube, subdued the Slavs +of Moesia, and settled between the Danube and the +Eastern Balkans, where they have left their name till +this day. They united the scattered Slavonic tribes +<pb n='172'/><anchor id='Pg172'/> +of the region into a single strong state, and the new +Bulgarian kingdom was long destined to be a troublesome +neighbour to the empire. The date 679 counts +as the first year of the reign of Isperich first king of +Bulgaria. Constantine IV. was too exhausted by his +long war with Moawiah to make any serious attempt +to drive the Bulgarians back over the Danube, and +acquiesced in the new settlement. +</p> + +<p> +The last six years of Constantine's reign were spent +in peace. The only notable event that took place in +them was the meeting at Constantinople of the Sixth +Oecumenical Council in 680-1. At this Synod, the +doctrine of the Monothelites, who attributed but one +will to Our Lord, was solemnly condemned by the +united Churches of the East and West. The holders +of Monothelite doctrines, dead and alive, were +solemnly anathematised, among them Pope Honorius +of Rome, who in a previous generation had consented +to the heresy. +</p> + +<p> +Constantine IV. died in 685, before he had reached +his thirty-sixth year, leaving his throne to his eldest +son Justinian, a lad of sixteen. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='173'/><anchor id='Pg173'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XIII. The First Anarchy.</head> + +<p> +Justinian II., the last of the house of Heraclius, +was a sovereign of a different type from any emperor +that we have yet encountered in the annals of the +Eastern Empire. He was a bold, reckless, callous, +and selfish young man, with a firm determination to +assert his own individuality and have his own way,—he +was, in short, of the stuff of which tyrants are +made. Justinian was but seventeen when he came to +the throne, but he soon showed that he intended to +rule the empire after his own good pleasure long +before he had begun to learn the lessons of state-craft. +</p> + +<p> +Ere he had reached his twenty-first year Justinian +had plunged into war with the Bulgarians. He +attacked them suddenly, inflicted several defeats on +their king, and took no less than thirty thousand +prisoners, whom he sent over to Asia, and forced to +enlist in the army of Armenia. He next picked a +quarrel with the Saracen Caliph on the most frivolous +grounds. The annual tribute due by the treaty of 679 +had hitherto been paid in Roman <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>solidi</foreign>, but in 692 +<pb n='174'/><anchor id='Pg174'/> +Abdalmalik tendered it in new gold coins of his own +mintage, bearing verses of the Koran. Justinian refused +to receive them, and declared war. +</p> + +<p> +His second venture in the field was disastrous: his +unwilling recruits from Bulgaria deserted to the +enemy, when he met the Saracens at Sebastopolis in +Cilicia, and the Roman army was routed with great +slaughter. The two subsequent campaigns were +equally unsuccessful, and the troops of the Caliph +harried Cappadocia far and wide. +</p> + +<p> +Justinian's wars depleted his treasury; yet he persisted +in plunging into expensive schemes of building +at the same time, and was driven to collect money +by the most reckless extortion. He employed two +unscrupulous ministers, Theodotus, the accountant +general—an ex-abbot who had deserted his monastery—and +the eunuch Stephanus, the keeper of the privy +purse. These men were to Justinian what Ralph +Flambard was to William Rufus, or Empson and +Dudley to Henry VII: they raised him funds by +flagrant extortion and illegal stretching of the law. +Both were violent and cruel: Theodotus is said to +have hung recalcitrant tax-payers up by ropes above +smoky fires till they were nearly stifled. Stephanus +thrashed and stoned every one who fell into his hands; +he is reported to have actually administered a +whipping to the empress-dowager during the absence +of her son, and Justinian did not punish him when he +returned. +</p> + +<p> +While the emperor's financial expedients were +making him hated by the moneyed classes, he was +rendering himself no less unpopular in the army. +</p> + +<pb n='175'/><anchor id='Pg175'/> + +<p> +After his ill-success in the Saracen war, he began to +execute or imprison his officers, and to decimate his +beaten troops: to be employed by him in high command +was almost as dangerous as it was to be +appointed a general-in-chief during the dictatorship +of Robespierre. +</p> + +<p> +In 695 the cup of Justinian's iniquities was full. +An officer named Leontius being appointed, to his +great dismay, general of the <q>theme</q> of Hellas, was +about to set out to assume his command. As he +parted from his friends he exclaimed that his days +were numbered, and that he should be expecting the +order for his execution to arrive at any moment. +Then a certain monk named Paul stood forth, and +bade him save himself by a bold stroke; if he would +aim a blow at Justinian he would find the people +and the army ready to follow him. +</p> + +<p> +Leontius took the monk's counsel, and rushing to +the state prison, at the head of a few friends, broke it +open and liberated some hundreds of political +prisoners. A mob joined him, he seized the +Cathedral of St. Sophia, and then marched on the +palace. No one would fight for Justinian, who was +caught and brought before the rebel leader in company +with his two odious ministers. Leontius bade +his nose be slit, and banished him to Cherson. Theodotus +and Stephanus he handed over to the mob, who +dragged them round the city and burnt them alive. +</p> + +<p> +Twenty years of anarchy followed the usurpation of +Leontius. The new emperor was not a man of +capacity, and had been driven into rebellion by his +fears rather than his ambition. He held the throne +<pb n='176'/><anchor id='Pg176'/> +barely three years, amid constant revolts at home and +defeats abroad. The Asiatic frontier was ravaged by +the armies of Abdalmalik, and at the same time a +great disaster befel the western half of the empire. +A Saracen army from Egypt forced its way into Africa, +where the Romans had still maintained themselves by +hard fighting while the emperors of the house of +Heraclius reigned. They reduced all its fortresses +one after the other, and finally took Carthage in 697—a +hundred and sixty-five years after it had been +restored to the empire by Belisarius. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-20.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Church Of The Twelve Apostles At Thessalonica. +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<pb n='177'/><anchor id='Pg177'/> + +<p> +The larger part of the army of Africa escaped by +sea from Carthage when the city fell. The officers +in command sailed for Constantinople, and during +their voyage plotted to dethrone Leontius. They +enlisted in their scheme Tiberius Apsimarus, who +commanded the imperial fleet in the Aegean, and proclaimed +him emperor when he joined them with his +galleys. The troops of Leontius betrayed the gates +of the capital to the followers of the rebel admiral, +and Apsimarus seized Constantinople. He proclaimed +himself emperor by the title of Tiberius, third +of that name, and condemned his captive rival to the +same fate that he himself had inflicted on Justinian +II. Accordingly the nose of Leontius was slit, and +he was placed in confinement in a monastery. +</p> + +<p> +Tiberius III. was more fortunate in his reign than +his predecessor: his troops gained several victories +over the Saracens, recovered the frontier districts +which Justinian II. and Leontius had lost, and even +invaded Northern Syria. But these successes did not +save Tiberius from suffering the same doom which +had fallen on Justinian and Leontius. The people +and army were out of hand, the ephemeral emperor +could count on no loyalty, and any shock was sufficient +to upset his precarious throne. +</p> + +<p> +We must now turn to the banished Justinian, who +had been sent into exile with his nose mutilated. He +had been transported to Cherson, the Greek town in +the Crimea, close to the modern Sebastopol, which +formed the northernmost outpost of civilization, and +enjoyed municipal liberty under the suzerainty of the +empire. Justinian displayed in his day of adversity +<pb n='178'/><anchor id='Pg178'/> +a degree of capacity which astonished his contemporaries. +He fled from Cherson and took refuge +with the Khan of the Khazars, the Tartar tribe who +dwelt east of the Sea of Azof. With this prince the +exile so ingratiated himself that he received in +marriage his sister, who was baptized and christened +Theodora. But Tiberius III. sent great sums of +money to the Khazar to induce him to surrender +Justinian, and the treacherous barbarian determined +to accept the bribe, and sent secret orders to two of +his officers to seize his brother-in-law. The emperor +learnt of the plot through his wife, and saved himself +by the bold expedient of going at once to one of the +two Khazar chiefs and asking for a secret interview. +When they were alone he fell on him and strangled +him, and then calling on the second Khazar served +him in the same fashion, before the Khan's orders +had been divulged to any one. +</p> + +<p> +This gave him time to escape, and he fled in a +fishing boat out into the Euxine with a few friends +and servants who had followed him into exile. While +they were out at sea a storm arose, and the boat +began to fill. One of his companions cried to +Justinian to make his peace with God, and pardon +his enemies ere he died. But the Emperor's stern +soul was not bent by the tempest. <q>May God drown +me here,</q> he answered, <q>if I spare a single one of my +enemies if ever I get to land!</q> The boat weathered +the storm, and Justinian survived to carry out his +cruel oath. He came ashore in the land of the +Bulgarians, and soon won favour with their king +Terbel, who wanted a good excuse for invading the +<pb n='179'/><anchor id='Pg179'/> +empire, and found it in the pretence of supporting +the exiled monarch. With a Bulgarian army at his +back Justinian appeared before Constantinople, and +obtained an entrance at night near the gate of +Blachernæ. There was no fighting, for the adherents +of Tiberius were as unready to strike a blow for their +master as the followers of Leontius had been [705 +<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>] +</p> + +<p> +So Justinian recovered his throne without fighting, +for the people had by this time half forgotten his +tyranny, and regretted the rule of the house of +Heraclius. But they were soon to find out that they +had erred in submitting to the exile, and should have +resisted him at all hazards. Justinian came back in +a relentless mood, bent on nothing but revenging his +mutilated nose and his ten years of exile. His first +act was to send for the two usurpers who had sat +on his throne: Leontius was brought out from his +monastery, and Tiberius caught as he tried to flee +into Asia. Justinian had them led round the city in +chains, and then bound them side by side before his +throne in the Cathisma, the imperial box at the +Hippodrome. There he sat in state, using their prostrate +bodies as a footstool, while his adherents chanted +the verse from the ninety-first Psalm, <q>Thou shalt +tread on the lion and asp: the young lion and dragon +shalt thou trample under thy feet.</q> The allusion was +to the names of the usurpers, the Lion and Asp being +Leontius and Apsimarus! +</p> + +<p> +After this strange exhibition the two ex-emperors +were beheaded. Their execution began a reign of +terror, for Justinian had his oath to keep, and was set +<pb n='180'/><anchor id='Pg180'/> +on wreaking vengeance on every one who had been +concerned in his deposition. He hanged all the chief +officers and courtiers of Leontius, and put out the +eyes of the patriarch who had crowned him. Then +he set to work to hunt out meaner victims: many +prominent citizens of Constantinople were sown up in +sacks and drowned in the Bosphorus. Soldiers were +picked out by the dozen and beheaded. A special +expedition was sent by sea to sack Cherson, the city +of the Emperor's exile, because he had a grudge +against its citizens. The chief men were caught and +sent to the capital, where Justinian had them bound +to spits and roasted. +</p> + +<p> +These atrocities were mere samples of the general +conduct of Justinian. In a few years he had made +himself so much detested that it might be said that +he had been comparatively popular in the days of his +first reign. +</p> + +<p> +The end came into 711, when a general named +Philippicus took arms, and seized Constantinople +while Justinian was absent at Sinope. The army of +the tyrant laid down their arms when Philippicus +approached, and he was led forth and beheaded +without further delay—an end too good for such a +monster. The conqueror also sought out and slew +his little son Tiberius, whom the sister of the Khan +of the Khazars had borne to him during his exile. +So ended the house of Heraclius, after it had sat for +five generations and one hundred and one years on +the throne of Constantinople. +</p> + +<p> +The six years which followed were purely anarchical. +Justinian's wild and wicked freaks had completed the +<pb n='181'/><anchor id='Pg181'/> +demoralization which had already set in before his +restoration. Everything in the army and the state +was completely disorganized and out of gear. It +required a hero to restore the machinery of government +and evolve order out of chaos. But the hero +was not at once forthcoming, and the confusion went +on increasing. +</p> + +<p> +To replace Justinian by Philippicus was only to +substitute King Log for King Stork. The new +emperor was a mere man of pleasure, and spent his +time in personal enjoyment, letting affairs of state +slide on as best they might. In less than two years +he was upset by a conspiracy which placed on the +throne Artemius Anastasius, his own chief secretary. +Philippicus was blinded, and compelled to exchange +the pleasures of the palace for the rigours of a +monastery. But the Court intrigue which dethroned +Philippicus did not please the army, and within two +years Anastasius was overthrown by the soldiers of +the Obsequian theme, who gave the imperial crown +to Theodosius of Adrammytium, a respectable but +obscure commissioner of taxes. More merciful than +any of his ephemeral predecessors, Theodosius III. dismissed +Anastasius unharmed, after compelling him to +take holy orders. +</p> + +<p> +Meanwhile the organization of the empire was +visibly breaking up. <q>The affairs both of the realm +and the city were neglected and decaying, civil +education was disappearing, and military discipline +dissolved.</q> The Bulgarian and Saracen commenced +once more to ravage the frontier provinces, and every +year their ravages penetrated further inland. The +<pb n='182'/><anchor id='Pg182'/> +Caliph Welid was so impressed with the opportunity +offered to him, that he commenced to equip a great +armament in the ports of Syria with the express purpose +of laying siege to Constantinople. No one +hindered him, for the army raised to serve against +him turned aside to engage in the civil war between +Anastasius and Theodosius. The landmarks of the +Saracens' conquests by land are found in the falls of +the great cities of Tyana [710], Amasia [712], and +Antioch-in-Pisidia [713]. They had penetrated into +Phrygia by 716, and were besieging the fortress of +Amorium with every expectation of success, when at +last there appeared the man who was destined to +save the East-Roman Empire from a premature dismemberment. +</p> + +<p> +This was Leo the Isaurian, one of the few military +officers who had made a great reputation amid the +fearful disasters of the last ten years. He was now +general of the <q>Anatolic</q> theme, the province which +included the old Cappadocia and Lycaonia. After +inducing the Saracens, more by craft than force, to +raise the siege of Amorium, Leo disowned his +allegiance to the incapable Theodosius and marched +toward the Bosphorus. +</p> + +<p> +The unfortunate emperor, who had not coveted the +throne he occupied, nor much desired to retain it, +allowed his army to risk one engagement with the +troops of Leo. When it was beaten he summoned +the Patriarch, the Senate, and the chief officers of the +court, pointed out to them that a great Saracen +invasion was impending, that civil war had begun, +and that he himself did not wish to remain responsible +<pb n='183'/><anchor id='Pg183'/> +for the conduct of affairs. With his consent the +assembly resolved to offer the crown to Leo, who +formally accepted it early in the spring of 717. +</p> + +<p> +Theodosius retired unharmed to Ephesus, where he +lived for many years. When he died the single word +ΥΓΙΕΙΑ, <q>Health,</q> was inscribed on his tomb according +to his last directions. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='184'/><anchor id='Pg184'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XIV. The Saracens Turned Back.</head> + +<p> +By dethroning Theodosius III. on the very eve of +the great Saracen invasion, Leo the Isaurian took +upon himself the gravest of responsibilities. With a +demoralized army, which of late had been more +accustomed to revolt than to fight, a depleted treasury, +and a disorganized civil service, he had to face an +attack even more dangerous than that which Constantine +IV. had beaten off thirty years before. +Constantine too, the fourth of a race of hereditary +rulers, had a secure throne and a loyal army, while +Leo was a mere adventurer who had seized the +crown only a few months before he was put to the +test of the sword. +</p> + +<p> +The reigning Caliph was now Suleiman, the seventh +of the house of the Ommeyades. He had strained +all the resources of his wide empire to provide a fleet +and army adequate to the great enterprise which he +had taken in hand. The chief command of the +expedition was given to his brother Moslemah, who +led an army of eighty thousand men from Tarsus +across the centre of Asia Minor, and marched on +<pb n='185'/><anchor id='Pg185'/> +the Hellespont, taking the strong city of Pergamus +on his way. Meanwhile a fleet of eighteen hundred +sail under the vizier Suleiman, namesake of his +master the Caliph, sailed from Syria for the Aegean, +carrying a force no less than that which marched by +land. Fleet and army met at Abydos on the Hellespont +without mishap, for Leo had drawn back all his +resources, naval and military, to guard his capital. +</p> + +<p> +In August, 717, only five months after his coronation, +the Isaurian saw the vessels of the Saracens sailing +up the Propontis, while their army had crossed into +Thrace and was approaching the city from the +western side. Moslemah caused his troops to build +a line of circumvallation from the sea to the Golden +Horn, cutting Constantinople off from all communication +with Thrace, while Suleiman blocked the +southern exit of the Bosphorus, and tried to close it +on the northern side also, so as to prevent any +supplies coming by water from the Euxine. Leo, +however, sallied forth from the Golden Horn with his +galleys and fire-vessels bearing the dreaded Greek +fire, and did so much harm to the detachment of +Saracen ships which had gone northward up the +strait, that the blockade was never properly established +on that side. +</p> + +<p> +The Saracens relied more on starving out the city +than on taking it by storm: they had come provided +with everything necessary for a blockade of many +months, and sat down as if intending to remain before +the walls for an indefinite time. But Constantinople +had been provisioned on an even more lavish scale; +each family had been bidden to lay in a stock of corn +<pb n='186'/><anchor id='Pg186'/> +for no less a period than two years, and famine +appeared in the camp of the besiegers long ere it was +felt in the houses of the besieged. Nor had Moslemah +and Suleiman reckoned with the climate. +Hard winters occasionally occur by the Black Sea, as +our own army learnt to its cost in the Crimean War. +But the Saracens were served even worse by the +winter of 717-18, when the frost never ceased for +twelve weeks. Leo might have boasted, like Czar +Nicholas, that December, January, and February were +his best generals—for these months wrought fearful +havoc in the Saracen host. The lightly clad +Orientals could not stand the weather, and died off +like flies of dysentery and cold. The vizier Suleiman +was among those who perished. Meanwhile the +Byzantines suffered little, being covered by roofs all +the winter. +</p> + +<p> +When next spring came round Moslemah would +have had to raise the siege if he had not been heavily +reinforced both by sea and land. A fleet of reserve +arrived from Egypt, and a large army came up from +Tarsus and occupied the Asiatic shores of the Bosphorus. +</p> + +<p> +But Leo did not despair, and took the offensive in +the summer. His fire-ships stole out and burnt the +Egyptian squadron as it lay at anchor. A body of +troops landing on the Bithynian coast, surprised and +cut to pieces the Saracen army which watched the +other side of the strait. Soon, too, famine began to +assail the enemy; their stores of provisions were now +giving out, and they had harried the neighbourhood so +fiercely that no more food could be got from near at +<pb n='187'/><anchor id='Pg187'/> +hand, while if they sent foraging parties too far from +their lines they were cut off by the peasantry. At last +Moslemah suffered a disaster which compelled him to +abandon his task. The Bulgarians came down over +the Balkans, and routed the covering army which +observed Adrianople and protected the siege on the +western side. No less than twenty thousand Saracens +fell, by the testimony of the Arab historians +themselves, and the survivors were so cowed that +Moslemah gave the order to retire. The fleet ferried +the land army back into Asia, and both forces started +homeward. Moslemah got back to Tarsus with only +thirty thousand men at his back, out of more than +a hundred thousand who had started with him or +come to him as reinforcements. The fleet fared even +worse: it was caught by a tempest in the Aegean, and +so fearfully shattered that it is said that only five +vessels out of the whole Armada got back to Syria +unharmed. +</p> + +<p> +Thus ended the last great endeavour of the Saracen +to destroy Constantinople. The task was never +essayed again, though for three hundred and fifty +years more wars were constantly breaking out +between the Emperor and the Caliph. In the future +they were always to be border struggles, not desperate +attempts to strike at the heart of the empire, +and conquer Europe for Islam. To Leo, far more +than to his contemporary the Frank Charles Martel, +is the delivery of Christendom from the Moslem +danger to be attributed. Charles turned back a +plundering horde sent out from an outlying province +of the Caliphate. Leo repulsed the grand-army of +<pb n='188'/><anchor id='Pg188'/> +the Saracens, raised from the whole of their eastern +realms, and commanded by the brother of their +monarch. Such a defeat was well calculated to +impress on their fatalistic minds the idea that Constantinople +was not destined by providence to fall +into their hands. They were by this time far removed +from the frantic fanaticism which had inspired their +grandfathers, and the crushing disaster they had now +sustained deterred them from any repetition of the +attempt. Life and power had grown so pleasant to +them that martyrdom was no longer an <q>end in +itself</q>; they preferred, if checked, to live and fight +another day. +</p> + +<p> +Leo was, however, by no means entirely freed from +the Saracens by his victory of 718. At several epochs +in the latter part of his reign he was troubled by +invasions of his border provinces. None of them, +however, were really dangerous, and after a victory +won over the main army of the raiders in 739 at +Acroinon in Phrygia, Asia Minor was finally freed +from their presence. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='189'/><anchor id='Pg189'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XV. The Iconoclasts. (<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 720-802.)</head> + +<p> +If Leo the Isaurian had died on the day on which +the army of the Caliph raised the siege of Constantinople +it would have been well for his reputation in +history. Unhappily for himself, though happily +enough for the East-Roman realm, he survived yet +twenty years to carry through a series of measures +which were in his eyes not less important than the +repulse of the Moslems from his capital. Historians +have given to the scheme of reform which he took in +hand the name of the Iconoclastic movement, because +of the opposition to the worship of images which +formed one of the most prominent features of his +action. +</p> + +<p> +For the last hundred years the empire had been +declining in culture and civilization; literature and +art seemed likely to perish in the never-ending clash +of arms: the old-Roman jurisprudence was being +forgotten, the race of educated civil servants was +showing signs of extinction, the governors of provinces +were now without exception rough soldiers, +<pb n='190'/><anchor id='Pg190'/> +not members of that old bureaucracy whose Roman +traditions had so long kept the empire together. Not +least among the signs of a decaying civilization were +the gross superstitions which had grown up of late in +the religious world. Christianity had begun to be +permeated by those strange mediæval fancies which +would have been as inexplicable to the old-Roman +mind of four centuries before as they are to the mind +of the nineteenth century. A rich crop of puerile +legends, rites, and observances had grown up of late +around the central truths of religion, unnoticed and +unguarded against by theologians, who devoted all +their energies to the barren Monothelite and Monophysite +controversies. Image-worship and relic-worship +in particular had developed with strange +rapidity, and assumed the shape of mere Fetishism. +Every ancient picture or statue was now announced +as both miraculously produced and endued with +miraculous powers. These wonder-working pictures +and statues were now adored as things in themselves +divine: the possession of one of them made the +fortune of a church or monastery, and the tangible +object of worship seems to have been regarded with +quite as much respect as the saint whose memory it +recalled. The freaks to which image-worship led +were in some cases purely grotesque; it was, for +example, not unusual to select a picture as the godfather +of a child in baptism, and to scrape off a little +of its paint and produce it at the ceremony to +represent the saint. Even patriarchs and bishops +ventured to assert that the hand of a celebrated +representation of the Virgin distilled fragrant balsam. +<pb n='191'/><anchor id='Pg191'/> +The success of the Emperor Heraclius in his Persian +campaign was ascribed by the vulgar not so much to +his military talent as to the fact that he carried with +him a small picture of the Virgin, which had fallen +from heaven! +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-21.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Bishops, Monks, Kings, Laymen, And Women, Adoring The +Madonna. (<hi rend='italic'>From a Byzantine MS.</hi>) +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +All these vain beliefs, inculcated by the clergy and +eagerly believed by the mob, were repulsive to the +educated laymen of the higher classes. Their dislike +for vain superstitions was emphasized by the influence +<pb n='192'/><anchor id='Pg192'/> +of Mahometanism on their minds. For a hundred +years the inhabitants of the Asiatic provinces of the +empire had been in touch with a religion of which the +noblest feature was its emphatic denunciation of +idolatry under every shape and form. An East-Roman, +when taunted by his Moslem neighbour for +clinging to a faith which had grown corrupt and +idolatrous, could not but confess that there was too +much ground for the accusation, when he looked round +on the daily practice of his countrymen. +</p> + +<p> +Hence there had grown up among the stronger +minds of the day a vigorous reaction against the prevailing +superstitions. It was more visible among the +laity than among the clergy, and far more widespread +in Asia than in Europe. In Leo the Isaurian this +tendency stood incarnate in its most militant form, +and he left the legacy of his enthusiasm to his descendants. +Seven years after the relief of Constantinople +he commenced his crusade against superstition. +The chief practices which he attacked were the worship +of images and the ascription of divine honours to +saints—more especially in the form of Mariolatry. +His son Constantine, more bold and drastic than his +father, endeavoured to suppress monasticism also, because +he found the monks the most ardent defenders +of images; but Leo's own measures went no further +than a determined attempt to put down image-worship. +</p> + +<p> +The struggle which he inaugurated began in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> +725, when he ordered the removal of all the images +in the capital. Rioting broke out at once, and the +officials who were taking down the great figure of +<pb n='193'/><anchor id='Pg193'/> +Christ Crucified, over the palace-gate, were torn to +pieces by a mob. The Emperor replied by a series of +executions, and carried out his policy all over the +empire by the aid of armed force. +</p> + +<p> +The populace, headed by the monks, opposed a +bitter resistance to the Emperor's doings, more +especially in the European provinces. They set the +wildest rumours afloat concerning his intentions; it +was currently reported that the Jews had bought +his consent to image-breaking, and that the Caliph +Yezid had secretly converted him to Mahometanism. +Though Leo's orthodoxy in matters doctrinal was +unquestioned, and though he had no objection to the +representation of the cross, as distinguished from the +crucifix, he was accused of a design to undermine the +foundations of Christianity. Arianism was the least +offensive fault laid to his account. The Emperor's +enemies did not confine themselves to passive resistance +to his crusade against images. Dangerous +revolts broke out in Greece and Italy, and were not +put down without much fighting. In Italy, indeed, +the imperial authority was shaken to its foundations, +and never thoroughly re-established. The Popes +consistently opposed the Iconoclastic movement, and +by their denunciation of it placed themselves at the +head of the anti-imperial party, nor did they shrink +from allying themselves with the Lombards, who +were now, as always, endeavouring to drive the East-Roman +garrisons from Ravenna and Naples. +</p> + +<p> +The hatred which Leo provoked might have been +fatal to him had he not possessed the full confidence +of the army. But his great victory over the Saracens +<pb n='194'/><anchor id='Pg194'/> +had won him such popularity in the camp, that he +was able to despise the wrath of the populace, and +carry out his schemes to their end. Beside instituting +ecclesiastical reforms he was a busy worker in all +the various departments of the administration. He +published a new code of laws, the first since Justinian, +written in Greek instead of Latin, as the latter +language was now quite extinct in the Balkan +Peninsula. He reorganized the finances of the +empire, which had fallen into hopeless confusion in +the anarchy between 695 and 717. The army had +much of his care, but it was more especially in the +civil administration of the empire that he seems to +have left his mark. From Leo's day the gradual +process of decay which had been observable since the +time of Justinian seems to come to an end, and for +three hundred years the reorganized East-Roman +state developed a power and energy which appear +most surprising after the disasters of the unhappy +seventh century. Having once lived down the +Saracen danger, the empire reasserted its ancient +mastery in the East, until the coming of the Turks in +the eleventh century. We should be glad to have +the details of Leo's reforms, but most unhappily the +monkish chroniclers who described his reign have +slurred over all his good deeds, in order to enlarge to +more effect on the iniquities of his crusade against +image-worship. The effects of his work are to be traced +mainly by noting the improved and well-ordered +state of the empire after his death, and comparing +it with the anarchy that had preceded his accession. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-22.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Representation Of The Madonna Enthroned. +(<hi rend='italic'>From a Byzantine Ivory.</hi>) +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Leo died in 740, leaving the throne to his son, +<pb n='196'/><anchor id='Pg196'/> +Constantine V., whom he had brought up to follow +in his own footsteps. The new emperor was a good +soldier and a capable man of business, but his main +interest in life centred in the struggle against image-worship. +Where Leo had chastised the adherents of +superstition with whips Constantine chastised them +with scorpions. He was a true persecutor, and +executed not only rioters and traitors, as his father +had done, but all prominent opponents of his policy +who provoked his wrath. Hence he incurred an +amount of hatred even greater than that which encompassed +Leo III., and his very name has been +handed down to history with the insulting byword +<foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>Copronymus</foreign> tacked on to it. +</p> + +<p> +Though strong and clever, Constantine was far +below his father in ability, and his reign was marked +by one or two disasters, though its general tenor was +successful enough. Two defeats in Bulgaria were +comparatively unimportant, but a noteworthy though +not a dangerous loss was suffered when Ravenna and +all the other East-Roman possessions in Central Italy +were captured by the Lombards in <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 750. At this +time Pope Stephen, when attacked by the same enemy, +sent for aid to Pipin the Frank, instead of calling on +the Emperor, and for the future the papacy was for all +practical purposes dependent on the Franks and not +on the empire. The loss of the distant exarchate of +Ravenna seemed a small thing, however, when placed +by the side of Constantine's successes against the +Saracens, Slavs, and Bulgarians, all of whom he beat +back with great slaughter on the numerous occasions +when they invaded the empire. +</p> + +<pb n='197'/><anchor id='Pg197'/> + +<p> +But in the minds both of Constantine himself and +of his contemporaries, his dealings with things religious +were the main feature of his reign. He collected +a council of 338 bishops at Constantinople in 761, +at which image-worship was declared contrary to all +Christian doctrine, and after obtaining this condemnation, +attacked it everywhere as a heresy and not +merely a superstition. In the following year, finding +the monks the strongest supporters of the images, he +commenced a crusade against monasticism. He first +forbade the reception of any novices, and shortly +afterwards begun to close monasteries wholesale. We +are told that he compelled many of their inmates to +marry by force of threats; others were exiled to +Cyprus by the hundred; not a few were flogged and +imprisoned, and a certain number of prominent men +were put to death. These unwise measures had the +natural effect: the monks were everywhere regarded +as martyrs, and the image-worship which they +supported grew more than ever popular with the +masses. +</p> + +<p> +While still in the full vigour of his persecuting +enthusiasm, Constantine Copronymus died in 775, +leaving the throne to his son, Leo IV., an Iconoclast, +like all his race, but one who imitated the milder +measures of his grandfather rather than the more +violent methods of his father. Leo was consumptive +and died young, after a reign of little more than four +years, in which nothing occurred of importance save +a great victory over the Saracens in 776. His crown +fell to his son, Constantine VI., a child of ten, while +the Empress-Dowager Irene became sole regent, and +<pb n='198'/><anchor id='Pg198'/> +her name was associated with that of her son in all +acts of state. +</p> + +<p> +The Isaurian dynasty was destined to end in a +fearful and unnatural tragedy. The Empress Irene +was clever, domineering, and popular. The irresponsible +power of her office of regent filled her with +overweening ambition. She courted the favour of +the populace and clergy by stopping the persecution +of the image-worshippers, and filled all offices, civil +and military, with creatures of her own. For ten +years she ruled undisturbed, and grew so full of pride +and self-confidence that she looked forward with +dismay to the prospect of her son's attaining his +majority and claiming his inheritance. Even when +he had reached the age of manhood she kept him +still excluded from state affairs, and compelled him +to marry, against his will, a favourite of her own. +Constantine was neither precocious nor unfilial, but +in his twenty-second year he rebelled against his +mother's dictation, and took his place at the helm of +the state. Irene had actually striven to oppose him +by armed force, but he pardoned her, and after +secluding her for a short time, restored her to her +former dignity. The unnatural mother was far from +acquiescing in her son's elevation, and still dreamed +of reasserting herself. She took advantage of the +evil repute which Constantine won by a disastrous +war with Bulgaria, and an unhappy quarrel with the +Church, on the question of his divorce from the wife +who had been forced upon him. More especially, +however, she relied on her popularity with the +multitude, which had been won by stopping the +<pb n='199'/><anchor id='Pg199'/> +persecution of the image-worshippers during her +regency, for Constantine had resumed the policy of +his ancestors and developed strong Iconoclastic +tendencies when he came to his own. +</p> + +<p> +In 797 Irene imagined that things were ripe for +attacking her son, and conspirators, acting by her +orders, seized the young emperor, blinded him, and +immured him in a monastery before any of his +adherents were able to come to his aid. Thus ended +the rule of the Isaurian dynasty. Constantine himself, +however, survived many years as a blind monk, and +lived to see the ends of no less than five of his +successors. +</p> + +<p> +The wicked Irene sat on her ill-gained throne for +some five troublous years, much vexed by rebellion +abroad and palace intrigues at home. It is astonishing +that her reign lasted so long, but it would seem +that her religious orthodoxy atoned in the eyes of +many of her subjects for the monstrous crime of her +usurpation. The end did not come till 802, when +Nicephorus, her grand treasurer, having gained over +some of the eunuchs and other courtiers about her +person, quietly seized her and immured her in a +monastery in the island of Chalke. No blow was +struck by any one in the cause of the wicked empress, +and Nicephorus quietly ascended the throne. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-23.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Details Of St. Sophia.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Though containing little that is memorable in +itself, the reign of Irene must be noted as the severing-point +of that connection between Rome and Constantinople, +which had endured since the first days of +empire. In the year 800 Pope Leo III. crowned +Karl, King of the Franks, as Roman Emperor, and +<pb n='200'/><anchor id='Pg200'/> +transferred to him the nominal allegiance which he +had hitherto paid to Constantinople. Since the +Italian rebellion in the time of Constantine Copronymus, +that allegiance had been a mere shadow, and the +papacy had been in reality under Frankish influence. +But it was not till 800 that the final breach took place. +The Iconoclastic controversy had prepared the way +for it, while the fact that a woman sat on the imperial +throne served as a good excuse for the Pope's action. +Leo declared that a female reign was an anomaly and +an abomination, and took upon himself the onus of +ending it, so far as Italy was concerned, by creating +a new emperor of the West. There was, of course, +<pb n='201'/><anchor id='Pg201'/> +no legality in the act, and Karl the Great was in no +real sense the successor of Honorius and Romulus +Augustulus, but he ruled a group of kingdoms which +embraced the larger half of the old Western Empire, +and formed a fair equipoise to the realm now ruled by +Irene. From 800, then, onward we have once more +a West-Roman empire in existence as well as the +East-Roman, and it will be convenient for many +purposes to use the adjective Byzantine instead of +the adjective Roman, when we are dealing with the +remaining history of the realm that centred at +Constantinople. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='202'/><anchor id='Pg202'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XVI. The End Of The Iconoclasts. +(<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 802-886.)</head> + +<p> +The Iconoclastic controversy was far from being +extinguished with the fall of the house of Leo the +Isaurian. It was destined to continue in a milder +form for more than half a century after the dethronement +of Constantine VI. The lines on which it was +fought out were still the same—the official hierarchy +and the Asiatic provinces favoured Iconoclasm, the +clergy and the European provinces were <q>Iconodules.</q><note place='foot'><q>Slaves to images</q>; a term of contempt not unfairly applied to +the image-worshippers.</note> +Hence it is interesting to note that through the greater +part of the ninth century, while emperors of Eastern +birth sat on the throne, the views of Leo the Isaurian +were still in vogue, and that the eventual triumph of +the image-worshippers only came about when a royal +house sprung from one of the European themes—the +family of Basil the Macedonian—gained possession of +the crown. +</p> + +<p> +The treasurer, Nicephorus, who overthrew Irene, +<pb n='203'/><anchor id='Pg203'/> +and so easily obtained possession of the empire, was +of Oriental extraction. His ancestor had been a +Christian Arab prince, expelled from his country at +the time of the rise of Mahomet, and his family had +always dwelt in Asia Minor. Hence we are not +surprised to find that Nicephorus was an Iconoclast, +and refused to follow in the steps of Irene in the +direction of restoring image-worship. He did not +persecute the <q>Iconodules,</q> as the Isaurians had done, +but he gave them no personal encouragement. This +being so, it is natural that we should find his character +described in the blackest terms by the monkish +chroniclers of the succeeding century. He was, we +are told, a hypocrite, an oppresser, and a miser; but +we cannot find any very distinct traces of the operation +of such vices in his conduct during the nine years of +his reign. He was not, however, a very fortunate +ruler; though he put down with ease several insurrections +of discontented generals, he was unlucky with +his foreign wars. The Caliph Haroun-al-Raschid did +much harm to the Asiatic provinces, ravaging the +whole country as far as Ancyra, nor could Nicephorus +get rid of him without signing a rather ignominious +peace, and paying a large war-indemnity. A yet +greater disaster concluded another war. Nicephorus +invaded Bulgaria in 811, to punish King Crumn for +ravaging Thrace. The Byzantine army won a battle +and sacked the palace and capital of the Bulgarian +king; but a few days later Nicephorus allowed himself +to be surprised by a night attack on his camp. In +the panic and confusion the emperor fell, and his son +and heir, Stauracius, was desperately wounded. The +<pb n='204'/><anchor id='Pg204'/> +routed army did not stay its flight till Adrianople, and +left the body of the Emperor in the hands of the +Bulgarians, who cut off his head, and made the skull +into a drinking-cup, just as the Lombards had dealt +with the skull of King Cunimund three hundred years +before.<note place='foot'>See p. <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>.</note> +</p> + +<p> +Stauracius, the only son of Nicephorus, was proclaimed +emperor, but it soon became evident that his +wound was mortal, and Michael Rhangabe, his brother-in-law, +who had married the eldest daughter of Nicephorus, +took his place on the throne before the breath +was out of the dying emperor's body. +</p> + +<p> +Michael I. was a weak, good-natured man, who +owed his elevation to the mere chance of his marriage. +He was a devoted servant and admirer of monks, +and began to undo the work of his father-in-law, and +remove all Iconoclasts from office. This provoked +the wrath of that powerful party, and led to conspiracies +against Michael, but he might have held his +own if it had not been for the disgracefully incompetent +way in which he conducted the Bulgarian war. He +allowed an enemy whom the East-Romans had hitherto +despised, not only to ravage the open country in +Thrace, but to storm the fortresses of Mesembria and +Anchialus, and to push their invasions up to the gates +of Constantinople. The discontent of the army found +vent in a mutiny, and Leo the Armenian, an officer +of merit and capacity, was proclaimed emperor in the +camp. Michael I. made no resistance, and retired into +a monastery after only two years of reign. [811-13.] +</p> + +<p> +Leo the Armenian proved himself worthy of the +<pb n='205'/><anchor id='Pg205'/> +confidence of the army. When the Bulgarians +appeared in front of the walls of Constantinople they +were repulsed, but Leo tarnished the glory of his +success by a treacherous attempt to assassinate King +Crumn at a conference—a crime as unnecessary as it +was unsuccessful, for the Emperor might, as the event +proved, have trusted to the sword instead of the +dagger. In the next spring he took the offensive +himself, marched out to Mesembria, and inflicted on +the enemy such a sanguinary defeat that hardly a +man escaped his sword, and Bulgaria was so weakened +that it gave no further trouble for more than fifty years. +</p> + +<p> +Almost the moment that he was freed from the +Bulgarian war, Leo became involved in the fatal +Iconoclastic controversy. Being a native of an +Oriental theme, he was naturally imbued with the +views of his great namesake, the Isaurian, and inclined +to reverse the policy of the monk-loving Michael I. +But being moderate and wary he tried to introduce, +without the use of force, a middle policy between +image-breaking and image-worship—a fruitless attempt, +which only brought him the nickname of <q>the +Chameleon.</q> Leo's idea was the quaint device of +permitting the use of images, but of hanging them so +high from the ground that the public should not be +able to touch or kiss them! This pleased nobody; +on the one side, the patriarch and his monks inveighed +against the moving of the images, while, on the other, +tumultuous companies of Asiatic soldiery broke into +churches and mutilated all the pictures and figures +they could find. The seven years of Leo's reign were +full of ecclesiastical bickerings, but it should be +<pb n='206'/><anchor id='Pg206'/> +remembered to his credit that no single person +suffered death for his conscience' sake in the whole +period. The most violent of the opponents of the +Emperor were merely interned in remote monasteries, +when they ventured to set their will against his. +Long ere the end of his reign, Leo had been compelled +to leave his half measures and prohibit all use of images. +Like Constantine Copronymus, he called a council to +endorse his action, and a majority of the Eastern +bishops resolved that Iconolatry was a dangerous +heresy, and anathematized the patriarch Nicephorus +and all other defenders of the images. +</p> + +<p> +Leo's reign was prosperous in all save the matter +of his religious troubles. But he was not destined to +die in peace in his bed. Michael the Amorian, the +best general in the empire, was detected in a conspiracy +against his master. Leo cast him into prison, +but delayed his punishment, and left his accomplices +at large. Michael had many friends in the palace who +determined to strike a blow ere the Emperor should +have discovered their guilt. They resolved to slay +Leo in his private chapel, as he attended matins on +Christmas Day, for he was accustomed to come +unarmed and unguarded to the early communion. +Accordingly, the conspirators attended the service, +and attacked the Emperor in the midst of the +Eucharistic hymn. Leo snatched the heavy metal +cross off the altar and struck down some of his +assailants, but numbers were too many for him, and +he was cut down and slain at the very foot of the +holy table. [Christmas Day, 820.] +</p> + +<p> +Michael the Amorian was dragged out of his +<pb n='207'/><anchor id='Pg207'/> +dungeon, saluted as emperor, and crowned, even +before the fetters were off his feet. It was not till the +ceremony had been performed that time was found to +send for a smith to strike away the rings. +</p> + +<p> +Michael was by birth a mere peasant, but had +raised himself to high rank in the army by his +courage and ability. He is sometimes styled <q>the +Amorian,</q> from his birth-place, Amorium in Phrygia, +but more often mentioned by his nickname of <q>the +Stammerer.</q> He had been the friend and adviser of +Leo the Armenian at the time of the latter's elevation +to the throne, and his conspiracy must be reckoned a +gross piece of ingratitude, even though we acknowledge +that he was not personally responsible for his +master's murder. +</p> + +<p> +Though rough and uncultured, Michael was a man +of very considerable ability. He strengthened his +title to the crown by a marriage with the last scion of +the Isaurian house, the princess Euphrosyne, daughter +of the blind Constantine VI. The religious difficulties +of the day he endeavoured to treat in an absolutely +impartial way, so as to offend neither Iconoclasts nor +Iconodules. He recalled from exile the image-worshipping +monks whom Leo the Armenian had sent to +distant monasteries, and proclaimed that for the future +every subject of the empire should enjoy complete +liberty of conscience on the disputed question. This +was far from satisfying the image-worshippers, who +wished Michael to restore their idols to their ancient +places: but the Amorian would not consent to this, +and obtained but a very qualified measure of approval +from the monastic party. +</p> + +<pb n='208'/><anchor id='Pg208'/> + +<p> +It was not to be expected that the reign of a +military usurper, with no title to the throne whatever, +would be untroubled by revolts. Michael had his +share of such afflictions, and though he finally slew +Thomas and Euphemius, the two pretenders who laid +claim to his crown, yet by their means he lost two not +inconsiderable provinces of his empire. While the +rebellion of Thomas was in progress, an army of +Saracens from Alexandria threw themselves on the +island of Crete, and conquered it from end to end. +When Michael's hands were free he sent two great +armaments to expel the intruders, but both failed, and +Crete was destined to remain for a whole century in +Moslem hands. Its hundred harbours became the +haunts of innumerable Corsairs, who grew to be the +bane of commerce in the Levant, and were a serious +danger to the empire whenever its fleet fell into bad +hands and failed to keep the police of the seas. +</p> + +<p> +A similar rising in Sicily under a rebel named +Euphemius led to the invasion of that island by an +army of Moors from Africa, who landed in 827, and +maintained a foothold in spite of all efforts to expel +them. At first their gains were not rapid, but in the +time of Michael's successors they gradually won for +themselves the whole of the island. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-24.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Byzantine Metal Work (Our Lord and the Twelve Apostles). +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +After nine years of reign the Amorian died a +natural death, still wearing the crown he had won. +It was just fifty years since any ruler of the empire +had met such a peaceful end. He was succeeded by +his son Theophilus, a vehement Iconoclast, whose +persecuting tendencies had been with difficulty restrained +in his father's life-time. His accession was +<pb n='209'/><anchor id='Pg209'/> +the signal for a new campaign against image-worship; +he induced the patriarch John the Grammarian, a +strong Iconoclast like himself, to excommunicate as +idolaters all who differed from him, and began to flog, +banish, and imprison their leading men. His persecution +would have been almost as vehement as that of +<pb n='210'/><anchor id='Pg210'/> +Constantine Copronymus, but for the fact that he did +not ever inflict the punishment of death; branding +and mutilation however he did not disdain. +</p> + +<p> +The Iconodules saw the vengeance of heaven for +the misdeeds of Theophilus in the disasters which he +suffered in war from the Saracens. He fell out with +the Caliph Motassem, and in the first campaign took +and burnt the town of Zapetra, for which the Commander +of the Faithful had great regard.<note place='foot'>It is said to have been either his birth-place or that of his mother.</note> This roused +Motassem to furious wrath; he swore that he would +destroy in revenge the town which Theophilus held +most dear; he collected the largest Saracen army that +had been seen since Moslemah beleaguered Constantinople +in 717, and marched out of Tarsus with 130,000 +men, each of whom (if legend speaks true) had the +word Amorium painted on his shield. For it was +Amorium, the birth-place of the Emperor, and the +home of his ancestors that Motassem had sworn +to sack. While one division of the Caliph's army +defeated Theophilus, who had taken the field in +person, another headed by Motassem himself marched +straight on Amorium, and took it after a brave defence +of fifty-five days. Thirty thousand of its inhabitants +were massacred, and the town was burnt, but the +Caliph then turned home satisfied with his revenge, +and the empire suffered nothing more from this most +dangerous invasion. The Saracen war dragged on in +an indecisive way, but no further disaster was encountered. +</p> + +<p> +There are other things to be recorded of Theophilus +beside his persecution of image-worshippers and his +<pb n='211'/><anchor id='Pg211'/> +war with the Caliph. He was long remembered for +his taste for gorgeous display; of all the East-Roman +emperors he seems to have delighted the most in gold +and silver work, gems and embroidery. His golden +plane-tree was the talk of the East, and the golden +lions at the foot of his throne, which rose and roared +by the means of ingenious machinery within, were +remembered for generations. +</p> + +<p> +Nor should the curious tale of his second marriage +be left untold. When left a widower he bade the +Empress-dowager Euphrosyne assemble at her levée +all the most beautiful of the daughters of the East-Roman +aristocracy, and came among them to choose +a wife, carrying like Paris a golden apple in his hand. +His glance was first fixed on the fair Eikasia, but +approaching her he found no better topic to commence +a conversation than the awkward statement that +<q>most of the evil had come into the world by means +of women.</q> The lady retorted that surely most of +the good had also come into the world by their means, +a reply which apparently discomposed Theophilus, +for he walked on and without a further word gave the +golden apple to Theodora, a rival beauty. The choice +was hasty and unhappy, for Theodora was a devoted +Iconodule, and used all her influence against her +husband's religious opinions. +</p> + +<p> +Theophilus died in 842, while still a young man, +leaving the throne to his only son Michael, a child of +three years, and the regency to the young empress. +The moment that her husband's grave was closed +Theodora set to work to undo his policy. Amid the +applause of the monks and the populace of Constantinople +<pb n='212'/><anchor id='Pg212'/> +she proclaimed the end of the persecution, +sent for the banished image-worshippers from their +places of exile, and deposed John the Grammarian, +the Iconoclastic patriarch who had served Theophilus. +Within thirty days of the commencement of the new +reign the images had appeared once more on the +walls of all the churches of Constantinople. The +Iconoclasts seem to have been taken by surprise, and +made no resistance to the revolution: however the +empress did not take any measures to persecute them; +it was only power and not security for life and limb +that they lost. The sole permanent result of the +long struggle which they had kept up was a curious +compromise in the Eastern Church on the subject of +representation of the human figure. Statues were +never again erected in places of worship, but only +paintings and mosaics. It was apparently believed +that the actual image savoured too much of the +heathen idol, but that no offence could possibly be +given by the picture, which served as a pious remembrance +of the holy personage it represented, but could +be nothing more. Nevertheless the veneration of the +Byzantines for their holy <q>Eikons</q> became almost as +grotesque as idol-worship, and led to many quaint and +curious forms of superstition. +</p> + +<p> +Theodora, engrossed in things religious, handed +over the education of her young son to her brother +Bardas, who became her co-regent and was afterwards +made Caesar. He brought up the young Michael +in the most reckless and unconscientious manner, +teaching him his own vices of drunkenness and +debauchery. Michael was an apt pupil, and ere he +<pb n='213'/><anchor id='Pg213'/> +reached the age of twenty-one had become a confirmed +dipsomaniac. History knows him by the +dishonourable nickname of <q>Michael the Drunkard.</q> +Some years after his majority he grew discontented +with his uncle, and slew him, in order that he might +reign alone. His profligacy and intemperance became +still more unbearable after Bardas was dead, +and had it not been for the splendid organization of +the Byzantine civil service the administration of the +empire must have gone to pieces. Presently Michael +grew tired of spending on state affairs any time that +he could spare from his orgies, and appointed as +Caesar and colleague his boon companion Basil the +Macedonian. Basil had reached the position of +grand chamberlain purely by the Emperor's favour; +he rose from the lowest ranks and is said to have +first entered Michael's service in the humble position +of a groom. His practical ability, combined with a +head hard enough to withstand the effect of even the +longest debauch, won Michael's admiration, and so he +came to be first chamberlain and then Caesar. Under +the mask of a roisterer Basil concealed the most +devouring ambition, and when he knew that his +drunken benefactor had won the contempt of all the +East-Roman world, had the impudence and ingratitude +to plan his murder. Michael was stabbed while +sleeping off the effects of one of his orgies, and his +low-born colleague seized the palace and proclaimed +himself emperor. +</p> + +<p> +It might have been expected that the East-Roman +world would have refused to receive as its lord a man +who owed his elevation to the freak of a drunkard, +<pb n='214'/><anchor id='Pg214'/> +and had then become the assassin of his benefactor. +But strangely enough Basil was destined to found the +longest dynasty that ever sat upon the Constantinopolitan +throne. He turned out a far better ruler than +might have been expected from his disgraceful antecedents, +being one of those fortunate men who are +able to utilize the work of others when their own +powers and knowledge fall short. +</p> + +<p> +Basil is mainly remembered for his codification of +the laws of the empire, which superseded the <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>Ecloga</foreign> +of Leo the Isaurian, even as Leo's compilation had +superseded the more solid and thorough work of +Justinian. The <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>Basilika</foreign> of Basil with the additions +made by his son Leo VI. formed the code of the +Byzantine Empire down to its last days, no further +rearrangement being ever made. +</p> + +<p> +Basil, being of European birth and not an Asiatic +like the preceding emperors, was naturally an orthodox +image-worshipper. He showed his bigotry by a fierce +persecution of the Paulicians, an Asiatic sect of +heretics accused of Manicheanism, whom the Iconoclast +emperors had been wont to tolerate. Basil's oppression +drove many of them over the Saracen frontier, +where they took refuge with the Moslems and maintained +themselves by plundering the borders of the +empire. +</p> + +<p> +Among the other transactions of his nineteen years +of reign [867-886], the only one deserving notice is +the final loss of Sicily. The Saracens of Africa, who +had held a footing in the island ever since the time of +Michael II., now finished their work by storming +Syracuse in 878. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='215'/><anchor id='Pg215'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XVII. The Literary Emperors And Their Time. +(<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 886-963.)</head> + +<p> +The eighty years which followed the death of +Basil the Macedonian were the most uneventful and +monotonous in the whole history of the empire. +They are entirely taken up by the two long reigns +of Leo the Wise and Constantine Porphyrogenitus,<note place='foot'>This name was given him because he was born in the Purple +Chamber, the room in the palace set aside for the Empress. Emperors +born in their father's reign had been scarce of late. Constantine VI. and +Michael the Drunkard were the only two in the 110 years before +Constantine VII.</note> +the son and grandson of the founder of the dynasty. +Basil had been a mere adventurer, an ignorant and +uneducated but capable upstart. His successors—strange +issue from such a stock—were a pair of mild, +easy-going, and inoffensive men of literature. They +wrote no annals with their sword, though the times +were not unpropitious for military enterprise, but +devoted themselves to the pen, and have left behind +them some of the most useful and interesting works +in Byzantine literature. +</p> + +<p> +If the times had been harder it is doubtful whether +<pb n='216'/><anchor id='Pg216'/> +Leo VI. and Constantine VII. would have been strong +enough to protect their throne. But the period 880-960 +was less troubled by foreign wars than any other +corresponding period in the history of the East-Roman +state. The empire of the Caliphs was breaking +up in the East—the empire of Charles the Great +had already broken up in the West—the Bulgarians +and other neighbours of the realm on the north were +being converted to Christianity, and settling down into +quiet. The only troubles to which the East-Roman +realm was exposed were piratical raids of the Russians +on the north and the Saracens of Africa on the south. +These were vexatious, but not dangerous. An active +and warlike emperor would probably have found the +time propitious for conquest from his neighbours, but +Leo and Constantine were quiet, unenterprising men, +who dwelt contentedly in the palace, and seldom or +never took the field. +</p> + +<p> +Leo's reign of twenty-six years was only diversified +by an unfortunate invasion of Bulgaria, which failed +through the mismanagement of the generals, and for a +great raid of Saracen pirates on Thessalonica in 904. +The capture of the second city of the empire by a fleet +of African adventurers was an incident disgraceful to +the administration of Leo, and caused much outcry +and sensation. But it is fair to say that it was taken +almost by surprise, and stormed from the side of the +sea where no attack had been expected. The armies +and fleet of the empire would have availed to rescue +the town if only its fall had been delayed a few weeks. +When they had taken it the Saracens fled with their +booty, and made no attempt to hold its walls. +</p> + +<pb n='217'/><anchor id='Pg217'/> + +<p> +Constantine Porphyrogenitus, the offspring of the +fourth wife of Leo the Wise, and the child of his old +age, was only seven when his heritage fell to him. +For many years he was under the tutelage of guardians; +first his father's brother Alexander ruled as his +colleague, and became emperor-regent. Some years +after Alexander had died an ambitious admiral named +Romanus Lecapenus usurped the same position, +declared himself emperor, and administered the +realm. The life of Romanus was protracted into +extreme old age, long after Constantine had reached +his majority; but the ambitious veteran held tight to +the sceptre, and kept the rightful heir in the background. +Constantine consoled himself by writing +books and painting pictures; it was not till he was +nearly forty that he came to his own. Even then his +success was not owing to his own energy; the sons +of the aged Romanus had resolved to succeed their +parent on the throne, in despite of the rights of +Constantine. But when they declared themselves +emperors and made their old father abdicate, an +outburst of popular wrath was provoked. The mob +and the guards joined to sweep away the presumptuous +Stephen Lecapenus and his brother. They were +immured in monasteries, and Constantine emerged from +his seclusion to administer the empire for twenty +years. He was somewhat weak and ineffective, but +neither obstinate nor tyrannical; many abler men +made worse rulers. +</p> + +<p> +The chief achievements of both Leo and Constantine +were their books. Those of Leo consist of a +manual on the Art of War, some theological treatises, +<pb n='218'/><anchor id='Pg218'/> +and a book of prophecies, a collection of political +enigmas, which were long the puzzle and admiration +of the East.<note place='foot'>There is a splendid copy of this book in the Bodleian Library, made +as late as 1560, where all the prophecies are applied to the Turks and +Venetians.</note> The first-named work is most valuable +and interesting, bringing down the history of military +organization, tactics, and strategy to Leo's own time, +and giving us a perfect picture of the Byzantine army +and its tactics, as well as incidental sketches of all +the enemies with which it had to contend. The backbone +of the force was still the <q>themes</q> or <q>turmæ</q> +of heavy cavalry, of which every province had one. +The number of the provinces had been much increased +since the days of the emperors of the house of Heraclius, +and this implied a corresponding increase in the troops. +They were raised from subjects of the empire and +officered by the Byzantine nobility, for as Leo +observed, <q>There was no difficulty in obtaining +officers of good birth and private means, whose origin +made them respected by the soldiery, while their +money enabled them to win the good graces of their +men by many gifts of small creature comforts, over +and above their pay.</q> The names of some of the +great noble houses are found for generation after +generation in the imperial muster rolls, such as those +of Ducas, Phocas, Comnenus, Bryennius, Kerkuas, +Diogenes, and many more. The pages of Leo's work +breathe an entire confidence in the power of the army +to deal with any foe; against Saracen, Turk, Hungarian, +and Slav, instant and decisive action is advised; +when caught, they should be fought and beaten. It +<pb n='219'/><anchor id='Pg219'/> +is only when dealing with the men of the West, the +Franks and Lombards, that Leo recommends caution +and deprecates any rash engagement in a general +action, preferring to wear the enemy down by cutting +off his supplies and harassing his marches. We +gather a very favourable impression of the Byzantine +army from Leo's book; it was organized, armed, and +supplied in a manner that has no parallel till modern +times. Each regiment possessed its special uniform, +and was equipped with regularity. There was none +of that variety in arms and organizations which was +the bane of mediæval armies. The regiments had +each attached to them an elaborate military train, a +small body of engineers, and a provision of surgeons +and ambulances. To encourage the saving of wounded +men, Leo tells us that the bearer company was given +a gold piece for every disabled soldier whom it brought +off the field after a lost battle. It would be hard to +find any similar care shown for the wounded till the +days of our own century. +</p> + +<p> +The Byzantine fleet, as Leo describes it, had for its +chief object the maintenance of the police of the seas +in the Aegean, Levant, and South Italian waters. Its +enemies were the Saracens of the Syrian and African +coasts, and more especially the troublesome Corsairs +of Crete, who were often beaten but never subdued +till Nicephorus Phocas exterminated them in 961. +The empire maintained three fleets, small ones in the +Black Sea and in Western waters; but the largest in +the Aegean. This was composed of sixty <q>dromonds,</q> +or war-vessels of the largest rating; their great depôt +was in the arsenal at Constantinople, but they could +<pb n='220'/><anchor id='Pg220'/> +also be refitted at Samos, Thessalonica, and several +other ports. Owing to their superior size, and still +more to their employment of the celebrated Greek +fire, the imperial fleets generally had the better of the +Saracen, but though they checked his larger squadrons, +they could never suppress the petty piracy by isolated +sea-robbers, which rendered all mediæval commerce +so dangerous. +</p> + +<p> +The works of Constantine Porphyrogenitus are +even more interesting than those of his father. His +treatise called <q>On the Themes</q> is invaluable to +the historian, as it gives a complete list of the +Themes, their boundaries, inhabitants, characteristics, +and resources, with some other incidental notices of +value. Still more important is the book, <q>On the +Administration of the Empire,</q> which contains +directions for the foreign policy of the realm, and +sketches the condition and resources of the various +nations with whom the Constantinopolitan government +had dealings. Constantine also wrote a biography of +his grandfather, Basil the Macedonian, couched in +terms of respect which that hardy usurper was far +from deserving. But his longest and most ambitious +work was on Court Ceremonies, a manual of etiquette +and precedence, describing the official hierarchy of +the empire, its duties and privileges, and containing +elaborate directions for the conduct of state ceremonials +and the interior economy of the royal household. +On this comparatively trifling topic Constantine +spent far more pains than on the works of larger +interest which he composed. His books show him to +have been a man of no great originative faculty, but +<pb n='221'/><anchor id='Pg221'/> +gifted with the powers of a careful and methodical +compiler, who loved details and never shirked trouble. +His care for court pageants was very characteristic of +the peaceful emperor, who had long been kept at +home by his guardian, and forced to compensate +himself by ceremonial for the want of real power. +</p> + +<p> +The fact that two successive emperors devoted +themselves to literary work is a sufficient sign that +by the end of the ninth century the times of intellectual +dearth and destitution which had so long +prevailed were now at an end. From the death of +Justinian to the end of the Heraclian dynasty matters +grew gradually worse; from the rise of Leo the +Isaurian onward they began slowly to improve. The +darkest age in Byzantine literary history was from +about 600 to 750, a period in which we have hardly +any contemporary annalists, no poetry save the lost +Heracliad of George of Pisidia, and very little even of +theology. Literature seemed absolutely dead at the +accession of the Isaurians, but the quickening influence +of the reforms of the great Leo seems to have been +felt in that province as in every other. By the end +of the eighth century writers were far more numerous, +though many of them were only anti-Iconoclastic +controversialists, like Theodore Studita. By the ninth +century we can trace the existence of a much larger +literary class, and find a few really first-rate authors, +such as the patriarch Photius (857-69), whose learning +and width of culture was astonishing, and whose +library-catalogue is the envy of modern scholars. +</p> + +<p> +Perhaps the most interesting development of +Byzantine literature were the epics, or Romances of +<pb n='222'/><anchor id='Pg222'/> +Chivalry as we feel more inclined to call them, which +were written toward the end of the times of the +Macedonian dynasty. The epic of Digenes Akritas, +a work of the end of the tenth century, celebrating +the praises of a hero who lived in the reigns of +Nicephorus Phocas and John Zimisces [963-80], may +serve as a type of the class. It tells of the adventures +in love and war of Basil Digenes Akritas, warden of +the Cilician Marches, or <q>Clissurarch of Taurus,</q> as +his official title would have run. He was a mighty +hunter, both of bears and of Saracens, put down the +Apelates (or moss-troopers, to use a modern analogy) +who infested the border, and led many a foray into +Syria. He is even credited with the slaying of an +occasional dragon by his admiring bard. But perhaps +the most interesting episode is the story of his elopement +with the fair Eudocia Ducas, daughter of the +general of the Cappadocian theme, whom he carried +off in despite of her father and seven brethren. +Pursued by the irate family, he rode them down one +by one at vantage points in the passes, but spared +their lives, and was reconciled to them at the intercession +of his bride. <q>Digenes Akritas</q> is the best +as well as the earliest of the class which it represents. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-25.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>A Warrior-Saint (St. Leontius). +(<hi rend='italic'>From a Byzantine Fresco.</hi>) +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin. 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Art followed much the same course as literature in +the period 600-900. It was in a state of decay for the +first century and a half, and the surviving works of +that time are often grotesquely rude. For sheer bad +drawing and bad execution nothing can be worse than +a coin of Constans II. or Constantine V.; a Frankish +or Visigoth piece could not be much more unsightly. +<pb n='224'/><anchor id='Pg224'/> +The few manuscripts which survive from that period +display a corresponding, though not an equally great, +decline in art. Mosaic work perhaps showed less +decline than other branches of the decoration, but +even here seventh and eighth century work is very +rare. +</p> + +<p> +In the ninth century everything improves wonderfully. +It is most astonishing to see how the old +classical tradition of painting revive in the best +manuscript illumination of the period; many of them +might have been executed in the fifth or even the +fourth century, so closely do they reproduce the old +Roman style. It seems that the Iconoclastic controversy +stimulated painting; persecuted by the +emperors, the art of sacred portraiture became respected +above all others by the multitude. Several +of the most prominent <q>Iconodule</q> martyrs were +painters, of whom it is recorded that their works were +no less beautiful than edifying: those of Lazarus, +whom the Emperor Theophilus tortured, are especially +cited as triumphs of art as well as sanctity. +</p> + +<p> +Though a persecutor of painters, Theophilus +deserves a word of mention as the first great builder +since Justinian, and as a patron of the minor arts of +jewellery, silver work, and mosaic. There is good +evidence that these were all in a very flourishing +condition in his time. [829-42.] +</p> + +<p> +There is one more point in the history of the empire +in the ninth century to which attention must be called. +This is the unique commercial importance of Constantinople +during this and the two succeeding +centuries. All other commerce than that of the +<pb n='225'/><anchor id='Pg225'/> +empire had been swept off the seas by the Saracen +pirates in the preceding hundred years, and the only +touch between Eastern and Western Christendom was +kept up under the protection of the imperial navy. +The Eastern products which found their way to Italy +or France were all passed through the warehouses of +the Bosphorus. It was East-Roman ships that +carried all the trade; save a few Italian ports, such as +Amalphi and the new city of Venice, no place seems +even to have possessed merchant ships. This monopoly +of the commerce of Europe was one of the +greatest elements in the strength of the empire. So +much money and goods passed through it that a +rather harsh and unwise system of taxation did no +permanent harm. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='226'/><anchor id='Pg226'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XVIII. Military Glory.</head> + +<p> +While Constantine Porphyrogenitus had been +dragging out the monotonous years of his long reign, +events which completely changed the aspect of affairs +in the Moslem East had been following each other +in quick succession on the Asiatic frontier of his +realm. Ever since it first came into existence the +Byzantine Empire had been faced in Asia by a +single powerful enemy; first by the Sassanian +kingdom of Persia, then by the Caliphate under the +two dynasties of the Ommeyades and the Abbasides. +Now, however, the Caliphate had at last broken +up, and the descendants of Abdallah-es-Saffah and +Haroun-al-Raschid had become the vassals of a +rebellious subject, and preserved a mere nominal +sovereignty which did not extend beyond the walls +of their palace in Bagdad. +</p> + +<p> +The crisis had come in 951 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>, when the armies of +the Buhawid prince Imad-ud-din, who had seized on +the sovereignty of Persia, broke into Bagdad and +made the Caliph a prisoner in his own royal residence. +For the future the Caliphs were no more +<pb n='227'/><anchor id='Pg227'/> +than puppets, and the Buhawid rulers used their +names as a mere form and pretence. But the conquerors +did not gain possession of the whole of the +Caliphate; only Persia and the Lower Euphrates +Valley obeyed them. Other dynasties rose and +fought for the more western provinces of the old +Moslem realm. The Emirs of Aleppo and Mosul, +who ruled respectively in North Syria and in Mesopotamia, +became the immediate neighbours of the +East-Roman Empire, while the lands beyond them, +Egypt and South Syria, formed the dominions of the +house of the Ikshides. +</p> + +<p> +Thus the Byzantines found on their eastern frontier +no longer one great centralized power, but the comparatively +weak Emirates of Aleppo and Mosul, with +the Buhawid and Ikshidite kingdoms in their rear. +The four Moslem states were all new and precarious +creations of the sword, and were generally at war +with each other. An unparalleled opportunity had +arrived for the empire to take its revenge on its +ancient enemies and to move back the Mahometan +boundaries from the line along the Taurus where they +had so long been fixed. +</p> + +<p> +Fortunately it was not only the hour that had +arrived, but also the man. The empire had at its +disposal at this moment the best soldier that it had +possessed since the death of Leo the Isaurian. +Nicephorus Phocas was the head of one of those great +landholding families of Asia Minor who formed the +flower of the Byzantine aristocracy; he owned broad +lands in Cappadocia, along the Mahometan frontier. +His father and grandfather before him had been distinguished +<pb n='228'/><anchor id='Pg228'/> +officers, for the whole race lived by the +sword, but Nicephorus far surpassed them. He was +not only a practical soldier, but a military author: +his book, Περὶ Παραδρόμης πολέμου, dealing with the +organization of armies, still survives to testify to his +capacity. +</p> + +<p> +It was on Nicephorus then that Romanus II., the +son and heir of Constantine VII., fixed his choice, +when he resolved to commence an attack on the Mahometan +powers. The point selected for assault was +the island of Crete, the dangerous haunt of Corsairs +which lay across the mouth of the Aegean, and sheltered +the pestilent galleys that preyed on the trade of +the empire with the West. Several expeditions against +it had failed during the last half-century, but this one +was fitted out on the largest scale. The vessels are +said to have been numbered by the thousand, and the +land force was chosen from the flower of the Asiatic +<q>themes.</q> Complete success followed the arms of +Nicephorus. He drove the Saracens into their +chief town Chandax (Candia), stormed that city, and +took an enormous booty—the hoarded wealth of a +century of piracy. The whole island then submitted, +and Nicephorus sailed back to Constantinople to +present to his sovereign, in bonds, Kurup the captive +Emir of Crete, and all the best of the booty of the +island [961 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>]. +</p> + +<p> +Nicephorus was duly honoured for his feat of arms, +and given command of an army destined to open a +campaign in the next year against the great frontier +strongholds of the Saracens in Asia Minor. Descending +by the passes of the Central Taurus into +<pb n='229'/><anchor id='Pg229'/> +Cilicia, Phocas stormed Anazarbus, and then forced +Mount Amanus, and marched into Northern Syria. +There he took the great town of Hierapolis, and laid +siege to Aleppo, the capital of the Emir Seyf-ud-dowleh, +who ruled from Mount Lebanon to the +Euphrates. The Emir was routed, the walls of his +capital were stormed, and Aleppo, with all its wealth, +fell into the hands of the Byzantine general. But the +citadel still held out, and its protracted resistance +gave time for the Moslems of South Syria and Mesopotamia +to combine for the relief of their northern +compatriots. So great an army appeared before the +walls of Aleppo that Phocas determined not to risk a +battle, and retreated with his booty and his numerous +prisoners into the defiles of Taurus [962 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>]. Sixty +captured forts and castles in Cilicia and North Syria +were the permanent fruits of his campaign. +</p> + +<p> +The next year the emperor Romanus II. died, very +unexpectedly, ere he had reached his twenty-sixth +year. He left a young wife, and two little boys, +Basil, aged seven, and Constantine, who was only +two. There followed the form of regency that +custom had made usual. Nicephorus, the most +powerful and popular subject of the empire, claimed +the guardianship of the two young Caesars, and had +himself crowned as their colleague. To secure his +place he married their mother, the young and +beautiful empress-dowager Theophano. +</p> + +<p> +The joint reign of Nicephorus Phocas and his +wards, Basil II. and Constantine VIII. lasted six +years, 963-969. The regent behaved with scrupulous +loyalty to the young princes, and made no attempt to +<pb n='230'/><anchor id='Pg230'/> +encroach on their rights, or to supplant them by any +of his numerous nephews, who had looked forward to +his accession as likely to lead to their own promotion +to imperial power. +</p> + +<p> +Nicephorus was an indefatigable soldier, and spent +more of his reign in the field than in the palace. His +end in life was to complete, as emperor, the conquest +of Cilicia and North Syria, which he had commenced +as general. The years 964 and 965 were spent in +achieving the former object: three long sieges made +him master of the great Cilician frontier fortresses, +Adana, Mopsuestia, and Tarsus. Their rich bronze +gates were sent as trophies to Constantinople, and set +up again in the archways of the imperial palace. A +few months later the tale of victories was completed +by the news that Cyprus also had fallen back into +Byzantine hands, after having passed seventy-seven +years in the power of the Saracens. +</p> + +<p> +For two years after this Phocas was employed at +home, where his administration was less popular than +in the camp. The stern old soldier was not a friend +of either priests or courtiers. He had several quarrels +with the patriarch Polyeuctus, which made him detested +by the clergy, and in his public life he displayed +a dislike for pomp and ceremony which led the +Byzantine populace to style him a niggard and an +extortioner. He suppressed shows and sports, and +turned all the public revenues into the war budget, +which lay nearest his heart. When he left the city in +968 for a new campaign against the Saracens, he was +a much less popular ruler than when he had entered +it in triumph in 966 after the conquest of Cilicia. +</p> + +<pb n='231'/><anchor id='Pg231'/> + +<p> +In the camp, however, Nicephorus was as well loved +and as successful as ever. His last Syrian expedition +was no less glorious than his earlier campaign in the +same quarter six years before. All the North Syrian +cities fell into his hands—Emesa, Hierapolis, Laodicea, +and with them Aleppo, the residence of the Emir: +Damascus bought off the invader by a great tribute. +Only Antioch, the ancient capital of the land, held +out, and Antioch also was taken in the winter by +escalade, through the daring of an officer named +Burtzes. The story of its fall is curious. The Emperor +had left a blockading army before it under a +general named Peter, with orders not to risk an assault. +Burtzes, the second in command, disobeyed orders +and stormed a corner tower on a snowy night at the +head of a small band of 300 men. Peter, in fear of +the Emperor's orders, refused to send him aid, and for +more than two days Burtzes maintained himself +unaided in the tower he had won. At last, however, +the main body entered, and the Saracens fled from +the town. Nicephorus dismissed both his generals +from the service—Burtzes for having acted against +orders, Peter for having obeyed them too slavishly, and +allowing an important advantage to be imperilled. +</p> + +<p> +Nicephorus returned to Constantinople in the +following year, to meet his death at the hands of those +who should have been his nearest and dearest. His +wife, Theophano had learnt to hate her grim and +stern husband, who, though he possessed all the +virtues, displayed none of the graces. She had cast +her eyes in love on the Emperor's favourite nephew, +John Zimisces, a young cavalry officer, who had +<pb n='232'/><anchor id='Pg232'/> +greatly distinguished himself in the Syrian war. +Zimisces listened to her tempting, but he was not +swayed by lust, but by ambition: he had hoped that +his uncle would make him heir to the throne, to the +detriment of the young emperor Basil. The loyal +old soldier had no idea of wronging his wards, and +his nephew resolved to gain by murder what he could +not gain by favour. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-26.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Return Of A Victorious Emperor. +(<hi rend='italic'>From an Embroidered Robe.</hi>) +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +So John and Theophano conspired against their +best friend, and basely murdered him in the palace +<pb n='233'/><anchor id='Pg233'/> +one December night in 969. The Emperor was +awakened from sleep to find a dozen of the assassins +forcing his door. John threw him to the ground, and +the others stabbed him, while he cried in his death-agony, +<q>Oh, God! grant me Thy mercy!</q> +</p> + +<p> +Thus ended the brave and virtuous Nicephorus +Phocas. His murderers succeeded in their end, for +John Zimisces was able to seduce the guards, overawe +the ministers, and force the patriarch to crown +him emperor. He showed some contrition for the base +slaughter of his uncle, giving away half his private +fortune to found hospitals for lepers, and the other +half to be distributed among the poor of the city. +He did not wed the partner of his guilt, the empress +Theophano, but refused to see her face, and ultimately +sent her to a monastery. +</p> + +<p> +If the manner of his accession could but be forgiven +John might pass for a favourable specimen of an +emperor. He respected the rights of the young +emperors Basil and Constantine as scrupulously as his +uncle had done, and proved that as an administrator +and a soldier he was not unworthy to sit in the seat of +Phocas. But the Nemesis of the murder of his uncle +rested upon him in the shape of a long civil war. His +cousin Bardas Phocas took arms to revenge the death +of the old Nicephorus, and stirred up troubles among +his Cappadocian countrymen for several years, till at +last he was captured and immured in a monastery. +</p> + +<p> +The chief feat for which John Zimisces is remembered +is his splendid victory over the Russians, whose great +invasion of the Balkan Peninsula falls within the +limits of his reign. We have not yet had much occasion +<pb n='234'/><anchor id='Pg234'/> +to mention the Russian tribes, who for many centuries +had been dwelling in obscurity and barbarism, by the +waters of the Dnieper and the Duna, in a land of +forest and marsh, far remote from the boundaries of +the empire. Nor should we hear of them now, but +for the fact that their scattered tribes had been of late +unified into a single horde by a power from without, and +urged forward into a career of conquest by a race of ambitious +princes. Into the land of the Russians there had +come some hundred years before the reign of John +Zimisces [862 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>], a Viking band from Sweden, +headed by Rurik, the ancestor of all the princes and +Tzars of Russia. The descendants of these adventurers +from the north had gradually conquered and subdued +all the Slavonic tribes of the great forest-land, and +formed them into a single powerful kingdom. Its +capital lay at Kief on the Dnieper, and it had proved a +formidable neighbour to all the barbarous tribes around. +The Viking blood of the new Russian princes drove +them seaward, and ere many generations had passed +they had forced their way down the Dnieper into the +Euxine, and begun to vex the northern borders of the +Byzantine Empire with raids and ravages like those +which the Danes inflicted on Western Europe. Twice +already, within the tenth century, had large fleets of +light Russia row-boats—they were copies on a smaller +scale of the Viking ships of the North—stolen down +from the Dnieper mouth to the shores of Thrace, and +landed their plundering crews within a few miles of +the Bosphorus, for a hurried raid on the rich suburban +provinces. On the first occasion in 907, the Russians +had returned home laden with plunder, but on the +<pb n='235'/><anchor id='Pg235'/> +second, which fell in 941, the Byzantine fleet had +caught them at sea, and revenged the harrying of +Thrace by sinking scores of their light boats, which +could not resist for a moment the impact of the heavy +war-galley urged by its hundred oars. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-27.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Arabesque Design From A Byzantine MS. +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +But the attack which John Zimisces had to meet +in 970 was far more formidable than either of those +which had preceded it. Swiatoslaf, king of the +Russians, had come down the Dnieper with no less +than 60,000 men, and had thrown himself on to the +kingdom of Bulgaria, which was at the moment +distracted by civil war. He conquered the whole +country, and soon his marauders were crossing the +Balkans and showing themselves in the plain of Thrace. +They even sacked the considerable town of Philippopolis +before the imperial troops came to its aid. This +roused Zimisces, who had been absent in Asia Minor, +and in the early spring of 971 an imperial army of +30,000 men set out to cross the Balkans and drive +the Russians into the Danube. The struggle which +ensued was one of the most desperate which East-Roman +history records. The Russians all fought on +foot, in great square columns, armed with spear and +axe: they wore mail shirts and peaked helmets, just +like the Normans of Western Europe, to whom their +princes were akin. The shock of their columns was +terrible, and their constancy in standing firm almost +incredible. Against these warriors of the North +Zimisces led the mailed horsemen of the Asiatic +themes, and the bowmen and slingers who were the +flower of the Byzantine infantry. The tale of John's +two great battles with the Russians at Presthlava and +<pb n='237'/><anchor id='Pg237'/> +Silistria reads much like the tale of the battle of +Hastings. In Bulgaria, as in Sussex, the sturdy axeman +long beat off the desperate cavalry charges of +their opponents. But they could not resist the hail +of arrows to which they had no missile weapons to +oppose, and when once the archers had thinned their +ranks, the Byzantine cavalry burst in, and made a +fearful slaughter in the broken phalanx. More fortunate +than Harold Godwineson at the field of Senlac, King +Swiatoslaf escaped with his life and the relics of his +army. But he was beleaguered within the walls of +Silistria, and forced to yield himself, on the terms that +he and his men might take their way homeward, on +swearing never to molest the empire again. The +Russian swore the oath and took a solemn farewell of +Zimisces. The contrast between the two monarchs +struck Leo the Deacon, a chronicler who seems to +have been present at the scene, and caused him to +describe the meeting with some vigour. We learn +how the Emperor, a small alert fair-haired man, sat on +his great war-horse by the river bank, in his golden +armour with his guards about him, while the burly +Viking rowed to meet him in a boat, clad in nothing +but a white shirt, and with his long moustache floating +in the wind. They bade each other adieu, and the +Russian departed, only to fall in battle ere the year +was out, at the hands of the Patzinak Tartars of the +Southern Steppes. Soon after Swiatoslaf's death the +majority of the Russians became Christians, and ere +long ceased to trouble the empire by their raids. +They became faithful adherents of the Eastern Church, +and drew their learning, their civilization, even their +<pb n='239'/><anchor id='Pg239'/> +names and titles from Constantinople. The Tzars +are but Caesars misspelt, and the list of their names—Michael, +Alexander, Nicholas, John, Peter, Alexis—sufficiently +witnesses to their Byzantine godparents. +Russian mercenaries were ere long enlisted in the +imperial army, and formed the nucleus of the +<q>Varangian guard,</q> in which at a later day, Danes, +English, and Norsemen of all sorts were incorporated. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-28.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Russian Architecture From Byzantine Model. +(<hi rend='italic'>Church at Vladimir.</hi>) +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +John Zimisces survived his great victory at Silistria +for five years, and won, ere he died, more territory in +Northern Syria from the Saracens. The border +which his uncle Nicephorus had pushed forward to +Antioch and Aleppo was advanced by him as far as +Amida and Edessa in Mesopotamia. But in the +midst of his conquests Zimisces was cut off by death, +while still in the flower of his age. Report whispered +that he had been poisoned by one of his ministers, +whom he had threatened to displace. But the tale +cannot be verified, and all that is certain is that John +died after a short illness, leaving the throne to his +young ward Basil II., who had now attained the age +of twenty years [976 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>]. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='240'/><anchor id='Pg240'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XIX. The End Of The Macedonian Dynasty.</head> + +<p> +Basil II., who now sat in his own right on the +throne which his warlike guardians Nicephorus and +John had so long protected, was by no means unworthy +to succeed them. Unlike his ancestors of the +Macedonian house, he showed from the first a love for +war and adventure. Probably the deeds of John and +Nicephorus excited him to emulation: at any rate +his long reign from 976 till 1025, is one continuous +record of wars, and almost entirely of wars brought +to a successful termination. Basil seemed to have +modelled himself on the elder of his two guardians, +the stern Nicephorus Phocas. His earliest years on +the throne, indeed, were spent in the pursuit of +pleasure, but ere he reached the age of thirty a +sudden transformation was visible in him. He gave +himself up entirely to war and religion: he took a +vow of chastity, and always wore the garb of a monk +under his armour and his imperial robes. His piety +was exaggerated into bigotry and fanaticism, but it +was undoubtedly real, though it did not keep him +from the commission of many deeds of shocking cruelty +<pb n='241'/><anchor id='Pg241'/> +in the course of his wars. His justice was equally +renowned, but it often degenerated into mere harshness +and indifference to suffering. No one could +have been more unlike his gay pleasure-loving father, +or his mild literary grandfather, than the grim emperor +who won from posterity the title of Bulgaroktonos, +<q>the Slayer of the Bulgarians.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Basil's life-work was the moving back of the East-Roman +border in the Balkan Peninsula as far as the +Danube, a line which it had not touched since the Slavonic +immigration in the days of Heraclius, three hundred +and fifty years before. In the first years of his +reign, indeed, he accomplished little, being much +harassed by two rebellions of great Asiatic nobles—Bardas +Phocas, the nephew of Nicephorus II., and +Bardas Skleros, the general of the Armeniac theme. +But after Phocas had died and Skleros had surrendered, +Basil reserved all his energies for war in Europe, +paying comparatively little attention to the Eastern +conquests which had engrossed Nicephorus Phocas +and John Zimisces. +</p> + +<p> +The whole interior of the Balkan Peninsula formed +at this period part of the dominions of Samuel King +of the Bulgarians, who reigned over Bulgaria, Servia, +inland Macedonia, and other districts around them. +It was a strong and compact kingdom, administered +by an able man, who had won his way to the throne +by sheer strength and ability, for the old royal house +had ceased out of the land during Swiatoslaf's invasion +of Bulgaria ten years before. The main power of +Samuel lay not in the land between Balkan and +Danube, which gave his kingdom its name, but in the +<pb n='242'/><anchor id='Pg242'/> +Slavonic districts further West and South. The +centre of his realm was the fortress of Ochrida, which +he had chosen as his capital—a strong town situated +on a lake among the Macedonian hills. There +Samuel mustered his armies, and from thence he +started forth to attach either Thessalonica or Adrianople, +as the opportunity might come to him. +</p> + +<p> +The duel between Basil and Samuel lasted no less +than thirty-four years, till the Bulgarian king died +a beaten man in 1014. This long and unremitting +struggle taxed all the energies of the empire, for +Samuel was not a foe to be despised; he was no mere +barbarian, but had learnt the art of war from his +Byzantine neighbours, and had specially studied +fortification. It was the desperate defences of his +numerous hill-castles that made Basil's task such a +long one. The details of the struggle are too long +to follow out: suffice it to say that after some defeats +in his earlier years, Basil accomplished the conquest +of Bulgaria proper, as far as the Danube, in 1002, the +year in which Widdin, the last of Samuel's strongholds +in the North surrendered to him. For twelve years +more the enemy held out in the Central Balkans, in +his Macedonian strongholds, about Ochrida and +Uskup. But at last, Basil's constant victories in the +field, and his relentless slaughter of captives after the +day was won, broke the force of the Bulgarian king. +In 1014 the Emperor gained a crowning victory, after +which he took 15,000 prisoners: he put out the eyes +of all save one man in each hundred, and sent the +poor wretches with their guides to seek King Samuel +in his capital. The old Bulgarian was so overcome +<pb n='243'/><anchor id='Pg243'/> +at the horrible sight that he was seized with a fit, and +died on the spot, of rage and grief. His successors +Gabriel and Ladislas could make no head against the +stern and relentless emperor, and in 1018 the last +fortress of the kingdom of Ochrida surrendered at +discretion. Contrary to his habit, Basil treated the +vanquished foe with mildness, indulged in no massacres, +and contented himself with repairing the old +Roman roads and fortresses of the Central Balkans, +without attempting to exterminate the Slavonic tribes +that had so often defied him. His conquests rounded +off the empire on its northern frontier, and made it +touch the Magyar kingdom of Hungary, for Servia +no less than Bulgaria and Macedonia formed part of +his conquests. The Byzantine border now ran from +Belgrade to the Danube mouth, a line which it was +destined to preserve for nearly two hundred years, till +the great rebellion of Bulgaria against Isaac Angelus +in the year 1086. +</p> + +<p> +Having justly earned his grim title of <q>the Slayer +of the Bulgarians</q> by his long series of victories in +Europe, Basil turned in his old age to continue the +work of John Zimisces on the Eastern frontier. There +the Moslem states were still weak and divided; though +a new power, the Fatimite dynasty in Egypt, had +come to the front, and acquired an ascendency over +its neighbours. Basil's last campaigns, in 1021-2, were +directed against the princes of Armenia, and the +Iberians and Abasgians who dwelt beyond them to +the north. His arms were entirely successful, and he +added many Armenian districts to his Eastern +provinces; but it may be questioned whether these +<pb n='244'/><anchor id='Pg244'/> +conquests were beneficial to the empire. A strong +Armenian kingdom was a useful neighbour to the +Byzantine realm; being a Christian state it was +usually friendly to the empire, and acted as a +barrier against Moslem attacks from Persia. Basil +broke up the Armenian power, but did not annex the +whole country, or establish in it any adequate +provision against the ultimate danger of attacks from +the East by the Mahometan powers. +</p> + +<p> +Basil died in 1025 at the age of sixty-eight, just as +he was preparing to send forth an expedition to +rescue Sicily from the hands of the Saracens. He had +won more provinces for the empire than any general +since the days of the great Belisarius, and at his death +the Byzantine borders had reached the furthest +extension which they ever knew. His successors +were to be unworthy of his throne, and were destined +to lose provinces with as constant regularity +as he himself had shown in gaining them. There was +to be no one after him who could boast that he had +fought thirty campaigns in the open field with harness +on his back, and had never turned aside from any +enterprise that he had ever taken in hand. +</p> + +<p> +Basil's brother Constantine had been his colleague +in name all through the half century of his +reign. No one could have been more unlike the ascetic +and indefatigable <q>Slayer of the Bulgarians.</q> Constantine +was a mere worldling, a man of pleasure, a +votary of the table and the wine cup, whose only +redeeming tastes were a devotion to music and literature. +He had dwelt in his corner of the palace +surrounded by a little court of eunuchs and flatterers, +<pb n='245'/><anchor id='Pg245'/> +and excluded by the stern Basil from all share and +lot in the administration of the empire. Now Constantine +found himself the heir of his childless brother, +and was forced at the age of sixty to take up the +responsibilities of empire. He proved an idle and incompetent, +but not an actively mischievous sovereign. +His worst act was to hand over the administration of +the chief offices of state to six of his old courtiers—all +eunuchs—whose elevation was a cause of wild +anger to the great noble families, and whose inexperience +led to much weak and futile government +during his short reign. +</p> + +<p> +Constantine died in 1028, after a very brief taste of +empire. He was the last male of the Macedonian +house, and left no heirs save his elderly unmarried +daughters—whose education and moral training he +had grossly neglected. Zoe, the eldest, was more than +forty years of age, but her father had never found her +a husband. On his death-bed, however, he sent for +a middle-aged noble named Romanus Argyrus, and +forced him, at an hour's notice, to wed the princess. +Only two days later Romanus found himself left, by +his father-in-law's death, titular head of the empire. +But Zoe, a clever, obstinate, and unscrupulous woman, +kept the reins of authority in her own hands, and gave +her unwilling spouse many an evil hour. She was +inordinately vain, and pretended, like Queen Elizabeth +of England, to be the mistress of all hearts long +after she was well advanced in middle age. Her +husband let her go her own way, and devoted himself +to such affairs of state as he was allowed to manage. +His interference with warlike matters was most unhappy. +<pb n='246'/><anchor id='Pg246'/> +Venturing a campaign in Syria, he led his +army to defeat, and saw several towns on the border +fall into the hands of the Emir of Aleppo. After a +reign of six years Romanus died of a lingering disease, +and Zoe was left a widow. Almost before the breath +was out of her husband's body, the volatile empress—she +was now over fifty—had chosen and wedded +another partner. The new emperor was Michael the +Paphlagonian, a young courtier who had been Gentleman +of the Bedchamber to Romanus: he was twenty-eight +years of age and noted as the most handsome +man in Constantinople. His good looks had won +Zoe's fancy, and to his own surprise he found himself +seated on the throne by his elderly admirer [1034]. +</p> + +<p> +The object of Zoe's anile affection was a capable +man, and justified his rather humiliating elevation +by good service to the empire. He beat back the +Saracens from Syria and put down a Bulgarian +rebellion with success. But in his last years he saw +Servia, one of the conquests of Basil II., burst out into +revolt, and could not quell it. He also failed in a +project to reconquer Sicily from the Moors, though he +sent against the island George Maniakes, the best +general of the day, who won many towns and defeated +the Moslems in two pitched battles. The attempt to +subdue the whole island failed, and the conquests of +Maniakes were lost one after the other. Michael IV., +though still a young man, was fearfully afflicted with +epileptic fits, which sapped his health, and so enfeebled +him that he died a hopeless invalid ere he reached the +age of thirty-six. The irrepressible Zoe, now again a +widow, took a few days to decide whether she would +<pb n='247'/><anchor id='Pg247'/> +adopt a son, or marry a third husband. She first +tried the former alternative, and crowned as her +colleague her late spouse's nephew and namesake +Michael V. But the young man proved ungrateful, +and strove to deprive the aged empress of the control +of affairs. When he announced his intention of +removing her from the capital, the city mob, who +loved the Macedonian house, and laughed at rather +than reprobated the foibles of Zoe, took arms to +defend their mistress. In a fierce fight between the +rioters and the guards of Michael V., 3,000 lives +were lost: but the insurgents had the upper hand, +routed the soldiery, and caught and blinded Michael. +</p> + +<p> +Zoe, once more at the head of the state, now made +her third marriage, at the age of sixty-two. She +chose as her partner Constantine Monomachus, an +old debauchee who had been her lover thirty years ago. +Their joint reign was unhappy both at home and +abroad. Frequent rebellions broke out both in Asia +Minor and in the Balkan Peninsula. The Patzinaks +sent forays across the Danube, while a new enemy, +the Normans of South Italy, conquered the <q>theme +of Langobardia,</q> the last Byzantine possession to the +West of the Adriatic, and established in its stead the +duchy of Apulia [1055]. A still more dangerous foe +began also to be heard of along the Eastern frontier. +The Seljouk Turks were now commencing a career of +conquest in Persia and the lands on the Oxus. In +1048 the advance guard of their hordes began to +ravage the Armenian frontier of the empire. But +this danger was not yet a pressing one. +</p> + +<p> +When Zoe and Constantine IX. were dead, the +<pb n='248'/><anchor id='Pg248'/> +sole remaining scion of the Macedonian house was +saluted as ruler of the empire. This was Theodora, +the younger sister of Zoe, an old woman of seventy, +who had spent the best part of her days in a nunnery. +She was as sour and ascetic as her sister had been +vain and amorous; but she does not seem to have +been the worst of the rulers of Byzantium, and her +two years of power were not troubled by rebellions or +vexed by foreign war. Her austere virtues won her +some respect from the people, and the fact that she +was the last of her house, and that with its extinction +the troubles of a disputed succession were doomed to +come upon the empire, seems to have sobered her +subjects, and led them to let the last days of the +Basilian dynasty pass away in peace. +</p> + +<p> +Theodora died on the 30th of August, 1057, having +on her death-bed declared that she adopted Michael +Stratioticus as her successor. Then commenced the +reign of trouble, the <q>third anarchy</q> in the history of +the Byzantine Empire. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='249'/><anchor id='Pg249'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XX. Manzikert. (1057-1081.)</head> + +<p> +The moment that the last of the Macedonian +dynasty was gone, the elements of discord seemed +unchained, and the double scourge of civil war and +foreign invasion began to afflict the empire. In the +twenty-four years between 1057 and 1081 were +pressed more disasters than had been seen in any +other period of East-Roman history, save perhaps the +reign of Heraclius. For now came the second cutting-short +of the empire, the blow that was destined to +shear away half its strength, and leave it maimed +beyond any possibility of ultimate recovery. +</p> + +<p> +Domestic troubles were the first inevitable consequence +of the extinction of the Macedonian dynasty. +The aged Theodora had named as her successor on +the throne Michael Stratioticus, a contemporary of +her own who had been an able soldier twenty-five +years back. But Michael VI. was grown aged and +incompetent, and the empire was full of ambitious +generals, who would not tolerate a dotard on the +<pb n='250'/><anchor id='Pg250'/> +throne. Before a year had passed a band of great +Asiatic nobles entered into a conspiracy to overturn +Michael, and replace him by Isaac Comnenus, the +chief of one of the ancient Cappadocian houses, and +the most popular general of the East. +</p> + +<p> +Isaac Comnenus and his friends took arms, and +dispossessed the aged Michael of his throne with little +difficulty. But a curse seemed to rest upon the +usurpation; Isaac was stricken down by disease when +he had been little more than a year on the throne, +and retired to a monastery to die. His crown was +transferred to Constantine Ducas, another Cappadocian +noble, who was supposed to be second only to +Isaac in competence and popularity. Constantine +reigned for seven troubled years, and disappointed all +his supporters, for he proved but a sorry administrator. +His mind was set on nothing but finance, and in the +endeavour to build up again the imperial treasure, +which had been sorely wasted since the death of Basil +II., he neglected all the other departments of state. +To save money he disbanded no inconsiderable +portion of the army, and cut down the pay of the rest. +This was sheer madness, when there was impending +over the empire the most terrible military danger that +had been seen for four centuries. The safety of the +realm was entirely in the hands of its well-paid and +well-disciplined national army, and anything that +impaired the efficiency of the army was fraught with +the deadliest peril. +</p> + +<p> +The Seljouk Turks were now drawing near. Pressing +on from the Oxus lands, their hordes had overrun +Persia and extinguished the dynasty of the Buhawides. +<pb n='251'/><anchor id='Pg251'/> +In 1050, they had penetrated to Bagdad, and their +great chief, Togrul Beg, had declared himself <q>defender +of the faith and protector of the Caliph.</q> Armenia +had next been overrun, and those portions of it which +had not been annexed to the empire, and still obeyed +independent princes, had been conquered by 1064. +In that year fell Ani, the ancient Armenian capital, +and the bulwark which protected the Byzantine +Empire from Eastern invasions. +</p> + +<p> +The reign of Constantine Ducas was troubled by +countless Seljouk invasions of the Armeniac, Anatolic, +and Cappadocian themes. Sometimes the invaders +were driven back, sometimes they eluded the imperial +troops and escaped with their booty. But whether +successful or unsuccessful, they displayed a reckless +cruelty, far surpassing anything that the Saracens had +ever shown. Wherever they passed they not merely +plundered to right and left, but slew off the whole +population. Meanwhile, Constantine X., with his +reduced army, proved incompetent to hold them back; +all the more so that his operations were distracted by +an invasion of the Uzes, a Tartar tribe from the +Euxine shore, who had burst into Bulgaria. +</p> + +<p> +Ducas died in 1067, leaving the throne to his son, +Michael, a boy of fourteen years. The usual result +followed. To secure her son's life and throne, the +Empress-dowager Eudocia took a new husband, and +made him guardian of the young Michael. The new +Emperor-regent was Romanus Diogenes, an Asiatic +noble, whose brilliant courage displayed in the Seljouk +wars had dazzled the world, and caused it to forget +that caution and ability are far more regal virtues than +<pb n='252'/><anchor id='Pg252'/> +headlong valour. Romanus took in hand with the +greatest vigour the task of repelling the Turks, which +his predecessor had so grievously neglected. He led +into the field every man that could be collected from +the European or Asiatic themes, and for three successive +years was incessantly marching and counter-marching +in Armenia, Cappadocia, and Syria, in the +endeavour to hunt down the marauding bands of the +Seljouks. +</p> + +<p> +The operations of Romanus were not entirely unsuccessful. +Alp Arslan, the Sultan of the Seljouks, +contented himself at first with dispersing his hordes +in scattered bands, and attacking many points of the +frontier at once. Hence the Emperor was not unfrequently +able to catch and slay off one of the minor +divisions of the Turkish army. But some of them +always contrived to elude him; his heavy cavalry +could not come up with the light Seljouk horse bowmen, +who generally escaped and rode back home by +a long detour, burning and murdering as they went. +Cappadocia was already desolated from end to end, +and the Turkish raids had reached as far as Amorium, +in Phrygia. +</p> + +<p> +In 1071 came the final disaster. In pursuing the +Seljouk plunderers, Romanus was drawn far eastward, +to Manzikert, on the Armenian frontier. There he +found himself confronted, not by a flying foe, but by +the whole force of the Seljouk sultanate, with Alp +Arslan himself at its head. Though his army was +harassed by long marches, and though two large +divisions were absent, the Emperor was eager to fight. +The Turks had never before offered him a fair field, +<pb n='254'/><anchor id='Pg254'/> +and he relied implicitly on the power of his cuirassiers +to ride down any number, however great, of the light +Turkish horse. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-29.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Our Lord Blessing Romanus Diogenes And Eudocia. +(<hi rend='italic'>From an Ivory at Paris.</hi>) +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The decisive battle of Manzikert, which it is not too +much to call the turning-point of the whole course of +Byzantine history, was fought in the early summer of +1071. For a long day the Byzantine horsemen +continued to roll back and break through the lines of +Turkish horse bowmen. But fresh hordes kept coming +on, and in the evening the fight was still undecided. +As the night was approaching, Romanus prepared to +draw his troops back to the camp, but an unhappy +misconception of orders broke up the line, and the +Seljouks edged in between the two halves of the army. +Either from treachery or cowardice Andronicus Ducas, +the officer who commanded the reserve, led his men +off without fighting. The Emperor's division was +beset on all sides by the enemy, and broke up in the +dusk. Romanus himself was wounded, thrown from +his horse, and made prisoner. The greater part of his +men were cut to pieces. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-30.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Nicephorus Botaniates Sitting In State. +(<hi rend='italic'>From a contemporary MS.</hi>) +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Alp Arslan showed himself more forbearing to his +prisoner than might have been expected. It is true +that Romanus was led after his capture to the tent of +the Sultan, and laid prostrate before him, that, after +the Turkish custom, the conqueror might place his +foot on the neck of his vanquished foe. But after +this humiliating ceremony the Emperor was treated +with kindness, and allowed after some months to +ransom himself and return home. He would have +fared better, however, if he had remained the prisoner +of the Turk. During his captivity the conduct of +<pb n='255'/><anchor id='Pg255'/> +affairs had fallen into the hands of John Ducas, uncle +of the young emperor Michael. The unscrupulous +regent was determined that Romanus should not +supersede him and mount the throne again. When +the released captive reappeared, John had him seized +<pb n='256'/><anchor id='Pg256'/> +and blinded. The cruel work was so roughly done +that the unfortunate Romanus died a few days later. +</p> + +<p> +After this fearful disaster Asia Minor was lost; +there was no chief to take the place of Romanus, and +the Seljouk hordes spread westward almost unopposed. +The next ten years were a time of chaos and +disaster. While the Seljouks were carving their way +deeper and deeper into the vitals of the empire, the +wrecks of the Byzantine army were employed not in +resisting them, but in carrying on a desperate series of +civil wars. After the death of Romanus, every general +in the empire seemed to think that the time had come +for him to assume the purple buskins and proclaim +himself emperor. History records the names of no +less than six pretenders to the throne during the next +nine years, besides several rebels who took up arms +without assuming the imperial title. The young +emperor, Michael Ducas, proved, when he came of +age, to be a vicious nonentity; he is remembered in +Byzantine history only by his nickname of Para-pinakes, +the <q>peck-filcher,</q> given him because in a +year of famine he sold the measure of wheat to his +subjects a fourth short of its proper contents. His +name and that of Nicephorus Botaniates, the rebel who +overthrew him, cover in the list of emperors a space +of ten years that would better be represented by a +blank; for the authority of the nominal ruler scarcely +extended beyond the walls of the capital, and the +themes that were not overrun by the Turks were in +the hands of governors who each did what was right +in his own eyes. At last a man of ability worked +himself up to the surface. This was Alexius +<pb n='257'/><anchor id='Pg257'/> +Comnenus, nephew of the emperor Isaac Comnenus, +whose short reign we related in the opening paragraph +of this chapter. +</p> + +<p> +Alexius was a man of courage and ability, but he +displayed one of the worst types of Byzantine character. +Indeed, he was the first emperor to whom the +epithet <q>Byzantine,</q> in its common and opprobrious +sense could be applied. He was the most accomplished +liar of his age, and, while winning and defending +the imperial throne, committed enough acts of mean +treachery, and swore enough false oaths to startle +even the courtiers of Constantinople. He could fight +when necessary, but he preferred to win by treason +and perjury. Yet as a ruler he had many virtues, +and it will always be remembered to his credit that +he dragged the empire out of the deepest slough of +degradation and ruin that it had ever sunk into. +Though false, he was not cruel, and seven ex-emperors +and usurpers, living unharmed in Constantinople +under his sceptre, bore witness to the mildness of his +rule. The tale of his reign sufficiently bears witness +to the strange mixture of moral obliquity and +practical ability in his character. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='258'/><anchor id='Pg258'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XXI. The Comneni And The Crusades.</head> + +<p> +Alexius Comnenus found himself, in 1081, +placed in a position almost as difficult and perilous +as that which Leo the Isaurian faced in 716. Like +Leo, he was a usurper without prestige or hereditary +claims, seated on an unsteady throne, and forced to +face imminent danger from the Moslem enemy without, +and from rival adventurers within. It may be +added that the Isaurian, grievously threatened as he +was by the enemy from the East, had no peril impending +from the West. Alexius had to face at one +and the same time the assault of the Seljouks on +Asia Minor, and the attack of a new and formidable +foe in his western provinces. We have already +mentioned the manner in which the Byzantine +dominion in Italy had come to an end. Now the +same Norman adventurers who had stripped the +empire of Calabria and Apulia were preparing to +cross the straits of Otranto, and seek out the Emperor +in the central provinces of his realm. The forces of +the Italian and Sicilian Normans were united under +<pb n='259'/><anchor id='Pg259'/> +their great chief Robert Guiscard, the hardy and unscrupulous +Duke of Apulia. Just ten years before he +had captured Bari, the last Byzantine fortress on his +own side of the straits; now he was resolved to take +advantage of the anarchy which had prevailed in the +empire ever since the day of Manzikert, and to build +up new Norman principalities to the east of the +Adriatic. There seemed to be nothing presumptuous +in the scheme to those who remembered how a few +hundred Norman adventurers had conquered all +Southern Italy and Sicily, and swelled into a victorious +army fifty thousand strong. Nor could the +invaders fail to remember how, but fifteen years +before, another Norman duke had crossed another +strait in the far West, and won by his strong right +hand the great kingdom of England. Alexius Comnenus +sat like Harold Godwinson on a lately-acquired +and unsteady throne, and Duke Robert thought to +deal with him much as Duke William had dealt with +the Englishman. +</p> + +<p> +In June, 1081, the Normans landed, thirty thousand +strong, and laid siege to Durazzo, the maritime +fortress that guarded the Epirot coast. The Emperor +at once flew to its succour. Always active, hopeful, +and versatile, he trusted that he might be able to beat +off the new invaders, whose military worth he was far +from appreciating at its true value. He patched up +a hasty pacification with Suleiman, Sultan of the +Seljouks, by surrendering to him all the territory of +which the Turk was in actual possession, a tract +which now extended as far as the waters of the +Propontis, and actually included the city of Nicaea, +<pb n='260'/><anchor id='Pg260'/> +close to the Bithynian shore, and only seventy miles +from Constantinople. +</p> + +<p> +The army with which Alexius had to face the +Normans was the mere wreck and shadow of that +which Romanus IV. had led against the Turks ten +years before. The military organization of the empire +had gone to pieces, and we no longer hear of the old +<q>Themes</q> of heavy cavalry which had formed its +backbone. The new army contained quite a small +proportion of national troops. Its core was the imperial +guard of Varangians—the Russian, Danish, and +English mercenaries, whose courage had won the +confidence of so many emperors. With them marched +many Turkish, Frankish, Servian, and South-Slavonic +auxiliaries; the native element comprised the regulars +of the three provinces of Thrace, Macedonia, and +Thessaly, all that now remained in Alexius' hands of +the ancient East-Roman realm. +</p> + +<p> +Alexius brought Robert Guiscard to battle in front +of Durazzo, and suffered a crushing defeat at his +hands. The Emperor's bad tactics were the main +cause of his failure: his army came upon the ground in +successive detachments, and the van was cut to pieces +before the main body had reached the field. The +brunt of the battle was borne by the Varangians: +carried away by their fiery courage, they charged the +Normans before the rest of Alexius's troops had +formed their line of battle. Rushing on the wing of +Robert's army, commanded by the Count of Bari, +they drove it horse and foot into the sea. Their +success, however, disordered their ranks, and the +Norman duke was able to turn his whole force +<pb n='261'/><anchor id='Pg261'/> +against them ere the Emperor was near enough to +give them aid. A fierce cavalry charge cut off the +greater part of the Varangians; the rest collected on +a mound by the sea-shore, and for some time beat off +the Normans with their axes, as King Harold's men +had done at Senlac on the last occasion when English +and Norman had met. But Robert shot them down +with his archers, and then sent more cavalry against +them. They fell, save a small remnant who defended +themselves in a ruined chapel, which Guiscard had +finally to burn before he could make an end of its +obstinate defenders. +</p> + +<p> +The rest of Alexius's army only came into action +when the Varangians had been destroyed. It was +cowed by the loss of its best corps, fought badly, and +fled in haste. Alexius himself, who lingered last +upon the field, was surrounded, and only escaped by +the speed of his horse and the strength of his sword-arm. +Durazzo fell, and in the next year the Normans +overran all Epirus and descended into Thessaly. +Alexius risked two more engagements with them, +but his inexperienced troops were defeated in both. +Disaster taught him to avoid pitched battles, and at +last, in 1083, after a more cautious campaign, his +patience was rewarded by the dispersion of the +Norman army. Catching it while divided, the +Emperor inflicted on it a severe defeat at Larissa, +and forced it back into Epirus. After this the war +slackened, and when Robert Guiscard died in 1085 +the Norman danger passed away. +</p> + +<p> +Thus one foe was removed, but Alexius was not +destined to win peace. Constant rebellions at home, +<pb n='262'/><anchor id='Pg262'/> +and wars with the Patzinaks, the Slavs, and the +Seljouks filled the next ten years. Alexius, however, +was never discouraged: <q>eking out the lion's skin +with the fox's hide,</q> he fought and intrigued, lied and +negotiated, and at the end of the time had held his +own and lost no more territory, while his throne was +growing more secure. +</p> + +<p> +But in the fifteenth year of his reign a new cloud +began to arise in the west, which was destined to +exercise unsuspected influence, both for good and evil, +on the empire. The Crusades were on the eve of their +commencement. Ever since the Seljouks had taken +Jerusalem in 1075, four years after Manzikert, the +western pilgrims to the Holy Land had been suffering +grievous things at the hands of the barbarians. +But all the wrath that their ill-treatment provoked +would have been fruitless, if the way to Syria had +not been opened of late to the nations of Western +Christendom. Two series of events had made free +communication between East and West possible in the +end of the eleventh century, in a measure which had +never before been seen. +</p> + +<p> +The first of these was the conversion of Hungary, +begun by St. Stephen in 1000, and completed about +1050. For the future there lay between the Byzantine +Empire and Germany not a barbarous pagan +state, but a semi-civilized Christian kingdom, which +had taken its place among the other nations of the +Roman Catholic faith. Communication down the +Danube, between Vienna and the Byzantine outposts +in Bulgaria, became for the first time possible, and ere +long the route grew popular. The second phenomenon +<pb n='263'/><anchor id='Pg263'/> +which made the Crusades possible was the +destruction of the Saracen naval power in the Central +Mediterranean. This was carried out first by the +Pisans and Genoese, whose fleets conquered Corsica +and Sardinia from the Moslems, and then by the +Normans, whose occupation of Sicily made the +voyage from Marseilles and Genoa to the East safe +and sure. Four new maritime powers—the Genoese, +Pisans, and Normans in the open sea, and the +Venetians in the Adriatic—had developed themselves +into importance, and now their fleets swept the +waters where no Christian war-galleys save those of +Byzantium, had ever been seen before. +</p> + +<p> +It was the fact that free access to the East was now +to be gained, both by land and sea, as it had never +been before, that made the Crusades feasible. Of the +preaching of Peter the Hermit and the efforts of +Pope Urban we need not speak. Suffice it to say, +that in 1095 news came to the Emperor Alexius that +the nations of the West were mustering by myriads, +and directing their march towards his frontiers, with +the expressed intention of driving the Moslems from +Palestine. The Emperor had little confidence in the +purity of the zeal of the Crusaders; his wily mind +could not comprehend their enthusiasm, and he +dreaded that some unforeseen circumstance might +turn their arms against himself. When the hordes +of armed Frankish pilgrims began to arrive, his fears +were justified: the new-comers pillaged his country +right and left upon their way, and were drawn into +many bloody fights with the peasantry and the imperial +garrisons, which might have ended in open +<pb n='264'/><anchor id='Pg264'/> +war. But Alexius set himself to work to smooth +matters down; all his tact and patience were needed, +and there was ample scope for his talent for intrigue +and insincere diplomacy. He had resolved to induce +the crusading chiefs to do him homage, and to swear +to restore to him all the old dominions of the empire +which they might reconquer from the Turks. After +long and tedious negotiations he had his way: the +leaders of the Crusade, from Godfrey of Bouillon and +Hugh of Vermandois down to the smallest barons, +were induced to swear him allegiance. Some he +flattered, others he bribed, others he strove to frighten +into compliance. The pages of the history written +by his daughter, Anna Comnena, who regarded his +powers of cajolery with greater respect than any other +part of his character, are full of tales of the ingenious +shifts by which he brought the stupid and arrogant +Franks to reason. At length they went on their way, +with Alexius's gold in their pockets, and encouraged +by his promise that he would aid them with his troops, +continue to supply them with provisions, and never +abandon them till the Holy City was reconquered. +</p> + +<p> +In the spring of 1097 the Crusaders began to cross +the Bosphorus, and in two marches found themselves +within Turkish territory. They at once laid siege to +Nicaea, the frontier fortress of the Seljouk Sultan. +Encompassed by so great a host the Turkish garrison +soon lost heart and surrendered, not to the Franks, +but to Alexius, whose troops they secretly admitted +within the walls. This nearly led to strife between +the Emperor and the Crusaders, who had been +reckoning on the plunder of the town; but Alexius +<pb n='265'/><anchor id='Pg265'/> +appeased them with further stores of money, and the +pilgrim host rolled forward once more into the interior +of Asia Minor. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-31.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Byzantine Ivory-Carving Of The Twelfth Century. +(<hi rend='italic'>From the British Museum.</hi>) +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +In 1097 the Crusaders forced their way through +Phrygia and Cappadocia, beating back the Seljouks +at every encounter, till they reached North Syria, +where they laid siege to Antioch. Alexius had undertaken +to help them in their campaign, but he was +set on playing an easier game. When they were +crushing the Turks he followed in their rear at a safe +distance, like the jackal behind the lion, picking up +the spoil which they left. While the Sultan was +engaged with them Alexius despoiled him of Smyrna, +Ephesus, and Sardis, reconquering Western Asia +Minor almost without a blow, since the Seljouk hordes +were drawn away eastward. It was the same in the +next year; when the Crusaders were fighting hard +round Antioch against the princes of Mesopotamia, +and sent to ask for instant help, Alexius despatched +no troops to Syria, but gathered in a number of +Lydian and Phrygian fortresses which lay nearer to +his hand. Hence there resulted a bitter quarrel +between the Emperor and the Franks, for since he +gave them no help they refused to hand over to him +Antioch and their other Syrian conquests. Each +party, in fact, broke the compact signed at Constantinople, +and accused the other of treachery. Hence +it resulted that the Crusade ended not in the re-establishment +of the Byzantine power in Syria, but in +the foundation of new Frankish states, the principalities +of Edessa, Antioch, and Tripoli, and the more +important kingdom of Jerusalem. +</p> + +<pb n='267'/><anchor id='Pg267'/> + +<p> +That he did not recover Syria was no real loss to +Alexius; he would not have been strong enough to +hold it, had it been handed over to him. The actual +profit which he made by the Crusade was enough to +content him: the Franks had rolled back the Turkish +frontier in Asia not less than two hundred miles: +instead of the Seljouk lying at Nicaea, he was now +chased back behind the Bithynian hills, and the +empire had recovered all Lydia and Caria with +much of the Phrygian inland. The Seljouks were +hard hit, and for well-nigh a century were reduced to +fight on the defensive. +</p> + +<p> +Owing, then, to the fearful blow inflicted by the +Crusades on the Moslem powers of Asia Minor and +Syria, the later years of Alexius were free from the +danger which had overshadowed the beginning of his +reign. He was able, between 1100 and 1118, to +strengthen his position at home and abroad; the +constant rebellions which had vexed his early years +ceased, and when the Normans, under Bohemund of +Tarentum, tried to repeat, in 1107, the feats which +Robert Guiscard had accomplished in 1082, they were +beaten off with ease, and forced to conclude a +disadvantageous peace. +</p> + +<p> +The reign of Alexius might have been counted a +period of success and prosperity if it had not been for +two considerations. The first was the rapid decline +of Constantinople as a commercial centre, which was +brought about by the Crusades. When the Genoese +and Venetians succeeded in establishing themselves +in the seaports of Syria, they began to visit Constantinople +far less than before. It paid them much +<pb n='268'/><anchor id='Pg268'/> +better to conduct their business at Acre or Tyre than +on the Bosphorus. The king of Jerusalem, the +weakest of feudal sovereigns, could be more easily +bullied and defrauded than the powerful ruler of +Constantinople. In his own seaports he possessed +hardly a shadow of authority: the Italians traded +there on such conditions as they chose. Hence the +commerce of the West with Persia, Egypt, Syria, and +India, ceased to pass through the Bosphorus. Genoa +and Venice became the marts at which France, Italy, +and Germany, sought their Eastern goods. It is +probable that the trade of Constantinople fell off by +a third or even a half in the fifty years that followed +the first Crusade. The effect of this decline on the +coffers of the state was deplorable, for it was ultimately +on its commercial wealth that the Byzantine +state based its prosperity. All through the reigns of +Alexius and his two successors the complaints about +the rapid fall in the imperial revenue grew more and +more noticeable. +</p> + +<p> +This dangerous decay in the finances of the empire +was rendered still more fatal by the political devices +of Alexius, who began to bestow excessive commercial +privileges to the Italian republics, in return for their +aid in war. This system commenced in 1081, when +the Emperor, then in the full stress of his first Norman +war, granted the Venetians the free access to +most of the ports of his empire without the payment +of any customs dues. To give to foreigners a boon +denied to his own subjects was the height of economic +lunacy; the native merchants complained that +the Venetians were enabled to undersell them in every +<pb n='269'/><anchor id='Pg269'/> +market, owing to this exemption from import and +export duties. Matters were made yet worse in 1111, +when Alexius bestowed a similar, though less extensive, +grant of immunities on the Pisans. +</p> + +<p> +When John II., the son of Alexius, succeeded in +1118 to the empire which his father had saved, the +fabric was less strong than it appeared to the outward +eye. Territorial extension seemed to imply increased +strength, and the rapid falling off in the financial +resources of the realm attracted little attention. John +however was one of those prudent and economical +princes who stave off for years the inevitable day of +distress. Of all the rulers who ever sat upon the +Byzantine throne, he is the only one of whom no +detractor has ever said an evil word. When we remember +that he was his father's son, it is astonishing +to find that his honesty and good faith were no less +notable than his courage and generosity. His subjects +named him <q>John the Good,</q> and their appreciation +of his virtues was sufficiently marked by the +fact that no single rebellion<note place='foot'>There were two palace intrigues against him, both headed by members +of his own family. Neither of them won any support from people +or army.</note> marred the internal +peace of his long reign. [1118-1143.] +</p> + +<p> +John was a good soldier, and during his rule the +frontier of the empire in Asia continued to advance, +at the expense of the Turks. But his strategy would +seem to have been at fault since he preferred to +reconquer the coast districts of Northern and Southern +Asia Minor, rather than to strike at the heart of the +Seljouk power on the central table-land. When he +<pb n='270'/><anchor id='Pg270'/> +had reduced all Cilicia, Pisidia, and Pontus, his +dominions became a narrow fringe of coast, surrounding +on three sides the realm of the Sultan, who still +retained all the Cappadocian and Lycaonian plateau. +It should then have been John's task to finish the +reconquest of Asia Minor, but he preferred to plunge +into Syria, where he forced the Frank prince of +Antioch and the Turkish Emir of Aleppo to pay him +tribute, but left no permanent monument of his conquests. +He was preparing a formidable expedition +against the Franks of the kingdom of Jerusalem, +when he perished by accident while on a hunting +expedition.<note place='foot'>He pierced himself by misadventure with one of his own poisoned +arrows, and died of the wound.</note> +</p> + +<p> +John the Good was succeeded by his son Manuel, +whose strength and weakness combined to give a +deathblow to the empire. Manuel was a mere knight-errant, +who loved fighting for fighting's sake, and +allowed his passion for excitement and adventure to +<pb n='271'/><anchor id='Pg271'/> +be his only guide. His whole reign was one long +series of wars, entered into and abandoned with equal +levity. Yet for the most part they were successful +wars, for Manuel was a good cavalry officer if he was +but a reckless statesman, and his fiery courage and +untiring energy made him the idol of his troops. At +the head of the veteran squadrons of mercenary horsemen +that formed the backbone of his army, he swept +off the field every enemy that ever dared to face him. +He overran Servia, invaded Hungary, to whose king +he dictated terms of peace, and beat off with success +an invasion of Greece by the Normans of Sicily. His +most desperate struggle, however, was a naval war +with Venice, in which his fleet was successful enough, +and drove the Doge and his galleys out of the +Ægean. But the damage done to the trade of Constantinople +by the Venetian privateers, who swarmed +in the Levant after their main fleet had been chased +away, was so appalling that the Emperor concluded +peace in 1174, restoring to the enemy all the +disastrous commercial privileges which his grandfather +Alexius had granted them eight years before. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-32.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Hunters. (<hi rend='italic'>From a Byzantine MS.</hi>) +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet, Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The main fault of Manuel's wars was that they +were conducted in the most reckless disregard of all +financial considerations. With a realm which was +slowly growing poorer, and with a constantly dwindling +revenue, he persisted in piling war on war, and +on devoting every bezant that could be screwed out +of his subjects to the support of the army alone. The +civil service fell into grave disorder, the administration +of justice was impaired, roads and bridges went +to decay, docks and harbours were neglected, while +<pb n='272'/><anchor id='Pg272'/> +the money which should have supported them was +wasted on unprofitable expeditions to Egypt, Syria, +or Italy. So long as the ranks of his mercenaries +were full and their pay forthcoming, the Emperor +cared not how his realm might fare. +</p> + +<p> +Of all Manuel's wars only one went ill, but that +was the most important of them all, the one necessary +struggle to which he should have devoted all his +energies. This was the contest with the Seljouks, +which ended in 1176 by a disastrous defeat at Myriokephalon +in Phrygia, brought about by the inexcusable +carelessness of Manuel himself, who allowed +his army to be caught in a defile from which there was +no exit, and routed piecemeal by an enemy who could +have made no stand on the open plains. Manuel +then made peace, and left the Seljouks alone for the +rest of his reign. +</p> + +<p> +In 1180 Manuel died, and with him died the good +fortune of the House of Comnenus. His son and +heir, Alexius, was a boy of thirteen, and the inevitable +contest for the regency, which always accompanied +a minority, ensued. After two troubled years Andronicus +Comnenus, a first cousin of the Emperor +Manuel, was proclaimed Caesar, and took over the +guardianship of the young Alexius. Andronicus was +an unscrupulous ruffian, whose past life should have +been sufficient warning against putting any trust in +his professions. He had once attempted to assassinate +Manuel, and twice deserted to the Turks. But +he was a consummate hypocrite, and won his way +to the throne by professions of piety and austere +virtue. No sooner was he seated by the side of +<pb n='273'/><anchor id='Pg273'/> +Alexius II., and felt himself secure, than he seized +and strangled his young relative [1183]. +</p> + +<p> +But, like our own Richard III., Andronicus found +that the moment of his accession to sole power was +the moment of the commencement of his troubles. +Rebels rose in arms all over the empire to avenge the +murdered Alexius, and the Normans of Sicily seized +the opportunity of invading Macedonia. Conspiracies +were rife in the capital, and the executions which +followed their detection were so numerous and bloody +that a perfect reign of terror set in. The Emperor +plunged into the most reckless cruelty, till men almost +began to believe that his mind was affected. Ere +long the end came. An inoffensive nobleman named +Isaac Angelus, being accused of treason, was arrested +at his own door by the emissaries of the tyrant. +Instead of surrendering himself, Isaac drew his sword +and cut down the official who laid hands on him. A +mob came to his aid, and met no immediate opposition, +for Andronicus was absent from the capital. +The mob swelled into a multitude, the guards would +not fight, and when the Emperor returned in haste, +he was seized and torn to pieces without a sword +being drawn in his cause. Isaac Angelus reigned in +his stead. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='274'/><anchor id='Pg274'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XXII. The Latin Conquest Of Constantinople.</head> + +<p> +The state which had been drained of its resources +by the energetic but wasteful Manuel, and disorganized +by the rash and wicked Andronicus, now passed into +the hands of the two most feeble and despicable +creatures who ever sat upon the imperial throne—the +brothers Isaac and Alexius Angelus, whose reigns +cover the years 1185-1204. +</p> + +<p> +Among all the periods which we have hitherto +described in the tale of the East-Roman Empire, +that covered by the reign of the two wretched Angeli +may be pronounced the most shameful. The peculiar +disgrace of the period lies in the fact that the condition +of the empire was not hopeless at the time. With +ordinary courage and prudence it might have been +held together, for the attacks directed against it were +not more formidable than others which had been +beaten off with ease. If the blow had fallen when a +hero like Leo III., or even a statesman like Alexius +I. was on the throne, there is no reason to doubt that +it would have been parried. But it fell in the times +of two incompetent triflers, who conducted the state +<pb n='275'/><anchor id='Pg275'/> +on the principle of, <q>Let us eat and drink, for tomorrow +we die.</q> Isaac and Alexius felt in themselves +no power of redeeming the empire from the evil day, +and resignedly fell back on personal enjoyment. +Isaac's taste lay in the direction of gorgeous raiment +and the collecting of miraculous <q>eikons.</q> Alexius +preferred the pleasures of the table. Considered as +sovereigns there was little to choose between them. +Each was competent to ruin an empire already verging +on its decline. +</p> + +<p> +The disaster which the Angeli brought on their +realm was rendered possible only by its complete +military and financial disorganization. As a military +power the empire had never recovered the effects of +the Seljouk invasions, which had robbed it of its great +recruiting-ground for its native troops in Asia Minor. +After that loss the use of mercenaries had become +more and more prevalent. The brilliant campaigns +of Manuel Comnenus had been made at the head of a +soldiery of whom two-thirds were not born-subjects of +the empire. He, it is true, had kept them within the +bounds of strict discipline, and contrived at all costs +to provide their pay. But the weak and thriftless +Angeli were able neither to find money nor to +maintain discipline. A state which relies for its +defence on foreign mercenaries is ruined, if it allows +them to grow disorderly and inefficient. In times of +stress they mutiny instead of fighting. +</p> + +<p> +The civil administration was in almost as deplorable +a condition, while those two <q>Earthly Angels</q> (as a +contemporary chronicler called them) were charged +with its care. Isaac Angelus put the finishing touch +<pb n='276'/><anchor id='Pg276'/> +to administrative abuses, which had already been rife +enough under the Comneni, by exposing offices and +posts to auction. Instead of paying his officials he <q>sent +them forth without purse or scrip, like the apostles of +old, to make what profit they could by extortion from +the provincials.</q><note place='foot'>Nicetas, <q>Isaac Angelus,</q> book iii. ch. 8, § 6.</note> His brother Alexius promised on +his accession to make all appointments on the ground +of merit, but proved in reality as bad as Isaac. He +was surrounded by a ring of rapacious favourites, who +managed all patronage, and dispensed it in return for +bribes. When high posts were not sold, they were +given as douceurs to men of local influence, whose +rebellion was dreaded. +</p> + +<p> +The history of the twenty years covered by the +reigns of the two Angeli is cut into two equal halves +at the deposition of Isaac by his brother in 1195. It +is only necessary to point out how the responsibility for +the disasters of the period is to be divided between +them. +</p> + +<p> +Isaac's share consists in the loss of Bulgaria and +Cyprus. The former country had now been in the +hands of the Byzantines for nearly two hundred years, +since its conquest by Basil II. But the Bulgarians +had not merged in the general body of the subjects of +the empire. They preserved their national language +and customs, and never forgot their ancient independence. +In 1187, three brothers named Peter, John, +and Azan stirred up rebellion among them. If firmly +treated it might have been crushed with ease by the +regular troops of the empire. But Isaac first appointed +incompetent generals, who let the rebellion grow to a +<pb n='277'/><anchor id='Pg277'/> +head, and when at last he placed an able officer, Alexis +Branas, in command, his lieutenant took the opportunity +of using his army for revolt. Branas marched +against Constantinople, and would have taken it, had +not Isaac committed the charge of the troops that +remained faithful to him to stronger hands than his +own. He bribed an able adventurer from the West, +Conrad, Marquis of Montferrat, by the offer of his +sister's hand and a great sum of money to become his +saviour. The gallant Lombard routed the forces of +Branas, slew the usurper, and preserved the throne +for his brother-in-law. But while the civil war was +going on, the Bulgarians were left unchecked, and +made such head that there was no longer much +apparent chance of subduing them. Isaac took the +field against them in person, only to see the great +towns of Naissus, Sophia, and Varna taken before his +eyes. +</p> + +<p> +While a national revolt deprived the Emperor of +Bulgaria, Cyprus was lost to a meaner force. Isaac +Comnenus, a distant relative of the Emperor Manuel +II., raised rebellion among the Cypriots and defeated +the fleet and army which his namesake of Constantinople +sent against him. He held out for six years, +and appeared likely to establish a permanent kingdom +in the island. This revolt was of the worst augury to +the empire. It had often lost provinces by the invasion +of barbarian hordes, or the rebellion of subject +nationalities. But that a native rebel should sever a +civilized Greek province from the empire, and reign as +<q>Emperor of Cyprus,</q> was a new phenomenon. By +the imperial theory the idea of an independent +<pb n='278'/><anchor id='Pg278'/> +<q>Empire of Cyprus</q> was wholly monstrous and +abnormal. The successful rebellion of Isaac Comnenus +pointed to the possibility of a general breaking up of +the Byzantine dominion into fragments, a danger that +had never appeared before. Till now the provinces +had always obeyed the capital, and no instance had +been known of a rebel maintaining himself by any +other way than the capture of Constantinople. Isaac +Comnenus might, however, have founded a dynasty in +Cyprus, if he had not quarrelled with Richard Coeur-de-Lion, +the crusading King of England. When he +maltreated some shipwrecked English crews, Richard +punished him by landing his army in Cyprus and +seizing the whole island. Isaac was thrown into a +dungeon, and the English king gave his dominions to +Guy of Lusignan, who called in Frank adventurers to +settle up the land, and made it into a feudal kingdom +of the usual Western type. +</p> + +<p> +While Isaac II. was in the midst of his Bulgarian +war, and misconducting it with his usual fatuity, he +was suddenly dethroned by a palace intrigue. His +own brother, Alexius Angelus, had hatched a plot +against him, which worked so successfully that Isaac +was caught, blinded, and immured in a monastery +long before his adherents knew that he was in danger. +</p> + +<p> +Alexius III. never showed any other proof of energy +save this skilful <foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>coup d`état</foreign> aimed against his brother. +He continued the Bulgarian war with the same ill-success +that had attended Isaac's dealings with it. +He plunged into a disastrous struggle with the Seljouk +Sultan of Iconium, and he quarrelled with the +Emperor Henry VI., who would certainly have +<pb n='279'/><anchor id='Pg279'/> +invaded his dominions if death had not intervened to +prevent it. But as long as Alexius was permitted to +enjoy the pleasures of the table in his villas on the +Bosphorus, the ill-success abroad of his arms and +his diplomacy vexed him but little. +</p> + +<p> +But in 1203, a new and unexpected danger arose to +scare him from his feasting. His blind brother Isaac +had a young son named Alexius, who escaped from +Constantinople to Italy, and took refuge with Philip +of Suabia, the new Emperor of the West. Philip had +married a daughter of Isaac Angelus, and determined +to do something to help his young brother-in-law. +The opportunity was not hard to seek. Just at this +moment a large body of French, Flemish, and Italian +Crusaders, who had taken arms at the command of +the Pope, were lying idle at Venice. They had +marched down to the great Italian seaport with the +intention of directing a blow against Malek-Adel, +Sultan of Egypt. The Venetians had contracted to +supply them with vessels for the Crusade, but for +reasons of their own had determined that the attack +should not fall on the shore for which it had been +destined. They were on very good terms with the +Egyptian sovereign, who had granted them valuable +commercial privileges at Alexandria, which threw the +whole trade with the distant realms of India into +Venetian hands. Accordingly they had determined +to avert the blow from Egypt and turn it against some +other enemy of Christendom. The leaders of the +Fourth Crusade proved unable to pay the full sum +which they had contracted to give the Venetians as +ship-hire, and this was made an excuse for keeping +<pb n='280'/><anchor id='Pg280'/> +them camped on the unhealthy islands in the Lagoons +till their patience and their stores were alike exhausted. +Henry Dandolo, the aged but wily doge, then proposed +to the Crusaders that they should pay their way by +doing something in aid of Venice. The Dalmatian +town of Zara had lately revolted and done homage to +the King of Hungary; if the Crusaders would recover +it, the Venetian state would wipe out their debts and +transport them whither they wished to go. +</p> + +<p> +The Crusaders had taken arms for a holy war +against the Moslems. They were now invited to turn +aside against a Christian town and interest themselves +in Venetian politics. Conscientious men would have +refused to join in such an unholy bargain, and would +have insisted in carrying out their original purpose +against Egypt. But conscientious men had been +growing more and more rare among the Crusaders for +the last hundred years. There were as many greedy +military adventurers among them as single-hearted +pilgrims. The more scrupulous chiefs were over-persuaded +by their designing companions, and the +expedition against Zara was undertaken. +</p> + +<p> +Zara fell, but another and a more important +enterprise was then placed before the Crusaders. +While they wintered on the Dalmatian coast the +young Alexius Angelus appeared in their camp, +escorted by the ambassadors of his brother-in-law, +the Emperor Philip of Suabia. The exiled prince +besought them to turn aside once more before they +sailed to the East, and to rescue his blind father from +the dungeon into which he had been cast by his cruel +brother Alexius III. If they would drive out the +<pb n='281'/><anchor id='Pg281'/> +usurper and restore the rightful ruler to his throne, +they should have anything that the Byzantine Empire +could afford to help them for their Crusade—money +in plenty, stores, a war fleet, a force of mercenary +troops, and his own presence as a helper in the war +with Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +Pope Innocent III. had already been storming at +the adventurers for shedding Christian blood at Zara, +and tampering with their Crusader's oath. But the +prospect of Byzantine gold seduced the needy Western +barons, and the desire of keeping the war away from +Egypt ruled the minds of the Venetians. They hesitated +and began to treat with Alexius, though they knew +that thereby they were calling down on themselves +the terrors of a Papal excommunication. All now +depended on the leaders, and among them the abler +minds were set on the acceptance of the proposal of +the young Byzantine exile. The three chiefs of the +Crusade were the Doge Henry Dandolo, Boniface +Marquis of Montferrat, and Baldwin Count of +Flanders. In Dandolo the ruthless energy of the +Italian Republics stood incarnate; he was the one +man in the crusading army who knew exactly what +he wanted. Old and blind, but clear-headed and inflexible, +he was set on revenging an ancient grudge +against the Greeks, and on furthering, by any means, +good or evil, the fortunes of his native city. Baldwin +and Boniface, the two secondary figures in the camp +of the Franks, are perfect representations of the two +types of crusader. The Fleming, gallant and generous, +pious and debonnair, worthy of a more righteous +enterprise and a more honourable death, was a true +<pb n='282'/><anchor id='Pg282'/> +successor of Godfrey of Bouillon, and the heroes of +the First Crusade. The Lombard, a deep and hardy +schemer, to whom force and fraud seemed equally +good, was simply seeking for wealth and fame in the +realms of the East. He cared little for the Holy +Sepulchre, and much for his own private advancement. +Behind these three leaders we descry the motley +crowd of the feudal world; relic-hunting abbots in +coats of mail, wrangling barons and penniless knights, +the half-piratical seamen of Venice, and the brutal +soldiery of the West. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-33.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>View Of Constantinople. (From The Side Of The Harbour.)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Boniface of Montferrat and Doge Dandolo gradually +talked over the more scrupulous Baldwin and his +friends, and the crusading fleet was launched against +Constantinople, after a treaty had been signed which +bound Alexius Angelus and his blind father, Isaac II., +to pay the Crusaders 200,000 marks of silver, send +ten thousand men to Palestine, and acknowledge the +supremacy of the Pope over the Eastern Church. In +these conditions lay the germs of much future trouble. +</p> + +<p> +The Crusading armament reached the Dardanelles +without having to strike a blow. The slothful and +luxurious emperor let things slide, and had not even a +fleet ready to send against them in the Aegean. He +shut himself up in Constantinople, and trusted to the +strength of its walls to deliver him, as Heraclius and +Leo III. and many more of his predecessors had been +delivered. If the siege had been conducted from the +land side only, his hopes might have been justified, +for the Danes and English of the Varangian Guard beat +back the assault of the Franks on the land-wall. But +Alexius III., unlike earlier emperors, was attacked by +<pb n='284'/><anchor id='Pg284'/> +a fleet to which he could oppose no adequate naval +resistance. Though the Crusaders were driven off on +shore, the Venetians stormed the sea-wall, by the +expedient of building light towers on the decks, and +throwing flying bridges from the towers on to the top +of the Byzantine ramparts. The blind Doge pushed +his galley close under the wall, and urged on his men +again and again till they had won a lodgment in some +towers on the port side of the sea-wall. The Venetians +then fired the city, and a fearful conflagration +followed. +</p> + +<p> +Hearing that the enemy was within the ramparts, +the cowardly Alexius III. mounted his horse and fled +away into the inland of Thrace, leaving his troops, +who were not yet half beaten, without a leader or a +cause to fight for. The garrison bowed to necessity, +and the chief officers of the army drew the aged Isaac +II. out of his cloister prison and proclaimed his +restoration to the throne. They sent to the Crusading +camp to announce that hostilities had ceased, and to +beg Prince Alexius to enter the city and join his +father in the palace. +</p> + +<p> +The end of the expedition of the Crusaders had +now been attained, but it may safely be asserted that +the chief feeling in their ranks was a bitter disappointment +at being cheated out of the sack of Constantinople, +a prospect over which they had been gloating +ever since they left Zara. They spent the next three +months in endeavouring to wring out of their triumphant +protégés, Isaac and Alexius, every bezant +that could be scraped together. The old emperor, +already blind and gout-ridden, was driven to imbecility +<pb n='285'/><anchor id='Pg285'/> +by their demands: his son was a raw, inexperienced +youth who could neither be firm, nor frank, +nor dignified in dealing with any one. He angered +the Franks by insincere diplomacy, and the Greeks +by his reckless schemes for extracting money from +them. The winter of 1203-4 was spent in ceaseless +wrangling about the subsidy due to the Crusaders, till +Alexius, growing seriously frightened, began exactions +on his subjects which drove them to revolt. When +he seized and melted down the golden lamps and +silver candelabra which formed the pride of St. +Sophia, stripped its eikonostasis of its rich metal +plating, and requisitioned the jewelled eikons and +reliquaries of every church in the city, the populace +would stand his proceedings no longer. They would +not serve an emperor who had sold himself to the +Franks, and only reigned in order to subject the Eastern +Church to Rome, and to pour the hoarded wealth of +the ancient empire into the coffers of the upstart +Italian republics. +</p> + +<p> +In January, 1204, the storm burst. The populace +and troops shut the gates of the city, and fell on the +isolated Latins who were within the walls. They +were not long without a leader; a fierce and unscrupulous +officer named Alexius Ducas put himself at +their head and determined to seize the throne. Isaac +II. died of fright in the midst of the tumult; his son +Alexius was caught and strangled by the usurper. +Thus the Angeli ceased out of the land, and Alexius +V. reigned in their stead. He is less frequently +named by chroniclers under his family name of +Ducas, than under his nickname of <q>Murtzuphlus,</q> +<pb n='286'/><anchor id='Pg286'/> +drawn from the bushy overhanging eyebrows which +formed the most prominent feature of his countenance. +</p> + +<p> +Alexius Ducas had everything against him. He +was a mere usurper, whose authority was hardly +recognized beyond the walls of Constantinople. The +Angeli had so drained the treasury that nothing +remained in it. Twenty years of indiscipline and +disaster had spoilt the army; the fleet was nonexistent, +for the admirals of Alexius Angelus had laid +up the vessels in ordinary, and sold the stores to fill +their own pockets. Nevertheless Murtzuphlus made +a far better fight than his despicable predecessor and +namesake. He collected a little money by confiscating +the properties of the unpopular courtiers and ministers +of the Angeli, and used it to the best advantage. The +army received some of the arrears due to them, and +Alexius spent every spare moment in seeing to their +drill and endeavouring to improve their discipline. +He strengthened the sea-wall, whose weakness had +been proved so fatally four months ago, by erecting +wooden towers along it, and building platforms for +all the military engines that could be found in the +arsenal. He ordered, too, the enrolment of a +national militia, and compelled the nobles and +burghers of Constantinople to take arms and man +the walls. To the discredit of the Byzantines this +order was received with many murmurs: the citizens +complained that they paid taxes to support the +regular army, and that they therefore ought to be +excused personal service. Little good was got out of +these new and raw levies; they swelled the numbers +<pb n='287'/><anchor id='Pg287'/> +of the garrison, but hardly added anything appreciable +to its strength. +</p> + +<p> +Alexius Ducas himself with his cavalry scoured the +country round the Crusading camp every day, to cut +off the foraging parties of the Franks, and when not +in the field, rode round the city superintending the +works, inspecting the guard-posts, and haranguing +the soldiery. If courage and energy command +success, he ought to have held his own. But he could +not counteract the work of twenty years of decay +and disorganization, and felt that his throne rested +on the most fragile of foundations. +</p> + +<p> +The Crusaders took two months to prepare for +their second assault on Constantinople, which they +felt would be a far more formidable affair than the +attack in the preceding autumn. They directed their +chief efforts against the sea-wall, which they had +found vulnerable in the previous siege, and left the +formidable land-wall alone. The ships were told off +into groups, each destined to attack a particular +section of the wall, and covered with as many military +engines as they could carry. Flying bridges were +again prepared, and landing parties were directed to +leap ashore on the narrow beach between the wall +and the water, and get to work with rams and scaling +ladders. The attack was made on April 8th, at more +than a hundred points along two miles of sea-wall, +but it was beaten off with loss. Alexius Ducas had +made his arrangements so well, that the fire of his +engines swept off all who attempted to gain a footing +on the ramparts. The ships were much damaged, +and at noon the whole fleet gave back, and retired +<pb n='288'/><anchor id='Pg288'/> +as best it could to the opposite side of the Golden +Horn. +</p> + +<p> +Many of the Crusaders were now for returning; +they thought their defeat was a judgment for turning +their arms against a Christian city, and wished to sail +for the Holy Land. But Dandolo and the Venetians +insisted upon repeating the assault. Three days were +spent in repairing the fleet, and on April 12th a second +attack was delivered. This time the ships were lashed +together in pairs to secure stability, and the attack +was concentrated on a comparatively small front of +wall. At last, after much fighting, the military engines +of the fleet and the bolts of its crossbowmen cleared +a single tower of its defenders. A bridge was +successfully lowered on to it, and a footing secured +by a party of Crusaders, who then threw open a +postern gate and let the main body in. After a short +fight within the walls, the troops of Alexius Ducas +retired back into the streets. The Crusaders fired the +city to cover their advance, and by night were in +possession of the north-west angle of Constantinople, +the quarter of the palace of Blachern. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-34.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Byzantine Reliquary. +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +While the fire was keeping the combatants apart, +the Emperor tried to rally his troops and to prepare +for a street-fight next day. But the army was cowed; +many regiments melted away; and the Varangian +Guard, the best corps in the garrison, chose this +moment to demand that their arrears of pay should +be liquidated; they would not return to the fight +without their money! The twenty years of disorganization +under the Angeli was now bearing its +fruit, and deeply was the empire to rue the next day. +</p> + +<pb n='289'/><anchor id='Pg289'/> + +<p> +Alexius Ducas, in despair at being unable to make +his men fight, left the city by night. He was soon +followed by the last Greek officer who kept his head, +the general Theodore Lascaris, who endeavoured to +make one final attack on the Crusaders even after +his master had departed. Next morning the Franks +found themselves in full possession of the city, though +they had been expecting to face a hard day of street-fighting +before this end could be attained. +</p> + +<pb n='290'/><anchor id='Pg290'/> + +<p> +In cold blood, twelve hours after all fighting had +ended, the Crusaders proceeded with great deliberation +to sack the place. The leaders could not or would +not hold back their men, and every atrocity that +attends the storm of a great city was soon in full +swing. Though no resistance was made, the soldiery, +and especially the Venetians, took life recklessly, and +three or four thousand unarmed citizens were slain. +But there was no general massacre; it was lust and +greed rather than bloodthirstiness that the army +displayed. All the Western writers, no less than +the Greeks, testify to the horrors of the three days' +carnival of rape and plunder that now set in. Every +knight or soldier seized on the house that he liked +best, and dealt as he chose with its inmates. Churches +and nunneries fared no better than private dwellings; +the orgies that were enacted in the holiest places +caused even the Pope to exclaim that no good could +ever come out of the conquest. The drunken soldiery +enthroned a harlot in the patriarchal chair in St. +Sophia, and made her rehearse ribald songs and +indecent dances before the high altar. There were +plenty of clergy with the Crusading army, but instead +of endeavouring to check the sacrilegious doings of +their countrymen, they devoted themselves to plundering +the treasuries of the churches of all the holy +bones and relics that were stored in them. <q>The +Franks,</q> remarked a Greek writer who saw the sack +of Constantinople, <q>behaved far worse than Saracens; +the infidels when a town has surrendered at any rate +respect churches and women.</q> +</p> + +<p> +After private plunder had reigned unchecked for +<pb n='291'/><anchor id='Pg291'/> +three days, the leaders of the Crusaders collected +such valuables as could be found for public division. +Though so much had been stolen and concealed, they +were able to produce no less than £800,000 in hard +gold and silver for distribution. The sum was afterwards +supplemented by the use of a resource which +makes the modern historian add a special curse of his +own to the account of the Crusaders. Down to 1204 +Constantinople still contained the monuments of +ancient Greek art in enormous numbers. In spite +of the wear and tear of 900 years, her squares and +palaces were still crowded with the art-treasures +that Constantine and his sons had stored up. +Nicetas, who was an eyewitness of all, has left us +the list of the chief statues that suffered. The +Heracles of Lysippus, the great Hera of Samos, the +brass figures which Augustus set up after Actium, the +ancient Roman bronze of the Wolf with Romulus and +Remus, Paris with the Golden Apple, Helen of Troy, +and dozens more all went into the melting-pot, to be +recast into wretched copper money. The monuments +of Christian art fared no better; the tombs of the +emperors were carefully stripped of everything in +metal, the altars and screens of the churches scraped +to the stone. Everything was left bare and desolate. +</p> + +<p> +Such was <q>the greatest conquest that was ever +seen, greater than any made by Alexander or Charlemagne, +or by any that have lived before or after,</q> as +a Western chronicler wrote, while the Greeks grew +hyperbolical in lamentation, as they saw <q>the eye of +the world, the ornament of nations, the fairest sight +on earth, the mother of churches, the spring whence +<pb n='292'/><anchor id='Pg292'/> +flowed the waters of faith, the mistress of Orthodox +doctrine, the seat of the sciences, draining the cup +mixed for her by the hand of the Almighty, and consumed +by fires as devouring as those which ruined +the five Cities of the Plain.</q> +</p> + +<p> +At last the Crusaders sat down to divide up their +conquests. They elected Baldwin of Flanders Emperor +of the East, and handed over to him the ruined +city of Constantinople, half of it devoured by the +flames of the conflagrations that attended the two +sieges, and all of it plundered from cellar to attic. +Four-fifths of the population had fled, and no one +had remained save beggars who had nothing to save +by flight. With the capital Baldwin was given Thrace +and the Asiatic provinces—Bithynia, Mysia, and +Lydia, all of which had still to be conquered. His +colleague, Boniface of Montferrat, was made <q>King +of Thessalonica,</q> and did homage to Baldwin for a +fief consisting of Macedonia, Thessaly, and inland +Epirus. The Venetians claimed <q>a quarter and +half-a-quarter</q> of the empire, and took out their +share by receiving Crete, the Ionian Islands, the +ports along the west coast of Greece and Albania, +nearly the whole of the islands of the Aegean, and +the land about the entrance of the Dardanelles. +They seized on every good harbour and strong sea-fortress, +but left the inland alone; commerce rather +than annexation was their end. The rest of the +empire was parcelled out among the minor leaders +of the Crusade; they had first to conquer their fiefs, +and were then to do homage for them to the +Emperor Baldwin. Most of them never lived to +<pb n='293'/><anchor id='Pg293'/> +accomplish the scheme. Meanwhile a Venetian +prelate was appointed patriarch of Constantinople, +and news was sent to the Pope that the union of +the Eastern and Western Churches was accomplished, +by the forcible extinction of the Greek patriarchate. +</p> + +<p> +It only remains to speak of Alexius Ducas, the +fugitive Greek emperor. He fell into the hands of +the Crusaders, was tried for the murder of the young +Alexius Angelus, and suffered death by being taken +to the top of a lofty pillar and hurled from it. The +Greeks saw in this strange end the fulfilment of an +obscure prophecy about the last of the Caesars, which +had long puzzled the brains of the oracle-mongers. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='294'/><anchor id='Pg294'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XXIII. The Latin Empire And The Empire Of Nicaea. +(1204-1261.)</head> + +<p> +Seldom has any state dragged out fifty-seven +years in such constant misery and danger as the +Latin Empire experienced in the course of its +inglorious existence. The whole period was one +protracted death-agony, and at no date within it +did there appear any reasonable prospect of recovery. +Thirty thousand men can take a city, but they cannot +subdue a realm 800 miles long and 400 broad. +Far more than any government which has since held +sway on the same spot did the Latin Empire of +Romania deserve the name of <q>the Sick Man.</q> It +is not too much to say that but for the unequalled +strength of the walls of Constantinople the new +power must have ceased to exist within ten years of +its establishment. +</p> + +<p> +But once fortified within the ramparts of Byzantium +the Franks enjoyed the inestimable advantage which +their Greek predecessors had possessed: they were +masters of a fortress which—as military science then +<pb n='295'/><anchor id='Pg295'/> +stood—was practically impregnable, if only it was +defended with ordinary skill, and adequately guarded +on the front facing the sea. As long as the Venetians +kept up their naval supremacy in Eastern waters, the +city was safe on that side, and even the very limited +force which the Latin emperor could put into the +field sufficed, when joined to the armed burghers of +the Italian quarters, to defend the tremendous land +wall. +</p> + +<p> +From the first year of its existence the Latin +Empire was marked out by unfailing signs as a +power not destined to continue. The intention of its +founders had been to replace the centralized despotism +which they had overthrown by a great feudal state, +corresponding in territorial extent to its predecessor. +But within a few months it became evident that the +conquest of the broad provinces which the Crusaders +had distributed among themselves by anticipation, +was not to be carried out. The new emperor himself +was the first to discover this. He set out with his +chivalry to drive from Northern Thrace the Bulgarian +hordes, who had flocked down into the plains to +profit by the plunder of the dismembered realm. But +near Adrianople he met Joannicios, the Bulgarian +king, with a vast army at his back. The Franks +charged gallantly enough, but they were simply +overwhelmed by numbers. The larger part of the +army was cut to pieces, and Baldwin himself was +taken prisoner. The Bulgarian kept him in chains +for some months, and then put him to death, after he +had worn the imperial crown only one year [1205]. +</p> + +<p> +Henry of Flanders, the brother of Baldwin, became +<pb n='296'/><anchor id='Pg296'/> +his successor. He was an honest and able man, but +he could do nothing towards conquering the provinces +of Asia, pushing the Bulgarians back over the +Balkans, or conciliating the subject Greek population. +All his reign he had to fight on the defensive against +his neighbours to the north and south. By the time +that he died the empire was practically confined to +a narrow slip of land along the Propontis, reaching +from Gallipoli to Constantinople. Nor was the chief +of the minor Latin states any better off; Boniface of +Montferrat had fallen in 1207, slain in battle by the +same Bulgarian hordes which had cut off the army +of his suzerain Baldwin. With his death it became +evident that the kingdom of Thessalonica was no +more able to conquer all the old Byzantine provinces +in its neighbourhood than was the empire of Constantinople. +Boniface's son and heir was a mere +infant; during his minority the lands of his kingdom +were lopped away, one after another, by the Greek +despot of Epirus, the able Theodore Angelus. At +last the capital itself was retaken by the Greeks in +1222, and the kingdom of Thessalonica came to an +end. +</p> + +<p> +The Latin states in the southern parts of the +Balkan Peninsula fared somewhat better. William of +Champlitte had contrived to hew out for himself a +principality in the western parts of the Peloponnesus, +and had organized there a small state with twelve +baronies and 136 knights fees. The resistance of the +natives in this district was particularly weak, and one +battle sufficed to give William all the coast-plain of +Elis and Messenia. Yet he did not succeed in +<pb n='297'/><anchor id='Pg297'/> +subduing the mountaineers of the peninsula of Maina, +or the coast towns of Argolis and Laconia, so that the +Greeks still had some foothold in the peninsula. +</p> + +<p> +Another small Latin state was set up by Otho de +la Roche in Central Greece, where as <q>Duke of +Athens</q> he ruled Attica and Boeotia. He treated +his Greek subjects with more consideration than any +of his fellow Crusaders, and was rewarded by obtaining +a degree of respect and deference which was not +found in any other Latin state. Though the smallest, +the duchy of Athens was undoubtedly the most +prosperous of the new creations of the conquest of +1204. +</p> + +<p> +Meanwhile it is time to speak of the fortunes of +those parts of the Eastern Empire which the Franks +did not succeed in seizing when Constantinople fell. +The provinces had hitherto been accustomed to +accept without a murmur the ruler whom the capital +obeyed. But in 1204 it was found that the centralization +of the Byzantine Empire, great as it was, had +not so thoroughly crushed the individuality of the +provinces as to make them submit without resistance +to the Latin yoke. Wherever the provincials found +a leader, whether a member of one of the ex-imperial +houses, or an energetic governor, or a landholder of +local influence, they stood up to defend themselves. +The Byzantine Empire, like some creature of low +organism, showed every sign of life in its limbs, +though its head had been shorn off. Wherever a +centre of resistance could be found the people refused +to submit to the piratical Frank, and to his yet more +hated companions the priests of the Roman Church. +</p> + +<pb n='298'/><anchor id='Pg298'/> + +<p> +Of the nine or ten leaders who put themselves at +the head of provincial risings three were destined to +carve out kingdoms for themselves. Of these the +most important was Theodore Lascaris, the last +officer who had attempted to strike a blow against +the Franks when Constantinople fell.<note place='foot'>See page <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref>.</note> He might +claim some shadow of hereditary right to the imperial +crown as he had married the daughter of the imbecile +Alexius III., but his true title was his well-approved +courage and energy. The wrecks of the old Byzantine +army rallied around him, the cities of Bithynia opened +their gates, and when the Latins crossed into Asia to +divide up the land into baronies and knights fees, +they found Theodore waiting to receive them with +the sword. His defence of the strong town of Prusa, +which successfully repelled Henry of Flanders, put a +limit to the extension of the Frank Empire; beyond +a few castles on the Bithynian coast they made no +conquests. Having thus checked the invaders, +Theodore had himself solemnly crowned at Nicaea, +and assumed imperial state [1206]. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-35.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Finial From A Byzantine MS. +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Having beaten off the Latins, Theodore had to +cope with another who aspired like himself to pose +as the rightful heir to the imperial throne. Alexius +Comnenus, a grandson of the wicked emperor +Andronicus I., had betaken himself to the Eastern +frontiers of the empire when Constantinople fell, and +obtained possession of Trebizond and the long slip of +coast-land at the south-east corner of the Black Sea, +from the mouth of the Phasis to Sinope. He aspired +to conquer the whole of Byzantine Asia, and sent his +<pb n='299'/><anchor id='Pg299'/> +brother David Comnenus to attack Bithynia. But +Theodore defended his newly won realm with success; +Comnenus gained no territory from him, and was +constrained to content himself with the narrow bounds +of his Pontic realm, where his descendants reigned in +obscurity for three hundred years as emperors of +Trebizond. A greater danger beset the empire of +Nicaea when the warlike sultan of the Seljouks came +down from his plateau to ravage its borders. But the +valour of Theodore Lascaris triumphed over this +enemy also. In the battle of Antioch-on-Maeander +he slew Sultan Kaikhosru with his own hand in single +<pb n='300'/><anchor id='Pg300'/> +combat, and the Turks were beaten back with such +slaughter that they left the empire alone for a generation. +</p> + +<p> +Meanwhile a third Greek state had sprung into +existence in the far West. Michael Angelus, a cousin +of Alexius III. and Isaac II., put in a claim to their +heritage, though he was disqualified by his illegitimate +birth. He was recognized as ruler by the cities of +Epirus, and proclaimed himself <q>despot</q> of that land. +Raising an army among the warlike tribes of Albania, +he maintained his position with success, and discomfited +the Franks of Athens and Thessalonica +when they took arms against him. He died early, +but left a compact heritage to his brother Theodore, +who succeeded him on the throne, and within a few +years conquered the whole of the Frank kingdom of +Thessalonica. +</p> + +<p> +It was soon evident that there would be a trial +of strength between the two Greek emperors who +claimed to succeed to the rights of the dispossessed +Angeli. The Latin Empire was obviously destined +to fall before one of them. The only doubt was, +whether the Epirot or the Nicene was to be its +conqueror. This question was not settled till 1241, +when the two powers met in decisive conflict. +</p> + +<p> +By this time Theodore Lascaris had been succeeded +in Asia by his son-in-law John Ducas,<note place='foot'>Sometimes known as John Vatatzes.</note> and Theodore +of Thessalonica by his son John Angelus. At +Constantinople the succession of Latin emperors had +been much more rapid. Henry of Flanders had died +in 1216; he was followed by Peter of Courtenay, who +<pb n='301'/><anchor id='Pg301'/> +was slain by the Epirots in less than a year. To him +succeeded Robert his son, and when Robert died in +1228 his brother Baldwin II., reigned in his stead. +The young Courtenays were both thoroughly incapable, +and saw their empire melt away from them +till nothing was left beyond the walls of Constantinople +itself. +</p> + +<p> +John III. of Nicaea was an excellent sovereign, a +very worthy heir to his gallant father-in-law. Not +only was he a good soldier and an able administrator, +but by constant supervision and strict frugality he +had got the financial condition of his empire into a +more hopeful condition—a state of things which had +never been seen in Romania since the time of John +Comnenus, a hundred years before. In 1230 the +troops of Nicaea crossed into Europe, and drove the +Franks out of Southern Thrace, while in 1235 John +Ducas laid siege to Constantinople itself. But the +time of its fall was not yet arrived, and when a +Venetian fleet approached to succour it the Emperor +was constrained to raise the siege. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-36.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Fountain In The Court Of St. Sophia.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Recognizing that Constantinople was not yet ripe +for its fall, John Ducas resolved to measure himself +with his rivals the Angeli of Thessalonica. He beat +their forces out of the field, and laid siege to their +capital in 1341. Then John Angelus engaged to +resign the title of emperor, call himself no more than +<q>despot of Epirus,</q> and to acknowledge himself as the +vassal of the ruler of Nicaea. This satisfied Ducas +for a time, but when Angelus died, four years later, +he seized Thessalonica and united it to the imperial +crown. The heir of the Angeli escaped to Albania +<pb n='303'/><anchor id='Pg303'/> +and succeeded in retaining a small fraction only of +his ancestral dominions [1246]. +</p> + +<p> +John Ducas died in 1254, leaving the throne of +Nicaea to his son Theodore II., who bid fair to +continue the prosperous career of his father and +grandfather. He drove the Bulgarians out of +Macedonia, and penned the Albanians into their +hills. But he became subject to epileptic fits, and died +after a reign of only four years, before he had reached +the age of thirty-eight [1258]. +</p> + +<p> +This was a dreadful misfortune for the empire, for +John Ducas, the son and heir of Theodore, was a child +of eight years, and minorities were always disastrous +to the state. We have seen in the history of previous +centuries how frequently the infancy of a prince led +to a violent contest for the place of regent, or even to +a usurpation of the throne. The case of John IV. +was no exception to the rule; the ministers of his +father fought and intrigued to gain possession of the +helm of affairs, till at last an able and unprincipled +general, named Michael Paleologus, thrusting himself +to the front, was named tutor to the Emperor, and +given the title of <q>Despot.</q> +</p> + +<p> +Michael was as ambitious as he was unscrupulous. +The place of regent was far from satisfying his +ambition, and he determined to seize the throne, +though he had steeped himself to the lips in oaths of +loyalty to his young master. He played much the +same game that Richard III. was destined to repeat +in England two centuries later. He cleared away +from the capital the relatives and adherents of the +little prince, placed creatures of his own in their +<pb n='304'/><anchor id='Pg304'/> +places, and conciliated the clergy by large gifts and +hypocritical piety. Presently the partisans of Michael +began to declaim against the dangers of a minority, +and the necessity for a strong hand at the helm. +After much persuasion and mock reluctance the +regent was induced to allow himself to be crowned. +From that moment the boy John Ducas was thrust +aside and ignored: ere he had reached the age of ten +his wicked guardian put out his eyes and plunged +him into a dungeon, where he spent thirty years in +darkness and misery. +</p> + +<p> +The usurpation of Michael tempted all the enemies +of the Greek Empire to take arms. The Epirot +despot allied himself with the Frankish lords of +Greece, and their united armies, aided by auxiliaries +from Italy, invaded Macedonia; moreover the Latin +emperor of Constantinople stirred up the Venetians +to ravage his neighbours' borders. But in 1260 the +troops of Michael won, over the allied armies of the +Franks and Epirots, the last great victory that a +Byzantine army was ever destined to achieve. The +field of Pelagonia decided the lot of the house of +Paleologus, for Michael's enemies were so crushed +that they could never afterwards make head against +him. +</p> + +<p> +Freed from all danger from the West, Michael was +now able to turn against Constantinople, and complete +the reconstruction of the empire. The city was ripe +for its fall, and Baldwin of Courtenay had long been +awaiting his doom. +</p> + +<p> +The long reign of the last Latin sovereign of +Constantinople is sufficiently characterized by the +<pb n='305'/><anchor id='Pg305'/> +fact that Baldwin spent nearly half the years of his +rule outside the bounds of Romania, as he wandered +from court to court in the West, striving to stir up +some champion who would deliver him from the +inevitable destruction impending over his realm. He +gained little by his tours, his greatest success being +that, in 1244, he got from St. Louis a considerable +sum of ready money in acknowledgment of the +liberality with which he had presented the holy king +with a choice selection of relics, including the rod of +Moses, the jawbone of John the Baptist, and our +Lord's crown of thorns. +</p> + +<p> +In 1261 Baldwin was in worse straits than ever. +He was stripping off the lead of his own palace roof, +to sell it for a few zecchins to the Venetians, and +burning the beams of his outhouses in default of +money to buy fuel. His son and heir was in pawn to +the Venetian banking firm of the Capelli, who had +taken him as the only tangible security that could be +found for a modest loan which they had advanced to +the imperial exchequer. With the government in +such a desperate condition there was no longer any +power of resistance left in Constantinople. When +the Venetian fleet, the sole remaining defence of the +empire, was away at sea, the city fell before a sudden +and unpremeditated attack, made by Alexius Strategopulus, +commander in Thrace under the emperor +Michael. +</p> + +<p> +Alexius, with eight hundred regular troops and a +few scores of half-armed volunteers, was admitted by +treachery within the walls. Before this formidable +array the heirs of the Crusaders fled in base dismay, +<pb n='306'/><anchor id='Pg306'/> +and the Empire of Romania came to an inglorious +and a well-deserved end. +</p> + +<p> +Its monarch resumed his habitual mendicant tours +in Western Europe, and never ceased to besiege the +ears of popes and kings with demands for aid to +recover his lost realm. At last Baldwin passed away: +his sole memorial is the fact that he made a distressed +and itinerant emperor in search of a champion, one +of the stock figures in the Romances of his day. No +one in Western Europe was ignorant of his tale, and +he survives as the prototype of the dispossessed +sovereigns of fifty legends of chivalry. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='307'/><anchor id='Pg307'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XXIV. Decline And Decay. (1261-1328.)</head> + +<p> +There was now once more a Byzantine empire, +and to an unobservant reader the history of the +reigns of the Paleologi looks like the natural continuation +and sequel of the history of the reigns of +Isaac Angelus and his brother. If the annals of +Michael VIII. and his son were written on to the end +of that of Alexius Angelus, the intervening gap of +the Latin Conquest might almost pass unperceived, +and the reader might imagine that he was investigating +a single continuous course of events. The +Frank dominion at Constantinople, and the heroic +episode of the Empire of Nicaea, would pass equally +unnoticed. +</p> + +<p> +We need not insist on the perniciousness of such +a view. Great as may seem the similarity of the +Byzantine Empire of 1204, and that of 1270, it had +really suffered an entire transformation in that period. +To commence by the most obvious and external sign +of change, it will be observed that the lands subject +<pb n='308'/><anchor id='Pg308'/> +to Michael Paleologus were far more limited in +extent than those which had obeyed Alexius Angelus. +The loss in Asia was less than might have been +expected: Theodore Lascaris and John Ducas had +kept back the Turk, and only two districts of no great +extent had fallen into Moslem hands—the Pisidian +coast with the seaport of Adalia on the south, and +the Paphlagonian coast with the seaport of Sinope +on the north. Besides these the distant Pontic province +had now become the empire of Trebizond. +</p> + +<p> +In Europe the loss was far more serious: four great +blocks of territory had been lost for ever. The first +was a slip along the southern slope of the Balkans, in +Northern Thrace and Macedonia, which had fallen +into the hands of the Bulgarians, and become completely +Slavonized. The second was the district +which is represented by the modern land of +Albania. When the Angeli of Thessalonica fell before +John Ducas, a younger member of the house +retired to the original mountain house of the dynasty, +and preserved the independence of the <q>Despotate +of Epirus.</q> Here the Angeli survived for some +generations, maintaining themselves against the +Emperors of Constantinople by a strict alliance with +the Latin princes of Southern Greece. +</p> + +<p> +Next in the list of Old-Byzantine territories which +Michael never recovered, we must place Greece +proper, now divided between the Princes of Achaia, +of the house of Villehardouin, and the Briennes, who +had succeeded to the Duchy of Athens. But the +Paleologi still retained a considerable slice of the +Peloponnesus, and were destined to encroach ere +<pb n='309'/><anchor id='Pg309'/> +long on their Frankish neighbours. Lastly, we must +mention the islands of the Aegean, of which the large +majority were held either by the Venetian government, +or by Venetian adventurers, who ruled as +independent lords, but subordinated their policy to +that of their native state. +</p> + +<p> +But the territorial difference between the empire +of 1204 and the empire of 1261 was only one +of the causes which crippled the realm of the +Paleologi. Bad though the internal government +of the dominions of Alexius III. had been, there +was still then some hope of recovery. The old +traditions of East-Roman administrative economy, +though neglected, were not lost, and might have +been revived by an emperor who had a keen eye to +discover ability and a ready hand to reward merit. +New blood in the <emph>personnel</emph> of the ministry, and a +keen supervision of details by the master's eye, would +have produced an improvement in the state of the +empire, though any permanent restoration of strength +was probably made impossible by the deep-seated +decay of society. But by the time of Michael +Paleologus even amelioration had become impossible. +The three able emperors who reigned at +Nicaea, though they had preserved their independence +against Turk and Frank, had utterly failed in +restoring administrative efficiency in their provinces. +John Vatatzes, himself a thrifty monarch, who could +even condescend to poultry-farming to fill his modest +exchequer, found that all his efforts to protect native +industry could not cause the dried-up springs of +prosperity to flow again. The whole fiscal and administrative +<pb n='310'/><anchor id='Pg310'/> +machinery of government had been thrown +hopelessly out of gear. +</p> + +<p> +It was the commercial decline of the empire that +made a reform of the administration so hopeless. +The Paleologi were never able to reassert the old +dominion over the seas which had made their predecessors +the arbiters of the trade of Christendom. The +wealth of the elder Byzantine Empire had arisen from +the fact that Constantinople was the central emporium +of the trade of the civilized world. All the +caravan routes from Syria and Persia converged +thither. Thither, too, had come by sea the commodities +of Egypt and the Euxine. All the Eastern products +which Europe might require had to be sought +in the storehouses of Constantinople, and for centuries +the nations of the West had been contented to go +thither for them. But the Crusades had shaken this +monopoly, when they taught the Italians to seek the +hitherto unknown parts of Syria and Egypt, and +buy their Eastern merchandize from the producer +and not from the middleman. Acre and Alexandria +had already profited very largely at the expense of +Constantinople ere the Byzantine Empire was upset +in 1204. But the Latin conquest was the fatal blow. +It threw the control of the trade of the Bosphorus +into the hands of the Venetians, and the Venetians +had no desire to make Constantinople their one +central mart: they were just as ready to trade through +the Syrian and Egyptian ports. To them the city +was no more than an important half-way house for +the Black Sea trade, and an emporium for the local +produce of the countries round the Sea of Marmora. +</p> + +<pb n='311'/><anchor id='Pg311'/> + +<p> +From 1204 onward Italy rather than Constantinople +became the centre and starting-place for all European +trade, and the great Italian republics employed all +their vigilance to prevent the Greek fleet from recovering +its old strength. Henceforth the Byzantine +war-navy was insignificant, and without a war-navy +the Paleologi could not drive away the intruders and +restore the free navigation of the Levant to their own +mercantile marine. +</p> + +<p> +The emperors who succeeded each other on the +restored throne of Constantinople were, without exception, +men more fitted to lose than to hold together +an exhausted and impoverished empire. Their lot +was cast, it is true, in hard times; but hardly one of +them showed a spark of ability or courage in endeavouring +to face the evil day. The three monarchs of +the house of Lascaris who ruled at Nicaea had been +keen soldiers and competent administrators, but with +the return of the emperors to Constantinople the +springs of energy began to dry up, and the gloom +and decay of the ruined capital seemed to affect the +spirit and brain of its rulers. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-37.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Byzantine Chapel At Ani, The Old Capital Of Armenia. +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Michael Paleologus, though it was his fortune to +recover the city which his abler predecessors had +failed to take, was a mere wily intriguer, not a statesman +or general. Having usurped the throne by the +basest treachery towards his infant sovereign, he +always feared for himself a similar fate. Suspicion +and cruelty were his main characteristics, and in his +care for his own person he quite forgot the interests +of the State. Even contemporary chroniclers saw +that he was deliberately setting himself to weaken +<pb n='313'/><anchor id='Pg313'/> +the empire, because he dreaded the resentment of his +subjects. He disbanded nearly all the native Greek +troops, and refrained as far as possible from employing +Greek generals. +</p> + +<p> +One of his minor acts in this direction may be said +to have been the original circumstance which set the +Ottoman Turks, the future bane of the empire, on +their career of conquest. The borders of the empire +in Asia were defended by a native militia, who held +their lands under condition of defending the castles +and passes of the Bithynian and Phrygian mountains. +The institution, which somewhat resembled a simple +form of European feudalism, had worked so well that +the Byzantine Empire had for a century and a half +kept its Asiatic frontier practically intact, in spite of +all the pressure of the Seljouk Turks of the Sultanate +of Iconium. But the Bithynian militia were known +to be attached to the house of Ducas, which Michael +had dethroned, and he therefore resolved to disarm +them. The measure was carried out, not without +bloodshed, but the disbanded levy were not replaced +by any adequate number of regular troops. Michael's +financial straits did not permit him to keep under +arms a very large force, such as was required to +garrison his eastern line of forts after the abolition +of the previous machinery of defence. Ten years +only before Othman, the father of the Ottoman +Turks, succeeded to the petty principality which was +destined to be the nucleus of the Turkish Empire, the +way for him had been thrown open by Michael's +suspicious disarmament of the guards of his own +frontier. +</p> + +<pb n='314'/><anchor id='Pg314'/> + +<p> +Michael lived for twenty-one years after the recovery +of Constantinople, but he did not win a single +important advantage in all the rest of his reign. In +Europe he barely held his own against the Bulgarians, +the Franks, and the fleets of Genoa and Venice. +The troubles which befell him at the hands of the two +naval powers were largely of his own creation, for he +shifted his alliance from one to the other with such +levity and suddenness that both regarded him as +unfriendly. Though all through his reign he was at +war either with Genoa or Venice, yet such was the +distrust felt for him that, when at war with one of the +rivals, he could not always secure the help of the other. +Venice had been the mainstay of the Frank emperors +of Constantinople, and Michael might, therefore, have +been expected to remain staunch to the Genoese. +On the other hand, the Genoese had designs on the +Black Sea trade, which touched the Emperor's pocket +very closely, while the Venetians were more connected +with the distant commerce of Syria and +Egypt, which did not concern him. Balancing one +consideration with the other, Michael played false to +both the powers, and often saw his coast ravaged and +his small fleet compelled to take refuge in the Golden +Horn, while the enemy's vessels swept the seas. On +land he was less unlucky, and the Duke of Athens +and the despot of Epirus were both kept in check, +though neither of them were subdued. +</p> + +<p> +But it was in Asia that Michael's rule was most +unfortunate. In the second half of his reign the +Seljouks, though split into several principalities owing +to the break up of the Sultanate of Iconium, united +<pb n='315'/><anchor id='Pg315'/> +to assail the borders of the empire. They conquered +the Carian and Lydian inland, though Tralles and +several other towns made a vigorous resistance, and +reduced Michael's dominion in South-western Asia +Minor to a mere strip along the coast. A similar +fate befell Eastern Bithynia, where the Turks forced +their way as far as the river Sangarius. +</p> + +<p> +But the ruin of Byzantine Asia was reserved to fall +into the times of Michael's son and successor, Andronicus +II. This prince had all the faults of his father, +levity, perfidy, and cruelty, with others added from +which Michael had been free—cowardice and superstition. +The main interest which Andronicus took +in life was concerned with things ecclesiastical—it +would be wrong to say things religious—and he +spent his life in making and unmaking patriarchs of +Constantinople. No prelate could bear with him +long, and in the course of his reign he deposed no +less than nine of them. +</p> + +<p> +While Andronicus was quarrelling with his patriarchs +the empire was going to ruin. The Seljouk +chiefs from the plateau of Asia Minor were pressing +down more and more towards the coast, and making +their way to the very gates of Ephesus and Smyrna. +At last the emperor, growing seriously alarmed when +the Turks appeared on the shores of the Propontis +itself, and threatened the walls of Nicaea and Prusa, +resolved to make an unwonted effort to beat them +back. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-38.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Adronicus Paleologus Adoring Our Lord. +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +In 1302 the long war of the <q>Sicilian Vespers</q> +between the houses of Anjou and Aragon came to an +end, and the hordes of mercenaries of all nations +<pb n='317'/><anchor id='Pg317'/> +which the two pretenders to the crown of Sicily had +maintained were turned loose on the world. It +occurred to Andronicus that he might hire enough of +the veterans of the Sicilian war to enable him to beat +back the Turks into their hills. All Europe acknowledged +that they were the hardiest and best-disciplined +troops in Christendom, though they were also the +most cruel and lawless. Accordingly the emperor +applied to Roger de Flor, a renegade Templar, the +commander of the mercenaries who had served +Frederic of Aragon, and offered to take him into his +service, with as many of his followers as could be +induced to accompany him. Roger accepted with +alacrity, and came to Constantinople in 1303 with +6,000 men at his back; other bodies were soon to +follow. Andronicus loaded the <q>Grand Company,</q> +as Roger de Flor styled his men, with unlimited +promises, and a certain amount of ready money. +Roger himself was given the title of <q>Grand Duke,</q> +and married to a lady of the imperial house. After +clearing the Turks out of the Bithynian coast-land +the <q>Grand Company</q> spent the winter of 1303-4 +in free quarters along the southern coast of Propontis. +Their plundering habits and their arrogance soon +brought them into ill odour with the inhabitants, who +complained that they were well-nigh as great a curse +as the Turks. In the next year Roger moved south +with his host, and drove the Turks out of Lydia and +Caria; but instead of putting the emperor into possession +of the reconquered land, he garrisoned every +fortress with his own men, and raised and appropriated +the imperial taxes. There can be little doubt +<pb n='318'/><anchor id='Pg318'/> +that he was plotting to seize on the provinces he had +regained, and to reign at Ephesus as an independent +prince. At last Roger went so far as to lay formal +siege to Philadelphia, because its inhabitants preferred +to obey orders from Constantinople, and would not +admit him within their gates. Andronicus then lured +him to an interview at Adrianople, and in his very +presence the great <foreign lang='it' rend='italic'>condottiere</foreign> was assassinated by +George the Alan, an officer whose son had been slain +in a brawl by Roger's soldiers. The Emperor had +probably arranged the murder, and certainly refused +to arrest its perpetrator [1307]. +</p> + +<p> +He was promptly punished. The <q>Grand Company</q> +was not disorganized by the loss of its leader, +and thought of nothing but revenge. Assembling +themselves in haste, and abandoning Asia Minor to +the Turks, they marched on Constantinople, harrying +the land far and wide with fiendish cruelty. The +Emperor sent his son Michael against them, but the +young prince was disgracefully beaten in two fights +at Gallipoli and Apros, and the mercenaries spread +themselves all over Thrace and plundered it up to +the gates of the capital. It almost looked as if a +second Latin Conquest of Constantinople was about +to take place, for the leaders of the <q>Grand Company</q> +got succour from Europe, raised a corps of Turkish +auxiliaries, and occupied Thrace for two years. But +they could not storm the walls of Constantinople +or Adrianople, and at last, after two years of plundering, +they had stripped the country so bare that they +were driven away by famine. Drifting southward +and westward they ravaged Macedon and Thessaly, +<pb n='319'/><anchor id='Pg319'/> +and at last reached Greece. Here they fell into a +quarrel with Walter de Brienne, Duke of Athens, +slew him in battle and took his capital. Then at +last did the wandering horde settle down; they +seized the duchy, divided its fiefs among themselves, +and established a new dynasty on the Athenian +throne. The empire was at last quit of them, for +when once they ceased to wander the <q>Grand Company</q> +ceased to be dangerous. +</p> + +<p> +This disastrous war with the mercenaries not only +ruined Thrace and Macedonia, but was the cause of +the final loss of the Byzantine provinces of Asia +Minor. While Andronicus was feebly attempting to +cope with the <q>Grand Company,</q> the Seljouk chiefs +had conquered Lydia and Phrygia once more, and +then advanced yet further north to siege Mysia and +Bithynia. By 1325 they had reduced the Emperor's +dominions on the east of the straits to a narrow strip, +reaching from the Dardanelles to the northern exit of +the Bosphorus, and bounded by the Bithynian hills to +the south. Five Seljouk leaders had carved out for +themselves principalities in the conquered districts, +Menteshe in the south, Aidin and Saroukhan in +Lydia, Karasi in Mysia, and in the Bithynian borderland +Othman, destined to a fame very different from +that of his long-forgotten compeers. +</p> + +<p> +While Othman and the rest were turning the once +thickly-peopled countries of Western Asia Minor into +a desert sparsely inhabited by wandering nomads, +Andronicus II. was busied in a war even more uncalled +for than that with the mercenaries. He +wished to exclude from the succession to the throne +<pb n='320'/><anchor id='Pg320'/> +his grandson and heir, who bore the same name as +himself. But the younger Andronicus took measures +to defend his rights, and raised armed bands. Grandfather +and grandson were ere long engaged in a long +but feebly-conducted war, which was only terminated +in 1328, when the old man acknowledged Andronicus +the younger as his heir, and made him his colleague +on the throne. But his grandson, not contented with +this measure of success, made him retire from the +conduct of affairs, and assumed control over every +function of government. The name of Andronicus +II. was still associated with that of Andronicus III. +on the coinage and in the public prayers, but he took +no further part in the rule of the empire. In 1332 +he died, at a good old age, lamented by no single +individual in the realm which he had ruled for fifty +years. At his death the empire was only two-thirds +of the size that it had been at his accession. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='321'/><anchor id='Pg321'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XXV. The Turks In Europe.</head> + +<p> +Andronicus III. was a shade better than the +incapable old man whom he supplanted. Though +he was given—like all his house—to treachery and +deceit, and though his life was loose and luxurious, +he was at any rate active and energetic. He may be +described as a weak reflection or copy of Manuel +Comnenus, being a mighty hunter, a bold spear both +in the tournament and on the battle-field, and a great +spender of money. If he had not the brains to keep +his empire together, he at any rate fought his best, +and did not sit apathetically at home like his grandfather +while everything was going to rack and ruin. +</p> + +<p> +Nevertheless, Andronicus III. was destined to see +the termination of the process which had begun under +Andronicus II.—the entire loss of the Asiatic provinces +of the empire to the Turks. It was now with the +Ottomans almost exclusively that he had to deal; the +other Seljouk hordes had no longer any marchland +along the shrunken frontier of his dominions. +</p> + +<p> +These new foes of the empire deserve a word of +description. Othman, the son of Ertogrul, was a +<pb n='322'/><anchor id='Pg322'/> +vassal of the Seljouk Sultan of Roum, who had been +granted a tract in the Phrygian highlands under the +condition of military service against the Greeks. His +fief lay in the north-west angle of the great central +plateau of Asia Minor. Behind it lay the rolling +country of hills and uplands already occupied by the +Seljouks. Before it were the Bithynian mountains, +with their passes protected by forts, and garrisoned +by local militia, till the day when they were so perversely +stripped of their defenders by the action of +Michael Paleologus. Othman, and his father Ertogrul +before him, owned nothing in the hills, nor could they +have pushed on if Michael had not made the way +easy for them. But after 1270 the native militia was +gone, and the followers of Othman, instead of having +to face an armed population, fighting to protect its +own fields, found to oppose them only inadequate +garrisons of regular troops at long intervals. +</p> + +<p> +Othman's life covered two series of great events, +the disastrous reign of Andronicus II. at Constantinople, +and in Asia Minor the no less disastrous +break-up of the power of his own suzerain, the Sultan +of Roum. In 1294, Gaiaseddin, the last undisputed +sovereign of the Seljouk line, fell in battle against +rebels; and in 1307, Alaeddin III., the last prince who +claimed to be supreme Sultan, died in exile. This +made Othman an independent prince; but he did +not take the title of Sultan, contenting himself with +the humbler name of Emir. +</p> + +<p> +Othman's field of operation from 1281 to 1326 +was the Byzantine borderland of Bithynia and Mysia. +He was by no means the strongest of the Seljouk +<pb n='323'/><anchor id='Pg323'/> +chiefs who made a lodgement within the borders of +the empire, and it took him twenty years before he +conquered one large town. His wild horsemen harried +the open sea-coast plain of Bithynia again and +again, till at last the wretched inhabitants emigrated, +or acknowledged him as their sovereign. But the +towns, within their strong Roman walls, were unassailable +by the light cavalry which formed his only armed +strength. The siege of Prusa [Broussa], the capital +and key of the region, lasted ten years. The Turks +built a chain of forts around it and gradually made +the introduction of provisions more and more difficult, +till at last a large force was required to march out +every time that a convoy was expected. At length the +inhabitants could find no advantage in spending their +whole lives in a beleaguered town undergoing slow +starvation. Prusa surrendered in 1326, and Othman +heard of the news on his death-bed. The Turkish +frontier now once again touched the Sea of Marmora, +which it had not reached since the Crusaders thrust it +back inland in 1097. +</p> + +<p> +The reign of Othman's son Orkhan, the second +Emir of the Ottomans, almost coincided with that of +Andronicus III. All that the one lost the other +gained. Orkhan's life-work was the completion of +the conquest of Bithynia, which his father had begun. +He took Nicomedia in 1327 and Nicaea in 1333, with +all the surrounding territory, so that Andronicus +retained nothing but Chalcedon and the district +immediately facing Constantinople beyond the Bosphorus. +Only once did he have to meet the Emperor +in pitched battle; this was at the fight of Pelekanon +<pb n='324'/><anchor id='Pg324'/> +in 1329. Andronicus was wounded early in the day, +and his army, deprived of its leader went to pieces +and was severely beaten. After his recovery from his +wounds the Emperor never faced the Ottomans +again. +</p> + +<p> +After conquering Bithynia, Orkhan subdued his +nearest neighbours among the other Seljouk Emirs, +and then turned to organizing his state. This was +the date of the institution of his famous corps of the +Janissaries, the first steady infantry that any Eastern +power had ever possessed. He imposed on his +Christian subjects in Mysia and Bithynia a tribute, +not of money, but of male children. The boys were +taken over while very young, placed in barracks, +educated in the strictest and most fanatical Moslem +code, and trained to the profession of arms. Having +light horse enough and to spare, Orkhan taught the +Janissaries to fight on foot with bow and sabre. +They were well drilled, and moved in compact masses, +which for many ages no foe proved competent to +sunder and disperse. So thorough was the physical +and moral discipline to which the Janissaries were +subjected, that it was almost unknown for one of them +to turn back from his career and relapse into Christianity. +To keep them firm in their allegiance there +acted not only the military and conventual discipline +to which they were subject, but the dazzling prospect +of future greatness. The Ottoman sovereigns made it +their rule to select their generals and governors, their +courtiers and personal attendants from the ranks of +the tribute-children. It was calculated that more +than two-thirds of the Grand-Viziers of Turkey, in +<pb n='325'/><anchor id='Pg325'/> +the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, had +begun their career as Janissaries. +</p> + +<p> +The first generation of the <q>New Soldiery</q> [for +such is the meaning of the word Janissary] grew up +to the military age during the latter half of the reign +of Orkhan, and it was he who first utilized them on +the European shore of the Bosphorus. +</p> + +<p> +Andronicus III. died in 1241, and left his shrunken +dominions to the risks of a minority, for his son and +heir, John III., was only nine years of age. If anything +had been wanting to aid in the destruction of +the empire, it was the arrival of such a contingency. +The usual troubles soon set in, and the inevitable +civil war was not far off. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-39.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>John Cantacuzenus Sitting In State. +(<hi rend='italic'>From a Contemporary MS.</hi>) +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +The evil spirit of the time was John Cantacuzenus, +the prime minister of the deceased emperor. He was +a clever, shifty, intriguing courtier, with a turn for +literature, but had the abilities neither of a general nor +of a statesman. However, he had read the tale of the +rise of the Paleologi to some purpose, and had resolved +to imitate the career of Michael VIII. Now, as in +1258, there was the best of chances for an unscrupulous +minister to make himself first the colleague and then +the supplanter of his young master. Cantacuzenus +did his best to repeat the doings of Michael on +Michael's great-great-grandson. He bribed and intrigued, +made himself a party in the state, and +prepared for a <foreign lang='fr' rend='italic'>coup d'état</foreign> when the time should be +ripe. Unfortunately for himself, Cantacuzenus was +not of the stuff of which successful usurpers are +made. He had his scruples and superstitions, and +showed a fatal habit of procrastination which always +<pb n='326'/><anchor id='Pg326'/> +led him to act a day too late. The Empress Dowager, +Anne of Savoy, succeeded in raising a party against +him, and when he threw off the mask and declared +himself emperor he found himself unable to seize the +capital, though he mustered an army under its walls. +<pb n='327'/><anchor id='Pg327'/> +Finding that he was playing a losing game, Cantacuzenus +took the usual step of calling in the national +enemy to aid him. It was for the last time that this +was done in Byzantine history, but never before had +the result been so fatal. The usurper summoned to +his aid first Stephen Dushan, the king of the Servians, +and a little later the Turkish princes from across the +Aegean—Orkhan the son of Othman, and his rival, +Amour, Emir of Aidin. +</p> + +<p> +These allies kept the cause of John Cantacuzenus +from destruction, but it was by destroying the empire +that John had coveted. King Stephen entered Macedonia +and Thrace, and occupied the whole countryside, +except Thessalonica and a few other towns. +He then pushed further south, conquered Thessaly, +and made the despot of Epirus do him homage. The +Byzantine government retained little more than the +capital, and the districts round Adrianople and Thessalonica. +Most of this country was lost for ever to +the imperial crown, and it seemed as if a Servian +domination in the Balkan Peninsula was about to +begin, for Stephen moved south from Servia, made +Uscup in Macedonia his capital, and proclaimed +himself <q>Emperor of the Servians and Romans.</q> +</p> + +<p> +It would perhaps have been well for Christendom +if Stephen had actually conquered Constantinople and +made an end of the empire. In that case there would +have been a single great power in the Balkan Peninsula, +ready to meet the oncoming assault of the Turks. +But Dushan was not strong enough to take the great +city, and to the misfortune of Europe he died in 1355 +leaving a realm extending from the Danube to the +<pb n='328'/><anchor id='Pg328'/> +pass of Thermopylae. But his young son Urosh was +soon assassinated, and the Servian Empire broke up +as rapidly as it had grown together. A dozen princes +were soon scrambling for the remnants of Stephen's +heritage. +</p> + +<p> +The other allies whom John Cantacuzenus called in +were the Turks Amour and Orkhan, and on them he +depended far more than on the Servian. He took +over into Thrace a large body of Turkish horse, and +allowed them to harry the country-side and carry +away his subjects by thousands, to be sold in the +slave-markets of Smyrna and Broussa. But the +depth of John's degradation was reached when he +gave his daughter Theodora to Orkhan, to be immured +in the Turk's harem. Thrace was rapidly assuming +the aspect of a desert under the incursions of the +Ottoman mercenaries of Cantacuzenus, when after +six years of war the party of the Empress Anne +consented to recognize the usurper as the colleague +and guardian of the rightful heir. A hollow peace +was patched up, and the two Johns could take stock +of their dilapidated realm [1347]. The net result of +their civil war had been that Macedonia and Thessaly +were in Servian hands, and that Thrace was utterly +ruined by the Turks. There was nothing left that +could be called an empire; all that remained was +Constantinople and Adrianople, the town of Thessalonica +and the Byzantine province in the Peloponnesus. +Cantacuzenus certainly deserves a notable place by +the side of Isaac and Alexius Angelus, as the third of +the great destroyers of the Eastern Empire. +</p> + +<p> +But his evil work was not yet done. For seven +<pb n='329'/><anchor id='Pg329'/> +years he ruled in conjunction with John Paleologus, +waging an unsuccessful war against Servia in the +hopes of winning back Dushan's conquests. But in +1354 the young emperor, having attained the age of +twenty-four, resolved to assert himself, and took arms +to dethrone his guardian. Cantacuzenus resisted, +and sent over to Asia for the troops of his son-in-law +Orkhan, who crossed into Thrace and drove the +adherents of the Paleologi out of several fortresses. +But a night surprise from the side of the sea put John +Paleologus in possession of Constantinople, and by a +fortunate chance he got Cantacuzenus himself into +his hands. The usurper was, in accordance with the +usual practice, tonsured and placed in a monastery; +by exceptional good fortune he was spared the loss +of his eyes, and was able to spend the remainder of +his life in writing a history of his own time. +</p> + +<p> +But it was of little use to sweep away Cantacuzenus +while Orkhan's Turks were in Thrace. The Ottomans +had come as auxiliaries in the war, but they were +resolved to stop as principals. Suleiman, the son of +Orkhan, seized Gallipoli for himself, filled it with +Turkish families, and made it a permanent settlement. +This was the first Ottoman foothold in Europe, but it +was not long to remain isolated. +</p> + +<p> +In 1359 Orkhan died, and his successor, Murad I., +determined to cross over into Europe, and try the +fortune of his arms. John Paleologus was not a worse +man than his immediate predecessors on the throne, +but thanks to Cantacuzenus he had far less resources +than even they had possessed. Two years of fighting +sufficed to put Thrace in the hands of Murad from +<pb n='330'/><anchor id='Pg330'/> +sea to sea. A decisive battle in front of Adrianople +in 1361 was the finishing stroke, and the empire +became a mere head without a body; its last home-province +had been lopped away, and beyond the walls +of Constantinople no land acknowledged John V. as +sovereign save the district of Thessalonica and the +Peloponnesus. +</p> + +<p> +Why Murad I. did not finish the task he had begun, +and take Constantinople itself, it is hard to discern. +Its walls were still formidable, and the Genoese and +Venetians could still protect it on the side of the sea. +But a siege pressed firmly to an end must at last have +triumphed over the mere inert resistance of stone and +mortar, unsupported by an adequate garrison within. +However, Murad preferred to press on against worthier +adversaries than the weak Paleologus, and spent his +life in incessant and successful wars with the Servians, +the Bulgarians, and the Seljouk Emirs of Southern +Asia Minor. In a reign of thirty years he extended +his borders to the Balkans on the north, and annexed +large tracts of Seljouk territory from his brother +Emirs in Asia Minor. +</p> + +<p> +John Paleologus was his humble vassal and slave. +After a vain attempt to get help from the Pope, this +emperor without an empire resolved to make what +terms he could, and rejoiced when he found that +Murad was prepared to grant him peace. The Turk +was a hard master, and rejoiced in giving his vassal +unpalatable tasks. Best remembered among the tribulations +of John is the siege of Philadelphia. That +place had preserved a precarious independence after +all the other cities of Byzantine Asia fell into the +<pb n='331'/><anchor id='Pg331'/> +hands of the Turkish Emirs. Being far away in the +Lydian hills, it lost touch with Constantinople, and +had become a free town. Murad, wishing to subdue +it, compelled John V. and his son Manuel to march in +person against the last Christian stronghold in Asia. +The Emperor submitted to the degradation, and +Philadelphia surrendered when it saw the imperial +banner hoisted among the horse-tails of the Turkish +pashas above the camp of the besiegers. The humiliation +of the empire could go no further than when the +heir of Justinian and Basil Bulgaroktonos took the +field at the behest of an upstart Turkish Emir, in +order to extinguish the last relics of freedom among +his own compatriots. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='332'/><anchor id='Pg332'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>XXVI. The End Of A Long Tale. (1370-1453.)</head> + +<p> +The tale of the last seventy-five years of the Byzantine +Empire is a mere piece of local history, and no +longer forms an important thread in the web of the +history of Christendom. Murad the Turk might have +taken Constantinople in 1370, without altering in any +very great measure the course of events in Eastern +Europe during the next century. For after 1370 the +empire ceased to exercise its old function of <q>bulwark +of Christendom against the Ottomite.</q> That +duty now fell to the Servians and Hungarians, who +continued to discharge it for the next hundred and +fifty years. The Paleologi, by their base subservience +to the Turk, protracted the life of the empire long after +all justification for its existence had disappeared. +</p> + +<p> +If Constantinople had fallen in 1370, instead of +1453, there are only two ways in which European +history would have been somewhat modified. The +commercial resources of Genoa and Venice would +have been straitened before the appointed time, and +<pb n='333'/><anchor id='Pg333'/> +ere the Cape route to India enabled Europe to dispense +with the use of Constantinople as half-way house +to the East. And, we may add, the Renaissance +would have been shorn of some of its brilliance in the +next century, if the dispersion of the Greeks had +taken place before Italy was quite fitted to receive +them and turn their learning to account. But in +other respects it is hard to see that much harm would +have resulted from the fall of Constantinople in the +end of the fourteenth rather than the middle of the +fifteenth century. +</p> + +<p> +While Murad I. was conquering the Servians and +Bulgarians, John Paleologus was dragging out a long +and unhonoured old age. His reign was protracted +for over half a century, but his later years were much +vexed by the undutiful behaviour of his children. +His son Andronicus twice rebelled against him, and +once succeeded in seizing the throne for a short space. +Andronicus allied himself unto Saoudji, a son of +Murad I., who plotted a similar treason against his +father the Emir. But Murad easily quelled the +rebellion, put out the eyes of his own son, and sent +Andronicus in chains to John II., bidding him to +follow his example. The Emperor did not dare to +disobey, and ordered his son to be blinded. But +the operation was so ineffectually performed that +Andronicus retained a measure of sight, and was even +able to venture on a second rebellion against his father. +</p> + +<p> +In consequence of his heir's unnatural conduct, the +aged John determined to deprive him of his succession, +and when he died in 1391, he left the throne to +his second son Manuel, and not to his eldest born. +<pb n='334'/><anchor id='Pg334'/> +Manuel II. was above the average of the Paleologi, +and showed some signs of capacity, but of what use +was it to a prince whose sole dominions were Constantinople, +Thessalonica, and the Peloponnesus? He +had neither military strength nor money to justify +rebellion against the Turk, and could only wait on +the course of events. +</p> + +<p> +There was, however, one moment in Manuel's life +at which the liberation of the empire from the +Ottoman suzerainty appeared possible and even +probable. In 1402, there burst into Asia Minor a +great horde of Tartars, under the celebrated conqueror +Timour [Tamerlane]. Sultan Bayezid, the +successor of Murad I., went forth to withstand the +invader. But at Angora in Galatia, he suffered a +crushing defeat, and the Ottoman Empire seemed +likely to perish by the sword. Bayezid was captured, +his trusty Janissaries were cut to pieces, his +light horsemen scattered to the winds. The Tartars +swarmed all over Asia Minor, occupied Broussa, the +Ottoman capital, and restored to their thrones all the +Seljouk Emirs whose dominions Murad I. had +annexed. Bayezid died in captivity, and his sons +began to fight over the remains of his empire: Prince +Suleiman seized Adrianople, Prince Eesa Nicaea, and +each declared himself Sultan. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-40.png' rend='width: 70%'> + <head>Manuel Paleologus And His Family. +(<hi rend='italic'>From a Contemporary MS.</hi>) +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par C. Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +This was a rare opportunity for Manuel Paleologus: +the thieves had fallen out, and the rightful owner +might perchance come again to his own, if he played +his cards well. The control of the Straits was of +great importance to each of the Turkish pretenders, +so much so, that Manuel was able to sell his aid to +<pb n='335'/><anchor id='Pg335'/> +Suleiman for a heavy price. In order to keep Eesa +from crossing the water, the holder of the European +half of the Ottoman realm ceded to the Emperor +<pb n='336'/><anchor id='Pg336'/> +Thessalonica, the lower valley of the Strymon, the +coast of Thessaly, and all the seaports of the Black +Sea from the mouth of the Bosphorus up to Varna. +</p> + +<p> +For a moment Manuel once more ruled what might +in courtesy be called an empire, and so long as the +Ottomans were occupied in civil war he contrived to +retain his gains. The strife of the sons of Bayezid +lasted ten years: Suleiman was slain by his brother +Musa, Eesa by his brother Mohammed, and the two +supplanters continued the war. By all Oriental +analogies their empire ought to have fallen to pieces, +for it is very much easier to build up a new state in +the East than to keep together an old one which is +breaking asunder. But Mohammed, the youngest +of the sons of Bayezid, was a man of genius: he +triumphed over the last of his brothers, and united all +the remnants of the Ottoman realm that remained. +Much had been lost to the Seljouk Emirs in Asia +Minor, and to the Servians and Manuel Paleologus in +Europe, but the rest was back in Mohammed's hands +by <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 1421. Manuel had very luckily cast in his lot +with Mohammed during the later years of the Turkish +civil war, and his ally let him enjoy the dominions he +had recovered by his original treaty with Suleiman in +1403. +</p> + +<p> +Between 1402 and 1421, Europe had an unparalleled +opportunity to rid herself of the Ottomans. Unfortunately +it was not taken. Sigismund, king of +Hungary, and at the same time Emperor, was the +sovereign on whom the duty of leading the attack +ought to have fallen. But Sigismund was now +engaged in his great struggle with the Hussites in +<pb n='337'/><anchor id='Pg337'/> +Bohemia. This wretched religious war directed the +strength of Hungary northward when it was wanted +in the south. Without such a power to back them +the Servians, though they recovered their own liberty +as a result of the battle of Angora, could do nothing +towards driving the Turks from the Balkans. There +was never any sympathy between Serb and Magyar, +and save under the direct pressure of fear of a Moslem +invasion they would not act together. The Hungarian +kings had always laid claim to a suzerainty over the +crown of Servia, and from time to time tried to convert +their neighbours to Roman Catholicism by force +of arms. Hence there was no love lost between them, +and a crusade to expel the Turks was never concerted. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-41.png' rend='width: 60%'> + <head>Arabesque Design From A Byzantine MS. +(<hi rend='italic'>From "L'Art Byzantin." Par Charles Bayet. Paris, Quantin, 1883.</hi>)</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Mahomet the Unifier died in 1421, and evil days +at once set in for Constantinople and for Christendom, +when his ambitious son Murad II. came to the throne. +Manuel Paleologus was one of the first to feel the +change in the times. He tried to make trouble for +Murad, by supporting against him two claimants to the +Ottoman Sultanate, each named Mustapha, one the +uncle, the other the brother of the new ruler. This +drew down on the empire the fate which had been +delayed since 1370: the Sultan declared war on +Manuel, took one after another all the fortresses which +had been recovered by the peace of 1403, and finally +laid siege to Constantinople. For the last time the +walls of the city proved strong enough to repulse an +assault. Though Murad levelled against them +cannon, then seen for the first time in the East, built +movable towers to shelter his troops, and launched +his terrible Janissaries to the assault, he could not +<pb n='339'/><anchor id='Pg339'/> +succeed. The report of a miraculous vision of the +Virgin, who vouchsafed to reveal herself as the +defender of the city, encouraged the Greeks to resist +with a better spirit than might have been expected. +At last the pretender Mustapha, whom Manuel had +supplied with money to cause a revolt against his +brother, began to stir up such trouble in Asia Minor, +that the Sultan determined to raise the siege and +march against him. He granted Manuel peace, on +the condition that he ceded all his dominions save +the cities of Constantinople and Thessalonica and +the Peloponnesian province. Thus the empire once +more sank back into a state of vassalage to the +Ottomans [1422]. +</p> + +<p> +Manuel II. died three years after, at the age of +seventy-seven. He was the last sovereign of Constantinople +who won even a transient smile from +fortune. The tale of the last thirty years of the +empire is one of unredeemed gloom. +</p> + +<p> +To Manuel succeeded his son John VI., whose +whole reign was passed in peace, without an attempt +to shake off the Turkish yoke; such an attempt +indeed would have been hopeless, unless backed by +aid from without. As Manuel II. once observed, +<q>the empire now requires a bailiff not a statesman to +rule it.</q> Treaties, wars, and alliances were not for +him: all that he could do was to try to save a little +money, and to keep his walls in good repair, and even +these humble tasks were not always feasible. +</p> + +<p> +All the descriptions of Constantinople in the +fifteenth century, whether written by Greek natives +or by Western travellers, bear witness to a state of +<pb n='340'/><anchor id='Pg340'/> +exhaustion and debility which make us wonder that +the empire did not collapse sooner. The country outside +the walls was a desert. Within them more than +half the ground was unoccupied, and covered only by +ruins which testified to ancient magnificence. The +great palace by the Augustaeum, which sheltered so +many generations of emperors, had grown so dilapidated +that the Paleologi dwelt in a mere corner of it. +Part of the porticoes of St. Sophia had fallen down, +and the Greeks could not afford to repair even the +greatest sanctuary of their faith. The population of +the city had shrunk to about a hundred thousand +souls, most of them dwelling in great poverty. Such +commerce and wealth as still survived in Constantinople +had passed almost entirely into the hands of +the Italians of Genoa and Venice, whose fortified +factories at Galata and Pera now contained the bulk +of the wares that passed through the city. The +military strength of the empire was composed of +about four thousand mercenary troops, of whom many +were Franks and hardly any were born subjects of +the empire. The splendid court, which had once been +the wonder of East and West, had shrunk to such +modest dimensions that a Burgundian traveller noted +with surprise that no more than eight attendants +accompanied the empress when she went in state to +worship in St. Sophia.<note place='foot'>See Bertrandon de la Broquière quoted in Finlay, vol. iii. p. 493, +a very interesting passage.</note> +</p> + +<p> +John VI., in spite of the caution with which he +avoided all action, was destined to see the empire lose +its most important possession beyond the walls of +<pb n='341'/><anchor id='Pg341'/> +Constantinople. His brother Andronicus, governor +of Thessalonica, traitorously sold that city to the +Venetians for 50,000 zecchins. The Sultan, incensed +at a transfer of Greek territory having taken place +without his permission, pounced down on the place, +expelled the Venetians and annexed Thessalonica to +the Ottoman Empire [1430]. +</p> + +<p> +The chief feature of the reign of the last John +Paleologus was his attempt to win aid for the empire +by enlisting sympathy in Western Europe. He +determined to conform to Roman Catholicism and +to throw himself on the generosity of the Pope. +Accordingly he betook himself to Italy in 1438, with +the Patriarch of Constantinople and many bishops in +his train. He appeared at the Councils of Ferrara and +Florence, and was solemnly received into the Roman +Church in the Florentine Duomo, on July 6, 1439. +It had apparently escaped John's notice that +Eugenius IV., the pope of his own day, was a very +different personage from the great pontiffs of the +eleventh and twelfth centuries, who were able to +depose sovereigns and send forth Crusades at their +good pleasure. Since the Great Schism the papacy +had been hopelessly discredited in Christendom. +Eugenius IV. was engaged in waging a defensive +war against the Council of Basle, which was attempting +to depose him, and had little thought or power +to spend on aiding the Eastern Christians. All that +John could get from him was a sum of money and a +body of three hundred mercenary troops. This was a +poor return for his journey and conversion. +</p> + +<p> +Only one thing of importance was accomplished by +<pb n='342'/><anchor id='Pg342'/> +the apostasy of the Emperor—the outbreak of a +venomous ecclesiastical struggle at Constantinople +between the conformists who had taken the oath at +Florence, and the bulk of the clergy, who disowned +the treaty of union. John was practically boycotted +by the majority of his subjects; the Orthodox priests +ceased to pray for him, and the populace refused to +enter St. Sophia again, when it had been profaned by +the celebration of the Roman Mass. The opinion of +the majority of the Greeks was summed up in the +exclamation of the Grand-Duke John Notaras—<q>Better +the turban of the Turk in Constantinople +than the Pope's Tiara.</q> +</p> + +<p> +The last years of the reign of John VI. coincided +with the great campaigns of Huniades and Ladislas +of Poland against the Turks. For a moment it +seemed as if the gallant king of Poland and Hungary, +backed by his great Warden of the Marches, might +restore the Balkan lands to Christendom. They +thrust Murad II. back over the Balkans, and appeared +in triumph at Sophia. But the fatal battle of Varna +[1444] ended the career of King Ladislas in an +untimely death, and after that fight the Ottomans +were obviously fated to accomplish their destiny +without a check. John Paleologus watched the +struggle without movement if not without concern. +He was too cautious to stir a finger to aid the +Hungarians, for he knew that if he once offended the +Sultan his days would be numbered. +</p> + +<p> +John VI. passed away in 1448, and Sultan Murad +in 1451. The one was succeeded by his brother +Constantine, the last Christian sovereign of Byzantium, +<pb n='343'/><anchor id='Pg343'/> +the other by his young son Mohammed the Conqueror. +Constantine was a Romanist like his elder brother, +and was therefore treated with great suspicion and +coolness by his handful of subjects. He was the best +man that the house of Paleologus had ever reared, +brave, pious, generous, and forgiving. Like King +Hosea of Israel, <q>he did not evil as the kings that +were before him,</q> yet was destined to bear the penalty +for all the sins and follies of his long line of predecessors. +</p> + +<p> +Mohammed II., the most commanding personality +among the whole race of Ottoman Sultans, set his +heart from the first on seizing Constantinople, the +natural centre of his empire, and making it his capital. +Some excuse had to be found for falling on his vassal: +the one that he chose was a rather unwise request +which Constantine had made. There dwelt at Constantinople +a Turkish prince of the royal house named +Orkhan, for whom Mohammed paid a considerable +subsidy, on condition that he was kept out of the way +of mischief and plotting. Some unhappy inspiration impelled +Constantine to ask for an increase in the subsidy, +and to hint that Orkhan had claims to the Sultanate. +This was excuse enough for Mohammed: without +taking the trouble to declare war he sent out troops and +engineers, and began to erect forts on Greek soil, only +four miles away from Constantinople, at the narrowest +point of the Bosphorus, so as to block the approach +to the city from the Black Sea. The Emperor did +not dare to remonstrate, but when the Turks began +to pull down a much-venerated church, in order to +utilize its stones in the new fort, a few Greeks took +<pb n='344'/><anchor id='Pg344'/> +arms and drove the masons away. They were at +once cut down by the Turkish guards: Constantine +demanded redress, and then Mohammed, having +fairly picked his wolf-and-lamb quarrel with his unfortunate +vassal, commenced open hostilities [Autumn +1452]. +</p> + +<p> +Turkish light troops at once appeared to blockade the +city while the Sultan began to collect a great train +of cannon at Adrianople, and to build a large fleet of +war galleys in the ports of Asia: the siege was to begin +in the ensuing spring. +</p> + +<p> +The empire was now in its death agony, and Constantine +recognized the fact. He spent the winter in +making frantic appeals to the Pope and the Italian +naval powers to save him from destruction. Nicholas +V. was willing enough to help; now that the Emperor +was a convert to Catholicism something must be done +to aid him. But all that the Pope could send was a +cardinal, a moderate sum of money, and a few hundred +soldiers of fortune hastily hired in Italy. Venice and +Genoa could have done much more, but they had so +often heard the cry of <q>Wolf</q> raised that they did +not realize the danger to their Eastern trade at its +true extent. From Genoa, Giovanni Giustiniani +brought no more than two galleys and three hundred +men. Venice did even less, only commissioning the +bailiff of its factory at Galata to arm such able-bodied +Venetians as were with him for the protection of the +city. Altogether the Franks, counting both trained +mercenaries and armed burghers, who co-operated in +the defence of Constantinople, were not more than +three thousand strong. Yet either Genoa or Venice +<pb n='345'/><anchor id='Pg345'/> +could have thrown a hundred galleys and twenty +thousand men into the scale if they had chosen. +</p> + +<p rend='text-align: center'> + <figure url='images/fig-42.png' rend='width: 80%'> + <head>Details Of St. Sophia.</head> + <figDesc>Illustration</figDesc> + </figure> +</p> + +<p> +Constantine's own troops were about four thousand +strong, but he hoped to recruit them by a general +levy of the male population of the city. He issued +a passionate appeal to his subjects to join in saving +the holy city, the centre of Eastern Christendom. +But the Greeks only remembered that he was an +apostate, who had foresworn the faith of his fathers +and done homage to the Pope. They stood aside in +sullen apathy, and from the whole population of the +city only two thousand volunteers were enlisted. +<pb n='346'/><anchor id='Pg346'/> +Theological bitterness led the blind multitude to cry +with Notaras that it preferred the Turk to the Roman. +</p> + +<p> +In April, 1453, the young Sultan, with seventy +thousand picked troops at his back, laid formal siege +to the city on the land side, while a fleet of several +hundred war galleys beset the Bosphorus. The end +could not be for a moment doubtful; nine thousand +men could not hope to defend the vast circuit of the +land and sea-wall against a veteran army urged on +by a young and fiery general. Mohammed set his +cannon to play on the walls, and it was soon seen +that the tough old Roman mortar and stone that had +blunted the siege engines of so many foes could not +resist the force of gunpowder. The Sultan's artillery +was rude, but it was heavy and numerous; ere long +the walls began to come down in flakes, and breaches +commenced to show themselves in several places. +</p> + +<p> +Constantine XIII. and his second in command, the +Genoese Giustiniani, did all that brave and skilful men +might, in protracting the siege. They led sorties, +organized attacks by water on the Turkish fleet, and +endeavoured to drive off the siege artillery of the +enemy by a counter fire of cannon. But it was found +that the old walls were too narrow to bear the guns, +and where any were hoisted up and brought to bear, +their recoil shook the fabric in such a dangerous way +that the fire was soon obliged to cease. +</p> + +<p> +At sea the Christians won one great success, when +four galleys from the Aegean forced their way in +through the whole Turkish fleet, and reached the +Golden Horn in safety, after sinking many of their +assailants. But the Turks had as great a numerical +<pb n='347'/><anchor id='Pg347'/> +superiority on the water as on land, and the inevitable +could only be delayed. Mohammed even succeeded +in getting control of the harbour of the city, +above its mouth, by dragging light galleys on rollers +over the neck of land between the Bosphorus and the +Golden Horn, and launching them in the inland +waters just above Galata. Thus the inner, as well as +the outer, sea-face of the city was beset by enemies. +</p> + +<p> +The end came on May 29, 1453. The Sultan had +opened several practicable breaches, of which the +chief lay in the north-west angle of the city by the +gate of St. Romanus, where two whole towers and +the curtain between them had been battered down +and choked the ditch. The storm was obviously at +hand, and the doomed Emperor was obliged to face +his fate. Greek historians dwelt with loving sorrow +on the last hours of the unfortunate prince. He left +the breach at midnight, partook of the sacrament +according to the Latin rite in St. Sophia, and snatched +a few hours of troubled sleep in his half-ruined palace. +Next morning, with the dawn, he rose to ride back to the +post of danger. His ministers and attendants crowded +round his horse as he started on what all knew to be +his last journey. Looking steadfastly on them he +prayed one and all to pardon him for any offence that +he might wittingly or unwittingly have committed +against any man. The crowd answered with sobs +and wails, and with the sounds of woe ringing in his +ears Constantine rode slowly off to meet his death. +</p> + +<p> +The assault commenced at dawn; three main +attacks and several secondary ones were directed +against weak spots in the wall. But the chief stress +<pb n='348'/><anchor id='Pg348'/> +was on the great breach by the gate of St. Romanus. +There the Emperor himself and Giustiniani at his side +stood in the midst of the yawning gap with their best +men around them, and opposed a barrier of steel to +the oncoming assailants. Twelve thousand Janissaries, +sabre in hand, formed successive columns of attack; +as soon as one was beaten off another delivered its +assault. They fell by hundreds before the swords of +the mailed men in the breach, for their felt caps and +unarmoured bodies were easy marks for the ponderous +weapons of the fifteenth century. But the ranks of +the defenders grew thin and weary; Giustiniani was +wounded in the face by an arrow, and taken on board +his galley to die. Constantine at last stood almost +alone in the breach, and a forlorn hope of Janissaries +headed by one Hassan of Ulubad, whom Turkish +chroniclers delight to honour, at last forced their way +over the wall. The Emperor and his companions +were trodden under foot, and the victorious army +rushed into the desolate streets of Constantinople, +seeking in vain for foes to fight. The Greeks, half +expecting that God would interfere to save the queen +of Christian cities by a miracle, had crowded into the +churches, and were passing the fatal hour in frantic +prayer! The shouts of the victorious enemy soon +showed them how the day had gone, and the worshippers +were dragged out in crowds, to be claimed as +slaves and divided among the conquerors. +</p> + +<p> +Mohammed II. rode through the breach after his +men, and descended into the city, scanning from +within the streets that so many Eastern conquerors +had in vain desired to see. He bade his men search +<pb n='349'/><anchor id='Pg349'/> +for the Emperor, and the corpse of Constantine was +found at last beneath a heap of slain, so gashed and +mauled that it was only identified by the golden +eagles on his mail shoes. The Turk struck off his +head, and sent it round their chief cities as a token of +triumph. Riding through the hippodrome towards +St. Sophia, Mohammed noted the Delphic tripod with +its three snakes,<note place='foot'>See pp. <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref>, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>.</note> standing where Constantine the +Great had placed it eleven hundred years before. +Either because the menacing heads of the serpents +provoked him, or merely because he wished to try the +strength of his arm, the Sultan rose in his stirrups +and smote away the jaws of the nearest snake with +one blow of his mace. There was something typical +in the deed though Mohammed knew it not. He had +defaced the monument of the first great victory of the +West over the East. He, the successor in spirit not +only of Xerxes but of Chosroës and Moslemah and +many another Oriental potentate, who had failed +where he succeeded, could not better signalize the end +of Greek freedom than by dealing a scornful blow at +that ancient memorial, erected in the first days of +Grecian greatness, to celebrate the turning back of +the Persians on the field of Plataea. +</p> + +<p> +At last the Sultan came to St. Sophia, where the +crowd of wailing captives was being divided among +his soldiery. He rode in at the eastern door, and +bade a mollah ascend the pulpit and repeat there the +formula of the Moslem faith. So the cry that God +was great and Mohammed his prophet rang through +<pb n='350'/><anchor id='Pg350'/> +the dome where thirty generations of patriarchs had +celebrated the Holy Mysteries, and all Europe and +Asia knew the end was come of the longest tale of +Empire that Christendom has yet seen. +</p> + +<p> +Finis. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='351'/><anchor id='Pg351'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Table Of Emperors.</head> + +<lg> +<l>Arcadius, 395-408</l> +<l>Theodosius II., 408-450</l> +<l>Marcianus, 450-457</l> +<l>Leo I., 457-474</l> +<l>Zeno, 474-491</l> +<l>Anastasius I., 491-518</l> +<l>Justinus I., 518-527</l> +<l>Justinianus I., 527-565</l> +<l>Justinus II., 565-578</l> +<l>Tiberius II., Constantinus, 578-582</l> +<l>Mauricius, 582-602</l> +<l>Phocas, 602-610</l> +<l>Heraclius, 610-641</l> +<l>Heraclius Constantinus and Heracleonas, 641-2</l> +<l>Constans II., 642-668</l> +<l>Constantine IV., 668-685</l> +<l>Justinian II., 685-695</l> +<l>Leontius, 695-697</l> +<l>Tiberius III., Apsimarus, 697-705</l> +<l>Justinian II. (restored), 705-711</l> +<l>Philippicus, 711-713</l> +<l>Anastasius II., Artemius, 713-715</l> +<l>Theodosius III., 715-717</l> +<l>Leo III., the Isaurian, 717-740</l> +<l>Constantine V., Copronymus, 740-775</l> +<l>Leo IV., 775-779</l> +<l>Constantine VI., 779-797</l> +<l>Irene, 797-802</l> +<l>Nicephorus I., 802-811</l> +<l>Stauracius, 811</l> +<l>Michael I., Rhangabe, 811-813</l> +<l>Leo V., the Armenian, 813-820</l> +<l>Michael II., the Amorian, 820-829</l> +<l>Theophilus, 829-842</l> +<l>Michael III., 842-867</l> +<l>Basil I., the Macedonian, 867-886</l> +<l>Leo VI., the Wise, 886-912</l> +<l>Constantine VII., Porphyrogenitus, 912-958</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>[Co-regent Emperors—</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 4'>Alexander, 912-913</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 4'>Romanus I., Lecapenus, 919-945]</l> +<l>Romanus II., 958-963</l> +<l>Basil II., Bulgaroktonos, 963-1025</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>[Co-regent Emperors—</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 4'>Nicephorus II., Phocas, 963-969</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 4'>John I., Zimisces, 969-976]</l> +<l>Constantine VIII., 1025-28</l> +<l>Romanus III., Argyrus, 1028-34</l> +<l>Michael IV., the Paphlagonian, 1034-42</l> +<l>Michael V., 1042</l> +<l>Constantine IX., Monomachus, 1042-55</l> +<l>Theodora, 1055-57</l> +<l>Michael VI., Stratioticus, 1056-57</l> +<pb n='352'/><anchor id='Pg352'/> +<l>Isaac I., Comnenus, 1057-59</l> +<l>Constantine X., Ducas, 1059-67</l> +<l>Michael VII., Ducas, 1067-78</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>[Co-regent Emperor—</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 4'>Romanus IV., Diogenes, 1067-71]</l> +<l>Nicephorus III., Botaniates, 1078-81</l> +<l>Alexius I., Comnenus, 1081-1118</l> +<l>John II., Comnenus, 1118-43</l> +<l>Manuel I., Comnenus, 1143-80</l> +<l>Alexius II., Comnenus, 1180-83</l> +<l>Andronicus I., Comnenus, 1183-85</l> +<l>Isaac II., Angelus, 1185-95</l> +<l>Alexius III., Angelus, 1195-1203</l> +<l>Isaac II. (restored), 1203-4</l> +<l>Alexius V., Ducas, 1204</l> +</lg> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Latin Emperors.</hi> +</p> + +<lg> +<l>Baldwin I., 1204-5</l> +<l>Henry, 1205-16</l> +<l>Peter, 1217-19</l> +<l>Robert, 1219-28</l> +<l>Baldwin II., 1228-61</l> +</lg> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Nicaean Emperors.</hi> +</p> + +<lg> +<l>Theodore I., Lascaris, 1204-22</l> +<l>John III., Ducas, 1222-54</l> +<l>Theodore II., Ducas, 1254-59</l> +<l>John IV., Ducas, 1259-60</l> +</lg> + +<p> +<hi rend='smallcaps'>Empire Restored.</hi> +</p> + +<lg> +<l>Michael VIII., Paleologus, 1260-82</l> +<l>Andronicus II., Paleologus, 1282-1328</l> +<l>Andronicus III., Paleologus, 1328-41</l> +<l>John V., Paleologus, 1341-91</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>[Co-regent—</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 4'>John VI., Cantacuzenus, 1347-54]</l> +<l>Manuel II., 1391-1425</l> +<l>John VII., 1425-48</l> +<l>Constantine XI., 1448-53</l> +</lg> + +</div> + +<pb n='353'/><anchor id='Pg353'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Index.</head> + +<lg> +<l>Abdalmelik, the Caliph, wars of, with Justinian II., <ref target='Pg174'>174-6</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abubekr, the Caliph, wars of, with Heraclius, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Achaia, Frank principality of, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Acroinon, battle of, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adana, taken by Nicephorus Phocas, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adrianople, battle of, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>besieged by the Goths, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>captured by the Turks, <ref target='Pg329'>329</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Africa, conquered by Belisarius, <ref target='Pg084'>84-5</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>overrun by the Saracens, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aijnadin, battle of, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alaric the Goth, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wars with Stilicho, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>departs to Italy, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alaeddin, Sultan of the Seljouks, <ref target='Pg322'>322</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alboin the Lombard invades and conquers Italy, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aleppo, Emirate of, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>attacked by Nicephorus Phocas, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tributary to the empire, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alexander, emperor-regent, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alexandria, stormed by the Arabs, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-alexius-i'/> +<l>Alexius I. (Comnenus), usurpation of, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wars with the Normans, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquests of in Asia Minor, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>commercial policy of, <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alexius II. (Comnenus), short reign and murder of, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-alexius-iii'/> +<l>Alexius III. (Angelus), usurpation of, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>attacked by the Crusaders, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>flies, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alexius IV. (Angelus), takes refuge in Germany, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>persuades the Crusaders, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made emperor, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>murdered, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-alexius-v'/> +<l>Alexius V. (Ducas), murders Alexius IV., <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defends Constantinople, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>slain, <ref target='Pg293'>293</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alexius Comnenus, emperor of Trebizond, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alp Arslan, Sultan of the Seljouk Turks, attacks the empire, <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeats Romanus IV., <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amalasuntha, Gothic queen, murdered, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amalphi, commerce of, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amorium, stormed by the Saracens, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amour, Turkish Emir, <ref target='Pg327'>327</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amrou conquers Egypt, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anastasius I., reign of, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anastasius II., usurpation of, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anatolic theme, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Andreas murders Constans II., <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-andronicus-i'/> +<l>Andronicus I. (Comnenus), crimes and fall of, <ref target='Pg272'>272-3</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-andronicus-ii'/> +<l>Andronicus II. (Paleologus), reign of, <ref target='Pg315'>315-20</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-andronicus-iii'/> +<l>Andronicus III. (Paleologus), reign of, <ref target='Pg321'>321-2</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Angelus, house of, <hi rend='italic'>see</hi> <ref target='index-isaac-ii'>Isaac II.</ref> <ref target='index-alexius-iii'>Alexius III.</ref> and Theodore of Epirus</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='354'/><anchor id='Pg354'/> + +<lg> +<l>Angora, battle of, <ref target='Pg334'>334</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ani, taken by the Turks, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anthemius, prime minister of Theodosius II., <ref target='Pg054'>54-5</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anthemius, architect of St. Sophia, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anne of Savoy, empress-regent, <ref target='Pg326'>326</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Antioch, taken by the Persians, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taken a second time, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stormed by the Saracens, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>retaken by Nicephorus Phocas, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lost to the Turks, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>besieged by the Crusaders, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tributary to the Comneni, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Antioch-on-Maeander, battle of, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Antonia, wife of Belisarius, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apsimarus, Tiberius, emperor, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>executed, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arabs, <hi rend='italic'>see</hi> <ref target='index-saracens'>Saracens</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arcadius, reign of, <ref target='Pg047'>47-54</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his dealings with the Goths, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>quarrels with Chrysostom, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Armenia, conquered by the Byzantines, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>overrun by the Turks, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Army, reformed by Leo and Zeno, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>description of, in tenth century, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Artemius Anastasius, reign of, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Art, decay and revival of, <ref target='Pg222'>222-4</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aspar, executed by Leo I., <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athalaric, Gothic king, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athanarich, Gothic king, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>visits Constantinople, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athens, early Byzantines at war with, <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>schools of, closed by Justinian, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Frank duchy of, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquered by the <q>Grand Company,</q> <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Attila, king of the Huns, wars of with the empire, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Augustaeum, description of the, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Avars, invasions of, the <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>war of, with Heraclius, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>besiege Constantinople, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baanes, rebel in Syria, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baduila, Gothic king, victories of, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>takes Rome, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>slain in battle, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baldwin I., emperor, his character,<ref target='Pg281'>281</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>crowned, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>slain by the Bulgarians, <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baldwin II., reign of, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his travels, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>expelled from Constantinople, <ref target='Pg306'>306</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bardas Caesar, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>murdered by Michael III., <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bari, taken by the Normans, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Basil I., made Caesar, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>assassinates Michael III., <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>laws of, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Basil II., ascends the throne, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>assumes the full power, <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his Bulgarian victories, <ref target='Pg241'>241-3</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>campaigns in Asia, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dies, <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bayezid, Turkish Sultan, <ref target='Pg334'>334</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Belisarius, Persian victories of, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>quells the <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>Nika</foreign> riots, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquers Africa, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>takes Palermo, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>takes Rome, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>takes Ravenna, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recalled, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>acts against Persia, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeats the Huns, <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>disgraced, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beneventum, Lombard duchy of, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wars of with Constans II., <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Black Sea, Greek trade with, <ref target='Pg002'>2</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Blues and Greens,</q> Circus factions, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>great riot of, against Justinian, <ref target='Pg076'>76-7</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>armed by Maurice, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bohemund the Norman, wars of with Alexius I., <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-boniface'/> +<l>Boniface of Montserrat, <ref target='Pg281'>281-2</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made king of Thessalonica, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>slain in battle, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bosphorus, the, <ref target='Pg001'>1-2</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bostra, stormed by the Saracens, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Branas, Alexius, rebellion of, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brienne, house of, at Athens, <ref target='Pg308'>308</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>expelled by the <q>Grand Company,</q> <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Broussa, <hi rend='italic'>see</hi> <ref target='index-prusa'>Prusa</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bucellarian Theme, <ref target='Pg167'>167-8</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Buhawides, Persian dynasty, <ref target='Pg226'>226-7</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bulgarians, invade and settle in +<pb n='355'/><anchor id='Pg355'/> +Moesia, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeated by Justinian II., <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>aid Justinian, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeat the Saracens, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at war with Constantine V., <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeat Constantine VI., <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>slay Nicephorus I., <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>besiege Constantinople, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>routed by Leo V., <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeat Leo VI, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquered by the Russians, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquered by Basil II., <ref target='Pg241'>241-3</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>revolt against Isaac II., <ref target='Pg276'>276-7</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>slay Baldwin I., <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquests of, <ref target='Pg308'>308</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>subdued by the Turks, <ref target='Pg330'>330</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burtzes storms Antioch, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Byzantium, founded, <ref target='Pg001'>1</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>early history of, <ref target='Pg002'>2-8</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>under the Romans, <ref target='Pg009'>9-12</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>chosen as Constantine's capital, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>see afterwards under</hi> <ref target='index-constantinople'>Constantinople</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Candia taken by Nicephorus Phocas, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cantacuzenus, John, usurpation of, <ref target='Pg325'>325-8</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caracalla, grants privileges to Byzantium, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carthage, taken by Belisarius, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taken by the Saracens, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cassiodorus, his work in literary copying, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chalcedon, founded. <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taken by the Persians, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Champlitte, William of, founds principality of Achaia, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Charles the Great crowned emperor, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cherson. Justinian II. at, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacked, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chosroës I., king of Persia, wars of, with Justinian, <ref target='Pg072'>72-4</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90-100</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chosroës II.. wars with Phocas and Heraclius, <ref target='Pg120'>120-135</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>death of, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chosroantiocheia, foundation of, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Christianity, influence of, on the empire and society, <ref target='Pg145'>145-149</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chrysostom, <hi rend='italic'>see under</hi> <ref target='index-john-chrysostom'>John Chrysostom</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cilicia, conquered by Nicephorus Phocas, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lost to the Turks, <ref target='Pg235'>236</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reconquered by the Comneni, <ref target='Pg270'>270</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Column, of the Hippodrome, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Constantine, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Commerce, centralization of, at Constantinople, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>decline of, under the Comneni, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>effects of Fourth Crusade on, <ref target='Pg310'>310</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Comnena, Anna, writes her father's life, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Comnenus, <hi rend='italic'>see under</hi> <ref target='index-alexius-i'>Alexius</ref>, <ref target='index-john-ii'>John</ref>, <ref target='index-andronicus-i'>Andronicus</ref>, <ref target='index-manuel-i'>Manuel</ref>, <ref target='index-david'>David</ref>, <ref target='index-isaac-i'>Isaac</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-conrad'/> +<l>Conrad of Montserrat defeats Branas, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Constans II., reign of, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wars of with the Saracens, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>murdered, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Constantine I., besieges Byzantium, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>master of the world, <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seeks a capital, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>founds Constantinople, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Constantine III., defeated by the Saracens, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>short reign of, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Constantine IV. (Pogonatus), wars of with the Saracens, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeats Moawiah, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>holds the Council of Constantinople, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Constantine V. (Copronymus), wars of, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>persecutes the Image-worshippers, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Constantine VI., reign of, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>blinded by his mother, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Constantine VII. (Porphyrogenitus), reign of, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>literary works of, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Constantine VIII., reign of, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Constantine IX. (Monomachus), reign of, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-constantine-x'/> +<l>Constantine X. (Ducas), reign of, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref>, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-constantine-xi'/> +<l>Constantine XI. (Paleologus), accession of, <ref target='Pg343'>343</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>attacked by the Turks, <ref target='Pg344'>344</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>last hours of, <ref target='Pg347'>347</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>death of, <ref target='Pg348'>348</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-constantinople'/> +<l>Constantinople founded by Constantine, +<pb n='356'/><anchor id='Pg356'/> +<ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>topography of, <ref target='Pg019'>19-29</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>besieged by the Goths, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>street fighting in, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>besieged by Avars and Persians, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>besieged for the first time by the Saracens, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>besieged for the second time by the Saracens, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>besieged by Bulgarians, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>commercial importance of, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>riots in, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Crusaders at, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taken by the Franks and Venetians, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stormed and sacked a second time, <ref target='Pg287'>287</ref>, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>devastation of, by the Latins, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>besieged by John Ducas, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recovered by the Greeks, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taken by John Paleologus, <ref target='Pg329'>329</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>besieged by Murad II., <ref target='Pg337'>337</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>last siege of, <ref target='Pg346'>346</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taken by the Turks, <ref target='Pg348'>348</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Corippus, poem of, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Council of Constantinople, under Constantine IV., <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>under Constantine V., <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>under Leo V., <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Council of Florence, John VI. at, <ref target='Pg341'>341</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Courtenay, house of at Constantinople, <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crete, conquered by the Saracens, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recovered by Nicephorus Phocas, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taken by the Venetians, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cross, the Holy, captured by the Persians, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recovered by Heraclius, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>removed to Constantinople, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crumn, king of Bulgaria, defeats Nicephorus I., <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>besieges Constantinople, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crusaders, their dealings with Alexius I., <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref>, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>enter Syria, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the Fourth Crusade, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquer Constantinople, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ctesiphon, Heraclius at, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cyprus, monks banished to, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recovered by Nicephorus Phocas, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seized by Isaac Comnenus, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taken by Richard I. of England, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Damascus, taken by the Persians, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taken by the Saracens, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dandolo, Henry, doge of Venice, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref>, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at the storm of Constantinople, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref>, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dara taken in the Persian wars, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dastagerd taken by Heraclius, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-david'/> +<l>David Comnenus defeated by Theodore I., <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Delphic tripod, the, <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mutilated by Mahomet II., <ref target='Pg349'>349</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Delphic oracle, the, orders foundation of Byzantium, <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Digenes Akritas, epic of, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diocletian makes Nicomedia his capital, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diogenes, Romanus, reign of, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeated at Manzikert, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>slain, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ducas, <hi rend='italic'>see under</hi> <ref target='index-constantine-x'>Constantine X.</ref>, <ref target='index-michael-vii'>Michael VII.</ref>, <ref target='index-john-iii'>John III.</ref>, <ref target='index-theodore-ii'>Theodore II.</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Durazzo, battle of, <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dushan, Stephen, king of Servia, conquests of, <ref target='Pg327'>327</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ecloga, the, Leo III.'s code of laws, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eesa, Sultan, <ref target='Pg334'>334-5</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Egypt, conquered by the Persians, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquered by the Saracens, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>separated from the Caliphate, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eikasia, story of, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Emesa, taken by the Saracens, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taken by Nicephorus Phocas, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Epirus, the despotate of, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref>, <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref>, <ref target='Pg327'>327</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ertogrul, the Turk, <ref target='Pg322'>322</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eudocia (Athenaïs), wife of Theodosius II., her disgrace, <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eudocia, wife of Romanus Diogenes, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eudoxia, Ælia, wife of Arcadius, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='357'/><anchor id='Pg357'/> + +<lg> +<l>Eugenius IV., pope, treaty of, with John VI., <ref target='Pg341'>341</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Euphrosyne, wife of Michael the Amorian, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eutropius, minister of Arcadius, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>protected by Chrysostom, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Euphemius, rebel in Sicily, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Exarchate, of Ravenna, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquered by the Lombards, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fatimite dynasty in Egypt, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ferrara, John VI. at Council of, <ref target='Pg341'>341</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flaccilla, benevolence of, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Florence. Council of, <ref target='Pg341'>341</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Franks, threaten Italy, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>summoned by Witiges, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>protect the Papacy, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fritigern, Gothic ruler, <ref target='Pg035'>35-7</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>victory of over Valens, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fravitta defeats Gainas, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gainas, minister of Arcadius, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rebellion of, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>; slain, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gallienus, Byzantium destroyed by, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gallipoli seized by the Turks, <ref target='Pg329'>329</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ganzaca burnt by Heraclius, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gelimer, king of the Vandals, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeated and captured, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Genoa, rise of, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>trade of, with the East, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>allied to Michael Paleologus, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sends aid to Constantine XI., <ref target='Pg344'>344</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>George the Alan, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>George of Pisidia, poems of, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Giustiniani, John, defends Constantinople, <ref target='Pg344'>344-8</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Godfrey of Bouillon, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Goths, early history of, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cross the Danube, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeat Valens, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>besiege Constantinople, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>submit to Theodosius, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Visigoths under Alaric, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>quit the East, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Ostrogoths under Theodoric at war with Zeno, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>invade Italy, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kingdom of, attacked by Belisarius, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wars of, with Justinian, <ref target='Pg088'>88-94</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeated and destroyed, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Grand Company,</q> the, hired by Andronicus II., <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ravage Thrace, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquer Athens, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Greece, invaded by the Goths, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>overrun by the Slavs, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquered by the Crusaders, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>, <ref target='Pg297'>297</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Greek fire, invented, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used by the Byzantine fleet, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gregory the Great, Pope, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guiscard, Robert, wars of, with Alexius I., <ref target='Pg259'>259-61</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Haroun-al-Raschid, wars of, with Nicephorus I., <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Helena, mother of Constantine I., <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hellas, theme of, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>revolts against Leo III., <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Henry of Flanders, Emperor, <ref target='Pg295'>295-6</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Henry VI. of Swabia, Emperor of the West, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heracleonas, reign and fall of, <ref target='Pg165'>165-6</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heraclius the Elder, rebellion of, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heraclius I., sails against Constantinople, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>slays Phocas, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>disasters of the Persian War, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his Crusade, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>victorious campaign of, <ref target='Pg135'>135-7</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his triumph, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>attacked by the Saracens, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeated, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>last years of, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heraclius Constantinus, son of Heraclius I., short reign of, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hierapolis taken by Nicephorus Phocas, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hieromax, battle of the, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hilderic, Vandal king, deposed, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hippodrome, the great, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='358'/><anchor id='Pg358'/> + +<lg> +<l>Histiaeus holds Byzantium, <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Honorius slays Stilicho, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hungary, converted to Christianity, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>invaded by Manuel I., <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>attacks the Ottoman Turks, <ref target='Pg342'>342</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Huniades, John, <ref target='Pg342'>342</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Huns, under Attila, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ravage Syria, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>threaten Constantinople, <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeated by Belisarius, <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iconium, Sultanate of, <hi rend='italic'>see under</hi> <ref target='index-seljouks'>Seljouks</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iconoclasm, the movement, <ref target='Pg188'>188-9</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>vigorous under the Isaurian emperors, <ref target='Pg192'>192-7</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the ninth century, <ref target='Pg203'>203-10</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ended by Michael III., <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iconodules, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Images, superstitions connected with, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>removed by Leo III., <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of, ceases in the East, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Innocent III., sends out Fourth Crusade, <ref target='Pg281'>281</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wrath of with the Crusaders, <ref target='Pg290'>290</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Irene, the empress, regency of, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>deposed, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>blinds her son and seizes the throne, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-isaac-i'/> +<l>Isaac I. (Comnenus), his short reign, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-isaac-ii'/> +<l>Isaac II. (Angelus), rebels, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his reign, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>deposed by his brother, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>restored, <ref target='Pg284'>284</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dies, <ref target='Pg285'>285</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Isaac Comnenus, of Cyprus, <ref target='Pg277'>277-8</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Isaurians, the, enlisted by Leo and Zeno, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dynasty of the, <ref target='Pg192'>192-9</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Isperich, king of Bulgaria, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Italy, conquered by Belisarius, <ref target='Pg088'>88-91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>partly conquered by the Lombards, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Constans II. in, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>central parts of, lost, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>southern parts of, conquered by the Normans, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jacobites, in Egypt and Syria, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Janissaries, the, <ref target='Pg324'>324</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jerusalem, Eudocia at, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taken by Persians, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Heraclius at, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taken by the Saracens, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taken by the Crusaders, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>John I. (Zimisces), murders his uncle, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>successful wars of, <ref target='Pg234'>234-7</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dies, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-john-ii'/> +<l>John II. (Comnenus), reign and conquests of, <ref target='Pg268'>268-9</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-john-iii'/> +<l>John III. (Ducas Vatatzes), <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquers Thrace and Macedonia, <ref target='Pg301'>301</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>John IV. (Ducas), dethroned by Michael Paleologus, <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-john-v'/> +<l>John V. (Paleologus), minority of, <ref target='Pg325'>325-8</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>expels John Cantacuzenus, <ref target='Pg329'>329</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeated by the Turks, <ref target='Pg330'>330</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>later years of, <ref target='Pg333'>333</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-john-vi'/> +<l>John VI. (Paleologus), reign of, <ref target='Pg339'>339</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>embraces Catholicism, <ref target='Pg341'>341</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>John (Angelus), Emperor of Thessalonica, <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>John, King of Bulgaria, <ref target='Pg276'>276</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquers Baldwin I., <ref target='Pg295'>295</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>John the Cappadocian, finance minister, <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-john-chrysostom'/> +<l>John Chrysostom, patriarch, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>exiled, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>John Ducas, regent, <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>John the Faster, patriarch, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>John the Grammarian, patriarch, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>John Huniades, general, <ref target='Pg342'>342</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>John Lydus, author, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Julian, reign of, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Justin I., reign of, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Justin II., reign and wars of, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Justinian I., character of, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>marries Theodora, <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>first Persian war of, <ref target='Pg071'>71-4</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Italian and African wars of, <ref target='Pg083'>83-93</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recalls Belisarius, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his buildings, <ref target='Pg106'>106-9</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his legal work, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Justinian II., misfortunes of, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>banished, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reconquers his throne, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>slain, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kadesia, battle of, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kaikhosru, Sultan, slain in battle, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='359'/><anchor id='Pg359'/> + +<lg> +<l>Karasi, Emirs of, <ref target='Pg319'>319</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Karl the Great, crowned emperor, <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kathisma, the, <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khaled, victories of, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khazars, allied to Heraclius, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>shelter Justinian II., <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kief, Russian capital, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kobad, wars of, with Justinian, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ladislas, king of Bulgaria, <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ladislas, king of Poland and Hungary, <ref target='Pg342'>342</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Larissa, battle of, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lascaris, <hi rend='italic'>see under</hi> <ref target='index-theodore-i'>Theodore I.</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Latin language, used in the Balkan Peninsula, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>decay of the, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Law, Roman, codified by Justinian, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>changes of Leo III., <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Basil I., <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lazarus the painter, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lecky, Mr., views of, discussed, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lazica, wars of Justinian and Chosroës about, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leo I., reign of, <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leo III., the Isaurian, seizes the crown, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defends Constantinople, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>religious reforms of, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>political reforms of, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leo IV., short reign of, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leo V. (the Armenian) seizes the throne, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeats the Bulgarians, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>murdered, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leo VI. (the Wise), reign of, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>literary works of, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leo the Deacon, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leontius, usurpation and fall of, <ref target='Pg175'>175-7</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>slain, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Liberius conquers South Spain, <ref target='Pg096'>96-7</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Licinius, wars of with Maximinus Daza, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dethroned by Constantine I., <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Literature, <ref target='Pg221'>221-2</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lombards, the, leave Pannonia, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquer North Italy, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeated by Constans II., <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>subdue the Exarchate, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Louis IX., of France, gives money to Baldwin II., <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lupicinus, governor of Moesia, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lydus, John, author, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Macedonia, overrun by Slavs, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in hands of Boniface of Montferrat, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquered by Stephen Dushan, <ref target='Pg327'>327</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maeander, battle of the, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mahomet, the prophet, rise of, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mahomet I., Sultan, reunites the Ottoman Empire, <ref target='Pg336'>336</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mahomet II. conquers Constantinople, <ref target='Pg343'>343-50</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maniakes, wars of, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-manuel-i'/> +<l>Manuel I. (Comnenus), reign and wars of, <ref target='Pg271'>271-2</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Manuel II. (Paleologus), reign and misfortunes of, <ref target='Pg336'>336-9</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Manzikert, battle of, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marcianus, reign of, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Martina, niece and wife of Heraclius, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>exiled, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Martyropolis, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maurice, reign of, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Persian wars, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fall and death of, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maximinus Daza takes Byzantium, <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Melek-Adel, Sultan of Egypt, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mesembria, taken by Bulgarians, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>battle of, <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mesopotamia, conquered by Heraclius, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>invaded by John Zimisces, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Michael I. (Rhangabe), short reign of, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Michael II. (the Amorian), conspiracy of, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ecclesiastical policy of, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wars of, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Michael III. (the Drunkard), minority of, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>excesses and murder of, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Michael IV. (the Paphlagonian), reign and wars of, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Michael V., ephemeral power of, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='360'/><anchor id='Pg360'/> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-michael-vi'/> +<l>Michael VI. (Stratioticus), short reign of, <ref target='Pg248'>248-9</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-michael-vii'/> +<l>Michael VII. (Ducas), minority of, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>disastrous reign of, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Michael VIII. (Paleologus), usurpation of, <ref target='Pg303'>303-4</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>overthrows the Latin Empire, <ref target='Pg305'>305</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>disbands the Asiatic militia, <ref target='Pg313'>313</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wars of, <ref target='Pg304'>304</ref>, <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Michael IX., son and colleague of Andronicus II., defeated by the <q>Grand Company,</q> <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Michael Angelus, despot of Epirus, <ref target='Pg300'>300</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moawiah, Caliph, attacks Constantinople, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his armies defeated, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moesia, invaded by the Goths, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>seized by the Bulgarians, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Monks, characteristics of the early, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>favour image worship, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>persecuted by Constantine Copronymus, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Monophysites, <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moors, Gelimer flies to the, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Montferrat, <hi rend='italic'>see under</hi> <ref target='index-boniface'>Boniface</ref> and <ref target='index-conrad'>Conrad</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morals, effect of Christianity on, <ref target='Pg145'>145-7</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>general character of Byzantine, <ref target='Pg155'>155-6</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moslemah besieges Constantinople, <ref target='Pg185'>185-7</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Motassem, the Caliph, sacks Amorium, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Murad I., conquers Thrace, <ref target='Pg329'>329</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>suzerain of John V., <ref target='Pg330'>330</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquers the Serbs, <ref target='Pg332'>332</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Murad II., besieges Constantinople, <ref target='Pg337'>337</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>makes peace with Manuel II., <ref target='Pg337'>338</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wars of, <ref target='Pg342'>342</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Murtzuphlus, <hi rend='italic'>see</hi> <ref target='index-alexius-v'>Alexius V. (Ducas)</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Myriokephalon, battle of, <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Naissus, birthplace of Constantine I., <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taken by the Bulgarians, <ref target='Pg277'>277</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Naples, taken by Belisarius, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>interference of the Pope with, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Narses, the eunuch, conquers Italy from the Goths, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Narses, General, burnt alive by Phocas, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Navy, the Byzantine, <ref target='Pg219'>219-20</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nicaea, taken by the Crusaders, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by the Ottomans, <ref target='Pg323'>323</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nicephorus I. dethrones Irene, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>disastrous wars of, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nicephorus II., Phocas, takes Candia, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emperor, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wars of, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>murdered by Zimisces, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nicholas V., pope, sends aid to Constantine XI., <ref target='Pg344'>344</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nicomedia, taken by the Ottomans, <ref target='Pg323'>323</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nineveh, battle of, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Normans, conquer Byzantine Italy, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>invade the empire, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>second invasion of repelled, <ref target='Pg267'>267</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>third invasion of, <ref target='Pg273'>273</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Notaras, John, <ref target='Pg342'>342</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nuceria, Goths beaten at, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Obeydah, Saracen general, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Obsequian theme, the, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Odoacer, conquered by Theodoric, <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref>, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Omar, the Caliph, visits Jerusalem, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Omeyades, dynasty of the, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orkhan, Emir of the Ottomans, reign and successes of, <ref target='Pg323'>323-4</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Pretender to the Sultanate, <ref target='Pg343'>343</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orosius, history of, <ref target='Pg150'>150</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ostrogoths, under Theodoric in Moesia, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquer Italy, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>weakness of the kingdom of, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>attacked by Justinian, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wars of with Belisarius and Narses, <ref target='Pg089'>89-94</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>crushed, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Othman, Emir of the Turks, conquests of, <ref target='Pg321'>321-23</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Palace, imperial, at Constantinople, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='361'/><anchor id='Pg361'/> + +<lg> +<l>Paleologus, house of, <hi rend='italic'>see under</hi> <ref target='index-michael-vi'>Michael VI.</ref>, Andronicus <ref target='index-andronicus-ii'>II.</ref> and <ref target='index-andronicus-iii'>III.</ref>, John <ref target='index-john-v'>V.</ref> and <ref target='index-john-vi'>VI.</ref>, <ref target='index-constantine-xi'>Constantine XI.</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Palermo, taken by Belisarius, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Palestine, conquered by the Persians, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>overrun by the Arabs, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>subdued by the Crusaders, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pandects, compiled by Justinian, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Patriarchal palace of Constantinople, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Patriarchs, <hi rend='italic'>see under</hi> <ref target='index-john-chrysostom'>John</ref>, <ref target='index-sergius'>Sergius</ref>, &c.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paulicians, sect of the persecuted by Basil I, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paulinus, put to death by Theodosius II., <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Patzinak Tartars, the, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wars of with Alexius I., <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pavia, taken by the Lombards, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Persian Empire destroyed by the Arabs, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Persian Wars under Julian, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>under Justinian, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>under Maurice, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>under Phocas and Heraclius, <ref target='Pg130'>130-36</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peter, general under Nicephorus Phocas, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philip of Macedon, attacks Byzantium, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philip of Swabia, helps Alexius Angelus the younger, <ref target='Pg279'>279-8</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philippicus, usurpation and fall of, <ref target='Pg180'>180-1</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Phocas, emperor, his usurpation, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cruelty of, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>slain, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Phocas, Bardas, rebels against John Zimisces, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>against Basil II., <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Phocas, Nicephorus, reign of, <ref target='Pg228'>228-30</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wars of, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>murdered, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Photius, patriarch, his learning, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plague, the great of <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> 542, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Popes, rise of the power of, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>estranged from the empire, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>call in the Franks, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Priscus, general of Maurice, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-prusa'/> +<l>Prusa, taken by the Turks, <ref target='Pg323'>323</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacked by the Mongols, <ref target='Pg334'>334</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pulcheria, Empress, with her brother Theodosius II., <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>marries Marcianus, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pelekanon, battle of, <ref target='Pg323'>323</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Polyeuktus, patriarch, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ravenna, taken by Belisarius, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>exarchate of, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>occupied by the Lombards, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rhangabe, Michael, short reign of, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rhazates, general, slain by Heraclius, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Richard Coeur de Leon, conquers Cyprus, <ref target='Pg278'>278</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Robert Guiscard, wars of with Alexius I., <ref target='Pg259'>259-60</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>final repulse of, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roger de Flor, hired by Andronicus II., <ref target='Pg317'>317</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquests of, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>assassinated, <ref target='Pg318'>318</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Romanus I. (Lecapenus), long regency of, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Romanus II, short reign of, <ref target='Pg228'>228-9</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Romanus III. (Argyrus), married to Zoe, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dies, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Romanus IV. (Diogenes), reign of, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeated by Turks, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dies, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rome, taken by Belisarius, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>besieged by the Goths, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taken by Baduila, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Gregory the Great at, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Constans II. at, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Charles the Great at, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ruric, founds the Russian kingdom, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Russians, early invasions of, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>attack Bulgaria, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeated by John Zimisces, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>converted to Christianity, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sabatius, father of Justinian, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Samuel, king of Bulgaria, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wars and death of, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saoudji, rebels against Murad I., <ref target='Pg333'>333</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='362'/><anchor id='Pg362'/> + +<lg> +<l>Sapor, king of Persia, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-saracens'/> +<l>Saracens, the, converted by Mahomet, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>invade Syria, <ref target='Pg160'>160-2</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquer Egypt, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquer Persia, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>civil wars of the, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>for later history, <hi rend='italic'>see under</hi> names of the Caliphs</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sardis, taken by Alexius I., <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scholarian Guards, the, <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-seljouks'/> +<l>Seljouk Turks, conquer Persia and Armenia, <ref target='Pg250'>250-1</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>invade the empire, <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquer Asia Minor, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeated by the Crusaders, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wars of with the Comneni, <ref target='Pg265'>265-7-72</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>with Theodore I., <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-sergius'/> +<l>Sergius, patriarch, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Senate House at Constantinople, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Servians, cross the Danube, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquered by Basil II., <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rebel against Michael IV., <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquered by Manuel I., <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>overrun Macedonia, <ref target='Pg327'>327</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>subdued by the Turks, <ref target='Pg330'>330</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Severus, emperor, takes Byzantium, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shahrbarz, the Persian, takes Jerusalem, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeated by Heraclius, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sicily, conquered by Belisarius, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>invaded by Saracens, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>finally conquered by Saracens, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>invaded by Maniakes, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref> ;</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Siroes, deposes his father Chosroës, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Skleros, Bardas, rebel against Basil II., <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Slavery, influence of Christianity on, <ref target='Pg147'>147-8</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Slavs, invade the Balkan Peninsula, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>subject to the Avars, <ref target='Pg124'>124-37</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ravages of the, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref>, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made tributary by Constans II., <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>besiege Thessalonica, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sophia. St., first building of, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt in 410 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt in the <foreign lang='el' rend='italic'>Nika</foreign> riots, <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rebuilding of by Justinian, <ref target='Pg107'>107-9</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>desecrated by the Turks, <ref target='Pg349'>349</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spain, South of, conquered by Justinian's generals, <ref target='Pg096'>96-7</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stauracius, emperor, short reign of, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Statues at Constantinople, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref>, <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>destruction of by the Crusaders, <ref target='Pg291'>291</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Suleiman, Saracen vizier, besieges Constantinople, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dies, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Turkish Sultan, reign of, <ref target='Pg334'>334-6</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stephen Lecapenus, usurpation of, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stephen Dushan, king of Servia, conquests of, <ref target='Pg327'>327</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stephen, pope, calls in the Franks, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stilicho, wars of with Alaric, <ref target='Pg047'>47-8</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>murdered by Honorius, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Swiatoslaf, king of Russia, conquers Bulgaria, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>defeated by Zimisces, <ref target='Pg237'>237</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Syria, invaded by the Huns, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>invaded by Kobad, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquered by Shahrbarz, <ref target='Pg129'>129-30</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>invaded and conquered by the Saracens, <ref target='Pg162'>162-3</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquests of Nicephorus Phocas in, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>subdued by the Crusaders, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sophronius, patriarch of Jerusalem, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tagina, battle of, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tarsus, taken by Nicephorus Phocas, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Teia, Gothic king, slain in battle, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Telemachus, martyrdom of, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Terbel, king of Bulgaria, aids Justinian II., <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Themes, institution of the provincial system of, <ref target='Pg167'>167-8</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodahat, Gothic king, murders his wife, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>war of with Justinian, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>slain, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodora, wife of Justinian, career of, <ref target='Pg066'>66-8</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the <hi rend='italic'>Nika</hi> riots, <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>death of, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodora, wife of Theophilus, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>regency of, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodora, daughter of Constantine VIII., reign of, <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='363'/><anchor id='Pg363'/> + +<lg> +<l>Theodora, daughter of Cantacuzenus, married to Orkhan, <ref target='Pg328'>328</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-theodore-i'/> +<l>Theodore I. (Lascaris), at the siege of Constantinople, <ref target='Pg289'>289</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made emperor at Nicaea, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wars of, <ref target='Pg299'>299</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='index-theodore-ii'/> +<l>Theodore II. (Ducas), short reign of, <ref target='Pg303'>303</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodore, Studita, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodoric, son of Triarius, wars of with Zeno, <ref target='Pg062'>62-3</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodoric, son of Theodemir, rebels against Zeno, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquers Italy, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dies, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodotus, minister of Justinian II., <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodosius I., wars of, with the Goths, <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dies, <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodosius II., reign of, <ref target='Pg054'>54-6</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>war with Attila, <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theodosius III., usurpation of, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>abdicates, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theophano, empress, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>murders her husband, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theophilus, emperor, reign and wars of, <ref target='Pg208'>208-11</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his love of art, <ref target='Pg224'>224-5</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thessalonica, besieged by the Slavs, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>stormed by the Saracens, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Crusading kingdom of, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>retaken by the Greeks, <ref target='Pg296'>296</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>taken by the Turks, <ref target='Pg330'>330</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recovered, <ref target='Pg336'>336</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>finally lost, <ref target='Pg341'>341</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theuderic, Frankish king, attacks Witiges, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thomas, rebel in Asia, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tiberius II., Constantinus, short reign of, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wars of, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tiberius III., Apsimarus, rebellion of, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>deposed and slain, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tiberius, son of Justinian II., slain, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Togrul Beg, Turkish chief, conquers Bagdad, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Totila, <hi rend='italic'>see under</hi> Baduila</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trebizond, empire of, founded, <ref target='Pg298'>298</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tribonian, minister of Justinian I., <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tricameron, battle of, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Turks, <hi rend='italic'>see under</hi> Seljouks, and names of Ottoman Sultans</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tuscany, conquered by the Lombards, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tyana, sacked by Saracens, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Uldes, king of the Huns, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Urosh, king of Servia, <ref target='Pg327'>327</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Uscup, capital of Stephen Dushan, <ref target='Pg327'>327</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Valens, reign of, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>slain in battle by the Goths, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vandals, kingdom of the, in Africa, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conquered by Belisarius, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Varangian guards, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Durazzo, <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at siege of Constantinople, <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>, <ref target='Pg288'>288</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Verona, Baduila at, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Venice, rise of, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>commercial treaties of, with Alexius I., <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wars with Manuel I., <ref target='Pg271'>271</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>aids the Fourth Crusade, <ref target='Pg279'>279</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>engages in war with Alexius III., <ref target='Pg282'>282</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>share of in plunder of Constantinople, <ref target='Pg292'>292</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at war with Michael VIII., <ref target='Pg314'>314</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vigilius, pope, persecuted by Justinian, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vikings, the, in Russia, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Visigoths, the, invade Moesia, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>slay Valens, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>under Alaric, <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>migrate to Italy, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vitalian, rebellion of, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Welid, caliph, wars of, with the empire, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Witiges, Gothic king, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>besieges Rome, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>submits to Belisarius, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yezid, Saracen prince, wars of with the empire, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='364'/><anchor id='Pg364'/> + +<lg> +<l>Zachariah, patriarch of Jerusalem, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zapetra, taken by Theophilus, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zara, taken by the Crusaders, <ref target='Pg280'>280</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zeno, emperor, reorganizes the army, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wars of with the Goths, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sends Theodoric to Italy, <ref target='Pg064'>64</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zeuxippus, baths of, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zimisces, John, murders Nicephoras 1, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Russian war of, <ref target='Pg235'>235-7</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Asiatic conquests of, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zoe, empress, her marriages and reign, <ref target='Pg245'>245-7</ref></l> +</lg> + +</div> + +</body> +<back rend="page-break-before: right"> + <div id="footnotes"> + <index index="toc" /> + <index index="pdf" /> + <head>Footnotes</head> + 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